Intermodal
TransporT
Turkey is growing fast, owing mainly torapidly increasing trade. In order to facilitate
this trade, efficient logistics and transport
services are crucial. Yet Turkey is at an
early stage in developing sophisticated andmodern logistic services and at present is
too dependent on road transport. This bookargues that Turkey’s continuing economic
expansion depends on the diversification of
its transport modes and especially on theIntermodal Transport

National Peer Review: Turkey

Intermodal
TransporTdevelopment of efficient multimodal services.
Turkey’s role as a hub for Europe, Asia,and the Middle East and as a facilitator ofstrategy and measures to support a range
of intermodal logistic and transport services.
This work analyses the current situation andsets forth some of the actions and policies
needed to stimulate the development of atruly multimodal transport system.

National Peer Review: Turkey

global exchange will be enhanced with a

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2009

National
Peer Review:

TurkeyCover_f.fm Page 1 Wednesday, April 7, 2004 11:00 AM

Intermodal
TransporT

National
Peer Review:

TurkeyINTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT FORUM

The International Transport Forum is an inter-governmental body within the OECD family. The
Forum is a global platform for transport policy makers and stakeholders. Its objective is to serve politicalleaders and a larger public in developing a better understanding of the role of transport in economic growth
and the role of transport policy in addressing the social and environmental dimensions of sustainable
development. The Forum organises a Conference for Ministers and leading figures from civil society each
May in Leipzig, Germany.
The International Transport Forum was created under a Declaration issued by the Council of
Ministers of the ECMT (European Conference of Ministers of Transport) at its Ministerial Session in May
2006 under the legal authority of the Protocol of the ECMT, signed in Brussels on 17 October 1953, andlegal instruments of the OECD. The Forum’s Secretariat is located in Paris.
The Members of the Forum are: Albania, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
FYROM, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, Liechtenstein,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Moldova, Montenegro, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,
Ukraine, the United Kingdom and the United States.
The OECD and the International Transport Forum established a Joint Transport Research Centre in
2004. The Centre conducts co-operative research programmes addressing all modes of transport to support
policy making in Member countries and contribute to the Ministerial sessions of the International
Transport Forum.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS — 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Following the discussions with the Turkish authorities, the Peer Review began in September, 2006.
Four experts participated and contributed their expertise to the analysis: Martin Magold, Chief of the
Border Crossing Facilitation Section in the Transport Division of the United Nations Economic
Commission For Europe (UNECE) and Secretary of the UNECE Working Party on Intermodal Transportand Logistics, Christian Reynaud (France), a private consultant with special expertise in transport
infrastructure, Christoph Seidelmann (Germany), with special expertise in intermodal transport
operations, and Wouter van Zijst (Netherlands), senior expert on intermodal transport in the Dutch
Ministry of Transport.
This team was assisted by Martine-Sophie Fouvez, Principal Administrator in the International
Transport Forum Secretariat, Nurhan Tüfekçioğlu, Turkish expert on road transport, who drew up the
inception report for this study, and Lale Karayaka who assisted in the preparation of the final report.
The team was also supported by the relevant Turkish State Institutions as well as private sector
actors through the coordination of National Focal Point İzzet Işık, Head of International Relations
Department, General Directorate of Road Transport of Ministry of Transport, Turkey.
The International Transport Forum would like to express its sincere appreciation to all these people
for their commitment and extend as well its gratitude to the Governments and Organisations represented
on the team for facilitating the participation of experts.

INTERMODAL TRANSPORT – NATIONAL PEER REVIEW: TURKEY – ISBN 978-92-821-0222-0 - © OECD/ITF, 2009

TABLE OF CONTENTS — 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................................... 7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 11
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 17
PART I. TURKEY: AT THE CROSSROADS OF EUROPE, ASIA AND
THE MIDDLE EAST ....................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 1. MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY ....................................................... 21
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.

Turkey’s Foreign Trade ............................................................................................................. 21
Exports and Imports by Country Groups................................................................................... 24
Market Shares of Transport Modes in Foreign Trade ............................................................... 31

Chapter 2. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND TRANSPORT CONTEXT ....................................... 35
2.1.
2.2.

The Socio-Economic Context and Transport Needs ................................................................. 35
The Spatial Development of Turkey ......................................................................................... 38

PART II. FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE CHALLENGES AHEAD .................................... 41
Chapter 3. TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY ............................................ 41
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.

Road Transport .......................................................................................................................... 41
Railway Transport ......................................................................................................................53
Maritime Transport and Ports .................................................................................................... 70
Air Transport ............................................................................................................................. 80
Pipelines .................................................................................................................................... 85
Logistic Centres: Freight Villages and Intermodal Terminals .................................................. 99

Chapter 4. INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS IN AND WITH TURKEY ............. 101
4.1.
4.2
4.3.
4.4
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.

Definitions and Context........................................................................................................... 101
Road-Rail Intermodal Transport Operations ........................................................................... 102
Roll-On-Roll-Off (RO-RO) Ferry Services............................................................................. 105
Rail Ferry Services .................................................................................................................. 109
International Maritime-Pipeline Transportation ...................................................................... 110
Intermodal Transport Actors in Turkey ................................................................................... 110
Existing Legal Framework ...................................................................................................... 112

PART III. REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFICIENT INTERMODAL
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS .............................................................................................................. 115
Chapter 5. WHY CHOOSE INTERMODAL TRANSPORT? ....................................................... 115
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.

Main Scenarios for Future Development................................................................................. 115
The Functions of Intermodal Transport ................................................................................... 116
The Commercial Basics of Intermodal Transport ................................................................... 117
The Basic Techniques of Intermodal Transport ...................................................................... 118

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6 — TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.5.
5.6.

The Choice of Technique ........................................................................................................ 119
Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 120

Chapter 6. THE CHOICE OF THE BEST INTERMODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM............... 121
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.

The Potential Markets for Freight Container Transport .......................................................... 121
Semi-Trailers in Intermodal Transport .................................................................................... 124
The European Domestic Container ......................................................................................... 126
Ro-La Operation ...................................................................................................................... 129

PART IV. STRATEGY FOR A COMPETITIVE INTERMODAL TRANSPORTSYSTEM IN TURKEY .................................................................................................................. 133
Chapter 7. A SYSTEM ADAPTED TO NETWORK PERSPECTIVES AND
TRANSPORT PROJECTION FOR EURO-ASIAN TRANSPORT LINKS ............................ 133
7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.

The International and Transit Corridors Across Turkey.......................................................... 134
The TINA Project on Major National and International Corridors ......................................... 136
Transport Prospective and Traffic Projections ........................................................................ 136
AGTC ...................................................................................................................................... 142

Chapter 8. PROMOTION OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS
AND LOGISTICS ........................................................................................................................... 145
8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4

National Transport ................................................................................................................... 145
International Transport ............................................................................................................ 149
Reorganisation of Customs Treatment in the Gateways.......................................................... 151
Regulatory and Financial Support Measures for the Developmentof Intermodal Transport........................................................................................................... 152

Chapter 9. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AN INTERMODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM ........ 155
9.1.
9.2.

Development of an Intermodal and Logistics Master Plan ..................................................... 155
Creation of a Department of Intermodal Transport and Logistics ........................................... 160

CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................................. 163
ANNEXES
Annex I.

AGTC Agreement ............................................................................................................. 169

Annex II.

Model Action Plan and Partnership Agreement for the Development ofIntermodal Transport at the Pan-European Level [CEMT/CM(2005)10] ......................... 171

Annex III. Developing Intermodal Transport in the Netherlands ....................................................... 183
Annex IV. National Measures to Develop Combined Transport: The Case of Austria[CEMT/CS/TIL(2007)1/REV1] ........................................................................................ 187
Annex V.

Guide to Intermodal Transport Road/Rail Cost and Price Calculation ............................. 193

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LIST OF ACRONYMS — 7

LIST OF ACRONYMSAETR

The European Agreement Concerning the Work of Crews of Vehicles Engaged inInternational Road Transport

AGC

European Agreement on Main International Railway Lines

AGR

European Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries

AGTC

European Agreement on Important International Combined Transport Lines andRelated Installations

ATS

Air Traffic Service

BSEC-URTA

Union of Road Transport Associations in the Black Sea Economic Cooperation
RegionBOT

Build-Operate-Transfer

BOTAS

Turkish Petroleum Pipeline Corporation

BSEC

Black Sea Economic Cooperation

CEI

Central European Initiative

CEN

European Committee for Standardisation

CIM (COTIF) Uniform Rules Concerning the Contract for International Carriage of Goods byRail (Appendix B to The Convention Concerning International Carriage by Rail)
COTIF

Convention Concerning International Carriage by Rail

CPC

Caspian Pipeline Consortium

DC

Dual Carriage Way

DHMI

General Directorate of State Airports Authority

DLH

General Directorate of Railways, Harbors and Airports Construction

EC

European Commission

ECAC

European Civil Aviation Conference

ECMTEuropean Conference of Ministers of Transport (presently the International Transport
Forum (ITF))

ECO

Economic Cooperation Organization

EU

European UnionEUROSTAT

Statistical Office of the European Communities

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8 — LIST OF ACRONYMS
FIR

Flight Information Region

FCL

Full Car Load Conveyance

FYROM

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

GAP

Southeastern Anatolia Regional Development Project

HST

High Speed Train

IMF

International Monetary Fund

ITF

International Transport Forum (formerly ECMT)INOGATEInterstate Oil and Gas Transport to Europe Programme

ISOInternational Organisation for Standardisation

KGM

General Directorate of Highways

KUGM

General Directorate of Road Transport

LCL

Less than Car Load Consignments

LNG

Liquefied Natural Gas

NG

Natural Gas

NIC

Nabucco International Gas PipelineNIS

New Independent States

NNC

Nabucco National Companies

PA

Privatization Administration

PPP

Public Private Partnership

Ro-La

Rollende Landstrasse (Rolling Road)

Ro-Ro

Roll-On Roll-Off

SC

Single Carriage Way

SEE

State Economic Enterprise

SHGM

Directorate General of Civil Aviation

SPO

State Planning Organisation

TCDD

Turkish State Railways

TDI

Turkish Maritime Administration

TEM

Trans-European Motorways

TEN

Trans-European Networks

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LIST OF ACRONYMS — 9

TER

Trans-European Railway Project

TEU

The Twenty feet Equivalent Unit

TINA

Transport Infrastructure Needs Assessment Study

TIR

Transports Internationaux Routiers

TL

Turkish Lira

TPAO

Turkish Petroleum Corporation

TRACECATransport Corridor Europe-Caucasus-AsiaTÜDEMSAŞ

Turkish Railway Machines Industry JS Company

TÜLOMSAŞ

Turkish Locomotive and Engine Industry JC Company Inc.

TÜVASAŞ

Turkish Wagon Industry JS Company

UIRR

The International Union of Combined Road-Rail transport companies

UN

United Nations

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNECE

United Nations Economic Cooperation for Europe

UNESCAP

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

UNSTAT

United Nations Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy
Analysis Statistical Division

VAT

Value Added Tax

WB

World BankWTO

World Trade Organization

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY — 11

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The purpose of this Peer Review is to provide a general description and assessment of Turkey’s
intermodal transport operations. The Review also makes recommendations that are considered necessary
to further promote and improve intermodality in Turkey. It has been carried out by a review teamsupported by the International Transport Forum/ITF Secretariat (formerly ECMT) upon the request of theTurkish Ministry of Transport.
Turkish Economy and International Trade
Turkey enjoys a strategic location, with the potential to play a pivotal role in regional and global
integration. The important energy, trade and transport networks which connect west to east and north tosouth are keys to unleashing this potential. Recent economic and political developments throughout
neighbouring regions -- the Balkans, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Basin, the Caucasus, Central Asiaand the Middle East -- have further emphasized Turkey’s role.
In recent decades, Turkey has benefited from a favourable economic environment, which has
supported a broad and continuous reform allowing the country to strengthen its position on international
markets.
Turkey is fast becoming one of the leading actors in foreign trade in the region, and has extensive
trade relations not only with the EU and OECD Member Countries but also with the Black Sea Economic
Cooperation (BSEC), the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) and with Central Asia and the
Middle East. Political progress in opening markets and borders will facilitate Turkey’s trade andeconomic growth.
Turkey has grown rapidly, with an average of nearly 7% growth in GDP per year over the period
2002-2007. Based on the recent increases in foreign trade volumes, it is expected that the share of foreign
trade in GDP will grow steadily.
Turkey’s Transport System
A dynamic logistics industry, combined with a large international road vehicle fleet, underscores
Turkey’s potential to become one of the most significant logistics hubs and transit countries in theregion. Turkey has an extensive and well-maintained east-west road network. Among the importantinternational networks and corridors passing over its national territory are TEM Network, BSEC, ECO
and TRACECA Corridors, Euro-Asian Transport Linkages and Pan-European Corridor IV.
Following a package of legislative reforms, the legal framework for international road transport isnow consistent with the EU policy. The market is fully liberalized, and the private sector is highly
involved in road transport operations.
Some 96% of passengers and 92% of freight are transported by road in Turkey. This dependence onroad transport creates vulnerabilities. Indications such as congestion, environmental downsides, bordercrossing problems, road taxation, restrictions on road traffic, permit shortages and customs constraints
are some examples.

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12 — EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In order to overcome this vulnerability and become more sustainable, Turkey needs to developintermodal transport solutions that can rapidly yield results without losing the advantages of its
competitive road transport system.
International road transport operators have adapted to the international context by implementing
innovative solutions which combine road, sea and Roll-on Roll-off (RO-RO) transport. This is partly
explained by the fact that, despite a 138% increase in Turkish exports to the EU, this sector has seen only
a 50% increase in the quota of permits received in the last five years. Turkish operators have started
acquiring companies in Europe to overcome permit problems and have also developed RO-RO services
to provide alternatives. In addition to this, through the additional and multi-entry permits (such as ECMT
permits) obtained during the year, it is targeted to partially minimise the shortage of permit quota in the
country.
Other transport modes, however – especially rail -- have shown less inclination to adapt. Despite its
geographical features and years of experience, the railway network lacks sufficient capacity and many
parts of the infrastructure have not seen new investment. Since the existing railway network isconcentrated on a few major routes, the railway services are available only in certain areas and between
certain cities. With the recent public investment projects, the quality and technical facilities are being
improved.
Turkey recognizes the need for a balanced transport system rather than one which is overly
dependent on road transport. Regulatory reform and investments in a range of infrastructure projects are
beginning to bridge this gap in its railway system. Nevertheless, it is important that these go hand in handwith a clear vision on market needs and opportunities.
Maritime transport is one of the most liberalized sectors in Turkey, with a strong private shipping
sector. All of the major ports are accessible by railways with a storage capacity of 2 million tonnes andtotal throughput around 46 million tonnes per year. With over 8000 km of coastline, Turkey has fiveports which have been registered as international ports, ferry links and container terminals by theEuropean Agreement on Main International Combined Transportation Lines and Related Facilities(AGTC).
In recent years, container traffic at the ports showed a 20% increase annually. This situation has
made it clear that public ports could not accommodate the increasing demand within their current
infrastructural capacities.
Public ports are thus undergoing a fundamental change in status, at a time when growing demand
for service is creating pressure. Consequently, Turkey is pursuing a port privatization process with theaim of increasing efficiency and infrastructure capacity. The continuation of this process ofcommercialization and privatisation of ports is recommended and should subsequently improve service
capacity and efficiency.
In a few years’ time, private ports are expected to handle around 50% of the container traffic. In thelong term, port developments should certainly comply with more global land use strategies, particularly
in dense areas, such as the industrial base in the Marmara Region.
Turkey has a large airspace (almost 1 million km²) with a total length of controlled ATS routes ofover 50 thousand km, over the three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. The sector has grownsignificantly in the past four years, in part owing to the successful application of build-operate-transport(BOT) models which contributed to the opening of several new modern airports. The combination of new
regulatory measures and new infrastructure policies using BOT, along with the entry of new airlines into
the market, has helped make the Turkish air transport system meet a rapidly growing demand.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY — 13

Turkey has significant potential, and several projects are underway to develop intermodal transport.
Among these are the Kars-Tbilisi project, Marmaray Project, Mersin Container port project, and Çandarlı
and Filyos port projects.
Current Intermodal Systems
Intermodal transport is the set of technologies that facilitates the transfer of loading units from one
mode of transport to another. Intermodal transfer allows en route change from a given transport mode(such as road transport) to another (such as train or ship) in order to carry larger volumes in one transport
operation.
The changing context of international transport has prompted Turkish international road hauliers to
adopt innovative solutions to expand their intermodal fleets and develop new RO-RO lines between
Turkey and several European ports. At present, these solutions typically combine road, sea and RO-RO
and Ro-La transport.
There are frequent and regular domestic RO-RO ferry services across the Marmara Sea linking theindustrialized north with the Asian side of Turkey. The increasing traffic congestion in the İstanbul
metropolitan area, together with the abolition of the excise tax on fuel prices for ferry vessels, has led toa rapid increase of competitive RO-RO ferry services in this region.
International RO-RO ferry boat operations to Western European markets have existed since theearly 1990s. Originally, they were a result of the conflicts that arose in the Balkan area which made roadtransport by Turkish operators to and from Western European markets increasingly difficult.
There are a considerable number of RO-RO services plying the Black Sea. Regular RO-RO services
exist between the Turkish, Ukrainian, Russian and Georgian Black Sea ports. The volume transported byroad on these Black Sea links is estimated at 20 000 vehicles annually.
A regular intermodal transport service using swap-bodies operates four weekly block trains in both
directions between Germany and Turkey. There is also a market for automobile transport on special
railway wagons. Two weekly block trains that carry around 200 automobiles each have operated between
Romania and Turkey since 2006.
Regular rail-ferryboat services operate with the Russian Federation and Romania. Another domestic
rail-ferry link crosses Van Lake and is part of the important international railway and intermodal line to
Iran. Intermodal transport by rail in the form of containers is undertaken by the TCDD, which also
operates regular container block trains to and from Europe and Central Asia.
In national transport, railways do not carry intermodal transport units, such as containers, swapbodies or semi-trailers. Partly because of the strong position of long-haul domestic road transport inTurkey, there does not seem to be a market for such intermodal services, even though distances between
main economic centres within Turkey are often more than 500-600 km. At these distances, intermodaltransport operations are considered to be viable in Western European countries.
In terms of intermodal services, air transport does not have an important share in cargo transportvolume. New strategies are being developed for the transport of high-value goods, express transport andthe transport of perishable goods for export. Logistics services are developing in major airports to adapt
to the expected high demand for specialized air market segments.

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14 — EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Recent incentives in Turkey, such as those for conventional block train operations, imply that there
are potential supply and demand factors in the market in favour of an intermodal system, provided that
there are several options which can sufficiently meet the needs of stakeholders in terms of speed,
reliability and flexibility. A 20% increase in the use of rail ferries for national transport between 2005
and 2006 offers another example of the potential demand for intermodality in Turkey.
At present, there is no specific national legal framework or provisions in Turkey to govern national
and international intermodal transport or to facilitate a shift from long-haul road transport to rail and/or
coastal shipping.
Turkey also does not yet have financial or regulatory incentives in place to foster intermodaltransport operations, such as the tax exemptions and subsidy schemes in Western European countries thatprovide contributions to investments and initial operational costs for intermodal transport and terminal
operations considered as “public services”. The only exception seems to be the exemptions from excise
tax on fuel for RO-RO vessels plying the Marmara Sea.
What should be done?
While it is clear that Turkey is already operating intermodal transport, whether as road-rail, Ro-La,
RO-RO and rail ferry services in its international transport and logistics activities, the country still needs
a comprehensive intermodal strategy and framework. In other words, a roadmap is needed which would
allow a more efficient and sustainable growth of intermodal operations.
Turkey has a great potential to build up intermodal solutions engaging maritime and railway
resources with other modes of transport to increase its international freight volumes and viability. Whatremains to be done is to promote and maintain emerging intermodal demands through the provision of alegal framework and financial/regulatory incentives so as to foster intermodal transport.
To achieve these objectives, this Review has established the following policy recommendations:
1.

The Turkish Government should elaborate a National Master Plan providing a framework forthe introduction of intermodal transport and logistics, in cooperation with all public and private
stakeholders and interest groups. This Master Plan should define a network of intermodal
corridors, nodes and gateways for inland transport and for transit through Turkey.

2.

The establishment of a clear policy and legal framework would ensure a level playing field forthe private sector. Financial and regulatory measures and incentives to promote intermodaltransport can be very effective.

3.

The creation of an intermodal transport and logistics department under the Ministry ofTransport could fill the gap to oversee and co-ordinate the activities of all stakeholders,
including both public organizations and private companies, in an equitable manner.

4.

The development of intermodal transport would be ill-served by a process of isolated decisionmaking; it should instead be part of a progressive and global transport policy. It is therefore
necessary to involve all the public and private stakeholders in the promotion and facilitation ofa sustainable intermodal system for Turkey.

5.

Regulatory and financial measures can be implemented by the Turkish government in order toattract private capital for the development of intermodal transport services.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY — 156.

Intermodal transport requires long distances and high cargo volume corridors in terms ofcommercial viability. Such corridors in Turkey should be identified by a market analysis.

7.

The infrastructural capacities of the major ports should be increased to respond to future
demand, which could grow significantly in the next 15 years.

8.

Owing to the uncertainty of the commercial viability of Ro-La services to and from Turkey,
this technique is not recommended for Turkey’s intermodal transport operations. Therefore, it
should not be a priority for public intervention.

9.

The Turkish RO-RO system and its connection to Southern Europe are highly successful.
Turkish transport authorities should therefore encourage its extension, particularly for domestic
trade flows, to other areas of Mediterranean and Black Sea trade.

10. Domestic RO-RO coastal shipping should be able to make an inroad into the domestic roadtransport markets in Turkey for longer distance operations and for destinations along theTurkish coasts. Such a concept would be in line with the “Motorways of the Sea” initiatives
pursued and supported in the framework of the European Union.
11. In creating an extensive and competitive intermodal transport system for Turkey, the essential
connections from and to the maritime and air freight logistics centres and their integration tourban distributions should also be taken into account.
12. One of the primary measures should be to maintain and improve the hinterland connections ofports with the other modes of transport, in particular railways which would provide advantages
for logistics markets.
13. To improve railways’ share in intermodality, the railway network should be upgraded, not only
for high-speed passenger transport, but also to allow for competitive and reliable goods
transport services. Financial support for rolling stock and terminals should also be prioritized.
14. While six locations have been selected as rail freight logistic centres, prospects to develop suchservices are not yet very clear. Thus, the uncertainties which affect the perspective ofdevelopment of intermodal services need to be solved.
15. The trade and transport promotion policy could include a supportive attitude towards transit
traffic. Transit trade could be further used as an instrument for additional economic growth.
16. The active participation of Turkey in international organizations has resulted in a series ofagreements that identify transport corridors. Because of Turkey’s size, more national links
should be included, in addition to these corridors.
17. A schedule and a monitoring process should be set up to ensure necessary changes are
implemented and to highlight areas where special efforts must be made.
If the above-mentioned recommendations are acted upon, Turkey will greatly facilitate its own trade
and will play a central role in providing access to Europe on Middle East, Asian and Caucasian markets.
Progress in and promotion of intermodal transport will also contribute to Turkey’s aim to achieve asustainable and more balanced national and international transport system.

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INTRODUCTION — 17

INTRODUCTION

The process of globalization has greatly enhanced the scope of intraregional and interregional trade,
requiring closer and more effective cooperation between countries. The growing economic
interdependence of countries worldwide leads to ever increasing volumes and varieties of cross-bordertransactions in goods and services.
Transport is one of the most important elements within the framework of such interdependent
economic co-operation. Without effective, reliable and efficient transport systems, international
investments and trade are seriously hampered. Moreover, infrastructure, which directly affects thevolume of trade as well as transport costs, is one of the most vital aspects of transport. Poor quality of
infrastructure leads to poor quality of transport services.
Turkey is situated along the main artery of traffic between Asia and Europe, sharing borders with
Bulgaria, Greece, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. Since it is surrounded by theBlack Sea in the north and the Mediterranean Sea in the south, it connects the Balkans to the Middle
East; Central Asia to the Caucasus; and the Black Sea countries with the Mediterranean countries. The
country has a total area of 814.578 km², 8 333 km of which is coast line.
With a average growth rate of 6.9% during the last five years, (well above the EU average which is2.5%), an annual foreign trade value of 277 billion dollars in 2007 and a consumer market of 70 million,
a strategic location, a low cost but highly-qualified labour market, a young and dynamic population, theadvantages of a logistics industry, and one of the largest international road fleets in Europe, Turkey has
the opportunity to become one of the most significant transport logistics hubs and transit countries in theregion.
Prior to committing investments for transport infrastructure, it is crucial for nations to analyse
thoroughly the requirements of global markets and the efficiency and profitability of transport systems.
Intermodal transport, making use of the inherent advantages of road, rail, inland water as well as
maritime transport, is part of any modern and environmentally friendly transport system. Forward
looking transport policies should take this into account.
The White Paper of the Commission of the EU: “European Transport Policy for 2010: Time to
Decide”1 offers a comprehensive picture of the challenges to be met by a forward-looking sustainabletransport policy. It contains, in particular, references to important transport policy issues and problems
also faced by Turkey, such as the interconnection and interoperability between transport modes (forexample, the interconnection between maritime and land transport -- motorways of the sea) that could
provide solutions for growing road congestion and air pollution on important transport corridors in
Turkey.
In its mid-term review of the 2001 White Paper2 the European Commission (EC) stressed that the2010 transport policy objectives remain valid and states that: “Shifts to more environmentally friendly
modes must be achieved where appropriate, especially on long distance, in urban areas and on congested
corridors. At the same time each transport mode must be optimised. All modes must become more
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18 — INTRODUCTION
environmentally friendly, safe and energy efficient. Finally, co-modality, i.e. the efficient use of different
modes on their own and in combination, will result in an optimal and sustainable utilisation of
resources.”
In October 2007, the EC released a package of logistic measures “Keeping Freight Moving”3 topromote the freight transport logistics, make rail freight more competitive, create a framework which willallow European ports to attract investment for their modernisation, put maritime freight transport on an
equal footing with other transport modes and review progress made in developing Motorways of the Sea.
Similarly, in 2002, the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT/ presently ITF)
underlined in a Consolidated Resolution on Combined Transport4 that the development of combinedtransport is not only one of the important objectives of transport policy in many countries, but is also an
integral part of sustainable transport policy. The increase in goods traffic in recent years and theforecasted growth may lead, in many countries, to bottlenecks, that already exist on certain links, on theprincipal international and national roads.
The ECMT also stressed that the competitiveness of combined transport must, in any case, be
effectively improved, both in terms of quality and of costs or prices. Finally, Ministers recommend thatnational and international bodies should reinforce both at national and international levels, coordination
between environmental, land use and transport policies and should create the framework for a sounddevelopment and promotion of combined transport.
In line with this approach, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE),
through its Working Party on Intermodal Transport and Logistics, is translating this policy approach at
the pan-European level into concrete legal and technical action. Examples are the European Agreement
on Important International Combined Transport Lines and Related Installations (AGTC)5 to which
Turkey has been a Contracting Party since 1996, and the Model Action Plans and Partnership
Agreements6 for the promotion and benchmarking of intermodal transport services at the international
level.
The purpose of peer reviews are to assist the State under review to improve its policy making, adopt
best practices and comply with established standards and principles.
Peer reviews are not intended to resolve differences among States, but they may contribute to thesettlement of disputes, by encouraging an open dialogue that can help to clarify positions in a friendly
and constructive atmosphere. The key to the effectiveness of peer reviews depends on the willingness of
the State concerned to accept it. In other words, it is up to the country under the microscope to put into
effect the proposals made in the framework of the study.
This peer review study, carried out by the ITF Secretariat with the help of recognised intermodal
experts upon the request of the Turkish Ministry of Transport and Communications, illustrates thecurrent situation as well as the future perspectives of intermodal transport in Turkey, and evaluates its
development in the context of Euro-Asia links.
This study consists of four major parts. In the first part, the main economic indicators of Turkey areprovided and the Turkish socio-economic context is presented. In the second part, the current situation of
Turkish transport modes and their future perspectives are analyzed. The current status of intermodaltransport is also contained in this section. The third part examines the requirements for an efficientintermodal transport system whilst the advantages provided by intermodal transport and freight containertransport models by mode are explored. Finally, recommendations to build up an intermodal transportsystem and the strategies needed for its development are presented in Part IV.
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INTRODUCTION — 19

NOTES
1.

Brussels, 12.09.2001 (COM(2001)370).

2.

Brussels, 22.06.2006 (COM(2006) 314 final).

3.

European Commission (2007), “Keeping Freight Moving”,
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/logistics/freight_logistics_action_plan/index_en.htm

4.

Consolidated Resolution No 2002/2 on Combined Transport, CM(2002)3/Final

5.

www.unece.org/trans/conventn/agtce.pdf

6.

www.unece.org/trans/wp24/wp24-official-docs/documents/TRANS-WP24-2005-07e.pdf

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MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY — 21

PART I. TURKEY: AT THE CROSSROADS OF EUROPE,ASIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

CHAPTER 1. MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY

1.1.

Turkey’s Foreign Trade

In 1980, Turkey changed its economic development policy from a strategy of “import substituting
industrialization” to “export led growth”. Various export promoting incentives were initiated (including
tax exemptions, rebates and favourable credit terms), direct import controls were eliminated, and quantity
restrictions were dismantled. At the same time state intervention in the economy was reduced to aminimum. As a consequence the economy opened up to world trade and Turkey’s shares in the world
markets rose from 0.15% in 1980 to 0.78% in 20071. Export levels increased from 2.9 billion dollars in1980 to 107 billion dollars in 2007.
Turkey has achieved substantial progress in macroeconomic stabilization and institutional reform,
which constituted the foundation for strong GDP growth between the years 2002 and 2007. Despite
challenges stemming from the increasing competition in global trade system, foreign trade performanceof Turkey played a crucial role in the attainment of macroeconomic stability and sustainable growth.
The main economic indicators of Turkey have recovered and stability has been achieved in many
areas, especially in the last five years. Structural reforms within the framework of the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the EU Harmonization Laws and sectoral regulations along with improvements in
the investment environment have provided a more favourable business environment.
Within this period, the ratio of foreign trade volume to national income has increased significantly.
Besides, sectoral and regional composition of exports and imports has changed in such a way that Turkey
managed to turn into an increasingly high-tech and capital-intensive goods exporting country. In thisway, Turkey has re-emerged among the developing economies as one of the key players.
In short, Turkey’s foreign trade has shown significant development in terms of quantity and quality
since the 1980s. Export performance has been spectacular especially in the last five years, due to both
domestic and international developments.
The main economic indicators of Turkey are shown in Table 1.1.

INTERMODAL TRANSPORT – NATIONAL PEER REVIEW: TURKEY – ISBN 978-92-821-0222-0 - © OECD/ITF, 2009

73 476

85 535107 214

2005

2006

2007

25.3

16.4

16.3

33.7

31.0

15.1

12.8

4.5

-1.4

2.7

13.1

7.3

19.5

18.0

170 057

139 576

116 774

97 54069 34051 55441 39954 50340 67145 92148 55943 62735 70923 27029 42822 871

21 04722 302

Import

21.8

19.5

19.7

40.7

34.5

24.5

-24.0

34.0

-11.4

-5.4

11.3

22.2

53.5

-20.9

28.7

8.7

-5.6

41.2

%
Chg

-62 844-54 041-43 298-34 373-22 087-15 495-10 065-26 728-14 084-18 947-22 298-20 402-14 072-5 164-14 083-8 156-7 454-9 343

Balance

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat of Foreign Trade.

47 25363 16736 0592002

2004

31 3342001

2003

26 58727 77526 9741998

2000

26 261

1997

1999

21 63723 2241996

18 106

1994

1995

15 345

4.3

8.2

14 715

1992

1993

11.5

4.9

12 959

Export%Chg

FOREIGN TRADE - ANNUAL ($ Million)

13 593

1991

1990

Year

277 270

225 111190 251

160 707116 593

87 61372 73382 27867 25872 89574 82066 85157 34641 37644 77337 58634 64035 261

Volume

63.0

61.3

62.9

64.8

68.1

69.9

75.7

51.0

65.4

58.7

54.1

53.2

60.6

77.8

52.1

64.3

64.6

58.1

Exp./Imp.
%

1.30781.43801.3473

1.42921.50031.51311.23130.62670.42220.26220.15280.08180.04600.02990.01110.00690.00420.0026

Exchange
rates($/TRY)

-9.1

6.7

-5.7

-4.7

-0.8

22.9

96.5

48.5

61.0

71.6

86.8

78.0

53.9

169.9

60.5

64.8

60.2

24.3

%
Chg.

1.78681.80871.6776

1.7762

1.6934

1.43671.09900.57670.4478

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Exchange
rates(Eero/TRY)

Table 1.1. Main Economic Indicators of Turkey

-1.2

7.8

-5.6

4.9

17.9

30.7

90.6

28.8

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

%
Chg.

1.37

1.26

1.25

1.24

1.13

0.95

0.89

0.92

1.06

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Euro/$

5.9

11.6

2.7

13.8

13.9

30.8

88.6

32.7

62.9

54.3

91.0

84.9

64.9

149.6

60.3

61.4

59.2

49.2

WPI %

81.2

81.7

80.7

81.7

78.4

75.4

70.9

75.9

72.4

76.5

79.4

78.0

78.5

72.9

80.5

77.3

75.6

74.4

Rate ofcap. util.

4.5

6.9

7.6

9.9

5.9

7.9

-9.4

6.1

-6.4

3.9

8.3

7.1

8.0

-6.1

8.1

6.4

0.3

9.4

Growthrates %

22 — MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY

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MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY — 23

Quantitative and qualitative developments in Turkey’s exports have played a leading role for theacceleration of the economic growth process in the 2000s. As an illustration, Turkish exports increased
by 24%, while the global growth in exports grew only 16.8% between 2002 and 2006. Turkish exports
continued to grow in 2006-2007 and reached 107 billion dollars in 2007.
The sectoral composition of exports has also undergone qualitative changes owing to recent
structural transformation. In total exports, the share of “machinery and transport equipment”, a productgroup comprising of high value-added and high-tech products, increased from 7.1 billion dollars to
34 billion dollars from 2001 to 2007. Indeed, machinery and transport equipment has been the largest
component of Turkish exports since 2004, surpassing the traditional export leader, textiles and clothing.
The record rate of export growth in the last five years is due to many factors. First of all, Turkish
industrial production became more competitive as a result of low real wages and stagnant energy prices(mainly electricity), despite the appreciation of the Turkish Lira (TL). Secondly, low real interest rates, incomparison to previous years, lowered the borrowing costs for producers and exporters. Thirdly,
technological improvements increased as a result of joint ventures (especially in the automotive industry)or technology imports. Finally, the accelerated productivity of the latter years, relative to the stagnant
consumption until mid 2003, created excess supply, which was then in turn directed towards exports.
Another contributing factor was the depreciation of the US dollar against the Euro and the Turkish
Lira (TL). Because imports of intermediate and capital goods are crucial to production, Turkey benefitedby importing cheaper intermediate goods from countries where prices are set according to the US dollar(such as the East Asian countries, especially China) and then exporting final products mainly to EU
countries.
Turkey has set a goal to attain 500 billion dollars in exports by 2023 which will require an annual
growth rate of almost 11% until this target date. For this purpose, Turkey recently implemented new
production and trade strategies to further diversify exports and imports on a regional and sectoral basis.
This aim should be seen as a driving force for a pressing need to diversify the use of transport modes.
Turkey’s imports grew by an average of 10% annually between 1990 and 1995, while the averageannual growth rate between 1995 and 2000 was 8.8%. Turkey’s membership of the World Trade
Organization in 1995, arrival at the final stage of the Customs Union with the European Union in 1996
and its growing economy were the major reasons behind Turkey’s rapid import growth rate during theseyears.
Intermediary and capital goods constitute the bulk of Turkey’s imports and are necessary to thecountry’s industrial development. This leads to and accelerates development by creating cost advantages
for national export goods producers and consequently increases productivity.
A breakdown of imports and exports is provided in Table 1.2.

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24 — MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY
Table 1.2. Breakdown of Foreign Trade in Turkey (million $)ANNUALEXPORTS
2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

07/06
Ch.%

1 659

1 976

1 754

2 121

2 542

3 329

3 481

3 725

7.0

Fishery

25

30

51

81

103

140

131

158

20.6

Mining and quarrying

400

349

387

469

649

810

1 146

1 661

44.9

25 51828 82633 70244 37859 57968 81380 246101 023

25.9

Others

173

153

165

204

294

384

531

646

21.7

TOTAL

27 77531 33436 05947 25363 16773 47685 535107 213

25.3

Agriculture and forestry

Manufacturing

ANNUAL
IMPORTS
2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

07/06
Ch.%

2 123

1 409

1 703

2 535

2 757

2 801

2 902

4 641

59.9

2

1

1

2

8

24

33

31

-6.1

Mining and quarrying

7 097

6 577

7 192

9 021

10 981

16 32122 03425 314

14.9

Manufacturing

44 20032 68641 38355 69080 44894 208110 379

133 933

21.3

Others
TOTAL

1 081
54 503726
41 3991 275
51 5542 092
69 3403 346
97 5403 419
116 774

4 229
139 576

6 139
170 057

45.2
21.8

Agriculture and forestry
Fishery

Source: Turkish Statistical Institute.

1.2.

Exports and Imports by Country Groups

1.2.1.

Exports

Turkey has been implementing an export-oriented strategy since the 1980s. The basic objectives ofthis strategy are to constitute an outward oriented economic structure in the framework of a free market
economy, and to be integrated in world markets. In line with this new strategy, export intensive measures
which contain various supportive components and arrangements are directed towards foreign tradeliberalization.
In addition to these liberalizing arrangements designed to improve exports, some support programs
have been put into effect. The main supports provided to exporters had been corporation tax exemptions,tax refunds, premiums to the Resource Utilization and Support Fund, subsidies obtained from thisSupport Fund and the Price Stabilization Fund. However, the above mentioned support systems havebeen gradually eliminated in compliance with Turkey’s international commitments (as a signatory tocertain international agreements) since the second half of the 1980s.
On the other hand, with the establishment of the Turkish Eximbank in 1987, supported exports
gained a new dimension. In order to increase the competitive strength of Turkish exporters in foreign
markets, some credits and guarantee programs under the international commitments began to be applied
to the sectors with high export potential.
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MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY — 25

With regard to export support, the foreign trade policies that were set up under the conditions of the
1980s have been reviewed and modified following world developments of the 1990s. State aids, preparedin compliance chiefly with the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Turkish international
commitments, were put into practice as of 1st June 1995.
The most significant development in Turkey’s foreign trade policy was the establishment of the
Customs Union between the EU and Turkey as of 1st January, 1996. This agreement initiated a time
period for the legal infrastructure of foreign trade strategy to be made consistent with the EU norms;
therefore both import and export regimes have been made consistent with the regulations of the EU. The
Free Trade Agreements signed with the Central and Eastern European Countries and Israel, should be
regarded as factors directly affecting how Turkish trade conforms to the Community’s Common Trade
Policy.
EU member countries in particular, constitute the most important market for Turkish exports. The
EU share is 56.4% in Turkey’s total exports with 60.4 billion dollars in 2007.
In Asian Countries, Near and Middle Eastern countries are another important market for Turkey’s
exports. From 2001 to 2007, exports to this region rose from 3.2 billion dollars to 15 billion dollars witha 29% increase approximately. During this period, the share of these countries in Turkey’s total exportsrose from 10.4% to 14% (see Table 1.3.).
On the other hand, the share of exports to North America (especially the USA), in total exports ofTurkey, increased during the 2001-2007 period and levelled off soon afterwards. Exports to the USA,
which were 968 million dollars in 1990, increased to 1.5 billion dollars in 1995 and 3.1 billion dollars in
2000, doubling in five years. Turkey’s exports to the USA have been calculated at 4.1 billion dollars for
2007.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Newly Independent States(NIS), Turkey had the opportunity to sell and enhance its exports to these countries. Until 1998, Turkish
exports to NIS countries consistently grew every year. However the economic crisis in the RussianFederation in 1998 pulled down the total demand of the NIS countries. After this crisis, Turkish exports
to this region declined and then remained stagnant. As of 2001, exports to the NIS reached 1.9 billion
dollars and rose in 2007 to 10 billion dollars with the average annual increase of 31.2%.
Exports to Russia from 2001 to 2007 increased from 924 million dollars to 4.7 billion dollars, andRussia became the fifth biggest export market for Turkey. The good performance of Turkish exports to
the Maghreb region revealed Turkey as a major economic partner in the Mediterranean.
Today, Turkey’s biggest export trading partner is Germany with 12 billion dollars, followed by UK,
Italy, France and the Russian Federation (see Table 1.3 and 1.4.).

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26 — MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY
Table 1.3. Exports by country groups (million $)
2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Total

31 33436 05947 25363 16773 47685 535107 213

E U countries (27)

17 54620 41527 39436 58141 36547 93560 397

Free zones in Turkey

934

1 438

1 928

2 564

2 973

2 967

2 943

Other countries

12 85414 206

17 931

24 02229 13734 63343 873

Other European countries

2 094

2 607

3 362

4 507

5 855

7 962

10 843African countries

1 521

1 697

2 131

2 968

3 631

4 566

5 976

North African countries

1 150

1 267

1 577

2 203

2 544

3 097

4 030

Other African countries

371

430

554

765

1 087

1 469

1 947

3 685

3 914

4 269

5 733

5 960

6 328

5 601

North America countries

3 297

3 596

3 973

5 207

5 276

5 439

4 538

Central America andCaribbean

201

197

166

334

411

548

549

South America countries

186

121

131

193

274

341

514

4 592

5 230

7 813

10 465

13 21315 25720 254

Near and Middle Eastern

3 261

3 440

5 465

7 921

10 18411 31615 027

Other Asian countries

1 331

1 790

2 348

2 544

3 029

3.942

5 227

Australia and New Zealand

98

122

158

264

271

327

343

Other countries

864

637

197

84

208

192

856

OECD countries

20 61623 55130 42540 51844 35554 48165 671EFTA countries

316

409

538

667

821

1 189

1 328

Organization of Black Sea
Economic Co-operation

2 932

3 599

5 044

6 779

8 619

11 58416 784

Economic Co-operation
Organization

972

1 042

1 569

2 206

2 670

3 341

4 646

New Independent States

1 978

2 279

2 963

3 962

5 057

6 993

10 088

557

619

899

1 194

1 409

1 982

2 874

4 197

4 725

7 205

10 21413 061

15 00720 256

American countries

Asia countries

Selected country groups

Turkic Republics*
Organization of Islamic
Conference* Turkic Republics = Azerbaïdjan, Kazakstan, Kyrgystan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.
Source: Turkish Statistical Institute.

