Pacific Salmon:
King of California Fish
A Challenge to Restore
Our Salmon Resourcesof the FutureFor hundreds of years, Pacific salmon
have been a part of California’s naturallandscape. Magnificent, resilient and everdetermined, they face incredible odds to travelfrom their inland birthplace to the open ocean,
where they mature for several years before
making the perilous journey back home tospawn at the end of their lives. These amazing
fish serve as an icon of the state’s wild andfree rivers, reflecting the spirit and tenacity ofCalifornia’s earliest inhabitants.
But over the past 100 years, the numbers of salmon havebeen dropping. In 2008 and 2009, the population of
California’s Central Valley Chinook salmon was so lowthat the state had to close salmon fisheries for the firsttime in history. Businesses failed, traditions were lost andanglers were mystified.
In an attempt to decipher the reasons for this decline—aswell as to collaborate on ways to reverse the trend—manystate and federal agencies, universities, consulting groups
and non-governmental organizations banded together.
The California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) plays
a lead role in these efforts to restore salmon populations.
The cost and the effort required to initiate change areenormous, calling for a pooling of effort, intellect andfinancial resources. Only cooperative and innovative
fisheries management coupled with habitat restoration andpublic education about our natural resources can reverse
the downward trend in California’s salmon populations.

Classifications of Salmon
The term Pacific salmon comprises several species, but two types in particular are
declining in number in California: Chinook (also known as king salmon) and coho.
Chinook salmon migrate into the
Sacramento–San Joaquin river system,
the Klamath-Trinity river system andseveral north coast rivers, including the
Mattole, Eel, Mad and Smith rivers andRedwood Creek. Coho salmon are foundpredominately in central and northern
California coastal streams and the
Klamath-Trinity river basin.

ChinooksalmonCohosalmonBecause different segments of the
population (called stocks) migrate withthe seasons, there are fall, late-fall, winterand spring Chinook salmon runs and afall coho run. The winter-run Chinook
are listed as endangered by the federal
government under the Endangered Species
Act (ESA); the spring-run Chinook arelisted as threatened.

Pacific Salmon Life Cycle

Under the ESA, salmon stocks can also beclassified according to their geographicalarea of origin. The California coastal
Chinook is listed as threatened; the central
California coast coho and the southern
Oregon/northern California coho arelisted as endangered.

They do not feed during the spawningperiod, surviving on the stored fat and oil
reserves in their bodies. Once they return

The most important stocks to sports
anglers and commercial fishermen are
the Central Valley fall- and late-fallChinook salmon runs. Currently, they
are designated as a “species of special
concern,” which means they are being
closely watched and monitored todetermine whether there is a continuinglong-term decline in the population.

Salmon are anadromous, meaning they
live in both freshwater and saltwater at
different points in their lives. Salmon
hatch in freshwater, migrate to the ocean
to mature in food-rich saltwater andeventually complete the life cycle byreturning to freshwater to spawn.

to their birthplace—which they find byfollowing “chemical cues” in the water—
they seek out clean gravel areas with goodwater quality to lay their eggs. The female
salmon constructs a nest (or redd) in thegravel with her tail fin and may spawn as
many as 2,500 to 7,500 eggs, depending on
the species and the size of the individual
salmon. These eggs hatch in 60 to 90 days.
Both the male and the female salmon die
after spawning.
A juvenile Chinook salmon emerges fromthe gravel and immediately begins its
migratory journey to the ocean, where
it will spend two to five years before
returning to its freshwater birthplace.
Juvenile coho salmon, on the other hand,
may spend up to two years in freshwater
before migrating to the open seas and will
return to spawn after another three years.
An adult female
salmon uses her
tail fin to construct
a redd, a shallow
depression in thestreambed gravel,
where she will
lay her eggs.

A History of Salmon Fishing: A California Tradition
All along the western coast of North America, salmon are an important historic,social, cultural, economic and aesthetic resource.
Pacific Coast American Indians createdlegends and ceremonies to celebrate theimportance of the salmon to their culture
and survival, and European settlers
trapped and fished for salmon for food andsport. As early as 1870, the Commissionersof Fisheries for the State of California
recognized the significance of the species:
The salmon is the most important visitor
to our rivers. It has appropriately beencalled the “king of fish.” The richness of
its flesh, its large size, the certainty of its
annual return from the ocean, the rapidity
with which, under favorable conditions,
it is multiplied, all render it an important
article of human food. It has probably
been the chief source of subsistence tomore people than any other fish.*

At left, commercial fishermen reap a bountyof salmon with a Larco drag net off Santa Cruz
Island in 1934. The decline in salmon threatens
not only commercial fishing but also recreational
fishing and its related enterprises.

system. But after 1950 a declining pattern
became clear. In 1957 the California State
Legislature closed commercial salmon
fishing in inland waters.

