Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 26, Number 1, 2004, pp27-36

The Exceptional Flooding on Vanua Levu Island, Fiji,during Tropical Cyclone Ami in January 2003
James Peter TERRY1, Simon MCGREE2 and Rishi RAJ3
1

Head of Geography Department, The University of the South Pacific, Private Mail Bag, Suva, Fiji Islands
2
Climate Services Division, Fiji Meteorological Service, Nadi Airport, Fiji Islands
3
Hydrology Division, Fiji Public Works Department, Tamavua, Suva, Fiji Islands(Received for 5. Apr., 2004 and in revised from 1 Sep., 2004)

ABSTRACTIn mid-January 2003 Tropical Cyclone Ami passed directly across the Fiji Islands in the southwest Pacific
Ocean. The main northern island of Vanua Levu experienced torrential rainfall and consequent record-breaking
flooding of its major rivers. The aims of this study were to document these record floods and compare them withprevious floods on Vanua Levu Island. The Nasekawa River in southern Vanua Levu produced a phenomenal
discharge of more than 6100 m3/s. Moreover, near the main town of Labasa on the north coast, simultaneous
flooding of the Labasa, Qawa, and Wailevu rivers combined with storm surge to cause inundation of up to 4 m
depths over a wide area of the floodplain. Tragically, seventeen people died, and there was extensive damage tofarms, the infrastructure, homes, and commercial property.
Historically, the north coast of Vanua Levu island has suffered frequent severe floods, owing to several factors:
1. the approach of most tropical cyclones towards Fiji from the northwest; 2. Vanua Levu’s steep volcanic topography, which rises in excess of 1000 m, and has strong orographic influence on rainfall generation during tropicalstorms, then rapidly transfers moisture into river channels, 3. the configuration of several drainage basins which
deliver floodwaters to the same area of the coastal hinterland. Future regional ocean warming and more sustained El Niño conditions are projected to increase the intensity of tropical cyclones and thereby the potential forworse flood disasters. Disaster mitigation and adaptation options recently proposed by the World Bank and JICA
need to be implemented to reduce flood impact in this vulnerable area of Fiji.

1. INTRODUCTION
Tropical Cyclone Ami (TC Ami) struck the Fiji Islands on 14
January 2003. The system originated as a tropical depression far
to the east of Tuvalu on 10 January 2003 and strengthened into a
tropical cyclone near Niulakita Island on 12 January 2003 (FijiMeteorological Service 2003). TC Ami rapidly developed into an
intense system with very destructive hurricane force winds. Its
track passed across the large, well-populated island of Vanua Levu
in northern Fiji. Resulting destruction was extensive and severe
due to high winds, heavy seas, and torrential rainfall. Some of theworst-ever flooding occurred in many rivers on Vanua Levu
Island, and tragically 17 lives were lost. The aims of this study
were to document these record inundations and to compare themwith previous large floods on Vanua Levu. This is importantbecause flooding may become more severe in the future owing toan increase in tropical cyclone intensity in the South Pacific region
if the climate changes due to more sustained El Niño-like conditions, as many climate scientists now project (see Holland, 1997;
Trenberth and Hoar, 1997; Timmermann et al., 1999; Whetton et
KEY WORDS: Fiji Islands, tropical cyclones, river floods
Fiji Meteorological Service, Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre(RSMC Nadi Airport) area of responsibility.
2
FST (Fiji Standard Time) is equivalent to UTC (GMT) + 12 hours.
3
Tropical cyclone strength based on wind speed:1al., 2000). Such information will assist us in education for better
disaster preparedness and in planning for improved flood adaptation measures.
2. CYCLONE HISTORY
TC Ami was the third tropical cyclone to form in the Fiji area
(RSMC Nadi1) during the South Pacific cyclone season in 20022003 (November to April). A tropical depression, coded TD 05 F,
was first identified as an embedded system in an active monsoon
trough about 386 km east of Funafuti Atoll in Tuvalu at about 9a.m., FST2 local time on 10 January 2003. Its development wasaffected by diurnal variations and relatively strong vertical shear,
but the system moved steadily southwest. On 12 January, TD 05 F
underwent rapid maturation. Subsequently, the storm was named
Tropical Cyclone Ami about 12:00 FST on 12 January, while it
was located near Niulakita Island (Fig. 1) and blowing gale force
winds2 across southern Tuvalu (average 75 km/h and momentarygusts to 100 km/h).
Initially, the cyclone followed a southwest track at about 15
km/h but gradually veered southwards as it approached the island

28

J. P. TERRY, S. MCGREE, AND R. RAJ

Fig 1.