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MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY — 27

Table 1.4. Leading Export Markets for Turkish Merchandise Trade, 2007

Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

EXPORT MARKETS
Germany
United Kingdom
Italy
FranceRussian Federation
Spain
U.S.A.
Romania
United Arab Emirates
Netherlands
Total of Above
Total of Turkey

Value(Million $)11 993
8 626
7 480
5 974
4 727
4 580
4 168
3 644
3 241
3 019
57 452107 213

Share (%)
11.2
8.0
7.0
5.6
4.4
4.3
3.9
3.4
3.0
2.8
53.6
100.0

(%)
Change
23.8
26.6
10.8
29.8
46.0
23.1
-18.0
55.3
63.2
18.9
22.9
25.3

Table 1.5. Turkey’s Exports by Sector (million $)1- AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTSi
Foodii Agricultural Raw
Materials
2- MINING PRODUCTS
i
Metalliferous ores andmetal scrap
ii Mineral fuels. Lubricantsand related materials
iii Non-ferrous metals
3- MANUFACTURESi
Iron and steel
ii Chemicals
iii Other semi-manufacturesiv Machinery and transport
equipmentv Textiles
vi Clothingvii Other consumer goods
4- OTHER PRODUCTS
TOTAL

2001
4 349
3 997

2002
4 052
3 668

2003
5 257
4 735

2004
6 501
5 891

2005
8 309
7 714

2006
8 633
7 932

2007 Ch.%
9 768
13.1
9 006
13.6

352
1 236

384
1 497

522
2 011

610
2 895

595
4 564

702
6 511

762
9 005

8.6
38.3

406

455

573

801

1 006

1 497

2 078

38.8

445
386
25 661
2 500
1 367
2 625

691
351
30 288
2 831
1 523
3 139

980
458
39 594
3 342
1 893
4 143

1 429
664
53 487
6 050
2 566
5 490

2 641
917
60 116
5 827
3 060
6 589

3 566
1 448
69 325
7 239
3 923
7 583

5 148
1 779
86 949
9 562
4 733
9 815

44.4
22.9
25.4
32.1
20.6
29.4

7 153
3 943
6 661
1 413
89
31 334

8 632
4 268
8 094
1 800
222
36 05912 370
5 262
9 962
2 622
391
47 25318 2756 428
11 1933 483
285
63 16721 6097 076
11 8334 122
488
73 47626 386
7 585
12 0524 557
1 065
85 53534 0958 941
13 8855 917
1 491
107 213

29.2
17.9
15.2
29.8
40.0
25.3

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat of Foreign Trade.

Turkey’s biggest export trading good is chapter 87-vehicles other than railway/tramway rolling
followed by chapter 84-nuclear reactors, boilers, machinery, 72-iron and steel, 61-articles of apparel andclothing accessories. (See Table 1.6.)

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28 — MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY
Table 1.6. Leading Merchandise Exports of Turkey, 2007

Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

87
84
72
61
85
62
27
73
39
08

Value
EXPORT(Million $)Vehicles other than Railway/Tramway
Rolling
15 904
Nuclear Reactors, Boilers, Machinery
8 777
Iron and Steel
8 352
Articles of Apparel and Clothing Accessories
8 022
Electrical Machinery and Equipment
7 421
Articles of Apparel and Clothing Accessories
5 444
Mineral Fuels, Mineral Oils and Products
5 148
Articles of Iron or Steel
4 125
Plastics and Articles Thereof
2 818
Edible Fruit and Nuts
2 671
Total of Above
68 682
Total of Turkey
107 213

Share
(%)

(%)
Change

14.8
8.2
7.8
7.5
6.9
5.1
4.8
3.8
2.6
2.5
64.1
100.0

33.8
34.3
33.1
15.6
17.3
15.6
44.3
23.9
27.4
11.8
26.8
25.3

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat of Foreign Trade.

1.2.2.

Imports

Several factors explain the growth in imports between 2002 and 2007, foremost among which therising demand for intermediary and capital goods driven by sustained economic growth combined with astronger Turkish Lira. Meanwhile, a dramatic increase in oil prices saw the value of energy imports
increase sharply throughout the world.
A new import regime came into force as of 1st January 2005, reflecting Turkey’s international rights
and obligations, as well as the country’s economic needs. This regime was prepared taking due accountof the agreement establishing the WTO, the Customs Union Agreement between Turkey and the EU, thefree trade agreements that Turkey signed with various countries and the preferential treatments granted
by Turkey to the least developed countries; it also acknowledged the specific needs and requirements of
the agricultural and industrial sectors.
A liberalized import regime, new foreign investment and export promotion policies have enabled
Turkey to take its place in the global economy. In this context, steady economic growth has beenaccompanied by a significant change in the breakdown of the GNP, marked by an important increase in
the share of industry and services.
European countries have an important share in Turkey’s imports, largely due to their geographicalproximity and their level of economic development. Among the country groups of Europe, EU member
states are in the first rank. The EU is followed by NIS countries due to crude oil and natural gas imports
from that region.

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MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY — 29

Table 1.7. Imports by Country Groups (million $)Total
EU countries (27)Free zones in Turkey
Other countries
Other European countries
African countries
North African countries
Other African countries
American countries
North America countries
Central America and Caribbean
South America countries
Asia Countries
Near and Middle Eastern
Other Asian countries
Australia and New Zealand
Other countries
Selected country groupsOECD countries
EFTA countries
Organization of Black Sea Economic
Co-operation
Organization for Economic
Co-operation
New Independent States
Turkic Republics
Organization of Islamic Conference

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

41 39919 823303
21 273
5 738
2 819
2 115
704
3 841
3 390
41
410
7 901
3 016
4 884
232
741

51 55425 689575
25 290
7 487
2 696
2 138
558
4 065
3 421
103
541
9 716
3 186
6 530
313
1 013

69 34035 140589
33 611
10 342
3 338
2 519
820
4 922
3 741
169
1 012
14 099
4 455
9 644
247
662

97 54048 103811
48 62615 757
4 820
3 231
1 589
6 595
5 114
209
1 271
21 0855 585
15 500302
67

116 774
52 696760
63 31820 386
6 047
4 212
1 835
7 857
5 823
287
1 747
28 5487 967
20 581
321
158

139 576 170 057
59 40168 611944
1 224
79 198 100 223
25 69534 253
7 404
6 784
4 878
3 616
2 526
3 168
9 397
12 150
6 932
9 030
335
448
2 130
2 671
36 20146 29810 56812 64025 63433 658
399
672
105
66

26 011
1 481

32 985 43 899
2 512 3 396

59 6503 911

66 1074 440

77 7384 520

91 854
5 775

5 553

6 588

9 298

15 36820 48027 01734 809

1 238
4 630
283
5 540

1 548
5 555
468
6 072

2 736
7 777
623
8 195

3 218
12 927754
10 631

5 108
17 2521 267
14 4598 101
23 372
1 968
19 1089 971
31 2632 669
21 523

Source: Turkish Statistical Institute.

Near and Middle Eastern countries hold third place due to crude oil imports, while North America isin fourth place due to Turkey’s extensive trade relationship with the USA. Turkey’s biggest importtrading partner in 2007 was Russia, followed by Germany, China, Italy and USA (see Table 1.8.).
However, the performance of Chinese imports should not go unnoticed since it has tripled in the past
three years, creating an important trade deficit in the Turkish economy. As a result, China has become
Turkey’s third biggest import partner as of 2007.

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30 — MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY
Table 1.8. Leading Importers in Turkish Merchandise Trade, 2007

Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

IMPORTERS
Russian Federation
Germany
China
Italy
U.S.A.
FranceIranUnited Kingdom
Switzerland
UkraineTotal of above
Total of Turkey

Value(Million $) Share (%)
23 50813.8
17 540
10.3
13 234
7.8
9 968
5.9
8 164
4.8
7 850
4.6
6 614
3.9
5 477
3.2
5 269
3.1
23 5082.7
102 14360.1
170 057
100.0

Change (%)
32.0
18.8
36.9
15.1
30.3
8.2
17.5
6.6
31.2
47.7
24.2
21.8

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat of Foreign Trade.

Table 1.9. Turkey’s Imports by Sectors (million $)1- AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

2001
3 079

2002
3 995

2003
5 265

2004
6 059

2005
6 480

2006
7 286

2007 Ch.%
9 813 34.7

i

Food

1 487

1 912

2 791

3 089

3 284

3 486

5 167

48.2

ii

Agricultural raw materials

1 593

2 083

2 474

2 969

3 196

3 800

4 646

22.2

9 859 11 656 15 248 20 177 28 101 38 601 46 932

21.6

2- MINING PRODUCTS
i
ii

Metalliferous ores and metal
scrap

709

Mineral fuels lubricants andrelated materials

8 339

iii Non-ferrous metals
3- MANUFACTURES

811

1 362

2 262

6 693

37.6

9 204 11 575 14 407 21 255 28 859 33 881

17.4

1 090

1 411

3 531

6 358

30.3
20.3

Iron and steel

1 803

2 198

8 141 11 341

39.3

ii

Chemicals

6 243

7 909 10 427 14 211 16 438 18 407 22 100

20.1

iii Other semi-manufactures

2 108

2 681

8 564

19.3

iv Machinery and transport
equipment

12 701 15 610 21 510 33 705 38 028 43 039 49 746

15.6

v

Textiles

1 921

2 844

3 441

4 170

4 441

4 687

6 014

28.3

vi Clothing

239

283

422

651

788

1 098

1 567

42.7

2 138

2 498

3 258

4 565

5 807

6 705

8 058

20.2

4- OTHER PRODUCTS

1 308

1 880

2 997

3 888

4 148

4 435

5 923

33.6

TOTAL

41 399 51 554 69 340 97 540 116 774 139 576 170 057

21.8

vii Other consumer goods

4 790

6 747

4 880

i

3 489

5 325

3 006

4 863

27 153 34 023 45 831 67 417 78 045 89 254 107 389
3 283

2 239

3 840

5 796

7 177

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat of Foreign Trade.

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MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY — 31

Turkey’s biggest import trading good is chapter 27- Mineral Fuels, Mineral Oils and Products
followed by chapter 84-nuclear reactors, boilers, machinery, 72-iron and steel, 85- Electrical Machineryand Equipment. (see Table 1.10.)
Table 1.10. Leading Merchandise Imports of Turkey, 2007

Rank
1

IMPORT
27 Mineral Fuels, Mineral Oils and Products

Value(Million $)

Share
(%)

(%)
Change33 881

19.9

17.4

2

84 Nuclear Reactors, Boilers, Machinery

22 570

13.3

18.9

3

72 Iron And Steel

16 182

9.5

40.4

4

85 Electrical Machinery and Equipment

13 295

7.8

22.2

5

87 Vehicles other than Railway or Tramway Rolling

12 397

7.3

8.7

6

39 Plastics and Articles Thereof

8 688

5.1

25.5

7

71 Natural or Cultured Pearls

5 906

3.5

34.1

8

29 Organic Chemicals

3 995

2.3

9.7

9

30 Pharmaceutical Products

3 524

2.1

16.1

10

74 Copper and Articles thereof

3 152

1.9

27.7

Total of Above

123 592

72.7

21.0

Total of Turkey

170 057

100.0

21.8

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat of Foreign Trade.

Prospects
Trade has become the engine for growth in an increasingly interdependent and competitive world.
In fact, the expansion in global trade has been greater than the increase in world output for years. The
countries that have implemented sound export policies in a consistent manner were able to experience anedge in development. Thus, devising the right policy tools is of utmost importance to securing a growing
share for Turkish exports.
The policies currently being implemented aim at achieving both short and medium term
performance gains as well as a long structural transformation of Turkey’s export market. Turkey’s
avowed ambition is to reach 1.1 trillion dollars of foreign trade volume, with 500 billion dollars ofexports by the end of 2023, the 100th year of the establishment of the Republic of Turkey and efforts havebeen stepped up to further engage Turkey with the global trade system.
1.3.

Market Shares of Transport Modes in Foreign Trade

According to the 2007 figures, maritime transport held first place in Turkish foreign trade volume
with 86.4%, followed by roads with 11.4% and railways with 1.2%. With respect to foreign trade value,
the share of maritime transport is 50.4%, roads 36.3%, airways 10.1% and railways 1.1%.

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32 — MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY
Table 1.11. Market Shares of Transport Modes in Foreign Trades (2007)
Modes
Maritime
Roads
RailwayAir
OthersTOTAL

TOTAL
Tonnes190 309 000
22 330 000
2 758 000
712 000
387 000
216 946 000

%
86.4
11.4
1.2
0.1
0.9
100

US$ ‘000
153 300 825
82 785 408
3 630 269
23 851 645
13 664 370
277 232 517

Source: Turkish Statistical Institute.

These figures reflect that bulk products with lower unit values are mainly transported by sea. For
high value products, air transport has attained a significant share and is expected to increase at a highgrowth rate. For road transport, it should be pointed out that an important share of traffic with the EU is
indeed RO-RO transport with high performance services. This is also the case across the Black Sea, due
to new services open to Russia and Ukraine.
1.3.1.

Foreign Trade Journeys by Border Gates

Before discussing Turkish foreign trade journeys by border gates, it is helpful to note the location ofTurkey’s main border gates. The map below does this.
Map 1.1. Main Border Gates

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat of Customs.

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MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY — 33

Representing foreign trade journeys by road from/to the border gates in Turkey, Table 1.12. also
indicates that in 2007 the greatest number of foreign trade journeys took place at Kapıkule
(Turkish-Bulgarian border) in the West, and at Habur (Turkish-Iraqi border) and Gürbulak(Turkish-Iranian border) in the East. Kapıkule is the most important border crossing point in theEurope-Asia transit trade flow, and accommodates a high number of lorries transporting goods under the
TIR Customs transit regime.
Since 2000, reconstruction and modernisation operations are being carried out at the land bordergates so as to increase the trade volumes, service quality as well as to decrease waiting times at borders.
The reconstruction works for Kapıkule and Sarp border gates are to be finalized in December 2008 andthe reconstruction process for Gürbulak (Iran), Habur (Iraq), Cilvegözü (Syria), İpsala (Greece) havealready been completed.
To sum up, Turkey’s export-oriented foreign trade, together with the advantages of intermediaryand capital goods imports, provide a suitable basis to strengthen its competitive position in international
trade.
NOTE
1.

Undersecretariat of Foreign Trade, www.dtm.gov.tr

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662 932

TOTAL
141 793

51 7722 405
010 91433 754
4 577
122
4 040
41
1 513
0
2 486

Source: RO-RO Operator Company (RODER).

360 465
34 147
10 54836 220260 700
18.307543
20 1972 561
11 7311 553
4 352
263 21127 5331 432
1 275
15 569
2 736
6 449
72
19 126
1 045
11 760
1 850
4 471
81 509

9 639
1 093
0
5 613
0
2 904
29
3 600
0
1 196
0
2 404

799
2 234
1.949
2 772
58 5092 007

11 1983 402
48 47229 279111 588
12 613

646
1 813
2 212
9 352
70 130
1 828

16 376
4 007
50 72937 589157 236
16 333CİLVEGÖZÜ
DİLUCUGÜRBULAK
HABUR
SARPTÜRKGÖZÜ
BLACK SEA PORTS
RİZE-POTİSAMSUN-NOVOROSSISKTRABZON-SOCHİZONGULDAK-KIRIM

EAST BORDER GATESWEST BORDER GATESÇEŞME-TRIESTE
HAMZABEYLİ
PENDİK-TRİESTE
İPSALAKAPIKULEAMBARLI-TRIESTE

IMPORT
TurkishForeignvehiclesvehicles
216 552
68 270EXPORT
TurkishForeignvehiclesvehicles
282 270
85 981

2005

647 022317 749
47 19017 03237 962191.582
23.475508
20 792470
12 1342 957
5 231

17 30221 14853 63238 741
158 535
19 123

136 351

47 6236 846
113 64823.792
3 193
143
4 739
10
1 358
0
3 371

797
12 2473 207
6 439
59 1952 104

EXPORT
TurkishForeignvehiclesvehicles
308 481
83 989286 081

25 4472 319
642
17 342
540
4 154
450
21 066258
11 7263 617
5 465

11 36615 76955 52226 316
115 851
14 74479 14010 955
1 484
1
7 892
0
1 510
68
4 089
3
1 116
0
2 970

710
12 5943 051
2 028
43 3592 354

IMPORT
TurkishForeignvehiclesvehicles239 568
64 096

2006

Table 1.12. Foreign Trade Journeys by Border Gates in Turkey

808 576415 628
37 40622 14644 685251 15446.906347
17 489
0
8 022
2 845
6 622

19 61632 83159 28849 963
196 052
17 709Turkishvehicles
375 459

151 889

44 6684 160
26
15 89917 556
4 046
108
4 738
0
1 478
0
3 260

694
32 3333 121
11 48651 8423 007

362 393

64 4004 823
1 589
21 88528 5595 234
265
17 225
0
8 018
3 612
5 625

14 75127 17564 37427 459130 149
16 86093 23119 219530
1
12 858
12
1 148
45
3 334
0
1 249
0
2 085

645
24 6933 686
3 755
34 9272 972

Foreignvehicles
70 678IMPORT
Turkishvehicles
280 7682007
Foreignvehicles
102 483

EXPORT

34 — MAIN ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF TURKEY

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THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND TRANSPORT CONTEXT — 35

CHAPTER 2. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND TRANSPORT CONTEXT

After a long period of economic growth interrupted by periodic financial and economic crises,
Turkey has enjoyed steady growth since the year 2000; with average GDP growth reaching 7%.
In the analysis of trade figures, it has been noted that this consolidation of Turkey’s economic
foundations has occurred at a time when:•Transition neighbouring countries such as Russia and the Central European Initiative (CEI)
countries have confirmed their economic expansion through the opening of their markets.

•

Trade with Asian countries, and in particular trade between Asian and the EU countries, hasbeen growing at an unprecedented rate, making China the first trade partner of Europe in 2006,
ahead of the USA.

However, political tensions and conflict in the Middle East and Iraq continue to have a significant
negative effect on trade relations and on transport links between Turkey and these areas.
It is necessary to understand the socio-economic context of the international and national
environment in order to assess the future of the Turkish transport sector and its role in international
exchange development, especially between the EU and Asia. Throughout history Turkey has been at thecrossroads of major international routes from the West to the East and from the North to the South:
between Europe and Asia, the Middle East, the Black Sea and the Eastern Mediterranean as well as
providing connections towards India and South East Asian countries.
This context should be analyzed from an internal and external point of view, showing how theTurkish transport sector can facilitate trade between countries while contributing to national cohesion
and expansion. Therefore, appraisal of the future must not disassociate the performance of the transport
sector within the large Turkish territory from the performance of Turkish international transport.
The development of major infrastructure corridors across Turkey will complement the improvementof transport services along these corridors, whether they are provided by Turkish or foreign operators.
Geographic realities demand intermodal transport solutions; combinations of land, sea and air transportmodes are required in order to provide more efficient transport chains.
2.1.

The Socio-Economic Context and Transport Needs

Turkey’s steady and robust growth in recent years can be explained by steady favourable macroeconomic framework and environment for investments and trade. It stands to reason that Turkey could
take advantage of world trade growth in the near future and diversify its international trade.
However, Turkey remains a country of contrast: from densely populated areas, to remote regions
which face significant emigration rates, to coastal regions which face the challenge of the competition forland by tourism and industrial activity, to large internal mountainous regions which struggle with

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36 — THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND TRANSPORT CONTEXT
connection problems. On a national scale, the contrast is observed between the more developed westernparts of the country and less developed eastern parts.
2.1.1.

The Basis for Sound Economic Growth

There are many factors currently at play which could contribute to sustained economic growth.
Since Turkey is a country with a young population, the first factor is demographic.
Turkish population growth rates are much higher than EU population growth rates. Although the
population is growing annually at a high rate, this rate is expected to decrease progressively to 2% overthe next twenty years.
Decreasing population growth rates, as observed in many emerging countries, are due to decreases
in fertility rates. Fertility rates drop as the percentage of the population living in urban areas increases
and as income levels per household rise.
During the last decade, Turkey has faced significant migration from rural to urban areas, and fromthe east to the west, in particular to İstanbul and the Marmara industrial region. Large Mediterranean
coastal cities as well as other large cities such as İzmir, Mersin, Antalya and Ankara, have also been
affected by migration.
At the same time, there is also an international migration flow from Turkey toward the EU
countries, to Germany in particular. This has created new opportunities for privileged economic andsocial links which are reflected in the volume of international trade and passenger flow.
To ensure sound economic growth, education policies should be adapted to population growth andthe engagement of the younger generation in the dynamic economy should be fostered. Turkey should
develop its reforms and actions with this approach in mind.
A second very important factor is the achievement of macro-economic stabilization policy. Inflationand successive financial crises hindered Turkish economic growth and made it difficult to implement asolid banking system which could respond to financial needs. During this volatile period Turkey failed to
attract international investment funds, and as a result such funds maintained a low level of businessvolume within the country.
This situation is changing rapidly and Turkey is becoming an attractive country for investment inindustrial activities and services. This will have an influence on investment in the transport sector as soon
as the relevant regulatory frameworks are implemented.
A third factor is Turkey’s size. Benefits due to size could be improved and supported by bothnational and international markets, as is the case with other large emerging countries of the world.
Over the last five years, Turkey’s GDP grew on average by almost 7%, much higher than the EU
average GDP growth of 2.5%. In many economic studies, the GDP growth of Turkey ranks high among
Mediterranean countries; it is also very close to the GDP growth of Asian emerging countries.
2.1.2.

Diversified International Trade: A Strong Asset for Future Turkish Development

The diversification of Turkish international trade could be analysed from a geographic andeconomic point of view.
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THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND TRANSPORT CONTEXT — 37a)Geographic: a large diversification of economic partners

When looking at the structure of Turkey’s international trade, the importance of relations with the
EU is clearly revealed by a long history of economic cooperation, trade, and customs agreements. In
terms of transport, Turkey has been a member of the European Conference of Ministers of Transport(ECMT – now transformed into the International Transport Forum (ITF)) since its foundation, and has
always participated actively in the multilateral work of the United Nations (UN).
Trade has also developed with most Mediterranean countries and many former communist bloc
countries currently undergoing transition:•

Central and Eastern European countries which are now integrated in the EU.

•

CEI countries such as Russia and Ukraine that are also part of the Black Sea Economic
Cooperation (BSEC), as well as Central Asian countries around the Caspian Sea.

•

Middle East countries such as Iran and Arab countries.

The rapid expansion of trade is due mainly to Turkey’s central geographic position.
In this context, Turkish transport operators and in particular Turkish road hauliers have always been
particularly dynamic. Historical and cultural relations and the ability to communicate in various
languages have facilitated trade relations; Turkish operators have been able to take advantage of the
opening markets in the long run, both nationally and internationally.
However, until recent years, Turkish trade relations with South East and Eastern Asian countries
followed a slower pace than the EU.
b)

Economic: weaknesses and strengths in world competition

Although the diversification of Turkish trade is an important asset, there are structural weaknesses
in its international transport network that have to be overcome in order to face world competition.
Strengths and weaknesses:•

Dependency on energy products; petroleum, in particular. This dependency has been limited inpart by hydraulic energy production; but this level of production is not sufficient to meet thedemands of the transport industry. Transport will always remain very dependent upon
petroleum: road, maritime and air transport as well as rail diesel traction rely on petroleum.
However, Turkey’s geographic proximity with oil producing regions - the Arabian Gulf and theCaspian Sea – translates into indirect benefits from these resources through trade withneighbouring countries in need of imports of industrial products and services.

•

Emerging countries can now compete in traditional sectors, such as textile, clothing and shoe
production with lower production costs and prices, which creates a challenge in the market.
Turkey’s objective is to maintain a strong position within these traditional sectors.

•

In agricultural production, Turkey has obtained a strong position by pursuing new
developments for the food industry. The effects of large investments made in the GAP (South

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38 — THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND TRANSPORT CONTEXT
Eastern) region, help strengthen the position of Turkey in the agricultural industry, especiallyfor exports towards the Middle East and “Maghreb” countries.
•

For basic industries, such as steel and basic chemicals, production within Turkey does notappear greatly diversified. Turkish international trade is an example of the “old economy” tradewith significant exports of basic and intermediate products.

•

The production and export of “white” goods for household equipment has developed rapidly.
This development is occurring in parallel to the support of the internal market, which plays asignificant role.

•

The rapid development of the automotive industry with the support of key foreign investments
concerns exports primarily and the internal market secondarily Turkey is a country of almost
70 million inhabitants, where the rate of motorization is fairly low compared to the average
income per inhabitant. Recent success in the automotive industry, a sector which demands
highly qualified personnel and logistic performance, confirms the fast pace at which Turkey isadapting to the new type of industrial production.

•

Finally, sectors of high technology markets, such as information and office equipment, are also
developing in Turkey.

In conclusion, Turkey’s industrial structure could show vulnerability in some traditional sectors of
production such as textile, steel, clothing, in a globally competitive market. Recently, however, new hightechnology production has been developing successfully, and new modern industrial plants have been
introduced.
Furthermore the Turkish internal market is very promising and this alone could be an importantbasis for international competitiveness, but only if the proper transport and industrial policy framework isprovided.
2.2.

The Spatial Development of Turkey

The problem of spatial development within Turkey is reflected in the locations of activities and in
the population movements mentioned earlier. These have a direct influence on the development of
networks across Turkey. For the development of Turkish and transit trade, it is essential to respond to theneeds of the concentrated population in the western part of the country, and also to provide proper
connections between regions, from the east to the west, and from the north to the south, as well as
connections with neighbouring countries.
The first major problem to overcome is the concentration of population, along the İstanbul Strait,
Marmara Sea, Mediterranean coast and the western part of the Black Sea coast.

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THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND TRANSPORT CONTEXT — 39

Map 2.1. The problem of spatial development and cohesion of Turkey (Census 2007)

Source: Turkish Statistical Institute.

Crossing the İstanbul Strait is known to be fairly difficult; therefore the ongoing construction of a
new tunnel for rail “Marmaray” will certainly improve the capacity for connections between theEuropean and Asian sides of Turkey. The Project of Marmaray is also of vital importance for radicallysolving the urban transport problem of İstanbul as a world city. Moreover, a new road bridge that isplanned to be constructed in İstanbul Strait will also contribute to tackle the transport problems ofİstanbul.
However congestion around the Marmara Sea is not due simply to the difficulties associated withcrossing the İstanbul Strait. İstanbul is a megapolis of almost 13 million inhabitants which expands far
beyond the İstanbul Strait and around the Marmara Sea, a zone which contains a large number of highly
populated industrial cities.
Therefore, in addition to improvements made to ease crossing the İstanbul Strait, alternative routes
should be found to connect cities across the Marmara Sea: for example RO-RO services or ferry services
across the Çanakkale Strait.
Furthermore, the ports of the Marmara Sea have become important gateways for maritime foreign
trade; an increasing number of private ports have responded to the growing demand that the public ports
could not satisfy.
But in the long run, the saturation of the entire Marmara Sea, including access to the various ports,
remains a risk.
Thus the problems of entry to and exit from Turkish territory should be tackled on a large scale.
Factors to consider can be categorized as “East-West connections” which refers to the connections
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40 — THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND TRANSPORT CONTEXT
between Turkey and the EU, the EU and Asia, and other entry ports along the Aegean coast or the South
Mediterranean coast (İzmir, Mersin); and “North-South connection” which involves alternative routes tothe İstanbul Strait that could include a bridge link between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea,
connecting for example, Mersin and Samsun. Other dimensions of this situation are discussed below:
The Western part of the Anatolian Plateau
The density of population of the Anatolian plateau is much lower than the density of population
along the coasts.
However, the Anatolian plateau contains a network of interconnected large cities with important
historical and administrative roles. Ankara is in the centre of this network in relation to Konya, Afyon,Eskişehir, Kayseri, and Sivas, which are the main regional cities.
Connections between the Anatolian plateau and costal regions are sometimes difficult, and thenumber of routes through the mountains is limited by topographic constraints. This is the case forconnections to Antalya and Adana along the southeast Mediterranean coast as well as connections tosome North-Western regions of the Black Sea where major ports should develop.
The Eastern Regions
The Eastern regions of Turkey have less developed ports and high rates of emigration to foreigncountries.
The rate of demographic growth is not always related to economic growth and it differs from one
region to the other; the fast growing population in the South-Eastern regions is due mainly to the highfertility rate and the decreasing population in the mountainous North-Eastern region is due in part to thehigh rate of emigration.
In the Eastern part of Turkey, a differentiation should be noted:•

In spite of the rail corridor towards Iran across the Van lake, it remains difficult to cross thehigh mountainous areas in the South-Eastern region of Turkey towards Iraq, Syria and theconnections to the North and to Iran.

•

The Central Eastern regions of Turkey, between the Black Sea coast and the South-Easternregions abovementioned are connected to the Anatolian plateau through the East-West axis
from Kars to Sivas.

•

North-Eastern Black Sea regions, connected through ports to other Black Sea countries(Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia) are also East-West transit regions for roadtransport towards Georgia, Azerbaijan, and the Caspian Sea, as part of the “Silk Road”.

To conclude, in addition to the East-West connections between the regions of Turkey, there are also
major East-West international transit corridors towards the Middle East, Iran and Caucasian countries.
North-South connections across the mountains of the Eastern Anatolian plateau face difficulties becauseof the topography. These difficulties pose significant constraints for Turkish land networks and for thedevelopment of transit corridors.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 41

PART II. FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE CHALLENGES AHEAD

CHAPTER 3. TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY

3.1.

Road Transport

3.1.1.

Road Network

National
Turkey has an extensive network of approximately 64 236 km of well-maintained main roads.
Of this network, 31 333 km consist of state roads, 30 579 km of provincial roads and 2 471 km of
motorways. The breakdown of these roads according to surface type as of 1st January, 2008 is asfollows.
Table 3.1. Road Network in Turkey

EARTH

OTHER

TOTAL

-

-

-

-

-

-

1 652

DC
SC
SC

335
25
459
2 471
3 996
2 542

6 381
17 824

-

-

-

11
38

-

-

-

213

106

222

335
25
459
2 471
10 38820 945

TOTAL

6 538

24 205

49

213

106

222

31 333

DC
SC
TOTAL
DC
SC

99
769
868
6 082
3 795

561
25 85326 4146 942
43 677

18
91
109
29
129

Motorway

Access Road

State Roads

Junction Leg
TOTAL
DC
SC

TOTAL

STABILIZED

1 652

STONE
BLOCK

DC

Motorway

Provincial Roads

CONCRETE

TYPE

SURFACE
TREATMENTASPHALTICROAD
CONCRETE

SURFACE TYPE

1 583
1 583

841
841

764
764

1 796

947

986

TOTAL
DC: Dual carriageway, SC: Single carriageway
Source: General Directorate of Highways, 2008.
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29 90130 57913 05351 33064 236

42 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
The length of the dual carriageway is 13 053 km, of which 1 987 km is motorways, 10 388 km
is state roads and 678 km is provincial roads.
There are 1 987 km of publicly owned toll roads. Collected tolls are contributed to theTreasury. The location of roadside facilities on toll roads is predefined and their set-up is based on
specific guidelines. These facilities are granted to concessionaires for operation periods of 2030 years.
Map 3.1. Turkish Road Network

Source: Turkish General Directorate of Highways.

The density of the Turkish road network, excluding urban roads, is approximately
47 km/100km². In the European Union (EU 25), the average density of the overall road network is
110 km/ 100km².
International
The approximate length of the international road network, important for international trafficrunning through Turkey, is about 9 000 km.
8 878 km of the main road network consist of E-Roads which connect the east and west
through the Anatolian mainland and have high standards. The E80 and E90 are the two main roads
leading to Turkey from European borders; they also link the Iranian and Iraqi borders.
International routes passing through Turkey, by length, are as follows.

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Source: Turkish General Directorate of Highways.

Map 3.2. International road corridors in Turkey

TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 43

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44 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY

Table 3.2. International Road Network in Turkey
International Road Network In Turkey
Trans European Motorway (TEM)
Agreement on Main International Traffic Arteries(AGR) E – ROADS
Black Sea Economic Cooperation – BSEC
Economic Cooperation Organisation – ECO
UN - ESCAPTRACECAEuro - Asian Linkages
Pan – European Corridors (Corridor IV)

Length (Km)
6 896
8 878
4 472
7 982
5 247
1 500
3 020
261

Source: Turkish General Directorate of Highways.

3.1.2.

Road Operations

National
Ninety six percent of passengers and 92.9% of freight are transported by road in Turkey. Transportdemand has grown significantly over the past five decades. Overall, demand (measured in passengerkilometres and tonne-kilometres) has grown at an annual rate of nearly 8% since 1950.
Turkey’s road transport policy in is consistent with the EU policy. Access to the road freight andpassenger transport industry has been greatly liberalised. The private sector is highly involved, both innational and international goods and passenger transportation. In other words, the market is free and open
to competition; incentives are not provided by the State.
With regard to its large and active international fleet (details in the tables below) Turkey has
restructured the sector with two new legislative initiatives: Road Transport Law No. 4925, which enteredinto force in 2003 and is a framework law for access to the market and the profession, and the by-law of
25 February 2004, which defines the application details of this aforementioned Law.
Through these initiatives, the three main conditions of the EU on access to the profession, namely
good repute, financial standing and professional competence have been transposed to the system. Also, a
new licensing system was introduced in the domestic freight transport market for the first time. As aresult, as of May 2008, roughly 288 000 licenses have been issued to domestic haulers - nearly 97% of
the registered commercial road vehicles.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 45

Table 3.3. Trucking Companies’ Fleet
Number of Vehicles
TrucksLorries

32 187
3 927

Trailer

2 332

Semi-trailer
Tank trailer

35 984729

Total Capacity (tonnes)

131 366

Source: RODER 2007.

Table 3.4. Capacity Employment
2004

2005

2006

2007

Number of Trucks

29 57731 99032 05532 187

Export Exits

353 863402 232456 235

406 321

Annual Export Exits Capacity

384 501

415 870434 458451 743

Capacity Employment Ratio

92.3

96.7

97

97.8

Source: RODER 2007.

In addition to the rules on the access to the professions and markets as well as certain road safety
requirements, social, fiscal and technical rules have also been put into effect in this new licensing system.
As part of these rules, the requirements for higher level of capital to obtain licences have received somecriticisms from Turkish road operators. Nevertheless, these critics did not hinder the process ofharmonizing the Turkish road transport sector with the EU Acquis and an EU Twinning Project for theassistance to Turkish road transport sector have been introduced.
International
International road transport operations are carried out with permits obtained in bilateral negotiations
or with licences from the European Conference of Ministers of Transport. Around 200 000 truck loads
per year (both directions) are operated by road, but the restricted number of permits granted to Turkish
truckers along the transit corridors to Western Europe (particularly in Hungary, Austria, Italy andSlovenia) creates difficulties for international transport. Although there has been a 138% increase in
Turkish exports to the EU, this sector has seen only a 50% increase in the quota of permits received in
the last 5 years. This problem is further aggravated by difficulties to obtain visas for Turkish truck
drivers in a timely fashion, as well as transit border bottlenecks with high transit charges in countries
along the Central Asian route. Hence, Turkish operators have started to buy companies in Europe toovercome permit problems and have developed RO-RO services to provide alternatives.

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46 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
Table 3.5. Fleet configuration of the international road haulage sector in Turkey, 2007
International Road Transport Fleet in Turkey

NumberTractors + Trailer - trucks
Lorries
Trailers/Semi-trailers
Refrigerated
Conventional – Dry cargo
TextilesCar carriers
Glass carriers
Low beds
Platforms
Silo tankers
Liquid fluid tankers
Liquid gas tankers
Other
Total

43 61816 89453 902
1 914
5 524
735
883
65
190
415
59
831
140
125 170

Source: Turkish General Directorate of Road Transport.

With regard to international conventions, Turkey is a contracting party of many importantorganisations that significantly simplify international road transport such as the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), the Customs Transit Convention (TIR), the European
Agreement concerning the Work of Crews of Vehicles Engaged in International Road Transport (AETR)
and the Agreement on the International Occasional Carriage of Passengers by Coach and Bus(INTERBUS).
Table 3.6. Transit Traffic by Road Vehicles in 2007
NUMBER OF TRANSIT VEHICLES ENTERING IN
TURKEYBORDER GATESEmpty

NUMBER OF TRANSIT VEHICLES EXITING
TURKEY

LoadedEmpty

TurkishForeign

Total

TurkishForeign

Total

KAPIKULE

0

1 143

1 143

9 856

7 332

17 1880İPSALA

0

754

754

54

2 974

3 028

0

CİLVEGÖZÜ

0

1 055

1 055

6 847

4 555

11 4020GÜRBULAK

0

989

989

1 487

10 137

11 624

SARP

0

1 631

1 631

103

661

TÜRKGÖZÜ

0

38

38

12

TOTAL

0

5 610

5 610

17 994

TurkishLoadedForeign

Total

TurkishForeign

621

621

912

4 222 5 134

587

587

19

2 745 2 764

984

984

3 354

2 188 5 542

0

345

345

8 774

9 177 17 951

764

0

254

254

1 656

2 798 4 454

0

10

0

0

0

55

25 16044 016

0

2 791

2 791

14 770

8

Total

63

21 138 35 908

Source: RODER.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 47

3.1.3.

Road Administration and the Legal Framework

Responsibilities regarding the road transport sector are dispersed among different ministries andauthorities in Turkey. The following institutions play roles of a varying scale in the road transport sector.
These roles and responsibilities are indicated below.
INSTITUTION
Ministry of Transport,
General Directorate of Road Transport

Ministry of Transport,
General Directorate of Highways

RESPONSIBILITY

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Ministry of Interior/Road Traffic Police, General
Directorate of Security
Ministry of Work and Social Security/
Labour Inspection
Ministry of Finance

Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Industry and Trade

Ministry of Education
Undersecretariat of Treasury
Undersecretariat of Customs

•
•
•
•
•
•

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Licensing of operators
Issuing permits
Regulating market access conditions
Collecting data on international road transport
Collecting traffic data on motorways, state andprovincial roads
Regulating and collecting toll roads(motorways)
Planning, design, construction, maintenance of
motorways, state and provincial roads
Regulating and road side enforcement
Issuing of vehicle registration certificates
Driving licences
Regulating and enforcing at premises ofoperator by labour inspection
Regulating driving times and rest periods
Regulating and collecting
Taxes
VAT
Excise duties
Annual vehicle tax
Live animal transport
Veterinary checks
Regulating technical standards
Tachograph
Speed limiters
Training of drivers
Examination of drivers
Regulating general state aid principles
State aids
Excise duties
Import of fuel in tanks
TIR

There is a wide body of law covering various areas of the sector. The two main public authorities
with jurisdictional overview of road transport issues, each responsible for the laws and regulations intheir respective domain, are:•General Directorate of Road Transport (KUGM)This Directorate works within the Ministry of Transport to manage the regulation of market
access conditions and the administration of operating licences for both national/international

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48 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
freight and passenger transport. Further responsibilities include roadworthiness tests, road side
inspections and the regulation of dangerous goods. The KUGM is headed by a General Director
and is assisted by two Deputy General Directors who each manage different departments. There
are 8 departments and 25 sections managed by the heads of departments and the directors ofsections respectively.
•

General Directorate of Highways (KGM)The General Directorate of Highways, which is affiliated with the Ministry of Transport,
planning, design project, is in charge of research, construction and maintenance of state andprovincial highways and motorways; municipalities are responsible for inner-city roads, andspecial local administrations (governorships) are responsible for village roads. This directorate
is not autonomous and revenues come from the general budget. It includes 17 regional
divisions, 117 district offices, 286 sub-district offices, 21 motorway maintenance and operation
offices, 3 motorway tunnel-maintenance and operation offices, 2 motorway bridge maintenance– operation offices, 1 motorway bridge traffic management centre.

3.1.4.

Road Infrastructure Development

In 2003, the General Directorate of Highways began implementing a program involving theextension of dual carriageway length to 15 000 km, in accordance with Government Road Action Plan.
The main objectives are to reduce the number of traffic accidents and improve the pavement quality of
the road infrastructure on main road network. In addition to this, the other policy is to increase thephysical quality of the road network with respect to heavy vehicle use.
The length of dual carriageway which was constructed and opened to traffic reached 13 053 km at
the beginning of 2008. Initially, the roads will undergo surface treatment in order to ensure traffic safety.
They will then be repaved with asphalted concrete in line with budget allocations. Construction to
improve existing two-lane roads as dual carriageway is ongoing.
The current and planned projects on roads are as follows.
Black-Sea Coastal Dual Carriageway
The Black Sea Coastal Road (Samsun –Trabzon-Sarp) - 542 km in length - was tendered as dual
carriageway and is about to be completed. The surface type is bituminous hot mix (asphalted concrete).
This project is of great importance for the Turkish arterial network to Central Asia and further East,
via the Caucasian and Caspian Sea Ferry-boat services. 535 km of this road, of which 524 km with
bituminous hot-mix pavement and 11 km with surface treatment, was opened to traffic. Opening of
18 km as a bituminous hot-mix pavement road to traffic is programmed in 2008.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 49

Map 3.3. Black Sea Coastal Dual Carriageway

Source: Turkish General Directorate of Highways.

