Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 34, Number 1, 2012, pp91-104

Tsunami arrival time characteristics of the 2011 East Japan Tsunami
obtained from eyewitness accounts, evidence and numerical simulation
Abdul MUHARI*
Fumihiko IMAMURA*
Anawat SUPPASRI**
Erick MAS*
*Tsunami Engineering Lab
International Research Institute for Disaster Science (IRIDeS), TOHOKU University**Endowed Research DivisionInternational Research Institute for Disaster Science (IRIDeS), TOHOKU University(Received March 31, 2012 Accepted July 18, 2012)
ABSTRACT
Information on the tsunami arrival time for people located along a coastline is crucial forcommunity-based tsunami preparedness activities. It is also important for tsunami source
mechanism studies to support other field observation data such as run-up heights, coseismic subsidence and eyewitness accounts. In this study, we reconstructed the tsunami
arrival times along the east coast of Japan during the 2011 tsunami. As most of the tidegauges were damaged, first we collected and analyzed the arrival time data from equipmentthat survived the tsunami. The tsunami waveforms offshore were taken from six GPS
buoys covering the Fukushima coastline in the south to Aomori in the north. Next, we
utilized the records from stopped clocks found in the tsunami affected areas to briefly viewthe inundation arrival time. In addition to the observed run-up data, we used the abovementioned arrival time information to propose and validate a new source mechanism forthe 2011 Japan tsunami. The well-validated source model was then used to obtain thecharacteristics of the tsunami arrival time along the east coast of Japan. The results canbe used as primary information for designing a community-based evacuation plan andincreasing community awareness of tsunamis.
Keyword: tsunami arrival time, near-field, eyewitness and evidence

1 Introduction

the availability of a tsunami early warning system,some people still went to the beach to see whether a
low tide had occurred (I-RAPID, 2012, Hoppe and
Mahadiko, 2010). As stated by Sorensen (1991) people appear to adjust their reaction to the timing of animpending threat (Mas E., 2012). Based on that idea,
it is important to address the arrival time of a tsunami
and the characteristics of its initial waveform, such as

1.1 BackgroundIn tsunami-prone areas, the evacuation of residents is generally expected to be triggered by the official warning system. However, in many cases it is thenatural warning i.e., the receding wave at the shoreline, that influences the evacuee’s decision. Despite91

A. MUHARI, F. IMAMURA, A. SUPPASRI, E. MAS

the positive and negative initial wave. By doing so, it
is possible to show that a leading negative wave may
not precede the tsunami even in the near-field case.
Such information is probably not that important forpeople with a tsunami early warning system as advanced as that in Japan. However, it could provide avery important lesson to be shared with communities
in areas where tsunami early warning systems are notfully functional. Nevertheless, such information canalso be used for community-based tsunami preparedness along the east coast of Japan.
In contrast, tsunami arrival time information isessential for the study of the tsunami source mechanisms. Satake and Kanamori (1991) proposed theinverse theory to study earthquake sources basedon tsunami waveforms in the tide gauges. Shutoand Matsutomi (1995), and Takahashi et al. (1995)
stressed the necessity of arrival time from eyewitness
accounts to develop the tsunami source in a forward
modeling framework. However, in the case of the2011 Japan tsunami, most of the tide gauges were destroyed so only very limited data can be used. Relying
on the available waveforms data of GPS buoys (MLIT,
2011) sometimes cannot reproduce the observed runup data since the gauge wave heights do not necessarily correlate with the heights of tsunami run-ups inthe vicinity of the gauge (Titov et al., 2005). Results
demonstrated by MacInnes et al. (in press) clearlyshow such discrepancy. Their results of the modeled
tsunami run-ups from nine different source models
differ significantly from the observed data. In thisstudy, therefore, we utilized information of two different arrival times to support the source modelingstudy. The tsunami waveforms of GPS buoys data
were complemented by the inundation arrival timefrom the stopped clocks to fill the blanks due to thelack of information from the tide gauges along thecoast. In addition to the observed run-up heights data,
the tsunami source model for the 2011 tsunami was
proposed and validated using the above-mentioned
arrival time data. The well-validated source model
was then used to reveal the characteristics of tsunami
arrival times along the east coast of Japan during the2011 tsunami.