Fig 2.

Track of Tropical Cyclone Ami 10-15 January 2003, showing the approximate limitsof gale, storm and hurricane force winds.

Two satellite images of TC Ami taken at approximately the same time on 14 January 2003 (but at slightly different scales). The centre of the storm is passing through the eastern Fiji Islands (the Lau Group)
on a south southeasterly track. The left picture is a thermal image of the upper level temperatures. Rightis a visible image showing the organisation of the cloud bands. Source: US Navy and NOAA.

of Rotuma. Once named, TC Ami intensified quickly to storm
strength about midnight on 13 January, with destructive winds of
110 km/h and momentary gusts 140 km/h. Operationally, thesystem then behaved as expected, except for rapid intensification
to hurricane force on 14 January and acceleration along its path.

At 1.51 a.m. 14 January the first hurricane warning was issued by
the Fiji Meteorological Service. The eye of the storm then was
located by radar about 225 km north-northeast of Labasa Town on
Vanua Levu. As Ami travelled quickly south, the radius of its
damaging gale and storm force winds increased. The cyclone cen-THE EXCEPTIONAL FLOODING ON VANUA LEVU ISLAND, FIJI, DURING TROPICAL CYCLONE AMI IN JANUARY 2003

tre made landfall near Dogotuki on the north-east peninsula of the
Vanua Levu coast shortly after 3 a.m. 14 January, bringing
extremely destructive hurricane force winds (averaging 140 km/h
and maximum gusts of up to 185 km/h) to much of Fiji’s Northern
Division. Thereafter, Ami accelerated and turned south- southeast.
The eye passed the western tip of Taveuni Island after 5 a.m.
14 January. The system then moved rapidly through the Lau
Island group (Fig. 2), curving more to the southeast as it did so. At
12 noon 14 January, Ami reached peak intensity while its centre was
located about 97 km south- southwest of Lakeba Island. Ten-minute
average winds of about 200 km/h with momentary gusts of 230
km/h were reported (NIWA 2003). Ami travelled south southeast
at 22 km/h as it left Fiji waters, maintaining hurricane intensity.
Next, it brushed past Tongatapu Island in the Kingdom of
Tonga, driving enormous seas and causing widespread damage due
to gale force winds and heavy rain. The storm held a south-easterly track and further accelerated as it moved out of RSMC Nadi’s
tracking area. The system retained tropical cyclone status foranother 18 hours inside the New Zealand (RSMC Wellington) areaof forecast responsibility. The tropical cyclone structure thendecayed, and Ami made the transition to an extra-tropical low
pressure system at midnight, 16 January. This was attributed tostrong vertical shearing and cooler sea surface temperatures.
3. CYCLONE EFFECTS
The destruction caused by TC Ami was extensive and severe(e.g., Fig. 3), across Fiji’s Northern and Eastern Divisions, especially to roads, the infrastructure, buildings, houses, farm animals,
crops, and natural vegetation. The confirmed number of fatalities
was 14 and 3 people were counted as missing. Communications toand within the two divisions were cut for several days, and Fiji’s
Disaster Management Centre declared Vanua Levu Island a natural
disaster zone. Massive waves and strong storm surges led to bothcoastal and inland inundation in many areas along Ami’s path.
Deep flooding in Labasa on Vanua Levu had severe effects on
the town’s population (Fig. 4) and posed serious health and environmental risks. Domestic water supplies were badly disrupted,
leaving residents without clean drinking water and forcing the Fiji
Government to transport potable water from mainland Viti Levu
Island to affected areas. Torrential rain led to many valley slopes