Commercial salmon fishing began in
California inland waters in 1864 andexpanded to the ocean near Monterey in1893. Sport angling for salmon became
popular in the early 1900s. Between 1900
and 1950, the Central Valley fall-run
Chinook salmon—typically the mostabundant of the runs—numbered morethan a million fish returning annuallyto the Sacramento–San Joaquin river

Central Valley fall- and late-fall-run
Chinook salmon are still the mostimportant part of California’s fishingindustry, but they continue to vanish fromour waters. In 2002 scientists counted
880,000 returning adults in the fall run.

Just six years later, in 2008, only 66,000
salmon returned.
To ensure future generations of salmon,
in 2008 all ocean salmon fisheries wereclosed for the first time in history. Salmon
season restrictions continued into 2009,
resulting in statewide economic lossesof more than $279 million and 2,670
jobs. California can no longer afford to
postpone action.
*California Fish Commission. 1872. Report of theCommissioners of Fisheries of the State of California
for the Years 1870 and 1871.
As reprinted in California Fish and Game (1933)
Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 41-56.

Estimates of Returning Central Valley Fall-run Chinook Salmon
Historical Through 2008

Number of Salmon

1,000,000
900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0

1955

Historical

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980
Year

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Source: DFG data

What’s Causing Salmon Declines,
and What Can We Do About It?
Scientists blamed the dramatic 2008 decline of California’s salmon populations on a “perfect storm”
of events caused by weather conditions that limited food sources at critical times for young salmon.

Whether massive structures like the Iron Gate Dam on California’s Klamath River or minor diversions on smaller streams, dams prevent salmon from returning
to their historic spawning habitat. Contamination of streams by polluted runoff is another threat to the salmon’s fragile environment and complex life cycle.

Other contributing factors include over­­harvesting, pollution, dams and water
diversions, logging, reduced flow,
urbanization, agricultural and industrial
development, and other land changes.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) found that foodshortages in the ocean were responsible forthe deaths of many of California’s young
salmon in 2004 and 2005. The PacificFisheries Management Council (PFMC)
reviewed 40 factors affecting survivalof salmon during this period and also
concluded that open-ocean conditions
were key to the significant decline insalmon stocks. Water quality, habitat,
predation and hatchery practices wereidentified as contributing factors.
Climate change is another concern.
California’s fertile Central Valley andriver systems are on the extreme southernend of the Pacific salmon habitat, and thesalmon in this area are exposed to longterm weather events such as drought andintense rains. Decreased snowpack andchanges in the timing of meltwater releasenegatively affect traditional migration
patterns, spawning behavior and thetiming of the spring flows that carry young
salmon to the ocean.

and undertaking restoration work that
addresses entire watersheds.

DFG and other state, federal and private
agencies have worked to reverse the trend
since the 1950s. Efforts have included
extensive habitat restoration, dam removal,
screening and other projects intended tostabilize and increase salmon populations
and restore habitat.

▪▪ Maintaining habitat complexity

Today, DFG and its partners are increasing
monitoring efforts, implementing adaptive
management practices to protect core
habitats and maintain genetic diversity

Suggested practices that could benefit
salmon in light of habitat and climatechanges in the coming years include:▪▪ Maintaining and increasing genetic
diversity▪▪ Protecting cold-water resources▪▪ Connecting rivers/streams andfloodplains▪▪ Protecting alpine meadows, springs
and riparian areas▪▪ Limiting interaction between wildand hatchery fish▪▪ Tempering unusual high and low flows▪▪ Restoring estuaries, sloughs
and marshes

Key Legislation and Broad-scale Ecosystem Restorations Efforts and Acts
California has a history of working to protect its natural resources. Here is a rundown of major legislative actions.

1957 The California Water Plan createsa framework for legislators, water managers and the public as they make decisions
regarding California’s water future. The
plan, which is updated every five years,
presents data and information about
California’s water supply, including assessments of agricultural, urban and environmental water uses.

1981 The DFG Fisheries Restoration

Grant Program is established by a coalition of government agencies, tribes, fisheries and watershed organizations, theCalifornia Conservation Corps, AmeriCorps
and private landowners in response to rapidly declining populations of coastal wild
salmon and steelhead trout. To date, theprogram has invested more than $180 million in restoration projects and watershededucation throughout coastal California.

1986 The Klamath River Basin Fish-

ery Resources Restoration Act earmarks
more than $20 million to restore and maintain anadromous fish populations. The
program ended in 2006, but planning andimplementation of fisheries and habitat
improvements, scientific investigations,and public outreach and education continue today.