mi waveforms of six GPS buoys and from the stopped
clocks in the tsunami affected areas. In the next section, we examine the source model of Tohoku University version 1.1 (e.g., Sugawara et al., 2011) in accordance with both arrival time data and the observed
run-up heights by Mori et al. (2012). Based on the
results of the examination, we propose an enhanced
source model to reproduce the observational data. Finally, the tsunami arrival time along the east coast ofJapan is reconstructed using the well-validated source
model and summarized in a simple representation.
2 Description of the arrival time data
2.1 Field evidence and eyewitness accounts
Information about the tsunami arrival time
was collected from intensive research of newspapers, Internet blogs and other private addresses,
interviews, books and magazines in addition to ourdocumentation and photographs taken during the frequent post-tsunami surveys. The database consists ofseventy-nine stopped clocks and eyewitness accounts.
Original information including the address of Internet
sources is provided in the supplement to this paper.
We searched the coordinates of those data through thesatellite image analysis and ground checked during
the field survey, which are spatially distributed from
Fukushima to Aomori Prefecture (Fig. 1). Particularly
for the clocks data, determining the tsunami arrival
time from stopped clocks might be controversial dueto the possibility of human intervention in the swept
away clocks (e.g., Lavigne et al., 2009). In this study,
therefore, we selected only clocks that had beenplaced on relatively high walls to ensure that they
were out of human reach. The other considerationis that the clocks might have stopped in the range ofthe first initial tsunami arrival up to the first peak of
the tsunami wave. Thus, validation of the modeled
tsunami using the clocks data should take this into
account. The arrival time data plotted in Fig. 1 gives
the general impression that the tsunami arrival time
ranged from 25 to 55 min except in the area of Sendai
Bay. The trend line of the data shows that the tsunami
arrival time might be correlated with the beach’s
strike relative to the fault’s strike (trench line) in north
Iwate to Aomori. Down to the south, the arrival timein south Sanriku and the Sendai Plain might be correlated with the distance of the places relative to the

1.2 Outline of the paper
This paper is organized as follows. First, the arrival time is described and interpreted based on tsuna92

TSUNAMI ARRIVAL TIME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 2011 EAST JAPAN TSUNAMI OBTAINED FROM EYEWITNESS ACCOUNTS, EVIDENCE AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION

2.1.1 Aomori, Sanriku coast of Iwate and North
Miyagi
The beach’s strike of north Iwate to Aomori Prefecture is opposite to that of the fault’s strike. The arrival time toward the north, therefore, lengthens compared to the southward region. Here, the arrival time
ranges from 40 min in Miyako and Taro to 50 min
in Hashikami. From the middle of Iwate to the south
up to the northern part of Miyagi Prefecture, the socalled Sanriku coast is characterized by ria coastline,
which might influence the arrival time particularly
in cities inside a long V-shaped bay. This region may
be close to the earthquake source area because thearrival time ranges only from 25 to 40 min. A photograph of a stopped clock in a damaged building taken
in Taro town of Miyako City shows that the tsunami
inundated the area 40 min after the earthquake. A
similar indication was observed from stopped clocks
at Otsuchi Town Hall (40 min). Moving further south,
the stopped clock in Kamaishi-Higashi Junior HighSchool was at the 39 min arrival time mark as wellas in street clocks at Ofunato. However, starting from
Rikuzentakata toward the south, the tsunami arrival
time increased as indicated by a clock found in Rikuzentakata Dai-Ichi Junior High School that stopped
44 min after the earthquake. Another photograph of a
stopped clock taken near a fish market in Kesennuma
and in the disaster prevention building at MinamiSanriku shows tsunami arrival times of 50 min and 48
min, respectively. Moreover, stopped clocks in Onagawa Hospital and Ookawa Elementary School (Fig.
2, left) in north Ishinomaki show that the tsunami had
a similar arrival time ranging from 49 and 50 min,Figure1. Tsunami arrival times from eyewitness accounts and stopped clocks.

source area, and some local effect such as shoaling
due to shallow water in the bay region.
More detailed descriptions of the stopped clocks
data and their possible correlation with the tsunami
source are given in the following sub-sections.