failing in landslides, and on the low-lying floodplains huge quantities of sediment deposited by the swollen rivers ruined many sugar
cane farms. The extent of damage requiring immediate government attention was valued at $F60 million. The socio-economic
loss, however, is likely to have exceeded $F100 million (FMS
2003).
3.1 Rainfall
From 1970 through 2000, 40 tropical cyclones tracked throughFiji waters. These often produced extreme rainfall events due toorographic lifting of storm-spiralling rain bands caused by therugged terrain of Fiji’s high volcanic islands. Different cyclones,
however, deliver contrasting total rainfall patterns and maximum
intensities because these precipitation characteristics depend on suchfactors as the strength and longevity of the cyclone, the proximityof the storm track to land, and the organisation of cloud bands.
A visual impression of the total cumulative precipitation along
the storm path of TC Ami, across the Fiji Islands can be seen in
Fig. 5. Dark shading shows the highest precipitation received. In
addition, one-day (9 a.m. to 9 a.m.) rainfall figures for climate stations on Vanua Levu Island are given in Table 1. The data showsthat large-scale rainfall was widespread. Of the 18 stations listed,
16 recorded more than 100 mm of rainfall in 24 hours. Of these, 5
received more than 200 mm. The majority of stations experienced
their heaviest downpours on 13 January. Maximum recorded rainfall was 311 mm at the coastal site of Vatuwiri on Taveuni Island.
Ami approached Fiji from the north, and Vatuwiri was on thewindward coast beneath the highest mountain in the region (1241m), and so the intense rainfall there reflects orographic effects.

Fig 4.
Fig 3. Destruction by TC Ami of a village in the Lau Islands(see Fig. 1) of eastern Fiji. Source: Fiji Navy, supplied by the Fiji Ministry of Information.

29

Severe flooding in Labasa Town on the northern coastof Vanua Levu island, generated by the combinationof inundation by the sea (storm surge) and flooding of
the Labasa River.

30

J. P. TERRY, S. MCGREE, AND R. RAJ

Fig 5.

Cumulative precipitation totals delivered along the track of TC Ami as it traversed the Fiji Islands. Much of eastern Vanua Levu Island received >400
mm of rainfall (dark shading) during the passage of the cyclone.

Table 1.

Maximum 1-day rainfall (9 a.m. to 9 a.m.) delivered by TC Ami at Fiji
Meteorological Service climate stations on Vanua Levu Island.

Rainfall of high magnitude produces big flows in Fiji rivers
because the upper reaches of the river basins have rugged volcanic
topography. The size of the peak discharge produced in individual
rivers depends on local physiographic factors that influence thehydrological behaviour of hillslopes; the types of geology, soils,
and vegetation. In general, there is a high degree of hydrologicalshort-circuiting, and large overbank floods consequently are a frequent problem during the passage of tropical cyclones through Fiji
(Kostaschuk et al. 2001). Table 2 shows the history of flooding on
Vanua Levu Island since the early 20 th century (FMS 2002).
3.2 River Floods
Vanua Levu’s geology is made up of volcanic rock types;
mainly lava flows, breccias, and conglomerates. Its geomorphology
is dominated by a chain of volcanic mountains aligned in SW to

NE orientation, forming a central highland spine along the islandand giving it a mountainous profile. The three tallest peaks arelocated towards the centre of the volcanic chain, south of Labasa.
They are Delaikoro (941 m), Koroalau (1032 m), and Dikeva (957m). Most river networks therefore generally drain northwest or
southeast, controlled by the linear arrangement of the volcanic
mountains. At their headwaters the individual river basins are separated by narrow, serrated interfluves, and slope angles are steep,
frequently approaching 30°or more. Upper river channels are steepwith many boulders. Lower watershed areas have hilly terrains
with flat alluvial terraces and floodplains in valley bottoms. The
highlands have natural rainforest vegetation, whereas the coastal
hinterlands have commercial sugar cane fields.
Peak discharges of the 8 main rivers on Vanua Levu are presented in Table 3, to show the river floods produced by TC Ami on

THE EXCEPTIONAL FLOODING ON VANUA LEVU ISLAND, FIJI, DURING TROPICAL CYCLONE AMI IN JANUARY 2003

Table 2.