Ongoing Motorway Projects
Turkey has medium and long term motorway construction programs. These programs plan a total
4 368 km of road construction. 1 775 km of this network is already in operation, while 489 km is underconstruction. The design works for 949 km of roads have been either completed or are underway;
1 155 km of roads are still to be designed.
Map 3.4. Motorway Construction Program

Source: Turkish General Directorate of Highways.
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50 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
Gaziantep- Şanlıurfa Motorway
This project was designed as a continuation of TEM Motorway and Tarsus-Pozantı Junction-AdanaToprakkale-Gaziantep motorway providing future connections to GAP and Habur Border Gate in the
future.
Gaziantep-Şanlıurfa Motorway (Gaziantep Bypass Road included) was tendered for 4 sections on
the base of external credits (some expropriation and engineering services included, expropriation
excluded in Gaziantep Bypass Highway) during June 1998.
The period for the construction of 179.4 km of motorway and 36 km of connecting roads, totaling
215.4 km, has been extended to 2009.
In total, 162.5 km, of which 126.5 km consisting of motorways and 36 km of connecting roads,
were opened to traffic at the end of 2006. In addition, the binder course of a 5.5 km section on Gaziantep
Bypass Highway was completed in 2007 and opened to traffic at the end of February 2008. The othersections are expected to be completed within 2008.
This project provides an important connection to Middle Eastern countries. The total planned
motorway length for this project is 219 km in 2x3 and 2x2 design, of which 70% has been completed.
Gerede-Merzifon State Road Project
Gerede-Merzifon Road Project, which is of a 309 km long route, is in the core highway network
defined as a result of TINA Turkey Project and among 15 highway improvement projects. This projectwill enhance the connection between Black Sea, Caucasian and Asian countries.
3.1.5.

Future Developments and Challenges

3.1.5.1. The dominant position of road transport
Turkish national and international transport is dominated by road transport. International roadtransport has been able to adapt to an international context by implementing innovative solutions which
combine road, sea and RO-RO transport; domestic road transport still needs improvement.
On the other hand, the adaptation of other modes, especially rail transport and port development,
has occurred more slowly. This is in spite of the expected developments and modernisation planned forthe upcoming years.
Turkey is currently entering a critical period, when the transport system must adapt promptly tonational and international transport demands. The development of new private ports as well as the
successful development of new airports, including air freight transport, reflects this situation.
The dominant position of road transport is clearly seen in the figures on modal split in Turkish
transport. However, a distinction should be made between national and international road transport.
Unlike national road transport, Turkish international road transport has been a dynamic sector for many
years, with significant improvement in the 1970s, when road transit was emerging between Europe, Iranand the Middle Eastern countries.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 51

3.1.5.2. The importance of Turkish road transport
The dominance of international road transport can be illustrated from various points of view:•

Road transport has the highest modal share of bilateral and transit markets in east-west andnorth-south connections.

•

The organisations of intermodal road transport hauliers, both small or medium sized, haveadapted to international administrative constraints concerning customs, goods in transit, and theuse of electronic data exchanges.

•

The implementation of RO-RO services is often presented as one of the most successful
experience from “Motorways of the Sea”, for both the EU and Black Sea countries. In
consequence, almost 50% of Turkish of non-bulk product transport to the EU uses maritime
routes, presently concentrated at the Trieste port in Italy. New RO-RO lines are expected
between Turkish and European ports in order to diversify the actual routes. Turkish roadhaulier organisations are currently taking initiatives to expand their fleets.

•

The new RO-RO services will help create new opportunities and routes between the EU and
Turkey. This will mitigate the most congested part of this network, in particular İstanbul Strait,
and perhaps in the future, the crossing points in the Alps.

•

Recent initiatives taken:− the construction of a new border crossing point between Turkey and Iran, with modern
facilities for administrative and transport organisations, with Public Private Partnership(PPP) financing;− the Ro-La experience between Turkey and Austria (although the competitiveness of thissolution remains to be seen with regard to other intermodal solutions).

Turkish international road transport has certainly benefited from the support of the administration
which:•

Regularly negotiates permits in bilateral meetings and often advocates the liberalisation of roadmarkets between countries, as is the case, for example, with Iran.

•

Maintains the road network in good condition and adapts it to traffic changes.

Moreover, there is a well established culture of the road “master plan” in the Turkish administration,
supported by structured regional and local units. Little has been said about the quality of this road
network for international transport. The average speed on this network appears to be fairly high. A road
network development plan is regularly adapted, with a proposal to develop a 2 x 2 road infrastructure
along major axes under public initiative.
In addition, motorways could be developed, particularly in the western part of the country wheretraffic density is higher. For such motorways PPP schemes are open.
The administration is currently implementing a new law for national road transport which will
reduce the differences between companies operating at national and international levels, and will tomodernise the road haulage industry. This will also have an impact on domestic transport.
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In recent years, Turkey has improved its road transport network through several infrastructure
projects and adopted a law package which has provided a legal and institutional framework that is in linewith the EU Acquis for the market. These initiatives have strengthened Turkey’s competitiveness ininternational road operations.
3.1.5.3. The limits of Turkish road transport
Road congestion is obviously the first factor which limits the success of Turkish road transport. For
the moment, international road haulers have been able to adapt to critical situations, such as transit acrossthe Balkans, by opening new routes with RO-RO services. Soon enough, these new routes will affect thecrossing of the Marmara Sea, employing ferry services more intensively than the İstanbul Strait between
Europe and Asia. This could also affect national short sea shipping lines along the Mediterranean coast,or between the Mediterranean and Black sea ports, if new regulation facilitates the launch of such lines
with fast transit passages through ports. The impact of road transport on the environment also poses a
significant challenge.
Beyond these factors, road transport also has negative implications for:•The capacity of road transport operations to adapt quantitatively and qualitatively to new
requirements on demand.

•

Logistics operations, including storage, supply chain management, and to some extent, urban
transport distribution which is the terminal leg of the transport chain.

•

Forwarding operations and customs operations; for example, the waiting time necessary toaccomplish customs formalities at the Kapıkule border crossing point.

Problems in achieving a smoothly functioning transport chain, door-to-door transportation, and theintegration of supply chain management, are due partly to inadequacies in Turkish regulation.
Forwarding operations are greatly affected by customs constraints, and logistic operations sometimes
face difficulties in the operation of logistics centres.
It is clear that such limits pertain not only to road transport but to other transport modes as well.
These issues should not be treated through road transport legislation alone, as will be discussed later.
3.1.5.4 The need for cooperation between modes of transport
Innovative solutions which have already been mentioned could be used generally in maritime or railtransport with regard to RO-RO and Ro-La transport. But these solutions always develop under a roadtransport chain, through the initiative of road transport hauliers and their associations. Cooperation
schemes between road operators and other rail or maritime operators are however, limited.
This is probably one of the reasons why other intermodal solutions, such as the transport of swap
bodies, or the inland transport of maritime containers, have not been sufficiently developed. However, it
is important that road hauliers not be held solely responsible for such limits.
Intermodal services for the transport of swap bodies and maritime containers require advanced
logistic transport solutions, which often do not exist in Turkey, especially in rail transport of maritime
containers to/from ports.

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Therefore, cooperation between modes also requires a framework by which partners are able toshare and achieve common objectives and interests through negotiation.
To create such a framework and see the emergence of new actors and strategies, appropriate
regulation is crucial. Road legislation has made significant progress on this front; the same is also
necessary for other modes of transport.
3.2.

Railway Transport

3.2.1.

Railway Network

National
The existing railway network is concentrated on a few major routes. Thus the railway network isavailable only in certain areas and between certain cities.
The length of the rail network in Turkey is 10 984 km, of which 8 697 km are main lines, 2 287 km
are branch lines. The network is predominantly single-tracked (95%) and is characterised by
mountainous terrain, tight curves and steep gradients. 2 336 km of the railways which correspond to 21%of the network, are electrified at 25kv, 50Hz; 3 111 km of the railways, corresponding to 28% of theexisting network, are composed of signalled lines. The permitted axle load is 20 tonnes on about 61%
and 22.5 tonnes on about 37% of the network.
The length of electrified and non electrified lines in main and subsidiary lines is seen in the tablebelow.
With projects currently underway and to be pursued in upcoming years, the length of the electrifiedlines will increase to 2 956 km. Thus the percentage of electrified main lines, out of all of main lines, willrise from 21% to 34.8%. The Turkish rail system is both jointed and welded, with concrete sleepers usedon around 60% of the network.

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Source: Turkish State Railways (TCDD).

Map 3.5. Turkish Railways Network

54 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 55

Table 3.7. Length of Lines

Mainlines

2nd,3rd, 4thMainlines

Total
Mainlines

Subsidiarylines

Total lines

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Non Electrified

6 778

6 778

6 693

6 693

6 693

Electrified

1 479

1 479

1 564

1 564

1 564

Total

8 257

8 257

8 257

8 257

8 257

Non Electrified

141

167

84

84

84

Electrified

273

273

356

356

356

Total

414

440

440

440

440

Non Electrified

6 919

6 945

6 777

6 777

6 777

Electrified

1 752

1 752

1 920

1 920

1 920

Total

8 671

8 697

8 697

8 697

8 697

Non Electrified

1 907

1 917

1 902

1 871

1 871

370

370

385

416

416

Total

2 277

2 287

2 287

2 287

2 287

Non Electrified

8 826

8 862

8 679

8 648

8 648

Electrified

2 122

2 122

2 305

2 336

2 336

Total

10 94810 98410 98410 98410 984

Electrified

Source: Turkish State Railways, Annual Statistics 2002-2006.

International
Existing rail transport corridors
For rail corridors, the railway connections between main cities and borders are listed below:•

Sirkeci (İstanbul) – Pehlivanköy – Greek border•

Sirkeci – Pehlivanköy – Bulgarian border•

Haydarpaşa (İst.) –Arifiye- Adapazarı•

Haydarpaşa (İst)–Arifiye- İzmit – Eskişehir – Ankara•

Ankara – Kayaş – Irmak – Karabük – Zonguldak•

Ankara –Kayaş-Irmak- Kayseri – Sivas – Samsun•

Sivas –Çetinkaya- Erzincan – Erzurum – Kars –Akkaya•

Sivas – Çetinkaya – Malatya –Yolçatı-Elazığ – Muş – Tatvan – Van – Iranian border

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56 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY•

Malatya – Yolçatı – Kurtalan•

Kayseri – Ulukışla – Adana•

Adana – Toprakkale – İskenderun•

Adana – Toprakkale – Fevzipaşa- Narlı - Gaziantep – Nusaybin - Syrian border•Eskişehir-Alayunt-Kütahya-Balıkesir•

Bandırma – Balıkesir – Manisa – Basmane (İzmir)•

Manisa-Uşak-Afyon - Alsancak (İzmir) – Aydın - Goncalı – Denizli•

Denizli – Goncalı – Karakuyu – Afyon•

Afyon-Karakuyu-Gümüşgün (Burdur)-Bozanönü (Isparta)-Eğirdir•Eskişehir – Afyon – Konya – Karaman – Ulukışla – Adana

Map 3.6. Most Transited Railways in Turkey

Source: Turkish State Railways.

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3.2.2.

Rail operations

National
The Turkish railway system consists of a State railway company, Turkish State Railways (TCDD), a
State Economic Enterprise (SEE) with monopoly rights. The State owns all railway assets, manages theinfrastructure and directly operates rail services based on productivity, not profitability. There is no
separation of accounts between infrastructure management and train operations. Fares and investments
are generally regulated by the State and some operating losses are compensated by the State, as well.
Current efforts are concentrated on opening up the sector for competition, separating infrastructure
management from train operations and establishing the necessary bodies in accordance with the EU
Acquis.
To this end, an action plan was adopted by the Ministry of Transport in 2003, which sets out a roadmap for achieving railway reform by 2008. As part of this plan, a twinning project, namely “Turkish Rail
Sector Restructuring and Strengthening Project”, funded by the EU and Turkey, will help establish thelegislative and institutional framework of the Turkish rail sector in accordance with the EU Acquis. This
project, conducted in collaboration with Germany, was concluded in November 2006.
Within this twinning project, a general railway framework law and a TCDD law have been drafted.
Being introduced on July, 14th 2008, these draft laws which were harmonized with the EU Acquis
provides a framework so as to release the monopoly in the railway market and liberalize the sector aswell as creating a liberal, transparent and competitive basis for introduction of private railway services.
In addition, four implementing regulations on railway safety, interoperability, licensing and access torailway infrastructure (allocation and charging for the use of infrastructure) have been also drafted.
Through the implementation of this law package, the railway sector will be open for fair, equal andnon-discriminatory competition. A regulatory body, safety authority and railway accident investigationbody will be established to ensure improvements in competition, safety and transparency. The incumbent
railway TCDD will be reorganised in compliance with the EU Acquis.
In restructuring the Turkish railways, the Ministry of Transport has chosen that the ownership of theland remains in the government’s hands. Port grounds will also remain in government possession.
Moreover, TCDD operates 7 ports, İskenderun, Mersin, İzmir, Bandırma, Derince, Haydarpaşa andSamsun, which will be discussed later.
International
It is feasible to carry out direct international freight transportation by railways through the following
border crossing points:•

To Bulgaria and other European countries through Kapıkule border connection.

•

To Greece and other countries through Uzunköprü.

•To Iran and the Central Asian countries through Kapıköy border connection.

•

To Syria and Iraq through Islahiye border connection.

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To Syria and Iraq through Nusaybin border connection.

To enable railway transportation to compete with other transport modes and retain its share in theinternational freight transportation market as an alternative transportation system, different transportation
projects have been conducted and implemented.
3.2.3.

Railway Administration and Legal Framework

There are two authorities in charge of the railways, the General Directorate of Railways, Ports andAirports Construction (DLH) and the General Directorate of Turkish State Railways (TCDD).
•

General Directorate of Railways, Ports and Airports Constructions (DLH)
DLH, being one of the central units under the Ministry of Transport, is responsible for overallplanning programming, design and construction of public railways (including urban rail masstransport), ports and airports infrastructure and the approval of private sector projects in these
related fields.

•

General Directorate of Turkish State Railways (TCDD) Administration
TCDD is affiliated with the Ministry of Transport and functions as an autonomous, budgeted
public enterprise, within the framework of Decree Law number 233.
The Ministry of Transport carries out the coordination and supervision of the TCDD. The
Board of Directors is composed of five members, who have the Director General as chair. In
addition to the Departments of Inspection, Legal, Public Relations and Defence Units at
Headquarters, there are 18 specialized departments and 7 Regional Directorates countrywide.

There are 3 affiliated corporations active in the railway industry:•TÜLOMSAŞ (Turkish Locomotive and Engine Industry Joint Stock Company), located inEskişehir, manufactures locomotives under licence.

•TÜVASAŞ (Turkish Wagon Industry Joint Stock Company), located in Adapazarı,
manufactures passenger coaches.

•TÜDEMSAŞ (Turkish Railway Machines Industry Joint Stock Company), located in Sivas,
manufactures freight wagons.

Turkish authorities believe that the flexible organizational structure of TCDD enables change inaccordance with varying operational demands. TCCD functions in the following areas:•

To operate, enlarge and renew the railways, ports and piers granted by the state.

•

To guide and coordinate its affiliated corporations and shares, in accordance with laws andregulations, within the framework of development plans and annual programmes.

•

To carry out complementary activities regarding rail transport, i.e. maritime and land transport,
including ferry operations, when necessary.

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To manufacture rolling stock and similar vehicles, set up warehouses, depots and passenger
facilities.

•

To undertake railway construction work at home and abroad.

Despite its geographical features and years of railways experience, the railway network has not been
sufficiently modernized and the infrastructure is quite old. With the recent major public investment
project, the quality and technical facilities are being improved. However it is important to keep the focus
on the aim to transform railways into a competitive component of national and international transport
activities in a long-term and holistic manner.
3.2.4.

Rail Infrastructure Developments

Priority is given to new railway construction projects as indicated below:
Map 3.7. Priority railway projects

Source: Turkish State Railways.

Kars-Tbilisi-Baku Rail Link
The rail line will link the eastern Turkish city Kars with the Azerbaijani capital, Baku, on the
Caspian Sea. A protocol is signed between parties to implement the Project. The construction of this line
was started in 2008. With this project the construction of a new line between Kars-Akhalkalaki (Georgia)
and rehabilitation of the present line between Akhalkalaki and Tbilisi (Georgia) will be carried out.
Creating this new route will be the only way to re-establish the Silk Road railway line betweenİstanbul and Baku. From here begins a trans-Caspian rail-ship link to the port of Aktau in Kazakhstan.
Turkish authorities have commenced preparation work for the project, following their recent
approval of the plan. Construction in Kazakhstan is scheduled to begin in June.

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With the completion of this project, a new line to connect Europe to the Caucasus and Middle AsianCountries will be ensured.
Map 3.8. Kars-Tbilisi Railway Project

Source: Turkish State Railways.

Ankara-Sivas Railway ProjectThis project is divided into the “Ankara-Sivas “and “Sivas–Erzincan-Erzurum-Kars” Railway
Projects. It involves the construction of a new 466 km stretch of railway and the upgrading of theexisting Ankara-Kırıkkale line. Currently trains between Ankara and Sivas run via Kayseri, a detour ofover 300 km.
The present railway line between Ankara–Sivas is 602 km long and travel time is 12 hours. This
project will shorten the most important link between the east and west, the Ankara-Sivas line, by 136 km.
Freight and passenger transport capacity will be increased by raising the standards. Plans call for a speedof 250 km/h, double tracks and electrified and signalled railways.
The technical study was started on 5th October 2004. The mapping and route studies, the preparationof feasibility study, ground study works, the environmental impact assessment and the preparation ofplans for bridges, tunnels, superstructure studies, and expropriation have been completed.

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Map 3.9. Ankara-Sivas High Speed Train Project

Halkalı (İstanbul)-Kapıkule (Edirne) Project
A high standard railway, as a continuation of the Ankara–İstanbul Speed Railway Project, isplanned for implementation. (250 km/h, two tracks; electrified and signalled). Route studies are ongoing
and will be completed shortly.
Map 3.10. İstanbul-Edirne Project

Source: Turkish State Railways.
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Sivas-Erzincan-Erzurum-Kars-Railway ProjectThis project is divided into 3 parts: Sivas-Erzincan; Erzincan-Erzurum; and Erzurum-Kars, The bid
for the feasibility study and the preparatory works are completed.
Because the Ankara-Sivas line forms the most important section of the east-west corridor, thisproject aims to increase passenger and freight transportation capacity by reducing 131 km of length andraising its standards. It also aims to provide high standard railway routes between Europe-CaucasusCentral Asia via Turkey in the east-west axis, by integration with the Kars-Tbilisi Railway Project. The
project is financially supported through foreign credits. Completion is planned within 2008.
Map 3.11. Sivas-Erzincan-Erzurum-Kars Railway Project

Source: Turkish State Railways.

Ankara- İzmir Railway Project
The largest of the four projects involves the creation of a new high speed line between the Turkish
capital, Ankara and the main Aegean port, İzmir. This project, expected to be completed by 2011,
involves the construction of 554 km of new rail line linking Polatlı with Afyon. Few trains currently run
between Ankara and İzmir, as the journey takes more than 15 hours. Once completed, travel time
between Ankara and İzmir will be reduced to 3 hours and 20 minutes. The line will allow for the easytransit of freight between the port facilities of Turkish Railways (TCDD) at İzmir, Afyon, and Ankara.

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Map 3.12. Ankara-İzmir Railway Project

Source: Turkish State Railways.

Ankara-İstanbul High Speed Train Project(Project cost: 1 433 000 000 Euros)
The Ankara-İstanbul High Speed Train Project, which is amongst the biggest projects to be
implemented by the Ministry of Transport, aims to decrease the travel time between Ankara and İstanbul
by 3 hours, create a fast, safe and comfortable means of transportation, and increase the share of railways
in transportation. The project will be implemented in two phases.
The first phase of the project consists of a 206 km section between Esenkent and Eskişehir. The
infrastructure works between Esenkent and Eskişehir, which cover the first phase of Ankara-İstanbul
High Speed Train Project, began on 5th December, 2003 and are proceeding at a fast pace. The firstphase is expected to be operational in 2008. The tender for the construction of the second phase (InönüKöseköy) has been awarded in 2006 and the works will start after the conclusion of the loan agreement,
expected by the end of 2007, and are planned to be completed in two years.
On the other hand, improved lines between Ankara and Eskişehir, which is the second railroad
passenger transport artery of the Turkey, will decrease the travel time between Ankara and İzmir, byapproximately 1.5 hours.
Moreover, 10 units of high speed train sets will be procured for the project. These train sets canreach a speed of 250 km/h, are equipped with air-conditioning, pressure balance, paging, music, visualbroadcasting, and passenger information systems. The hope is to increase the railway share in passenger
transportation between Ankara and İstanbul from 10% to 78%.

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The existing railway line between Ankara and İstanbul is 562 km in length, 198 km of which isdouble-line and 364 km of which is single-line. These lines are completely signalled and electrified.
Travel time by conventional express trains is 6 hours and 30 minutes, by road 5 hours and 30 minutes
and approximately 50 minutes by air.

Map 3.13. Ankara-İstanbul High Speed Train Project

Source: Turkish State Railways.

Construction of a High Speed Railway Line between Ankara and Konya
Another important project for Turkey is the Ankara-Konya high speed train project. Konya is of the
major cities in Turkey in terms of population, agriculture and industry. Travel time from Konya to
Ankara and İstanbul will be shorter once this project is completed.
The existing railroad between Ankara and Konya is 987 km in length, through the AnkaraEskişehir-Afyon corridor while the highway between Ankara and Konya is just 258 km in length. Since
passenger and freight transport by rail between Ankara and Konya is very time consuming, road transportmeans are preferred. The construction of the Ankara-Konya railway will connect Konya with the three
big cities of İstanbul, Ankara and İzmir; this high speed railway connection will ensure fastertransportation.
Once completed, Ankara-Konya travel times will drop from ten and a half to one and a quarter
hours; travel times from İstanbul to Konya will drop from twelve and a half to three and a half hours.
The infrastructure works together with electro-mechanical works are expected to be completed by
the first quarter of 2009.

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Map 3.14. Ankara-Konya High Speed Railway Project

Source: Turkish State Railways.

Marmaray Project
The most challenging infrastructure project in Turkey, and perhaps one of the most interesting
projects in the world, is the Marmaray Rail Tube Tunnel Project.
The project will provide an upgrading of the commuter rail system in İstanbul, connecting Halkalı
on the European side with Gebze on the Asian side with an uninterrupted, modern, high-capacity
commuter rail system. Railway tracks on both sides of the İstanbul Strait will be connected by a railway
tunnel connection under the İstanbul Strait. The line goes underground at Yedikule, continues throughthe new Yenikapı and Sirkeci underground stations, passes under the İstanbul Strait, connects to the newÜsküdar underground station and emerges at Söğütlüçesme, as seen in the map below.
The Marmaray Project is the upgrading of approximately 76 kilometres of commuter rail fromHalkalı to Gebze. The red line on the map shows the parts of the railway that are above ground; thewhite line shows the new railway system that will be constructed in tunnels under the İstanbul Strait.
The most important objectives of this project are to:a)Provide a long-term solution to the current urban transportation problems of İstanbul.

b)Relieve existing operating problems on the mainline railway services.

c)

Provide a direct, railway system connection between Asia and Europe.

d)Increase the capacity, reliability, accessibility, punctuality and safety on the commuter rail
services.

e)

Reduce travel time and increase comfort for a large number of commuter train passengers.

f)

Provide uninterrupted passenger and freight transportation across the İstanbul Strait.

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Map 3.15. Marmaray Project

Source: Turkish Ministry of Transport.

This project is currently one of the world’s major transportation infrastructure projects. The entire
railway system, upgraded and new, will be approximately 76 km long. The main structures and systems
include: the immersed tube tunnel, bored tunnels, cut-and-cover tunnels, grade structures, 3 newunderground stations, 37 surface stations (renovation and upgrading), operations control centre, yards,
workshops, maintenance facilities, upgrading of existing tracks, including a new third track on ground,completely new electrical and mechanical systems and the procurement of modern railway vehicles.
The capacity of the new commuter rail system for moving people across the İstanbul Strait will be
10-12 times higher than the capacity of one of the existing bridges.
Signalization Projects•

The signalling project on Irmak-Karabük-Zonguldak, Bandırma-Menemen, Cumaovası–
Karakuyu and Samsun-Kalın, Kars-Divriği line

The signalization will increase the line capacity and ensure the faster transport of industrial andagricultural products as well as passengers on the line.
Irmak-Karabük-Zonguldak
Bandırma – Menemen
Cumaovası-Karakuyu
Samsun-Kalın
Kars-Divriği

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The signalization of the Eskişehir- Kütahya- Balıkesir line
The signalization of this line will increase the line capacity and capability by 25-30%. The final
plans for the infrastructure have been completed and the project is included in the mid-term programmeof the 2007-2009 periods.
Signalling, Electrification and Telecommunication Project on Pehlivanköy-Uzunköprü LineThe objective of this project is to provide a safe and reliable high speed journey between İstanbul
and Thessalonica. It includes the installation of a signalling, electrification and telecommunication
system on a 30 km line between Pehlivanköy-Uzunköprü. The feasibility study is completed. It is
included in the investment programme.
Map 3.16. Signalized Lines

Source: Turkish State Railways.

Electrification Projects
Electrification of Irmak-Karabük-Zonguldak, Samsun-Kalın, Kırıkkale-Çetinkaya, Kayaş-Irmak–
Kırıkkale, Kars-Divriği lines.
Electrification will increase the line capacity and the rapid transport of industrial, agricultural
products as well as passengers on the line section will be ensured.
Irmak-Karabük-Zonguldak
Samsun-Kalin
Kırıkkale-ÇetinkayaKayaş-Irmak-Kırıkkale
Kars-Divriği

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It is planned for inclusion in the 2007-2010 period of the programme.
Electrification and Signalisation of Boğazköprü-Ulukışla-Yenice Line and Mersin-Yenice-Adana
Toprakkale Line
To meet the increasing transport demand in the Cilicia region and enhance economic value inTurkey, plans are underway to upgrade the physical and geometrical standards of existing railway lines
and to provide economic operations.
The electrification of 285 km of single track line and 146 km of double track line (AdanaToprakkale) is planned. The feasibility study is done.
Map 3.17. Railways Electrified Lines

Source: Turkish State Railways.

3.2.5.

Future Developments and Challenges

3.2.5.1

An “expected” modernisation of rail transport

Rail transport in Turkey developed early in the past century, parallel to the integration of thecountry linking east-west and north-south regions. Rail transport at that time was an important mode oftransport for passengers as well as for bulk products. Rail transport was therefore strongly integrated in
the administration; eventually the state became involved in the ownership of major Turkish ports.
However, the fact is that railways are not very strong in such a large country, which in theory should be acompetitive and strong transport mode.
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Presently, the rail modal share is very low and actions pertaining to three aspects should be taken
into consideration:•

Regulatory aspects.

•

Organisational aspects.

•

Infrastructural aspects.

Various policy options have been discussed in recent years, and the privatisation of ports was thefirst to be implemented. All ports except Haydarpaşa, have been put on the privatisation agenda. Mersin
Port was finally privatised in 2007, after having been granted the operation rights for 36 years. The
privatisation process for other ports is ongoing. The legal structure of the rail company is the firstelement that new regulation will address and affect.
No decision has been yet taken concerning the structure of a new rail company. The “Holding”
model appears attractive. As required by the first EU Railways Package of 1991, the accounts of rail
infrastructure management will be separated from the rail operations of TCDD.
Liberalization of the rail market is expected in the upcoming years along with the arrival of new
entrants. However, as soon as decisions are taken concerning separation between infrastructure
management and rail operations, and once the system of regulation on infrastructure capacity allocationand charging is determined, modalities will need to be defined.
Meanwhile, new strategies have been proposed by the rail administration and international rail
cooperation organizations.
a)

The strategy for freight and passenger transport by rail

For passenger transport, new high speed line projects are being developed in the western part of thecountry between İstanbul and Ankara, and future lines are planned between Ankara-Konya and Ankaraİzmir. This will affect freight transport on the old lines as well as the new lines designed for mixed
traffic.
In recent years, train operation has been improved by the implementation of block train operation
schemes to wagon load operations: the quality of services and average transport speed and reliability, inparticular, has improved considerably.
A further goal is to develop logistic services and to implement rail freight logistic centres. Several
locations across the country have been explored for such centres, which will be directly connected to therail network.
Another objective is to increase cooperation within the railway companies of neighbouring
countries in order to provide new intermodal services:b)

Cooperation with Balkan railway companies to launch the aforementioned Ro-La services anddevelop intermodal transport services between the EU and Turkey.

c)

Cooperation with Middle East railway companies to commence container services between
Turkey and Iran up to Kazakhstan, as well as services between Turkey, Syria and Iraq.

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Currently, there is regular container service along these corridors, in particular between Ankara andAlmaty. Although these services comprise only a small share of the market, efforts are being made to
improve the reliability or their transport time. This is in comparison to road transport, which has toendure long waiting times at borders between Iran and Turkmenistan, and between Turkey and other
Middle Eastern countries, along the route across Syria and Iraq.
To ensure the future success of the railways, infrastructure investments are critical. The Turkish
railway network is old, mainly single track, only partly electrified and with tight curves. The outdated
signalling system considerably limits the capacity of the tracks.
Therefore, even though the construction of some new lines has started, rehabilitation of the network
does not necessarily imply the construction of new lines. For example, with the rail tube tunnel under theİstanbul Strait and HST lines, freight transport by train at night will be possible.
The rehabilitation of this network entails the realignment of the old network, doubling the lines
when necessary, and improving the electrification and signalling systems.
The Transport Infrastructure Needs Assessment Study (TINA) has identified many railway projects,
in parallel with road projects, for consideration over the next ten to twenty years. In scenarios for rail androad network development, the emphasis is placed on major international corridors which arecomplemented by international cooperation organizations.
3.3.

Maritime Transport and Ports

3.3.1.

Maritime Network

The total coastline of Turkey is 8 333 km long. There are approximately 290 shore facilities
including ports and piers. The ports and piers are divided into three groups: ports and piers operated bypublic sectors; by private sectors; and other piers operated by regional municipalities.
The total quay length of the 7 largest ports in the country, operated by Turkish State Railways(TCDD), is over 16 000 metres, with a storage capacity of 31.5 million tonnes per year. Total throughput
is around 40 million tonnes of general cargo. The vast majority of cargo volume - liquid and dry bulk
(petroleum, coal, minerals, fertilizers, etc.) - is handled either by the special private ports or bymunicipalities.
3.3.2.

Maritime Operations

Turkey’s approach to maritime transport is consistent with the broad European principles of freecirculation of shipping, fair competition, enhanced maritime safety and pollution prevention. The
maritime sector is one of the most liberalized sectors in Turkey, with a largely free market oriented
economy. The shore facilities, including 29 main ports, are operated by various types of organizations:
10 harbors belong to different State owned organizations and 19 harbors belong to municipalities; there
are also 34 private operators. Moreover, 14 yacht harbors belong to the Ministry of Tourism and theprivate sector, while 128 fishing shelters belong to co-operatives, municipalities and provincial
administrations. Each port, whether state or privately operated, is free to determine its own tariffs inaccordance to the port service tariffs that has been published on 1st August 2003 by the Ministry ofTransport, in which the highest limits of these tariffs have been determined.
Turkish ports can be classified into three groups according to their operators:

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Those run by the Turkish State Railways (TCDD).

•

Those run by the Turkish Maritime Administration (TDI).

•

Special private ports, and those run by municipalities.
Map 3.18. Main Ports in Turkey

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs.

Developed in the early years of the past century, Turkey’s rail transport at that time was animportant mode linking east-west and north-south regions. Hence, rail transport was strongly integrated
in the administration; eventually the state became involved in the ownership of 7 major Turkish ports.
By the Law on “The Organisation and Duties of Turkish State Railways and Ports” dated 1927
numbered 1042, TCDD has been entrusted with the task of operating, expanding and renovating the ports
which have railway connections.
Since then, TCDD was operating the seven largest ports in the country: Haydarpaşa, Derince, İzmir,Samsun, Mersin, Bandırma and İskenderun. Now this number has been decreased to six main ports since
the privatization of Mersin port has been accomplished. The privatization process for Derince, Bandırmaand Samsun Ports are in the final approval stage by the relevant public authorities. All of these ports areaccessible by road and railway.
They are the country’s most strategically important ports, handling the greatest cargo volume in
Turkey. The major commodity groups handled are: dry bulk, container, liquid bulk and general cargo.
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Haydarpaşa, İzmir and Mersin ports are the biggest ports of Turkey in terms of annual handling andtraffic capacity. Haydarpaşa, Mersin, İskenderun, Samsun and Derince ports have been registered asinternational ports/ferry links and container terminals by the European Agreement on Main International
Combined Transportation Lines and Related Facilities (AGTC).
TDI ports, the second group, have less importance: they serve local areas such as communities, andcities. Thirteen ports exploited by TDI have been privatized while two ports are still operated by thisorganization. Both enterprises are under the control of the MoT.
The third group is special private ports. These serve primarily the particular needs of industrial
plants but may also be used by third parties. Municipal quays are managed by municipalities. They arecomparatively small and generally limited to a small volume of coastal traffic serving the local needs ofthe provinces.
The ten major ports which belong to the State have a handling capacity of 250 million tonnes/year,of which 3 millions TEU is for container transport.
Map 3.19. State owned and private ports

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs.

3.3.3.

Ports

TCDD operates the six largest ports in the country with over 17 856 metres of total quay length anda storage capacity of 2 million tonnes per year. All of these ports are accessible by railways. Total
throughput is around 46 million tonnes of general cargo. The number of containers handled in these ports
is about 1 000 000 and 892 000 TEUs (2006).
TCDD ports are overseen by the ports departments in railway headquarters, which is responsible forthe management, overall planning, functioning of ports and their coordination.

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In general, each port manager is in charge of operations, including all services to ships and cargoes
using their own labor and equipment. Each port also consults with headquarters concerning plans andport development.
As mentioned earlier, the ports operated by TCDD are the most important ports of Turkey, handlinga large share of cargo volume. These port’s capacities are as follows:
Haydarpaşa Port: The port of Haydarpaşa is situated on the Anatolian side of the İstanbul Strait.
Located in the most industrialized area of Turkey, it has great importance as a gateway to the world. It isthe biggest container port in the Marmara region. The port has two breakwaters to protect vessels from
untoward effects of the sea. A container land terminal outside the port in Göztepe is used for stacking
empty containers. It covers an area of 55 000 m2 and has a capacity of 52 800 TEU.
Table 3.8. Cargo Capacity of Haydarpaşa Port
DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN CARGO GROUPS HANDLED AT HAYDARPASA PORT
(tonnes end of 2006)
Port

Years

General cargo

Container

Dry bulk

Liquid bulk

Total

HAYDARPAŞA

1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006

2 828 327
2 730 447
2 611 153
2 540 788
2 769 618
3 203 175
3 320 515
1 143 968
74 0913 103 304
2 713 449
2 879 172
2 202 474
2 338 146
2 503 643
3 128 689
3 470 111
3 711 503

237 888244 72193 98745 750
5 121
16 085
8 421
160
0

0
0
0
0
2 073
65
306
0
0

6 169 519
5 688 617
5 584 312
4 789 012
5 114 958
5 722 968
6 457 931
4 614 239
3 785 594

Derince Port: The port of Derince is situated on the northern shore of the Gulf of İzmit; it is themultipurpose general cargo port of the Gulf. The port provides service to the automotive industry (cars,
tractors, other vehicles etc.) and all other types of general cargoes. The port is also connected with thestate railway and highway network.
İzmir Port: This is the port for the Aegean region’s industry and agriculture; it serves a vast
agricultural and industrial hinterland, and plays a vital function in the country’s exports. Many different
types of commodities and cargo groups are handled here. The port is also connected with the state
railway and highway network. The capacity of the container washing facility is 20 TEU per day. Port
expansion studies are continuing.
Mersin Port: This is the main port for the Eastern Mediterranean region’s industry and agriculture.
The port’s rail link and its easy access to international highways, make it an ideal transit port for trade to
the Middle East. With its modern infrastructure and equipment, efficient cargo handling, vast storage
areas and proximity to the free trade zone, Mersin is one of the most important ports in the East
Mediterranean. The facilities handle general cargo, containers, dry and liquid bulk and RO-RO.

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74 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
Table 3.9. Cargo Capacity of Derince Port
DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN CARGO GROUPS HANDLED AT DERİNCE PORT
(tonnes end of 2006)
Port

Years

General cargoDERİNCE

1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006

623 678422 899473 088
406 840692 529765 798
1 090 900
1 307 715
1 374 072

Container
37 05437 585
6 071
4 988
5 232
15 667
11 1845 476
4 915

Dry bulk
653 956
238 377
194 635
127 913400 042603 025799 990849 036
1 073 113

Liquid bulk

Total

50 43858 08826 9778 479
51 17267 14965 37762 11792 662

1 365 126756 949700 771548 220
1 148 975
1 451 639
1 967 451
2 224 344
2 544 762

Table 3.10. Cargo Capacity of Izmir Port
DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN CARGO GROUPS HANDLED AT İZMİR PORT
(tonnes end of 2006)
Port

İZMİR

Years

General cargo

Container

Dry bulk

Liquid bulk

Total

1998

506 728

3 907 047

1 668 727

239 455

6 321 9571999

412 033

4 244 775

2 236 687

290 918

7 184 413

2000

488 184

4 614 209

2 795 771

266 306

8 164 4702001

496 005

4 671 425

2 986 219

272 420

8 426 0692002

567 725

5 439 787

3 457 351

187 851

9 652 7142003

614 348

6 478 213

3 765 593

251 445

11 109 599

2004

673 254

7 659 365

3 947 449

220 197

12 500 265

2005

554 296

7 789 102

3 130 959

337 122

11 811 479

2006

586 881

8 274 042

3 044 234

364 776

12 269 933

Table 3.11. Cargo Capacity of Mersin Port
DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN CARGO GROUPS HANDLED AT MERSİN PORT
(tonnes end of 2005)
Port

Years

General cargo

Container

Dry bulk

Liquid bulk

TotalMERSİN

1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

1 698 209
1 557 706
1 343 248
1 609 420
1 004 885
1 102 223
1 064 862
1 264 205

2 640 169
2 756 118
3 114 412
2 982 231
3 858 623
5 128 919
5 924 054
6 462 500

3 369 472
2 767 508
3 418 807
2 977 333
3 073 544
3 128 805
2 679 438
2 444 871

6 147 102
6 947 815
5 504 013
6 059 698
5 825 813
6 116 431
7 514 939
6 114 732

13 854 952
14 029 147
13 380 480
13 628 682
13 762 865
15 476 378
17 183 293
16 286 308

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 75İskenderun Port: This port is situated on the north-east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. It serves
the Southeast and East Anatolian regions as well as transit traffic to Middle Eastern countries. It also
plays an important role as a transit port. The port has a breakwater of 1 400 meters. The depth at the port
entrance is 12 m. The port is also connected to the state railway and highway network. As a multipurpose port, it serves different types of commodities and cargo groups, such as general cargo, dry/liquidbulk, container handling, and RO-RO vessels.
Table 3.12. Cargo Capacity of İskenderun Port
DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN CARGO GROUPS HANDLED AT İSKENDERUN PORT
(tonnes end of 2006)
Port

Years

General cargo

Container

Dry bulk

Liquid bulk

TotalİSKENDERUN

1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006

202 251
155 874
283 355
262 989
223 185
468 848
173 214
192 444241 133

5 940
2 309
5 739
317
303
3 646
8 282
0
0

1 187 885
1 210 852
982 503465 350492 317557 331630 519812 578842 184

248 001
371 886
944 503968 369
886 200
1 226 892
1 421 583
1 126 684
905 051

1 644 077
1 740 921
2 216 100
1 697 025
1 602 005
2 256 717
2 233 598
2 131 706
1 988 368

Samsun Port: This is the most important port in the north of Turkey. The port has ample storage
areas for containerized cargoes. Containers are loaded and discharged by a general purpose shore craneof 35 tonnes capacity. The port has a ship to shore bridge system to serve the railway-maritime-road
combined transport among North European, NIC and Middle East countries.
Table 3.13. Cargo Capacity of Samsun Port
DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN CARGO GROUPS HANDLED AT THE PORT OF SAMSUN(tonnes end of 2006)
Port

SAMSUN

Years

General cargo

Container

Dry bulk

Liquid bulk

Total

2000

827 306

12 048

1 693 414

4 468

2 537 236

2001

1 005 852

11 941

1 523 142

3 000

2 543 935

2002

838 999

7 880

1 750 028

13 9882 610 895

2003

619 1530

2 127 347

22 236

2 768 7362004

756 18302 318 711

37 3403 112 2342005

821 26202 212 130

33 816

3 067 208

2006

879 0270

1 149 035

18 2292 046 291

3.3.3.1. Port Privatization in Turkey
In line with the globalization process in the world economy and the liberalization movements inseveral countries, economic liberalization has also been the focus of the Turkish government since theearly 1980’s.
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The stabilization and structural reform program decisions taken on 24th January, 1980 were
supported by international financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and theWorld Bank (WB).
The main objective of this program was the liberalization of the economy, which included
primarily: foreign trade liberalization, fiscal liberalization, liberalization of the international capital
movements, and diminishing the role of the public sector in economic activities by privatizing the state
economic enterprises.
Within this context, privatization started in the Turkish economy as a part of the economic reforms
begun in 1984. The primary goal was to minimize the involvement of the state in industrial andcommercial activities, and develop a competitive environment in a free market economy.
The current objective is the integration of the Turkish economy with the global economy.
Consequently, privatization (including ports), has been an important issue in the Turkish economy fromlegal, economic, political and social points of view.
The IMF Program, started in 2000 and following stand-by agreements, had ambitious privatization
targets. This resulted in large scale SEE privatizations, including those maintaining monopolistic
conditions in the market.
The privatization of ports started in 1995 through the transfer of operational rights of some ports.
Besides TDI and TCDD, some other ports which serve specifically to SEEs, are also being privatized.
The current Privatization Law (4046), ratified in 1994, forms the institutional basis for privatization.
Furthermore, the Constitutional Amendment in 1999 (Articles 47 and 125), included the concept ofprivatization in the Constitution, and has allowed for international arbitration; this assumes equal footing
in international competition, stimulating direct foreign investments and the formation of alliances withforeign partners. Privatization decisions are taken by the Privatization Higher Council headed by thePrime Minister and five ministers, and implementation is carried out by the Privatization Administration(PA).
Within the framework of the Constitution and Privatization Law, and with consideration given to
the nature of the business, the monopolistic condition of the sector, and the concept of public goods, theprivatization of the ports can be implemented by the transfer of ownership or lease of the port asset to theprivate sector. Similar privatization strategies may also be considered.
According to an article in the law; ports are considered public service organizations; therefore, it isrequired that ports “... shall be privatized under the provisions of this Law through the transfer ofoperational rights, leases or similar methods”.
Therefore, the privatization of ports in Turkey is partial; such as the Private I type or landlord port
model, where operation rights are transferred to the private sector; or methods like Build-OperateTransfer (BOT) and leasing are utilized, and ownership and regulation is held by the state, as also
stipulated by the Constitution.
A bidding process is used to select the private enterprise which will take over operation rights. The
result is then submitted to the Privatization Higher Council for approval. The decision is announced in
the Official Gazette in accordance with the accountability principle. Then a contract for the transfer of

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 77

operational rights is signed between the PA and the selected enterprise. The maximum operation periodthat may be offered to the private company is 49 years, depending on the conditions of the port.
The TCDD ports, İzmir, Mersin, İskenderun, Derince, Bandırma and Samsun, have been included in
the privatization portfolio, by decision of the Privatization Higher Council, on 30th December 2004.
Haydarpaşa Port is not included in the portfolio since it will be part of a tourism complex. The six
ports within the portfolio are the most important ports in Turkey in terms of location, size of investments,
infrastructure and superstructure, and connection to railways, highways and hinterland.
The main reason for privatizing TCDD ports is the need to make the necessary infrastructure andsuperstructure investments, since the container traffic at these ports increases at about 20% per year.
The privatization strategy has been organized as a transfer of operational rights, in which theownership of the ports, port assets and land will remain public property. The operational rights are basedon the transfer to the private sector for a period of 49 years for İzmir Port, and 36 years for other ports.
TCDD will be further responsible for post-privatization performance and monitoring of the private sector
performance of the port operations.
Mersin Port was privatized on 11th May 2007, through granting the operational rights for 36 years.
With regards to Derince, Bandırma and Samsun Ports, the tender procedures have been finalized and areplanned to be transferred to the relevant Consortiums.
The State Council has reached a decision in the case brought by the Ports Labour Union who
demanded the cancellation of the tender of the privatization of İskenderun Port; the High Council ofPrivatization has decided to cancel due to the insufficiency of bids.
3.3.4.