Figure2. Stopped clocks at Ookawa elementary school, Ishinomaki (left), Sendai port (center), and Kaisei highschool (right)
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A. MUHARI, F. IMAMURA, A. SUPPASRI, E. MAS

respectively. Based on the above-mentioned data,preliminary hypotheses suggest that the earthquake
source may be close to the shore in the region from
Miyako to the south up to the vicinity of Oshika Peninsula (near Onagawa and Ishinomaki City).

min), Takano Hospital in Futaba district (47 min) andin Kaisei High Schools in Iwaki (39 to 43 min, Fig. 2,
right).
2.2 Tide gauges and tsunami run-up data
In the near-field case, local variation of the tsunami was highly dependent on the slip distribution(e.g., Geist and Dmowska, 1999). To interpret thearrival time from six GPS buoys installed along theeast coast of Honshu Island (MLIT, 2011), we useddefinitions given by Hayashi et al. (2011). They divided arrival time into four major components namely
the tsunami arrival time, initial trough, local crest andprimary crest.
Interpretation derived from the GPS buoys data
can be summarized in several hypotheses. First, thesudden drop in water level that occurred just after theearthquake in GPS 801, 802, 803 and 804 (Sendai,
Sendai north, Iwate south, and Iwate) indicated thatthey were placed inside the earthquake source area.
The local crests in Fukushima (GPS 806) and Iwate(GPS 804) suggest that a minor fault exists in addition to the major fault (e.g., Shuto and Matsutomi,

2.1.2 Sendai Plain to the south in north Fukushima
Sendai and Ishinomaki City are plain areas
located inside Sendai bay, which is characterizedby shallow water depth. In accordance with shoaling phenomenon, the tsunami arrived in these areas
with a comparatively slower arrival time of about
60 to 70 min. In Ishinomaki City, a stopped clock at
Ishinomaki Girls Commercial High School showsthat the tsunami arrived 73 min after the earthquake.
In Higashi-Matsushima Naruse Dai-Ni Junior HighSchool, tsunami inundation arrived in 62 min. Further to the south of the Sendai Plain, stopped clocks
in Sendai Port (Fig. 2, center), Arahama Elementary
School and Coastal Adventure Park showed that thetsunami arrival time was 69 min, 69 min and 71 min,respectively.
In the area close to Sendai Airport, the tsunami
arrival time in Natori City was estimated as 71 minfrom the stopped clock in Yuriage Elementary School.
Also, clocks at Sendai Airport terminal indicated thatthe tsunami arrived 74 min after the earthquake. A
relatively similar arrival time was also observed at
Iwanuma and in a hot spa at Watari, which accordingly stopped at 70 min as interpreted from a photographof the tsunami arriving at Tenzanbori Channel, and 66
min as visualized from a helicopter and photographtaken by an eyewitness.
2.1.3 Fukushima coast
The Fukushima coast connects with the southernpart of the Sendai Plain. Thus, the tsunami arrival
time in this area is relatively similar to that of the
Sendai Plain (60 to 70 min). This is confirmed bystopped clocks in a fisheries cooperative in Shinchi(64 min) and in central Soma (69 min). However, toward the south in central and southern Fukushima, thecoasts were no longer influenced by the shallow waterin Sendai bay; thus, the tsunami arrival time increasedin speed as observed at about 40 to 50 min confirmed
by a stopped clock in Ukedo School at Namie town (52min), Fukushima Dai-Ichi Nuclear Power Plant (54Figure3. Descriptions of tsunami arrival time according to Hayashi et al. (2011)94

TSUNAMI ARRIVAL TIME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 2011 EAST JAPAN TSUNAMI OBTAINED FROM EYEWITNESS ACCOUNTS, EVIDENCE AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION

1995). In GPS 802, 803 and 804 the primary crest has
a small period that indicates the major slip may be
accompanied by additional uplift in the shallow sediment (e.g., Tanioka and Seno, 2001) or indicates complex rupture involving reverse and normal faults (Tsuji
et al., 2011a). In the northernmost area, GPS 807 has
a delay in its arrival time as well as primary crest thatindicate this buoy may be placed in the area farthestfrom the major fault.