31

Record of floods on Vanua Levu Island. Source: Fiji Meteorological Service (2002)

Table 3.

Peak river discharges on Vanua Levu Island produced by
TC Ami on 14 January 2003

the island. Flooding was carefully surveyed by the Hydrology
Division of the Fiji Public Works Department at their long-term
gauging stations, shortly after the flood waters receded. Locationsof the rivers and their gauging stations are given in Fig. 6. To
provide an idea of how these peak discharges corresponded toflood height, river cross-sections are drawn in Fig. 7 a-h. TC Ami
maximum flood levels are shown in comparison to those of othersevere floods of recent decades. In 5 of the 8 rivers, Ami produced
the largest floods on record. At the other 3 stations, the magnitudeof Ami’s deluge was surpassed only by other cyclone-generated

32

J. P. TERRY, S. MCGREE, AND R. RAJ

Fig 6. Major rivers and gauging stations on Vanua Levu Island operated by the Hydrology
Division of the Fiji Public Works Department. Record flood discharges generated by
TC Ami are discussed in the text.

Fig 7.aflood events. The Nasekawa, Labasa, Qawa, and Wailevu rivers
all drain Vanua Levu’s most mountainous terrain (described earlier),in the centre of the island. The Nasekawa River had a phenomenal
peak discharge of more than 6100 m3/s which destroyed the mainhighway bridge on the south coast at Bagata Village. On the northcoast, the Labasa and Qawa rivers both drain into the same sheltered
bay near Labasa Town, and the Wailevu River has its estuary only
4 km along the coast to the west. The peak flows in these rivers
were all record-breaking ones, respectively 2377, 1802 and 2118

m3/s. The discharge at the same time of these large volumes ofwater from all three rivers to the same coastal plain was combinedwith a strong storm surge felt along the north coast of Vanua Levu.
This resulted in terrible inundation to depths of 3 to 4 m above thefloodplain, over a wide area around Labasa. This caused loss oflife and unprecedented destruction of farms and houses across ruralcommunities. Extensive infrastructure and property damage likewise was suffered in Labasa Town, the main urban and commercial
centre for Vanua Levu and the Northern Division of Fiji (Fig. 4).

THE EXCEPTIONAL FLOODING ON VANUA LEVU ISLAND, FIJI, DURING TROPICAL CYCLONE AMI IN JANUARY 2003

Fig 7.bFig 7.cFig 7.d33

34

J. P. TERRY, S. MCGREE, AND R. RAJ

Fig 7.eFig 7.fFig 7.g

THE EXCEPTIONAL FLOODING ON VANUA LEVU ISLAND, FIJI, DURING TROPICAL CYCLONE AMI IN JANUARY 2003

35

Fig 7.hFig 7.a-h

Maximum flood heights produced by TC Ami in 8 rivers on Vanua Levu. Source:
Fiji PWD Hydrology Division unpublished data.

