ejbo

EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

Electronic
Journal ofBusiness
Ethics andOrganization
StudiesVol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

Vol. 29, No. 11

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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

In this issue:
Manuscript Submission
and Information for Authors
PAGE 3

EJBO - Electronic Journal of Business
Ethics and Organization Studies
Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)
ISSN 1239-2685
Publisher:
Business and Organization
Ethics Network (BON)

Tuomo Takala

Editorial: Globally (Ir)Responsible Leadership Viewpoints on the Current Political Leadership
DebatePublishing date:2024-05-08

Postal address:

Editor in Chief:

University of Jyväskylä,
School of Business andEconomics, Business andOrganization Ethics
Network (BON),
P.O. Box 35,
FIN-40351 Jyväskylä,
FINLAND

Professor Tuomo Takala
University of Jyväskylä
tuomo.a.takala@jyu.fi

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Societal Impact: Beyond Frameworks
PAGES 10-22

Sari Huikko-Tarvainen & Timo Tuovinen & Petri Kulmala

Tomorrow’s Physicians’ Perceptions of How
Physicians Should Be Led and Their Interest in
Pursuing Leadership Positions
PAGES 23-30

Esa Mangeloja

Hylianismin Narratiivit ja Kaupallinen
Semiotiikka
PAGES 31-39

D.Sc (Econ.) Marjo Siltaoja
University of Jyväskylä
marjo.siltaoja@econ.jyu.fi

Assistant Editor:
M.Sc (Econ.) Ida Okkonen
University of Jyväskylä
ida.a.m.okkonen@jyu.fi

PAGES 4-9

Elizabeth J. Rozell & Haywood Spangler

Assistant Editor:

Editorial board
Iiris Aaltio
Professor
University of Jyväskylä
Jyväskylä, Finland
Johannes Brinkmann
Professor
BI Norwegian School ofManagement
Oslo, Norway
Zoe S. Dimitriades
Associate Professor
University of Macedonia
Thessaloniki, Greece
John Dobson
Professor
College of Business
California Polytechnic
State University
San Luis Opisbo, U.S.A.
Claes Gustafsson
Professor
Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden
Pauli Juuti
Professor
Lappeenranta University ofTechnology
Lappeenranta, Finland
Kari Heimonen
Professor
University of Jyväskylä
Jyväskylä, Finland

Rauno Huttunen
Associate Professor
University of Eastern Finland
Tomi J. Kallio
Ph.D, Professor
Turku School of Economics
Pori University ConsortiumPori, Finland
Tarja Ketola
Ph.D, Adjunct Professor
University of Turku
Turku, Finland
Mari Kooskora
Ph.D, Associate Professor
Estonian Business
SchoolTallinn, Estonia
Venkat R. Krishnan
Ph.D, Professor
Great Lakes Institute ofManagement
Chennai, India

Merja Lähdesmäki
Ph.D
University of Helsinki,
Ruralia InstituteHelsinki, Finland
Anna-Maija Lämsä
Professor
University of Jyväskylä
Jyväskylä, Finland
Ari Paloviita
Ph.D., Senior Assistant
University of Jyväskylä
Jyväskylä, Finland
Raminta Pucetaite
Ph.D, Associate Professor
Vilniaus Universitates
Vilnius, Lithuania
Anna Putnova
Dr., Ph.D., MBA
Brno University of Technology
Brno, Czech Republic

Jari Syrjälä
Janina Kubka
Ph.D, Docent
Dr.Sc.
University of Jyväskylä
Gdansk University of Technology Jyväskylä, Finland
Gdansk, Poland
Outi Uusitalo
Johanna Kujala
Professor
Ph.D, Acting Professor
University of Jyväskylä
University of Tampere
Jyväskylä, Finland
Tampere, Finland
Bert van de Ven
Hanna Lehtimäki
Ph.D (Phil), MBA
Ph.D, Adjunct Professor
Tilburg University
University of Tampere
Tilburg, The Netherlands
Tampere, Finland

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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

Manuscript Submission
and Information for Authors
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Authors submitting articles for publication warrant that the work is not an infringement of any existing copyright andwill indemnify the publisher against any
breach of such warranty. For ease of dissemination and to ensure proper policing
of use, papers become the legal copyrightof the publisher unless otherwise agreed.
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Business and Economics at the Universityof Jyväskylä in Finland.
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Special issues

Emeritus Professor Tuomo Takala
Jyväskylä University School of Businessand Economics, Finlandemail: tuomo.a.takala@jyu.fi

The special issue contains papers selectedfrom• the spesific suitable conferences or• based on a certain relevant theme
The final selection is made by the Editor in Chief, with assistance from the
EJBO’s Editorial team or from Conference Editorial team. In the case of conference papers, articles have already beenreviewed for the conference and are notsubjected to additional review, unlesssubstantial changes are requested by the
Editor.

Editorial objectives

Manuscript requirements

Electronic Journal of Business Ethics
and Organization Studies EJBO aims toprovide an avenue for the presentationand discussion of topics related to ethical issues in business and organizations
worldwide. The journal publishes articles
of empirical research as well as theoretical and philosophical discussion. Innovative papers and practical applications toenhance the field of business ethics arewelcome. The journal aims to provide aninternational web-based communication
medium for all those working in the fieldof business ethics whether from academic
institutions, industry or consulting.
The important aim of the journal is toprovide an international medium which isavailable free of charge for readers. The
journal is supported by Business and Ethics Network BON, which is an officiallyregistered non-profit organization in Finland. EJBO is published by the School of

The manuscript should be submitted indouble line spacing with wide margins
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surname, initials and year of publication, title, publisher, place of publication:
Lozano, J. (2000), Ethics and Organizations. Understanding Business Ethics as a
Learning Process, Kluwer, Dordrecht.
(b) for chapter in edited booksurname, initials and year, “title", editor's surname, initials, title, publisher,place, pages: Burt, R.S. and Knez, M.
(1996), "Trust and Third-Party Gossip",in Kramer, R.M. and Tyler, T.R. (Eds.),
Trust in Organizations. Frontiers of Theory and Research, Sage, Thousand Oaks,
pp. 68-89.
(c) for articles

surname, initials, year "title", journal,
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(1993) "Varieties of postmodernism as
moments in ethics action-learning", Business Ethics Quarterly, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp.
725-33.
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EJBO,Vol. 4 No. 1. Available http://ejbo.
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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

Globally (Ir)Responsible Leadership - Viewpoints
on the Current Political Leadership Debate
EDITORIAL
Tuomo Takala (Editor-in-Chief)

Abstract

Populism and ethics

In this general article, I want
to set forth some phenomenaof contemporary politics,
and theoretical concepts anddiscussions that are connectedwith them. Relevant topics
are related to the conflicting
tendencies of the modern world.
Not least with and because of
the Ukraine crisis. This is why it
is important to bring up points
presented in the following
treatment. Following themes will
be considered: populism andethics, ideology and politics, badfaith and ideology, propaganda
and persuasion, putinism as an
ideology, Trumpian power andcharisma. In the end of the article
some conclusions will be put
forth.

Populism is a political ideology that focuses on the needs and interests of ordinary
people. It emphasizes the power of thepeople and calls for government action toaddress the concerns of the people. Populism often involves appeals to the common people, a rejection of the politicaland economic establishment, and the useof populist rhetoric to appeal to the people. Populists often support policies thatare seen as benefiting the people, such associal welfare programs, economic regulation, and protection of workers' rights.
Populists have been prominent in many
countries, including the United States,
Latin America, and Europe.
First, populist rhetoric rejects thepremise of the pursuit of truth. Various
half-truths and facts taken out of context
are fine for that, if they serve the ideological or political goals of their presenters. At the same time, it denies the uncertainty of information and the premise of
the research approach that new research
results lead to correcting our views.
Secondly, the arsenal of populist rhetoric also includes incorrect comparisons,which aim to hide the problematic natureof one's own views by appealing to seemingly "similar" other phenomena, even if
there is not sufficient commonality. The
parallel phenomenon of incorrect comparisons is the distortion of history, inwhich similar phenomena and problems
from history are applied to contemporary
politics, even if there is no sufficient basis
to prove the commonality of things.
A third typical feature is the exploitation of easy explanations. In this case, asingle characteristic of a person or evena loose connection to something "suspicious" in the past can be brought up as an
explanation for current views or actions.
It goes without saying that such explanations are usually hoax and at worst takeon the characteristics of conspiracy theories.
It can be argued that there is also green
populism, feminist populism, anarchist
populism and populism connected tovarious religions. However, it should be

Key Words: Populism,propaganda, symbolism,
charisma4

noted that the deeper we go into the true
understanding of the concept of populism, it is quite a different thing to talkabout, say, green populism and, on the
one hand, radical right-wing populism,
because the latter excludes the people ascitizens of the state, and is anti-pluralist.
For populists both on the left and on theright - everything is justified on the basis that something is done for the goodof the people. (see Lahti & Mörttinen,
2023, p.62)
Populism and ethics are two concepts
that are often discussed in relation to politics and governance. Populism is a political ideology that emphasizes the importance of the "people" and their interests,
while ethics refers to a system of moral
principles that guide human behavior.The
relationship between populism and ethics
can be complex, as populist leaders often
make claims to represent the interestsof the people while disregarding ethicalprinciples such as transparency, accountability, and respect for human rights. Populism can also be associated with a simplistic view of complex problems, which
can lead to policies that are not based on
sound evidence or ethical considerations.
However, it is also possible for populism and ethics to be compatible. Populist movements can arise from legitimate
grievances and concerns of ordinary people, and can champion ethical principles
such as social justice, equality, and theprotection of the environment. Populist
leaders can also act in ethical ways, by
upholding democratic values, promoting
transparency and accountability, and respecting the rule of law. Ultimately, therelationship between populism and ethics
depends on how these concepts are defined and applied in practice. Populism
can be a force for positive change if it isguided by ethical principles and a commitment to democratic values, but it canalso be a source of danger if it leads to theerosion of ethical standards and the concentration of power in the hands of a few.
Ideology and politics
Ideology and politics are two closely related concepts. Ideology is a set of beliefs and values that shape an individual
or group’s view of the world. Politics is
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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

the process by which a society organizes itself to make decisions, allocate resources, and settle conflicts. Ideology and politics are interrelated because the beliefs and values that make up
an individual’s or group’s ideology can influence their approach
to politics. Ideology can also shape the way a society organizes
itself and the decisions it makes. Ideology can be a major factor in the formation of political parties and the development ofpolitical actions.
As Kokko states, in terms of power and propagandistic activity, our postmodern society is in the partial transition. The
reason for the change can be attributed to the change in thesocial identity of individuals, which can be blamed on the development of information networks. The expansion of information networks of our everyday life has pushed societies towards
change, because the old socialization mechanisms with theirstrict norms do not guide people enjoying themselves in information networks in the same way as they did before. Whether
information networks create new societal social norms depends
on the openness of social communities. On the other hand, in
relation to information networks, it can be observed that digitalsociality and social networks operating in the digital dimension
are partially obscuring the theoretical definition of organizations, because social associations can be found in the Internetthat do not have any official purpose. On the other hand, power
also exists in digital social structures, but the characteristics of
those who wield power do not necessarily correlate with thosein the real world. Due to the "untamedness" of information
networks, the amount of propaganda has increased strongly insocial services on the Internet. (see Kokko, 2013)
Bad faith and ideology"Bad faith" is a Sartrean philosophical concept that refers to astate of self-deception or dishonesty in which an individual orgroup may engage. When someone is acting in bad faith, they
may be knowingly disregarding their own beliefs or values, ormisrepresenting the truth to others.
"Ideology," on the other hand, refers to a set of beliefs, values, and principles that shape an individual or group's worldview and guide their actions and decisions. Ideologies can be political, religious, social, or cultural in nature, and often involvea particular vision for society or a specific set of goals or ideals.
The relationship between bad faith and ideology is complex.
On the one hand, an ideology can provide a framework for individuals to act in good faith, with a clear sense of purpose and direction. However, ideologies can also be used to justify bad faithbehavior, such as lying, manipulation, or exploitation. For example, someone who strongly believes in a particular ideology may
engage in bad faith behavior by disregarding evidence that contradicts their beliefs, or by misrepresenting their views to others
in order to gain power or influence. Alternatively, someone may
use an ideology as a way of justifying unethical or immoral actions, such as discrimination, violence, or oppression.
Overall, while ideologies can provide a sense of direction andpurpose, they can also be used to justify bad faith behavior. It is
important for individuals to critically examine their own beliefs
and actions to ensure that they are acting in good faith and notusing ideology as a means of justifying harmful behavior. The
concept "distorted ideology" created by Jason Stanley helps tobetter understand the post-truth era. According to him, propaganda has expanded into entire erroneous worldviews that seem
natural to their supporters. This makes it possible to present andspread false information. In a distorted ideology, propaganda
is therefore a kind of meta-level manipulation from where you
5Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

can't see out (Pitkänen & Sutinen, 256). This is how you manage
to spread a lie as truth and accept it, as long as it has enough supporters who create group pressure.
Propaganda and persuasion
Propaganda and persuasion are related concepts, but they havedifferent connotations and goals. Propaganda refers to the systematic dissemination of information, ideas, or opinions, usuallywith the intention of influencing public opinion or promoting aparticular agenda. Propaganda can take many forms, including
advertisements, news reports, speeches, and social media posts.
The purpose of propaganda is to shape public perception andbehavior in a way that benefits the propagandist or the organization they represent.
Persuasion, on the other hand, is the act of convincing someone to change their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. Persuasion
can also take many forms, including logical arguments, emotional appeals, and appeals to authority. The purpose of persuasion is to change someone's mind or behavior in a way that benefits the persuader. While propaganda and persuasion both aim
to influence people's attitudes and behavior, propaganda is often
associated with manipulative or deceptive tactics, while persuasion is often seen as a legitimate means of communication.
Propaganda can be used to promote harmful or unethical agendas, while persuasion can be used to promote positive change
and encourage people to take action for the greater good. In
summary, propaganda and persuasion are both powerful toolsof communication, but they differ in their goals, methods, andethical implications.
For example, Kivijärvi and Takala (2022) study focuses on the
stigmatization in media discourse and the impression management tactics used by the presidential candidate to resist stigma.
The analysis builds on Steyrer’s Impression continuum of leadership and contributes to our understanding of how the social construction of some populist leaders takes place at the continuous
bordering between charisma and stigma. The results highlight
how religion, radical nationalism and erosion of authoritativeness are used as the main sources for attributing stigma. These
are resisted through moral argumentation and strong leadership.
The modern study of propaganda came about after World War
I and led the way to the social scientific study of persuasion. At
the same time the word propaganda became less used and was
replaced by the words such as communication, information, andpersuasion because they imply no value judgement and tend toembrace the development of new communication technologies
as well as the “intricate perplexities inherent in developing societies and international diplomacy” (see Jowett and O’Donnell,p.35). Propaganda is a form of communication and can, therefore, be depicted as a process. A model of propaganda process
therefore includes the sociohistorical context; a cultural rim
made up of government, economy, events, ideology and mythsof society; the propaganda institution, the propaganda agents,
media methods, the social network; and the public. Generalisations about propaganda in modern society are based also on theseveral events and concepts. (ibid p. 262).
In Italy, there has been some populistic movements during
this decade. In the autumn of 2023, the populist Giorgia Meloni's government will practice conservative right-wing politics.
For example, it has cut social benefits, toughened penalties andtightened the asylum policy. Recently, Meloni's release has become more institutional after he came to power. But it's aboutcommunication, the values have remained unchanged. At theheart of Meloni's politics is the defense of traditional family values. He raises child allowances and speaks loudly in favor of a
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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

higher birth rate. Italy is threatened by a population crisis: thepopulation is aging rapidly and the number of children born lastyear was the lowest in Matali's measurement history, i.e. since
1861.
Hamas attacked Israel in October 2023 and while some of theblame is placed on Israel, it does not explain the state's complete
dysfunction. Israeli historian Noah Harari states that history is
not a morality play. The real explanation for Israel's failure ispopulism rather than any alleged moral lapse. Harari continues
that for years Israel has been ruled by a populist leader, Benjamin Netanyahu, who is a communication genius but an incompetent prime minister. Time and time again, he has put his
own interests before the national interest and built his career
on dividing the nation in two. He has appointed people to key
positions based on their loyalty rather than competence, taking
credit for every step forward but never responsibility for failure.
Putinism as an Ideology and using of propaganda
Putinism" is a term used to describe the political system andideology associated with president Putin. It is not a well-definedideology with a specific set of principles or beliefs, but rather
a collection of ideas and policies that are often associated with
Putin's leadership style and worldview. Some of the key featuresof Putinism include:
•

•

•

•

•

Centralized power: Putinism is characterized by a highly
centralized system of governance, with Putin as the ultimate authority. Power is concentrated in the hands of thepresident and his close associates, who have significant control over the political, economic, and social spheres of Russian life.
Nationalism: Putinism emphasizes the importance of Russian national identity and promotes a strong sense of patriotism among the Russian people. This includes a focus on
Russian history, culture, and traditions, as well as a commitment to defending Russian interests both at home andabroad.
Anti-Westernism: Putinism is seen to be very critical toward Western liberal democracy and its perceived culturaland moral decay. Putin and his supporters have frequently
portrayed Russia as a bulwark against Western influence andas a defender of traditional values.
Authoritarianism: Putinism is characterized by a strong authoritarian streak, with little tolerance for dissent or opposition. Critics argue that Putin's regime has limited civil
liberties, curtailed press freedom, and suppressed political
opposition in order to maintain its grip on power.
Economic nationalism: Putinism emphasizes economic
self-sufficiency and the importance of protecting Russianindustries from foreign competition. This has often involved government intervention in the economy, including
state ownership of key industries and the use of protectionist policies to shield Russian companies from international
competition.

Overall, Putinism can be seen as a hybrid of various political ideologies, including nationalism, authoritarianism, and populism.
While it has been successful in maintaining Putin's grip on power, critics argue that it has come at the cost of democratic norms
and human rights in Russia. In the autumn 2023, Russia hasestablished a new political propaganda project. Russia has started a new history teaching -lesson that has been changed to suit
the Kremlin at all school levels. A new historian learning book
6Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

was also introduced in elementary schools in the fall. According
to the researchers, the key to everything is to get through the
Kremlin and Putin's world of thought. Putin is rewriting history to serve his power. According to researchers, Russia's new
subject is not based on science. We must notice and emphasizethat the new subject does not mean that the Russian leadershipis now creating a new ideology of Putinism. Of course, Putin's
personality and world of thought are influential, but Putin is nota theoretician or a philosopher.
In Russia, we can talk about a super-presidential system,
which has been shaped into a fairly stylish dictatorship under
Putin, says political researcher Lassila. Putin can be assumed to
be spinning in historical geopolitical delusions, as it were, andthus does not have the same concern and pressure created bypolitical responsibility that democratic heads of state have. In
Russia, the president exercises absolute supreme power, where,
unlike in democracies, there is practically no mechanism to control the actions of the head of state. Putin wants to order evensmall administrative actions. According to researcher, Korkeila,
the reason for the need for micromanagement is that, from thepoint of view of the people and the administration, the "all-powerful person" is a great savior for the people and, along with his
own efforts. He is also pushed into position of excessive power,
where small things flow upwards, even though power is nominally given to subordinates. However, with dictators, the concrete fear of death is constantly present. Authoritarian systems
are inherently more inefficient because a huge amount of political energy has to be used to stay in power and protect one's own
position.
Indeed, Russian system also has a totalitarian component. Anda totalitarian regime needs the mobilization of its subjects. So it
is no longer enough for everyone to be passive. That's why the
Kremlin is also targeting children and young people with the
propaganda it accelerates. The Russian leadership explains that
it is fighting a defensive battle for Russia's existence against theWest and presents the war as something that will purify andbenefit Russia.
For example, Professor Kangaspuro has put forth that Russia has begun to speak harshly about Finland and Finns. Finland
is no longer a friendly neighbor whose citizens you can get toknow. Russian propaganda now brings out negative news anddark aspects of history from Finland. For example, the Russians
are told how during the Continuation War the Finns held concentration camps in Eastern Karelia and engaged in systematic
torture. However, it could be that the propaganda will not immediately sink in with Russians. It will take time before Russians'
image of Finns changes. In Russia, people have so many personal
foundations, at least among the Russians in the surrounding areas. Propaganda hardly takes root there very quickly. Russians
have had the opportunity to form an image of Finns when they
have visited Finland on a cabin trip or shopping. Professor Kangaspuro thinks that when time passes, people's personal connections are broken and the formation of a vision of Finland is lacking, one-sided propaganda will gain ground. The touch surface
is getting thinner, there is no counter-information or counterpropaganda. Misinformation has a more fertile ground to grip
people's minds. It is often quite humane for people to think that
if something drastic is claimed, there must be some basis for it.
They don't turn us, Finnish people, into monsters very easily intheir propaganda and hopefully the war will end before it happens. There are many supporting continuities that work against
it in people's everyday consciousness.
Charisma and power – Trump in the spotlight
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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