ing the GPS buoys and the available tide gauges data.
Recently, MacInnes et al. (in press) compared theresulting modeled tsunami from nine different source
models based on seismic inversion, tsunami waveforms and GPS data. As a result, some of them canperfectly reproduce the tsunami waveforms at several
DART buoys; none of them are able to reproduce therun-up data, not even the trend.
Apart from the seismic and tsunami waveforms
data, Tohoku University developed the source mechanism (DCRC, 2011) by stressing the reconstructionof the observed run-up and inundation data (JSCE,2011). The result from inundation modeling using
SRTM data with a cell size of 90 is given in Fig. 4. It
shows that the pattern of the observed run-up data isreproduced except in the area where the highest runup was recorded. According to the data presented by
Tsuji et al. (2011b), most of those highest run-ups
were observed around the hills with very steep slope
topography. A similar situation was observed during
the 1993 Okushiri Tsunami in Monai (Shuto and Matsutomi, 1995) and the 2010 Chile Tsunami in Constitution (Imamura et al., 2010). With the present numerical grid size, it is impossible to reproduce those
types of run-up heights. Shuto and Matsutomi (1995)
suggest that a finer grid of less than 5 m is required toreproduce that very high run-up data. More detailed
verification of the proposed source model for the observed run-up data can be found in DCRC (2012).
However, the proposed source model has unsatisfactory agreement when compared to the data fromthe GPS buoys as seen in Fig. 5. To overcome the

3 Numerical analysis
3.1 Developing tsunami source mechanism
To date, many source generation models of the2011 Tohoku Tsunami have been proposed from aseismological perspective. Huge amounts of landand ocean-based geophysical equipment provide theprospect of disclosing the mega-thrust phenomenon
for better understanding of large earthquake generation. However, to date almost none of the developed
earthquake sources have been able to reproduce thetsunami run-up data. Regarding the latter, Maeda etal. (2011) reconstructed two stages of the observed
tsunami wave at an ocean bottom tsunami sensor
placed in Kamaishi. Fujii et al. (2011) estimated theslip distribution from the tsunami inversion in several
tide gauges. But these two source models proved unable to reproduce the observed run-up data. Yamazaki
et al. (2011) used an earthquake source from seismic
and geodetic observation (Lay et al., 2011 and Yue
and Lay, 2011) for near-field tsunami modeling. However, their efforts are limited to only the validation us-

Figure4. Comparison of modeled run-up heights based on Tohoku Univ. 1.1 model with the observed data95

A. MUHARI, F. IMAMURA, A. SUPPASRI, E. MAS

N/m2. As also indicated by Maeda et al. (2011) andFujii et al. (2011), large uplift exists near the trenchwith a shorter period to reproduce the two stages oftsunami observed in GPS buoys at Iwate Prefecture.
The resulting sea-floor displacement calculatedusing a static deformation model (Okada, 1985) gives
a maximum vertical uplift near the trench of 22.7m, and a maximum subsidence of 1.8 m observed at
nearby Oshika peninsula (Fig. 6, right). In the latter,the value obtained from the source model is slightly
higher than the subsidence of 1.2 m observed by the
Geospatial Survey Institute of Japan (GSI, 2011).

discrepancy with the waveforms data, we adopted a
traditional forward modeling approach with trial anderror method to enhance this source model without
significantly reducing the accuracy that was obtained
against the run-up.
Based on the source model provided by Tohoku
University version 1.1, we divided the rupture area
into eleven regions with length and width that varyfrom 25 to 175 km (Fig. 6 left). The slip values varyfrom 1 to a maximum of 50 m near the trench (Table1). This configuration gives a resulting moment magnitude M0 of 4.1 × 1022 N m, yield to a 9.0 Mw earthquake assuming a homogenous rigidity of 5.0 × 1010

Figure5. Comparison of the observed tsunami waveforms with the modeled tsunami based on the source modelof Tohoku Univ. 1.1 and source model proposed by this study

Table1. Description of the proposed source model

96

TSUNAMI ARRIVAL TIME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 2011 EAST JAPAN TSUNAMI OBTAINED FROM EYEWITNESS ACCOUNTS, EVIDENCE AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION

3.2 Validation of the proposed source model
We modeled the tsunami propagation in two
domains constructed in a nested grid system (Fig. 6,
right). Data of GEBCO_08 (British Oceanographic
Data Center, 2008) was resampled into a cell sizeof 270 m and used in Region 1. For Region 2, weused data of the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission(SRTM, CGIAR-CSI) and retained the original accuracy of 90 m as the cell size.
Reliability of the source was examined using
the Aida K and κ, which is the geometric mean of theratio of the measured amplitude, period and run-up
heights to that of those computed, while κ is the corresponding standard deviation (Aida, 1978). Also, theRoot Mean Square Error/Deviation was used in theevaluation.