4. DISCUSSION-FLOOD HAZARD MITIGATION
The historical record of tropical cyclones which have affectedFiji indicate that storms rarely develop close to the islands. They
tend to form nearer the equator then approach on a southerly trackover 2 or 3 days. This critical delay should prove useful for alerting vulnerable segments of the Fiji population, who live on the
low-lying floodplains and coastal areas, in advance of expectedflooding. Unfortunately, the example of TC Ami shows that inparticular dispersed rural communities are not sufficiently prepared
to cope with severe flooding. Many people either ignore warnings
given by the Fiji Meteorological Service because they are unwilling to leave their homes, farms and property, and others, who areaware of the dangers, do not have adequate mobility to escape tohigher land. As inundation waters rise, many people becometrapped in their houses, panic and try to wade to dry ground withfatal consequences.
Flooding is especially perilous for the coastal hinterlands
around Labasa. First, the north coast of Vanua Levu is convoluted
with many embayments; a configuration which increases the possibility that storm surge inundation will combine with river flooding(Terry and Raj 1999). Second, three rivers have their estuaries inthe same area. Third, these rivers rise in the highest mountains on
the island, and fourth their basins face the direction from whichmost cyclones arrive. Therefore, owing to orographic effects,
exceptional rainfalls are to be expected, and these are then rapidly
converted to a very large flood response. Fifth, replacement of naturalvegetation on lower catchment slopes by sugar cane plantations
exacerbates runoff and erosion (Morrison 1981).
Regarding the future, tropical cyclone intensity in the Pacificregion may increase due to climate change, ocean warming, andmore sustained El Niño-like conditions (see Holland 1997, Trenberthand Hoar 1997, Timmermann et al. 1999, Whetton et al., 2000).
In consequence, the magnitude of the flood hazard on Vanua Levu
probably will increase. Based on this scenario, better flood disaster
reduction programs are needed in Fiji to avoid further loss of life.
A recent survey by the World Bank (2000 b) found that moderating

the impact of tropical cyclones can be categorised as follows:
Catchment management.
This includes reforestation, soil conservation, regulating landdevelopment, and protecting natural wetlands. These activities
improve the water retention function of drainage basins and maintain
river flow capacity by avoiding excessive silting of channels.
Flood control.
A report complied by JICA (1997) examined various feasible
flood control measures for the major rivers on Fiji’s main island of
Viti Levu. Engineering measures assessed included diversion
channels, retarding basins, cut-off channels, control dams, raisingembankments, river channel widening, and bed excavation. These
measures also are applicable to Vanua Levu Island which has aphysical geography similar to that of Viti Levu. In the context ofclimate change, flood control dams may be the most beneficial
option for Fiji because they can be used for water resource development as well as for mitigating floods.
Mitigation.
Flood damage potential may be reduced by restricting theurbanisation and development of low-lying areas and by promoting
flood-proof house design where necessary. The social infrastructure
as well as resilience can be improved through education programmes
to raise community awareness of tropical cyclone characteristics
and behaviour, and better communication about impending flood
hazards during storm events (World Bank 2000 b).
5. CONCLUSIONS
Vanua Levu Island of northern Fiji in the tropical South
Pacific historically has experienced severe flooding associatedwith extreme rainfall during tropical cyclones. Floods present serious hydrological hazards because of their impact on both the natural and human environments causing loss of life, damage to theinfrastructure, the ruin of subsistence and commercial agriculture,and deleteriously affecting public health. Vanua Levu Island’s

36

J. P. TERRY, S. MCGREE, AND R. RAJ

north coast is particularly vulnerable as most cyclones approachfrom the northern Fiji waters. During Tropical Cyclone Ami in
mid-January 2003 very large rainfalls occurred. The mountainous
terrain of the island rapidly transferred this moisture to river channels, producing record-breaking floods in 5 of 8 rivers for which
long-term hydrological information exists. The Nasekawa River
had an extreme peak flow exceeding 6100 m3/s. In the Labasa area,
3 rivers simultaneously delivered large amounts of water to thesame coastal hinterland, at the time there was a cyclone-generated
storm surge. This produced flood heights of more than 4 metres onsome floodplains.
Although it is difficult to predict the occurrence of tropical
cyclones in the South Pacific, it is clear from the experience of TC
Ami that improved mitigation and management of flood hazards
should become a priority on Vanua Levu to avoid loss of life andto lessen the heavy socio-economic burden caused by flooding.
More of the recommendations in the recent reports of the WorldBank (2000 b) and JICA (1997) need to be adopted. Solutions
include improved catchment management and flood control structures. A small, resource-limited island nation like Fiji, however,will probably require international aid and project assistance for
effective implementation
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Fiji Meteorological Service kindly provided the rainfall
data for TC Ami and the long-term flood history of Vanua Levu
Island, and the Hydrology Division of the Fiji Public Works
Department the flood records of the gauged rivers. This paper was
prepared while J.T. was a Visiting Researcher at the ResearchCenter for the Pacific Islands, Kagoshima University, Japan.
Thanks are extended to the colleagues there for their encouragement.
The authors are also grateful to several anonymous referees who
gave much advice on the manuscript. This work is dedicated to thememories of the 17 people who lost their lives during the Cyclone
Ami floods of January 2003.
REFERENCES
Blong, R., 1994. Natural Perils and Integrated Hazard Assessment in Fiji.
Final Report for Queensland Insurance (Fiji) Limited, National
Insurance Company of New Zealand and the Fiji Reinsurance
Corporation Limited, 60pp.
Derrick, R.A., 1951. The Fiji Islands. A Geographical Handbook. Govt.
Printing Dept. Suva, Fiji.
Fiji National Archives, 1931. Hurricanes and Floods, 1931. Fiji Legislative
Council Paper No.23, 1931, Suva.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 1983. Annual Weather Summary 1982. Nadi
Airport, Fiji.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 1991. Monthly Weather Summary-January
1991. Nadi Airport, Fiji