Charisma and power are two different qualities. Charisma is
the ability to influence and inspire others through an attractive
personality, while power is the ability to gain control or influence over people or situations. Charisma is an intangible quality,
while power is a tangible one. Charisma is often seen as a morepositive trait, while power can be seen as a more negative one.
Ultimately, both charisma and power can be used for good or
bad ends, depending on the individual and their intention.
Charismatic leadership has an emotional influence that populism uses in its own ideology. It creates its own "truths" andvalues. Our forthcoming study will find out what is President
Trump's leadership like as the most influential leader in (during his presidential period) in the USA and the whole world in
the light of the charisma study. How do populism and charisma
connect together in populist Trumpian leadership? How does
the truth transform into a product of the post-truth era, i.e.
into opinions? As Plato said, "knowledge is not a belief, it is atrue belief", an opinion is not the truth, even though the current social information society wants to convince us that this is
the case. Twitter truth is a product of the post-truth era, which
e.g. Trump strongly exploits. What is the relationship between
charisma and populism? The assumption is a dialectical interaction, where one force accelerates the other, and this is how weprogress dialectically through collisions and confrontations towards a new post truth future and the dystopia of the 2020s. The
empirical research material (research material) of the study willconsist of articles dealing with populism and charisma publishedin Helsingin Sanomat from 2010-2020. In particular, it delves
into Donald Trump's populism, power and charisma. In the
study, he represents a case example, on the basis of which thedialectical path of progress from a rascal to a ruler is illustrated.
Now it could be the time for US President Joe Biden – andthe world. The time is now, in the spring of 2024, over 200 days
until the next US presidential election. They can return Donald
Trump to the White House, whom a clear majority of Republicans, according to polls, want as their party's presidential candidate.Trump's possible return is awaited with fear in many places,
as his previous presidency was a stormy period that ended withthe president's supporters trying to prevent the change of powerwith a violent takeover of Congress. Democratic President Joe
Biden has not been able to unite a divided nation, although he
has managed to repair some of the damage caused by the Trump
era.The United States has once again taken its place as the leaderof the free world. This would be threatened if Trump made acomeback.
Trump claimed some time ago that he could force Russia andUkraine into a deal that would end Russia's war of aggression
in one day. Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyi publicly
wondered why Trump did not carry out his stunt as president,
if it is once so excellent. Russia certainly hopes for Trump's victory.
Trumpian charisma. "Trumpian charisma" refers to theunique style of charisma exhibited by former U.S. President
Donald Trump. It is characterized by his flamboyant personality,
outspokenness, and a penchant for speaking his mind. Trump's
charisma is also often associated with his ability to connect withhis base of supporters and his use of simple, direct language that
resonates with his audience. While some people find Trump's
charisma compelling and inspiring, others find it polarizing oreven off-putting. Regardless of one's personal opinion of Trump,his style of charisma has been a subject of much discussion andanalysis, particularly in the political and media spheres.
The Republican National Convention is in July 2024 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.The Democratic National Convention will
7

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

be held in August in Chicago, Illinois.The meetings are supposed
to choose the parties' presidential candidates.This option has the
feel of a reoccurring disaster. Trump was elected as the Republican candidate for president in November 2016. He lost the next
election four years later to Democrat Joe Biden. Next summer
it will be known whether the same men will face each otheragain in the elections in November 2024.
In the summer of August 2023, Trump was charged with four
counts related to his activities after the 2020 presidential election. Trump, who was representing the Republicans at the time,
lost to the Democratic candidate Joe Biden. After the election,
however, Trump did not accept the legal result of the election.
According to the indictment, the new charges concern conspiring to violate citizens' rights and defrauding the federal government by attempting to overturn the election result, as well as
obstructing the investigation and attempts to obstruct it. On
Thursday (August 3),Trump was charged with conspiracy to defraud the United States, conspiracy to obstruct official proceedings, and attempting to obstruct official proceedings. Trump
was also charged with conspiracy. Trump is accused of trying
to influence the outcome of the 2020 presidential election, in
total there are 13 charges against the former president. Trump
was ordered to Bail $200,000 and a historic arrest photo wasalso taken of him. No US president has ever been arrested before. Former US President Donald Trump surrendered to theauthorities at the Fulton County Jail in Atlanta, Georgia, early
Friday (August 25) Finnish time. Trump arrived at the prison
after half past two on Friday morning and left the place a little
before three in the morning.
The following information is revealed by the image measurement of the NORC research institute operating in connection
with the news agency AP and the University of Chicago at theend of August 2023.The survey asked respondents to say the firstword that comes to mind about the main candidates. The survey
does not give a flattering image of either candidate. When Biden
is associated with old age, Trump is associated with crime. For
Trump, almost a quarter of the respondents mentioned words
related to corruption, crimes, lying and unreliability.
The committee of the House of Representatives that investigated the attack on the US Capitol in January 2021 has published its long-awaited final report. The report is more than 800
pages long and sums up an investigation that lasted more than 18
months, during which the committee, among other things, conducted more than a thousand interviews. In the report, which is
divided into eight parts, it is estimated that the former presidentof the country, Donald Trump, is primarily responsible for theviolence in the Congress building.
In the autumn 2023 Trump’s supporters' power only getsstronger. The accusations against Trump have not reduced theformer president's support, let alone made supporters backdown. Trump’s support has become stronger. This reminds
some kind of a cult and a religious leader. In their own thinking,people associate all relevant matters with him and refuse to seeanything else. We can speculate that the more serious questionis in what way the US political system re-produces political consciousness. Because of many causes no one has a good answer,
but it seems that politics has become not only mud wrestling,
but also show wrestling. So Americans are a struggle in politics,
but don't connect with it themselves or react to it as passionately
as they should.
Francoise Heisbourg is a respected French security and defense policy expert and adviser. Trump's re-election as president is a realistic risk, says Heisbourg. The result of the 2024
US presidential election will affect the security of Europeans
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in a way that is difficult to predict. Trump has promised to end
the Ukraine war in 24 hours if he is elected. This week, Zelenskyi demanded that Trump reveal his plans immediately. Donald
Trump, who is overwhelmingly leading the Republican polls,
has been horrified by how much military aid the country has
already given to Ukraine: "We don't have ammunition for ourselves." However, Ukraine's support has both Biden's and the
Senate majority's support, but next year the presidential election at the end can shake up the situation. Among the Republican candidates, it has already been commented that Ukraine's
funding would be better used "in the attack on our own southern border".
Struggle for symbolic power
One central device presented in political theory is the using ofsymbols. New York artist Scott LoBaido's latest visual art work
has been signed by Donald Trump himself. The painting is called
Furious Animals. In the painting Donkeys represent Democrats
and rhinoceroses represent Republicans who are not in the sameside with Democrats. Like rabid animals, they try to bring thisman down, but he doesn't give up, LoBaido describes to MTV
News, in his art studio on Staten Island. The painting imitates
the famous photograph from World War II, where American soldiers raise the American flag during the battle of Iwo Jima. In
LoBaido's work, the flag is raised by Trump.
As Pekonen states, from the viewpoint briefly sketched above
we can say that one central feature in the modern politics is the
struggle for symbolic power with whose and with what kinds ofsymbols reality is determined at each time. The struggle overwhose symbolic definition of a situation will prevail is often thesymbolic battle in a political conflict and a critical determinantof its outcome. We may say that modern democracy differs fromearlier political systems in that nowadays the political systempresupposes and leans on the concept of legitimacy perhaps morethan ever before – remembering that this legitimacy in a way
presupposes and come from talk and from also e.g visual artifacts. We must notice that the symbol is not only a reflection ofreality, it also “refracts and structures; symbolization is always
more than a process of naming. Symbol is both a cultural andsubjective effort to make reality understandable and significant by defining that reality. On the other hand symbol may bea mean in a political process. Here symbol may be a mean in
making sensible that is not yet known; symbol may tell about“some other reality”; a symbol may be a vehicle in aiming at
some new. When the symbol is the vehicle something new, it
has also its own “symbolical mode”. Political symbols, and especially their potential for manipulation, are more evident intransitional or crisis periods than in periods of relative peace.
(see Pekonen,1987).
Conclusions
Charismatic leaders have the power and the ability to manipulate
and misguide people. To prevent this misbehaving, it is important to promote processes of transformative ethical leadership.
Thus, commitment, value-congruence, and communality are in
the play a key positions. Charismatic leaders could be weak persons with destructive narcissist power. Good management andleadership are also central factors influencing these processes.
Destructive and narcissistic leaders are, on the other hand, nega-

8Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

tive dark forces causing damage and harm in organizations. It
may be that the acceptance of authoritarianism and submission
to it, is a permanent characteristic of human nature, and theemergence of tyranny requires a certain kind of social upheaval.
In conclusion, I would like to set forth in this general article
several elements, or phenomena, which prevail in political action and on the other hand also create and renew our commonsocial reality as concepts. Political movements, mass movements
and official political parties have become increasingly active inthe 2020s. It may be that the acceptance of authoritarianism andsubmission to it is a permanent characteristic of human nature,and the emergence of tyranny requires a certain kind of social
upheaval. Major political events, such as the war in Ukraine,
have created new phenomena to be studied, such as information
warfare, widespread influence of opinion, and the diversification of war. War is no longer a battle on the front lines, but war
permeates the whole society. It is present everywhere. Rhetorics, fake news, propaganda and post-truth argumentation are
an integral part of information transmission especially in war
societies. This is why it is important to reveal and study these
phenomena also in academic research, which has traditionally
strived for genuine truthfulness.
What could be the solution? For example, Niemi and Houni(2018, p.284) present as the solution the so-called negotiation
journalism. Here, the focus is not on opposing populism, but on
producing publicity that does not feed populistic claims about
understanding the people and manipulating the elite media. The
means are clarifying the tension, listening and maintaining trust.
Different types of media react differently to populist rhetoric.
The meanings attached to populism create a division between
the popular and the daily press, the entertaining afternoon press
believes in populism as the "voice of the people" and the daily
papers, in turn, emphasize populism as a threat to democracy.
ost-truth argumentation are an integral part of informationtransmission especially in war societies. This is why it is important to reveal and study these phenomena also in academic research, which has traditionally strived for genuine truthfulness.
I agree with Delanty (2023) when he put forth that the focusof academic analysis must be different compared with old: toward more global issues, and I will add the study of wars, in thislist. One of the major changes is that the old socio-political theory that dominated in the 1970s was very western. The Frankfurt School tradition for example, which as Delanty said was
his chief inspiration, was extremely Euroentric in its concerns,
with almost no concern whatsoever with questions relating tocolonialism. Habermas’s major reconstruction of critical theory
in the Theory of Communicative Action was exclusively concerned with problems in western societies. This is also the casewith regard to the work of Bourdieu and Foucault. The concern with New Social Movements and political emancipationin Habermas and other theorists was conceived entirely fromthe perspective of the post-industrial societies of the westernworld. Then, there is the absence of any adequate theorizationof nature, at least nothing that is in anyway relevant to current
issues. It is true of course that Foucault brought about a massive transformation in theory, right across the social and human sciences concerning how we think about power, the selfand history. Foucault' s work opened new visions beyond thelimits of western history, even if that was his own preoccupation, as reflected in post-politics and post-colonialism. (see Social theory: Legacies and future directions – An interview with
Gerard Delanty.)

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References
Delanty, G., Chernilo, I. by D., & Mascareño, A. (2023). Social
theory: Legacies and future directions – An interview with
Gerard Delanty. European Journal of Social Theory, 26(3),408-423.
Jowett, G. & O’ Donnell, V.. (1992). Propaganda and persuasion.
Sage.
Kivijärvi, M., & Takala, T. (2020). (De)Stigmatization of Political
Leadership : The Case of a Right-Wing Populist Presidential
Candidate in the Finnish Media. Open Journal of Political
Science, 10(3), 428-447.
Kokko, T (2013), Organisaatio, propaganda ja valta- käsitteiden pyhä kolminaisuus. Jyväskylän yliopisto.

Kauppakorkeakoulu. Pro gradu tutkielma.
Lahti, Y. & Mörttinen, M. (2023). Anatomy of Populism. Into
Publishing. Helsinki.
Pekonen, K. (1987). Symbols and Politics as culture in themodern situation. University of Jyväskylä. Department of
Political Science. Publications. No 53.
Pitkänen, S. & Sutinen, V. (2018). History of Propaganda. Into
Publishing. Riga Helsinki.
Niemi, M. & Houni, T. (2018). Media & Populism. Vastapaino
Tampere.
Takala, T. (2010). Dark Leadership, Charisma and Trust.
Psychology, 1, 59-63.

Kirjoittaja
Emeritus Professor Tuomo Takala is a Doctor of Business Economics (1991), Philosophy (2012) and Sociology (2013). He has been acted
long time as a Professor in charge of Management and Leadership discipline and has also had several administrative duties, e.g. Vice
Dean of the faculty (2001-2003) and Dean of the Faculty (2003-2004) in the University of Jyväskylä, School of Business and Economics.
His research areas include Responsible Business & Administration, Leadership & Narratives and Charismatic Leadership.
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Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

Societal Impact: Beyond Frameworks
Elizabeth J. Rozell
Haywood Spangler

Abstract
Our research maps the quickly
evolving discourse regarding
how organizations (corporate,
non-profit, and governmental)
should define human andenvironmental impacts andmetrics used to assess impact.
Our approach is crossdisciplinary, examining empirical
work from social scientificscholars and practitioners.
Likewise, the sources wereviewed are multinational andmulticultural. We identify fivecategories of societal impact
frameworks currently in use:human rights-based frameworks,
environment/climate changebased, hybrid frameworks,
business-centric frameworks, andframeworks specifically designed
to assess the societal impactof research. We nonethelessoffer two recommendations.
First, we make a meta-ethicalclaim that two principles arecommon to the five categories
of frameworks. The principles
are: 1) support and advancehuman rights and 2) attend
to environmental issues. By
articulating underlying principles,
we suggest shifting how societal
impact may be defined. Rather
than define societal impact using
a framework, which our research
identifies as the most common
approach among empiricalsources, we suggest that societal
impact may be defined interms of principles underlying
multiple frameworks. Second, werecommend praxis, describing amethod for designing metrics that
may be associated with multiple
frameworks.
10

Key Words: Societal impact,
frameworks, human rights,
environmental issues

Introduction
Practitioner and academic discourse regarding organizations’ societal impacts
occurs in a broader context, which includes an emerging new theory of the
firm. For example, 36 U.S. states now
have a particular category of corporation, the Benefit Corporation. Investors
in benefit corporations agree that managers should sometimes subordinate profit
maximization to maximizing some othersocial good (or minimizing harm).
This broader context involves exploring meta-questions, such as whether thefirm functions as an individual, with anindividual's negative and positive duties (beyond profit maximization). This
broader context involves rethinking theformulas of classical economics, such as
the ways economists measure growth andprogress. While answers to such questions will inform the decisions organizations make, exploring these topics is beyond the scope of our current research.
We organized this paper around thefollowing research strategy: review andanalysis of primary and secondary scholarly sources; and review and analysis ofpractitioner sources, i.e., think tanks
and non-governmental organizations(NGOs). Our research found that approaches to defining organizations’ societal impact are often praxis-oriented,
taking the form of a framework, i.e., aspecific plan to create societal impact.
Such frameworks may focus on how anorganization’s work affects people (physical well-being, exercise of rights), the environment, or both.
A particular framework may also articulate the metrics an organization should
employ to measure its progress in achieving specific societal impacts. Metrics may
be used within the organization to adjust
the framework and externally to provide
relevant stakeholders with information.
To be sure, some frameworks are
more mature than others, meaning someframeworks are developed to a greater
degree of specificity than others. In ourestimation, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals are the mostcomprehensive and mature framework.
Nonetheless, even a cursory internet
search for definitions of societal impact
yields references to other frameworks,
often represented by the acronyms ESG
and CSR. References to these framehttp://ejbo.jyu.fi/

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works similarly circulate widely in academic and practitioner
literature related to societal impact.
Recognizing the differences between SDG, ESG, and CSR canbe helpful. SDG refers to the specific societal impact framework
developed by the United Nations.The UN’s SDGs are ultimately
grounded in the UN’s 1947 Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.
While SDG refers to the UN’s specific framework, the definition of “sustainable” is evolving. A decade ago, “sustainable” explicitly referred to addressing the impact of an industry on theenvironment, e.g., reducing a firm’s carbon footprint. Increasingly, “sustainable” refers to an industry or specific organization’s human and environmental impacts. This shift has occurredbecause efforts to reduce ecological effects have sometimes
created negative human impacts, e.g., building a more environmentally friendly factory may have displaced a village of several
hundred farmers, who are then deprived of a livelihood and are
reduced to poverty. (Diez-Spelz and Ramirez-Garcia, 2022, pp.
77-98)
In contrast to SDG, ESG and CSR do not refer to a single
specific framework. ESG essentially refers to three variables –environment, society, and governance – that businesses should(and increasingly, legally must) consider when creating a societal
impact strategy and implementation plan. In the literature, several different frameworks may be labeled “ESG.” (Esposito andAntonucci, 2022, pp. 609-619)
De facto, a particular ESG framework developed by a company might have goals similar to the UN SDG goals. De jure,
however, the ESG acronym de-links societal impact from theUnited Nations and the UN’s specific focus on protecting andpromoting universal human rights. The business-centric frameworks we identified in the academic literature (described below)
are each a particular articulation of an ESG framework. Theseframeworks, rhetorically at least, continue to assert maximizing
stakeholder value as of primary importance, with protecting human rights and the environment in service of this ultimate good.
Like ESG, CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) does notrefer to a specific framework. In the literature, several different frameworks may be labeled “CSR.” Frameworks labeled
CSR are generally based on the idea that firms, like individuals,
have a social responsibility. The debate about the validity of thisidea continues in academic literature. In the past 40 years, many
companies have developed a strategy for conducting themselves
responsibly (although definitions of what actions qualify as socially responsible vary widely).
In general, we found that ESG frameworks endeavor to create a more systemic societal impact than frameworks labeled
CSR. For example, an organization might require employees
to volunteer at a food pantry as a CSR initiative. In contrast,
a company’s ESG framework might articulate the way that thecompany can reduce food dependence or hunger so that there
are fewer socio-economic situations requiring food pantries. In
simplest terms, CSR initiatives are often about “giving back,” essentially supporting the status quo. In contrast, ESG frameworks
are oriented to create systemic changes, addressing long-term
economic and/or environmental challenges.
As of the writing of this paper, some practitioner sources are
moving away from the ESG label because it may not provide
enough distance from the social and political ideologies sometimes attributed to the UN’s SDGs. Due to the fluidity among(and reaction to) the definitions and usages of the terms ESG,
CSR, framework, and ranking, we propose defining societal impact in terms of underlying principles common to all iterationsof frameworks we found.
11Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

Findings from Primary and Secondary Scholarly
Sources
By analyzing the theoretical underpinnings of the various frameworks, we identified among scholarly and practitioner sources,
we identified five categories: human rights-based, environment/climate change-based, business-centric, hybrids of human rights, and environment/climate change-based, and specifically focused on business school research. Human rights-based
frameworks (Table 1, p. 12) tend to define societal impact asefforts and initiatives that advance human rights (typically rights
as defined by the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, although a specific source may not necessarily referdirectly to the UN declaration). Environment/climate changebased frameworks (Table 2, p. 12) tend to define societal impact as efforts and initiatives that address climate change andreduce or eliminate other forms of environmental degradation.
Other concerns, such as protecting human rights, are subordinated to preserving the environment and seeking to manage
climate change. Hybrid frameworks (Table 3, p. 13) place equal
emphasis on protecting and promoting human rights, managing climate change, and reducing or eliminating other forms ofenvironmental degradation. Business-centric Frameworks (Table 4, p. 14) tend to define societal impact as initiatives that
advance the interests of businesses and, in some cases, free enterprise more generally. These frameworks often take a broad
view of business interests, employing a stakeholder rather thana stockholder theory of the firm. In these frameworks, otherconcerns, such as protecting the environment and human rights,
are subordinated to safeguarding business interests. However,specific sources argue that protecting the interests of businesses
also protects human rights and the environment. An unexpected
finding is the fifth category of frameworks: frameworks specifically designed to assess the societal impact of business school
research (Table 5, pp. 14-15). Our research reveals there is currently a robust scholarly discussion related to the methods business schools should use to determine the value of research inachieving societal impact. (Siguroarson, 2019, 71-78)
The scholarly sources we reviewed did not include metrics
and often expressly indicated they could not because a specificorganization's interests often drive the performance measurement structure.
Practitioner Sources
We examined two types of practitioner sources: think tanks andnon-governmental organizations (see tables 6-10, pp. 15-18).
We analyzed the research priorities and publications of 50 globally influential think tanks. We identified think tanks by crossreferencing three sources: The University of Pennsylvania Library’s Global Think Tank Index, the Wellesley College Career
Education Center Think Tank Index, and The London School of
Economics Think Tank Index.
Although think tanks produce publications, their work differs
fundamentally from academic sources. Think tanks tend to publish responses to current political or economic situations. Theirpublications appear similar to "Op-Eds" when compared withscholarly sources. Think tanks also produce data, e.g., unemployment rates in a given region, for use by policymakers. Many
think tanks explicitly state that their mission is to provide data
supporting policymakers' work, but not to advocate for specificpolicies (such as a particular framework). Therefore, our reviewof think tank research and publications did not provide societal
impact frameworks, as did the academic literature review.
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Human Rights-based Frameworks
These frameworks focus on the severity and magnitude of the challenges to global human rights. Although some are quite
comprehensive (e.g. SDGs), other frameworks are more narrow in scope (e.g. TEFCE Toolbox).
Framework
United Nations Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs)

PurposeReference (selection)

The Sustainable Development Goals
https://sdgs.un.org/goals
or Global Goals are a collection of 17
interlinked global goals designed to be a"shared blueprint for peace and prosperity
for people and the planet, now and into
the future".