1992 Congress passes the Central Val-

ley Project Improvement Act, dedicating
800,000 acre-feet of water for environmental use and ecosystem restoration efforts
in the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers.
The same year the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service’s Anadromous Fish Restoration
Program (AFRP) is tasked with doublingnatural production of anadromous fishin California’s Central Valley streams on along-term, sustainable basis. AFRP has provided millions of dollars for habitat projects
to help restore Central Valley salmon andsteelhead populations.

1994 The Delta Accord is signed by wa-

ter interests, environmental groups, andstate and federal agencies, with the intent
of establishing interim protection for listed
fish species, including Chinook salmon,
steelhead and Delta smelt. This leads to theestablishment of the California Bay-Delta
Program (CALFED) in 2000, a cooperative
effort of 25 state and federal agencies toimprove the quality and the reliability ofCalifornia’s water supplies while restoring
the Bay-Delta ecosystem. DFG administers
the CALFED Ecosystem Restoration Program and has awarded 530 grants totaling
more than $500 million to restore habitat,
install screen diversions, remove fish barriers and fund research.

2006 The Bay Delta Conservation Plan

is initiated to provide for the conservationof Delta fisheries while supplying water to
25 million Californians. Seventeen federal
and state agencies, environmental groups,
water agencies and other organizations
work together on developing the plan.

Modern Salmon Research and Information-gathering Techniques
DFG and its partners conduct extensive research andinformation-gathering efforts to learn more about California’s
salmon population. DFG carefully monitors the catch of salmon
in all California fisheries and works with other state, federal andnon-governmental organizations to provide annual estimates of
salmon returning to various California rivers and streams.
In 2007, DFG began using coded wire tags to track 25 percent of
all juvenile fall-run Chinook salmon released from California
hatcheries. This technology allows the state to determine thecontribution and the distribution of salmon in ocean and river
fisheries and the success of hatchery mitigation programs.
On the South Delta portion of the San Joaquin river system,
scientists track migrating fish by following the sounds emitted
by acoustic tags implanted inside their bodies. By tracking
the salmon’s travels, the scientists can determine and better
troubleshoot the path ahead.
At the Warm Springs Hatchery, DFG scientists are researchingways to re-establish endangered wild coho salmon in the RussianRiver basin. Based on their findings, a captive rearing andbroodstock program has been established at the hatchery, andnow thousands of fingerling coho salmon are being released
into historic coho waters each year.

Barely visible wire tags are used to monitor salmon released from hatcheries.

DFG and NOAA fisheries are also collaborating on a plan
to monitor coastal populations of anadromous fish species
and their habitats from San Diego to Del Norte counties.
The first phase of the program is to conduct status and trend
monitoring of fish populations, focusing on adults returningto spawn and out-migrating juveniles.
Ultimately, the program will include the monitoring ofcoastal restoration efforts, watershed health and fisheries
management activities.

Salmon Hatcheries

At left, a hatchery worker milks eggs froma female salmon. Millions of fingerlings likethose below are released each year.

California’s eight salmon hatcheries areoperated as mitigation for water projects.
These hatcheries release more than
40 million juvenile salmon annually in
the Klamath-Trinity, Sacramento–San
Joaquin and Russian river systems. The
hatcheries ensure genetic diversity among
the different salmon stocks.
▪▪ Coleman National Fish Hatchery
Built in 1942 on Battle Creek, a tributary
to the Sacramento River; releases up
to 15 million juvenile Chinook salmon
annually▪▪ Feather River Hatchery Built in 1967
on the Feather River; releases up to
8 million juvenile Chinook salmon
annually▪▪ Iron Gate Hatchery Built in 1966
on the Klamath River; releases up to
5.1 million juvenile and 0.9 million
yearling Chinook salmon annually▪▪ Merced River Fish Facility Built in1964 on the Merced River; releases up

to 1.3 million juvenile Chinook salmon
annually▪▪ Mokelumne River Fish Hatchery  Built in 1964 on the Mokelumne River;releases up to 5.4 million juvenile
Chinook salmon annually▪▪ Nimbus Fish Hatchery Built in 1955
on the American River; releases up to
4 million juvenile Chinook salmon
annually▪▪ Trinity River Hatchery Built in1964 on the Trinity River; releases up
to 3 million juvenile and 1.3 million
yearling Chinook salmon annually▪▪ Warm Springs Hatchery (The
Congressman Don Clausen Fish
Hatchery) Built in 1980 on Dry
Creek, a tributary to the Russian River;releases up to 0.2 million juvenile coho
salmon annually

Fishing Regulations
Anglers look to fishing regulations
to find out how many salmon they
can catch as well as when and where.
Fishing regulations are set by the
California Fish and Game Commission
for sport and commercial fisheries,
including coastal waters extending
three miles offshore. The commercial
salmon industry is also closely
regulated by the setting of fishingseasons and fishing limits.