Administration and legal framework

Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs
Maritime activities are administered mainly by the Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs, which is
directly attached to the Ministry of Transport. The main objectives of the Undersecretariat for Maritime
Affairs, as a principle authority in the field of maritime issues at the national and the international levelare: to adopt measures which encourage maritime trade, the maritime commercial fleet and the
shipbuilding industry; to ensure the management and development of the shipping industry; and to
determine and plan the demands and requirements of the maritime sector.
The central organizations of the Undersecretariat consist of three General Directorates, elevendepartments which are attached to these directorates, seven independent departments and other auxiliary
units, seven regional directorates and seventy harbor-master offices (attached to the regional directorates
on the coasts of Turkey.) The Undersecretariat is composed of main service units, which are the General
Directorate of Maritime Transportation, the General Directorate of Merchant Marine, the General
Directorate of Shipbuilding and Shipyards, and the Department of Foreign Affairs. Advisory units
include the Legal Department, Consultancy of the Undersecretariat and auxiliary units.
In terms of legal status, the Undersecretariat operates under the Decree Law of the Organisation andDuties of The Undersecretariat for Maritime Affaires of 19th August, 1993.

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3.3.5.

Port infrastructure developments

Turkey’s major port projects concern Mersin, Çandarlı, Derince and Filyos ports. The aims of theseprojects are as follows.
Map 3.20. Planned Ports

Filyos Port
Derince PortÇandarlı Port

MersinContainer Port

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs.

Filyos Port ProjectThis Project is intended to decrease the number of vessel passages through the Straits and to provide
access for potential cargo among the Black Sea countries, where high cargo traffic is expected.
The project will create a capacity of 9 million tonnes per year within the first 3 years of investment;
this will increase to 25 million tonnes per year within 10 years. Connected to the railway, the facility willaccomodate bulk and container vessels, provide deep berths, and serve the free trade industrial area thatwill be established behind the port facility.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 79

The feasibility study for this project has been completed; it is planned for implementation as a BOTmodel.
Filyos Port Project will create dynamic trade activity among Black Sea countries. Cargo traffic willfind the shortest route via existing railway, motorway extending to Mersin Container Port to reach
Mediterranean boundary, to North Aegean or İzmir Port to reach Aegean boundary or to connect directly
Middle East markets.
Çandarlı Port Project (North Agean sea port)
This port is planned as an alternative new Hub Port of the west Anatolian hinterland and as a transshipment centre for traffic between Europe, the Middle East and the Black Sea countries. It will be
operated generally as a container terminal with ensured dry and liquid bulk and break-bulk terminal
facilities.
The feasibility study has been completed and the port is expected to operate with 2 million TEU
capacities. The project is planned to be completed either as a BOT model or through credit.
Çandarlı Port is an important component of the international multimodal transport system thanks to
its railway connection. It will be a gateway not only for the Black Sea countries, but also for Caucasian,landlocked Asian countries, and the NIC.
Mersin Container Port
The present capacity of existing port facilities on the Turkish Eastern Mediterranean coastline isinsufficient to respond to future demands for marine bound traffic via Turkey. Thus the Mersin Container
Port is planned to act as a gateway facility between Mediterranean container shipping lines and Central
Asian landlocked countries.
This port is planned as a hub port and provides a sufficient number of berths to accommodate
postpanamax container vessels of 16m depth.
The project will be implemented as a BOT model or through loan agreements.
Mersin Container Port will comprise an important component of the international multimodaltransportation system and due to railway connection; it will present a gateway position not only between
Euro-Med and Black Sea Countries but also Caucasian, landlocked Asian and Commonwealth of
Independent States. By combination of rail, and maritime transport also a decrease in the traffic on
Bosphorus will be achieved.
Derince Container Terminal Project
Designed as a container terminal, this port is planned to serve transport to Kocaeli Bay and theCentral Anatolia hinterland. It will also lighten the burden on Haydarpaşa Port. The importance of thisport is also due to its road and railway connections which help decrease the traffic volume of the İstanbul
Strait.
Turkey considers containerisation and container ports a high priority. The establishment of new
container terminals (Nemrut – Marmara Ereğlisi - Derince) and container port projects (Ambarlı –Mersin – İzmir) are considered important as container transportation under Turkish and foreign operators
continue to grow.
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80 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
Derince Container Terminal Project will meet the future demand of Marmara Region and constitutean alternative gate for Haydarpaşa Port which is planned to be closed.
3.3.6.

Future Developments and Challenges

3.3.6.1. Weaknesses of transport nodal points
Efficient nodal points are essential in transport systems; however this still appears to be a weakness
in many ports, at least partly due to issues of ownership status i.e. public and private shared ownership ofsome ports. In recent years it became clear that public ports could not accommodate the increasing
demand owing to their current infrastructural capacities. Container traffic in particular, has seen a very
high growth rate. Public ports are thus undergoing a fundamental change in status, at a time whengrowing demand for service is creating pressure.
The privatisation process has not hindered modernisation, considering the increased capacity of theadministration; the objective is to grant global concessions to private operators.
However, the Mediterranean hosts “multi purpose” ports and it is not easy for an individual operator
to integrate such a diversity of services.
Port accessibility must be considered not only in negotiations with the TCDD which is formally
responsible for the ports, but also when dealing with public local or national authorities.
One major problem with the privatisation process is the risk of conflict between public and privateinterests. The direct and rapid transfer of ports from TCDD to private owners, should involve theopportunity to strengthen the “port community”; in this way, conflicts between public and privateinterests arising from the quick privatisation of business units within the port, may be dealt with more
effectively a status of “port autonomy” could introduce the flexibility necessary for the definition of aport strategy.
High demand is the direct stimulus behind the development of private ports. Such an initiative in
itself has positive aspects. However, the main concerns will be: the impact on land use policy, therationality of future extensions and the quality of network access.
In the short term, the creation of private ports has contributed to the high level of demand in the
Turkish transport system. In a few years time, private ports are expected to handle around 50% of thecontainer traffic. In the long term, port developments should certainly comply with more global land use
strategies, particularly in dense areas, such as the Marmara region.
The weakness of nodal points is also revealed by the slow development of logistic centres andinland terminals; this is explained by the absence of adopted regulations concerning the implementationof land use policy, and by the weaknesses of intermodal and logistic actors.
3.4

Air Transport

3.4.1.

Air network

Turkey has a large airspace (982 096 km²) with a total length of controlled ATS routes of
50 797 km, situated among the three continents, Europe, Asia and Africa.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 81

Due to its special geographical location, Turkish airspace includes crossroads of north-south andeast-west traffic flows between Europe-Asia and the Middle East. İstanbul FIR is bordered by four
ECAC and one non-ECAC FIRs, while Ankara FIR is bordered by three ECAC and six Non-ECAC
FIRs.
3.4.2.

Air operations

There has been a significant increase in aircraft movement and passenger traffic in recent years,
affecting air navigation and airport management services. The increased volume in international aircraft
and passenger traffic through Turkish international airports, especially İstanbul/Atatürk and Antalya
airports, have placed them among the most important airports of Europe.
The sector has grown significantly in the past 3 years, in part due to the successful application of
BOT models which contributed to the opening of several new modern airports. These developments wereachieved with the liberalisation of air transport, causing unprecedented air traffic growth, particularly indomestic air transport due to price reductions. The combination of new regulatory measures and new
infrastructure policies using BOT along with the entry of new airline companies into the market havehelped make the Turkish air transport system meet the demand that is growing rapidly.
The overall traffic increase in the Turkish airspace during 2005 approached 15%, well above theEuropean average. The chart below shows the evolution of air traffic over the past years.
Turkey’s flag-carrier airline company Turkish Airlines is not yet a member of the International Air
Transport Association’s (IATA) quality management initiative, Cargo 2000, but the airline intends tojoin. Preparations are proceeding rapidly. The carrier is also participating in IATA’s e-freight initiative,
despite the fact that Turkey is not one of the pilot countries. But Turkish Airlines Cargo is taking part in
the Message Improvement Program. The freight division is certified and compliant with the ISO 90012000.
Figure 3.1. Air Traffic Increase
AIR TRAFFIC
935.667

1.000.000

852.371900.000

757.675

800.000

639.817700.000

529.024

531.393600.000
500.000

343.956

400.000
300.000

218.626200.000 157.415
100.000

155.352

218.505156.301

286.867

252.786
195.935

286.713365.136
323.432

264.805

154.218

191.096

2003

2004

206.003247.099221.702

0

2002

2005

2006

2007

YEARS
DOMESTIC

INTERNATIONAL

TRANSIT

TOTAL

Source: Turkish General Directorate of Civil Aviation.
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82 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
Figure 3.2. Cargo Capacity
CARGO CAPACITY
1.546.025

1.600.000
1.346.989
1.249.555

1.400.000

1.131.833

1.123.108

1.200.000

tones

931.191880.133

1.000.000

933.697860.461742.255698.935800.000

973.934

600.000
400.000

414.192
181.198

188.936

2002

2003

262.647315.858

373.055

2005

2006

200.000
0

2004

2007

YEARS
DOMESTIC

INTERNATIONAL

TOTAL

Source: Turkish General Directorate of Civil Aviation.

In terms of intermodal transport, air transport does not have an important share in cargo transportvolume. İstanbul Airport is the most important airport for cargo transport, even though it is not atcompetitive levels compared to other important European airports. Nevertheless, the freight terminal at
the Atatürk International Airport is currently undergoing a face-lift to prepare for additional freight
volumes. Turkish Airlines Cargo will begin to operate four full-freighters to play a greater role intransporting freight to/from its home base in the future.
Figure 3.3. Air Passenger Traffic
NUMBER OF PASSENGERS
thousands
80.00070.35370.00061.68455.54560.00045.03550.00032.88430.59625.29625.05530.00038.38235.04334.42433.75540.00031.97128.80020.50320.00010.00014.438
8.701

9.128

0

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

YEARS
DOMESTIC

INTERNATIONAL

TOTAL

Source: Turkish General Directorate of Civil Aviation.
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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 83

3.4.3.

Administration and Legal Framework

Three state administrations are in charge of the civil aviation sector in Turkey. These are: General
Directorate of Civil Aviation (SHGM), General Directorate of State Airports Authority (DHMİ) and
General Directorate of Railways, Ports and Airports Construction (DLH).
General Directorate of Civil Aviation (SHGM)
The General Directorate of Civil Aviation is the National Civil Aviation Authority of Turkey. It is afinancially autonomous and affiliated body of the Ministry of Transport. It performs its duties inaccordance with the “Law on the Duties and Structure of General Directorate of Civil Aviation” number
5431. SHGM is directly responsible for regulation, training assessments, certification and developmentof the civil aviation sector in accordance with international standards.
General Directorate of State Airports Authority (DHMİ)The DHMİ is a publicly-owned enterprise set up to produce and market services of a monopolistic
nature, deemed privileged by nature of its public service status. It is associated with the Ministry ofTransport and financially dependant on the State. The objective, activities and administration of theDHMİ is governed by Decree-law number 233, and the amendments thereto, and by its Statutes thatcame into force on the basis of the aforementioned Decree, by law number 2920 (Civil Aviation Code),by law number 2677 on the execution of functions and services at commercial airports, ports and border
posts, and by law number 3832 on defence and security of certain bodies and organizations.
The goals and the activities of the organization determined by its principle statute are:•

Air transportation required with the civil aviation activities.

•

Management of the airports.

•

Supervision of the ground handling services.

•

Execution of the air traffic control services.

•

Establishment and operation of the air navigation systems and facilities.

•

Establishment and operation of other installations and systems related to the above activities.

•

Improvements in aeronautical activities.

3.4.4.

Airport Developments

The Turkish civil aviation sector has successfully established BOT model in the last 5 years. The
Atatürk Airport International Terminal is one of the most important projects created using this model. In
the first application, following the tender, the operational rights of the airport have been transferred to
TAV, a private company, for 15.5 years with a lease amount of 3 billion dollars.
Another important BOT model project is Antalya Airport International Lines Terminal Building andcomplementary units. The total cost of this project is 85.5 million dollars. The operative company,
ÇELEBİ, will operate the terminal for 3 years, 5 months and 26 days. The terminal will return to DHMİon 28th September 2009.
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As the airport of the capital, Esenboğa Airport plays an important role. This is another example of a
BOT model. The total cost of this project is 188.7 million dollars; completion is expected within
36 months.
Construction of a new international terminal building for Adnan Menderes Airport in İzmir, underthe BOT model, has been completed and service began on September 9th, 2006. The total cost of thisproject is 125 million dollars. The project comprises a 107 899 m² enclosed area, with an annual
5 million passenger capacity, a terminal building with 9 passenger gates, 60 check-in-desks and a
2 200 car park capacity.
The Dalaman Airport New International Terminal Building has been constructed and began service
in July 2006. The operation period is 6 years, 5 months and 20 days. The total cost of the project is
72.4 million dollars. The project comprises a 95 587 m² enclosed area, with an annual 5 million
passenger capacity, a terminal building with 7 passenger gates, 60 check-in-desks and a multi-story,
1 000 car park capacity.
The tender process for the Milas-Bodrum Airport’s International Terminal Building, as a BOTmodel, has been completed.
3.4.5.

Future developments and challenges

Air transport development in Turkey has been quite spectacular in recent years due to the
conjunction of various favorable economic and administrative factors.
Economically, the rapid increase of Turkish GDP during the recent years explains the 15% air
activity growth, given the high elasticity of air transport activity to GDP growth (elasticity
approximately 2).
Growth of the internal market (demand) has been stronger than the growth of the international air
market; internal passenger volume almost equals that of international demand in 2006 and 2007.
This evolution is also largely due to regulatory reforms of the air transport sector, with theliberalization of the internal market and the arrival of new private operators for long and short distanceservices.
The service supply has increased considerably from east to west and north to south, withcompetitive prices and short travel times. Domestically, air transport is competing with road transport,
and has certainly induced new demand.
At the same time, the airport capacity of major airports has increased as the new BOT procedures
enabled them to quickly adapt to demand. New and large airports across Turkey therefore became hubs
for shorter distance services.
In line with these important domestic changes, the Turkish position in international air transport has
been also reinforced. Demand for international tourism in Turkey is still high, with an expected annual
growth of more than 5% per year over the next twenty years according to UNDP (Plan Bleu). Turkish
airports are becoming international hubs, not only for central Asia as was already the case, but also forEurope and Asia: alliances with European and Asian companies (Turkish Airlines entering STAR
Alliance) reflect such an evolution.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 85

For freight transport, the low share of air traffic is rapidly increasing. New strategies are being
applied for the transport of high value goods, express transport and the transport of perishable goods forexport. Logistics equipment is developing in nearby major airports to adapt to the high expected demand
for specialized air market segments.
3.5.

Pipelines

3.5.1.

Pipeline Network

National
Turkey has an extensive network of approximately 10.000 km of pipelines. Of this network,
3 373 km consist of crude oil pipelines and 8 467 km of natural gas pipelines.
Table 3.14. Natural Gas Pipeline Network in Turkey
NAME OF THE PROJECTRUSSIAN FEDERATION - TURKEY NGTPL + OFFSHORERUSSIAN FEDERATION - TURKEY NGDPL PHASE 1
RUSSIAN FEDERATION - TURKEY NGDPL PHASE 2
METEKSAN - BİLTEPE NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEKÖSEKÖY NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEESKİŞEHİR NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEPAZARCIK (İZMİT) - KARADENİZ EREĞLİ NGTPLBURSA LOCAL NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION NETWORKBURSA - ÇAN NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEANKARA(SİNCAN) OSB NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEESKİŞEHİR LOCAL NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION NETWORKTÜPRAŞ NATURAL GAS CONNECTION PIPELINESİLİVRİ NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINE
MALKOÇLAR LOOP, ÖNERLER - İSTANBUL, HERSEKYUMURTATEPEPENDİK - KURTKÖY DEPLACE WORKÇAN-ÇANAKKALE NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEKARADENİZ EREĞLİ DEPLACE WORKDOĞUBEYAZIT - ERZURUM NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSIONPIPELINE
ERZURUM - (SİVAS) İMRANLI NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION
İMRANLI (SİVAS) - KAYSERİ NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSIONPIPELINE
KAYSERİ - ANKARA NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINE
KAYSERİ - KONYA - SEYDİŞEHİR NATURAL GAS
TRANSMISSION
ESKİŞEHİR - BOZÜYÜK NATURAL GAS LOOP LINEMİHALIÇÇIK - ESKİŞEHİR NATURAL GAS LOOP LINEBOZÜYÜK - ADAPAZARI NATURAL GAS LOOP LINE
(PHASE 1 )KARACABEY - İZMİR NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEBOZÜYÜK - ADAPAZARI NATURAL GAS LOOP LINE
(PHASE 2 )

LEN.
(km)
845
190
178
7
19
31
210
213
10.5
0,5
7.6

DIA.
(inch)
24-36
Various
Various3-12-18
4-8-12-18
2-3-4-6-12-18
16-24
8-12-16108
10-14-24

FINISH
DATE
07.198905.199107.1992
12.1992
12.1994
09.1995
06.199606.199612.199603.199706.1997
10.199704.1998

160

24-36

09.1998

6
116
6

24-36
12
-

11.199807.2000
10.2000

291

48

06.2001306

48

06.2001256

48

06.2001

320

40

06.2001

317

40-16

06.2001

75
76

40
40

01.200201.200263

36

01.2002240

3605.200263

36

06.2002

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86 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
NAME OF THE PROJECTSAMSUN - ANKARA NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEADAPAZARI EARTHQUAKE DWELLING NATURAL GASDISTRIBUTIONKIRKLARELİ - ÖNERLER, BURSA KARACABEY LOOP LINESEREĞLİ - AKSARAY - NİĞDE NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTIONPIPELINEÇORLU DERİCİLER ORGANIZED INDUSTRY ZONESDISTRIBUTIONKIRIKKALE - KIRŞEHİR - YOZGAT - POLATLI DISTRIBUTIONPIPELINE
SAMSUN - ÇORUM NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEMANİSA-AKHİSAR-BALIKESİR-SUSURLUK DISTRIBUTIONPIPELINE
KAYSERİ-SİVAS NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEİZMİR-ALİAĞA-ATATÜRK INDUSTRY ZONES DISTRIBUTIONPIPELINE
KONYA-KARAMAN NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEİZMİR - PINARBAŞI - TORBALI - TURGUTLU NATURAL GASISTRIBUTION PIPELINEBİLECİK - KÜTAHYA - UŞAK NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTIONPIPELINE
TPAO SİLİVRİ NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEGAZİANTEP-OSMANİYE-ADANA-MERSİN TRANSMISSIONPIPELINE
MALATYA - GAZİANTEP NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSIONPIPELINE
KONYA - ISPARTA NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINE
PT-2 - PT-3 PUMP STATION CONNECTION, RMS CONSTRUCTION
PT-4 PUMP STATION CONNECTION, RMS CONSTRUCTION
İSTANBUL SERAMİK NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEEMET - ETİ HOLDİNG BORIC ACID FOUNDATIONSDISTRIBUTION
PT-1 HORASAN NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINE PART 1
PT-1 HORASAN NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINE PART 2
PT-1 HORASAN NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINE PART 3SİVAS - MALATYA NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEKIRKA - ETİ HOLDİNG BORON FOUNDATIONS DISTRIBUTIONLINEAKYAZI - PAMUKOVA – CELVİT DISTRIBUTION PIPELINESORGUN YOZGAT NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEYOZGAT – SORGUN NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEISPARTA - NAZİLLİ NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINENAZİLLİ - AYDIN - DENİZLİ NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTIONPIPELINE
BURDUR - ISPARTA - ANTALYA - AFYON DISTRIBUTIONPIPELINE
TARSUS - MERSİN DISTRIBUTION PIPELINE(TARSUS SECTION)
MALATYA - K.MARAŞ - G.ANTEP DISTRIBUTION PIPELINE

LEN.
(km)
501

DIA.
(inch)
48

FINISH
DATE
10.2002

1.5

16

10.200299-75

36

07.2003

199

Various07.2003

6

Various07.2003173

Various09.200331

6

10.200330

Various10.2003

85

Various12.200337

Various03.2004

185

Various03.2004

132

Various06.2004

260

Various08.2004

4.5

Various03.2005287

16-24-40

04.2005240

16-24-40

05.2005

258
23
17
50

16-40
6
6
Various05.200505.200505.2005
06.2005

39

Various07.2005

72
72
72
195

8
8
8
24-40

07.2005
07.2005
07.2005
08.2005

50

Various08.2005

41
67
67
363

Various
Various
Various16-24-40

09.2005
09.2005
09.2005
11.2005

70

Various11.2005

59

Various11.2005

70

Various08.200660

608.2006

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 87

NAME OF THE PROJECTEASTERN BLACKSEA REGION TRANSMISSION PIPELINEPHASE 1KARACABEY - M.KEMALPAŞA DISTRIBUTION PIPELINEAZERBAIJAN - TURKEY NATURAL GAS PIPELINE PHASE-1
ADANA - İSKENDERUN - OSMANİYE DISTRIBUTION PIPELINENAZİLLİ - İZMİR NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEPHASE 1NAZİLLİ - İZMİR NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEPHASE 3AZERBAIJAN - TURKEY NATURAL GAS PIPELINE PHASE 2NAZİLLİ - İZMİR NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEPHASE 4ADIYAMAN-Ş.URFA-ELAZIĞ-DİYARBAKIR PIPELINE PHASE 1
ADIYAMAN-Ş.URFA-ELAZIĞ-DİYARBAKIR PIPELINE PHASE 2
ORDU-GİRESUN NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEPHASE 2
ORDU-GİRESUN NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINEPHASE 1
TURKEY - GREECE NATURAL GAS PIPELINE PHASE 1(ON-SHORE)
TURKEY - GREECE NATURAL GAS PIPELINE PHASE 2(OFF-SHORE)
NAZİLLİ - İZMİR NGTPL PHASE 2
TURKEY - GREECE PHASE-3 MERİÇ/EVROS RIVER CROSSING
EDİRNE - TEKİRDAĞ NATURAL GAS DISTRUBUTION PIPELINE
I. KERKUK – CEYHAN CRUDE OIL PIPELINE(TURKISH SECTION)
II. KERKUK – CEYHAN CRUDE OIL PIPELINE(TURKISH SECTION)
CEYHAN – KIRIKKALE CRUDE OIL PIPELINEBATMAN – DORTYOL CRUDE OIL PIPELINESELMO – BATMAN CRUDE OIL PIPELINEBAKU – TBILISI – CEYHAN CRUDE OIL PIPELINE(TURKISH SECTION)

LEN.
(km)

DIA.
(inch)FINISH
DATE

96

16-24

11.2006

91
113
94

Various42
Various11.2006
12.2006
12.2006

57.2

40

02.2007

57.2

40

03.2007113

42

03.2007

53.2

10-40

04.2007

123
130

12-40
16-40

06.200706.200759

10

06.200799

14

07.2007188.6

36

07.200716.9

36

07.2007

76.5
0.42
79

12-40
36
14-12

08.200708.200711.2007

641

40

-

656

46

-

641
511
41

40
18
6-8-12-1076

30-42-46-

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Source: Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources.

Map 3.21. National Pipeline Network of Turkey

88 – TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 89

International
Turkey’s existing crude oil pipelines are as follows:•

Iraq-Turkey Crude Oil Pipeline•

Baku – Tbilisi – Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipeline

And also existing natural gas pipelines are as follows:•

Russian Federation-Turkey Natural Gas Main Transmission Line•

Eastern Anatolia Natural Gas Main Transmission Line•

Samsun-Ankara Natural Gas Transmission Line (Blue Stream)•

Azerbaijan Natural Gas Pipeline (Shah Deniz)•

Turkey-Greece Natural Gas Pipeline

Map 3.22. International Pipeline Network of Turkey

Source: Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources.

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90 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
Iraq-Turkey Crude Oil Pipeline
The Iraq-Turkey Crude Oil Pipeline System has been constructed under the Iraq-Turkey Crude Oil
Pipeline Agreement that was signed on 27 August 1973 between the Governments of the Republic of
Turkey and the Republic of Iraq for the purpose of transporting the Iraqi crude oil produced mainly in the
Kirkuk Region and other production fields in Iraq to the Ceyhan (Yumurtalık) Marine Terminal. The
986 km long, 40” pipeline was commissioned in 1976 and the first tanker was loaded on 25 May 1977.
The projects aiming at increasing the capacity of the pipeline system are as follows:•

The First Expansion Project: the construction started in 1983 was completed in 1984, whichallowed increasing the initial annual transportation capacity of 35 mtpa to 46.5 mtpa.

•

The Second Expansion Project: the construction of the second pipeline (parallel to the first line)
started in 1985 was commissioned in 1987. This 46” pipeline allowed an increase of annual
capacity to 70.9 mtpa.

Due to Iraq’s inability to export its oil production and unavailability of free capacity in Ceyhan
Terminal storage facilities, the Iraq-Turkey Crude Oil Pipeline operations were halted again on 9 April
2003. Transportation of oil has resumed, though below full capacity, since 22nd February 2004. Over43 million barrels of oil were transported in 2007 by Iraq-Turkey Crude Oil Pipeline.
Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipeline
The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipeline Project is aimed at transporting crude oil produced in
Azerbaijan via Georgia to a marine terminal in Ceyhan, Turkey, with marine access to international
markets. The maximum capacity of the Baku -Tbilisi - Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipeline, starting from theSangachal Terminal near Baku, traversing Georgia and reaching the marine terminal built in Ceyhan on
the Mediterranean shoreline of Turkey, is 50 million tonnes per year (1 million barrels per day). The total
length of the pipeline will be 1 776 km while the Turkish Section will be approximately 1 076 km long.
The Turkish section of the pipeline was constructed in three lots. Part of the pipeline in Turkey,
Lot A starts from Georgia / Turkey Border and lies to northeast of Erzurum and has a length of 278 km.
Lot B, which is 466 km long, extends from Erzurum to KP 744. Finally, Lot C serves to Ceyhan Marine
Terminal through a route of 332 km.
It is anticipated that, the Kazak oil will be transported via the BTC Pipeline to the World Market ina short time. To transport more crude oil with pipeline, studies of increasing the capacity of the pipeline
gradually to 1.2 million barrels per day and then 1.6 million barrels per day are ongoing.
Russian Federation-Turkey Natural Gas Main Transmission LineAs a consequence of studies to search for alternative energy sources, an Intergovernmental
Agreement was signed on 18th September 1984 for transmission of natural gas between the Governmentsof the Republic of Turkey and the Former Soviet Union. Subsequently, in 1985, BOTAŞ carried out a“Natural Gas Utilization Study” in view of determining Turkey’s potential natural gas demand and thepossible route for the pipeline. Based upon the results of this Study, a Natural Gas Sale and Purchase
Agreement was signed on 14th February 1986 between BOTAŞ and SOYUZGAZEXPORT for 25 years.
According to this Agreement, supply of natural gas to Turkey started in 1987 and the volume transported
gradually increased to reach 6 bcma (billion cubic metres per annum) in the plateau period in 1993.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 91

The 845 km long Russian Federation-Turkey Natural Gas Main Transmission Line enters Turkey at
Malkoçlar at the Bulgarian border and then follows Hamitabat, Ambarlı, İstanbul, İzmit, Bursa, Eskişehir
route to reach Ankara. The pipeline, designed for a maximum operating pressure of 75 bar.
The construction of the pipeline started on 26th October 1986 and reached Hamitabat on 23rd June
1987. Since then, imported natural gas has been used together with domestic gas for power generation at
the Trakya Combined Cycle Power Plant in Hamitabat. The pipeline reached Ankara in August 1988.
Natural gas started to be delivered to İstanbul Fertilizer Industry Co. (IGSAS) in July 1988, to theAmbarlı Power Plant in August 1988 and to Ankara for residential and commercial usage in October
1988. The use of natural gas by the industrial sector started in August 1989. Following Ankara,
residential and commercial usage of natural gas started in İstanbul in January 1992, in Bursa in
December 1992, in İzmit in September 1996, in Eskişehir in October 1996 and in Adapazari in
December 2002.
Eastern Anatolia Natural Gas Main Transmission LineThe Eastern Anatolia Natural Gas Main Transmission Line is aimed at transporting natural gas
produced mainly in Iran and other countries in the east of Turkey. In this context, a Natural Gas Sale andPurchase Agreement was signed on August 8, 1996 between the Republic of Turkey and the Islamic
Republic of Iran according to which natural gas delivery to Turkey would start at a volume of 3 bcma toreach 10 bcma in the plateau period. Approximately 1 491km-long Eastern Anatolia Natural Gas Main
Transmission Line with diameter varying from 48” to 16” starts from Doğubeyazıt and reaches to Ankara
through Erzurum, Sivas, and Kayseri, and another branch thereof reaches to Seydişehir through Kayseri
and Konya. The complete pipeline system was ready for gas transportation as of June 2001. The natural
gas deliver from Iran was started on 10th December 2001 with the completion of Bazargan Metering
Station in Iran.
Samsun-Ankara Natural Gas Transmission Line (Blue Stream)
Natural gas is transmitted from the Russian Federation to Turkey via Black Sea under the Natural
Gas Sale and purchase Agreement executed between BOTAŞ and GAZEXPORT with a term of 25 years
on 15th December 1997. Under the Agreement, the annual quantity will increase to 16 Bcm during theplateau period. The Russian Federation-Black Sea-Turkey Natural Gas Pipeline includes:•

Total 370 km long pipeline system, with 56” 308 km long pipeline and 48” 62 km long pipeline
within the Russian territory between Izobilnoye-Djubga.

•

The Black Sea crossing, two parallel 24” lines approximately 390 km long each between
Djubga and Samsun.

•

501 km long 48” pipeline system, within the Turkish territory between Samsun and Ankara.

Within the context of the project, the pressure reduction and metering station was constructed at
Durusu/Samsun and completed on 15th October 2002. The construction of the Turkish sections of thepipeline system from Samsun to Ankara via Amasya, Çorum and Kırıkkale was completed and the line
was connected to the Russian Federation-Turkey Natural Gas Main Transmission Line near Polatlı. The
pipeline was put into operation on 20th February 2003, and the official inauguration was on
17th November 2005.

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92 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
Azerbaijan Natural Gas Pipeline Project (Shah Deniz Project)This Project is aimed at transporting the natural gas produced in Azerbaijan via Georgia to Turkey.
Regarding the Project Natural Gas Sale and Purchase Agreement was signed on 12th March 2001 byBOTAŞ and SOCAR. According to the 15 years agreement natural gas delivery would start with 2 bcma
and reach 6.6 bcma on plateau period.
The construction works of 225 km long pipeline section in Turkey between Georgia/Turkish borderand Erzurum-Horasan were completed. The pipeline became operational in July 2007 and gas deliveries
from Azerbaijan are on-going. 1.474 million bcm natural gas is imported in 2007.
Turkey-Greece NG Pipeline ProjectIn the scope of the Southern Europe Gas Ring, which was developed in the frame of the INOGATE(Interstate Oil and Gas Transport to Europe) of the EU Commission, and with the aim of transporting
natural gas to be supplied from sources located in the Caspian Basin, Russian Federation, the Middle
East, Southern Mediterranean countries, and other international sources through Turkey and Greece, theNatural Gas Sale and Purchase Agreement was signed between BOTAŞ and DEPA (Greek State Natural
Gas Company) on 23rd December 2003. In parallel to the mentioned agreement, the Turkish section of
the Turkey-Greece Natural Gas Pipeline Project was contracted out in three lots. The contract of theLand Section (Lot-1) was signed on 30th June 2005, the contract of the Sea Section (Lot-2) was signed on
24th October 2005 and the contract of the Meriç-Evros River Section (Lot-3) was signed on
30th March 2007.
The total length of the 36” pipeline is 296 km, 211 km of the pipeline is the Turkish Section and
85 km is the Greek Section. The length of the section between Karacabey and the Sea of Marmara(Değirmencik) is 121 km, the Sea Section (Kızılcaterzi) is 17 km and the Thracian Section is 73 km.
Furthermore, the 420 m long Meriç-Evros River was crossed by the horizontal drilling system. The
pipeline enters Greece at İpsala Border Crossing and ends in Komotini. The constructions of the Land
Section (Lot-1) were completed on 30th July 2007. Sea Section (Lot-2) was completed on 5th July 2007
and Meriç-Evros River Crossing (Lot-3) was on 18th August 2007. After the completion of the project,natural gas will be also supplied to Keşan and İpsala districts of Edirne province.
Accordingly, natural gas delivery to Greece would start in 2006 at a level of 250 mcma and thenwould reach 750 mcma, on plateau period. The construction works of the lines that have been initiated on
July 2005, have already been completed and the gas delivery to Greece was initiated on
18th November 2007.
3.5.2.

Pipeline Operations

National
In Turkey, all the transmission lines are owned by BOTAŞ, which is the only corporator that is
responsible for transmission of natural gas. In the past years BOTAŞ was also responsible for
distribution of natural gas but by privatization, distribution rights are started to be given to private
distribution companies. In the next years the privatization of transmission rights is considered. Licenses
of distribution and transmission of natural gas are issued by Energy Market Regularity Authority.
Distribution Companies owns the pipelines that they construct.
There are a few national oil pipelines in Turkey. National oil pipelines and their rights are owned
only by BOTAŞ.
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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 93

Table 3.15. Annual Natural Gas Consumption (million m3 )ELECTRICITYFERTILIZERHOME-USE

INDUSTRY

TOTAL

1987

522

-

-

-

522

1988

1 034

152

0.05

-

1 186

1989

2 759

382

7

5

3 153

1990

2 599

501

50

222

3 373

1991

2 908

485

190

547

4 132

1992

2 633

652

375

861

4 521

1993

2 595

797

549

1 011

4 952

1994

3 037

612

647

955

5 251

1995

3 857

732

1 014

1 190

6 793

1996

4 174

830

1 526

1 376

7 906

1997

5 019

761

2 041

1 899

9 721

1998

5 491

493

2 247

2 041

10 271

1999

7 950

144

2 429

1 858

12 382

2000

9 733

113

2 806

1 914

14 5662001

10 994

121

2 849

2 063

16 0272002

11 631

496

2 973

2 277

17 3782003

13 513

469

3 944

3 012

20 9382004

13 226

528

4 463

3 892

22 1082005

15 435

594

5 843

4 993

26 8652006

16 642

157

7 259

6 435

30 4932007

19 658

-

7 836

7 569

35 064

International
International pipeline projects are implemented by consortiums. Consortiums consist of several
natural gas and/or oil companies or the companies of the countries that pipeline passes through. In themost of the projects, the pipelines passing through Turkey is owned by BOTAŞ. But in some projects, allpipeline is owned by Consortium. For example Turkey part of Turkey-Greece-Italy is owned by BOTAŞ.
But, on the contrary Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) Crude Oil Pipeline is all owned by BTC Co.

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94 — TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY
Table 3.16. Annual Natural Gas and LNG Imports (million m3)
RUSSIA(West
Pipeline)

IRAN

RUSSIA(Blue
Stream)AZERBAIJAN(Shah Deniz)

NIGERIA(LNG)

ALGERIA (LNG)

SPOT (LNG)
TOTAL

1987

433

-

-

-

-

-

-

433

1988
1989

1 136
2 986

-

-

-

-

-

-

1 136
2 986

1990
1991

3 246
4 031

-

-

-

-

-

-

3 246
4 031

1992
1993

4 430
4 952

-

-

-

-

-

-

4 430
4 952

1994
1995

4 957
5 560

-

-

-

-

418
1 058

240

5 375
6 859

1996
1997

5 524
6 574

-

-

-

-

2 436
3 300

80
-

8 041
9 874

1998
1999

6 539
8 693

-

-

-

77

3 051
3 256

644
332

10 23312 3582000
2001

10 07910 931

115

-

-

780
1 337

3 962
3 985

-

14 821
16 3682002
2003

11 603
11 422

669
3 520

1 252

-

1 274
1 126

4 078
3 867

-

17 62421 1882004
2005

11 106
12 857

3 558
4 322

3 238
4 969

-

1 034
1 030

3 237
3 851

-

22 17427 0282006
2007

12 246
13 799

5 691
6 158

7 403
9 346

1 474

1 118
1 420

4 203
4 277

80
170

30 74136 450

Table 3.17. Annual Transported Crude Oil (x1000 barrels)
IRAQ-TURKEY
PIPELINE
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007

339 9395 215
134 562277 671
305 603285 716230 855
175 667
60 82437 68513 166
12 93043 699CEYHANKIRIKKALE
PIPELINE
21 13017 69720 37424 21022 64824 88729 64227 64423 43528 89724 751
24 77926 51026 35724 60125 98627 381
23 003

BATMANDÖRTYOLPIPELINE
22 54427 94425 73223 04122 28920 146
16 97918 75317 12817 76718 90419 83618 4829 417
9 488
10 10810 82210 147

ŞELMO-BATMANPIPELINE
1 526
1 332
1 295
804
1 088
832
751
703
644
611
825
793
691
851
767
634
535
507

BTC PIPELINE57
210 352

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 95

3.5.3

Pipeline Administration and the Legal Framework

Turkey’s pipeline administration and the legal framework are as follows.
INSTITUTION
Ministry of Energy and Natural
ResourcesBOTAŞ Petroleum Pipeline Corporation

Energy Market Regulatory Authority

3.5.4

RESPONSIBILITY• Defining the Strategies of International Pipeline• Determining the Policies of International
Pipelines• Implementation of the International Agreements
about Pipelines• Projecting, Constructing, Operating, Selling,
Buying, Lending, Tendering National orInternational Pipelines• Transporting Petroleum or Petroleum Products• Regulating and Supervising

Pipeline Infrastructure Development
Map 3.23. Transit Route Between World’s Largest Oil and Gas Markets

World’s
Largest Oiland GasMarketWorld
Largest Oiland GasSourceTransitRouteSource: Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources.

Turkey’s planned / on construction pipelines are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Egypt-Turkey Natural Gas Pipeline ProjectSamsun – Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipeline Project
Turkey-Greece-Italy Natural Gas Pipeline Project
Turkey-Bulgaria-Romania-Hungary-Austria Natural Gas Pipeline Project (Nabucco)
Iraq-Turkey Natural Gas Pipeline ProjectTrans-caspian Turkmenistan-Turkey-Europe Natural Gas Pipeline Project

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Egypt-Turkey Natural Gas Pipeline Project
Egypt – Turkey Natural Gas Pipeline Project is developed for transmitting the Egypt Gas to Turkey
via Jordan – Syria and also to Europe via Turkey. With this project 10 bcm natural gas will betransported annually in the plateau period. 3.4 bcma of this capacity will be allocated to Jordan andremaining 6.6 bcm gas will be transported to Turkey via Syria.
The Arab Natural Gas Pipeline Project is composed of following three phases:•••

Phase I: Egypt (Al-Arish) - Jordan (Akabe)Phase II: Jordan (Akabe)-Jordan (Rehab) and Jordan (Rehab)-Jordan/Syria Border
Phase III: Syrian border -Rayan and Rayan—Syria/Turkey borderFirst two phases and half of the third phase are finished at Arab Gas Pipeline which is 1236 km
long. At present, the pipeline has reached the city of Homs in the middle of Syria. Aleppo-Turkey Bordersection of pipeline which is 62 km long will be constructed by Syria. By constructing the 90 km part ofpipeline in Turkey borders, at the end of 2010 natural gas pipeline networks of both countries will beconnected.
Samsun – Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipeline
Each year, the amount of transported crude oil via the Turkish Straits gradually increases. Although
in 2003 transported crude oil amount was 134 millions tonnes, by the end of 2006 this reached to
140 millions tonnes and it is expected to reach some 190-200 million tonnes in the year 2009. This trend
so seriously brings about environmental and social risks on the Turkish Straits and especially on
historical, cultural and world heritage city of İstanbul.
In this respect, Samsun – Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipeline Project developed for decreasing the oil tanker
traffic on Turkish Straits. With in the context of this project a pipeline system will be constructed
between Samsun to Ceyhan which will transport 70 million tonnes of crude oil annually. This amount isplanned to meet the 67.8 million tonnes/year planned capacity of CPC Pipeline in the future.
The pipeline project has been 2 shareholders which are ENI from Italy and Çalık from Turkey.
Pipeline will be constructed 42” and 48” moreover 512 km length and the cost of pipeline is assumed tobe 2 billion dollars. The groundbreaking ceremony of the project has been performed at 24th April 2007
in Samsun.
Turkey-Greece-Italy Natural Gas Pipeline Project
Turkey-Greece-Italy Natural Gas Pipeline is the extension of the Turkey-Greece Natural Gas
Pipeline that has been developed to connect the natural gas systems of Turkey and Greece and to realize
the first step of INOGATE Program (Interstate Oil and Gas Transport to Europe). Accordingly, the line
would extend from Greece to Italy beneath the Adriatic Sea. BOTAŞ signed an agreement with DEPA
and EDISON in order to participate in the feasibility studies on Greece-Italy connection. On 31th January
2007, the authorities of Italy and Greece signed an agreement in Athens about the Adriatic crossing.
Intergovernmental Agreement of Turkey-Greece-Italy Natural Gas Pipeline (ITGI) was signed by the
Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources of Turkey and the relevant ministries of both countries on
26th July 2007 in Rome.