The European Framework for Community TEFCE Toolbox is a reference tool toEngagement in Higher Education (TEFCE) understand the dimension of community
engagement in a university context. It isa framework for universities to determine
how well they perform according to eachdimension and where they can improve.

Farnell & Culum Ilic, 2021

Social Quality Configuration of
Ontological, Epistemological andProcedural Frameworks

Economic development (including
ending extreme poverty), social inclusion,
environmental sustainability, and good
governance (including security).

Nijhuis, van der Maesen, 2021

Framework for Civil Rights, Environmental
Justice, and Health Equity

To promote equal access to publicly
funded resources and prohibit
discrimination based on race, color,
national origin, income, gender, disability,
and other factors.

Garcia et al, 2018

		
Table 1. Human Rights-based Frameworks.

Environment/Climate Change-based Frameworks
These frameworks provide a conceptualization for an organized exploration of environmental/ecological issues. Theoreticalunderpinnings can be found in decision theory, game theory, systems science, and sustainability science.
Framework

PurposeReference (selection)

Driver, Pressure, State, Impact, Response(DPSIR)

Develop an improved understanding of,indicators for, and appropriate responses
to impacts of human activities on theenvironment along with casual chain
drivers-pressure-state-impact-response.

Carr et al. 2007, Svarstad et al. 2008,
Binder et al, 2013

Earth Systems Analysis (ESA)

Focus on the global interactions in anddynamics of the earth system as well as
its sustainable evolutions.

Schellnhuber 1998, 1999, Schellnhuber et
al. 2005, Binder et al, 2013

Ecosystem Services (ES)Analyzes the integral, dynamic, andcomplex interactions of biotic and abiotic
components of an ecosystem concerning
the supply of services this systemprovides to support life on Earth.

Costanza et al. 1997, Daily 1997, de Grootet al 2002, Limburg et al. 2002, Binder etal, 2013

Material and Energy Flow Analysis(MEFA)

Analyzes the metabolic profiles ofsocieties. Analyzes the material andenergy flows as representing themetabolism of a society, region, or nation.

Ayres 1978, Baccini and Bader 1996,
Haberl et al. 2004, Brunner andRechberger 2005; Binder et al, 2013

Management and Transition Framework(MTF)

Focus on understanding water systems,
management regimes, and transition
process toward more adaptive
management; enable comparative
analyses of diverse case studies; andfacilitate the development of simulation
models based on empirical evidence.

Pahl-Wostl 2009, Knieper et al. 2010, PahlWostl and Kranz 2010; Binder et al, 2013

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD
Guidelines for Multinational EnterprisesPSR framework)

Provides an overview of the pressures
Tapio & Willamo, 2008of human activities on the environment,
the state of the environment and natural
resources, and the responses of economicand environmental agents to the state of
the environment.

Table 2. Environment/Climate Change-based Frameworks.

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Hybrid Frameworks
Perhaps the largest group of frameworks, most incorporate both environmental and human rights themes. Few frameworks arelaser focused and most intertwine aspects from a sustainability and vulnerability perspective.
Framework

PurposeReference (selection)

Social-Ecological Systems Framework(SESF)

Provide a common language for casecomparison for organizing the many
variables relevant in the analysis of
SES into a multitier hierarchy that canbe unfolded when needed and forfacilitating the selection of variables in acase study.

Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA)

Analyze which combination of livelihood Ashley and Carney 1999, Scoones 1998
assets enables the following of what
combination of livelihood strategies withsustainable outcomes.

The Natural Step (TNS)

Provides a framework for planning
Burns and Katz 1997, Robèrt 2000, Upham
toward sustainability based on
2000, Missimer et al. 2010
constitutional principles (how thesystem is constituted), outcomes(principles for sustainability), andprocesses to reach this outcome(principles for sustainable development).

Vulnerability Framework (TVUL)

Analyzes who and what are vulnerable
to multiple environmental and humanchanges and what can be done to
reduce these vulnerabilities.

Turner et al 2003a,b

Human Environment Systems
Framework (HES)

Provide a methodological guide or
template for analyzing the structureof social-ecological systems andunderstanding the processes anddynamics between the social andecological systems and with different
scales of the social system.

Scholz and Binder 2004, Scholz et al. 2011aFramework for Sustainable Finance

Incorporates interactions between theeconomy (financial return and risk), andthe impact on society-environmental
factors.

Schoenmaker, 2017

Global Environment Outlook (GEO-4)

Encourages the understanding ofinteractions between human society
and the environment across scales andover time.

Bakkes et al, 2022

Citizen Science Evaluation Framework

Examines three core dimensions:scientific, participant, and socioecological and economic.

Kieslinger etal, 2018

Global Reporting Initiative (GRI
Sustainability Reporting Standards)

The GRI Standards allow an organization https://www.globalreporting.org/
to report information that covers all
its most significant impacts on theeconomy, environment, and people or
to focus only on specific topics, suchas climate change or child labor. GRI
recommends reporting under the GRI
Standards.

The International Integrated Reporting
Council (IIRC International Framework)

Established guiding principles andidentified capitals by the IIRC: financial
capital, manufactured capital, intellectual
capital, human capital, social andrelationship capital, and natural capital.
Together they represent stores of valuethat are the basis of an organization'svalue creation.

Ostrom 2007, 2009https://www.integratedreporting.
org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/
InternationalIntegratedReportingFramework.
pdf

Table 3. Hybrid Frameworks.

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Business-centric Frameworks
Theoretical underpinnings can be found in ESG principles where business organizations are viewed as entities that have
responsibility to the world in which they live. However, there appears to be no general agreement about its definition nor acommon method of quantifying CSR at the firm level.
Framework

PurposeReference (selection)

Business School Impact Survey (BSIS)

A tool designed to determine the extent of Shenton, 2014a school’s impact on its local environment.

Environmental, Social, and Governance(ESG) Principles

A focus on ensuring that a businessendures, with societal support, in asustainable, environmentally viable way.

Well-Being In the Nation (WIN) with
Business Framework

Outlines contributions that businesses can Well-Being In the Nation (WIN) Network,
make to the well-being of people, places, https://winnetwork.org/, Pitts et al, 2022
and equity and racial justice.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)several specific frameworks exist

Theoretical foundations in stakeholder
theory, legitimacy theory, and particular
contract theory. The responsibility ofenterprises for their impacts on society.

United Nations Global Compact(Communication on Progress)

It consists of nine principles, distilled from Ramasastry, 2015
key environmental, labor, and humanrights agreements, that businesses mustabide by. An initiative where CSR and BHR(Business and Human Rights) converge.

Framework to Study Grand Challenges

Explores the study of grand challenges
from an organizational and management
perspective.

George et al, 2016

International Organization forStandardization (ISO 26000 Guidance onsocial responsibility)

ISO 26000:2010 is intended to assist
organizations in contributing tosustainable development. The framework
encourages organizations to go beyond
legal compliance, recognizing thatcompliance with the law is a fundamental
duty of any organization and an essential
part of their social responsibility.

https://www.iso.org/iso-26000-socialresponsibility.html

Tierney, 2022

For various frameworks see Raczkowski
et al, 2016

Table 4. Business-centric Frameworks
Research Impact Frameworks
Many frameworks view research quality by its social impact. The expectation is that publically funded research deliver benefits
to the wider community rather than simply its impact on academia. These frameworks emphasize the growing interest in higher
education institutions and the role that scholars hold in creating impactful research.
Framework

PurposeReference (selection)

UK Research Excellence Framework(REF)

Three distinct elements are assessed:
the quality of outputs (e.g., publications,performances, and exhibitions), theirimpact beyond academia, and theenvironment that supports research.

https://www.ref.ac.uk/

Responsible Research in Business andManagement (RRBM) Network

Dedicated to transforming business andmanagement research toward achieving
humanity’s highest aspirations for a betterworld.

https://www.rrbm.network/

Australian Research Quality Framework(RQF)

A framework for assessing research
quality and the impact of research andensuring that public funding is being
invested in research that would deliver
real benefits to the wider community.

https://www.business.unsw.edu.au/

New Zealand Performance-Based Review
Fund (PBRF)

Designed to increase the quality of
research by encouraging and rewarding
excellent research in New Zealand’sdegree-granting organizations. It does notfund specific research projects directly
but provides bulk funding to support
an organization’s research capability,
including postgraduate-level teachingsupport.

https://www.tec.govt.nz/funding/fundingand-performance/funding/fund-finder/
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Italian Peer Review Assessment

Assesses research output, teaching,
Akbaritabar et al, 2021
administrative performance, social impact,
and university student competence.

European Performance-Based Research
Funding

Programs vary widely. Some consider
socio-economic impact or diversityrelated assessments. Both quantitativeand qualitative assessments are utilized.

Zacharewicz et al, 2019

Model of Interweaving Scholarship andPractice

Provides a conceptualization ofinterweaving scholarship and practiceand how impact can emerge.

Spencer et al, 2022

Framework for Qualitative Analysis
based on the Distinction between Three
Dimensions of Societal Impact

Examines epistemological, artefactual,and interactive-institutional dimensions.
Addresses the relevance gap in academic
research.

Miettinen et al, 2015

Responsible Innovation Complex

Expansion on RRI. Provides ananalytical model for a context-sensitive
understanding of responsible innovation.
Innovation that meets economic, social,
ethical, and environmental goals.

Jakobsen et al, 2019

An Analytical Framework and Operational
Framework for Scientific and Societal
Impact of Research

Incorporates individual, organizational,
and process-context factors to explain
distinct configurations of scientific andsocietal impacts from research.

D ’Este et al., 2018

Table 5. Research Impact Frameworks.
Think Tanks with a Human Rights Focus
The political perspectives and policy analysis areas of these think tanks vary. But, they share an emphasis on protecting andadvancing human rights, essentially as defined by the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as the ultimate objective of both
domestic and international public policies.
Think Tank

Research Emphasis

WebsiteBrookings Institution - US

Covers a wide range of specific policy
topics related to climate change,
economic development, civil liberties;
specifically support UN SDG framework

www.brookings.edu

Fundacio Getulio Vargas – Brazil

Poverty reduction

https://portal.fgv.br

Peterson Institute for International
Economics – US

Monetary policy

www.piie.com

Woodrow Wilson Center – US

Humanitarian issues, such as refugee
resettlement, healthcare, economic
impacts of globalizationwww.wilsoncenter.org

Center for American Progress – US

Racial equity, healthcare access,economic impacts of climate change

www.americanprogress.org

Konrad Adenauer Foundation – Germany

European unity, educationwww.kas.deCato Institute - US

Protecting civil liberties defined from a
www.cato.org
politically conservative perspective (liberalindividualism)

Carnegie Middle East Center

Extending Enlightenment/liberal view ofhuman rights in traditional cultures that
tend to be patriarchal

https://carnegie-mec.org

Observer Research Foundation - India

Extending Enlightenment/liberal view ofhuman rights in India

www.orfonline.org

Human Rights Watch – USInternationally, documenting politicallymotivated abuses of human rights among
vulnerable populations: migrants andasylum seekers, women, children, theelderlywww.hrw.org

African Center for Constructive Resolution Extending Enlightenment/liberal view ofof Disputes
human rights in African nations

www.accord.org.za

Barcelona Center for International Affairs

Sustainable development (does not
specifically endorse UN SDG framework)www.cidob.org

American Enterprise Institute - US

Protecting civil liberties defined from a
www.aei.org
politically conservative perspective (liberalindividualism)

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Amnesty International – Great Britain

Arms control, documenting politicallymotivated abuses of human rights,
migrants, and asylum seekers,

www.amnesty.org

German Development InstituteSpecifically embraces UN SDG framework www.idos-research.deInstitute for Economic Affairs – Ghana

Extending Enlightenment/liberal view ofhuman rights in African nations

https://ieagh.org

Imani Center for Policy & Education Ghana

Extending Enlightenment/liberal view ofhuman rights in African nations

http://imaniafrica.org

London School of Economics – Ideas
Think Tank

Specifically embrace sustainable
development as defined by the UN SDG
framework

www.lse.ac.uk

Urban Institute - US

Race relations, equal access to economic
opportunities and economic development

www.urban.org

Food Agriculture and Natural Resources
Policy Network – South Africa

Food security; managing natural
resources; environmental issues;sustainable development

http://fanrpan.org

African Economic Research Consortium- KenyaSpecifically embrace sustainable
development as defined by the UN SDG
frameworkhttps://aerafrica.org

Table 6. Think Tanks with a Human Rights Focus.
Think Tanks Focused on Environment/Climate Change
These think tanks address policy areas ranging from economic development, to healthcare access, to global security. However,they share a focus on supporting policies that prioritize addressing climate change and other environmental issues, as the keystone
for addressing other challenges, such as sustainable economic development and international security. They distinguish climatechange from other environmental issues. For example, a clothing manufacturer may pollute a water source with its dyes. This isan environment issue, which does not directly relate to climate change. Conversely, addressing climate change would not address
specific environmental issues, e.g., safely storing radioactive compounds used to treat cancers.
Think Tank

Research Emphasis

WebsiteCenter for Strategic and International
Studies - US

Environment as it relates to energy policy; www.csis.org
migration; defense

French Institute of International Relations

Climate change; human health; healthcare www.ifri.org

Council on Foreign Relations - US

Climate change; globalization; spread of
authoritarian governmentswww.cfr.org

Asian Development Bank - Japan

G-7 developing nation engagement;
economic development in developing
Asian countries that account for climatechange, and other environmental issues;sustainable food productionwww.edb.org

Kiel Institute for the World Economy Germany

International economic policy from theperspective of environmental economics

www.ifw-kiel.de

Table 7. Think Tanks with an Environment/Climate Change Focus.
Think Tanks with a Business-Centric Focus
These think tanks address policy areas ranging from economic development, to domestic and international monetary policy, tomicro- and macro-economic analysis. They share a focus on supporting policies that prioritize the success of businesses above
other concerns (e.g., human rights and environmental issues /climate change)
Think Tank

Research Emphasis

WebsiteFraser Institute - Canada

Embraces ESG framework

www.fraserinstitute.org

Korea Development Institute – Korea

Economic trend forecasting

https://kdi.re.kr

Center for Economic Policy Research - UK Embraces ESG framework

https://cepr.net

Center for European Policy Studies –Belgium

Economic development of the EU, e.g.,
regulations related to international trade,
intellectual property, regulating theinternetwww.ceps.eu

East Asia Institute – South Korea

Advancing democracy and market
economy in East Asia

www.eai.or.kr

Table 8. Think Tanks with a Business-centric Focus.

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Think Tanks with a Security Focus
None of these think tanks address societal impact as a specific policy or research area. However, their research area andpublications imply that they define societal impact as policies that promote global peace and security (e.g., reduction of conflicts
and suppression of terrorism). Their specific areas of research may include human rights/treatment of refugees, climate change,
environmental issues, and economic development, but the value of these is consistently assessed as they enhance or reduce global
security.
Think Tank

Research Emphasis

WebsiteChatham House – UK

Impact of trade imbalances, environmental www.chathamhouse.org
issues and climate change on national
security, with a focus on the UK andWestern Europe

International Institute for Strategic Studies– UK

Defense strategies; analysis of militaries,
www.iiss.org
armed conflicts, international power shifts,
the impact of changing cultures, norms,
values, alliances

RAND Corporation – USUS National Security, particularly as
impacted by energy supplies and humanhealthwww.rand.org

Japan Institute for International Affairs

International political, economic andsecurity issues such as global power
shifts, nuclear non-proliferation, regional
integration, terrorism, and energy

www.jiia.or.jp

Friedrich Ebert Foundation – Germany

Foreign affairs, economic and labor
relations, and progressive politics

http://dc.fes.de

Clingendael – The Netherlands Institutefor International Relations

Armed conflict; trade and globalization;
sustainable development; migrationwww.clingendeal.org

Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace

Security policy; nuclear nonproliferation;
Russia; economic policy

www.carnegieendowment.org

Center for International Governance
Innovation – Canada

Impact of digitalization on global security,
trade, IP laws, innovationwww.cigionline.org

Stockholm International Peace ResearchInstituteImpact of trade (real or perceived tradeimbalances) on global conflict

https://sipri.org

Danish Institute for International Studies

Armed conflicts; migration; managing
www.diis.dk
natural resources; economic development

Italian Institute for International Political
Studies

Climate change/environmental issues, asthese impact security, mainly in Western
Europehttps://ispionline.it

Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis– IndiaInternational relations, defense

www.idsa.in

Hudson Institute – US

Assessing the impact of various ideologies www.hudson.org(religiously based and secular) on global
security

Bonn International Center for Conversion– Germany

Non-violent conflict resolution researchwww.bicc.de

Atlantic Council – US

Economics, business, energy,
environment, resilience, and society

www.atlanticcouncil.org

Transparency International – Germany

Anti-corruption in finance, banking, andbusiness

www.transparancy.org

International Crisis Group – Belgium

Gather and analyze data related toongoing global conflicts

www.crisisgroup.org

Royal United Services Institute – UK

Military defense; armed conflicts

www.rusi.org

German Council on Foreign Relations

Economics, business, public
administration, military

https://dgap.org

Istituto Affari Internazionali

Defense, energy and climate, global
government and multilateralism

www.iai.it

Table 9. Think Tanks with a Security Focus.

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Think tanks, nonetheless, have underlying perspectives
and philosophies that align with the categories identified inacademic literature. Moreover, several of the most prominent
think tanks, such as Brookings and LSE’s Ideas, specifically support UN SDG goals.
Analysis of think tank research areas and publications suggests a category for defining societal responsibility not found inacademic literature. For many think tanks, societal responsibility is a question of maintaining global security (human rights
and environment/climate change are filtered through the question "What erodes or protects global security?").
The think tanks we reviewed did not publish or otherwise
recommend metrics, which aligns with their overall stated mission of providing data and informed opinions to policymakers
rather than articulating or recommending specific policies.
In addition to analyzing the work of 50 global think tanks, weanalyzed the initiatives and publications of two types of nongovernmental organizations. We identified the NGOs by crossreferencing The University of Pennsylvania Library’s index
of NGOs, the United States Library of Congress’s Research
Guide to Intergovernmental Organizations, and a list of theten most influential global NGOs maintained by the non-profit
Development Aid. NGOs identified by these sources are of two
types: 1) para-government organizations, i.e., established by acoalition of national governments; 2) independent non-profit
organizations (Table 10, p. 18).
Our analysis found that para-governmental organizations
define societal impact using a Corporate Social Responsibility
Framework. Independent non-profit organizations, several ofwhom focus on ending poverty, tend to explain societal impact
using a human-rights-based approach, although not always specifically UN SDGs.
A rich body of scholarly literature examines the relationships between NGO types and their interactions with business.
This literature is a subset of a broader discipline, Social Impact
Assessment (SIA). Researchers and scholars in this field haveformed a professional association, the International Associationof Impact Assessment (www.iaia.org).
Measuring Societal Impact
Our purpose in this section is not to specify metrics but tosuggest guidelines for creating quality societal impact metrics.
Scholars in the field of Social Impact Assessment define social
impact mainly in terms of human rights. “The SIA communityof practitioners considers that all issues that affect people, directly or indirectly, are pertinent to social impact assessment.”(Frank Vanclay, “International Principles for Social Impact Assessment,” Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, vol. 21,
Para-governmental NGOs