Shuto (1991) suggests values of 0.8 < K < 1.2
and κ < 1.45, while the Japan Society of Civil Engineers suggests values of 0.95 < K < 1.05 and κ <1.45 to judge the initial profile as satisfactory (JSCE,2006).
We used linear long wave theory in Region 1 andnon-linear shallow water theory in Region 2, which
is solved using the finite difference method on a staggered leap frog scheme (Imamura, 1996). The total
time of simulation was 1.5 hours with increments of
0.5 sec for Region 1 and 0.15 sec for Region 2, respectively. The manning coefficient used in Region 2
was similar for the entire domain as 0.025.
We first validated the proposed source modelfor the tsunami waveforms at six GPS buoys as given
in Fig. 5. Here, a1 means the first peak (which canbe the local or primary crest) and a2 is the first dropthat is the initial trough. It is shown that the proposedsource model can perfectly reproduce two stages of
the tsunami wave in Iwate south. Also, it can reduce
the leading negative wave that produced the previous
result. A comparison of the Tohoku Univ. 1.1 modelwith the present study given in Table 2 demonstrates asignificant improvement in the reliability indicated by

(1)

(2)

Figure6. Fault segments representing the 2011 rupture area (left), and the resulting calculated sea-floor displacement (right).
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A. MUHARI, F. IMAMURA, A. SUPPASRI, E. MAS

better values of K and κ. Only the standard deviationof the amplitude and wave period for the first drop(a2) gave values outside the range proposed by Shuto(1991), while the other component in both first peak(a1) and first drop (a2) produced satisfactory results.
We then moved onto the second validation of the
proposed model for the inundation arrival time fromthe stopped clocks information. As seen in Fig. 7,
the results produced by Tohoku Univ. version 1.1 arenot so different to those of the present study. Instead,Tohoku Univ. version 1.1 yields a better comparison
with the observed data as shown in Table 3. Therefore, we conclude that the only discrepancy fromthe previous source model is in the modeled tsunami
waveforms in the six GPS buoys, which are improvedin this study.
The last validation we present is made using theobserved run-up data. The proposed source model
produced results overestimated on average 5 m fromthe observed data (Fig. 8). First the inundation model
was performed using a cell size of 90 m, which does
not allow a detailed representation of the topography
especially in middle Iwate, which has characteristic
hilly towns inside a long V-shaped bay. Also, thepresent inundation model used homogenous bottom
friction, which may produce a significantly overestimated result. Muhari et al. (2011) demonstrated thatthe constant roughness model can produce an inundation parameter double the size of that produced by
the spatially distributed roughness model in a densely

Table2. Comparison of Aida numbers in terms of the amplitude and wave period with observational data of six
GPS buoys.

Figure 7 Comparison of the observed and the modeled arrival times based on Tohoku Univ. 1.1 and the present study

Table3. Comparison of the modeled inundation arrival times with the observational data from the stopped clocks

98TSUNAMI ARRIVAL TIME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 2011 EAST JAPAN TSUNAMI OBTAINED FROM EYEWITNESS ACCOUNTS, EVIDENCE AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION

the tsunami arrival time at towns along the Sanriku
coast in this section. Definitions in the following explanation are still based on components of arrival time
described in Hayashi et al. (2012). We first described
the characteristics of the tsunami arrival in north
Iwate toward the north up to Oirase town in Aomori
Prefecture as given in Fig. 9.
The initial arrival time, local crest and the primary crest in this region are gradually decreased toward the south with values ranging from 16 to 35 min
for initial arrival time, 34 to 60 min for local crest and
38 to 68 min for primary crest. This indicates that the

populated area. Therefore, we assumed that the present model would produce satisfactory results if usedin high accuracy topographic data supported by theaccommodation of spatially distributed roughness orresistance due to the existence of buildings. Further
study is required to verify the above statement.
4 Characteristics of tsunami arrival time at Sanriku
coast during the 2011 East Japan Tsunami
After validating the proposed source model withthe observed data, we derived the characteristics ofFigure8. Comparison of modeled run-up heights using the proposed source model with the observed data