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TRADITIONAL FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TURKEY — 97

According to the Project studies; natural gas volume to be transported to Italy by the TurkeyGreece-Italy Line would be approximately 12 bcma of which 3.6 bcma would be transported to Greece
and rest would be to Italy. The Line is planned to become operational in 2012.
Turkey-Bulgaria-Romania-Hungary-Austria Natural Gas Pipeline Project (Nabucco)
Turkey-Bulgaria-Romania-Hungary-Austria Natural Gas Pipeline (Nabucco Line), which isenvisaged to transport Caspian and Middle East gas to European Markets, will supply natural gas to thecountries on its route in the first phase. The target for the following years is to reach the Western
European market to cover their demand through Austria, which is a gas hub at the European natural gas
transportation system. The total capacity of 3.300 km pipeline will be 25.5-31 bcma and the line will
become operational in 2012.
The total length of the line will be:
Total Length of Nabucco Pipeline (excluding feeder lines): 2 841 km
Total Length of Nabucco Pipeline (including feeder lines ): 3 282 km
Turkey: 1 558 km
Bulgaria: 392 km
Romania: 457 km
Hungary: 388 km
Austria: 46 km
Feeder Lines
Georgian Border – Horasan: 226 km
Iranian Border – Horasan: 214 km
Turkey Total: 1 908 km
The gas to be produced in Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and the other Caspian sources and Iran will be
the sources for the line. The natural gas from Iraq and Egypt through Syria is planned to be transported in
the long term. The studies on project were started in February 2002 by initiative of BOTAŞ with theworking group formed by OMV Erdgas (Austria—today OMV Gas), BULGARGAZ (Bulgaria),
TRANSGAZ (Romania) and MOL (Hungary) with BOTAŞ. Five partners of the Project established“Nabucco Company Study Pipeline GmbH” in Vienna in order to develop project finance model, tosearch suitable incentives for the investors, to coordinate the marketing activities as well as to negotiate
the contracts with the possible suppliers. Afterwards “Cooperation Agreement” was signed in 2004 by
partners. This Agreement would enable the formation of extended descriptions of project engineering,
construction and financing studies. Considering the developments and the needs of the Nabucco Project,
the partners have transformed the company to Nabucco Gas Pipeline International (NIC) in order to beable to materialize the investments and to provide finance. The partners also have agreed to establish
Nabucco National Companies (NNC) in each particular country. The national companies are obliged todevelop, construct, operate and maintain the part of the line in their territories. National companies inAustria, Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria have already been established while the legal procedures in
Turkey are currently under way.
On 5th February 2008, RWE Midstream Gmbh joined the Nabucco Project as sixth partner. The
studies are ongoing for the Intergovernmental Agreement among participant States.

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Iraq-Turkey Natural Gas Pipeline ProjectIraq-Turkey Natural Gas Pipeline Project is developed for the purpose of transporting Iraq gas toTurkey. The project studies were first initiated by the agreements that were signed by the Ministry ofEnergy and Natural Resources of Turkey and the Iraqi Petroleum Minister in 1996 after the studies ofWorking Group formed by TPAO, TEKFEN and BOTAŞ. This project is an integrated one including
field development, production, and processing and pipeline transportation of gas of northeastern part of
Iraq. Accordingly 10 bcma of gas to be produced in five gas fields would be transported to Turkey. As aresult of the sanctions imposed on Iraq by the United Nations, the Project has delayed and negotiations
were held and therefore the investment phase of the project could not be initiated. Considering thedevelopments in Iraq and gas demand increase trend of Europe, currently TPAO, TEKFEN and BOTAŞ
are taking necessary steps in order to take further the project. The ultimate purpose of the Project is totransport Iraqi gas to Turkey at first hand and later on to Europe through Turkey.
On 7th August 2007 a MoU was signed by Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources of Turkey andIraqi Oil Minister in Ankara. With this MoU parties have declared their intention of the transportation of
Iraqi gas to Europe through Turkey and their decision to form a group by the Iraqi Petroleum MinistryBOTAŞ and TPAO in order to initiate the related feasibility studies.
Transcaspian Turkmenistan-Turkey-Europe Natural Gas Pipeline Project
The Turkmenistan – Turkey – Europe Natural Gas Pipeline Project is aimed at transporting natural
gas produced in Turkmenistan via the Caspian Sea to Turkey and then to Europe. A Frame Agreement
was signed by the Presidents of the Republic of Turkey and the Turkmenistan on 29th October 1998 forthe implementation of the Turkmenistan- Turkey-Europe Natural Gas Pipeline Project. According to thisAgreement, 30 bcma of Turkmen gas would be transported through this pipeline, with 16 mcma being
supplied to Turkey and the remaining to Europe. A Natural Gas Sale and Purchase Agreement valid for
30 years was signed on 21th May 1999 by BOTAŞ and the Competent Body for the Use of Hydrocarbon
Resources at the President of Turkmenistan. Accordingly, 16 bcma of Turkmen gas would be supplied toTurkey.
3.5.5.

Future Developments and Challenges

Due its unique position, Turkey provides crucial export routes for the transportation of oil and gas
resources to the world markets. In this context, Turkey has been studying gas pipeline projects to transit
around 40 bcm natural gas to Europe in the short and medium term. In the long term it is estimated thatas much as 100 bcm gas could be supplied through Turkey.
In short, Turkey is destined to become a major hub and transit country for hydrocarbon reserves ofMiddle East and Central Asia to Europe in the upcoming few years.
In line with this goal, Turkey is actively implementing the transit projects. In this way, gas to bepooled in Turkey from different sources would be delivered to Europe through diversified pipeline routes
thereby enhancing the supply security of Europe.
In addition, approximately 200 million tonnes of crude oil will be transferred to the world market
after the Samsun – Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipeline construction is completed.

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3.6

Logistic Centres: Freight Villages and Intermodal Terminals

European logistic planning often successfully combines freight villages and intermodal terminals,
despite their different logistic needs.
Freight villages are sites with multiple logistic businesses that generate improved efficiency by local
concentration and spatial neighbourhood groupings. Their main function is to act as an interface between
less-than-carload-consignments (LCL) and full –car-load conveyance (FCL). The process can be
described as follows: forwarders organise their depots. During the day small trucks collect LCL
consignments all over the region, and bring them to the depot. The consignments are sorted and put
together for car loads for certain directions. This can be, in principle, done at any point in the outer city
space. Freight villages offer the advantage of side by side services for several forwarders. Although theseforwarders might be in strict competition, there will usually be cause for cooperation: when one
forwarder has to collect a parcel from a far away shipper and knows that the long distance travel is not
worth one consignment, he asks a nearby colleague working that area, to deliver and collect for his
specific customers. The forwarder will ask him to move his itinerary nearby and will take over theconsignment for him.
Another case is possible cooperation in FCL transport: when one forwarder has more cargo than atruck load, while his colleague, going to a nearby place, has empty space on his truck, they balance theirvolume.
Most of these cooperation cases make sense only if the parties are close to each other. Otherwise,
the additional mileage to re-organise shipments will negate the savings of balanced tasks.
Freight villages offer additional logistical functions, such as customs treatment, cargo processing(like roasting coffee beans, ironing import clothing etc.) that create their economy mainly on spatialorganisation, i.e. by being next to each other.
Intermodal terminals mainly transfer unit loads from road to rail transport or from road to inland
waterway transport systems. In addition, they may organise to pick up and deliver over the road, deposit
empty containers, clean and repair containers, and in some cases, even strip and stuff containers. In suchcases the value of having a freight village in the neighbourhood is clear: most services that are needed
when, for example, stripping an import container, are grouped in the freight village. Such services might
include processing import items for local retail sales; an example of this is adding user manuals in thenational language, taking them into depot, sorting them for national distribution in consolidation truck
loads, etc.
The other advantage of such neighbourhoods is the intermodal offer for the LCL distribution of
consolidated cargo: the transport operation from the collection depot to the distribution centre is mostly
undertaken by road transport because the next intermodal terminal is too far away to be included into thisfreight organisation. If a part of a logistic centre is next to the freight village, the possibilities for use aremuch better. The forwarder puts together his consolidated long distance consignments in the evening,
and then is offered an intermodal facility about 800 m away and a daily night train in the same direction.
In such cases, the forwarder will most likely choose the intermodal offer and shift the FCL voyage fromroad to rail.

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Interesting examples of such integration of freight villages can be found in Bremen (Germany),
Bologna (Italy) and Budapest (Hungary). In all these cases the inland terminal for transfer ofcontainers, swap bodies and semi-trailers between road and rail are situated within a greater logistic
area, accompanied by many service providers for transport and logistics nearby. All these intermodal
terminals draw great profit from such neighbourhoods.

In order to establish such a system in Turkey, TCDD has included in its priorities the transformationof six locations into freight villages, namely Halkalı (İstanbul), Köseköy (İzmit), Boğazköprü (Kayseri),Gelemen (Samsun), Hasanbey (Eskişehir), Gökköy (Balıkesir), as a first step. The objective is to ensure
the enhanced attractiveness of combined transport, an increase in the customer satisfaction and the shareof freight transportation as well as the prevention of pollution.
In Samsun, the first freight village of Turkey was partly put into service on 6th July 2007 and theconstruction works have almost been finalized. Project works for Köseköy, Boğazköprü, Hasanbey and
Gökköy have been concluded, while the construction works in Halkalı are underway.
Additionally, establishment of logistic villages has been included in “The TCDD Investment
Programme for 2007”. Moreover, applications have been submitted to the State Planning Organisation(SPO) to establish logistic villages in Uşak, Yenice (Mersin), Palandöken (Erzurum) and Konya where
there is a high demand for transport.
The initiative to establish logistic villages in Turkey can be seen as a positive response to meet
recent trade needs. It also reflects Turkey’s willingness to facilitate intermodal operations by enhancing
the logistics supply and demand chain.
To conclude, freight villages and intermodal terminals are logistic nodes with differing functions.
The transport system often will operate much more efficiently if both are integrated into one place where
they can offer their specific services to each other.

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CHAPTER 4. INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS IN AND WITH TURKEY

4.1.

Definitions and Context“Intermodal transport” is generally defined as the movement of goods in one and the same loading
unit or road vehicle, which uses successively two or more modes of transport without handling the goods
themselves in changing modes1. By extension, the term intermodality describes a system whereby two or
more modes of transport are used to transport the same loading unit or truck in an integrated manner,without loading and unloading, in a door-to-door transport chain.
In the present peer review, intermodal transport is used in a slightly more narrow definition, which
is substantively in line with the term “combined transport”.
Intermodal transport in this sense includes the policy objective of using, for the major part of atransport operation, as appropriate and if available, rail, inland water transport or sea/maritime transport.
Only initial and/or final hauls should be carried out by road. This approach is supported by the ITF andthe UNECE to promote a sustainable transport system that can benefit from the specific advantages ofeach mode of transport by facilitating trans-shipment operations among the modes without loading or
unloading of the cargo, except for bulk cargo on specific transport relations.
As there are no navigable rivers in Turkey, the long-haul transport operations involving intermodaltransport services in Turkey, are rail and sea/maritime transport, including short-sea and ferry operations.
The terms “multimodal transport” and “co-modality” are not used in this Peer Review. Multimodaltransport defines very generally the carriage of goods by two or more modes, often under one and thesame contract. It therefore refers to the contractual situation in modern logistics chains where, one personor legal entity is responsible for the organization of the total door-to-door transport operation. Similarly,
the term co-modality, recently coined by the European Commission (EC) in its mid-term review of the2001 White Paper on sustainable transport, is not pursued in this peer review. This term is used in thespecific context of the European Community transport policy which goes considerably beyond theintermodal concepts pursued in this review, and may downgrade efforts towards a modal shift away fromroad transport on the long-haul.2
In Turkish national and international operations, different forms of intermodal transport can be
distinguished:(a)Road-rail operations refer to the transport of containers, swap-bodies, semi-trailers or lorries
that are carried on specially adapted railway wagons. A special form of road-rail transport isthe so-called “rolling road” or Rollende Landstrasse (Ro-La) technique, where complete
road vehicles, using roll-on roll-off techniques, are transported on low-floor wagon trains.

(b)

Roll-on-roll-off (RO-RO) maritime operations refer to the transport of lorries, semi-trailers,
containers or swap-bodies to ships on their own wheels or on wheels attached to them for

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this purpose. This also covers national and international ferry services, including railway
ferries as well as national short-sea shipping.
Air cargo services are normally not in competition with road, rail or short-sea shipping as they coverdifferent clients and markets. Therefore, air cargo transport is not covered in this chapter. It is however
recognized that on certain long international and even domestic transport links, such as between İstanbul
and major cities in southern or eastern Turkey, air cargo services may compete with road transport insome small market segments, such as newspapers, perishable foodstuffs, etc.
This section provides an overview of the present situation of intermodal transport in Turkey, bothwithin the country and with its main trading partners. It also provides information on intermodal services
that are being developed or planned within the next few years.
4.2

Road-Rail Intermodal Transport Operations

4.2.1

National road-rail transport

At present, railways in Turkey do not carry intermodal transport units, such as containers, swapbodies or semi-trailers in pure national transport. Partly because of the strong position of long-hauldomestic road transport in Turkey, there does not seem to be a market for such intermodal services, eventhough distances between main economic centres within Turkey are often beyond 500 and 600 km apart.
At these distances intermodal transport operations are considered to be viable in Western European
countries.
Conventional block trains, operating without shunting en route, have been launched in 2004 by
TCDD. Such services were put into operation on a regular basis in 2005, and this has led national railtransport to grow faster.
While in traditional rail transport in Turkey, freight trains moved at an average speed of 5 km perhour, block train operations increased this speed to 25 km per hour, covering a distance of 1 815 km
within 3 days. This has led to a significant increase in cargo volumes transported by TCDD and made an
inroad into the market share held so far by domestic road transport. Between 2002 and 2006, volumes
transported by domestic block trains increased from 14.4 to 19.6 million tonnes (36% increase) andrevenues from this type of service jumped during the same period from 151.4 million TNL3 to
317 million TNL with a 109% increase. Presently, 138 block trains operate daily on the Turkish rail
network.
The recent success of domestic block train operations in Turkey is a good indicator of the market
potential that may be tapped by railways if they perform in line with the market demands in terms oftransport quality i.e. speed, reliability, flexibility tracking and tracing, etc. These factors will become
increasingly decisive in modern transport chains, and also in purely national transport markets.
4.2.2.

International road-rail transport

At present, 66 block trains operate weekly to and from Turkey. The large majority of theseinternational trains operate between Turkey and the Middle East (47 weekly departures) and in particular
to and from Syria and Iran (22 and 17 weekly departures respectively). Seventeen trains operate weekly
between Turkey and EU countries such as Austria, Germany, Hungary and Romania.
The following table provides an overview of conventional and intermodal block trains that currently
operate on a regular basis between Turkey, the EU, the Middle East and Central Asia.
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Table 4.10. Block Trains Transport
Block trains
Transport relation
Status: 9 April 2007
European Union
Köseköy-Cologne

Loading units/
wagonsKöseköy-BucharestÇukurhisar-ViennaÇukurhisar-Sopron
Halkalı -Sopron
Halkalı -Vienna
Halkalı -Lambach
Halkalı -Nürnberg/Wanne
Halkalı -Ljublijana
Halkalı -Wells

Automobiles
Containers
Containers
Containers
Containers
Containers
Containers
Rail wagons
Lorries (Ro-La)

Swap-bodies

Frequency(weekly
departures)
17
4

2
2
1
4
1
1
1
1

ISO containers

47
1
3
3
1
1
4
1
2
1
4
2
1
1
5
1
1
2
2
2
1
5
2
1
2
1

Haydarpaşa-Turkmenistan

ISO containers

1

Total

Dedicated automobile service
Difficulty in securing cargo on
Köseköy-Cologne relation
Dedicated automobile transport

Pilot operation as of 21.09.2006
6 trains with 20 lorries each

Middle East
Manisa-IranKöseköy-IranAnkara-IranMersin-IranTorbalı-Iranİskenderun-IranBandırma-IranSamsun-IranBurdur-IranMersin-Iraq
Manisa-Iraq
Amasya-Iraq
Samsun-Iraq
Mersin-Syria
Haydarpaşa-Syria
Arifiye-Syria
Ankara-Syria
Samsun-Syria
Tatvan-Syria
Konya-Syria
Adana-Syriaİskenderun-Syria
Kaklik-Syria
Central Asia
Haydarpaşa-Almaty

Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons
Rail wagons

Additional information

Difficulty in securing cargo on
Almaty-Haydarspaşa relation
Difficulty in securing cargo on
Turkmenistan-Haydarpaşa
relation

66

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International container trains
The large majority of the block trains between Turkey and the EU countries carry containers. Also
all trains to Central Asia are container block trains (see box below). On the other hand, none of the
47 weekly international block trains to the Middle East carry containers or other intermodal loading
units.
In total, transport of containers by TCDD increased from 1.75 million tonnes in 2005 to 3.02 million
tonnes in 2006.
Container Block Trains to Central Asia
Since 22nd June 2002, there exists a regular weekly container block train between Haydarpaşa,Tehran, Tashkent and Almaty. The train covers a total distance of 6722 km, crossing Iran, Turkmenistan
and Uzbekistan with the transhipment of containers at the border station Sarakhs, between Iran andTurkmenistan. The maximum train length is 420 m and the maximum number of containers carried per
train is 20; these are 40 feet long ISO containers with maximum gross weight of 32 tonnes. The total
journey lasts 12 days with an average daily transport distance of 594 km.
The containers are transhipped at Sarakhs station due to different axle gauges. A change of boogies
is not possible. Transfer from CIM (COTIF) to SMGS consignment notes is made at Razi border station
between Turkey and Iran.
So far, 1035 containers have been shipped (497 to Uzbekistan, 369 to Kazakhstan, 120 toTurkmenistan, 28 to Tajikistan and 21 to Kyrgyzstan).
On 26th December 2003, another weekly container block trains was inaugurated between
Haydarpaşa and Sarakhs at the Iran -Turkmenistan border. So far 610 containers have been carried on
this transport route.
All containers transported by TCDD must be provided by the shipper, as TCDD does not own or
operate containers. While the transport of these containers can be tracked and traced on the Turkish andIranian networks, the other railways involved cannot provide such information. In addition it seems to
be extremely difficult to obtain cargo for the westward journeys.

Swap-body and European Container Trains
While the majority of international block trains operating between EU countries and Turkey carry
ISO maritime containers, a limited number of non-ISO European containers with an external length of
13.6 m (around 45 ft) and a width of 2.50 m, allowing efficient stowage of pallets side-by-side, are being
carried between Germany, Austria and Halkalı.
There also exists a regular intermodal transport service using swap-bodies. This service, covering a
distance of 2 754 km, operates four weekly block trains in both directions between Cologne (Germany)and Köseköy on the Asian side of Turkey, using the rail ferry across the İstanbul Strait. Each block train
carries 30 swap bodies (internal dimensions: height 2.98 m; length 13.39 m and width 2.41 m) loaded on
special low-loader rail wagons. These trains carry mainly automotive parts for the Ford Otosan plant in
Kocaeli. These block trains replace annually around 10,400 truckloads between Germany and Turkey.

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Rail Transport of Automobiles
There is also a market for automobile transport on special railway wagons. Two weekly block trainsthat carry around 200 automobiles each, have operated on the 890 km journey between Bucharest(Romania) and Köseköy since August 2006, again, using the rail ferry across the İstanbul Strait. These
trains link up with domestic automobile trains from Köseköy to Yenice (Adana) and Köseköy-Borçova(İzmir), providing through- transport to the respective automobile factories in Turkey.
Rolling Motorway (Ro-La)
As of 16th September (from Wels) and 21st September 2006, (from Halkalı) six trial runs of a rollingroad motorway (Ro-La) have been undertaken linking the terminals at Halkalı with Wels (Austria) over a
distance of 1 979 km. This project has been launched by Austrian and Turkish partners, and involved therailways of Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia. The special rail wagons were owned by Ökombi. This
Ro-La is unaccompanied and therefore does not provide sleeping wagons for drivers; they take a planefrom İstanbul to Vienna and vice versa. Customers are Turkish road transport companies.
These journeys take 72 hours, which is comparable to the time of road transport. Each train could
carry 20 trucks. The charge for the carriage of the lorry is approximately 1 100 euros. Pilot operations
have now been suspended, but in the case of sufficient demand, it is planned to operate daily trains inboth directions.
4.3.

Roll-On-Roll-Off (RO-RO) Ferry Services

4.3.1.

National RO-RO ferry services

There are frequent and regular domestic RO-RO ferry services across the Marmara Sea linking theindustrialized north with the Asian side of Turkey. The increasing traffic congestion in the İstanbul
metropolitan area, together with the abolition of the excise tax on fuel prices for ferry vessels, has led toa rapid increase of competitive RO-RO ferry services between Eskihisar-Topçular, İstanbul-Bandırmaand Ambarlı-Bandırma as seen in the map below.
These services are provided by public and private ferryboat operators. Given the high demand, the
RO-RO ferry services from Bandırma-Haydarpaşa, as well as from İstanbul-Bursa have been alreadylaunched.
Table 4.2. indicates the RO-RO transport operations in the most industrialized region of the country
namely Marmara region. It also shows that Çanakkale and Erdek are the preferred points for passenger
transport while Bandırma comes first in RO-RO transport in 2006.
In spite of the very long and heavily industrialized coastal regions, there are no other regulardomestic coastal RO-RO ferry services in Turkey. Despite there are plans to operate such domestic RORO services between the northern side of the Marmara Sea and Bursa and/or İzmir, concrete projects stillneed to be worked out.

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106 — INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS IN AND WITH TURKEY
Table 4.2. RO-RO Transport in Marmara Region (2006)
COMPANY

PORTS

TYPE

PASS.

TIR

LORRY

LIGHT
LORRY

SS Erdek Taş. Koop.

ErdekSaraylar
BodrumDatca
BandırmaAmbarlı
GeliboluCardak
GeliboluCardakÇanakkale KilitbahirBandırmaAmbarlı
MudanyaZeyport
GeliboluCardak
GeliboluCardak
HaydarpaşaBandırma
BandırmaAmbarlı

Ferry

0

0

303

1 006

35 890

23
261
0

1 186

Ferry

8
511
0

0

44

660

5 431

306

6 441

RoRo
Ferry

3 277

5 151

7

0

2

7

0

8 491

5 302

4 703

548

727

10 574

Ferry

0

3
324
3
394
664

2 057

431

100

74

833

Ferry

83 74800

29 7410

6 119

61 275

0 97 135

Ferry

0

0

0

0

0 13 351

5

11
101
394

566

RoRo
Ferry

1
684
460

71

0

9

0

10

944

158

4 618

1 019

514

208

1 294

30

9 940

Ferry

0

7 635

0 30 673

0

1
764
0

488

0

11
650
0

4 004

Ferry

2
257
5
132
0

0

0

RoRo/P
ass
RoRo/Pass
Ferry

59 743

3
787

32
437

3 463

0

0

0

141 39 828

61 350

4
234

33
302

3 246

0

0

0

89 40 871

1 000

5

109

1

0

3

250

Ferry

642

8 207

310

1
523
0

77

0

11
149
6 006

4 805

Ferry

4
915
759

9

88

Ferry

17 818

9 279

4 816

991

517

14 973353 33 833

Ferry

0

202

217

2 837

132 28 431

162
870
2 048
794
7 148
145
0

18
217
0

1 985

Ferry

2
904
4
841
0

0

0

0

0

38
371
0

70
614
161

52 52242 02241921
197

47 239

0

2 084

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7 880

7 880

9 623
440

85
242

246
892

154 92547804

65 079

1 511
809

403
380

2 515
131

Bodrum Feribot İşl.
Ve Tic. A.Ş.
Kale Nakliyat Seyahatve Tur. A. Ş .
NG Deniz Taş. Ltd.
Şti.
Kara Hasan Den.
Nakliyat
Kilitbahir Den. Ltd.
Şti .
Orsa Sea Gemi İnş.
A.Ş.
İstanbul Den. Ltd. Şti.
Karagözler Den. Ltd.
Şti.
Kerem Den. Ltd. Şti.
Serhat Fer. A.Ş.
Tramola Nakliyat A.Ş.

Tramola Tas. A.Ş.

BandırmaAmbarlı

Tuncer Yıldız

ErdekTurkeli
GeliboluCardak
KarabigaBarbaros
GeliboluCardak
TekirdagBandırma
Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
HaydarpaşaBandırma
UzunkumZonguldak
TOTAL

Dört Kardeşler Ltd.
Şti.
Dört Kardeşler Ltd.
Şti.
Erdemler Den. Ltd.
Şti.
Erdemler Den. Ltd.
Şti.
SS Tur. Yol. Koop
TDİ A.Ş.
İDO A.Ş.
İstanbulLines
Marmara Den. A.Ş.
Erdemir Lojistik A.Ş.

Ferry
Ferry
Ferry
Train
Ferry

0

BUS MINIBUS AUTO OTHER

TOTAL

6 107 40 374

79 25 354
0

0

0

4 159

0

368

4 30 680
0

7 172

0

0

293
623
1 105 94 625
224
0
0

797
653
1 289
469
2 084

8 427 292 175

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs.

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INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS IN AND WITH TURKEY —107

Map 4.1. RO-RO services in Marmara region

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs.

4.3.2

International RO-RO ferry services

On the international level, RO-RO ferry boat operations to Western European markets have existed
since the early 1990s. Originally they were a result of the conflicts that arose in the Balkan area which
made road transport by Turkish operators to and from Western European markets increasingly difficult.
At present, the largest company operating in this market (Roder) operates 9 vessels, four of whichhave a capacity of 240 road trailers and lorries each. In 2006 around 97 000 truck loads (only full andexport loadings) were carried from its RO-RO terminals in Pendik as of April 2005, Ambarlı and Çeşme
to Trieste (Italy). As the number of truck loads shipped in the opposite direction (from Trieste) is in thesame order of magnitude, it can safely be said that around half of the 400 000 truck operations between
Turkey and Western Europe are carried out by this RO-RO shipping line alone. Roder offers at present 6
weekly departures from Pendik on the Asian side of the Marmara Sea, 3 departures from Ambarlı on thenorthern side and 3 weekly departures from Çeşme close to İzmir. The journey from Pendik to Trieste
lasts around 55 hours.
While road transport operators or their associations are not yet engaged in road-rail intermodaltransport, as is the case in most Western European countries4, Turkish road haulers have been thefounders of the most important international RO-RO ferryboat operations linking Turkey with Europe,
the Ukraine and the Russian Federation. Roder (UN RO-RO) was founded in 1993 by 48 road transport
operators, who looked for alternatives to the unreliable and costly land transport routes to Western
Europe. Since 1993 the drivers of the trucks carried by the RO-RO vessels from Turkey to Trieste were
flown to Trieste. Since April 2005, Roder has operated a private port at Pendik with a capacity of
650 trailers, offering several auxiliary services. More than 200 shareholders, who comprise the major
players on the Turkish road transport markets, recently decided to put the company up for sale so as toachieve a corporate growth for the company.
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Map 4.2. Black Sea Region Ro-Ro, Ferry and Container Lines

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs.

Map 4.3. Lines in Marmara, Aegean and Mediterranean Region

Source: Turkish Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs.
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INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS IN AND WITH TURKEY —109

Ninety five percent of all truckloads carried by these RO-RO ferryboats belong to Turkish transport
operators. 68% of the vehicles carried are semi-trailers without tractor units. The truck drivers of thelorries carried on-board are not accommodated on-board the vessel, but take a chartered plane that
operates between İstanbul and Ljubljana. While the large majority of semi-trailers are picked up bytractor units operating from Trieste and pursue their journey by road to their final destinations, mainly
Germany, Roder also offers daily onward Ro-La services from Trieste to Salzburg for 60 lorries. Roderplans to start services to Marseille/Fos (France) and is also considering additional triangular RO-RO
ferry services to Algier (Algeria) or Haifa (Israel).
Since 3rd December 2006, another ferry boat company (ItalRoRo) operates 3 weekly journeys
between Çanakkale (Kepez) at the western entrance of the Çanakkale Strait and Brindisi (Italy). The
journey takes 34 hours where the lorries make their onward journeys by road, mainly to France, Spain
and Portugal. The company expects to transport around 22 000 vehicles per year on this new RO-RO
route and considers extension of its services also to Northern Africa.
While the large majority of RO-RO operations target the markets in Western Europe, there are alsoa considerable number of RO-RO services plying the Black Sea. Regular RO-RO services exist between
the Turkish Black Sea ports of Zonguldak, Samsun, Trabzon and Rize and the Ukrainian ports of
Evpatoria, Skadovsk and Odessa as well as the Russian ports of Novorossisky, Sochi and the Georgian
ports of Poti. The number of goods transported by road on these Black Sea links, is estimated to be in theorder of 20 000 vehicles annually. All of these lorries continue their onward journeys by road.
A number of additional RO-RO services are planned for launch in the next few years. This includes
the operation, possibly by the end of 2009, of new RO-RO lines organized by UND in cooperation withan Italian company that plans to operate six vessels between the ports of Tekirdağ or Gebze andMarseille (France). These RO-RO services may be extended also to Koper (Slovenia). Furthermore, inthe framework of BSEC-URTA, it has been agreed to start operation of the three additional RO-RO ferry
services on the Black Sea between Zonguldak, and ports in the Russian Federation and the Ukraine aswell as between Samsun and a port in the Russian Federation.
4.4

Rail Ferry Services

4.4.1.

National rail ferry services

The rail ferryboats crossing the İstanbul Strait, linking Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci, carried around1 million tonnes of cargo in both directions in 2006. This indicates a 22% increase compared to
978 000 tonnes in 2005. Traffic volume in the north-south direction (i.e. from Sirkeci) is around 25%
higher than the traffic from Haydarpaşa, reflecting the large industrial output of the northern side of theMarmara Sea and the cargo flows going to automobile factories on the Asian side of Turkey. With the
opening of the Marmaray tunnel, possibly in 2011, these rail ferry services across the İstanbul Strait may
cease to operate.
Another domestic rail ferry link crosses Van Lake and is part of the important international railway
and intermodal line to Iran (C-E 70). Traffic volume between Tatvan and Van was in the order of
613 000 tonnes in 2006, compared to 506 000 tonnes in 2005 (17% increase). There is no alternative tothis ferry service at present, as the long planned rail line along the northern shore of Van Lake is not yet
in sight.

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110 — INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS IN AND WITH TURKEY
4.4.2.

International rail ferry services

Regular rail ferryboat services operate on the Black Sea between Derince and Ilyichevsky (RussianFederation) as well as between Derince and Constanta (Romania). In 2005 there were 25 departures from
Derince towards Ilyichevsky with a total of 58 000 tonnes loaded. Only 9 000 tonnes were unloaded. On
the Derince-Constanta link, there were 23 departures from Derince in 2005 with a more balanced cargoflow of 80 000 tonnes inbound and 99 000 tonnes outbound.
4.5.

International Maritime-Pipeline Transportation

The oil that produced in Shah Deniz Area of Azerbaijan is transported about 1 800 km by BakuTbilisi-Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipeline to Ceyhan Port and sent to the world markets by loaded to the tankers.
The capacity of pipeline is 50 million tonnes per year. About 378.3 million barrel oil has beentransported by loading 481 tankers so far as of 28 May 2008.
The LNG from Algeria and Nigeria is transported to Marmara Ereğlisi by tankers and gasified in thefacilities. Then, the gasified LNG is given to the national natural gas network. From 1994 to 2007,
82.5 million m3 LNG is exported by 690 LNG tankers. (1 m3 LNG = 600 sm3 natural gas)
4.6.

Intermodal Transport Actors in Turkey

Intermodal transport by rail in the form of containers is undertaken by the TCDD, which together
with an intercontainer, operates regular container block trains to and from Europe and Central Asia. The
same holds true for the Ro-La trials that have been carried out by the TCDD and Austrian OKOMBI incooperation with the other concerned railway companies that provided traction on their respective
territories, namely Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia and Austria.
The only existing 2 regular swap-body and automobile rail transport services are organized byprivate logistics companies that also provide the special wagons for these services.
The Köseköy-Cologne swap-body rail transport service is organized by OMFESA, which is a jointcompany founded by the largest Turkish logistics company Omsan Logistics and the Spanish
TRANSFESA. OMFESA has also rented from TCDD 8 000 sqm of terminal space at Köseköy forstorage, handling and customs clearance procedures. This project has received 1 million euros from the
EU Marco Polo Fund for its contributions to reduce road congestion and to promote intermodal transport.
The Köseköy-Bucharest automobile transport in specialized rail wagons is organized by VEVA
Logistics, a joint venture between Austrian Vega Logistic Company, the French State railway foundation
STVA and a Turkish project partner.

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INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS IN AND WITH TURKEY —Picture 4.1. Loading Crude Oil Tanker at Ceyhan Port

Picture 4.2. View of Ceyhan Port

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112 — INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS IN AND WITH TURKEY
4.7.

Existing Legal Framework

4.7.1.

National level

At present, there is no specific national legal framework or provisions in Turkey to govern national
and international intermodal transport or to facilitate a shift from long-haul road transport to rail and/or
coastal shipping.
There are also no particular financial or regulatory incentives in place to assist in the promotion ofintermodal transport in Turkey, neither nationally nor internationally, such as the various national vehicle
tax exemption and subsidy schemes in Western European countries that provide contributions toinvestments and initial operational costs for intermodal transport and terminal operations considered as“public services” or the EU wide Marco Polo programme. The only exception seems to be theexemptions from excise tax on fuel for RO-RO vessels plying the Marmara Sea.
Turkey also does not yet have regulatory incentives in place to foster intermodal transport
operations, such as exemptions on maximum payload, driving bans during certain hours and days (rushhours, night, weekend) or bonus systems for road transport operators utilizing intermodal transport(exemption from permits for initial and terminal hauls, supplementary permits, etc.).
4.7.2

International level

At the international level, Turkey ratified the European Agreement on Important International
Combined Transport Lines and Related Installations (AGTC) on 4th September 1996, joining 30 other
European countries that have agreed to make international combined and intermodal transport in Europe
more efficient and attractive to customers. In acceding to this treaty of the UNECE, Turkey has
committed to alleviate the burden on the European road network and to mitigate environmental damages.
The Contracting Parties to the AGTC Agreement are convinced that it is essential to establish a legal
framework, which lays down a co-ordinated plan for the development of combined transport and theinfrastructure necessary for their operation, based on internationally agreed performance parameters andstandards.5 As Contracting Party to the AGTC Agreement, Turkey has subscribed to the designation of a
network of important international combined rail transport lines, terminals, border crossing points andferry links/ports that should conform to or be brought into conformity with the infrastructure andperformance standards and targets stipulated in the Agreement (see Annex 1).
In the framework of the International Transport Forum, Turkey has subscribed to its provisions in
the ECMT Consolidated Resolution on Combined Transport (No. 2002/2) that was adopted by the
ECMT Ministers in Bucharest in May 2002. This Resolution underlines that the competitiveness of
combined transport must be effectively improved in terms of quality and costs/prices. It recommends
specific measures in the field of costs and prices, networks, interoperability, financial support measures,
regulatory measures and controls, operations, monitoring of the market and innovations.
Finally, the ECMT Ministers of Transport approved, in 2006, the Recommendations on Model
Action Plans and Partnership Agreements for the Development of Intermodal Transport at the PanEuropean Level, including benchmarks to measure performance and identify responsibilities that had
been prepared by the joint ECMT/UNECE Working Party on Intermodal Transport and Logistics. Thesemodels should allow ECMT and UNECE member states to make better use of intergovernmental
cooperative arrangements among neighbouring countries and to foster private-public partnerships as a
key for the development of competitive intermodal transport services.

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INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS IN AND WITH TURKEY —113

Bearing all these factors mentioned in mind, it is clear that Turkey is already heavily involved inintermodal transport, whether as road-rail, Ro-La, RO-RO and rail ferry services. But still acomprehensive intermodal strategy is needed because the developments in the market are not conductedsystematically. In other words a “road map” is needed which would allow a more efficient andsustainable growth for the market.
Since road transport remains the preferred mode in national transport, Turkey needs to findsolutions to use its existing infrastructural and market resources to better benefit from other transportmodes. Intermodality can serve as a cost-effective, environment-friendly and time-saving alternative forboth national and international freight operations.
Recent incentives such as conventional block train operations implies that potential supply anddemand exist in the market in favor of an intermodal system, provided that there are several options
which can sufficiently meet the needs of trade markets in terms of speed, reliability and flexibility.
A 20% increase in the use of rail ferries for national transport between 2005 and 2006 offers anotherexample of the potential demand for intermodality in Turkey. Given the fact that around 90% of exports
are being performed via maritime transport in Turkey, intermodal transport appears as the most favorable
course. Following the efforts to increase the volume and the quality of intermodal services, road-rail
operations in particular, have acquired the greatest share in transport between Turkey and Central Asia in
the recent years.
As a peninsula which has coastal lines in Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Sea, Turkey naturally
has the potential to maintain a more balanced transport system by integrating road, rail and maritime
transport coherently.
What remains to be done are to promote and maintain emerging intermodal demands through theprovision of legal framework and financial/regulatory incentives so as to foster intermodal transport inTurkey.
To this end, it is highly recommended that relevant authorities should first create a master plan
which lays down the strengths, needs and long-term strategies of Turkey to further promoteintermodality. The establishment of a clear policy and legal framework would ensure the level playing
field for the private sector. Financial and regulatory measures and incentives to promote this system isanother factor which should not be underestimated. In setting up these measures, learning from the bestpractices in European and OECD countries will also be helpful.
NOTES
1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

UNECE, ECMT, EC Terminology on Combined Transport, 2001.
The European Commission co-modality concept describes the complementary and efficient use of modes
in an optimal European transport system, looking at each mode individually and at their integration inlogistics chains.
Turkish New Lira.
The International Union of Combined Road-Rail transport companies (UIRR), was founded in 1970 andis still owned today to a large extent by road transport operators. Compared to 2005, UIRR has increased
its traffic in 2006 by 12% for unaccompanied and by 16% for its Ro-La. It operates annually 2.4 million
consignments in container, swap-body and semi-trailer traffic. This represents around 60% of total
European intermodal road-rail transport.
www.unece.org/trans/conventn/agtce.pdf

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WHY CHOOSE INTERMODAL TRANSPORT? —115

PART III. REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFICIENT INTERMODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMSCHAPTER 5. WHY CHOOSE INTERMODAL TRANSPORT?

Many countries, such as Ireland, Portugal and Greece, have practically no intermodal transportsystems and still seem to enjoy a positive, general economic situation with a functioning transportsystem. Before Turkey decides to invest in an intermodal transport system, the economic conditions andpossible development schemes, with and without intermodal transport should be discussed.
5.1.

Main Scenarios for Future Development

Turkey is, without a doubt, a viable candidate for future growth. Given the steady acceleration ineconomic growth achieved, with an average growth rate of nearly 7% per year over the period 200220071, and based on recent increases in foreign trade volumes (see Chapter 1) the recent increases inforeign trade volumes it is expected that the GDP per capita and the share of foreign trade in GDP willgrow steadily. The steady growth in population is another factor to expect an increase in demand formany sectors.
It can be estimated that these factors would result in a high growth of international and national
freight transport. This increase may also create a chain reaction and lead to a similar increase in othercountries, especially for the landlocked NIS countries in the Caucasus, east side of the Caspian Sea andthe neighbouring countries in the Middle East, with their international connections through Turkey.
Until today, internal freight transport operations and transit operations through Turkey have been
executed mainly by road transport.
If the road transport system continues to absorb internal and transit cargo flows at today’s rate, thefollowing undesirable effects are expected to occur:•

The demand for fuel will grow, while the supply of petroleum based fuel will become more andmore problematic.

•

The emissions of CO2 will increase considerably.

•

Private mobility as a function of personal income per family will grow at a similarly high rate,
as will commercial road traffic; this will cause continuous competition for road capacity,
provoking political problems regarding the distribution of capacity resources.

•

Increasing personal wealth and salary levels will limit the labour market for drivers, whocurrently are prepared to be at home only for the weekend; this will cause shortages of reliable
personnel for certain sectors of road haulage.

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116 — WHY CHOOSE INTERMODAL TRANSPORT?
These developments are not fictional; they are the current problems experienced by European andNorth American freight transport systems.
5.2.

The Functions of Intermodal Transport

Intermodal transport is the set of technologies that facilitates the transfer of loading units from one
mode of transport to another. Intermodal transport could easily transfer cargo flows from road to rail, toinland waterway transport and to maritime transport.
Furthermore, intermodal transfer allows en route change from a given transport mode (such as roadtransport) to another (such as train or ship) in order to carry larger volumes in one transport operation:•

An intermodal train in Central Europe will carry around 80 TEU, i. e. the load of 40 trucks. The
Transfesa train from Köln to Halkalı carries 32 Mega swap bodies, which is the equivalent of
32 articulated trucks.

•

An intermodal barge on the Rhine River carries approximately 400 TEU, i. e. the load of
200 trucks.

•

A coastal trade ship may carry 1 200 TEU, i. e. the load of 600 trucks.

•

A deep sea container ship may carry 10 000 TEU, i. e. the load of 5 000 trucks.
Figure 5.1. Intermodal transport: collect, move as a concentrated load, distribute

When such a carrier takes over the concentrated load from the road, considerable savings often
result:•Intermodal transport considerably decreases the use of traffic infrastructure capacity: A train
covers only 1 slot in the rail network, but takes 40 truck movements off the road.

•

This train will use much less energy than the 40 trucks would have consumed.

•

This train movement will cause far lower CO2 emissions than the 40 trucks would have created.

•

This train needs, for the long haul operation, only 1 locomotive engineer, while the 40 trucks
would have needed a minimum of 40 drivers.

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WHY CHOOSE INTERMODAL TRANSPORT? —

•
5.3.

117

The movement of 1 train is normally cheaper than the cost to operate 40 trucks.
The Commercial Basics of Intermodal Transport

The commercial background of intermodal transport consists of:•

A pick-up operation that might be more expensive than pick-ups in long haul road transport.