Independent NGOs

International Monetary Fund

BRAC International

World Bank

Doctors Without Borders

World Trade Organization

Open Society Foundations

World Health Organization

AshokaNorth Atlantic Treaty
Organization

Danish Refugee Council

European Union

Mercy Corps

African Union

JA International
Landesa

Table 10. NGOs.
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number 1, March 2003, p. 7) Such issues include “people’s wayof life, their culture, their community, their political systems,
their environment, their health and wellbeing, their personal
property rights, their fears and aspirations.” (Vanclay, 2003, p.
8)
In 2010, the European Union commissioned a study of how
member states measure societal impact. The study found,among other things, that “social IA is still in its infancy in most
European IA systems. Where it takes place at all, the assessment of social impacts is often less well developed than the assessment of economic or financial impacts.” (Study on Social
Impact Assessment, European Commission, June 2010, p. 1).
The study also found a "tension between the quantitative ambitions of most IA systems and the qualitative reality of mostsocial IAs.” The study concluded, “it is important to set realistic
expectations as to which kinds of social impacts can more easily be quantified, and for which the analysis will in most cases
have to remain qualitative, and to facilitate thorough and robust qualitative social IA for the latter.” Developing accuratesocietal impact metrics requires a robust conception of “whatconstitutes qualitative ‘analysis’ (as opposed to just a cursory
mention),” and expanding “the available evidence base throughwider and better use of stakeholder consultation.” (Study on
Societal Impact Assessment, 2010, pp. 3-4)
Since then, research regarding societal impact assessment has
evolved. The most “significant recent change in international
understandings around projects is the growing prominence ofhuman rights,” as articulated in the 2011 United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. (Frank Vanclay,“Reflections on Societal Impact Assessment in the 21st Century,” Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, vol. 38, number 2, March, 2020, p. 126; cf., J.P. Smith and L.K. Hessels,(2021). The production of scientific and societal value in research evaluation: a review of societal impact assessment methods. Oxford University Press, 30 (3), 323-25.) Nonetheless,consequences of climate change, climate change mitigation andadaptation actions for people “remain under-developed and deserve more attention.” (Vanclay, 2020, p. 128)
Given the state of social impact assessment, we propose thatreferring to guidelines developed by The Global Reporting Institute (GRI) will be helpful for institutions creating a systemof societal impact measurements. The GRI has developed aflexible, modular approach to creating metrics designed to be
implemented by many organizations. (A. Toppinen, & K. Korhonrn-Kurki, “Global Reporting Initiative and societal impact
in managing corporate responsibility: a case study of three multinationals in the forest industry,” Business Ethics: Environment
and Responsibility, 22(2), 2013, pp. 202-217.)
The GRI emphasizes that all metrics should be based on eight
principles: accuracy, balance, clarity, comparability, completeness, sustainability context, timeliness, and verifiability. (GRI
Standards, Foundation, 2021) Furthermore, it recommends
organizing measurement systems around three standard types:
Universal, Sector, and Topic.
As the name suggests, Universal Standards apply to all typesof organizations and involve “disclosures that the organization
uses to provide information about its reporting practices andother organizational details, such as its activities, governance,and policies.” (Consolidated Set of GRI Standards, 2021) Sector
Standards and Topic Standards, defined by GRI, are based on anorganization’s material topics.
The GRI articulates a four-step process an organization may
use to identify its material topics: 1) understand the organization’s context; 2) identify actual and potential impacts (positive
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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

and negative); 3) assess the significance of the impacts; 4) prioritize the most significant impacts for reporting. (GRI Standards, Material Topics, 2021).
Our proposal does not necessarily mean that all organizations conform to GRI's Sector and Topic standards. Instead, wesuggest that GRI’s method of establishing levels of standards
and allowing organizations to adopt standards based on theirmaterial topics would be helpful for organizations regarding
their measurement of societal impacts. Moreover, the eight
principles would be an effective way to ensure integrity inmeasurement and reporting.
Conclusion
Our research began with a question of praxis: how can organizations' social and environmental impacts be assessed (and possibly changed)? To answer this, we analyzed empirical scholarly
and practitioner sources from around the globe. Our research
revealed a complex landscape of terms, criteria, perspectives,and priorities. Based on our discoveries, our question became:
how can this vast discourse be mapped or systematized to provide clearer answers to praxis questions like that with which
we began?
In our subsequent effort to systematize, we turned to ethical theory as a tool. Based on our literature review, we assertthat definitions of societal impact and related frameworks weanalyzed share two general underlying principles: protecting
and advancing human rights and addressing environmental/
climate-change issues. As Giddings, Hopwood, and O’Brien(2002, p. 191) noted, “Nearly all our actions have an impact on
the environment.” Inescapably and intertwined with environmental impact is the concept of human rights.
Regardless of how societal impact is conceptualized, we argue that, at its core, the notion centers around these two underlying principles. In other words, an organization may assess
and improve its societal impact by applying two prima facie
principles: protect and advance human rights and address environmental and climate change issues. Like other pluralistic,principle-based approaches to applied ethics (e.g., biomedical
and some business ethics), we maintain that these two principles emerge from “ordinary, shared moral beliefs” found in theempirical sources we examined. (Beauchamp and Childress,
2012, p. 100)
Although there is ongoing debate among philosophers regarding the status and content of specific human rights, wefound in the empirical cross-cultural literature wide acceptance of the concept of rights as inalienable and inherent to all
humans. Moreover, our mapping of sources found that humanrights are often specified as basic standards for a life of dignity
and the notion that all humans are created equal. While there
is debate in the philosophical literature regarding the definition(and thus usefulness) of human dignity, in the social scienceand practitioner literature we examined, dignity and equality
are inescapably interconnected and scarcely controversial. Our
analysis found that other actions derived from the principle ofprotecting and promoting human rights include promoting andprotecting freedoms, respect for others, non-discrimination,and tolerance. While acknowledging that conceptions of rights
are still developing in ethical and legal thought, we want tohighlight that attending to rights is a principle that emerges
across empirical sources as a specific action guide organizations
should use to make decisions.
The other principle common to the frameworks examined
addresses environmental and climate change issues. The schol19

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

arly and practitioner sources we reviewed share that policy
mechanisms are necessary to modify human behaviors that cannegatively impact the physical environment, which ultimately has
adverse implications for humans. Indeed, Giddings et al. (2002,
p. 191) note that “human life itself depends on the environment.”
The principle of addressing environmental and climate changes
is often specified as sustainable production, protection of bothnatural resources and ecosystems, balance and synergy in humandevelopment activities and natural systems, corporate responsibility for the continued viability of biological systems, and building a knowledge base that supports a greater understanding of
the environment.
Further philosophical analysis can clarify how these two principles may be specified and balanced. As in other principle-based
approaches to applied ethics, these prima facie principles may
conflict when applied to specific cases, e.g., when a decision toprotect an ecosystem would negatively affect the rights of thepeople living in or near that ecosystem. Such analysis is crucial
but beyond the scope of our research.
Because our research began as an examination of the ways thehuman and environmental impact of organizations could be assessed, we also considered several questions relevant to leaders oforganizations, such as the evolving understanding of the purposeof the firm and the relationship between the global economy andthe two underlying principles. Further research can also explore
the relationship between economic effects and the two primaryprinciples we have presented here. The fact that the economy
directly impacts people (i.e., business profits ultimately affectindividuals’ standard of living) and the environment (i.e., firms’
decisions can significantly impact the environment) suggests a
dynamic relationship between the global economy and what we
propose as the principles of societal impact. We provide the following illustration of our conclusion (Figure 1, p. 19).
While many organizations are increasing attention to their social and environmental impact, business models, in particular,
are shifting. Indeed, our research supports the notion of creating
a balance between profit maximization and societal impact. Although profit maximization is still important, businesses realize
they do not operate in a vacuum. Instead, business entities area part of a larger global society, with impacts on the economy
leading to direct and/or indirect effects on human rights and theenvironment. Similarly, organizations are increasingly pressured
by stakeholders of businesses, governments, and non-profits toaddress various societal problems.
As our research shows, societal impact can be defined in multiple ways. Many entities use the concept of societal impact asan umbrella term to cover many types and forms of activities
that can positively impact society. Many organizations desire to

Figure 1. Factors Affecting Societal Impact.
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show their positive impact on the world around them. Being “aforce for good,” which includes human-rights-based issues andVol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

environmental matters, coupled with attention to profits, may
become the new modus operandi of tomorrow’s organizations.

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Authors
Dr. Elizabeth Rozell received her Ph.D. in Business Administration (Management) from the University of Mississippi. She is an Associate
Dean and Professor of Management at Missouri State University. She has taught Organizational Behavior at both the graduate andundergraduate levels. Her primary research and consulting interests include business ethics, international entrepreneurship, learned
helplessness, and emotional intelligence. Articles she has written have appeared in elite publications such as Personnel Psychology,
Group and Organization Studies, and the Journal of Psychology. Dr. Rozell has authored over 60 publications and received several
outstanding teaching and research awards.
Address: Missouri State University College of Business Administration 901 South National Avenue Springfield, MO 65897 USA.
E-mail: ERozell@missouristate.edu
Haywood Spangler, Ph.D., is the founder and principal of Work & Think, LLC. He is a consultant, researcher, and author. He was formerly
a biomedical ethicist at the University of Virginia Medical Center and an instructor of business ethics at the University of Virginia
McIntire School of Commerce. Dr. Spangler started his company by creating two psychometric instruments:Spangler Ethical Reasoning
Assessment® (SERA®) and Innovation Inventory®. SERA® shows individuals their preferences for six types of ethical reasoning, andInnovation Inventory® shows their tolerance for uncertainty and nonlinear thinking. Recent Work & Think clients include Bloomberg,
Morgan Stanley, The Mellon Foundation, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Institutes of Health, The
Woodrow Wilson Institute, and The United Nations Pan-American Health Organization. Before founding Work & Think, Haywood served
eight years as a chief executive officer. He holds a master’s degree, magna cum laude, from Yale University and a Ph.D. from The
University of Virginia.
Address: 1101 Skipwith Road Henrico, Virginia 23229 USA.
E-mail: haywood@workandthink.com
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Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

Tomorrow’s Physicians’ Perceptions of How
Physicians Should Be Led and Their Interest in
Pursuing Leadership Positions
Sari Huikko-Tarvainen
Timo Tuovinen
Petri Kulmala

Abstract
This qualitative study investigatedtomorrow’s physicians’ - medical
students’ - perceptions of
how physicians should be led
and their interest in pursuingleadership positions as theseissues have never been studiedin Finland. In 2020, an online
questionnaire was distributed to
final-year medical students (n= 162, response rate 110/68%).
Students’ level of interest in
working as physician leaders in
the future was also investigated.
An inductive content analysis bythematization was the chosen
method. To make leadership
successful in the medical
profession, both leadership andmanagement skills are required.
Physicians should be seen as
individuals and should be led bya trustable, reachable, innovative,and visionary physician leader
who participates in patient workin addition to leadership workwith good social, communication,and problem-solving skills as wellas common sense and emotional
intelligence. Furthermore, a good
leader ensures that physicians
can focus on their medical workwith appropriate resources inwell-functioning conditions.
Our study revealed three novel
results: (1) A good physician
leader reflects the virtues of agood physician; (2) physicians’
workload should be customized
according to factors such as
physicians’ diversity and work
23

competence; and (3) the interestin future leadership among
medical students was greatercompared to the findings ofprevious literature.
Key Words: Physician, physician
leadership, medical student,
medical education

Introduction
Leadership competence is expected to
become a great priority for physicians inmedical education as well as healthcare
settings (Lindgren and Gordon, 2016;
Rotenstein et al., 2019, 2021). Furthermore, physician engagement in healthcare leadership has been associated withimproved organizational performanceand patient care (Goodall, 2011; Sarto
and Veronesi, 2016; Tasi et al., 2019)and demonstrated to have a positive impact on workforce and patient outcomes(Onyura et al., 2019) as well as staff wellbeing (Päätalo and Kauppi, 2016).
Even though not every physician will
pursue a formal leadership position in
health organizations, most will likely
serve as informal leaders in their community or practice (Maddalena, 2016)
and will consequently influence their organizations as informal leaders (HuikkoTarvainen, 2022; Wilson et al., 2020).
Surprisingly, however, it has been foundthat numerous medical students are notparticularly interested in leadership work
(Abbas et al., 2011). Moreover, resident
physicians do not consider formal leadership positions as very appealing, primarily
due to the competing duties of physicians
and leaders, as they feel that one can beeither a skilled physician or a skilled leader, but not both. Such contradictory logic
may lead to situations in which promising
younger physicians with leadership qualities turn down offers of taking on leadership positions as they are a threat to theidentity of a practicing physician. (Styhre
et al., 2016.)
Nevertheless, medical students haveemphasized the need to incorporate leadership and management into undergraduate education (Abbas et al., 2011; Alzahrani et al., 2021) but simultaneously, they
have identified associated obstacles, suchas a lack of given time, competing educational demands, and a potential disinterest in leadership skills and training
by some students and faculty (Abbas etal., 2011). These results are in line withthe study on working-age physicians (n= 1,233), which revealed that although
22% of women and 25% of men were inhttp://ejbo.jyu.fi/

EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

terested in leadership, more leadership training was required(Ministry of Social Affairs and Health., 2020). To inform andimprove the leadership curriculum in medical education, considering that generational perceptions change over time, thevoices of medical students—tomorrow’s physicians and leaders—should be heard in terms of how they expect themselves
to be led and what they expect from their leaders.
Theoretical Framework
Good physician leadership in light of previous literature

Numerous leadership studies reveal the importance of bothleadership and management in the leadership work. The goalof managing is to achieve efficiency, predictability, and order,
while that of leading is to achieve change—the importance ofeach also depends on the case. In leadership, subordinates are
influenced by a leader to understand and accept what needs tobe done as well as to make concerted efforts to accomplish it.
(Kotter, 1990, pp. 4-5;Yukl, 2013, pp. 22–26.)
Nevertheless, in physician leadership, the leader’s role is often a hybrid role that combines not only leadership and management work but also requires a knowledge of medicine (Berghout
et al., 2017, 2020; Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022; Huikko-Tarvainen
et al., 2021; Quinn and Perelli, 2016; Sartirana et al., 2019;
Spehar et al., 2015). Physicians who possess an appropriatebalance of medical skills and a proper work ethic and etiquette
have been seen to succeed more in the role of a physician leader.
Further, physician leaders are also expected to be trustworthy,
fair, empathic, sociable, and communicative, with a capacity toprovide proper feedback, show collegial respect, and display
emotional intelligence. Beyond this, they must be familiar with
the impacts that the daily work of physicians has on physicians’
lives. (Alzahrani et al., 2021; Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022). In addition, good physician leaders must master a wide variety of leadership styles as well as have sufficient knowledge to select whichleadership approach is appropriate in each situation (HuikkoTarvainen, 2022; Saxena et al., 2017).
In most professional organizations, the people being led
and those who are leading them are both experts (Mintzberg,
1998). Consequently, working-age physicians prefer leaders
who are also physicians (Berghout et al., 2017; Goodall, 2011;
Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022), and numerous medical students statethat physicians should be leaders of multi-professional teams in
the health care (Abbas et al., 2011). The characteristics of good
physicians—as perceived by physicians, medical students, medical teachers, and patients—include good social communicationand leadership skills as well as a strong and consistent moral
character. Furthermore, physicians ought to be compassionate,empathic, honest, humble, responsive, persistent, trustworthy,
and inspirational. Additionally, they must be those who employ
clinically sound practices, are good listeners, are patient-oriented, contribute to scientific knowledge of medicine, and possess
the most current knowledge in their general and specialized
fields. (Chen et al., 2017; O’Donnabhain and Friedman, 2018;
Schattner et al., 2004; Sehiralti et al., 2010;Warm et al., 2022.)
To succeed in fast-paced work and, simultaneously, be capable of accomplishing long-term goals, physicians with leadership intentions must possess interpersonal skills (team leading,active listening, conflict resolution, and the capacity to provide
constructive yet fair feedback), systems management skills (theabilities to analyze processes and improvements, oversee logistics and supply chains, offer incentives, administer organizational planning, and perform measurements and data analytics),
and effective communication and planning skills (the abilities to24Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

communicate, plan, discuss, make decisions, devise strategies,
cultivate a beneficial work culture, and handle contingencies).
(Rotenstein et al., 2021.)
However, research on medical students’ perceptions of physician leadership is rare and partially controversial. On one hand,
medical students have been found to have a traditional understanding of leadership and followership, according to which
followers—as receivers of leadership—operate in accordancewith the leader’s vision and goals. (Gordon et al., 2015). Similarly, hospital-based second-year medical residents have beenfound to perceive a clear separation between leadership andmanagement as well as consider management inferior to leadership, which reflects a more traditional perception of the twodomains (Barrow et al., 2011). On the other hand, medical students consider communication, ethics, conflict resolution, timeorganization, managed care, management priorities, bookkeeping, quality development, public speaking, and risk control to
be more important in determining good physician leadership
than the capacity to negotiate, write proposals, and investment
principles (Abbas et al., 2011; Mintz and Stoller, 2014; Varkey
et al., 2009).
Methods
An online questionnaire was sent to 162 final-year medical students at the University of Oulu, Finland in November 2020.The
response rate was 68% (n =110). We also collected relevant
background information (Table 1, p. 25). Initially, the potential
participants received an invitation letter, which provided detailed information on the purpose of the study. The letter clearly
indicated that their participation would be entirely voluntary
and that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any
time as well as deny access to the use of their data. Anonymity was also guaranteed. All the participants gave permission for
their data to be collected and used for research purposes. This
study was conducted in accordance with the instructions of theFinnish Advisory Board on Research Integrity and in compliancewith European Union’s data protection regulations as well as
the established research practices of the University of Oulu andits Faculty of Medicine. Full consideration was given to mattersrelated to data protection in accordance with the ethical principles applicable to research subjects (Finnish Advisory Board on
Research Integrity, 2012).
A qualitative approach (Gibbs, 2018) was employed because
the goal of the research was to further our understanding ofwhat constitutes good leaders and good physician leadershipaccording to final-year medical students. The participants wereasked to freely respond to three main questions: (1) How should
physicians be led? (2) How would you describe a good physician
leader? (3) Would you be interested in working as a physician
leader in the future? The answers to these questions were digitally saved and coded to make the data more analytically accessible. The answers yielded data that was equivalent to nine A4sized pages (Arial font, 12 point, single spacing).
An inductive content analysis utilizing thematization was selected, as this method is well suited for qualitative research. The
purpose of the content analysis was to obtain descriptions of thephenomenon that would enable us to connect the findings to awider context and compare them to those of prior studies. The
analysis was based on the systematic examination of the collected data and focused on relevant themes and patterns by selecting common or exceptional statements or viewpoints. (Eriksson
and Kovalainen, 2008.)
The analysis was conducted sequentially. First, we familiarhttp://ejbo.jyu.fi/

EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

ized ourselves with the data by iteratively reading the content
until we were confident that we had gained a thorough understanding of it. The elemental codes (words and phrases)—
which represented the most basic form of the raw data—weregrouped, combined, and organized into categories that indicated the expectations of (1) a good physician leader and (2)good physician leadership. In the next step, these findings werecategorized to create potential subcategories. Then, the subcategories were reviewed and refined until they became consistentand identifiable distinctions appeared between them. Next, thesub-themes were named: (1) traits, (2) education, (3) communication and support, (4) working culture, and (5) workload.
These sub-themes were combined into main themes to create aunifying concept: (1) virtues of a good physician leader and (2)working conditions. These themes were analyzed both separately and in the context of the overall thematic structure. Our datadriven analysis was repeated twice by the first author and thenevaluated by all the authors to avoid bias. During the analysis
and coding phases, the first author met regularly with the otherauthors to receive feedback on the coding system. At the endof the process, we added the carefully selected and anonymized
excerpts to the findings to illustrate our interpretations (Eriksson and Kovalainen, 2008) and arranged the material in tabularformat (see Table 2, pp. 26-27).
Results
The information of the participants is provided in Table 1 (p.
25).
Female53% (n=58)

Male

46% (n=51)

No indication of gender

1% (n=1)

Worked as a doctor during
medical studies

98% (n=108)<25 years of age

8% (n=9)25-30 years of age

65% (n=71)

31-35 years of age

14% (n=16)36-40 years of age

4% (n=4)>41 years of age

9% (n=10)High school as the highest
educational background

70% (n=77)

A prior higher educational
background

30% (n=33)

Interested in working as aphysician leader

32.0% (n=33)

Might be interested inworking as a physician leader

20.4% (n=21)

Not interested in working as aphysician leader

47.5% (n=49)

Did not expressed interested
in working as a physician
leader

0.1%% (n=7)

Table 1. The information of participants.