Figure9. Arrival time characteristics from north Iwate to Oirase in Aomori Prefecture99

A. MUHARI, F. IMAMURA, A. SUPPASRI, E. MAS

further to the north we go, the further the cities arefrom the source area. Our numerical results indicatethat the local crest exists before the primary types.
However, the available tide gauge data before damage by the tsunami do not indicate such information
as that of the local crest. Instead, the presumed primary crest was preceded by small receding water (seeHayashi et al., 2011). Nevertheless, the arrival time in
Hachinohe and Kuji gave similar results when com-pared with observed and modeled data; concurrently
30 and 32 min in Hachinohe, and 15 to 22 min in
Kuji. A summary of the tsunami arrival in this region
is given in Fig. 10.
Moving southward to the region between middle
Iwate down to north Miyagi, characteristics of thetsunami arrival time in cities inside the bays on the
Sanriku coast can be divided into two categories asgiven in Fig. 11.

Figure10. Summary of the arrival time characteristics in north Iwate to Aomori

Figure11. Characteristics of tsunami arrival in middle Iwate to the south up to Onagawa town in north Miyagi
100

TSUNAMI ARRIVAL TIME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 2011 EAST JAPAN TSUNAMI OBTAINED FROM EYEWITNESS ACCOUNTS, EVIDENCE AND NUMERICAL SIMULATIONFirst, in Iwate (Iwaizumi down to Kamaishi inthe south), the tsunami was not preceded by a leading
negative wave (water withdrawal), but a deep receding water came after the first peak. In this area, the influence of the long bay coastal morphology is not significant to delay the arrival time of the tsunami. Here,the primary crest arrives faster than any other area,
which ranges from 33 to 36 min. On the contrary, cities in north Miyagi (Rikuzentakata down to Onagawa) experienced short receding water before the firstpeak arrived. They had negative amplitude after the
first peak passed. However, the values are not comparable to the crest’s amplitude. In this region, the initial
trough is faster toward the south ranging from 10 to
29 min as shown in Fig. 12.
Entering Sendai Bay, all of the cities have similar characteristics of tsunami arrival (Fig. 13). Small
receding water precedes the first peak, which comes
mostly at 59 to 68 min after the earthquake. Deep receding water is observed after the first peak in Tagajo,
Arahama, Natori and Iwanuma.
When compared to the available tide gauge data
in Sendai before it was broken by the tsunami (Hayashi
et al., 2011), the modeled arrival time and initial
trough are close to the observed data with the valuesof observed and modeled being 5 and 5 min for thearrival time, and 45 to 40 min for initial trough as
seen in Fig. 14.

5 Conclusions
We presented and interpreted the arrival time
data based on stopped clocks found in the tsunami
affected areas and GPS buoys. We demonstrated the

Figure12. Summary of the arrival time in north Miyagi and south Iwate

Figure13. Arrival time characteristics in Sendai Plain
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A. MUHARI, F. IMAMURA, A. SUPPASRI, E. MAS

Figure14. Summary of arrival time in Sendai Plainuse of these data to enhance the tsunami source model
based on the available source of Tohoku Univ. version
1.1. Validation of the improved source model gavesatisfactory results using the Aida number by taking
the arrival time data of GPS, inundation arrival timeof stopped clocks and observed run-up height as parameters for validation.
Using the well-validated source model, the tsunami arrival time along the Tohoku coast during the2011 tsunami was reconstructed. The tsunami arrival
time in a specific place is mainly determined by its
distance relative to the source (including the effect of
the beach’s strike relative to the fault’s strike) and theshallow sea bottom topography (water depth) that affect the shoaling process. The bay shape coastal morphology has less influence on determining the arrival
time. Lastly, through the example of the large tsunami
in Japan, we demonstrated that huge tsunamis are notalways preceded by a leading negative wave, even for
the near-field case.

study No.(22241042). Co-author Anawat Suppasri
would like to thank The Tokio Marine & Nichido Fire
Insurance Co., Ltd. through the International ResearchInstitute of Disaster Science (IRIDeS) at Tohoku
University and The Willis Research Network (WRN)
under the Pan-Asian/Oceanian tsunami risk modelingand mapping project.
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