•

A terminal transfer that will create additional costs.

•

A line haul that should be much cheaper than the line haul in road transport.

•

A second terminal transfer with its additional costs.

•

A final delivery operation that might be more costly than delivery after direct road transport.

These factors demonstrate the pros and cons of intermodal transport: all potential savings
concentrate in the line haul, and these increase with distance. The longer the distance of an intermodaltransport operation, the bigger the savings. On the other hand, the additional costs do not depend on the
distance, but are additional costs per operation. So a certain minimum mileage is necessary for acommercial intermodal operation to be viable. The minimum transport distance for commercially viableintermodal transport is, in most European countries, around 400 – 600 km. If an intermodal operation
starts in a seaport, the minimum (commercially viable) distance is often reduced to 250 – 300 km
because the loading units are already concentrated on one end of the journey, and the cost of assemblingthem into the larger transport unit can be saved.
Another issue, demonstrated above, refers to “concentrated traffic flows”. Concentrating cargo
movement from a single truckload (with some 20 tonnes of cargo) to a train load (with some 700 tonnesof cargo or more) means that such a large trade volume should be available on a given corridor.
Under normal logistic quality conditions, a shipper or forwarder expects, for an intra-European
operation, an offer of 5 departures per week in both directions. If we assume that:•

Each train must carry an average of 60 – 65 TEU to be commercially viable.

•

Each TEU contains some 12 tonnes of cargo.

We can conclude that a corridor should offer a volume of approximately 3 600 tonnes of cargo ineach direction to justify a commercial intermodal transport operation.
Commercial experience shows that the movement of containers between a seaport and thehinterland is operated under similar conditions, but eventually a frequency of 3 departures per week
could be sufficient for logistic quality. In consequence, a volume of some 180 TEU containers per week
and per direction would be sufficient to build up a commercial operation.
Clearly, the economies of scale work in favour of large and concentrated cargo transport corridors.
An example for such a corridor is the operation between the centre of the Rhine valley and North Italy.
The Intermodal operator HUPAC operates 5 block trains per day and per direction between the terminalsof Ludwigshafen and Busto Asizio. This results in an extremely high usage of rolling stock and terminal
capacity, resulting in low costs per unit. The high frequency leads to higher quality: if a train is booked
up, wait for the next one; it will depart in three hours.
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118 — WHY CHOOSE INTERMODAL TRANSPORT?
5.4.

The Basic Techniques of Intermodal Transport
All intermodal transport systems rely on one, of three technical possibilities:

The load carrying part of a freight vehicle is designed to be separated from the vehicle andtransferred from one vehicle to the other. Examples are freight containers, swap bodies, removable tanks
etc. The transfer can be executed either by vertical (lifting) equipment such as cranes or reach stackers,
or by horizontal transfer equipment.
Figure 5.2. A swap body is transferred from road to rail

Figure 5.3. Containers are transferred from deep sea ship to road, rail, or coastal shipping

Secondly, the entire load carrying vehicle is lifted from one transport system onto a vehicle ofanother using a vertical transfer system. Examples are semi-trailers lifted onto rail pocket cars either by agantry crane or by a reach stacker.

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WHY CHOOSE INTERMODAL TRANSPORT? —119

Figure 5.4. Semi-trailers are transferred between road and rail

Finally, the entire load carrying vehicle is rolled on its own wheels onto the vehicle of another,using a horizontal transfer system. Examples are Rollende Landstrasse (Ro-La), semi-trailers loaded on
platform railcars via a circus ramp, semi-trailers rolled on board a ship, and rail-cars rolled on board aship (roll on/roll off-transport).
Figure 5.5. The Ro-La system carries complete road vehicles on rail

As mentioned above, intermodal transport needs considerable transport distances to becomecommercially viable. This means that under European conditions, international transport is a more likely
candidate for commercial intermodal transport, because national transport distances might be too short.
If an actor wishes to enter international intermodal transport he must streamline his equipment tointernational standards in order to smoothly join the transport systems elsewhere. As national andinternational transport systems become interconnected, it will be desirable to apply such standard
equipment to both, rather than to invest in two different technical systems.
5.5.

The Choice of Technique

The intermodal transport system can be built on a technique of semi-trailer carriage or a techniqueof container or swap-body carriage.
The traditional means of transport in Turkey is the semi-trailer. Any alternative will be confronted
with severe resistance from conservative transport operators, industries that have invested in this specificmarket. Resistance may also come from politicians, laymen and journalists who have no expertise in thecomplicated details of intermodal transport systems.
There is no doubt that a system based on ISO containers and on European containers would better
fit the economic and infrastructure needs of Turkey, than a system based on semi-trailers. But if the
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intermodal transport system is to develop in the ISO/European direction (see chapter 3.3 and 3.4) policy
decisions will require strong leadership.
France tried this a decade ago and established a political program to subsidise the technical move fromsemi-trailers to swap bodies. This program for an efficient intermodal transport system using swap
bodies, had a successful start up. Currently, the French intermodal operator Novatrans organises a
network of intermodal trains carrying swap bodies.
5.6.

Recommendations

To be commercially viable, intermodal transport requires long distances and high cargo volume
corridors. Such corridors should be identified by a market analysis. A market research project, organised
and financed by the government, could provide the results to all potential investors and actors.
Intermodal transport offers various alternative techniques. Before choosing, techniques should beconsidered very carefully, taking into account international trends, national conditions, and – mostimportantly - economies of scale, i.e. it should use equipment produced in mass production and readily
available on all markets that the trade serves.
Intermodal transport should be based on internationally standardised equipment. Special solutions
and equipment adapted to particular national needs will almost certainly fail.

Five Levels of the Logistics Trade•

1PL - First party logistics : sub-contracting transport operations•

2PL – Second party logistics : externalising transport operations and warehousing•

3PL– Third party logistics : achieving logistic operations and implementation of relevant
methods, competencies and systems•

4PL – Fourth party logistics: externalizing and chain optimization, including the client, theclient's clients and suppliers.

•

5PL – Fifth party logistics: conception, organization and implementation, using a principal of
logistic solutions (including information technology systems) with all appropriate technologicalmeans.

NOTES
1.

OECD Economic Surveys, TURKEY Volume 2008/14 (www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda).

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CHAPTER 6. THE CHOICE OF THE BEST INTERMODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Earlier chapters have shown that various techniques are available for intermodal transport and thoseinternational standards and national conditions are the criteria that should guide the choice for the bestsystem.
6.1.

The Potential Markets for Freight Container Transport

Freight containers are the paramount means for all international trade and transport systems, except
for bulk materials such as petroleum, iron ore and coal. Considering Turkey’s rapid integration into
world trade, and that this will certainly augment, Turkey should be more prepared for participation incontainer trade.
6.1.1.

Container ports

First of all, Turkey’s maritime policy should include decisions on the manner in which the country
wishes to participate in future container trade. Turkey can serve its national needs, and still remain
outside the major world trade traffic flows. This would result in maritime container transport mainly
executed by feeder vessels that serve the Turkish ports from some main ports in the Eastern
Mediterranean, such as Port Said, Piraeus, Malta and Constantia.
If Turkey wishes to offer port facilities for direct connections to world trade, especially Far East
trade, which can serve simultaneously as regional gateway ports, it should enhance its port facilities.
Basic features necessary for container trade include:•A minimum capacity of 1 – 2 million TEU containers p. a.

•

Sea-side access and berths with minimum 15 m draught.

•

Sea-side container cranes to serve post-Panamax container ships.

•

Efficient customs treatment and off-duty areas for international feeder operations.

•

Excellent hinterland connections including road, rail and short sea shipping (inland waterway
transport is not viable option as no deep water rivers are available).

Development policies should always keep in mind the fact that ocean carriers are free to select any
port as their gateway. They will make their selection without great concern for the national interests ofany of the actors; efficient operation is their primary consideration. Thus, any port at a convenient
location offering efficient operation and modern facilities could qualify for a commercial centre.
The success story of Dubai port located in the desert but built and extended to an ultra-modern facility,
shows how such developments can occur.

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6.1.2.

Hinterland Transport – Road

Road continues to be the most important mode of transport for the hinterland. Furthermore, roadtransport will be needed to carry containers between the sea-side terminals and import and export
facilities in the port area. Certainly road transport of containers will be the main mode in an area of up to
200-300 km around the port. A large part of the cargo volume imported by containers will be unloaded inthis area and either directly consumed or processed for logistic sales. Such activities include inland
packaging, addition of user manuals in the national language, ironing ready-to-wear textiles, roasting
coffee beans, etc., and are usually grouped in the greater port area. Containers are carried from sea-side
terminals to such areas normally by road. This means that road access to the sea-side of ports should be
kept free, and planning should foresee the need for future capacity increases to a considerable extent. The
world is full of ports that were once successful, but have not been able to enlarge their road accesscapacity to meet increased traffic demand. Very often, port and road capacity enlargement compete with
the interests of local housing and leisure installations. Such conflicts could be avoided by long term
development thinking that plans for future capacity needs.
A striking example is the development of the international airport in Frankfurt, Germany. In the late1960s, the airport served around 1 million passengers and planned a new terminal for some 4 – 7 million
passengers. Conservative politics and newspapers accused the airport planners of megalomania and of
wasting public funds. Nevertheless, the terminal was realised. Since then, this terminal has had to becontinuously enlarged; today it serves more than 45 million passengers, and the need for further
enlargement is obvious.
6.1.3.

Hinterland Transport - Rail

Most of the large European container ports offer rail hinterland connections. Some large ports that
had not traditionally considered rail capacity, such as Antwerp, Zeebrugge and Rotterdam, are currently
building new rail access facilities and are enlarging their old ones.
The traditional rail connection of modern container ports is integrated into a logical flow ofcontainers: the import containers are lifted by a crane out of the ship and set down on the ground at thequayside. From there, they are carried into one or more big import container stacks. The movement,
quay-to-stack is done either by van carriers, reach stackers, automatic guided vehicles, semi-trailers, or(in small ports) by the inland extension of the crane.
The container stack is operated by one or more rail mounted gantry cranes. In some cases thesegantry cranes are equipped with rubber tires.
If the container is moved off by road, the road carrier with the empty semi-trailer comes to the stack
to load the container on to the semi-trailer and leaves the terminal.
Rail operation is more complicated, and therefore often neglected by terminal authorities. Normally,a group of rail tracks is located inland behind the import stack, with a gantry crane that covers the entire
rail track group. Often four rails are grouped side by side, and the length of the group is based on thenormal train length for freight trains moving inland; in many cases, and in Europe in general, the length
is around 750 m. A series of empty railcars is shifted onto each of these rails and each of these, in ourcase, four groups will, later, make up a block train to a certain inland destination. The container destinedfor on-carriage by rail is moved by a van carrier or reach stacker off the import stack under the work areaof the rail gantry crane. This crane lifts the container onto a railcar on the train scheduled for its final

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destination. Once the trains are loaded (or partly loaded) with a sufficient number of containers, they are
moved over the hinterland rail network to their final destination, i. e. to a rail/road terminal in thehinterland. If the rail volume generated in this port does not justify the operation of a dedicated block
train to a single hinterland terminal, railcar groups are made up in the port, and shunted under way
together with other railcars to build a dedicated train for a hinterland destination.
Figure 6.1. Ideal organisation of a deep sea container terminal

Export containers are carried into the terminal by road transport, unloaded from the semi-trailer byreach stacker, taken to the van carrier of the export stack by gantry crane, and then stacked into theexport container stack.
Similarly, export containers that arrive by rail are taken off the rail group and transferred to theexport stack. Once the transport ship has arrived, the containers from the export stack are sorted
according to the pre-planned loading sequence of that ship and then carried to the crane area.
Another method is a model that is used in Rotterdam and the Los Angeles/Long Beach Port area:
The railway transfer unit is not located directly within the port area, but is situated instead, some miles
inland where there is a better space configuration. Once containers arrive on land, they are carried to therail service centre over the road. They are set on semi-trailers, transferred, and continue on by rail. Since
this method of linking rail to container hinterland transport is, in most cases, somewhat costly, it should
only be considered if the port area does not allow for the building of rail facilities. Unfortunately, many
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conventional ports are in such a situation: container handling needs ample and wide space behind thequayside, and many older ports do not offer such space. Thus the construction of a rail facility behind thecontainer stacking area is often not possible.
In addition to transfer facilities in or at the sea-ports, a network of intermodal transport terminals
inland is needed. At least one terminal for each major industry or consumption area should beestablished. According to its size and design, each terminal would need 15 – 50 million euros ininvestment. Such terminals could be built as commercial infrastructure, through public/private
partnership. Successful models for such a procedure exist in Central Europe.
If a considerable volume of containers will travel by rail into the hinterland, such terminal facilities
are necessary. If the economic development of Turkey with its growing population, increasing GDP,
increasing participation in world trade and globalisation continues, such rail facilities are crucial. The
number of containers moving inland will be so large that it will overwhelm the road network. This willbe especially true if Turkey intends to become a major partner in container transit movements between
the Mediterranean Sea and the countries south of the Caucasus, North Iran and North Iraq.
6.1.4.

Hinterland – Coastal services

Big container ships with 10 000 TEU capacity do not serve smaller ports in direct call. Normally,
they serve only gateway ports; the containers are re-loaded from here into smaller ships and brought into
smaller ports further away. Today, practically all of northeast Europe is served this way: the big
container ships unload the containers in a North Sea port, and the containers are carried from there byfeeder ships to the Baltic region or to Scandinavia and Finland.
The port of Hamburg transfers some 30% of all containers that arrive from overseas, into such
feeder ships for Great Britain, North and East Europe.
Normally, if a port can handle a deep sea container ship, it can handle a feeder ship as well without
extra investments. However, if the port grows and capacity bottlenecks occur, competition between deep
sea trade and feeder trade for scarce berthing and crane capacity could create problems.
In addition, customs formalities can be problematic. The great European transit ports have foundvarious solutions to the problems of customs formalities. But all agree that an efficient customs
administration is necessary to ensure efficient feeder operations. The main problem in ports wherecontainers for import or export mix are immediately re-exported is that customs officers will be tempted
to install bureaucratic solutions under the pretext that they have to shelter the economic situation of theirhome country. Meanwhile, as security measures are added to the economic issues of customs clearance,complicated and time consuming procedures have increased.
6.2.

Semi-Trailers in Intermodal Transport

6.2.1.

The standard semi-trailer

The main operation in long distance freight transport in Turkey is executed by articulated roadvehicles consisting of 1 truck and 1 semi-trailer. Such combinations are quite common in Europe andeven in Central Europe, with its long tradition of truck + trailer road/train combinations. Today theoperators involved in international transport are changing over to the articulated combination.
Another tradition is changing. Earlier, the 3 axle truck + the 2 axle semi-trailer had been thecommon way of operating; today the entire market has changed to a 2 axle truck + 3 axle semi-trailer
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combinations. This combination is perhaps worse in road/driving performance and safety, but certainly is
considerably cheaper than the former.
The problem with these standard trailers is that they cannot be lifted because their structuralbuilding design renders them too weak. If grappler arm lifting equipment were to lift the semi-trailer on
4 lifting pads, the vehicle most probably would break.
Traditionally, these semi-trailers, when introduced into intermodal transport, had been driven via
circus ramp on rail flat cars, fixed there (mostly with chains), and moved into a destination terminal to beunloaded there via anther circus ramp. While such technique was quite common in the USA, it could not
be applied in Europe because of the limited rail gauge: a full height (i. e. 4 000 mm) semi-trailer was
loaded on a flat car with a standard height of 1100 mm above rail. This would lead to a combination thatcannot be carried within the loading gauge of practically all European railway networks.
Thus, all test and pilot operations with semi-trailers rolled onto flat cars have been abandoned inEuropean rail. Today, all networks concentrate on pocket railcars. The semi-trailers are lifted by a craneor some reach stackers, from the terminal ground on to such cars; the axle and suspension arrangement isaccommodated in the pocket. Such a technique allows all full height semi-trailers (4 000 mm overall
height) to operate in the rail networks of Central and Eastern Europe. Unfortunately, the networks ofFrance, South and Central Italy, Spain and Portugal have further gauge restrictions so that even thislowered down combination cannot operate.
6.2.2.

The semi-trailer with lifting capacity

The main problem with this transport technique is that the semi-trailer must be reinforced to belifted. This would add some 1 000 – 2 000 euros to building costs and some 200 – 300 kg to its tareweight. Most road operators refuse to spend that extra money because they do not foresee the need toeventually switch over to intermodal transport. Even in Germany, which has established a premium offer
of intermodal transport services with pocket railcars, only 2% of the annual production of semi-trailers isdesigned for lifting; the remaining 98% of all semi-trailers are built in a way that does not allow them to
fit into intermodal transport.
In consequence:•

Techniques to enable or adapt semi-trailers for intermodal transport have proved highly
ineffective and have been abandoned in Europe and North America. It is strongly
recommended that Turkey’s transport policy avoid such a program.

Intermodal transport in the USA started in the 1960s with semi-trailers that were driven on platform
railcars via a circus ramp. This has been practically abandoned now. In the late 1960s, intermodaltransport operators in France and Germany designed railcars that could take semi-trailers in roll on/roll
off transfer on board. But all these systems have been, as well, abandoned because of their inefficiency.
Various techniques and machines to lift semi-trailers that are not specially designed for crane transfer
have developed. None of these techniques are currently in commercial operation.
•

The vast majority of Turkish semi-trailers are not designed for lifting, so the “semi-trailer inpocket railcar” version of intermodal transport cannot be applied in Turkey at the moment. Dataon the rail gauge in the Anatolia part of Turkey leads to the assumption that full height semitrailers (total height 4 000 mm) on pocket railcars will create gauge difficulties in rail transit.

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This will be aggravated in the future because logistic managers often ask for a transport vehicle
with an inside height clearance of 3 000 mm. Such vehicles are likely to lead to semi-trailer
construction that is higher than 4 000 mm which will aggravate the gauge problem in the Asia
network of Turkey. Incidentally, the European side of the railway connection, Halkalı to the
Bulgarian border, offers a more generous gauge, so this zone should pose fewer difficulties forintermodal transport.
•

Thus, it is recommended for Turkey to form a fleet of pocket railcars which could be built in a
way to carry either containers or semi-trailers for the flexibility of their operation.

•

If Turkey wishes to introduce intermodal transport based on semi-trailers, national policy
should create a political program to promote the use of semi-trailers prepared for lifting. Allother options are not feasible.

In addition, Turkish railways would need a fleet of pocket railcars. Such railcars can be built in a
way to carry either containers or semi-trailers for the flexibility of their operation.
•

At the same time, the establishment of a network of intermodal transport terminals with lifting
equipment is essential for Turkey. This might sound more difficult than it is in reality: if theTurkish rail network establishes an inland terminal network for container transport, theseterminals can easily be used for semi-trailer transfers too. The lifting equipment in theterminals needs to be designed in a way that it is adaptable to semi-trailer lifting provided that
this sort of arrangement does not bring about prohibitive costs. Consequently, cranes can be
designed to have a lifting capacity of preferably 38 tonnes, but again, ways to avoid specificcost burdens need to be sought while adapting this kind of state-of-the-art technology.

However, as a working hypothesis, it can be assumed that these two cargo flows are rather similar
given that local industry and trade normally follow same patterns. As a result, containerised cargo flows
normally end up in the industrial regions in which imported goods are processed and upgraded while they
proceed either towards re-exportation or natural consumption. Thus, the logistical basics of both tradeflows have to be evaluated before planning a network of inland terminals that can transfer ISO containers
and semi-trailers alike.
Before planning a network of inland terminals that can transfer ISO containers and semi-trailers
alike, the logistical basics of both trade flows have to be evaluated. As a working hypothesis, we mightassume that these two cargo flows are rather similar. Containerised cargo flows normally end up in theindustrial regions. There, the imported goods are processed and upgraded, while they proceed toward reexportation or national consumption. Local industry and trade normally show similar patterns.
6.3.

The European Domestic Container

Fifteen years ago, the European Standardisation Organisation (CEN) established TechnicalCommittee 119 on swap bodies for intermodal transport. The units that have been standardised by thiscommittee are designed for European trade. They reflect European road regulations, especially thedimensions allowed in European road transport under European Directive 96/53, and the need for theefficient transport of cargo loaded on European standard pallets.
TC 119 has, as far as sizes and dimensions are concerned, standardised two basic sizes:

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The 7 450 mm long swap body; 2 of them fit on a road train offering similar space as aconventional road train.

•

The 13 650/13 720 mm long swap body that fits on a semi-trailer chassis. This swap bodyoffers the same interior space as a conventional semi-trailer used in international transport inEurope.

•Once these swap bodies are built for top lifting and stacking features, they could be regarded as
European containers.

Both lengths of swap bodies have been standardised in a stackable version and in a “light” version
that does not allow for stacking.
Both types of swap body offer the same logistic conditions to the shipper and the forwarder as
conventional road vehicles – articulated trucks or road trains - with rigid superstructure.
Compared to an intermodal transport system based on semi-trailers these length types of intermodal
loading units, now described here under the term “European container”, offer many advantages which
can be summarized as follows:•

The European container is prepared for top-lifting.

•

The European container is prepared for stacking.

•

The European container does not create problems with railway gauge limitations.

•

The European container adds less tare weight to intermodal transport systems.

•

The European container fits better in systems of equipment pools, multi-ownershop and leasingorganizations.

In order to fully conceive these advantages introduced by European containers, a more detailed
evaluation is represented below.
6.3.1.

The top lifting capability

While semi-trailers can only be lifted in terminal transfer if they have been especially designed forthis feature, a European container offers lifting capability as a basic “built-in” feature. No politicalprogram is needed to promote lifting capability; it is, so to speak, automatically included.
However, lifting of semi-trailers is executed by grappler arm lifting devices. The grappler arms takethe semi-trailer at the lower side rails of their loading compartment. These side rails must be reinforced
to be able to withstand the force of this lifting operation (mass of unit + acceleration of lifting process).
The lifting of ISO containers and of European containers is done by a spreader that grasps thecontainers at the top corner fittings. The contact of the mass and acceleration forces into the box design ismuch easier; this piece of equipment is more robust and considerably cheaper. The ex-factory price of an
ISO 40 ft. container is less than 2 000 dollars; a 13.7 m European container is less than 3 000 dollars.
Finally, top lifting in terminals by spreader, grasping the box at its corner fittings, is safer and quicker
than a lifting operation by grappler arms. If, at a later stage, terminal automation comes under discussion,a further advantage will arrive: the box – whether ISO or European container – is already prepared forsuch lifting features. We assume that the top lift method, with a normal transfer by crane or reach
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stacker, will require half the time than that needed by the lift by grappler arms device grasping the box or
the semi-trailer at its bottom side rails.
As a result, it can be stated that European container system offers an easier, safer, faster and costeffective lifting operation technique.
6.3.2.

The stacking capability

Except for the semi-trailer, a container could also be built for stacking. Normally, the top lifting
feature and the stacking feature are realised together. The box is built as a framework of steel rails that
supports the construction and the walls. The roof and the floor construction is based on steel plates(partly corrugated) that mainly shelter the cargo inside while also assuming some load force. Lifting
castings are on top of the corner posts, and stacking forces are assumed by the same feature, i.e. thecastings and the corner post. Thus a European container fitted for top lifting will include the stacking
capability as a by-product.
Stacking features are almost mandatory for depots that handle empty containers. These features aremost welcome in terminals and in depot businesses: almost all terminals have problems with space,especially when they are successful. Putting one container on top of the other automatically doubles thecontainer capacity of the terminal, per square metre open space; by stacking three on top of each otherthe capacity is tripled, etc.
The most important advantage of stacking arises in maritime transport. The capacity of a ship thatcarries containers in stacks is more than double the capacity of a RO-RO ship of similar size. Even whencalculating that the RO-RO transfer might be cheaper, the overall savings in transport costs throughhigher ship productivity will more than compensate for this. Plus, the longer the distance over sea, thehigher the significance of this saving. Central European RO-RO transport on medium distance coastal
itineraries, such as Rotterdam-Hull, Zeebrugge-Waterford, and Helsinki-Lübeck are changing over from
RO-RO transport with semi-trailers to container operation.
Stacking features can be even more productive when operating RO-RO ships. Two European 45 ft.
containers with 2 890 mm height each could be stacked, one on top of the other, on a low bed MAFI
trailer and rolled on board ship. The overall height of such a combined unit will be 600 mm (trailer
height) + 2 890 mm + 2 890 mm, equals the 6 380 mm. The loading height on the main deck of the shipsthat operate today on the Haydarpaşa – Trieste line is 6 800 mm and can easily take such units on board.
Using double stacks will double the productivity of loading and unloading the ship.
6.3.3.

Avoiding gauge problems

Most European railways have gauge problems when they carry semi-trailers on flat railcars. The
standard flat railcar has a loading height of 1 100 mm above rail. A European semi-trailer has an overall
height of 4 000 mm, so the assembled unit comes to 5 100 mm height above rail, which is too much formost railway networks. Meanwhile, even if the future height is increased, as Mega trailer heights comeinto service, conflicts will arise on the Anatolian rail network.
On the other hand, if we eliminate the wheels and running gear, we can easily lower the total unit
height – railcar + container – to some 4 000 mm, which will fit into most railway networks.
The European automotive industry has streamlined its logistics to a system of small containers
inside the semi-trailer or freight container. These smaller units have standard pallet length and width
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THE CHOICE OF THE BEST INTERMODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM —129(800 x 1 200 mm) and a height of 1 000 mm. The logistic service providers demand vehicles that can
carry 3 of such boxes in stack, i.e. that offer an inside clearance of 3 000 mm. This results high cube
containers with a 3 200 mm outside height. This may create some problems with rail gauge. But asplatform railcars with 850 mm platform height above rail become available, most of these problems
could be solved (including those of Anatolian rail gauge) – if we remain with a box system for road/railintermodal transport. Over-height semi-trailers would certainly surpass the rail gauge capacity.
6.3.4.

Tare weight gains

An empty 45 ft. European container will have a tare weight of around 3 500 – 4 000 kg. A semitrailer has a tare weight of 6 000 – 8 000 kg. The pocket rail cars that are needed for rail carriage of semitrailers are normally heavier that the platform railcars. Over all, the system “container on platform
railcar” will incur some 5 000 kg less tare per unit than the system “semi-trailer on pocket railcar”. A
standard intermodal train in Central Europe can carry around 40 road vehicle units (80 TEU). The system“container on platform railcar” will result in savings of tare of up to 20 tonnes per train. This might
become particularly advantageous if a train operation bottleneck is created by total weight, or if the trains
are moving in mountainous regions.
6.3.5.

Easy pooling and leasing

Leasing of equipment has become wide-spread in commercial operations in the transport business.
Half of the world’s ISO containers are owned and operated by leasing companies.
Leasing or equipment pooling creates additional productivity. They contribute to flexibility inoperation and to a better balance in trade flows.
But leasing – especially short-term leasing – can create a severe problem: an operator tends tohandle leased equipment less carefully than his own. If the driver knows that this specific semi-trailer
will be delivered back to an anonymous leasing company tomorrow, he will be unlikely to take propercare of the brakes, tires and other parts of the vehicle. So short-term leasing will inevitably create aconsiderable bill for equipment maintenance.
Here a simple truth comes into play: it is much easier to abuse a semi-trailer than a container. While
the semi-trailer has many moving parts that can be overloaded, neglected, etc., a container sits either on achassis or railcar or in a depot. The only real handling is executed by equipment that cannot do muchdamage to the container. The risk of running up a disproportionately high maintenance bill is diminished.
In consequence, if the logistics industry uses containers as the main means of transport, then leaseand pool business models could be managed more easily than models that are based on semi-trailers.
To sum up, container systems possess many benefits in terms of convenience for lifting operations,time-savings, cost-effectiveness, and particularly for elimination of geographical bottlenecks. For allthese reasons further development of container transport is essential.
6.4.

Ro-La Operation

The Ro-La operation puts complete road trains or articulated vehicles, including trucks, on theplatform of railcars. As the unit railcar + road vehicle must fit through the tunnel gauge of the railway
line, the platform of the railcar must be extremely low above rail. Such specialised Ro-La railcars are

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equipped with very small diameter wheels to keep the platform low. Small diameter wheels incur specificproblems that add to costs and maintenance needs:•

The small wheel may derail in certain extreme situations, e. g. when the train passes over aswitch.

•The small wheel must be equipped with extremely high quality steel on its running surface,because the hertz flat pressure with small wheels is very high.

•The small wheel must produce many more revolutions per mile, so maintenance needs(bearings, running surface) are much higher.

•

The small wheels create difficulties in transmitting the braking power from vehicle mass to rail
surface; therefore, the braking system of a Ro-La railcar should have a sophisticated andexpensive design.

•

The Ro-La railcar should be able to carry a complete road vehicle, i. e. 44 t in Europe. Thisload must be distributed on many axles when such small wheels are employed. Since the priceof a railcar and the maintenance costs mainly depend on the number of axles, this is anotherfactor that increases cost.

Ro-La railcars not only create costly technical problems in rail operations; their typical mode ofoperation inhibits intermodal transport operators from achieving a truly successful commercial operation.
Some approximate commercial figures from experience with Ro-La operations in Central Europe
through the 1980s, demonstrate this commercial problem:
The standard Ro-La train in Central Europe offered space accommodation for some 18 – 20 trucks.
Normally the driver accompanied the train with his road vehicles; for this reason the trains had a sleeping
railcar (couchette) attached.
The cost to operate such trains was in the range of 0.65 – 0.75 euro per truck and per km carried.
We assume that this cost level is based on rough calculations by the railways, leaving some overhead
costs uncovered in order to promote this operation. The truck operator would pay per truck and per km oftransport on the train, 0.15 to 0.25 euro; this cost is balanced by his savings in fuel and tire usage.
Further savings were theoretically possible when the Ro-La operation could be included in thedriver’s schedule in such a way that the legally mandated driver resting time could be covered while thedriver was in the railway sleeping car.
A typical operation would have looked like this: for a truck run from the British Midlands to South East
Europe, the driver starts in Birmingham in the morning and arrives in Harwich in the late afternoon.
Then he spends around 8 hours on a ferry boat run that he could use as resting hours. In the morning, theboat arrives in Zeebrugge and the driver continues over the road to Köln, arriving in the afternoon. He
would then enter the Ro-La Köln-Zagreb, and arrive in Zagreb the next day. In this way, the driver would
have had all legal rest periods as he started the final road run in Central Croatia.
Normally, such features could be used to improve the operational figures of the road vehicle, or theroad operator could apply the savings to a second driver. Taking into account all these figures, it would
seem that the road operator would be prepared to pay more per km for Ro-La usage than he would savein fuel and wheel usage. But unfortunately, the markets demonstrated the opposite behaviour. Obviously,
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THE CHOICE OF THE BEST INTERMODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM —131

most road operators simply ignored the legal framework for driving periods in their international
operations, since the risk of being fined was nearly zero. In fact, no-one paid more than they saved; andany further savings that could have been realised by Ro-La were disregarded.
But Ro-La operation was promoted by another feature: beyond savings in fuel and tire usage, theroad operator could benefit from exemptions on road usage fees by escaping various restrictions incertain countries that were imposed on foreign trucks using their road network. That is, a given country
could try to charge a road usage fee of some 0.50 euro per vehicle and per km. This is the exact amountneeded to cover the commercial gap between Ro-La operating costs and revenues from truck savings.
Incidentally, the main Ro-La offer was transit through Austria using the Brenner axis. The Austrian roadfee for this axis was around 0.50 euro per truck and per km. To complete the picture: the operation was
executed by an Austrian company using mainly Austrian railway capacity, rolling on railcars made inAustria; the operation terminated on Austrian territory some 60 m before the Italian border.
A typical Ro-La operation can only survive if the fees charged on the parallel road corridor are very
high and if road use is hampered by additional restrictions such as time consuming transit customs
procedures, the need for a visa for the driver, limited access to road usage permits, etc. As long as such
restrictions apply, Ro-La may stand a commercial chance.
Yet we should keep in mind that the EU road usage policy aims toward liberal market access. EU
members have to offer their road network to other members without artificial restrictions. If a road toll ischarged, it should be a reasonable amount, and 0.50 euro per truck/km certainly exceeds a reasonable fee.
A brief guide to intermodal transport road/rail cost and price calculation is given in Annex V.
In other words, a high usage fee and a restrictive road transit corridor in the territory of the EU can
only be organised vis-à-vis road operators of non-member states. This applies today to the Turkish road
operators. This situation must end however, when Turkey receives either membership or privileged
association with the EU. Whenever the European Union brings in additional members, local Ro-La
operations (if installed) become immediately commercially unviable.
Another problem has contributed to the termination of many Ro-La operations in Central Europe:
the normal Ro-La carries some 24 – 28 road vehicles in a flat country, and 18 – 20 road vehicles when
operating over a mountain range. Most Ro-La operations have been installed for crossing such
mountainous corridors. Converted to TEU carrying capacity, the mountain Ro-La carries a maximum of
40 TEU while a normal container block train on the same corridor offers double capacity, i. e. 80 TEU.
This is mainly due to the disastrous tare mass to payload ratio of the Ro-La. Estimated roughly; a Ro-La
carries per slot on the railway network, half the commercial volume than a train with containers or swap
bodies. Many European railways have scarce capacity on their main corridors so political planning
prefers intermodal transport with containers, semi-trailers or similar unit loads that grant better usage of
network capacity.
Some of these commercial considerations may change when the political environment changes. If
the European Union enforces driving hours in long distance road transport more efficiently, the old
calculations based on illegal overtime driving will no longer be valid and a new commercial environment
may emerge. Similar changes can occur when a general sharp increase in road usage fees and of diesel
fuel prices occur. If this becomes a realistic scenario, a sensitivity analysis based on these changes should
be produced, to learn whether a new chance for commercially viable Ro-La operation may eventually
emerge.
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PART IV. STRATEGY FOR A COMPETITIVE INTERMODAL
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN TURKEY

CHAPTER 7. A SYSTEM ADAPTED TO NETWORK PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSPORTPROJECTION FOR EURO-ASIAN TRANSPORT LINKS

Turkey’s road and rail networks have been developed at different periods of the country’s history.
Planning for public ports, (and involving at times other interests such maritime development, the private
sector, etc.) was dependent upon TCDD.
Air transport developed early due to the country-wide coverage of the airport network; airport
capacity has been able to adapt quickly to demand.
In recent years, most of the public investments have concentrated on the road network with few
investments made in the rail network.
Today this situation is changing, with the construction of a rail tunnel under the İstanbul Strait andthe construction of new HST lines. However, these investments in the rail network primarily concern thetransport of passengers, on a limited number of lines in the western parts of Turkey. It is still difficult toassess what the consequences of these investments will be for freight.
It is the same for ports. Projects to expand public ports exist, but the privatisation process has juststarted. It is difficult to assess how the capacity of public ports will increase when a very high growth ofcontainer traffic is expected and RO-RO services become essential for connections with EU countries.
Private ports are not really included in the network development policies, although they represent an
important part of the traffic.
One success story of network development in Turkey is the rapid development of airport capacitywith PPP financial schemes. Once again, however, this development concerns mainly passengers. Air
freight logistic centres should develop accordingly. Two major problems remain: connecting thesecentres with their respective hinterlands, and integrating them in urban distribution schemes, as is thecase for freight in ports.
A Turkish intermodal network or “master plan”, including infrastructure of different modes and themost important nodes of interchange, does not exist yet.
However, a comprehensive approach to transport is progressing and “intermodal concepts” are more
and more often integrated in the definition of strategies.
The membership of Turkey to international organisations, such as the International Transport Forumand the UN, as well as the requirement to align with the EU Acquis in accession negotiations, has
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contributed to this evolution. This participation has also underscored Turkey’s importance alonginternational routes which combine sea and land modes.
The recent Transport Infrastructure Need Assessment Project (TINA), whose objective is to prepare
the extension of the TEN network in a phase of pre-accession negotiation, is based on an intermodal
approach and provides the first global traffic projections for Turkey. The definition of a TINA network
should consist of major international and transit corridors, which have been agreed upon by Turkey ininternational negotiations, as well as other major national connections between large cities.
Along the corridors which are to become intermodal corridors, demand and supply should be
evaluated in order to define priority actions; the promotion of intermodal transport should be among
these priorities.
7.1.

The International and Transit Corridors Across Turkey

The active participation of Turkey in international organisations has resulted in a series ofagreements that identify these corridors and often specify objectives for the transfer of operations within
them.
The first are the TEM, TER corridors of UN, as well as the TRACECA corridor. There are also the
AGR, AGC and AGTC agreements of the UN. The AGTC agreement relating to intermodal transportshould include terminals. These agreements include quality of service as an objective.
Finally, the priority corridors specified by the High Level Group (HLG), in which representatives ofneighbouring countries have discussed the identification of such corridors with the EU. The technicaldetails of the HLG Report, (which, in the view of the review team, fall short of reflecting the actual
conditions and priorities of Turkey) are being specified and elaborated within the framework of TINA
Study. The HLG has also progressed toward the identification of a few priority projects.
Part of the Turkish rail network is also mentioned in the final report of the High Level Group, set upby the European Commission to look at transport connections between the newly enlarged European
Union and its 26 neighbours. The report submitted on 7th December 2005, identifies five important transnational transport axes, some specific parts of which do not reflect (as indicated earlier) the actual
situation and priorities of Turkey. The south-eastern axis links the European Union across the Balkans
and Turkey with the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea as well as with the Middle East through to Egypt.
In addition, the agreements of regional concertation should also be taken into account: concertation
with the BSEC countries as well as the Tbilisi declaration for relations between Turkey, Georgia andAzerbadjan.
In some cases, the regional concertation agreements deal with more technical aspects ofinternational transport operations: for example, the concertation between the Middle East countries.
Railway companies have opened regular rail services for container transport between Turkey, Iran,
Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan.
Turkey is actively participating in international projects that have developed and identified networks
linking Europe with Asia through important railway and intermodal transport lines. Some examples are
the Trans-Asian Railway Network, established in an Intergovernmental Agreement prepared in theframework of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN
ESCAP), and the UNECE/UNESCAP Joint Project on Developing Euro-Asian Transport Linkages that
identified Turkish railway lines C-E 70 and C-E 97 as important transport links between Europe and
Asia.
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Source: Turkish General Directorate of Highways.

Map 7.1. International Roads in Turkey

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136 — A SYSTEM ADAPTED TO NETWORK PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSPORT PROJECTION FOR EURO-ASIAN TRANSPORT LINKSThe Transport Corridor Europe-Caucasus-Asia (TRACECA) aims to retrace the ancient Silk Road.
It has also identified the AGTC railway lines C-E 70 and C-E 692 (İstanbul-Sivas-Kars) as important
corridors: the ports of Samsun and İstanbul have been designated as TRACECA ports.
7.2.

The TINA Project on Major National and International Corridors

Turkey has completed the Transport Infrastructure Needs Assessment (TINA) Project which aims forthe inclusion the new EU members into the EU transport networks. Started on 2nd December 2005 andconcluded on 23rd May 2008 with a final meeting, the TINA Project for Turkey aims to develop amultimodal transport infrastructure network within Turkey and integrating the country with TransEuropean Networks.
Through the TINA project, international priority corridors are connected to major national links forthe purpose of forming a kind of core network; this network is intended to become part of the “extended
Trans-European-Network”, when Turkey joins the EU.
In the case of Turkey, whose population and size are greater than the new EU member countries,
more national links have to be included, in addition to the international corridors above mentioned. The
links of particular concern are those with connections between the major cities of the western part of theAnatolian plateau, especially İzmir, Bursa, Antalya and Konya; also of concern are the connections to thesouth Mediterranean coast with important towns such as Adana, or ports such as Mersin.
Beyond their role within the Turkish network, these connections could also become importantinternational transit links in the future, when greater international traffic may require more diverse entry
points along the Turkish Mediterranean coast. Such an evolution would provide alternative intermodal
routes across Turkey, avoiding the congested area of İstanbul and the Marmara Sea.
Therefore the TINA project provides a global framework in which infrastructure projects could be
evaluated, with regard to their relevance for national and international transport. In such a perspective,
intermodal transport and transit through ports will play a major role as intermodal traffic increases.
7.3.

Transport Prospective and Traffic Projections

In the assessment of transport needs, it is clear that traffic projections are critical and yet havealways been problematic; such was the case for the definition of priority corridors within the TEN
networks, including the revision of their guidelines in 2004.
When looking at ECMT figures on the evolution of transport volumes, Turkey appears as one of thecountries with the highest growth, mainly due to road transport.
If we consider the actual growth of the Turkish economy and foreign trade, one might expect thatsuch growth will continue.
Traffic projections of EU trade with neighbouring countries, including Turkey, are clearly indicatedin the TINA Project. These projections depend upon future economic as well as transport scenarios. Plus,they include different sets of hypotheses for investment in infrastructure, rail-road networks, ports,
airports and logistic terminals. But the expected performance of Turkish transport transit corridors should
also be considered with regard to competition among itineraries.

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137

Socio economic scenario

Regarding transport projections: the two studies mentioned concentrate on the choice of one central
scenario, which represents a “trend” scenario. When variants are mentioned, they are more of a“sensitivity analysis” of macro economic variables such as GDP, and not really an exploration of changes
in trade patterns.
Table 7.1. GDP growth forecasts, Medium Growth 2000-2025 from EUROSTAT Study
Nr

Name

1 Morocco
2 Algeria
3 Tunisia
4 Malta
5 Egypt
6 Israel
7 Palestinian Territories
8 Jordan
9 Lebanon
10 Syria
11 Turkey
12 Greece
13 Italy and Slovenia
14 France
15 Iberian Peninsula
16 British Isles
17 Benelux
18 Germany and Austria
19 Denmark, Sweden and Finland
20 Baltic Countries
21 Czech and Slovak Republic, Hungary and Poland
22 Norway
23 Iceland, Greenland and Faeroe Islands
24 Switzerland
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia,
25
FYROM, and Albania
26 Bulgaria
27 Romania
28 Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova
29 Russia
30 Iran
31 Iraq
32 Arabic Peninsula
33 Africa (except specified countries)
34 Asia and Oceania (except specified countries)
35 Americas (except United Stated)
36 United States of America
37 Libya
38 Caucasus

00-05
%
3.2
1.9
4.8
3.7
3.4
4.0
4.1
5.0
5.0
5.3
4.7
4.0
2.4
2.4
3.0
2.6
2.3
2.1
2.3
4.7
3.8
2.3
2.3
2.0

05-10
%
3.0
3.0
4.0
3.7
3.0
4.0
3.50
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.7
4.0
2:4
2.4
3.0
2.6
2.3
2.1
2.3
4.7
3.8
2.3
2.3
2.0

10-15
%
3.0
3.0
4.0
3.7
3.0
4.0
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.7
3.2
2.2
2.2
3.0
2.5
2.1
2.1
1.9
3.3
3.7
2.3
2.3
2.3

15-20
%
3.0
3.0
4.0
3.7
3.0
4.0
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.7
3.2
2.2
2.2
3.0
2.5
2.1
2.1
1.9
3.3
3.7
2.3
2.3
2.3

20-25
%
3.0
3.0
4.0
3.7
3.0
4.0
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.7
3.0
2.1
2.1
2.7
2.4
2.0
1.9
1.8
2.2
3.0
1.9
2.3
2.0

3.9

3.9

3.9

3.9

3.9

3.9
3.9
5.2
3.8
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
3.4
4.0

3.9
3.9
5.2
3.8
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
3.4
4.0

3.9
3.9
5.2
3.8
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
3.4
4.0

3.9
3.9
5.2
3.8
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
3.4
4.0

3.9
3.9
5.2
3.8
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
3.4
4.0

Source: EUROMED Transport Infrastructure project (ref MEDA Freight Forecasting Model, January 2005).