Our study generated two main thematic categories: (1) virtues of a good physician leader and (2) working conditions. The
virtues of a good physician leader were divided into three subthemes: (1) traits, (2) education, and (3) communication andsupport. The main theme of the working conditions was divided
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into two sub-themes: (1) working culture and (2) workload (Table 2, pp. 26-27).
The results pertaining to what makes leadership successful inthe medical profession reveal that both leadership and management skills are required. The led physicians should be seen as
individuals and be led by a trustworthy, approachable, innovative, and visionary physician leader who participates in patient
work alongside leadership work and possesses good social, communication, and problem-solving skills as well as common sense
and emotional intelligence. Furthermore, a good leader ensuresthat physicians can focus on their medical work by providingthem with appropriate resources in well-functioning conditions.
Thus, a good physician leader reflects the virtues of a good physician.
Discussion
In the following account, the results of our study are discussed
in more detail in the light of the three novel findings of the study.
Virtues of a good physician leader

According to our findings, when good physician leadership isin place, the led physicians should be viewed as individuals andshould be led by a trustworthy, approachable, and visionary physician leader who possesses good social, communication, andproblem-solving skills as well as emotional intelligence, common sense, and an innovative mindset. The leader participates
not only in leadership work but also in clinical patient work.
A good physician leader is visible without drawing attention tothemselves and voluntarily pursues leadership positions. Moreover, the participants considered collegiality and professionalism
as mandatory. These findings are in line with those of previous
literature (see e.g., Abbas et al., 2011; Alzahrani et al., 2021;
Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022; Mintz and Stoller, 2014).
Although a medical background and participation in patient
work were seen as requirements for leaders, they were not considered sufficient on their own; an additional leadership training
was considered necessary. Leaders understand the functioningof healthcare organizations, economics, and law and know how
to prioritize but do not lead only by looking at costs. Leadershipwork is based on evidence-based information, and the culture ofwork is built on trust. These findings resemble those of previous
studies, which have found that good physician leaders need topossess the capability of mastering a wide variety of leadershipstyles as well as to select the appropriate approach for every
situation (Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022; Saxena et al., 2017).
Considering that the participants were medical students withlimited experience of working as physicians, their expectations
regarding the virtues of good leaders were, interestingly, rather
similar to those expressed by more experienced physicians (Abbas et al., 2011; Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022; Mintz and Stoller,2014) and partially comparable to those revealed in studies ofgeneral leadership (see e.g.,Yukl, 2013, p. 18). In all these contexts, the expectation was that (good) leaders should possessgood communication and social skills and should be honest, fair,and empathic; they should also provide constructive feedback,maintain a collegial attitude, and possess emotional intelligence(see e.g., Abbas et al., 2011; Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022; Mintz
and Stoller, 2014).
It is already well known that physicians prefer their leaders tobe physicians (Berghout et al., 2017; Goodall, 2011; HuikkoTarvainen, 2022) and that medical ethic and work etiquette,
combined with the appropriate balance of medical skills, are agood foundation for success in physician leadership (Huikkohttp://ejbo.jyu.fi/

SUBTHEMESEXCERPTSGood leaders are trustworthy, honest,
empathetic, easy to approach, reachable, openminded, collegial and have good social andproblem-solving skills. They also possess proper
etiquette, are visible without drawing attention
to themselves and pursue leadership positions
voluntarily.

- [The leader] makes himself/herself visible…
asks how employees are doing, and about thework situation – for example, are there enoughappointment times and enough time for officework?
- [The leader] is interested in the well-being of
employees and occasionally appears, even in
the coffee room, without isolating herself/himself
in her/his office.
- Expert, good role model, approachable, well
behaving, reliable, collegial.
- The leader should voluntarily approach [theleading position] and not be forced [to be aleader].

The classic characteristics of a good physician
are a model for a good physician leader. Most
participants believed that to understandsubordinates better and be able to teach andcoach, physician leaders should have botha medical education and work experience
as physicians in addition to possessing
updated medical knowledge. Leaders’ medical
background and participation in patient work
were seen as mandatory but not sufficientsolely; leadership training was also expected.
Good leaders have a good knowledge of
economics, law and research, and their work
must be both effective and efficient in termsof costs to the public. Knowledge of how toprioritise healthcare costs is expected, but
leading only with cost in mind is not accepted;
evidence-based information should be used.
Good leaders act both as role models and peers
for physicians, but they are also expected toserve as a bridge between physicians and theadministration of the healthcare organisation.
This requires an understanding of the healthcareorganisation not only as a whole but also interms of its multiple levels and professionalfeatures.

- [A good leader has] pretty much the same
qualities as a good doctor. They listen and strive
to solve problems and do not avoid difficulties.
- [A good leader leads] with determination andprofessionalism.
- The leader must understand the peculiaritiesof doctors’ work but also possess leadershiptraining.
- [A good leader] understands both medicine
and economics.
-Leading is not driven only by saving from thecosts and leading is not separated from reality.
- [A leader is] thorough, endowed with goodsocial skills, fair and efficient, but they do notlead only based on financial considerations.
- In healthcare, the supervisor/leader
must understand not only jurisprudence
and economics but also leadership andmanagement.
- [A leader] understands economics, medicine
and how things work in real life.
- In addition to leadership work, leaders also
participate in clinical work. This way, theyknow how the work community and workplace
operate and how to relate doctors’ development
proposals to the administration.

Good leaders use communication, facts,
common sense, and evidence-based
information as the foundations of their decisions
and do not lead just by feelings. Responsibility
and readiness to explain one’s decisions are
required. In certain situations, it might beadvisable for leadership to be shared with peers.
Even though physician leaders should respect
their peers as human beings and experts –that is, respect their autonomy and opinions– they should also provide clear and confident
guidance and supervision when and if asked bythem. Leaders should give their subordinates
sufficient time to complete their work and show
an interest in their well-being and success.
Good leaders do not just hear their employees –they listen to them. This encourages employees
to feel heard and valued. Good leaders support
subordinates in their work and careers and backthem in tough situations.

- Leadership based on facts and wisdom rather
than emotions. Leaders must be able to justify
their opinions.
- By listening to doctors, the leader gainsa (preferably personal) comprehensive
understanding of the realities of their work.
- [A leader is] part of the team, an experienced
clinician with up-to-date knowledge and abackground in research work.
- [A leader] leads with evidence-based
management and actively participates innecessary research.
- Adequate resources must be allocated toworkplace well-being, the rational pace of work
and, especially, the training and guidance ofyoung colleagues. Therefore, it would be good if
the leader was also a doctor.

WORKING CONDITIONSVIRTUES OF A GOOD PHYSICIAN LEADER

TraitsRESULTS

Education

MAIN
THEMES

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Communication and support

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Working culture
Workload

WORKING CONDITIONSEJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

The development of a well-functioning workcommunity and working culture built on trust –including understanding physicians’ autonomy– was expected. This could be achieved bytaking the lead in operations but also respecting
other people by understanding each person’s
mindset and capability to work. The leadershipapproach should be flexible and patient but also
firm when needed. Alongside respecting others
and their ideas, leaders must retain and enforce
their authority; thus, their leader role should be
strengthened in tight or demanding situations.

- [Leadership work should be done] collegiallybut firmly. Fair manner. Purposefully. Innovatively.
By listening to others.
- There must be certain common rules for thework; however, at the same time, doctors mustbe given an autonomy in their decision-making.
- [A leader] strives to create an organisationthat works as smoothly and cost-effectively as
possible without burdening the employees.

Good leaders organise working conditions inways that properly allocate time, resources,
and tasks, thereby bolstering organisational
performance and outcomes. Physicians mustbe allowed to focus on their own specialised
work; that is, physicians should not be assigned
duties related to other fields or departmentsof the healthcare organisation (e.g., the workof secretaries, nurses, cleaners, or IT staff). It isnecessary for good leaders to appreciate and to
take into account physicians’ diversity and work
competence. In practice, this means considering
each employee’s workload and educational
needs. Consequently, a fair and equal workload
allocation is the preferred aim, as is correcting
imbalances.

- In physician leadership, frameworks for thework must be provided, development ideas mustbe heard, and operations must be developed.
- [A good leader] does not tolerate physicians
being burdened with the work of others (nurses,
practical nurses, secretaries, cleaners, and IT
staff).
- [A good leader should treat] everyone equally,
but the characteristics of individuals should betaken into account.
- Every doctor is different. Not everyone should
be required exactly the same, e.g., have thesame schedule.
- A good physician leader takes into accountemployees’ personal preferences for the job andis able to offer different job descriptions while
always considering the legal obligations.

Table 2. The perceptions of the participants.

Tarvainen, 2022). But when results of the current study arecompared to those of the previous literature, it is a novel findingof our study that expected virtues of a good physician leader
resemble the classic characteristics of a good physician (seee.g., Chen et al., 2017; O’Donnabhain and Friedman, 2018;
Schattner et al., 2004; Sehiralti et al., 2010; Warm et al., 2022).
In practice, this implies that when medical students are beingtaught how to be good physicians, they are simultaneously being
educated on those elements that are vital to serving as a good
leader.
Going beyond the general definition of leadership as “an influential process for facilitating the performance of a commontask” (Yukl, 2013, p. 36), the participants believed that good
physician leaders (1) participate in clinical patient work, (2)provide them with teaching and coaching, and (3) respect themas both individuals and peers, which aligns with the previous
definition of physician leadership, according to which physician
leadership combines general leadership and management withmedical expertise (see e.g., Berghout et al., 2017; Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022; Quinn and Perelli, 2016; Spehar et al., 2015).
Moreover, the finding that physician leaders should have not
only a medical education but also experience working as a physician appears to be a universal, intrinsic requirement for all physicians, regardless of the length of their medical career (see e.g.,
Berghout et al., 2017; Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022); therefore, as acommon demand, must be associated with the medical profession. This is not entirely surprising because, in most professionalorganizations, the people being led and those who are leadingthem are both experts (Mintzberg, 1998).
Further, the finding of our study for that leaders must masterboth leadership work and physician work resembles the previous studies on the hybrid roles of physician leaders (see e.g.,
Berghout et al., 2020; Huikko-Tarvainen, 2022; Huikko-Tarvainen et al., 2021; Sartirana et al., 2019) and emphasizes theneed to possess both leadership and management skills, which27

is also supported by previous literature (see e.g., Yukl, 2013,
pp. 22–26).
A physician’s work with a customized workload

Based on our study, flexible and functional working conditions
are expected, and the led physicians should be allowed to focus on their own specialized work. In other words, physicians
should not be assigned duties related to other fields or departments of the healthcare organization (e.g., the work of secretaries, nurses, cleaners, or IT staff). In addition, the workload
should be customized to respect the diversity and work competence of the led physicians, which represents the second novel
finding of our study.
These results are contradictory to the previous findings inwhich residents made a clear distinction between management and leadership or considered management as inferior toleadership (see e.g., Barrow et al., 2011), and had a traditional
understanding of leadership where followers, as receivers ofleadership, act in accordance with the leader’s vision and goals(see e.g., Gordon et al., 2015) Instead, the medical students inthis study wanted the voices of the led physicians to be heard
and heeded. That is, our study emphasizes the need for leaders
to possess both leadership and management skills to maximize
the likelihood that their work as leaders will be successful,which is supported by previous literature on the perceptionsof more experienced physicians (see e.g., Huikko-Tarvainen,
2022; Rotenstein et al., 2019, 2021).
Greater interest in physician leadership

A majority of the participants (98%, n = 108) had alreadyworked as physicians during medical school, thereby implyingthat they were exposed to leadership and met physician leadersin person and, thus, had an informed perspective on what toexpect from a leader and leadership in general. Unlike in mostprior studies (see e.g., Abbas et al., 2011; Styhre et al., 2016),
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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

a significantly high proportion (52%) of the medical students inour study were interested in or might consider a formal leadership position in the future, which was the third novel findingof our study. Greater interest in leadership is a desirable trend
among medical students because, as noted by most of the participants, one foundation of successful physician leadership isthat the physician leaders are also physicians themselves. Greater interest in future leadership may also help overcome, or atleast mitigate, possible challenges confronting the hybrid workof physician leaders (see e.g., Berghout et al., 2020; HuikkoTarvainen et al., 2021; Sartirana et al., 2019)
Based on our study, it is recommended that—even though an
education of a good physician provides a good role model fora good physician leader—leadership education (including leadership and management skills) should be provided in medical
school, as has also been noted in previous literature (see e.g.,
Abbas et al., 2011; Alzahrani et al., 2021; Gordon et al., 2015;
Huikko-Tarvainen et al., 2021). This indicates that good leadersand leadership skills will continue to be valued in the future.
Thus, leadership education should play a prominent role in the
medical curriculum.
Limitations and future research
The findings of our study are limited because our sample wasderived from a single cohort of Finnish final-year medical students. However, the sample was sufficiently large, and the response rate was excellent. In the future, it would be worthwhile
to repeat our study every year and compare the results over along period of time. It would also be useful to compare the perceptions of medical students from different grades as well asof physicians at different career stages and from different specializations. This would enable a broader, more comprehensive
understanding of the phenomenon coupled with more in-depth
insights into the perceptions of medical students who are also
digital natives. Finally, even though the foundations of healthcare organizations worldwide are similar, contextual effects may
influence the transferability and/or generalizability of our findings on leadership practices (Onyura et al., 2019).
Conclusion
Our study reveals that the perceptions of what constitutes a good
leader and good leadership among final-year medical students
are wide-ranging and somewhat similar to the findings of previous studies on the topic. Beyond this, our study also produced

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

three novel results. Although it is well known that physicians
prefer their leaders to come from the medical profession (seee.g., Berghout et al., 2017; Goodall, 2011; Huikko-Tarvainen,2022), the notion that the classic characteristics of a good physician can serve as a model for a good physician leader—our firstnovel finding—has thus far received little or no attention.
Our second novel finding was that good leadership entails tailoring workloads to the individual strengths and skills of physicians, which requires considering physicians’ diversity and work
competence. Therefore, the medical students who participatedin this study were not traditional followers—receivers of leadership—who act only in accordance with their leaders’ visions
and goals (Gordon et al., 2015); instead, they wanted physicians’ voices to be heard. Finally, the third novel finding of ourresearch was a greater interest in leadership work among medical students compared to that in earlier studies (see e.g., Abbas
et al., 2011; Ministry of Social Affairs and Health., 2020; Styhre
et al., 2016).
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The research was carried out in accordance with the instructionsof the Finnish Advisory Board on Research Integrity, in compliance with EU data protection regulations and the research practices of the University of Oulu and the Faculty of Medicine. The
permission for the study was granted by the Faculty of Medicine
in accordance with current policies.
Availability of data and materials
The data that support the findings of this study are available
from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Funding
Funding/Support: None.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the medical students at the Universityof Oulu for their participation in the study.

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Authors
Sari Huikko-Tarvainen MD, PhD, is a Specialist in General Practice and Dermatology and D.Sc. (Economics and Business Administration).
Her current research includes physician leadership in medical education.
Address: Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland, P.O. Box 5000, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland.
E-mail: sari.huikko-tarvainen@fimnet.fi
Tel: +358408221250
Orcid ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6561-2911
Timo Tuovinen MD, is a Specialist in Gynaecology and Obstetrics and a former Clinical Teacher (eHealth and medical leadership).
Address: Research Unit of Health Sciences and Technology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland, Medical Research Center, Oulu University
Hospital, Oulu, Finland, and Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Finland., P.O. Box 5000, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland.
E-mail: timo.tuovinen@oulu.fi
Tel: +358 41 5027864
Orcid ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7079-3673
RG: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Timo_Tuovinen
Petri Kulmala MD, PhD, is a Professor of Medical Education and the Dean of Education at the University of Oulu, Faculty of Medicine,and a Specialist in Paediatrics and Paediatric Allergology at the Oulu University Hospital, the Clinic for Children and Adolescents, Oulu,
Finland. His current research includes a variety of areas in the field of medical education.
Address: Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland, Medical Research Center Oulu, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland,
P.O. Box 5000, FI-90014 University of Oulu, FinlandE-mail: petri.kulmala@oulu.fi
Tel: +358 50 5647533
Orcid ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2895-8563
RG: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Petri-Kulmala30

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Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

Hylianismin Narratiivit ja Kaupallinen Semiotiikka
Esa Mangeloja

Abstract
The Legend of Zelda video game
series demonstrates intriguing
developments in storytellingand its relationship with theutilization of religious themes.
As the series progresses, it
incorporates elements fromvarious religious traditions,
including Judeo-Christiansymbolism, Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Islam. The strong presenceof nature-based religions
and Eastern philosophies
remains a significant thematicelement throughout the series,
contributing to its narrative andglobal popularity. Contemporary
media fosters religious
syncretism within society. It canbe assumed that the religious
diversity in Zelda games
promotes players' openness todifferent religious perspectives
and accepting attitudes toward
syncretism. The convergence ofsocial media and games may
also lead to the development of
individual religious beliefs that
may no longer adhere strictly to
traditional religious teachings.
Among Zelda players, an increase
in religious openness and theacceptance of combining andadapting various religious views
can be expected. However, it
is unlikely that the Legend of
Zelda series carries a significant
religious agenda. While it may
enhance players' syncretistic
attitudes and general religious
tolerance, the main character“Link” is unlikely to transformplayers into committed religious
actors, especially not in thecontext of Christianity. In
contrast, "The Pilgrim's Progress:
The Video Game" explicitly aims
31

for religious education. This
study suggests that the religious
references in the Legend of
Zelda series primarily serve
the purpose of maximizing the
game's commercial success. The
religiosity in these games should
be interpreted as a commercial
addition, especially whencompared to a game like "ThePilgrim's Progress: The Video
Game," where Christianity plays
a more central and meaningfulrole. The Legend of Zelda games
utilize religious imagery as aritualistic element primarily toensure the commercial successof the series. The article employs
theoretical tools from thenarrative analysis and economic
studies. The narrative anddevelopment of the Zelda series
are fundamentally driven by
economic objectives. The explicit
symbols, such as the crucifix,
reincarnation, and the trinity,reflect a broader sociological andsocietal context. In essence, thereligious references in the Zelda
series should be understoodas an attempt to maximize thecommercial success of the video
game.

Key Words: Commercial
semiotics, narrative analysis,
video games, Zelda

Johdanto
Videopelejä käsittelevä akateeminen tutkimuskirjallisuus on viime vuosina lisääntynyt huomattavasti ja myös niiden uskonnollisiin elementteihin on kiinnitetty
lisääntyvää huomiota. Erityisen tunnettuja ovat uskontotieteen professori Rachel
Wagnerin ja kirjallisuustieteen professori
Joseph Campbellin kehittämät uskonnollisen kuvaston käyttöä populaarissa
digitaalisessa mediassa ja eri mytologioiden tutkimuksessa strukturoivat työkalut(Wagner 2011).
Espen Aarseth (2003) on formuloinut
kolme metodologista tapaa, joiden kautta
videopelien analyysia voi harjoittaa.
Ensinnä voi tutkia pelin sääntöjä, designia
ja pelimekaniikkaa. Toiseksi voi havainnoida muiden hahmojen käyttäytymistä
pelissä ja pelin aikana, sisältäen myös
muiden pelaajien raporttien ja arvostelujen lukemista. Kolmanneksi peliä voi tutkia pelaamalla peliä itse. Aarseth (2003)
pitää viimeksi mainittua kaikkein tärkeimpänä videopelien analyysin menetelmänä. Tässä tutkimuksessa on Zelda pelisarjaa analysoitu käyttäen kaikkia kolmea
lähestymistapaa.
Artikkelissa keskitytään erityisesti
Zelda -videopelissä esiintyviin uskonnollisiin viittauksiin ja niiden käyttöön taloudellisen hyödyn maksimoinnin välineenä.
Artikkelissa analysoidaan Legend of
Zelda -videopelisarjan generoimia merkityssignaaleja narratiivisen taloustieteen,
digitaalisen mediakulttuurin ja uskontososiologian näkökulmista. Narratiivisen
tutkimusperinteen mukaisesti tulkitaan
videopelien ikonografiaa, uskonnollista
viitekehystä ja samalla uskonnollisia merkityksiä peilataan osana laajempaa taloudellista, sosiologista ja yhteiskunnallista
narratiivia. Zelda-pelisarjan uskonnolliset
viittaukset tuleekin nähdä vain yrityksenä maksimoida videopelin kaupallista
menestystä.
Artikkeli valaisee Zelda-pelien suhdetta
eri uskontoihin ja uskonnollisen kuvaston
hyödyntämisen ritualistista luonnetta,
jonka varsinaisena päämääränä on pelisarjan kaupallisen menestyksen varmistaminen. Analyysi hyödyntää mytologioiden
tutkimuksen teoreettisia välineitä, joilla
Zeldan narratiivi ja tarinankehitys paljastuvat olennaisesti luonteeltaan taloudellisiksi. Pelisarjan eksplisiittisesti havaittavat
symbolit ja metodit, kuten krusifiksi, jälleensyntyminen ja kolminaisuus, peilautuvat laajemman sosiologisen ja yhteishttp://ejbo.jyu.fi/

EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

kunnallisen kontekstin implisiittisiksi välittäjiksi.
Zelda-pelisarja ja sen sankarihahmo Link voidaan nähdä edustavan jossain määrin myös kristinuskon viitekehystä, sillä pelisarjassa esiintyy useita kristinuskon symboleja. Kun näitä Zeldan uskonnollisia ominaisuuksia verrataan toiseen peliin, ”ThePilgrim's Progress: The Video Game”, paljastuu Zeldan ”kristillisyys” kuitenkin vain rekvisiitaksi ja päälle liimatuksi kaupalliseksi
kuorrutteeksi. Uskontoa käytetään vain resurssina, taloudellisten päämäärien saavuttamiseksi (Thames 2014, 189). Viimeksi
mainitussa videopelissä kristinusko saa valtaisasti merkittävämmän ja keskeisemmän roolin, jopa uskonnollisena pedagogina,
vaikka pelien perusasetelma ja genre muistuttavatkin melko
laajasti toisiaan. Narratiivit avaavat näkökulmia juuri ydinkysymyksiin siksi, että narratiivit välittävät merkityksiä inhimillisestä
kokemusmaailmasta. Narratiivit rakentavat tapahtumien ja toimintojen merkityksiä myös videopeleissä. Tässä tutkimuksessa
sovellamme mm. Polkinghornen (1988) narratiivista analyysia
yksinkertaistettuna apuvälineenä muodostaessamme narratiivista selontekoa Zelda -videopeleistä. Kaupallisen semiotiikan
tutkimuksissa käytetään yleensä kieli- ja kirjallisuusteorian malleja, joista erityisesti Jakobsonin viestintämalli on varsin suosittu(Jakobson, 1960). Tässä artikkelissa sovellan Jakobsonin viestintämallia Zelda-pelisarjan narratiivisten sisältöjen ja tarkoitusperien analyysissa. Kokonaisuudessaan tämä artikkeli pyrkii
avaamaan näkökulmia siihen, kuinka uskonnollisia viittauksia
käytetään videopeleissä taloudellisten päämäärien saavuttamiseksi ja kuinka narratiivit voivat välittää merkityksiä videopelien
harrastajille.
Zelda – videopelien legenda”The Legend of Zelda” on Nintendon kehittämä ja julkaisema
toimintaseikkailua ja mytologista fantasiaa yhdistelevä toimintaseikkailu- ja toimintaroolipelisarja. The Legend of Zelda on
yksi maailman menestyksekkäimmistä ja vaikutusvaltaisimmista pelisarjoista. Sarjan ensimmäinen peli, “The Legend of Zelda” julkaistiin 1986 Japanissa ja vuotta myöhemmin USA:ssa jaEuroopassa. Pelisarjan päähenkilö ja konsolilla pelattava hahmo
on nimeltään Link. Sarjaan on ilmestynyt jo 19 peliä ja lukuisia”remake”-versiota ja niitä on myyty kymmeniä miljoonia kappaleita. Pelit sijoittuvat Hyrulen fantasiamaailmaan, jossa päähenkilö Link tyypillisesti pelastaa prinsessa Zeldan pelisarjan pääantagonistilta, Ganondorf -velholta. Tunnusomainen osa pelisarjaa
on myös pelimaailmassa vaikuttava ”Triforce”, jumalaista alkuperää oleva kolmivoima (The Legend Of Zelda Encyclopedia,
2018).
Zeldan pelimaailman, eli Hyrulen vallitseva uskonto, ”hylianismi”, sisälsi varsinkin pelisarjan varhaisimmissa osissa elementtejä, jotka pohjautuvat judeo-kristilliseen maailmankuvaan
ja kristinuskoon, mutta pelisarjan kuluessa vaikutteita on lisääntyvästi tihkunut juutalaisuudesta, kreikkalaisesta mytologiasta,
egyptiläisestä tarustosta, buddhalaisuudesta, islamista ja hindulaisuudesta. Zeldan uskonnolliset vaikutteet tulevat siis monesta
erilaisesta uskonnollisesta taustasta ja ne pelisarjan edetessä
sulautuvat synkretistisesti yhdeksi kokonaisuudeksi.
Zeldan kehittäjä on japanilainen Nintendolla työskentelevä
Shigeru Miyamoto. Hän on syntynyt vuonna 1952 Sonobessa.
Miyamoton uskonnollisista aatteista ei julkisuuteen ole välittynyt tietoja, mutta voinee olettaa, että hän edustaa uskonnollisilta
käsityksiltään tyypillistä modernia japanilaista, joka etupäässä
kunnioittaa perinteisiä shintolaisia arvoja. Pelisarjaan sisältyvä
synkretismi on luultavasti harkittua ja kaupallisista syistä perusteltua. Hylianismi on teistinen, syklisen aikakäsityksen sisältävä
ritualistinen uskonto, joka ilmentää globaalia synkretististä ten32

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denssiä (Walls 2011).
Modernin median ominaispiirteisiin kuuluu vaikutteiden
moninaisuus. Uskonnollisissa elementeissä painotetaan synkretismiä, jossa sekoitetaan yhdeksi kokonaisuudeksi eri uskontojen ja henkisten virtausten vaikutteita. Tämä vaikutteiden
moninaisuus on ainakin taloudelliselta kannalta hyödyllistä.
Kaupallisuus tähtää mahdollisimman laajaan asiakaskuntaan,
joten minkään uskonnon harjoittajia ei haluta lähtökohtaisesti
rajata potentiaalisten peliä ostavien asiakasryhmien ulkopuolelle. Siksi medioissa ja peleissä sekoitetaan uskonnollisia aineksia monista ilmansuunnista. New-Age tyyliset virtaukset ovat
tästä tendenssistä hyvä esimerkki. McClure (2016) on osoittanut, että nykyaikainen media ja sen välittämät uskonnolliset
vaikutteet lisäävät median kuluttajien uskonnollista synkretismiä ja sallivampaa asennoitumista eri uskontoihin ja niiden
yksilölliseen sekoittamiseen.
Jakobsonin viestintämalli
Jakobsonin viestintämallissa kielen viestinnälliset tehtävät
on jaettu kuuteen pääfunktioon. Nämä ovat referentiaalinen,emoottinen, poeettinen, konatiivinen, faattinen ja metalingvistinen. Näitä vastaavat viestinnän perustekijät, joita ovat seuraavat: Konteksti, lähettäjä, viesti, vastaanottaja, kontakti jakoodi. Kuten Mäyrä (2005) osoittaa, on Jakobsonin malli käyttökelpoinen myös videopelien tutkimuksessa. Siinä huomioon
tulee otetuksi moninainen merkityksentuotanto laajemmassa
inhimillisen toiminnan kokonaisuudessa. Videopelit ovat viestinnällisiä tuotteita, jotka luovat merkityksiä moniulotteisessa
digitaalisessa ja kulttuurillisessa maisemassa.
Videopelejä, kuten Zelda-pelisarjaa, voidaan analysoida
Jakobsonin mallin avulla. Pelin julkaisija on samalla viestin
lähettäjä, joka emoottisen funktion kautta ilmaisee aikomuksensa myydä maksimaalisesti videopeliä ja tarjoaa sen kuluttajille mahdollisimman houkuttelevassa muodossa. Tähän kaupalliseen kokonaisuuteen sopivat erinomaisesti uskonnolliset
viittaukset, jotka synkretistisessä muodossa koskettavat potentiaalisten pelinostajien tunnemaailmaa (Mäyrä 2005, 334).
Viestin vastaanottaja on pelaaja, joka ostaa pelin ja viettää sen
parissa tyypillisesti satoja tunteja aikaansa. Vastaanottajalla on
konatiivinen vaikuttamistehtävä, sillä peli on saanut pelaajan
aktivoitumaan.
Jacobsonin mallissa viesti sisältää poeettisen tehtävän, joka
pelimaailmaan sovellettuna viittaa pelin perusolemukseen ja
sen toimivuuteen (Vainikkala 1991). Uskonnot ovat Zeldapeleissä apuvälineitä, jotka toteuttavat poeettista funktiota
auttaen pelaajaa edistymään pelissä ja ratkaisemaan sen haasteita. Pelimaailma kokonaisuutena toteuttaa referentiaalista
viittaustehtävää. Suuret maailmanuskonnot toimivat Zeldassa
stereotypioina heijastaen todellista inhimillistä maailmaa, jossa
uskonnoilla on tärkeä rooli. Uskonnot luovat kontekstin, jossa
pelaaja toimii, sekä todellisessa että virtuaalisessa maailmassa.
Peleissä syntyy kontakti eri toimijoiden kesken ja tämä
toteuttaa Jakobsonin mallin mukaista faattista tehtävää. Kontakti merkitsee samalla, että peli ”koukuttaa” pelaajansa ja
pelaaja kokee immersion pelin luomaan todellisuuteen. Uskonnot ovat tässä faattisessa funktiossa merkittävässä asemassa, sillä
uskontojen avulla luodaan mystinen, psyykkinen ja jopa hengellinen side pelaajan ja pelimaailman välillä. Zelda-pelisarjassa
tämä ilmiö korostuu erityisesti, sillä niissä luodaan aivan uutta
uskonnollista kulttuuria ja todellisuutta, sillä Zelda-peleissä on
oma uskontonsa, ”hylianismi”. Tämä vahvistaa kontaktia Jakobsonin mallin mukaisesti (Testa, 2014).
Viimeisenä funktiona Jakobsonin mallissa on metalingvistihttp://ejbo.jyu.fi/

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nen tehtävä, joka peleihin sovellettuna merkitsee pelin suhdetta
muihin peleihin eli pelin genreä. Zelda on genreltään tyypillinen
seikkailupeli, joka sisältää myös uskonnollista mystiikkaa. Tämä
pelaajille tuttu koodi sisältää symboliikkaa, kuten uudelleensyntymät, jotka ovat seikkailupeleissä tyypillisiä mekaniikkoja ylläpitää pelikokemusta kuolettavien taisteluiden jälkeen. Oheinentaulukko 1 (s. 33) esittää Zelda-pelisarjan uskonnollisen viitekehyksen tulkittuna Jacobsonin mallin mukaisesti.
Narratiivit taloudellisessa käyttäytymisessä
Yalen yliopiston kansantalouden professori Robert J. Shiller on
kirjassaan “Narrative Economics” määritellyt narratiivit ihmisten
parissa liikkuviksi ja tarttuviksi tarinoiksi, suuriksi kertomuksiksi, joilla on vaikutusvaltaa muuttaa ihmisten taloudellista käyttäytymistä. (Shiller 2019, 3). Uskonnot edustavat narratiivista
vaikuttamista vahvimmillaan, jolla epäilemättä on taloudellista
vaikutusvaltaa kuluttajiin.
Näkemys, jonka mukaan ihminen ei ole puhtaan rationaalinen toimija, vaan on altis erilaisille häntä koskettaville tarinoille,
perustuu Walter Fisherin (Fisher 1987) narratiiviseen teoriaan.
Videopelit voidaan nähdä tarinallisena kerrontana, jossa pelaaja
altistuu pelin narratiiveille. Narratiivien faattinen tehtävä onerityisen tärkeä, sillä sen mukaan narratiivit luovat yhteenkuuluvuutta ja ylläpitävät suhdeverkostoja. Kulttuurillisella ja siten
myös uskonnollisella ympäristöllä ja kontekstilla on merkittävä
rooli narratiivien faattisen tehtävän onnistumisessa, sillä uskonnot luovat yhteenkuuluvaisuutta ja rakentavat yhteisöllisyyttä(Griffin 2009). Kulttuurit ja uskonnot luovat yhteistä identiteettiä. Narratiivien merkitys korostuu erityisesti psykologisenyhteyden vahvistamisessa.
Narratiivien käyttö taloudellisen hyödyn saamiseksi liittyy
erityisesti ns. ”kaupallisen semiotiikan” tutkimusalaan (engl.
”commercial semiotics”). Videopelien julkaisijoiden tarkoituksena on myydä mahdollisimman paljon pelejä, ja siksi valjastaa
myös pelien tarjoamat narratiivit houkuttelemaan potentiaalisia
kuluttajia (Lemon 2018).
Modernien mediailmiöiden taustalla voidaan havaita ns.
”bricolage”-kehitys, joka ilmenee eri kulttuurillisten aineisten
yhdistelynä ja edelleen muokkauksena toteuttamaan taloudellisia tai yhteiskunnallisia tarpeita. (Testa 2014, 257). Vuosituhannen alusta lähtien uskonnollisuutta on hyödynnetty tarinallisesti
myös videopeliteollisuudessa. Zelda-pelisarjan sisältämät erilaiset uskonnolliset vaikutteet ovat mainio esimerkki tällaisesta
kulttuurillisten ainesosien yhdistämisestä.
Uskontojen ja uskonnollisuuden rooli ”kulttuurin markkinapaikkana” syntyi Yhdysvalloissa jo 1800-luvulla pyrkimyksenä edistää ja toisaalta estää erinäisten hyödykkeiden myyntiä.

Uskontojen hyödyntämistä viihdetarkoitusperissä on etenkin
kristillisen mutta myös muiden uskontojen tarinaperimän käyttö
peli-, TV- ja elokuvateollisuudessa. Kyseessä voidaan siis sanoa
olevan uskonnollisten tarinoiden kaupallistaminen kulttuurin
globaalilla markkinapaikalla. Etenkin Yhdysvalloissa valtaosa
ihmisistä tunnustaa yhä olevansa uskonnollisia. 1990-luvulla
yli 90 % väestöstä kertoi kuuluvansa johonkin uskontokuntaan(Moore 1994, 3–6, 20, 24, 25, 32.) Nykyisin Yhdysvalloissa 49% pitää uskontoa ”hyvin merkityksellisenä” elämässään. Vain 25% katsoo uskonnon olevan ”ei erityisen merkityksellinen” (Jones
2021).
Narratiivisuus on noussut esiin myös liiketaloustieteellisessä tutkimuksessa vuosituhannen alkupuolella niin yksilöiden, yhteisöiden ja organisaatioiden pienten kertomusten kuin
yhteiskuntien suurten kertomusten tarkastelun viitekehyksenä(Auvinen, Mangeloja & Sintonen 2011). Narratiivisuus soveltuu erityisen hyvin erityyppisten toimijoiden rationaliteettien
eli toimintaa ohjaavien perimmäisten merkitysten ja tarkoitusperien läpinäkyväksi tekemiseen. Narratiivisuus pyrkii tilastollisten syy-seuraussuhteiden ja kausaalimallien sijaan ymmärtämään inhimillisen toiminnan pehmeämpinä pidettyjä puolia,
kuten kulttuuriympäristöä arvo- ja tunnemaailmoineen (Auvinen, Mangeloja & Sintonen 2011, 291). Polkinghornen (1988)
narratiivinen analyysi on liiketaloustieteissä tunnettu ja vakiintunut tutkimusmenetelmä, jonka keskiössä on tutkijan aineistonsa
pohjalta konstruoima juonellistettu esitys tutkimuskohteenaan
olevasta asiasta tai tapahtumasta. Aineisto voi koostua hyvinkin
erityyppisistä inhimillisesti tuotetuista kielellisistä selonteoista,
esimerkiksi videopeleistä.
Tässä tutkimuksessa puhumme narratiivisuudesta käsitteen
laajassa merkityksessä, eli käytämme käsitteitä narratiivi ja kertomus synonyymeina viitatessamme tietynlaisiin diskursiivisiin merkitysyksikköihin, eli menneisyyden tapahtumiin, joissa
tapahtumilla on kiinteä kronologinen juonirakenne episodisinesyy-seuraussuhteineen. Syy-seuraussuhteita ei ole kuitenkaan
syytä sekoittaa tilastotieteellisiin kausaalisuhteisiin, sillä kertomuksen syy-seuraussuhteita ei arvioida objektiivisesti. Olennaista on se, että syy-seuraussuhteet on inhimillisesti tuotettu.
Toisin sanoen kertoja tuottaa juonirakenteen ja koska kyseessä
on kertojan kokemusmaailma, objektiivinen (tilastotieteellinen)
faktojen arviointi ei ole olennaista. Tiivistettynä kertomus on
selonteko aiemmista tapahtumista, jotka ovat tapahtuneet kertomuksen henkilöhahmoille.
Videopelien rooli mediateoriassa
Caillois (2001) määrittelee videopelin ”digitaaliseksi/interaktiiviseksi pelattavaksi narratiiviseksi tekstiksi, joka sisältää

Viestinnän perustekijä

Viestinnän funktio

Sovellus videopelien
maailmaan

Uskonnon rooli

Lähettäjä

Emoottinen

Pelin julkaisija

Edistää myyntiä

ViestiPoeettinen

Pelin toimivuus

Auttaa pelissä

Vastaanottaja

Konatiivinen

Pelaaja

Tyydyttää uskonnollisia
tarpeita

Konteksti

Referentiaalinen

Pelimaailma

Heijastaa todellisuutta

Kontakti

Faattinen

Pelin ”koukuttavuus”

Luoda uusi uskonto,”hylianismi”

Koodi

Metalingvistinen

Peligenre

Mahdollistaa seikkailu ja
viitata symboleihin

Taulukko 1. Jakobsonin mallin funktiot sovellettuna Zelda-pelisarjan uskonnolliseen viitekehykseen.
33

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sekä ludologisia (ludus) että narratologisia (paidia) elementtejä. Zelda-pelisarja sisältää puhtaan pelillisiä ja siten ludologisia
elementtejä, mutta myös hyvin vahvaa tarinallisuutta. Zeldapelisarja muodostaa epäilemättä laajan narratiivin, joka tarjoaa
pelaajalle vahvan immersion. Bosman (2016) määrittelee videopelin sisältävän 5 keskeistä elementtiä: Tekstin, narratiivin,pelattavuuden, interaktiivisuuden ja digitaalisuuden. Bosmaninmukaan videopelien ”teksti”-elementti viittaa siihen, että pelin avulla pelin kehittäjät pyrkivät viestimään jotakin pelaajille.
Postmodernissa kontekstissa mikä tahansa objekti voidaan käsittää tekstiksi, mikäli se välittää informaatiota kommunikatiivisesti. Videopelit välittävät merkitysjärjestelmiä, tekstin, audion,videon ja pelimekaniikan välityksellä. Juuri kommunikatiivisuus
on olennaista tekstiominaisuudessa.
Digitaalisuus rakentaa videopeleille ominaista kaksisuuntaista
luonnetta, sillä ne ovat interaktiivisia ja edellyttävät reaktioita
ja valintojen tekemistä pelaajalta. Interaktiivisuus on olennainen
osa videopelaamista. Interaktiivisuus voi videopeleissä esiintyä
monella eri tavalla. Se voi olla pelin sisäistä, kun pelaaja toimii
pelin maailmassa avatarinsa välityksellä. Pelaaja voi taas toimia
ikään kuin pelimaailman ulkopuolisena vaikuttajana, kuten ns.
”jumalapeleissä”. Monissa peleissä pelaaja ei voi vaikuttaa pelimaailman rakenteeseen tai toimintaan, mutta joissakin mahdollisuus ympäristön muokkaamiseen on huomattavan laajaa.
Narratiivisuus on selkeästi painottunut Zelda-peleissä. Päähenkilö Link kehittyy sarjan aikana ja rakentaa hahmonsa ympärille laajentuvaa kertomusta. Niiden sujuva pelattavuus on lisäksi
merkittävä pelaajia koukuttava elementti. Zelda-pelit eivät ole
vaikeusasteeltaan erityisen haastavia, vaan nuorikin pelaaja pääsee niissä kohtuullisen vaivattomasti eteenpäin.
Uskonnon ja videopelien tutkimus on digitaalisen uskonnon
tutkimuksen alakenttä. Amerikkalainen viestintätutkija Heidi
Campbell tulkitsee videopelien synnyttävän uudenlaisia uskonnollisia kokemuksia, joka rakentuvat uudella tavalla digitaalisen
median ja kulttuurien kautta (Campbell, et el. 2014, 3). Videopelit kamppailivat aikoinaan legitimiteetistä kulttuurituotteena,
mutta nykyään ne ovat sekä bisnestä että taidetta. Videopelit
käyttävät yhä useammin uskontoa paitsi koristeena myös videopelien suunnittelun ja pelin ydinelementteinä. Pelit sisältävät
moraalisia päätöksiä, luottavat keksittyihin uskontoihin ja antavat käyttäjille mahdollisuuden luoda ja kokea virtuaalisia uskonnollisia tiloja. Nykyaikaisten ja muinaisten uskontojen käsitteitä
ja elementtejä esiintyy videopeleissä eri tavoin: palvontapaikat
ovat osa reaaliaikaisten strategiapelien maisemaa. Kerronnallisesti pelit lainaavat joskus teemoja uskonnollisista perinteistä.
Bosman (2016) ehdottaa neljän askelman metodologiaa
videopelien uskonnollisten sisältöjen analyysiin. Ensinnä hän
suosittelee sisäistä lukemista (internal reading) joka merkitsee
lähinnä pelin pelaamista. Bosmanin mukaa videopelaaminen on
samalla pelin tutkimustoimintaa. Pelaamista ja tutkimusta ei siis
ole syytä erottaa erillisiksi toiminnoiksi. Kuitenkin tässä yhteydessä pelaaminen ei tarkoita vain pelin pintapuolista läpijuoksua, vaan pelin useaan kertaan toistuvaa läpipelaamista, tutkien
erilaisia polkuja pelin varrella ja myös monien vaihtoehtoisten
reittien löytämistä. Tämä edellyttää myös monien pelin sisäisten rinnakkaisten tehtävien tutkimista. Tutkijalta odotetaan
lukuisten tuntien (jopa satojen) uhraamista pelaamiseen ja tutkimustoimintaan. Varhaisimmat Zelda pelit ovat varsin lineaarisia
luonteeltaan, joten niissä edetään melko selkeästi kohti loppuratkaisua ja lopputaistelua, yleensä huipentuen yhteenottoon
Ganondorf-velhoa vastaan. Uusimmissa pelisarjan realisaatioissa(”The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild” ja ” The Legend of
Zelda: Tears of the Kingdom”), on valtava määrä rinnakkaista
sisältöä ja sen avoin maailma sisältää lähes loppumattomalta tun34