Fiji Meteorological Service, 1996a. Tropical Cyclones Affecting Fiji May
1985 to April 1985. FMS Information Sheet 122, Nadi Airport, Fiji.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 1997a. Tropical Cyclone Damages [sic] in Fiji
(From 1939/40-96/97) FMS Information Sheet 123, Nadi Airport,
Fiji.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 1997b. Annual Weather Summary 1996. Nadi
Airport, Fiji.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 1998. Annual Weather Summary 1997. Nadi
Airport, Fiji.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 2000. Monthly Weather Summary-April 2000.
Nadi Airport, Fiji.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 2002. List of floods occurring in the Fiji
Islands between 1840 and 2000. FMS Information Sheet 125, Nadi
Airport, Fiji.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 2003. Tropical Cyclone Ami (05F) 12-15
January 2003. Preliminary Report. Nadi Airport, Fiji.
Holland, G.J., 1997. The maximum potential intensity of tropical cyclones.
Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 54, 2519-2541.
Japan International Co-operation Agency/Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Forests Fiji, 1997. The Study on Watershed Management andFlood Control for the Four Major Viti Levu Rivers in The Republic ofFiji. Interim Report, October 1997.
Kostaschuk, R., J. Terry, and R. Raj, 2001. The impact of tropical cyclones
on river floods in Fiji. Hydrological Sciences Journal 46, 435-450.
NIWA, 2003. National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, New
Zealand. The Island Climate Update, February 2003, No.29, 4pp.
Morrison, R.J., 1981. Factors determining the extent of soil erosion in Fiji.
Institute of Natural Resources, University of the South Pacific,
Environmental Studies Report No.7, 18pp.
Terry, J.P. and R. Raj, 1999. Island Environment and Landscape Responses
to 1997 Tropical Cyclones in Fiji. Pacific Science, 53, 257-272.
Timmermann, A., J. Oberhuber, A. Bacher, M. Esch, M. Latif, and E.
Roeckner, 1999. Increased El Niño frequency in a climate model
forced by future greenhouse warming. Nature 398, 694-697.
Trenberth, K. and T.J. Hoar, 1997. El Niño and climate change.
Geophysical Research Letters 24, 3057-3060.
Whetton, P., R. Jones, K. Hennessy, R. Suppiah, K. Walsh, and W. Cai,
2000. Scenarios of climate change for the Pacific Islands. Paper presented to the Pacific Islands Conference on Climate Change, Climate
Variability and Sea Level Rise, 3-7 April 2000, Rarotonga, Cook
Islands. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Apia,
Samoa.
World Bank, 2000a. Economic Implications of Climate Change in Two
Pacific Country Locations Case Study of Tarawa, Kiribati and Viti
Levu, Fiji. World Bank-Pacific Region.
World Bank, 2000b. Cities, Seas and Storms. Managing Change in PacificIsland Economies. Volume I Summary Report. The International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank,
Washington DC, USA, 71pp.