Recreational and commercial
fishing are regulated to ensurethat enough salmon survive to
produce future populations.

The PFMC and the National Marine
Fisheries Service determine the salmon
season for sport and commercial
fisheries in ocean waters from three
to 200 miles offshore. Because ocean
salmon fisheries harvest a mixture of
salmon stocks, fishery managers take aprecautionary approach to reduce ocean
harvest rates to levels that will not havean impact on ESA-listed salmon.

Each spring both the California Fish and GameCom­mission and the PFMC adopt regulations
that meet the conservation objectives for California salmon. In 2008 sport and commercial
salmon fishermen were stunned when all ocean
salmon seasons were closed for the first timein California history because not enough adultsalmon were returning to spawn.

Successful Salmon Recovery Efforts in California
Millions of dollars have been expended on efforts to increase salmon populations throughout the state.
In the Sacramento–San Joaquin river system, Butte Creek and Battle Creek stand out as examples of how
humans can make a positive difference, as does the Russian River on the north central coast.

Number of Spring-run Chinook Salmon Returning to Butte Creek
1960 Through 2008
20,000
Number of Salmon

Butte Creek today
supports the largest
spring run of wild
Chinook salmon in
the Central Valley.
Restoration efforts haveincluded the removalof four diversion
dams, placement of fivejuvenile fish screens,installation of 11 fish
ladders, acquisitionof additional waters
to increase instream
flow and acquisition of
riparian areas.

15,00010,000
5,000
0

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985
Year

1990

1995

2000

2005

Source: DFG data

Above, graphic
evidence of thesuccess of the Butte
Creek restoration.
At far left, a recordsized Chinook foundin Battle Creek
during a 2008 DFG
spawning survey.
Near right, therestored salmon
habitat above
Mumford Dam on
the Russian River.

Since 1993 more than $35 million has beenspent on these successful efforts. The
number of returning salmon has increased
from less than a thousand fish to several
thousand annually.
Battle Creek is one of the most important
tributaries of the Sacramento River.
DFG and its partners have committed$67 million to re-establishing endangered
and threatened winter-run Chinook andsteelhead in these waters. Plans call forthe restoration of 42 miles of habitat along
Battle Creek and the removal of severalhydroelectric diversion dams, which
will increase the flow of the creek while
protecting fish and creating passages. This

will be the biggest watershed restorationand dam removal project in the state.
On the Russian River, the Sonoma County
Water Agency and DFG implemented the
Mumford Dam Fish Passage and Riparian
Restoration Project, which restoredsalmon and steelhead fish passage to nearly
50 miles of spawning and rearing habitat
above Mumford Dam.
More than 560 feet of the channel’s
bed was elevated to improve migration
conditions. Riverbanks were regraded, andriparian canopy was restored, using large
boulders and willow sprigs and planting
native trees and shrubs on the banks.

Migrating adult Chinook and steelhead
were observed navigating the new dam
passage, and the following year young
Chinook smolts and steelhead smolts
migrated out. This successful restoration
project continues to provide Chinook
salmon and steelhead with access to theheadwaters of the Russian River.
DFG is only one of many players unitingin the effort to rebuild California salmon
stocks. Californians are enacting theirstewardship of salmon resources now
and in the future. Each restoration
effort is another step leading to healthysalmon populations.

Educating Californians About Salmon
California salmon have endured 150 years of floods, dams, unregulated harvest, urbanization,
agriculture and industrialization. Our challenge is to ensure that they remain a part of our future.
DFG recognizes the importance of
educating Californians—especially
our youth—about the history and theuncertain fate of our salmon. DFG’s
Classroom Aquarium Education Program
teaches students about our state’s natural
resources and the factors that influence
our salmon population. The program
touches about 10,000 students in 400
northern California classrooms eachyear. These students are our state’s next
decision-makers.
Cities like Fort Bragg, Oroville and Rancho
Cordova host annual salmon festivals thatbring together community members young
and old to feast and celebrate the historicaland cultural values of salmon to our state.
Festivals also provide an opportunity forresidents to learn about restoration efforts
currently under way.
All these efforts take time, planning andfinancing. By providing the public withthe big picture in a way that is easy tounderstand, we ensure that tomorrow’s
industry, community and agriculturalinterests will continue to work together
on projects to better the future of
California’s salmon.

Through the DFG’s educational
activities, students learn thevalue of aquatic environments,
the need to preserve California’s
fisheries and aquatic habitats
and how their personal actions
affect these valuable resources.

California Department of Fish and Game1416 Ninth St., Sacramento, CA 95814(916) 445-0411 • www.dfg.ca.gov