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tuvaa tutkimusmateriaalia. Toinen Bosmanin (2016) ehdottama
menetelmä on pelin sisäinen tutkimusmateriaalin kerääminen.
Tämä sisältää pelin sisäisten informaatiopalasten järjestelmällisen keräämisen, sisältäen pelihahmojen (NPC, eli ”non-player
characters”) antaman informaation, tekstilöydöt, kuvituksen ja
audiovisuaaliset sisällöt. Tässäkin pelaaja toimii tutkijana pelimaailman sisällä, olettaen sen ainoaksi todellisuudeksi keräten
informaatiota digitaalisesta ympäristöstään.
Kolmas Bosmanin (2016) ehdottama askel on ulkoinen luenta(engl. ”external reading”), jossa tutkija kerää tietoa pelin ulkopuolisesta todellisuudesta. Tutkija kartoittaa pelin ja sen ympäröivän genren ja muiden medioiden tarjoamaa informaatiota
pelistä. Intermediaalisuus ja intertekstuaalinen lähestymistapa
avaavat pelin ominaisuuksista uusia näkökulmia, kun peliä tarkastelee osana laajempaa mediakenttää. Bosman tarkoittaa tällä
tasolla etupäässä pelin kehittäjien tarjoamia peliä tukevia medioita, kuten peliin liittyviä ja sitä ympäröiviä nettisivustoja, sarjakuvia, Facebook-ryhmiä ja pienoisromaaneja.
Neljäs menetelmä on ulkoinen tutkimus (engl. ”external research”), jossa kerätään kaikkea peliin liittyvää ulkopuolista informaatiota mikä ei ole pelin kehittäjien itsensä luomaa. Tärkeässä
roolissa ovat peliarvostelijoiden arvostelut, pelialan lehdet ja
auktoriteetit. Paljon sisältöä löytyy myös Twitchistä ja YouTubesta. Videopeleihin kuuluu siten elimellisesti interaktiivisuus,
mikä edelleen edellyttää vaihtoehtojen mahdollistamista pelaajalle. Pelaajan on pelin kuluessa tehtävä valintoja ja viimekädessä
tämä ominaisuus rakentaa pelin ja pelaajan välille interaktiivisen suhteen. Zelda pelisarjassa interaktiivisuus on selvästi läsnä.
Pelaaja tekee koko ajan ratkaisuja reittinsä, reaktioidensa ja
menetelmiensä suhteen. Zeldan on hyvin helppo tulkita myös
sisältävän elimellisesti narratiivisia elementtejä. Koko sen luoma
maailma koostuu kertomuksesta ja on siten läpitunkevan kerronnallinen. Pelin tapahtumien voi katsoa välittävän merkityksellisiä merkityssisältöjä pelaajille.
Bosmanin (2016) mukaan uskonnollisia vaikutteita voi videopeleistä löytää seuraavilta 5 tasolta:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Materiaalinen taso
Viittauksellinen taso
Refleksiivinen taso
Rituaalinen taso
Metataso

Materiaalisella tasolla pelin sisällöstä löytyy selkeitä eksplisiittisiä uskonnollisia elementtejä, joita erityisesti vanhemmista Zelda-peleistä löytyy paljon. Link-hahmon suojakilven risti, kirkko,
pappi ja Raamattu ovat näistä selkeitä esimerkkejä. Pelaaja pystyy helposti ymmärtämään tällaiset materiaaliset ilmenemiset
uskonnollisina, vaikka pelaajalla ei itsellään olisi uskonnollista
vakaumusta tai laajaa teologista tietopohjaa.
Viittauksellinen taso merkitsee pelissä esiintyviä eksplisiittisiä
tai implisiittisiä viittauksia uskonnollisiin traditioihin tai objekteihin. Zeldassa esiintyy uskonnollisia rituaaleja, mm. arabiankielistä resitointia, jonka pelaaja kykenee tulkitsemaan viittauksena islamin moskeijoissa tapahtuvaan rukoilemiseen. Zeldassa
jumaluus esiintyy kolminaisuuden muodossa, minkä voidaan
katsoa viittaavan kristinuskon kolminaisuusoppiin.
Refleksiivisella tasolla tarkoitetaan pelin sisällä ilmeneviä
eksistentiaalisia käsitteitä, joiden voidaan perinteisesti tulkita
liittyvän uskontoon. Erityisesti kerronnallisissa seikkailupeleissäon tyypillistä, että pelihahmo palvelee jotakin itseään korkeampaa tarkoitusperää. Peleihin liittyy monesti useita ihmiskuntaa yhdistäviä humaaneja periaatteita, kuten ystävyys, rakkaus,
uhrautuminen, syntymä, kuolema, synti, pelastus, anteeksianto
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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

jne. Uskontojen tärkeimpiä tehtäviä on käsitellä juuri edellä
kuvatun kaltaisia teemoja, samoin näin käy monissa videopeleissä. Zelda-pelien sankarillinen seikkailijahahmo, Link, saa
jokaisessa pelissä messiaanisen tehtävän. Hänen kutsumuksensa
on pelastaa Hyrulian maa, jota uhkaa persoonallistunut pahuus.
Link tyypillisesti pelastaa prinsessa Zeldan pelisarjan pääantagonistilta, Ganondorf -velholta. Kuoltuaan Link kokee välittömän
uudelleensyntymisen ja hän voi jatkaa seikkailuaan lähes ennallaan.
Rituaalisella tasolla viitataan pelaajien pelihahmojen suorittamia uskonnolliseksi luokiteltavia toimia pelimaailmassa. Link
menee eri temppeleihin ja suorittaa siellä uskonnollisia rituaaleja. Pelin kuluessa kohdataan useita meditoivia hahmoja ja osallistutaan erilaisiin uskonnollisiin riitteihin. Viides taso on metataso, jossa pelaaminen itsessään voidaan kokea uskonnolliseksi.
Ilmiön voi katsoa esiintyvän erityisesti ns. jumalapeleissä, kuten”Sims” ja ”Godus”. Mahdollisesti myös Zeldan peliuniversumi ja
siihen pitkäaikainen ja syvä uppoutuminen voi pelaajalle muodostua uskonnolliseksi kokemukseksi. Pelaaja ikään kuin kokee
hengellisen kääntymyksen hylianismiin.
Nämä viisi tasoa liikkuvat eksplisiittisten ja implisiittisten
uskontokokemusten välillä, sekä pelin sisällä että sen ulkopuolella. Osa näistä tasoista ja niiden ilmenemisistä on pelin kehittäjän tarkoittamia ja suunnittelemia, osa on pelkästään pelaajanomia kokemuksia. Materiaalinen taso on selkeästi avoimemmin
uskonnolliseksi tulkittavissa kuin metataso. Pelin kehittäjä on
yleensä tarkoittanut tietoisesti materiaalisen ja viittauksellisen
tason uskonnolliseksi, mutta rituaalinen ja metatasot syntyvät
pelin kehittäjän tarkoitusperistä riippumatta. Pelaajat ovat tyypillisesti itse vastuussa refleksiivisistä, rituaalisista ja metatason
kokemuksien tulkinnoistaan. Ne voidaan tulkita pelaaja-immanenteiksi, kun taas kaksi ensimmäistä, materiaalinen ja viittauksellinen, ovat peli-immanentteja.
Ferdig (2014) määrittelee osin eri tavalla neljä komponenttia,
joiden avulla uskonnon esiintymistä voidaan analysoida videopeleissä. Nämä osa-alueet ovat pelin sisältö, pelin konteksti,
pelin haasteet ja kerrospääoma. Pelin sisältö voi olla selvän tarkoituksellisesti luonteeltaan uskonnollinen. Pelin suunnittelijan
tarkoitus saattaa olla opettaa ja välittää uskonnollisia periaatteita, taitoja ja tietämystä, joka liittyy johonkin olemassa olevaan uskontoon. Esimerkiksi peli ”Left Behind 4: World at War”
sisältää tarkoituksellista uskonnollista sisältöä, jossa pelaajan
tehtävä on taistella antikristusta vastaan ja olla mukana enkelien
ja demonien välisessä taistelussa. Kyseinen peli myös noudattaa
avoimesti evankelisen kristillisyyden tulkintaperinteen teologisia linjauksia. Zeldassa pelin sisältö koostuu avoimen uskonnollisesta viitekehyksestä, mutta sen suoranaisena tarkoituksena
ei voi pitää uskonnollista opettamista tai tietyn uskonnollisen
näkemyksen vahvistamista, ehkä hylianismia lukuun ottamatta.
Toiseksi pelin konteksti voi olla uskonnollinen. Konteksti viittaa
tässä Fertigin (2014) määritelmässä pelin tarinaan, ympäristöön
ja tilanteisiin, joissa ilmenee eksplisiittistä tai implisiittistä viittausta uskontoihin. Nämä viittaukset voivat olla osa pelin fyysistä
ympäristöä, osa pelin sääntöjä tai pelintekijän normistoa. Symbolit tässä viittaavat kuitenkin vain kontekstiin, ei pelin varsinaiseen pelihaasteeseen. Uskonnollinen konteksti voidaan jakaa
kolmeen osa-alueeseen. Ensinnä pelin ympäristöön, mikä voi
esiintyä esimerkiksi rakennusten (kirkot, temppelit) tai esineiden (risti, uskonnolliset artefaktit) muodossa. Nämä uskonnolliset esineet luovat peliin lisää realismia, sillä niitä esiintyy yleisesti (esim. kirkot) länsimaisen väestön lähiympäristössä. Toinenmahdollisuus on lisätä peliin uskonnollisia esineitä, jotka rakentavat pelin tarinaa. Näissä tapauksissa uskonnollisia elementtejä
ei ole sisällytetty peliin vain realismin vuoksi, vaan olennaiseksi
35

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

osaksi pelin tarinankerrontaa. Pelin konteksti voi myös viitata
tilanteisiin, joissa uskonto vaikuttaa tai suuntaa pelin sääntöjä.
Pelin säännöstö ja toimintamekaniikka voi perustua uskonnolliseen moraalikoodeksiin. Pelaajan käyttäytyminen pelin eri tilanteissa ja moraaliset valinnat voivat ohjata pelin tapahtumia.
Pelin konteksti voi myös viitata pelihahmon omaamiin yliluonnollisiin kykyihin. Monissa roolipeleissä pelaajan ohjaama
hahmo voi käyttää magiaa tai taikavoimia, joita voi tehostaa
vaikkapa meditoimalla tai taikaesineillä. Zeldassa esiintyy varsin
paljon taikavoimia ja yliluonnollisia pelihahmojen ominaisuuksia. Link löytää taikaesineitä ja voi valmistaa taikajuomia, joiden
antamat kyvyt ovat selkeän maagisia.
Kolmanneksi pelin asettamat haasteet voivat luonteeltaan olla
uskonnollisia. Tällä tarkoitetaan pelin todellisia tavoitteita ja oletettuja päämääriä, joiden tarkoituksena saattaa olla uskonnollisen tiedon lisääminen tai uskonnollisen käyttäytymisen tukeminen. Haasteet voivat tarjota pelaajille mahdollisuuden ajatella ja
toimia uskonnollisesti. Tähän kategoriaan kuuluvat myös pelit,
joissa pelin keskushahmolla on selkeän messiaanisia tavoitteita.
Hayse (2010) on analysoinut videopelien messiaanisia viitteitä ja
Link voidaan selvästi nähdä messiaanisena hahmona, jonka päämääränä on toimia jumalatarten lähettiläänä ja pelastaa Hylia.
Kuten Hayse (2010) toteaa, erityisesti seikkailupelien tehtävissäon selvästi uskonnollisia tavoitteita. Pelihahmon tehtävänä onpelastaa maailma käyttäen normaalia vahvempia voimia. Videopelien messiaanisissa viitteissä voidaan nähdä yhtymäkohtia kristinuskon sanomaan, mutta vain varsin rajoitetusti. Link voittaa
vastustajansa väkivallalla, ei kristillisellä laupeudella tai jumalallisella armolla. Zeldassa voitto saavutetaan vahvemman oikeudella.
Pelaajan pääoma kuvastaa sitä panosta, jonka pelaaja itse sisällyttää pelikokemukseen. Moraaliset kysymykset saattavat ilmetä
jo pelin valinnan vaiheessa. Esimerkiksi väkivaltaiset pelit vaativat pelaajaa ainakin tiedostamattomalla tasolla hyväksyvän väkivallan ongelmanratkaisukeinona. Zeldan pelit eivät kuitenkaan
ole kärjistetyn väkivaltaisia. Tutkimusta siitä, miten paljon Zeldan pelaaminen pystyy muokkaamaan pelaajien uskonnollisia
käsityksiä ei ole tehty, mutta ainakin pelaamisen myötä herää
kysymyksiä jumaluuden luonteesta ja yliluonnollisen todellisuuden olemassaolosta. Zeldan suhteen voi myös arvella, että pelisarjasta kehittyy joillekin harrastajille uskonnollinen kokemus.
Pelisarja rakentaa monipuolista tarinaa, joka kehittää pelaajalle
vahvan immersion. Internetin Zelda-harrastajien monet infosivustot, harrastajien nettifoorumit ja kohtuullisen laaja Zeldakirjallisuus genre ovat todisteita Zeldan kyvystä kehittää harrastajille pitkäaikainen, jopa uskonnolliseksi luokiteltava, suhde.
Uskonnollisuus Zeldassa
Uskonnolla tarkoitetaan yleisesti henkilön tai yhteisön uskomusjärjestelmää, joka keskittyy henkilön tai yhteisön henkilökohtaisiin uskomuksiin todellisuuden perimmäisestä luonteesta ja
eettisiin arvoihin. Uskonnot ovat usein ankkuroituneita jonkinlaiseen pyhään tekstiin tai oppineiden opetuksiin, ja ne olettavat
tyypillisesti jonkinlaisen jumaluuden tai jumalien olemassaolon.
Hyrulessä uskonto yhdistää ja myös erottaa eri rotujen ja ympäröivien muiden maiden asukkaita ja viestittää jotain olennaista
heidän perustavaa laatua olevista olemassaoloa selittävistä käsityksistään.
Hyrule (japaniksi ”Hairaru”. Ensimmäisessä pelissä esiintyi
vanha suomennus ”Heraldia”) toimii Zelda-pelisarjan tapahtumapaikkana. Hyrule tarkoittaa tässä yhteydessä sekä Hyrulenkuninkaallisen perheen hallitsemaa kuningaskuntaa, että koko
Zeldan maailmaa. Peleissä esiintyy myös useita rinnakkaismaahttp://ejbo.jyu.fi/

EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

ilmoja, kuten ”A Link between Worlds” pelin Hyrulen peilikuvamaailma Lorule.
Hyrulessa asuu lukuisia eri rotuja, joista merkittävimmän
muodostavat hylialaiset. He ovat ihmisen kaltaisia, mutta suippokorvaisia Hyrulen asukkaita. Hyrulen kuninkaallinen perhe on
perinteisesti hylialaista alkuperää. Suippojen korvien sanotaan
olevan merkkinä kuuliaisuudesta jumalille ja hylialaiset ovatkin
uskonnollista ja legendoihin uskovaa kansaa. Heidän veressään
sanotaan magian virtaavan ja jotkin heistä omaavat vahvoja taikavoimia. Kaikki Hyrulen ihmistä muistuttavat asukkaat eivät kuitenkaan ole hylialaisia.Vain suippokorvaiset ja haltian olemuksenomaavat voivat olla aitoja hylialaisia. Merkittäviä hylialaisia ovat
esimerkiksi pelin päähahmo Link ja prinsessa Zelda.
Hyrulen uskonnon mukaan alussa vallitsi tyhjyydessä vallitseva kaaos. Maailman loivat kolme jumalatarta, nimiltään Din,
Nayru ja Farore. He loivat Hyrulen maan, kasvit ja eläimet ja
fysiikan lait. Din, ”voiman jumalatar”, loi maan. Nayru, ”viisauden jumalatar”, loi järjestyksen. Farore, ”rohkeuden jumalatar”
loi kaiken elämän. Jumalattaret nousivat luomistyönsä päättyessä taivaaseen ja jättivät jälkeensä kolme kultaista kolmiota eli
mystisen ”kolmivoiman” (Triforce). Din antoi kolmiolle voiman,
Nayru viisauden ja Farore rohkeuden. Voima liittyy punaiseen
väriin, viisaus siniseen ja rohkeus vihreään väriin. Yhdessä kolmiot muodostavat kultaisen entiteetin, joka edustaa kaikkea
Hyrulessa esiintyvää voimaa, viisautta, rohkeutta ja magiaa. Kolmivoima sijaitsee ulottuvuudessa, joka tunnetaan nimellä ”kultainen maa” (engl. ”Golden Land”) tai ”Sacred Realm” eli pyhä
valtakunta.
Näiden kolmen kultaisen jumalattaren kultti muodostaa Hyrulen hallitsevan uskonnon. Se ei kuitenkaan ole sen ainoa uskonto.
Monet muut Hyrulen asukkaat palvovat omia uskomusjärjestelmiänsä tai jumaliaan, kuten seitsemää sankaria (engl. ”Seven
heroines”) pelissä ”Breath of the Wild”. Näitä muita jumaluuksia palvovia rotuja kultaisten jumalattarien kultti kutsuu hieman
halventavasti "pienempien jumaluuksien palvojiksi". Kyseisetkolme kultaista jumalatarta (engl. ”Golden Gooddesses”) loivat
maailman ja kaikki elämänmuodot ja luonnonlait, joita kaikkien
eliöiden on noudatettava. Din, Nayru ja Farore ilmaantuivat
ensimmäisen kerran vuonna 1992 ilmestyneeseen peliin ” A Link
to the Past”. Heidät kuvataan kolmen kauniin naisen muodossa.
Heillä on hallinnassaan valtavia voimia ja he asuvat taivaissa.
Kultaisten jumalattarien palvonta on ylivoimaisesti suosituin
uskonto Hyrulessa. Sen kannattajia löytyy lukuisten rotujen joukosta, etenkin hylialaisistä. Hyrulen lakien mukaisesti kaikkien
sen asukkaiden on palvottava jumalattaria, mutta tämä ehto on
saattanut heidät konfliktiin monien muiden ympäröivien rotujen
kanssa. Muita jumalattarien palvojia löytyy esimerkiksi Gerudojen, Goronien, Zoran, Kokirin, Sheikahin ja Ooccan roduista.
Jumalattaren palvonnan käytäntö vaihtelee hieman eri rotujen välillä. Vaikuttaa siltä, että Hyrulen kuningaskunta noudattaa
erityisen fanaattista kultaisten jumalattarien oppia (engl. ”Strict
Goddess Worship”), eli Hyrulen viisaiden laatimaa säännöstöä.
Kolmen jumalattaren palattua taivaaseen, kolmivoima ja koko
maailma uskottiin jumalatar Hylian haltuun. Prinsessa Zeldasta muodostui Hylian maanpäällinen reinkarnaatio. Voinee
jopa väittää, että Hylian palvonnasta syntyi Hyrulen valtakunnassa harhaoppinen kultti. Hylialaisista tuli Hylian suojelijoita ja
lopulta he palvoivat häntä jopa kultaisia jumalattaria enemmän.
Hylia-kultin asema on vaihdellut eri Zelda-peleissä voimakkaasti
ja välillä se oli jopa häviämässä pelin maailmasta. Myös ateismia
esiintyy Hyrulessa. Tästä esimerkkinä on Labrynna, jonka asukkaat uskovat vain deduktiivisen päättelyn voimaan ja tieteeseen.
Monet rodut ovat myös liian kehittymättömiä, jotta niillä olisi
36Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

uskonnollisia arvoja. Näitä ovat esimerkiksi Eclipsen hirviöt.
Zelda-pelisarjan uskonnollinen kenttä on siten varsin laaja ja
monipuolinen. Se ei keskity vain yhden uskonnollisen tulkinnan
ympäristöön, vaan pelimaailmassa kohdataan erilaisia jumaluuksia, henkiä ja uskonnollisia tulkintoja. Se muistuttaa siis monipuolisuudessaan ja uskonnollisten tulkintojen heterogeenisyydessään todellista maailmaamme. Zeldan uskonnollisuus ja sen
esiintymismuodot eivät ole syntyneet pelkästään pelintekijöiden
mielikuvituksessa, vaan osa niistä on selvästi kopioita ja vähintäänkin vaikutteita todellisen maailmamme uskonnoista. Seuraavassa käydään läpi näitä reaalimaailman uskontojen heijastumia
Zeldan maailmassa.
Reaalimaailman uskonnot Zeldassa
Hylianismin kolme jumalatarta (Nayru, Farore ja Din) muistuttavat monoteistisen kristinuskon opettamaa kolmen itsenäisen persoonan jumaluuden ilmenemismuotoa, mutta sittenkin
enemmän hindulaisuuden kolmea keskeistä jumalaa, erityisesti
Brahmaa, Vishnua ja Shivaa. Nämä hindulaisuudessa esiintyvät
kolme jumaluutta symbolisoivat luomakuntaa (viisaus), ylläpitoa (rohkeus) ja tuhoa (voima). Näissä suhteissa Hylian ja hindulaisuuden käsitykset ovat selvästi yhteneväiset ja Zeldan käsitys
jumaluuden olemuksesta on etupäässä hindulaisuuden mukainen(Walls 2011).
Toinen selvästi hindulaisuuteen viittaava ominaisuus on se,
että Zeldan aikakäsitys on kehämäinen, eikä länsimaiseen tapaan
lineaarinen.Aika kiertää ikuista kehää. Kolmanneksi Link jälleensyntyy aina kuollessaan, aivan kuten hindulaisuudessa Vishnujumala reinkarnoituu kuolevaiseksi aina uudelleen taistelemaan
pahaa vastaan. ”Majora's Mask” pelissä esiintyvän Terminan maan
yllä kumottava kuu muistuttaa suuresti hindulaisuuden ”rahu”
ja ”ketu” jumaluuksia (kuun pohjois- ja etelänavat) kun niiden
pelätään tuhoavan Terminan keskellä sijaitsevan kellokaupunginja koko Terminan maan. Alkuperäisessä Zeldassa esiintyi yhdessä
kartassa myös manji-symboli eli käänteinen hakaristi, mikä sekinkuuluu hindulaisuuden kuvastoon.
Shintolaisuus ja buddhalaisuus ovat Japanin kaksi suurinta
uskontoa. Ne elävät ja vaikuttavat Japanissa verrattain sopuisasti
rinnakkain. Shintolaisuus on animistinen uskonto, jonka mukaan
kaikissa luonnonilmiöissä ja elollisessa vaikuttaa lukuisia henkiä
ja jumaluuksia. Sen mukaan on olemassa ainakin 8 miljoonaa
erilaista henkeä (”kami”). Vastaavasti Zeldassa on paljon ”kamia”
muistuttavia henkiä, esimerkiksi ”suuri Deku-puu” on metsän
henki, ”Jabu-Jabu” veden henki, ”Volvagia” Kuolleen Vuoren
henki, ”Valoo” taivaan henki ja ”Jabun” meren henki. Lukuisat
ja lähes kaikissa peleissä esiintyvät ”Korogut” ovat selvästi myös
henkiolentoja.
Zelda-pelisarjan ehkäpä vahvin symboli on kolmesta kolmiosta koostuva kolmivoimaa kuvaava Triforce-symboli. Japanilaisessa kulttuurissa vastaava symboli esiintyy voimakkaan Hojoklaanin kilvessä. Zelda peleissä kolmivoima (Triforce) yhdistyy
olennaisesti kolmeen jumalattareen. Japanilaisen mytologianmukaan kolme jumaluutta (Amenominakanushi, Takamimusubi
ja Kamimusubi) loivat maailman ja sen jälkeen piilottivat ruumiinsa. Myöhemmin nämä jumalat ilmestyivät jälleen ja jatkoivat keskeytynyttä luomisprosessiaan ja sälyttivät tämän tehtävän
reinkarnaatioilleen.Vastaavasti Zelda-peleissä kolme jumalatarta
loi maailman kaaoksesta ja sälytti maailman täydellistämisen
tehtävän jumalatar Hylialle, joka reinkarnoituma on prinsessa
Zelda (Walls 2011).
Peleissä esiintyy viitteitä myös islamiin. ”Ocarina of Time”
pelissä esiintyi Gerudon vaakuna (Gerudo crest) kaiverrettuna
useassa esineessä (mm. taikapeilissä ”Mirror shield”), lipuissa
http://ejbo.jyu.fi/

EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

ja arkuissa. Alkuperäisissä ”Ocarina of Time” pelin versioissa
vaakuna muistutti hyvin suuresti puolikuuta eli Islamin symbolia. Vaakuna tosin poistettiin pelin myöhäisemmistä versioista.
Samaisessa ”Ocarina of Time” pelissä, sen varhaisissa versioissa,
Linkin seikkaillessa ”tulitemppelissä”, taustalla kuuluu resitointia, josta pystyi melko vaivatta erottamaan ”Allah” nimen ja joka
muistuttaa moskeijan äänimaailmaa. Taustaääni poistettiin tosin
pelin myöhemmistä versioista ja korvattiin pelkällä syntetisaattorimusiikilla.
Kristinuskon symbolit Zeldassa
Kahden ensimmäisen Zelda-pelin (”Legend of Zelda” ja ”Adventure of Link”) pelimaailmassa esiintyi paljon ristisymboleita.
Linkin kilvessä oli suurikokoinen risti ja lisäksi hautausmaiden
hautakivissä oli ristit. Linkin suojakilpi muistuttaa vahvasti ristiretkeläisten käyttämää ristin muotoa (myös väritykseltään)
ja Nintendon tarkoituksena luultavasti oli sen avulla vahvistaa
keskiaikaista tunnelmaa pelissä. ”Adventure of Link” pelissä risti
toimii lisäksi maagisena aseena, jonka avulla pelaajan on mahdollista nähdä näkymättömiä aaveita. Kun Link pitelee ristiä
edessään kädessä, näkymättömät viholliset tulevat näkyviksi.
Ensimmäisen pelin japaninkielisessä versiossa pelissä oli löydettävissä ”loitsukirja” (engl. spell book) jonka avulla oli mahdollista ampua tulta, mikäli samanaikaisesti myös taikasauva oli
käytössä.Tuo kirja oli japanilaisessa versiossa nimellä ”Raamattu”(engl. ”Bible”). Pelin länsimaihin (erityisesti USA) suunnatuissa
versioissa kirjan nimi oli muutettu muotoon ”spell book”. Luultavasti Nintendon tiimi pelkäsi Raamatun samaistamisen taikuuteen herättävän ärtymystä. Kolmannessa Zelda pelissä (”A Link
to the Past”) pelin alussa Link polvistuu krusifiksin edessä. Link
saa ohjeita pappia muistuttavalta henkilöltä ja vierailee selvästi
kirkkoa muistuttavassa rakennuksessa.
Zelda-pelien keskushahmo ”Link” eroaa usealla tavalla puhtaasti kristillisestä sankarista. Kristillisen sankarin arkkityyppinä
voidaan pitää John Bunyanin kirjasta ”Kristityn vaellus” löytyvää
päähenkilöä, jonka nimi kirjassa on kuvaavasti ”Kristitty”. Bunyanin kirja julkaistiin vuonna 1678 ja sen painosmäärä on valtaisa.
Kirja on käännetty yli 200 kielelle, suomeksi useaan kertaan. Se
lienee Raamatun jälkeen maailman eniten painettu kirja.
Kirjan teemasta on julkaistu myös videopelejä, tunnetuimpana niistä Scott Cawthonin ja Hope Animation yrityksen
vuonna 2011 julkaisema ”The Pilgrim's Progress: The VideoGame” (jatkossa lyhennettynä: PP). Peli on tasohyppely, jossa
pelaaja ohjaa ”Kristitty” nimistä pelihahmoa, alkuperäisen Bunyanin kirjan mukaisesti. Pelin tarina mukailee hyvin uskollisesti”Kristityn vaellus” kirjaa, josta pelin hahmot ja tapahtumat on
rakennettu. Peli on uskollinen kirjan teemalle ja vaikka pelissäon paljon taisteluja, ne läpäistään ”hengellisillä aseilla”, ei fyysisellä voimalla. Ulkonaisesti Link ja PP:n pelihahmo ”Kristitty”
ovat hyvin samankaltaisia. Molemmat saavat ylleen pelin edetessä haarniskan ja perinteiset ritarin varusteet. Molemmilla on
kilpi, jonka kannessa on suuri kristillinen risti (Linkillä symboli
korvautuu tosin myöhemmin Kolmivoimalla) ja molemmilla onkädessään miekka (Linkillä välillä myös esim. jousi tai nuija).
Link ja Kristitty kohtaavat matkallaan monia vihollisia, joita
vastaan näiden on taisteltava. Myös pakeneminen taisteluista
on molemmille mahdollista. Link ja Kristitty eroavat kuitenkin
hyvin olennaisesti toisistaan. Kristitty on selkeästi kristinuskon
mukainen arkkityyppi kristinuskon harjoittajasta ja tämän toimintamekanismit noudattavat perinteisen kristillisyyden arvoja
ja etiikkaa. Kristitty ei varsinaisesti taistele, vaan hän käyttää”hengellisiä aseita”, vastustaa vihollisia hengellisillä elementeillä(usko, toivo, lupaukset, jne.), rukoilee parantumista ja lisävoi37

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

mia, käyttää hänelle suotuja siunauksia ja rukoilee. Kristitty eisiis lyö vihollista miekalla, vaikkakin faktisesti taistelut näyttävät
myös PP-pelissä melko perinteisiltä kaksinkamppailuilta, joskin väkivallattomilta. Kristitty kuolee kirjassa vain kerran, eikä
reinkarnaatio ole mahdollinen. Molemmissa peleissä pelaaja kuitenkin voi kuolla ennen pelin läpipelaamista, jolloin pelihahmo
palaa takaisin henkiin. PP-pelissä tämä henkiinherääminen tapahtuu ”Jumalan ihmeenä”, Zeldassa Link reinkarnoituu temppeliin.
Link saa paljon ohjeita ja hyödyllisiä vinkkejä tapaamiltaan
hahmoilta. Zelda-peleissä olennaista on keskustella kaikkien
tavattujen hahmojen kanssa, sillä jokaisella saattaa olla jotakinmerkityksellistä kerrottavaa. Kristityn on valikoitava tarkemminne, joiden kanssa kommunikoi ja joilta ottaa neuvoja ja ohjeita.
Kristityn kohtaamat hahmot ovat etupäässä passiivisia uskonnollisen käännytyksen tai hengellisen avunannon ja laupeudentyön objekteja (esirukous, rohkaisu, Raamatun lahjoittaminen,
ruuan tarjoaminen). Monesti Kristittyä neuvovat NPC:t (engl.
”non-player character”) johtavat pelihahmoa harhateille. Kristitty on yksin vastuussa omista päätöksistään ja tämän on luotettava lähinnä vain Jeesuksen ja Evankelistan neuvoihin. Kristitty on myös haarniskoitu ja käyttää miekkaa. Usein pelastus
löytyy kuitenkin Kristitylle jo pelin alussa annetuista siunauksista, ei oman taisteluvoiman ansiosta. Kristitty kyllä kehittyy
pelin kuluessa, hänen hengellinen kestävyytensä lisääntyy, mutta
taisteluissa tämän on käytettävä tälle jo alussa annettuja kykyjä.
Tehtäviä suorittamalla Kristitty saa tekemistään hyvistä töistä
muistoksi erivärisiä ristejä, mutta niiden hyödyllisyys taisteluissa
on melko vähäinen. Link toimii Zelda-peleissä tyypillisenä messiashahmona, joka lähtee vaatimattomista lähtökohdista, saa tehtävän ja lähtee sitä toteuttamaan. Matkan varrella hahmo kehittyy, sekä fyysisesti että henkisesti ja hankkii itselleen lisätaitoja
ja uusia kykyjä. Lopulta pelihahmo kehittyy niin vahvaksi, että
selviytyy lopputaistelusta voimiensa ja kykyjensä avulla. Lopputuloksena on maailman pelastuminen ja usein prinsessa Zeldanpelastuminen. Kristitty ei sitä vastoin ole messiashahmo. Hän ei
pelasta koko maailmaa, vaan korkeintaan itsensä. PP-pelin messiashahmo on Jeesus, joka alkuperäisen Kristityn vaellus -kirjan
mukaisesti tapaa Kristityn matkan varrella joitakin kertoja. Kristityn tehtävä on pelissä seurata tämän messiaan ennalta osoittamaa tietä. Taulukossa 2 on tiivistettynä merkittävimmät erot
Zelda- ja PP-pelien välillä (Taulukko 2, s. 38).
Zelda-pelien ”kristillisyys” on päälle liimattua rekvisiittaa,
joka toimii lähinnä tunnelman luojana antamassa keskiaikaista
viitekehystä pelisarjalle. Se on siis nähtävä ennen kaikkea kaupallisista motiiveista rakennettuna houkuttimena, jolla ei ole mitään
uskonnollisia tavoitteita tai pyrkimyksiä. Mikäli Zelda-pelisarja
edistää jotakin uskonnollista käyttäytymistä tai ajattelua, on selähinnä muokkaamassa pelaajien arvoja myötämieliseksi synkretistiseen uskonnolliseen ideologiaan. Uskonnolliset viittaukset
Zelda-peleissä ovat lukuisat, mutta ne tuovat syvempää tarinallisuutta peleihin ja toimivat ulkoisina mausteina peleissä. Niiden
käyttö liittyy lähinnä vain kaupallisten tavoitteiden maksimoimiseen.
Kaupallisuuden korostuminen Zeldassa tulee näkyväksi, kun
sitä verrataan PP-peliin, jonka tavoitteena on selkeästi toimia
kristillisen elämän ja uskonnollisuuden edistäjänä. PP-pelissä
hahmojen kanssa käydään keskusteluja teologisista asioista ja
niissä Bunyanin ”Kristityn vaellus” kirjan mukaisesti opastetaan
pelihahmoa syvempään ja vahvempaan kristillisyyden harjoittamiseen. Yleisiltä pelimekaniikoiltaan molemmat pelit edustavat
melko samaa genreä, pelaaja ohjaa pelihahmoa (joka muistuttaa
keskiaikaista ritaria) joka kehittyy pelin kuluessa, taistelee vihollisia vastaan ja lopuksi saavuttaa päämääränsä lopputaistelussa.
Uskonnolliselta viitekehykseltään peleissä on samankaltaisuutta
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EJBO Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies

Vol. 29, No. 1 (2024)

Zelda

PP

Pelireitti

melko lineaarinen

lineaarinen

Viholliset

vihollisrodut, demonit

synnit, demonit

Aseet

perinteiset (miekka, jousi)

hengellinen varustus

Magiataikajuomat, loitsut

rukous, siunaukset

Reinkarnoituminen

kyllä

kyllä

Risti-symboli

rekvisiittaa, maaginen esine

muistutus hyvistä töistä

NPC:t

informaattori

auttamisen objekti

Messiaanisuus

Link

Jeesus, ei Kristitty

Kristinusko

rekvisiittaa

pelin ydin

Taulukko 2. Zelda ja PP pelien väliset erot.

(molempien pelihahmot voidaan nähdä ainakin pintapuolisesti
kristittynä), mutta niiden uskonnolliset tavoitteet ja kristinuskon sisäistämisen syvyys eroaa erittäin merkittävästi. PP-peli on
kristinuskon läpitunkemaa ja sen ydintavoitteeksi voidaan nähdä
pelaajan uskonnollisen vakaumuksen syventäminen, joskin viihteellisen ja tarinallisen pelaamisen oheistuotteena. PP noudattaa
selkeästi perinteisen kristillisyyden (so. herätyskristillistä baptismia) oppirakennelmia ja kasvattaa pelaajaa kohti kristillistä
vakaumusta ja sen mukaista elämää.
Zelda- ja PP-pelien uskonnollisuutta voidaan analysoida
lopuksi myös Bosmanin (2016) ja Ferdigin (2014) luomien jaotteluiden avulla. PP-pelissä uskonnollinen viitekehys on löydettävissä kaikilla tasoilla. Kristinusko on Bosmanin (2016) rakennejaottelun mukaisesti läsnä materiaalisella, viittauksellisella,refleksiivisellä, rituaalisella ja myös metatasolla. Samoin Ferdigin (2014) jaottelua mukaillen, PP-pelissä uskonnollisuus on
läpitunkevan olennaista pelin sisällössä, pelin kontekstissa, pelin
haasteissa ja lisäksi pelaajan omassa pelipääomassa.
Zeldassa uskonnollisuus, varsinkin kristinusko, esiintyy vain
pintapuolisesti. Uskonnolliset viitteet toimivat lähinnä materiaalisella ja viittauksellisella tasolla (Bosman 2016) ja pelin kontekstissa (Fertig 2014). Zeldaa ei voi siis pitää mitenkään erityisen ”kristillisenä” vaan korkeintaan synkretismin ja modernin
uususkonnollisuuden edustajana, joka kaupallisen menestyksen
saavuttaakseen on sisällyttänyt pelaajia stimuloivia uskonnollisia
viittauksia pelin universumiin. Muistaen Zelda-pelisarjan valtaisan globaalin menestyksen, voikin todeta Nintendon onnistuneen tässä tavoitteessaan erinomaisesti.
Loppusanat
Legend of Zelda-pelisarjan tarinankerronnassa ja sen suhteessa uskonnollisten merkityssisältöjen hyödyntämiseen voidaan
nähdä mielenkiintoisia kehitystrendejä. Pelisarjan edetessä judeo-kristillinen symboliikka saa rinnalleen elementtejä mm.
hindulaisuudesta, buddhalaisuudesta ja islamista. Vahva luonnonuskontojen ja itämaisten filosofioiden viitekehys säilyy pelisarjassa olennaisena merkityssisältönä ja tarinankuljettajana koko
pelisarjan ajan. Zelda-pelien narratiivinen eksegeesi kykenee
paljastamaan digitaalisen tarinankerronnan taustalla vaikuttavia
synkretistisiä signaaleja vahvistavia elementtejä, joiden osuus pe-lisarjan kronologisessa kehityksessä ja myös niiden nauttimassa
globaalissa suosiossa on olennaisen merkityksellistä.
McClure (2016) on tutkimuksessaan osoittanut, että nykyaikainen media lisää yhteiskunnassa vaikuttavaa uskonnollista
synkretismiä. Voidaan siis olettaa, että Zelda pelien uskonnollinen moninaisuus lisää pelaajien avoimuutta eri uskonnollisia
näkemyksiä kohtaan ja lisää synkretismiä hyväksyviä asenteita.
Sosiaalinen media ja pelien synkretismi voi johtaa myös yksilöllisten uskonnollisten käsitysten lisääntymiseen, jotka eivät
välttämättä enää ole perinteisten uskontojen ja niiden opetusten mukaisia. Myös Zeldan pelaajien keskuudessa voi olettaa
lisääntyvän uskonnollisen avoimuuden ja käsityksen, että on
hyväksyttävää yhdistellä ja muokata eri uskontojen näkemyksiä. Zelda-pelisarjan tuskin voi kuitenkaan katsoa sisältävän
merkittävää uskonnollista agendaa. Se voi lisätä peliharrastajien
synkretistisiä asenteita ja yleistä uskonnollista suvaitsevaisuutta,
mutta Link-hahmo tuskin onnistuu kasvattamaan pelaajasta
sitoutunutta uskonnollista toimijaa. Vertailukohtana toiminut
PP-peli sen sijaan pyrkii selkeästi uskonnolliseen kasvatukseen.
Sen tavoitteena on välittää kristinuskon (sen klassisen baptisminmukaista uskonnollista tulkintaa) tarjoamaa maailmanselitystä jakasvattaa pelaajasta pelihahmonsa eli ”kristityn” mukaista uskonnollista toimijaa, joka rukoilee, evankelioi ja käy hengellisiä taisteluita syntiä ja paholaista vastaan.
Tämän tutkimuksen mukaan Zelda-pelisarjan uskonnollisten
viittausten ja symbolien funktio on ennen kaikkea maksimoida
pelin kaupallista menestystä. Näiden pelien uskonnollisuutta on
syytä tulkita lähinnä liiketaloudellisista motiiveista syntyneenä
lisäyksenä, kun sitä verrataan toiseen peliin, "The Pilgrim's
Progress: The Video Game", jossa kristinusko saa keskeisemmän
ja merkityksellisemmän roolin. Zelda-pelit hyödyntävät uskonnollista kuvastoa ritualistisena elementtinä, jonka keskeinentarkoitus on toimia kaupallisen semiotiikan välineenä. Analyysi
hyödyntää mytologioiden tutkimuksen teoreettisia välineitä,
joiden avulla Zelda-pelin kertomus ja tarinankehitys paljastuvat keskeisesti taloudellisiksi tavoitteiksi. Pelisarjan eksplisiittiset symbolit, kuten esimerkiksi krusifiksi, jälleensyntyminen ja
kolminaisuus, heijastavat laajempaa sosiologista ja yhteiskunnallista kontekstia. Zelda-pelisarjan uskonnolliset viittaukset tuleekin nähdä vain yrityksenä maksimoida videopelin kaupallista
menestystä.

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Kirjoittaja
Dr. (PhD) Esa Mangeloja is currently working as a Senior Lecturer of Economics (University of Jyväskylä) and Adjunct Professor (Docent)of Economics (University of Tampere). During the academic years 2023–2024, he also works as a Visiting Professor in the Universityof Aarhus (Denmark) and the University of Oulu (Finland). He received a Doctoral degree in 2001, with his dissertation: “Nordic Stock
Market Integration.” He also holds Master of Social Sciences (political science) and Bachelor of Theology (University of Helsinki)
degrees. In addition to his academic career, Mangeloja has worked several years as a stock market analyst and financial strategist.
He studied international finance and econometrics in the University of Alberta (Canada) in 1993-1994. His main research interests arein applied macroeconomics, particularly in questions related to Economics of Religion and Economics of Sport, in addition to themesof Economic growth, Finance and Economic History. His research has been published in several international scientific journals andbooks. Mangeloja has been key speaker in various customer and public seminars, worked as an expert in several working groups,
written expert’s analyses and actively writes columns to magazines and newspapers. Mangeloja has been awarded as “Good Teacher”(University of Jyväskylä 1998) and “Teacher of the Year” (2006, 2004, 1998, 1997, by Business and Economics Students Association Pörssi
ry)
Address: Department of Economics, Jyväskylä University School of Business and Economics, P.O.Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä,
Finland
Email: esa.mangeloja@jyu.fi
39

http://ejbo.jyu.fi/