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138 — A SYSTEM ADAPTED TO NETWORK PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSPORT PROJECTION FOR EURO-ASIAN TRANSPORT LINKS
In such a scenario, the role of the Turkish corridors in international transit will also be very
dependant upon hypothesis of development of Turkish neighbouring countries, such as Iraq, Iran, Syria
and countries of central Asia; these could benefit from petroleum resources, while still being vulnerable
to political tensions.
With respect to east-west relations beyond Central Asia, it is remarkable to investigate theconditions under which Turkey could be a transit country towards China along the Silk Road or towards
India across Iran.
The central variable for socio economic scenarios is indeed the GDP. In the EUROSTAT1 study, ahypothesis of almost 5% growth for Turkey over the next twenty years is indicated; the TINA2 study
indicates this ratio as 6%. This increase is justified by the observation of strong economic growth during
recent years and with the reference provided by the SPO. International transport is expected to be higher,
with elasticity greater than 1 with regard to GDP. The expected growth of containers through ports could
even multiply by 4 or 5 during the next 20 years.

Table 7.2. Production per sector: rate of growth
RFS

NTS

AGS

95 - 2003%

2003 - 2030%

2003 - 2030%

2003 - 2030%

Agriculture, Mining
Iron, Steel, Clothing
Other
Chemicals
Other semi-manufactured
Consumption materials
Automotive
Office machinery and communicationequipment
Other machinery and transport equip.
Other consumption materials

2.6
7.5
19
9
13
24
28.6

2.5
2.5
6.3
8
4
6.2
6

2.5
3
8
10
5
8
7

2.5
5
11
14
9
11.3
10

30
16.8
24

7
5
8

10
7
9.1

13
10
13.30

Total

10.4

4.7

6

9

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A SYSTEM ADAPTED TO NETWORK PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSPORT PROJECTION FOR EURO-ASIAN TRANSPORT LINKS —139

Map 7.2. Total projected population growth, 2000-2030

Source: NESTEAR.
7.3.2.

The intermodal transport scenario

Intermodal transport scenarios are based upon infrastructure scenarios that concern road and railtransport as well as ports and intermodal centres.
They are also based on RO-RO services across the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and the CaspianSea, container services for maritime and inland transport and combined transport services.
Transport infrastructure scenarios for Turkey are detailed in the TINA study. These include: a“reference scenario” including ongoing projects or projects already decided up to 2013; a “long term
investment” scenario up to the year 2020; and a “long term alternative investment scenario”. An
additional investment project has been identified in order to face expected capacity needs.
The long term scenarios were defined after consultation with the Turkish administration, and wereadapted to the expected growth of demand, in order to be validated and confirmed under the structure ofa core TINA Network. Some additional projects have been considered in the long term alternative
scenarios to address future issues - for example, when more capacity is necessary because of traffic
growth or better regional connections are required.
The main characteristic of these scenarios could be summarized as follows:
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140 — A SYSTEM ADAPTED TO NETWORK PERSPECTIVES AND TRANSPORT PROJECTION FOR EURO-ASIAN TRANSPORT LINKS•

Upgrading includes construction and modernization of all elements on major highways andconverting into minimum 4 lanes with bituminous hot mix pavement. In addition to thisnetwork in these scenarios, some toll motorways could be constructed, mainly in the denseareas of Turkey. However the objective is to have a basic toll-free network for majorconnections between regions. Important transit road corridors are included in this network, withpossible alternative routes across the Marmara Sea using ferries, in order to bypass congested
areas in İstanbul.

•

The development of rail HST lines between İstanbul, Ankara, Konya and İzmir.

•

A new line between Ankara and Sivas, with the realignment of the old line beyond Sivas
towards Kars.

There should be connections to new ports, including connections to Çandarlı, close to İzmir on the
Agean coast, and Filyos, close to Zonguldak on the Black Sea coast.
Investment for modernisation, with widespread electrification, new signalling, and the realignmentof curves will also improve the performance of the rail network.
Freight transport should benefit from these investments, with improved national and international
network connections, including connections to ports with access for freight to new mixed lines.
A new rail connection will open in the eastern part of Turkey, between Kars and Tbilisi, linking
Turkey with Georgia and Azerbaijan, with possible RO-RO connections across the Caspian Sea.
An alternative scenario for the long run is a proposed new rail line, between Trabzon and the Syrian
border, which would open a new link between the Black Sea and the Middle East.
In addition, the two rail connections below were proposed to improve east-west connections:•

From İstanbul to the Caucasus (HLG).

•

From İstanbul to the Iran border across Van lake, with improved rail operations and rail ferry
services.

And below are the proposed networks to improve north-south connections:•

From the Aegean coast to the Black Sea (İzmir, Çandarlı to Filyos).

•From the Mediterranean coast to Samsun.

•

From Trabzon to the Middle East.

Two of these connections could be “land bridges” between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, as
an alternative to the congested Strait of İstanbul.
•

Investments in public ports with a special emphasis on container handling.

These investments will need to respond to the strong increase of container traffic, which is expected
to multiply by more than 3 in 15 years. This need cannot be met by the current public ports alone, thus
the infrastructural capacities of these ports needs to be increased. At the moment, there is a lack of
information about capacity development in the Turkish ports.
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It has already been pointed out that 50% of container traffic in Turkey is handled by private ports
such as Ambarlı and Gemlik.
Concerning private ports, many investment projects have been proposed for specialised ports. In
particular, projects to serve the transport needs of the automotive industry, or for container ports having
the strong backing of foreign investors such as Dubai or Singapore port authority, currently being
implemented in Mersin. This demonstrates that the Middle East and Asia are very much interested in
Turkish development, which will probably reinforce the role of Turkey in East-West trade.
•

Investments in airports.

Airports have seen a surge in investment in recent years for passenger traffic, as mentioned earlier.
As for air cargo, investment in logistic equipment has also developed accordingly.
At the international level, Turkey is reinforcing its “hub” role for lines towards central Asia, and tosome extent, to the Middle East. It is also reinforcing its role towards Europe.
•

Investments in logistic centres.

Although Turkey obviously needs such centres, this is a weak point in the current situation.
Prospects for future development are not very clear.
Possible implementation locations linked to the rail network exist, but there is no adequate
institutional and regulatory framework for such implementation. This underlies the difficulty in making
progress in this domain.
Such uncertainties affect the perspective of development of intermodal services.
The perspectives regarding intermodal services infrastructure investments could be summarised asfollows:•

Strong perspective for the development of RO-RO services across the Mediterranean Sea, theBlack Sea and the Caspian Sea for Europe-Asia links.
This would be in the line with existing services; further opportunities may be explored by
opening a new line between Europe and Turkey.

•

Strong increase in container traffic imports, but the perspective is weak on inland transport ofthese services. Currently, road transport is the main chain and it is difficult to imagine how rail
will take a significant share of this market which links major ports with major inland cities.

•

Tables 34, 35 and 36 indicate the alternative scenarios for 2020 on total imports, exports anddomestic freight transport by transport modes respectively. It may be observed that thesescenarios under TINA Study emphasize that maritime transport is expected to raise its market
share almost 94% in imports, 85% in exports while road transport is estimated to have around
80% market share in total domestic freight transport by 2020.

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Table 7.3. Total imports by transport mode, million tonnes, base year 2004-ALT scenario 2020
Mode

Road
Rail
Sea
Other
Unknown

Base year 2004
(million tonnes
p.a.)
3.62
1.26
107.121.73
0.09

Marketshare

Forecasts
2020

Marketshare

Growth
rate

3.18%
1.11%
94.11%
1.52%
0.08%

9.85
3.09
247.87
3.2
0.28

3.73%
1.17%
93.79%
1.21%
0.11%

2.72
2.45
2.31
1.85
3.11

113.82100.0%

264.29100.0%

2.32

Total

Table 7.4. Total exports by transport mode, million tonnes, base year 2004-ALT scenario 2020
Mode

Road
Rail
Sea
Other
Unknown
Total

Base year 2004
(million tonnes
p.a.)
9.35
0.74
50.25
0.15
0.02

Marketshare

Forecasts
2020

Marketshare

Growthrate

15.45%
1.22%
83.04%
0.25%
0.03%

25.16
2.30
159.000.39
0.04

13.46%
1.23%
85.08%
0.21%
0.02%

2.69
3.10
3.16
2.61
2.04

60.51

100.0%

186.89100.0%

3.09

Table 7.5. Total domestic freight transport by transport mode, million tonnes,
base year 2004- ALT Scenario 2020
Mode

Base year 2004
(million tonnes
p.a.)Market
share

Road
Rail
Sea

123.32
14.14
14.34

Total

151.80

7.4.

Marketshare

Growthfactor

81.2%
9.3%
9.5%

Referencescenario 2020
(million tonnes
p.a.)305.22
31.50
25.31

84.3%
8.7%
7.0%

2.48
2.23
1.76

100.0%

362.03100.0%

2.38

AGTC

The objective of The European Agreement on Important International Combined Transport Lines
and Related Installations (AGTC), ratified by Turkey on 4th September 1996, is to make international
combined and intermodal transport at the Pan-European level, more efficient and attractive to customers.
In addition to infrastructure and performance standards, the AGTC Agreement also designates a networkof important international combined transport lines and related installations at the Pan-European level,
covering more than 30 of the European member countries of UNECE. Work is continuing to extend the

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AGTC network to Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Middle East and to Asia (see Annex I for Turkish
AGTC network).
Globalisation and the development of world trade have increased international traffic considerably,in particular along the east-west routes: maritime transport, with improved performances, has been thefirst to take advantage of this evolution.
In recent years, more and more countries, as well as new routes have opened up to world trade.
Because of its central location, Turkey has a strong opportunity to play an important role in theinternational transport.
So far, road transport has adapted very quickly. More opportunities will open up with RO-RO
services and extended networks to the east, probably to China, along the “Silk Road”. However it is notpossible to speak about a quick adaptation as such for other modes of transport.
Despite the dominance of road transport, Turkey aims to achieve a more balanced transport systemthrough recent major railway projects and a port privatization process. This way, it is anticipated thatmodernization and capacity improvements for the existing infrastructures and services will be attained.
This would also have positive impacts for the emerging intermodal transport activities. In Turkey, airtransport capacity is developed sooner than railways and maritime and showed a rapid increase in recent
years. Consequently, there is now a potential to establish air freight logistics centers in Turkey. In thelong run, this can also be seen as another alternative for facilitating freight transport and logistics.
But it is also important to explore the role that the intermodal transport chain, combining rail andsea, could take on. On this point, two scales could be used:•

The scale of relations among Europe, Central Asia and the Middle East.

•

The scale of relations between Europe and Asia.

In creating an extensive and competitive intermodal transport framework plan for Turkey, theessential connections from and to the maritime and air freight logistics centers and their integration tourban distributions should also be taken into account. Because no matter how successfully a legal
framework or set of strategies are being set, it is the choice of private companies which determines theoverall sustainability of intermodal operations. Hence it is necessary to take into account whether suchplans meet market needs.
NOTES
1.

The EUROSTAT Study was completed in 2005.

2.

TINA Study was completed in 2008.

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CHAPTER 8. PROMOTION OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORTOPERATIONS AND LOGISTICS

National and international road transport is presently the backbone of Turkish transport and trade. In
order to make rail transport and in particular intermodal road/rail transport more competitive, a numberof policy measures are required.
8.1.

National Transport

8.1.1.

Improvement of the national rail transport infrastructure

The Turkish railways have carried out considerable infrastructure works and have madeimprovements in service quality (for example the introduction of block trains in 2004). And yet it isdifficult to see how the Turkish railways could be in a position to ensure, in the short and medium term,
the transfer of a considerable amount of cargo from road to rail, in order to provide relief to roadcongestion and thus contribute to the sustainability of the Turkish transport system in general. The
Turkish rail network is simply not advanced enough to cater to such demands. Also, many rail links arestill single-track lines and and will remain so for quite some time. Furthermore, they are not built for fastand heavy freight trains passing at frequent intervals.
In the long term, the Turkish railway network must be upgraded, not only for high-speed passenger
transport, but also to allow for competitive and reliable goods transport services. The AGTC
infrastructure and train performance standards provide the international reference and basis for efficientand competitive intermodal rail/road transport operation.
Table 8.1. Recommended infrastructure standards in the AGTC Agreement
Existing railway lines
Target values
Number of tracks

New railway lines
Target values(not specified)2

Loading gauge

UIC B

UIC C

Minimum distance between track centres

4.0 m

4.2 m

120 km/h

120 km/h

Wagons <100 km/h

22.5 tonnes

22.5 tonnes

Wagons <120 km/h

20 tonnes

20 tonnes(not specified)

12.5 mm/m

750 m

750 m

Nominal minimum speed
Authorized mass per axle

Maximum gradient
Minimum useful siding length

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Table 8.2. Recommended performance standards for intermodal trains in the AGTC Agreement
Existing railway lines
Target values
Nominal minimum speed

New railway lines
Target values

120 km/h

120 km/h

600 m

750 m

Wagons <100 km/h

22.5 tonnes

22.5 tonnes

Wagons <120 km/h

20 tonnes

20 tonnes

Priority rating

High

High

Block trains

Often

Often

Length of train
Axle load

8.1.2.

Promotion of national container transport by rail

As a result of the installation of efficient container transhipment facilities in the rehabilitated andnewly constructed Turkish ports, and the construction of inland logistical centres undertaken incooperation with TCDD (see above), container block train hinterland operations could be developed onrail corridors linking these inland terminals with major Turkish container ports
This concern in particular, the rail links between the logistics centres or freight village at Halkalı(serving the İstanbul area), Köseköy (serving the İzmit area), Boğazköprü (serving the Kayseri area),
Gelemen, (serving the Samsun area), Eskişehir (serving Hasanbey), Balıkesir (serving Gökköy) as wellas rail links to and from the İzmir and Mersin container ports.
If targeted container volumes could justify the introduction of regular shuttle train services, suchservices should be introduced in cooperation with concerned parties (maritime lines, road transport
operators, shippers, freight forwarders, etc.). Feasibility studies and specific start-up costs might need tobe supported financially by the government. Such regular container transport by rail could provide
considerable relief for the overburdened road networks along such corridors.
Turkey might also consider promoting these developments by assisting TCDD and private sector
interests in the construction of adequate facilities (berths with rail tracks, sidings, etc.) and temporarystorage areas at ports and inland terminals, and by the procurement of cranes, wagons and other mobiletransfer equipment. It might also ensure the construction of adequate access road and rail links to inland
terminals or logistics centres. Turkey might also wish to encourage, with financial and regulatory means,the engagement of private capital and know-how through BOT arrangements or leasing out of property
for longer periods.
Turkey should not invest in national Ro-La operations. For the present and in the near future, there
seem to be no markets for which such services could be operated at competitive quality and costs. Thissituation could change however, if traffic limitations, such as night or weekend traffic bans, areintroduced on specific road corridors.
For purely domestic transport operations, a market does not seem to exist at the moment, forsuccessful rail operations with swap-bodies or similar loading units offering loading capacities,
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comparable to road transport. Turkish shippers and freight forwarders have no experience with suchcomplex domestic intermodal transport services. The present volume, quality and flexibility of service aswell as prices offered by purely national road transport, cannot be met by such domestic rail transport
operations, which would require two transhipment operations as well as initial and terminal road haulage.
It is also unlikely that Turkish road transport companies would be willing to invest in the required
intermodal equipment, such as swap-bodies, as long as there are no compelling road traffic restrictions(i.e. very long detours or driving bans). The same applies to national rolling highways.
8.1.3.

Promotion of domestic RO-RO coastal shipping

In contrast to national intermodal transport operations by rail, domestic RO-RO coastal shipping
could make a difference; it should be able to make an inroad into the domestic road transport markets in
Turkey for longer distance operations and for destinations along the Turkish coasts. Such a concept
would be in line with the “Motorways of the Sea” initiatives pursued and supported in the framework of
the European Union.
RO-RO transport services allow road haulers to use their existing vehicle fleet and drivers
efficiently. They do not require the adoption of new logistical arrangements or investments in new
equipment, such as swap-bodies or European containers offering the same loading capacity as standard
road semi-trailers.
It does not seem necessary to provide additional financial assistance to promote short distance RORO transport services in the Marmara Sea area. However the framework conditions to allow private RORO transport to expand their services in this region would need to be set appropriately, in order to relieve
the highly congested roads in and around the İstanbul agglomeration. Important elements of theseframework conditions are the provision for fair competition among the various operators, both public andprivate, and the provision of adequate space for RO-RO ports. This would include parking areas that are
in line with municipal land development plans and the requirements of domestic transport and logistics.
The preparation and adoption of the above mentioned regional master plan, together with theparticipation of concerned interest groups, could play an important role in this respect.
However, Turkey may wish to promote and financially support the development of domestic, longdistance coastal RO-RO transport services, focusing on maritime linkages beyond the Marmara Sea area.
Commercially viable destinations from the İstanbul agglomeration, especially from the northern coast of
the Marmara Sea, could be the region of Bursa and the İzmir area. The 620 km from İstanbul to İzmir
would require around 12 hours by road and around 24 hours by RO-RO vessels. In such a case, vessels
and lorries would leave İstanbul in the morning hours. Both means of transport would take one working
day, to allow for unloading – as the lorry would arrive in the evening and would need to wait for the next
day for unloading. Such operations would integrate smoothly into the supply chain and could relieve roadtraffic along this heavily used road corridors.
Other promising locations to and from the İstanbul agglomeration, could be the economic centres
around Mersin in the south (with possible onward journeys to Syria) and, possibly, Trabzon or Samsun
on the Black Sea (with possible onward journeys to the Caucasus countries and beyond).
To promote such domestic RO-RO shipping services, Turkey must ensure that cumbersome customs
formalities, such as export declarations, would not be required for long-distance domestic RO-RO
operations. This could be achieved by reserving certain port areas exclusively for domestic RO-RO ferryboat services.

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In addition to support facilities in the building and the operation of suitable RO-RO terminals on thenorthern side of the Marmara Sea (see above), Turkey might also consider financial support
measures/incentives for such RO-RO services. These might include: measures similar to the VAT tax
reduction accorded to RO-RO operations in the Marmara Sea, temporarily reduced fees for pilotage andthe guarantee of fair competition among competing RO-RO enterprises.
8.1.4.

Development of ports and inland terminals to logistic centres

The development of Turkish ports and inland terminals, with connections to logistic centres orfreight villages and to logistical hubs, as currently studied, will be an important step towards a modern
and competitive international transport and trading system. This progression will be in tune with market
demands and the rapid economic development of the country. It is also necessary for the development of
a competitive intermodal transport system. Logistic centres can reduce transport and transhipment costs
considerably, by providing auxiliary services such as customs, banking and insurance services, and by
consolidating or distributing cargo flows into competitive volumes for long-haul transport or for final
distribution and delivery.
It is vital that such centres or hubs are managed by an autonomous and impartial legal institutethrough which all major parties involved, both public and private, develop a sense of ownership. As has
been shown in many instances, private-public partnership arrangements, not only for the construction,
but also for the administration and management of such logistic centres, can cater to these needs andprovide the required synergies in operation.
Such centres must also comply with international best business practices for transport, freight
forwarding, warehousing and other logistic services. If necessary they must provide efficient import,
export and customs transit procedures on a 24 hour basis. They must be located close to, and have goodaccess to, important roads, rail and maritime transport lines. Current efforts made in Turkey in thisrespect, for example in Halkalı, should be pursued vigorously, and the role of road and maritime
transport operators, as well as freight forwarding companies and logistics providers, in the construction
and operation of these centres, should be increased already at the conceptual level.
Table 8.3. Recommended performance standards for intermodal terminals
in the AGTC Agreement
Target values
Average time for formation of trains

Max. 60 minutes

Average waiting time for lorries

Max. 20 minutes

Accessibility by road

Good

Accessibility by rail

Good

Capacity bottlenecks

None or seldom

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International Transport

8.2.1.

International cooperation and Public-Private Partnerships

149

To develop intermodal transport services that offer competitive services, governments, railways andintermodal transport operators must work together. At the inter-governmental level, the infrastructure andservice standards provided in the AGTC Agreement, form a good basis for cooperation and ensure, if
implemented, a minimum level of effective operations.
Based on the standards stipulated by the international community in the AGTC Agreement, thefollowing minimum performance standards are recommended for border crossing points.
Table 8.4. Recommended performance standards for border crossing points
Target values
Average length of stop

Max. 30 minutes

Joint border stations

Yes

Use of common CIM/SMGS consignment
note for transport of Central Asia

Yes

More specifically, interoperability needs to be ensured between the railway undertakings providing
intermodal rail transport to and from Turkey1.
In addition ECMT and UNECE have developed model action plans and partnership agreements.
These models, together with the performance benchmarks contained therein and reproduced in Annex III,
could provide the framework for inter-governmental and public-private partnership arrangements along
the long intermodal rail transport lines from Turkey to Europe, Ukraine, the Russian Federation, toCentral Asia and to the Middle East.
Project CREAM
Some 40 actors have jointly launched an intermodal research program under the acronym CREAM in
April 2007. The project concentrates on improvement of intermodal transport on the European east-west
corridor between the North Sea Ports and Black Sea respectively Turkey. Members are railways andintermodal operators and some consultants specialized in rail and intermodal transport. The project will
be organized with the same method as the previous BRAVO program that covered the North South
corridor between Italy and Central Europe. The concrete intermodal transport service on this corridor are
observed and analyzed with regard to their shortcomings. Then, an analysis on the reasons of such
shortcomings is made and a strategy for improvement is elaborated and introduced into practicaloperation step by step.
8.2.2.

Promotion of international container transport by rail

As stated earlier in Chapter 4, there are increasing number of container block trains operating
between Turkey and the EU countries via Southeastern Europe. These services need to be further
extended to offer regular and reliable transport links.
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This means that these intermodal rail services must be able to compete with road transport in termsof reliability, flexibility, speed and price. To achieve these objectives there must be effective cooperation
among the railway undertakings along this corridor, including the tracing and tracking of cargo andcontainers and the reduction or abolition of customs related border crossing stops.
Apart from these container transport services, there are only two weekly container block trains
between Turkey and Central Asia. Due to operational difficulties, such as difficulties in the tracking andtracing of cargo and containers beyond Iran, the required transhipment at the Iran-Turkmenistan borderdue to different axle gauges, and due to the lack of return cargo from Central Asia, there seems to be
little chance for the rapid development of this type of transport on the Asian route in the near future.
8.2.3.

Promotion of international swap-body transport by rail

International rail services using swap-bodies could be extended to national terminals beyond
Halkalı, in particular once the Marmara Tunnel allows through railway transport to the Asian side ofTurkey. The example of international rail services with swap-bodies from Köseköy to Cologne,
organized for the moment by a single company and for a single client, could be replicated by TCDD andother private interests, possibly in cooperation with experienced intermodal transport operators in the EU(such as UIRR members).
Transport of cargo using swap-bodies provides comparable capacity to transport by road. In the
coming years it is possible that EU countries which are the final destination for, or origin of, Turkish
road transport operators, may not appreciate that Turkish road haulers use intermodal transport
operations (either RO-RO and/or Ro-La) until their borders, and then continue by road to their finaldestinations within the European Union. In addition, it can be safely predicted that road tolls as well as
local and time-specific traffic restrictions will further increase road transport costs in these countries (theGerman motorway toll has already increased road transport costs up to 15% for these trips). While theintroduction of Ro-La, to and from these countries might be a short-term solution, the more viable longterm solution is the use of swap-bodies (unaccompanied combined transport) with only initial andterminal haulage by road within a possible radius of 70 km that is usually exempt from traffic
restrictions.
It is likely that swap-body intermodal transport operations over these long distances would be
eligible for start-up funding by concerned EU countries or international funds, such a Marco Polo, as has
been the case for the present Cologne-Köseköy. But such operations must be well-conceived andinnovative, and should be organized in cooperation with Turkish road transport operators, TCDD andexperienced intermodal transport operators in the EU.
Ro-La services may play a niche role in international transport, especially on the route between
Turkey and Central Europe. Ro-La economics rely heavily on political decisions; and because suchdecisions are difficult to predict, Ro-La transport competitiveness is a very uncertain issue. Thus, longterm investments in this intermodal transport service should be avoided. Railcars leasing and easy tobuild and operate terminals are the preferred choice.

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The special case of the Rolling Highway (Ro-La) Halkalı -Wells
The trials undertaken in 2006 to establish an international rolling highway (Ro-La) have revealed theconsiderable difficulties in establishing such a technically complex system on a permanent andcompetitive basis. It is estimated that the operating costs for the 1979 km long Ro-La, with 20 trucks per
train (drivers are not carried) would be in the order of 1 euro per lorry-km. The average price for pure
trucking on this corridor is estimated at 20-40 centimes per lorry-km. Thus, the operating costs of thisRo-La, at approximately 2000 euros per journey, must be compared with operating costs for pure roadtransport, in the order of 400 to 800 euros per journey. The Ro-La operation takes around the same time
as a truck journey, but eliminates the driver - who can be used otherwise.
This advantage, along with the elimination of permits and possible border-crossing problems in transit,
including delays and complications in obtaining visas for the drivers, should be balanced against theadditional costs incurred by flying the drivers in and out of Vienna.
Given the competitive environment for Turkish truckers in pure road transport or in mixed RO-RO road
operations on this transport link, it is difficult to see how such a Ro-La can operate competitively,
without considerable subsidies. It may only provide short-term solutions in case of the non-availability oftransit permits or in exceptional bottleneck situations along this transit corridor, to and from Turkey.

8.2.4.

Promotion of international RO-RO services

The international commercial RO-RO services operated between Turkey and Italy are apparently
very successful and profitable. Thus they do not seem to warrant, at present, any particular intervention
by public authorities, as long as the competitive environment within this RO-RO sector is upheld.
8.3.

Reorganisation of Customs Treatment in the Gateways

A problem common to all gateways is that they mix international and national cargo flows. If such aplace is organised under bond, i. e. as an international customs free zone, national cargo flows that use
this port for transhipment only, must also undergo customs treatment. For example, cargo transported bymaritime transport from Ceşme to Samsun with a change of vessel in a port in the İstanbul area, would
need to undergo complicated customs procedures twice. As the customs procedures for the shipment of
national cargo make no sense and are time consuming and costly, for customs authorities and transport
operators alike, a re-organisation of such gateways or ports is necessary.
In principle, port operations can be organised in such a way as to separate international traffic andcargoes from domestic operations which do not require customs treatment.

Some free-ports along the North Sea operate under such dual systems
For example, a terminal in Hamburg-Wilhelmburg is organised so that import/export containers aretransferred between ships and railways in the bonded port area on its north side, while European loading
units are delivered from road transport to the intermodal trains in customs free inland operations on its
south side.
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A problem which can impede such a re-organisation is the organisational structure of relevantpublic authorities. The Customs Authority is a part of the Ministry of Finance, while the Ministry ofTransport is responsible for port organisation. It is highly recommended that a carefully designed
strategy and co-ordination mechanism be established to overcome such problems.
8.4.

Regulatory and Financial Support Measures for the Development of Intermodal Transport

Many countries in Europe have already adopted a number of regulatory and financial policy
measures to promote the development of intermodal transport services as part of a sustainable transport
policy and with a view to increase the competitiveness of intermodal transport vis-à-vis other modes. A
detailed description of the instruments available is provided in the ECMT Consolidated Resolution on
Combined Transport that has been adopted by the ECMT Council of Ministers in 2002 and that are stillvalid today2.
These measures primarily address National and International Bodies as far as co-ordination of theinteraction between environmental, land use and transport policies are concerned. They also concern
costs and prices, networks, interoperability, financial measures, regulatory measures and controls,
operations, monitoring of the market and innovation.
In the field of regulatory measures, the following instruments can be used in Turkey:
1.

Granting of exceptions from restrictions and spatial and time-related traffic bans that are
applied to road transport.

2.

Liberalisation of initial and terminal hauls by road if intermodal transport services are utilized.

3.

Granting of higher weight limits from road vehicles transporting containers and swap-bodies on
initial and terminal hauls.

4.

Support efforts to reduce, standardize and simplify documents required for intermodaltransport.

5.

Make provisions to allow the required Customs and other border control operations at loading
and unloading points only.

6.

Enforce rigorously existing road transport regulations, particularly with regard to driving andrest periods, speed limits and vehicle weights and dimensions.

In the field of financial measures, the following instruments can be used by Turkey:
1.

Facilitating the initial purchase of transport equipment, such as rolling stock and intermodaltransport units through financial and/or fiscal support measures.

2.

Granting of financial assistance for certain operational costs during the start-up phase of new
intermodal transport services.

3.

Providing support for measures designed to improve the efficiency and quality of intermodaltransport services.

4.

Granting part or total exemption from taxes, tolls and fees relating to the used of roadinfrastructure by vehicles engaged in intermodal transport, particularly for initial and terminal
hauls.

5.

Attracting private capital for the development of intermodal transport services.

With a view to translating these regulatory and financial measures into concrete actions, Annex IVof this report provides an example of how these measures are implemented in Austria.
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PROMOTION OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT OPERATIONS AND LOGISTICS —

NOTES

1.

EC Directive 2001/16EC and ECMT Resolution CEMT/CM (2002)2/FINAL on railways.

2.

Document CEMT/CM(2002)3/FINAL.

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CHAPTER 9. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AN INTERMODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Turkish transport, national and international, is presently dominated by the road system. At thenational level, there are numerous small firms, whereas at the international level, major consortia seem tohave a prominent role. Moreover, there seem to be few freight forwarders in Turkey who do not own atleast one means of transport.
Turkey should seriously consider building an intermodal transport system that takes into accountthese factors and that will serve three main areas: domestic traffic, transit and the promotion of foreign
trade flows. Road transport alone is not a long- term viable option.
The trade and transport promotion policy should include a highly positive attitude towards transit
traffic: Transit traffic helps form friendly links with neighbouring countries through interdependence.
Transit trade could be further used as an instrument for additional economic income and growth, labour
growth and welfare. Some of the wealthiest regions of the world started their economic careers as a focal
point for trade flows.
Turkey is ideally located to become an international hub for transport between Europe–Asia (East–
West), and NIS countries-Middle East (North-South). This location should be used to attract traffic andtrade coming from distant countries as well. To play this role as an intersection and hub between EW/NS
routes in an efficient manner, the entire basis for logistic centres should be developed simultaneously.
9.1.

Development of an Intermodal and Logistics Master Plan

Turkey should prepare and adopt a national intermodal and logistics master plan in order to provide
government authorities, the industry, private and public sectors as well as national and international
finance institutions, with a realistic and concrete policy; a regulatory framework for the development ofintermodal transport and logistics should be prepared and adopted as well.
This National Intermodal and Logistics Master Plan (NILMP) for Turkey could make an important
contribution to an efficient and sustainable transport system and should allow Turkey to become thelogistical hub of three continents within the next decade.
The national master plan should be complemented subsequently by regional master plans which
address the specific transport and logistics problems of Turkey’s main industrial areas, in particular theMarmara Sea region and the urban conglomeration in İstanbul.
The preparation of the master plan should be undertaken in a transparent, open and participatory
process, to ensure that the objectives and actions of the plan are shared by all concerned governmental
and industry actors. The implementation of the plan within the agreed upon timeframe, should beconsidered a joint undertaking by the government, industry and concerned civil society groups.
The master plan could contain an analysis of the current transport and logistic situation in Turkey,
focusing on efficient intermodal and sustainable transport developments. It could take account ofinternational and global trends and future transport and trade scenarios. It could also contain
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requirements that a modern transport system would need, taking into account economic, social andecological requirements. The plan could then identify concrete action items that would need to beaddressed by government and industry, in order to bring transport and logistics developments in line withthese requirements. Of particular concern are the location of important intermodal logistics centres andport areas, and their linkages with important national and international transport corridors.
At the national level, the preparation of such a master plan could be coordinated by a newly createdDepartment of Intermodal Transport and Logistics.
Work on such master plans or similar mechanisms addressing intermodal transport and logistics are
currently under way in several European countries and in the European Commission. Turkey may wish toparticipate in an international consulting mechanism among interested governments in the region, inorder to exchange experiences and best practices in the preparation of such plans.
While the content of such a master plan depends on the specific objectives, scope and stakeholders
involved, the following basic elements could be included:a)Objectives to be achieved on some principal issues such as increased efficiency, modal shift,
reduction of road congestion, etc.

b)

Requirements for efficient intermodal transport services to allow Turkey to become a logisticalhub for Euro-Asian transport.

c)

Identification of the intermodal transport network for rail and short-sea shipping in Turkey.

d)Regulatory support measures for intermodal transport such as exemptions from restrictions andtraffic bans, liberalization of initial and terminal haulage, height weight limits on roads for
initial and terminal haulage, etc.1.

e)Financial support measures for intermodal transport such as assistance in the procurement ofintermodal loading units, new and efficient intermodal transhipment and IT technologies,
feasibility studies and capacity building, assistance in the construction of terminals, assistancein the initial operation costs of intermodal transport services, etc.

f)Monitoring procedures, statistics and benchmarks to measure performance and responsibilities2.

g)

Institutional aspects of the system including the actors involved, transparent, participatory, upto-date working mechanisms, time-frames, etc.

9.1.1.

The Network

As indicated above, the Intermodal and Logistics Master Plan should first lay out the intermodal
network. Because intermodal transport is based on the concept of grouping goods in one loading unit
which then uses several successive modes of transport, traffic volumes are generally concentrated on a
few routes for long hauls. Therefore, based on their feasibility, the master plan must make a distinction
between the corridors to be served by intermodal transport, and others which will only be served by roadtransport.

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Developing Intermodal Transport in the Netherlands
Between 1985 and 1990, the Ministry of Transport of Netherlands received urgent signals from thetransport industry that the flow of containers through the Rotterdam port was growing rapidly. During
the same period the association, "Netherlands, a Distribution Country”, was established. Companies fromall transport and logistic sectors established this association, together with various NGO’s andgovernmental institutions. The goal of the association is to promote the Netherlands as the gateway toEurope, with a further role in the logistical and distribution sectors. In 1989/1990, the Ministry ofTransport was ordered to develop a new policy to promote intermodal and combined transport. On theinstitutional level a project team was established with a small dedicated staff and participating,responsible departments: road transport, rail transport, inland waterways and short-sea shipping. At thetime, it was clear that the government should implement accompanying measures to promote the use ofintermodal and combined transport, where necessary and possible. The team was assigned to develop thispolicy in two years, based on the master plan elaborated by "Netherlands Distribution Country" and its
consultant. Several measures were adopted. The master plan became legally binding; a subsidy scheme
was applied to meet the criteria of this plan.
More detailed information on the development of intermodal in the Netherlands is given in Annex II of
the report.

Transport policy makers should be prepared for difficult public discussions. Phrases such as “equal
treatment of all regions”, “development of neglected areas”, “balanced and fair distribution of
infrastructure investments” normally dominate the political debate. Intermodal transport is a concept
contrary to such principles: Intermodal transport cannot treat all regions on an equal basis. It is a concept
designed for trade and transport of high volumes and value, usually located in industrial regions.
Intermodal transport therefore cannot contribute to the development of remote areas. An area with only
agricultural activity and a decreasing population cannot be commercially connected to an economically
viable intermodal transport system, because such a system depends on high volume traffic flows thatcannot be generated in remote areas. Intermodal transport and its related infrastructure investments
cannot be organised by “balance and justice”; they must be organised around a clear center of gravity inhighly developed and densely populated areas.
A Turkish intermodal transport network plan should be based on efficient rail and coastal shipping
networks. These networks must consist of national hubs (gateways) and regional terminals. The national
gateways are best located in major foreign trade sites. The re-distribution of container flows and theorganisation of import and export using semi-trailers or containers, thus can be managed hand-in-handwith global container flows. Finally, such places will be the starting point for transit cargo moving intoneighbouring countries. As the report shows, Turkey has at least three sites that seem suitable to becomesuch gateways; namely İstanbul, İzmir/Çeşme and Mersin areas.
Currently, these three sites provides gateways to national imports and exports, as well as transit
trade flows. The master plan must identify corridors where more efficient and more environmentallyfriendly alternative solutions are available, and begin a process to realise these solutions.

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9.1.2.

Legal environment

It was emphasized that multi and intermodal transport operations have encountered many problems
in practice; one of these concerns the determination of the law to be applied to a specific transport
operation, when several transport modes with different civil liability regimes are used. Even transport
operators are not always aware of which liability regimes apply to their operations.
As intermodal transport increasingly takes place in containers, it becomes extremely difficult todetermine the leg in which damages have occurred. The question of liability for non-localized loss has
not been solved at the international or national level.
It would yet seem appropriate for Turkish authorities to consider the problems in advance which
occur in two specific cases.
9.1.2.1. Liability for delay
Traditionally, a carrier (i. e. a commercial actor who contracts for the carriage of goods and theirdelivery in good condition to the contracted consignee) is liable for the delivery of the consignment, but
not necessarily for its timely delivery. Specifically, railways have never accepted responsibility for thedelivery of goods at a given date and hour. Transport was performed “as much as circumstances allow”
and delivery of the consignment in good condition, at any date and time, was perceived as fulfilment of
the transport contract. Even today, the new International Rail Transport Convention (COTIF) does notforesee a liability for late delivery to the consignee. Road transport on the other hand, developed anotherapproach. Because they have always operated in a competitive environment, road transport operators
accepted the obligation to deliver consignments on time and agree to penalty payments for goods notdelivered on time.
Even if delivery time is not included in the conditions of a transport contract, the road transport
operator knows very well that frequent delays in delivery will lead to a situation in which the client willswitch over to a more reliable transport operator. On the other hand, railways often display the traditionalcommercial attitude of monopoly service providers. Since the client cannot switch to another railway, if
the country has no alternative to the national railway operator, the railway operators are not motivated tomake quality a specific priority.
In short, these divergent attitudes toward reliability have not changed in decades and thus havecreated a severe legal problem for intermodal transport. A typical scenario works like this: a freight
forwarder takes over a consignment for carriage by road, and decides to use intermodal transport services
for a part of the total carriage. The client receives the usual road transport contract. The forwarder
expects that the intermodal transport operator will assume the same responsibility/liability for timely
delivery to the client, as the forwarder has taken on himself. But the reliability of the intermodal transport
operator is mainly dependent on the railway enterprise that performs the transport between the terminalof origin and the terminal of destination. If the railway company suffers a delay, they will usually refuse
any liability, because railways traditionally do not guarantee timely delivery. Thus the intermodaltransport operator may have to pay a penalty for a quality problem for which he is not responsible;
furthermore, he will not be compensated for such a penalty payment by his main sub-contractor, therailway.
This legal gap of responsibility-coverage has been discussed for years among the intermodaltransport operators. Some solutions have begun to appear: Kombiverkehr has contracted with Deutsche
Bahn for a network of daily block trains that Kombiverkehr has to pay, for irrespective of theircommercial usage, i. e. even if they operate half empty. But Kombiverkehr has the right to cancel a train
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connection on short notice if clients have preferred to return to road transport because of frequent, severe
delays during rail transport. Furthermore, such “quality agreements” between other intermodal transport
operators and railways are under way, and they all try to enforce quality standards, i. e. reliability andtimeliness of rail operations even by juridical sanctions.
But even if railway operators understand and appreciate the difference between an intermodal block
train, with its high need for reliability, and a traditional iron ore train, the problem of reliability
resurfaces immediately when international transport is involved, i. e. if several railway companies haveto interconnect and share responsibility for reliable transport. Every interface from rail to rail incurs arisk for a failure; and the greater the number of railways involved, the worse the quality of rail transportgets. The intermodal transport operator is often helpless in such a situation because it is not clear who is
responsible for the delay.
In sum, the issue of quality in intermodal transport poses a severe obstacle in this market. A legal
solution for liability has not been found, and the fact that many international operations occur in a patternof distributed reliability means that it is almost impossible to identify the agent to blame when poor
performance occurs. In such cases, not even an improvement of the legal situation would help. The only
solution seems to require that one railway operator accept liability for the entire distance (including the
movement on neighbouring networks), enforcing sub-contractors to fulfil their quality obligations. This
would mean that quality problems become organisational and commercial issues rather than legal.
Therefore, if intermodality is to be accepted as a long-term transport strategy for Turkey, such asystem should involve a holistic quality management framework which would replace the complex legal
arrangements that are difficult to adapt for transport operators.
9.1.2.2. The damage problem
Another major problem of intermodal transport is the continuous change of responsible actors: forexample, a road operator will perform the drayage from the ramp of the shipper to the intermodal
terminal, a terminal company will organise the transfer by crane, a rail company will organise movement
over the rail network, the terminal operator at the destination will organise another crane transfer, andanother road transport company will perform the drayage to the final destination. Further actors such as
customs brokers, shipping lines, warehouse companies etc. might be involved as well.
Experience reveals that actors do not usually treat the equipment of third parties as carefully as theywould treat their own equipment. Therefore, damage to transport equipment, mainly the loading units,
and even to the cargo does occur. Given the number of actors involved in an operation, and the numberof places where damage can occur, (in a terminal, during rail transport, during drayage, etc.) the question
arises: when damage occurs, how to attribute responsibility and determine who must pay for the repair orfor compensation of loss. One way to organise liability in such a complicated situation is to control theloading of units at each interface: the intermodal transport operator would place an agent at eachinterface to look after each loading unit as it arrives, and then write a protocol on eventual failures anddamages. This idea might prove rather costly. It is also possible that the actors in the intermodal transport
chain would claim that it is too difficult to find proof to support damage claims against a particular party
and then to receive compensation.
There are some technical procedures that should be considered to help solve the problem ofidentification of the party responsible for damage. Some operators produce a video scan of the loading
unit when it enters their area of responsibility (e.g. at the gate-in procedure of the departure terminal) andwhen it leaves (e.g. at the gate-out procedure in the arrival terminal). If a client requests compensation

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for eventual damage, the operator can compare the two pictures and determine if the damage has
occurred within his area of responsibility.
The overall solution to this problem will require a carefully balanced legal environment thatconsiders the interests of all parties, including owners of the loading units, carriers and terminals, andinsurance companies.
9.1.2.3. The consignment note
While most international railway transport in and with Turkey is based on the International
Convention Concerning International Carriage by Rail (COTIF), railway transport to and from thecountries of Central Asia is governed by the so-called SMGS regime. In order to improve transparency
and efficiency in international container rail transport operations to and from these countries, it isrecommended that TCDD as well as concerned railway companies en route allow the use of the newcommon CIM/SMGS consignment note, applicable under both railway law systems. This single transport
document, developed by CIT and OSJD, could also be accepted as a Custom declaration and a bankdocument, as is already the case in the European Union and some Eastern European countries.
9.2.

Creation of a Department of Intermodal Transport and Logistics

Turkey should consider creating a department on intermodal transport and logistics under its
Ministry of Transport. This department should have a coordinating function for the promotion ofintermodal transport in Turkey, including infrastructure development and transport operations.
The Department of Intermodal Transport and Logistics should have close links with and focal points
in all involved Ministries and Departments concerned, including the (1) General Directorate of Highways(responsible for the planning, design, construction, maintenance and operation of motorways and stateand provincial roads); (2) TCDD (railways and port construction and operations); (3) Undersecretariat
for Maritime Affairs (UMA); DHMİ; (3) Undersecretariat of Foreign Trade; (4) Undersecretariat ofCustoms (responsible also for the operation of ports); and (5) SPO.
In addition, the department should have close, possibly institutionalized, links with and focal points
in private sector organizations representing all major transport operators, freight forwarders, shippers andlogistic providers as well as competent universities and transport research institutions in Turkey. The
Department should also have close links with and focal points in national and international projects thatare related to or are dealing directly with intermodal and logistics operations, such as the Marmaray
Project, the TINA Project or TRACECA.
Lastly, the Department should be responsible for the international (bilateral and multilateral)
dimension of intermodal transport and logistics operations and, if not directly mandated, should have anobserver or consultative status in the respective Turkish delegations undertaking international
consultations or negotiations.
The Department of Intermodal Transport and Logistics should have adequate staffing, should reportto a high-level general transport policy office, and should be independent from specific modal interests.
In parallel, the above authorities and projects should create, as appropriate, intermodal transport andlogistics units, or designate specialists in the field that will also liaise as focal points, with the above
Department of Intermodal Transport and Logistics in the Ministry of Transport. This holds particularly
true for TCDD which should consider creating a business unit for intermodal transport. Also, possibly at
a later stage, the Turkish road haulers may wish to consider setting up an intermodal business unit or
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company, similar to what has already been done in many Western European countries who have become
members of the International Combined Road-Rail Transport Companies (UIRR).
Since co-ordination and harmonized flow of operations between different modes are crucial for an
efficient intermodal system, creation of such a department could fill the gap to oversee and co-ordinate
the activities of all stakeholders including both public organizations and private companies in an
equitable manner.
It should not be forgotten that in Turkey’s liberal transport market, the establishment of thenecessary intermodal framework should prepare a favourable environment in which the transport actors
would perform its activities in a reliable and effective manner. Thus the department should mainly serveas an impartial co-ordinator among all national and international stakeholders.

NOTES
1. Consolidated Resolution No 2002/2 on combined transport, ECMT.
2. “Model” Action Plans and Partnership Agreements for the Development of Intermodal Transport at the PanEuropean Level, Joint ECMT/UNECE Working Party/Group on Intermodal Transport and Logistics.

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CONCLUSIONSTurkey plays a central role in providing opportunities to Europe for access to the Middle East, Asianand Caucasian markets. It has the potential to be the centre of a multi-dimensional economic network in
the 21st century and can build upon its historic role as a bridge between the East and the West.
Turkey enjoys a strategic location with the potential to play a pivotal role in regional and global
integration. The important energy, trade and transport networks which connect west to east and north tosouth are keys to unleashing this potential.
Echoing a worldwide trend towards liberalization and free movements of goods, economic
liberalization has been a focus of successive Turkish governments since the early 1980s. Consequently,
the privatization of state assets – such as Turkey’s seaports – has become an essential element of thecountry’s economic and social reform process.
Turkey has made significant progress to integrate the global economy, and has particularly
strengthen links with western European countries. Over the past two decades, Turkey has undergone a
profound economic transformation. Combined with an outward oriented trade policy, the Turkish
economy has recorded substantial growth and the transport sector has grown significantly.
A dynamic logistics industry combined with a large international road vehicle fleet underline
Turkey's potential to become one of the most significant logistics hubs and transit countries in the region.
Moreover, the developments in the Balkans, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Basins, the Caucasus,
Central Asia and the Middle East, have brought new dimensions and dynamism to Turkey’s role in theregion.
To achieve enhanced integration in the global economy, Turkey must cope with rising competition
from low-cost countries, rapidly changing international trends and increasing global standards for trade.
In this regard, Turkey will need to rapidly respond to global changes. With this in mind, a multimodal,internationally viable and competitive transport system should be accepted as an essential component ofTurkey’s trade objectives.
Turkey has significant potential and several projects for the development of intermodal transport.
Among these are the: Kars-Tbilisi project, Marmaray Project, Mersin Container port project, andÇandarlı and Filyos port projects.
The Kars-Tbilisi project, the Turkish-Georgian railway connection, will enable the integration of
Turkish transport infrastructure with TRACECA routes. The landlocked NIS countries will then haveeasier access to Europe via Turkey.
The Mersin Container port (hub) on the Mediterranean Sea, the North Aegean Port Çandarlı (hub)on the Aegean Sea, and the Zonguldak Filyos Port on the Black Sea, are new port facilities planned as
gateways for traffic flow axes, which will also provide direct access for Caucasian and Asian markets.

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164 — CONCLUSIONSFilyos Port will create the opportunity for a dynamic trade activity among the Black Sea countries.
Cargo traffic will follow the shortest route from Filyos Port via existing railways, highways andmotorways to: the Mersin Container Port to reach the Mediterranean boundary; the North Aegean orİzmir Ports to reach the Aegean boundary; or towards connections to the Middle East markets.
In addition, the Marmaray Rail Tube Tunnel Project, which will establish the direct connection ofrailway systems between Asia and Europe in the Marmara Sea, will provide for uninterrupted passenger
and freight transportation across the İstanbul Strait.
The following intermodal links will be introduced as candidate arteries, via Turkey, to create
accessibility between the Trans European Network and related markets:
1.

Mediterranean Shipping lines – Mersin Container Port - railway connection - Filyos Port (orSamsun Port as declared by the HLG Wider Europe Study) - Black Sea.

2.

Mediterranean – Mersin container Port - Railway - Caucasian markets.

3.

Mediterranean – Mersin Container Port, Mersin Port, İskenderun Port - Railway – the Middle
East Countries.

4.

Aegean Sea - İzmir Port or North Aegean Candarlı Port - Railway - Caucasian, Central Asianmarkets.

5.

Corridor IV - Marmaray İstanbul Strait Tube Tunnel Project - Railway – Kars Tbilisi project Caucasian Asian markets.

These links will also provide alternative routes for the congested Strait passages which currently
experience environmental threat and delay.
For Turkey to become an international intermodal and logistics hub, it is crucial to promote theintermodal system with necessary infrastructural investments. Successful investment in the transport
sector could thrust Turkey into a significant role in the region. Turkey could maximise this role bydirecting its investments more towards intermodal transport, and by acknowledging its beneficial effects
upon trade with neighbouring countries.
Turkey’s location requires intermodal transport solutions; the effective combination of road,maritime and air transport solutions are needed in order to provide seamless and more efficient transport
chains.
Intermodal transport offers various alternative techniques. Before choosing, techniques should beconsidered very carefully, taking into account international trends, national conditions, operational costs
and – most importantly - economies of scale.
Turkey should seriously consider building up an intermodal transport system that takes into accountthese factors and that will serve three main areas: domestic traffic, transit and the promotion of foreign
trade flows. Turkey could then also play a central role in providing opportunities to Europe for access to
the Middle East, Asia and Caucasus and vice-versa.
It is therefore recommended that:

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CONCLUSIONS —

1.

165

As a first step, an “Intermodal and Logistics Master Plan” which lays out the intermodal
network should be drawn up. Definition of a network of intermodal corridors, nodes andgateways for inland transport and for transit through Turkey, both for the import and export ofmaritime containers and for European loading units is essential.
The master plan should make a distinction between corridors to be served by intermodaltransport, and others which will only be served by road transport. Of particular concern are thelocation of important intermodal logistics centers and port areas, and their linkages with
important national and international transport corridors.
The preparation of the master plan should be undertaken in a transparent, open andparticipatory process, to ensure that the objectives and actions of the plan are shared by allconcerned governmental and industry actors. The implementation of the plan within the agreed
timeframe should be considered a joint undertaking by the government, industry and concerned
civil society groups. Isolated decision-making leads to inconsistency and overlapping policies.
Intermodality should instead be part of a progressive and global transport policy.
The master plan needs to take into account the containerization of the intermodal markets
simultaneously with European containers and swap bodies for trade flows in domestic trade as
well as for international trade operations. The master plan must therefore take this into account.
The master plan should involve a holistic quality management framework which would
provide the essential compatibility and coordination between each transport mode in anintermodal operation.

2.

The establishment of a clear policy and legal framework would ensure a level playing field
for the private sector. Financial and regulatory measures and incentives to promote this system
can be very effective.
The framework should also address and provide effective solutions to operational andreliability problems. This way, the system could reduce transport actors’ economic andoperational damage and losses greatly. In setting up these measures, learning from the bestpractices in European and OECD countries will also be helpful.

3.

Turkey should consider creating a department of intermodal transport and logistics under
its Ministry of Transport. This department should have a coordinating function for thepromotion of intermodal transport in Turkey, including infrastructure development andtransport operations.
Since co-ordination and harmonized flow of operations between different modes are crucial for
an efficient intermodal system, creation of such a department could fill the gap to oversee andco-ordinate the activities of all stakeholders including both public organizations and privatecompanies in an equitable manner.

4.

To develop a competitive, sustainable and viable intermodal transport system for Turkey;
public authorities and intermodal transport operators must work together. The development ofintermodal transport would be ill-served by a process of isolated decision-making; it should
instead, be part of a progressive and global transport policy.
It is therefore necessary to involve all the public and private stakeholders in the promotion andfacilitation of a sustainable intermodal system for Turkey. At the intergovernmental level, the

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166 — CONCLUSIONS
infrastructure and service standards provided in the AGTC Agreement, form a good basis forcooperation and can ensure effective operation, if implemented.
5.

In order to attract private capital for the development of intermodal transport services, both
regulatory and financial measures can be implemented by the Turkish government.
In the field of regulatory measures, instruments such as granting of exceptions fromrestrictions and traffic bans (spatial and time-related); liberalization of initial and terminal hauls
by road if intermodal transport services are utilized; and support efforts to reduce, standardize
and simplify documents required for intermodal transport can all be considered.
In the field of financial measures, the following instruments can be used: providing support
for measures designed to improve the efficiency and quality of intermodal transport services;
granting exemption from taxes, tolls and fees relating to the used of road infrastructure byvehicles engaged in intermodal transport.

6.

To be commercially viable, intermodal transport requires long distances and high cargo volume
corridors. Such corridors should be identified by a market analysis. A market research project,organized and financed by the government, could provide the results to all potential investors
and actors.

7.

The rapid increase in container traffic, which could grow significantly in the next 15 years,
cannot be met by the current public ports alone, thus the infrastructural capacities of these
ports need to be increased to respond to future demand.

8.

Ro-La services are not recommended as a policy priority for Turkey due to the uncertainty ofcommercial viability and the fact that these services create costly operational problems for rail
operations. At present and in the near future, there seem to be no markets for which suchservices could be operated at competitive quality and costs.

9.

The Turkish RO-RO system and its connection to Southern Europe are highly successful.
Turkish Transport Authorities should encourage its extension. This extension should beparticularly developed for domestic trade flows, to other areas of Mediterranean and Black Sea
trade, with gateway points in the main Turkish ports of İstanbul, İzmir/Ceşme and Mersin.

10. For purely domestic transport operations, a market does not seem to exist at the moment, forsuccessful rail operations with swap-bodies or similar loading units offering loading capacities,
comparable to road transport. The present volume, quality and flexibility of service as well as
prices offered by purely national road transport, cannot be met by such domestic rail transport
operations, which would require two trans-shipment operations as well as initial and terminal
road haulage.
In contrast to national intermodal transport operations by rail, domestic RO-RO coastal
shipping could make a difference; it should be able to make an inroad into the domestic roadtransport markets in Turkey for longer distance operations and for destinations along theTurkish coasts. Such a concept would be in line with the “Motorways of the Sea” initiatives
pursued and supported in the framework of the European Union.
11. In creating an extensive and competitive intermodal transport system for Turkey, the essential
connections from and to the maritime and air freight logistics centers and their integration tourban distributions should also be taken into account.
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CONCLUSIONS —167

12. Maintaining and improving links between ports with the other modes of transport,
particularly railways, as well as enhancing their hinterland connections should be prioritizedin order to provide advantages for logistics markets.
13. As far as rail transport is concerned, among the various means identified for the initial
promotion of intermodal transport, financial support for rolling stock and terminals should beprioritized.
Having an old railway infrastructure is a barrier to fully integrate railways to intermodal
activities. In order to improve railways’ share in intermodality, the railway network should be
upgraded, not only for high-speed passenger transport, but also to allow for competitive andreliable goods transport services. The AGTC infrastructure and train performance standards
provide the international reference for efficient and competitive intermodal rail/road transport
operations.
14. Another barrier is the lack of rail freight logistic centers. Locations which will be directly
connected to the rail network are now being studied. It is recommended that Turkish authorities
continue to keep their focus on this highly important topic in order to achieve the smoothfunctioning of its intermodal and logistics services.
Turkey´s geographic location could be used to foster trade from distant countries as wellthrough logistic centers. Turkey has set a goal to develop logistic services and to implement rail
freight logistic centers in six locations. However, prospects for future development are not yetvery clear and the uncertainties which affect the perspective of development of intermodal
services need to be solved.
15. The trade and transport promotion policy could include a supportive attitude towards transit
traffic. Transit traffic helps form friendly links with neighboring countries throughinterdependence. Transit trade could be further used as an instrument for additional economic
growth.
16. The active participation of Turkey in international organizations has resulted in a series ofagreements that identify transport corridors. Because of Turkey’s size and population which are
greater than the new EU member countries, more national links have to be included, in
addition to the international corridors.
In such a scenario, the role of the Turkish corridors in international transit will also be very
dependent upon hypothesis of development of Turkish neighboring countries, such as Iraq,
Iran, Syria and countries of central Asia.
Hence, with respect to east-west relations beyond central Asia, it is valuable to investigate theconditions under which Turkey could be a transit country towards China along the Silk
Road or towards India across Iran.
17. Monitoring achievements and progress at regular intervals will ensure changes where
necessary and will highlight areas where special efforts must be made. A time schedule should
be set up and a monitoring process set out to ensure concrete objectives are met.

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Cover_f.fm Page 1 Wednesday, April 7, 2004 11:00 AM

ANNEX I. AGTC AGREEMENT —ANNEX I. AGTC AGREEMENTThe European Agreement on Important International Combined Transport Lines and Related
Installations (AGTC) has been negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE)1. Turkey has ratified the Agreement on 4 September 1996
joining 30 other European countries that have agreed to make intermodal transport in Europe
more efficient and attractive to customers. The AGTC Agreement provides a legal framework
for the promotion of intermodal transport at the pan-European level providing also links to the
Asian rail network. It promotes the use of block trains in international services and improves
coordination and cooperation in planning and setting of priorities for the development of acoherent international intermodal transport system. The AGTC Agreement also stipulates
technical and operational parameters and targets.
The following Turkish railway lines are part of the AGTC network:
C-E 70(Svilengrad-) Kapıkule-İstanbul-Haydarpaşa-Ankara-Boğazköprü-Kalin-MalatyaKapıköy [-Razi (Iran)]
Nusaybin [-Kamishli (Syrian Arab Republic)]

C-E 74Bandırma
Izmir-Manisa

C-E 97

Samsun-Kalin- Boğazköprü-Ulukışla -Yenice- Adana –ToprakkaleMersin
Fevzipaşa -Islahiye-Hudut [-Meydan Ekbez (Syrian Arab Republic)]İskenderun

C-E 692Çetinkaya-Erzurum-Kars- Doğu Kapı (-Akuryan)(-Akhalkalaki)
Pehlivanköy-Uzunköprü (-Pythion)

C 70/2-Balıkesir-Kütahya-Alayunt- AfyonEskişehir- Konya-Ulukışla
Uşak-Manisa

The following intermodal terminals are, at present, part of the AGTC network:
Bandırma

Derince İskenderun İstanbul İzmir

Mersin Samsun

The following ferry link is, at present, part of the AGTC network:
Mersin – Venezia (Turkey-Italy)__________________
1. Austria; Belarus; Belgium; Bulgaria; Croatia; Czech Republic; Denmark; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece;
Hungary; Italy; Latvia; Luxembourg; Kazakhstan; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Republicof Moldova; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine.

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170 — ANNEX I. AGTC AGREEMENT

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ANNEX II. “MODEL” ACTION PLAN AND PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENTFOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT
AT THE PAN-EUROPEAN LEVEL[CEMT/CM(2005)10]

The Council of Ministers of the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT);
Having regard to the European Agreement on Important International Combined Transport Lines
and Related Installations (AGTC Agreement) of 19911;
Having regard to the Consolidated Resolution No. 2002/2 on Combined Transport adopted by theCouncil of Ministers of the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT), meeting in
Bucharest on 29 and 30 May 2002;
Emphasizing that intermodal and combined transport must play a significant role as an alternative topure road haulage in future transport systems in order to meet the environmental, safety, security andeconomic requirements of sustainable transport systems;
Wishing to contribute to the development of intermodal transport at the pan-European level,
Convinced that effective inter-governmental and private sector cooperation is one of the key factors
for the development of competitive intermodal transport services;
Noting with satisfaction the programmatic and institutional cooperative arrangements that have been
made between ECMT and UNECE in the field of intermodal transport and logistics that are fully in linewith the Declaration on the Future Direction of ECMT adopted during the Brussels session of theCouncil of Ministers in 2003 and the exchange of letters between ECMT and UNECE on this subject andhad led, in 2004, to the establishment of the Joint ECMT/UNECE Working Group on Intermodal
Transport and Logistics;
Recalling that the terms “multimodal”, “intermodal” and “combined” transport have been defined in
the framework of a Terminology on Combined Transport agreed upon in 2001 by the ECMT, UNECE
and the European Commission2;
Recommends that all ECMT and UNECE member Governments make more use of Action Plans andpublic/private partnerships agreements;
Recommends in particular that they make use of the “Model” Action Plan, set forth in the annex tothis recommendation:“The Action Plan provides an agreed basis for Governments to cooperate with each other on abilateral or multilateral basis with a view to improving the competitiveness of international
intermodal transport services on specific intermodal transport lines.

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The purpose of such Action Plan is to set a political signal of Governmental commitment andsupport for the development of intermodal transport and to provide a framework for the conclusionof Partnership Agreements among the various public and private parties involved to collaborate
towards efficient and competitive intermodal transport services along specific intermodal transportlines. The specific form, the detailed provisions and the Authorities involved in the preparation andconclusion of such Action Plans are to be decided by the parties involved.”
Recommends further that intermodal transport operators and concerned Governmental Authorities
make use of the “Model” Partnership Agreement set forth in the annex to this recommendation:“Within the general framework of the Action Plans to be agreed upon by Governments, thePartnership Agreement should provide an agreed basis for intermodal transport operators, railway
undertakings, freight forwarders, rail infrastructure managers, terminal operators, border crossing
Authorities and other parties involved in intermodal transport to engage in cooperative arrangementswith a view to improving the competitiveness of international intermodal transport services on
specific intermodal transport lines.
The purpose of such Partnership Agreement is to define clearly the responsibilities and performancestandards expected from the various parties involved in intermodal transport. It should also enhancetransparency about the indispensable roles played by each of the parties involved. The specific form,
the detailed provisions and the Authorities involved in the preparation and conclusion of such a
Partnership Agreement are to be decided by the parties involved.”
Invites all competent inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations, in particular thosecooperating already closely with the Joint ECMT/UNECE Working Group on Intermodal Transport andLogistics, such as the European Commission (EC), Committee of the Organization for Cooperation ofRailways (OSJD), Intergovernmental Organization for International Carriage by Rail (OTIF);
International Union of Railways (UIC); International Union of Combined Road/Rail TransportCompanies (UIRR); European Intermodal Association (EIA); “Groupement Européenne du Transport
Combiné” (GETC); European Association for Forwarding, Transport, Logistics and Customs Services(CLECAT) and the International Road Transport Union (IRU) to assist ECMT and UNECE member
Governments and the private sector involved in intermodal transport to implement this recommendation;
Recommends also that all ECMT and UNECE member Governments and in particular theContracting Parties to the AGTC Agreement assess at regular intervals the implementation of thisrecommendation on the railway network on their territory;
Requests, as far as this recommendation is concerned, that the Joint ECMT/UNECE Working Groupon Intermodal Transport and Logistics continues to monitor the development of this transport sector andreports, at regular intervals, on the implementation of this recommendation.

NOTES
1.

Contracting Parties to the AGTC (as of 1 January 2005): Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic,
Denmark, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, Kazakhstan, Netherlands, Norway, Poland,
Portugal, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Turkey.

2.

www.unece.org/trans/wp24/wp24-terminology/24term.html
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APPENDIX“MODEL” ACTION PLAN AND “MODEL PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT AT
THE PAN-EUROPEAN LEVELOBJECTIVES AND IMPLEMENTATION PROCEDURES“Model” Action Plan
The “Model” of an inter-governmental Action Plan given below represents good practice endorsedby the member Governments of the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT) and theUnited Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). This “Model” provides an agreed basis tocooperate with each other on a bilateral or multilateral basis along specific intermodal transport lines
with a view to improving the competitiveness of international intermodal transport services along theselines.
The purpose of such an Action Plan is to set a political signal of governmental commitment andsupport for the development of intermodal transport and to provide a framework for the conclusion ofPartnership Agreements among the various public and private parties involved to collaborate towards
efficient and competitive intermodal transport services on specific intermodal transport lines.
The specific form, the detailed provisions and the Authorities involved in the preparation andconclusion of such Action Plans are to be decided by the parties involved.
“Model” Partnership Agreement
The “Model” of a Partnership Agreement given below represents good practice endorsed by themember Governments of ECMT and UNECE. Within the general framework of the above Action Plan tobe agreed upon by Governments, this “Model” provides an agreed basis for intermodal transport
operators, railway undertakings, freight forwarders, rail infrastructure managers, terminal operators,
border crossing authorities and other parties involved in intermodal transport to engage in cooperative
arrangements with a view to improving the competitiveness of international intermodal transport services
on specific intermodal transport lines.
The purpose of such a Partnership Agreement is to define clearly the responsibilities andperformance standards expected from the various parties involved in intermodal transport. It should alsoenhance transparency about the indispensable roles played by each of the parties involved.

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The “Model” of a Partnership Agreement does not address issues of a strictly commercial nature forreasons of confidentiality, variety of circumstances, and the type and number of parties involved.
The specific form, the detailed provisions and the Authorities involved in the preparation andconclusion of such a Partnership Agreement are to be decided by the parties involved.
Legal Form
The member Governments of the ECMT and UNECE are convinced that the “Models” given in thisAnnex could also provide important elements to facilitate the coherent implementation of the technicalcharacteristics of the network of important international intermodal transport lines as referred to in
Annex III to the AGTC Agreement1 and of the performance parameters of trains and minimum
infrastructure standards as referred to in Annex IV to the AGTC Agreement.
While the “Models” contain a number of specific provisions and measures, such as key performanceindicators, some of these provisions may not always be required, appropriate and acceptable. For thesereasons the “Models” do not put forward literally binding provisions to Governments and concerned
industry groups. The objective of these “Models” is rather to describe elements and tools that could be
used within a common Pan-European framework as a basis for negotiations among interested countries
and parties involved in intermodal transport.
These elements and tools should facilitate an agreement on required actions and mechanisms
targeted to specific intermodal transport lines, at agreed times and in line with the specific needs of theGovernments and business interests involved. Thus, no strict obligation to engage into negotiations, on
the basis of these “Models”, can be construed for the member Governments of ECMT and UNECE.
International Evaluation Procedures
In order to determine progress in the implementation of this recommendation and, with regard toContracting Parties to the AGTC Agreement, to verify the existing technical characteristics of the
network set out in Annex III to the AGTC Agreement as well as the performance parameters of trains
and minimum infrastructure standards referred to in Annex IV to the AGTC Agreement, ECMT and
UNECE member Governments are invited to undertake regular surveys on the railway networks andinstallations as referred to below.
These surveys should be carried out on the following basis.
The surveys should cover the railway lines and installations of importance for international
intermodal transport, particularly those contained in Annexes I and II to the AGTC Agreement (ifapplicable).
The surveys should be undertaken at regular, preferably five-year intervals.
To the extent possible, the surveys should be undertaken in parallel with similar surveys undertakenon the European Agreement on Main International Railway Lines (AGC), the European Agreement on
Main Inland Waterways of International Importance (AGN) and the Protocol on Combined Transport on
Inland Waterways to the AGTC Agreement 2.
The surveys should address the provisions and benchmarks contained in the “Model” Action Plans
and Partnership Agreements contained in this annex. They should also cover, particularly for Contracting
Parties to the AGTC Agreement, the infrastructure characteristics set out in Annex III to the AGTC
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Agreement as well as the performance parameters and minimum standards for intermodal transport trains
and related installations referred to in Annex IV to the AGTC Agreement.
With a view to ensuring comparability of survey results over time and, in particular, along importantinternational intermodal transport lines, the surveys should be prepared, evaluated and its results
disseminated under the auspices of the international organ referred to in paragraph 2 of articles 14, 15
and 16 of the AGTC Agreement; i.e. the Working Party on Combined Transport of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe.3

NOTES

1.

European Agreement on Important International Combined Transport Lines and Related Installations (AGTC) of
1 February 1991.

2.

Protocol on Combined Transport on Inland Waterways to the European Agreement on Important International Combined
Transport Lines and Related Installations (AGTC) of 17 January 1997 (not yet in force).

3.

The name of this Working Party has been modified in 2004 to read: Working Party on Intermodal Transport and Logistics.

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176 — ANNEX II. “MODEL” ACTION PLAN AND PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT“MODEL” ACTION PLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT
AT THE PAN-EUROPEAN LEVEL

An inter-governmental Action Plan for the development of intermodal transport should contain thefollowing elements:
A. GENERAL PROVISIONS
General and political background
Description of the political and economic motivations of Governments to coordinate transport
policies, to share technical know-how and to coordinate all relevant activities with a view to promotingintermodal transport in line with sustainable transport policies.
Definitions
The definitions used for technical terms should be in line with the definitions contained in the“Terminology on Combined Transport” prepared in 2001 by the United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe (UNECE), the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT) and the European
Commission (EC).
Scope of work
Description of the area of cooperation, for example, by identifying relevant intermodal transportlines, related installations (intermodal terminals, border crossing points, gauge interchange stations andferry links/ports), areas of activity (infrastructures, operations, regulations, etc.) and concerned parties
involved in intermodal transport.
B.

COMMON PROVISIONS

Actors involved
Identification of Governments and, where appropriate, regulatory Authorities responsible fornegotiating and approving the Action Plan at bilateral, trilateral or multilateral levels.
Objectives
Description of the expected results of the Action Plan addressing specific and general issues. A
recommendation to conclude a Partnership Agreement among concerned parties in intermodal transport
could be included.
Analysis of the situation
Identification of the problems and its causes on the basis of interviews, feasibility studies and/or
experiences made on specific intermodal transport lines. This could include an analysis of theconsistency of regulatory texts.
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Activities to be undertaken and results to be achieved
Detailed description of the specific tasks and outputs to meet the agreed objectives andidentification of criteria to measure impact. The infrastructure and services standards and parameters
stipulated in Annexes III and IV to the AGTC Agreement should be explicitly referred to as minimum
benchmarks.
Government commitment
Identification of all regulatory and other public measures that could facilitate the accomplishment of
the agreed activities.
Working mechanism(s)Description of how to undertake the agreed activities and to achieve the expected results (work plan
and working procedures).
Time schedule
Determination of the start and end of the agreed activities as well as of intermediate steps. A
continuing process without specific timeframes could be established, but individual projects and tasks
should be undertaken in accordance with specific deadlines.
Assessment and follow-up
Establishment of assessment and reporting systems to analyze unequivocally and efficiently theachieved results allowing, if necessary, for the introduction of corrective measures, if required, at highpolitical level.
Evaluation
Evaluation of the achieved results as compared to the agreed objectives. If necessary, this could leadto modification of the commitments made by the parties involved in order better achieve these objectives.
Other elements
Agreement, if appropriate, on actions to be taken in case of infringements by intermodal transport
operators in data protection measures, emergency arrangements, etc.
C. FINAL PROVISIONS
Entry into force/Denunciation/Termination/Duration
Provisions on the start of the Action Plan, possibilities for denunciation by the parties involved,
termination of the Action Plan and/or its duration and possible extension.
Safeguard clause
Provisions to avoid possible conflict between the Action Plan and other legal commitments madeand engaged in, such as those arising from membership in the European Union.

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TRANSPORT AT THE PAN-EUROPEAN LEVELA Partnership Agreement for the development of intermodal transport should contain the following
elements:
A. GENERAL PROVISIONS
Content•

An inter-governmental Action Plan has been concluded beforehand:

Description of the objectives of the Action Plan.
•

An Action Plan has not been concluded beforehand:

Description of the general objectives agreed upon by all parties interested in the resolution of theidentified intermodal transport problems (the conclusion of an Action Plan may be envisaged in casesome activities are difficult to implement).
In both cases, the type of partnership and the level of commitment should be determined. The
Agreement could take the form of a charter, letter of intent, contract, etc.
Definitions
The definitions used for technical terms should be in line with the definitions contained in the“Terminology on Combined Transport” prepared in 2001 by the United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe (UNECE), the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT) and the European
Commission (EC).
Scope of work
Description of the field of cooperation (type of business, cargo, traction, etc.) and its geographicalscope (transport lines, related installations, etc.).
B.

COMMON PROVISIONS

Actors involved
Identification of the active and/or passive, public and/or private parties and their involvement in theactivities to be established.
These parties may be intermodal transport operators, railway undertakings, freight forwarders, rail
infrastructure managers, terminal operators and border crossing Authorities, such as sanitary, veterinary,phyto-sanitary and other control organs at borders.
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Objectives
Description of the expected results of the Partnership Agreement and clear definition of the
responsibilities and performance expected from each of the parties involved in intermodal transport. At
the international level, this type of agreement would, in particular, enhance transparency about the roles
and responsibilities of the parties involved.
Analysis of the situation
Identification of the problems and its causes on the basis of interviews, feasibility studies and/or
experiences made on specific intermodal transport lines. This could include an analysis of theconsistency of regulatory texts.
Activities to be undertaken and results achieved
Detailed description of the specific tasks and outputs to meet the agreed objectives andidentification of criteria to measure impact. The infrastructure and services standards and parameters
stipulated in Annexes III and IV to the AGTC Agreement should be explicitly referred to as minimum
benchmarks. In order to measure impact and compliance with the commitments made, the key
performance parameters and responsibilities at national and international levels as listed below may beutilized.
Working mechanism(s)Description of how to undertake the agreed activities and achieve the expected results (work plan
and working procedures). Work could be entrusted to ad hoc task forces or standing working groups
depending on the objectives to be achieved. In addition to the parties directly concerned, otherrepresentatives or experts, including public Authorities, could be involved in this work, possibly as
observers.
Responsibilities
Description of each task and identification of the person or persons responsible for each of the tasks
to be carried out.
Financing
Identification of all parties required for the financing of the agreed activities. Determination of thelevel of participation of each of these parties and establishment of a financial plan.
Time schedule
Identification of a calendar for the implementation of the tasks, possibly including stages. Suchstages would make it possible to compare permanently progress made with the agreed objectives. Results
at the various stages should be transmitted to the signatories of the Action Plan, if available. A
continuing process without specific timeframes could be established, but individual projects and tasks
should be undertaken in accordance with specific deadlines.

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180 — ANNEX II. “MODEL” ACTION PLAN AND PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT
Assessment and follow-up
Establishment of a Steering Committee to ensure follow-up to the implementation of the activities
adopted, compliance with the financial plan (assessment of possible extra costs) and modification of the
programme of work, if necessary. The Steering Committee may solicit expert advise on specific issues.
The financial partners may have the right to supervise the correct use of the financial means provided.
Sanctions
Sanctions could be agreed upon in areas, such as:•••

Non-attainment of agreed services, performance standards and other specifications by any of theparties involved.
Non-compliance with agreed data protection measures.
Non-fulfillment of agreed emergency measures.

Arbitration
Provisions for referral to the political or institutional actors if consensus cannot be reached among
the parties, either in the preparation of the Partnership Agreement or in its application.
Evaluation
Evaluation of the achieved results as compared to the agreed objectives. If necessary, this could leadto modification of the commitments made by the parties involved in order to better achieve theobjectives.
C. FINAL PROVISIONS
Entry into force/Denunciation/Termination/Duration
Provisions on the start of the Partnership Agreement, on possibilities for denunciation by the parties
involved, termination of the Partnership Agreement and/or its duration and possible extension.
D. KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS AND RESPONSIBILITIESThe following key performance indicators at the national and international level should be regarded
as a basic set of benchmarks to evaluate the efficiency of intermodal transport services in general andcompliance with the performance parameters of trains and minimum infrastructure standards. These
indicators, the values attributed to them and the responsibilities for the underlying activities are based ongood practice. They constitute an important part of the Partnership Agreement as they would allow for
constant monitoring of compliance with the commitments made and for an evaluation of the performanceof intermodal transport services and the individual parties involved.
Depending on the specific situation (lines, regions, etc.) identification of other and/or additional
performance indicators may be appropriate.

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ANNEX II. “MODEL” ACTION PLAN AND PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT —181

Intermodal Transport Activity

Key Performance Indicator

1) Administrative and technicalcompliance of intermodaltransport units (ITUs)
2) Compliance with road handover deadlines− Number of ITUs and % of total number per train.
− Total per month per train.

3) Compliance with railway
hand-over deadlines− Delay in minutes compared to scheduled time and as %4) Administrative and technicalcompliance of railway
wagons and their loads− Number of compliant wagons and as % of total wagons

5) Compliance with departuretime of trains− Delay in minutes in relation to scheduled time by train

6) Compliance with arrival
times of trains− Delay in minutes in relation to scheduled time by train

7) Compliance with rail delivery− Delay in minutes in relation to scheduled time by train

3

maximum delay and % of total number of ITUs per
train.
3

3
3

delivered by trains.
− Accumulated total per month per train.

3

and as % of compliant trains per month.

− Number of ITUs delivered within 30 minutes following9) State of ITUs delivered toclients− Number of damaged ITUs and % of total number ofarrival of client and as % of total number per train;− Accumulated total per month and per train.
ITUs delivered by train.

3
3

and as % of compliant trains per month.

8) Compliance with roaddelivery

Terminal operators3

3

and as % of compliant trains per month.

10) Compliance with traffic
volumes provided for trains,by route

Intermodal
Transport
Operator
Railway
undertaking

Responsibility of the parties− Number of ITUs handed over with 15 minutesof trains per month.

Customs Authority

Freight forwarder

Key Performance Indicators and Responsibilities - NATIONAL Level1

3

3

3

3

3

− Total number per month and per train.
− Number of multimodal ITUs carried by train and byroute.

− Total number per month and per train compared to3

previous year.
11) Compliance with train
loading− Loading rates per train.
− Monthly averages per train in comparison withprevious year.
Max. 60 minutes.

12) Average time for train
formation [AGTC, Annex IV,
D a)]13) Average waiting time forMax. 20 minutes.
lorries [AGTC, Annex IV,
D b)]
Others

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3
3

182 — ANNEX II. “MODEL” ACTION PLAN AND PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORTIntermodal Transport Activity
1) Compliance with reservation
system on international trains
2) Compliance with arrival anddeparture times at borders andchangeover stations3) Compliance with datatransmission (quality-timingcontent) according to European
Rail Traffic Management
System (ERTMS)
4) Compliance with Customs,
health and dangerous goods
inspections5) Compliance with transmissionof documentation ininternational rail transport(consignment note, technicaldocuments, etc.)
6) Acceptance of arriving ITUs
by the terminal operator
OthersKey Performance Indicator

Responsibility of the Parties
9

If applicable – Yes/No
No stops at borders(if unavoidable: max. 30 minutes)(AGTC, Annex IV, E. b))

9

9

9

9

9

9

Yes/No9

9

Yes/No9

Yes/NoYes/No1.

The values mentioned are indicative, to be agreed on a case-by-case basis.

2.

The values mentioned are indicative, to be agreed on a case-by-case basis.

Terminal
operator

Railway
undertaking

Intermodaltransport
operator

Customs
authority

Freight
forwarder

Key Performance Indicators and Responsibilities - INTERNATIONAL Level2

9

9

9

9

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ANNEX III. DEVELOPING INTERMODAL TRANSPORT IN THE NETHERLANDS —183

ANNEX III. DEVELOPING INTERMODAL TRANSPORT IN THE NETHERLANDS

A. PERIOD 1970 – 1990
Road
Road transport is the most important mode in the Netherlands. The share however is lower than inmany other countries: just 50%. Since the Netherlands has a lot of rivers and canals, the transport byinland waterways is very important (39% of total). Average domestic distance of transport is 50-60 km.
Rail
Until 1995 rail transport played only a marginal role in the transport business (4%).
Inland waterways
Short-sea
Short sea shipping started in this period to develop its ability to transport containers. After somemeasures of the public authority deleting or simplifying administrative rules and regulations (mostimportant: 1 stop-shop for electronic customs declaration) this sector developed rapidly. In recent years,
short-sea shipping accounts for approximately 40-45% of the total international traffic.
Development indicator

Short sea from NL intra
Europe [million tonnes]

B.

2000 2001 2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Target24.5 22.8

26.7

31.1

35.1

-

40 in 2010

24.7

GOVERNMENTAL ACTIONS 1990 – 2000

Decision to build a new dedicated rail freight line
In the years 1985-1990 the Ministry of Transport received urgent signals from the transport industry
that the flow of containers through the port of Rotterdam was growing rapidly. It was pointed out that the
infrastructure for road and rail was not sufficiently adapted to the forecasted flow of containers.
Notwithstanding the fact that the river Rhine has an enormous capacity for the transport ofcontainers, it was clear that several market segments required faster modes of transport.
In order to avoid the roads to be filled with long lines of road vehicles transporting containers andgiven the fact that the rail network in the Netherlands had by far no capacity to cope with the growing
flow of containers, it was decided to construct a complete new railway line to the German hinterland
dedicated solely for freight transport.

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184 — ANNEX III. DEVELOPING INTERMODAL TRANSPORT IN THE NETHERLANDS“Netherlands, a Distribution Country”
In the same period the association “Netherlands Distribution Country” was established. Companies
from all transport and logistic sectors established this association. The aim of the association is topromote the Netherlands as the Gateway to Europe and the accompanying function in the logistic anddistribution sector. The Ministry of Transport supported the establishment whole-heartedly in order tohave a platform for discussion to develop the right intermodal policy.
In 1989-1990 the Ministry ordered a consultant bureau to elaborate together with this association a
Master Plan Intermodal Transport for the Netherlands. The report was thoroughly discussed and finallyaccepted by all parties.
Project team Intermodal promotion
In the same period it was clear that the government should implement accompanying measures topromote the use of intermodal and combined transport where necessary and possible.
In 1989/1990 the Ministry of Transport was ordered to develop a new policy to promote intermodaland combined transport. On the institutional level a project team was established with a small dedicatedstaff and with participation of all departments responsible for: road transport, rail transport, inland
waterways and short-sea shipping.
The team was assigned to develop this policy in two years based on the Master Plan elaborated by“Netherlands Distribution Country” and the consultant.
The team developed the following measures.
Subsidy schemes• Based on the Master Plan the team identified the criteria for investment in new terminals (rail,
inland waterways and short sea). A financial supporting scheme was developed and several
inland terminals from the Master Plan were created with the support of the Ministry. An
important requirement was financial participation of private transportation and logisticcompanies. This would reassure public authorities that the terminal would be commercially
viable.
• Although the max gross weight on the roads in the Netherlands of 50 tonnes allowed already anefficient terminal haulage by road, it was in 1998 decided, as a trial, to allow a max grossweight of 60t and a longer max length for road vehicles in order to make the terminal haulage of
60 TEU on one vehicle possible. Restriction was a maximum distance of 50 km to/from aterminal.
• Another measure to promote intermodal transport was a reduction of the motor vehicle tax for
terminal haulage.
Railway policy
In 1991 the government supported the adoption of the Directive 91/440 requiring a liberal railway
market. Between 1995 - 2000 the Dutch Railways (NS) were restructured as the Directive and thefollowing railway packages required. Infrastructure management was transferred to a public body
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ANNEX III. DEVELOPING INTERMODAL TRANSPORT IN THE NETHERLANDS —185

ProRail performing maintenance, capacity management and traffic control. A new company as railway
undertaking took charge of the passenger transport. The freight transport division was sold to German
Railways (DB-Railion).
Access to the market of new railway undertakings was made possible. As from 1995 several newcompanies entered the market providing much better service to clients than ever experienced before in
the railway business according to shippers. In container transport most companies introduced the conceptof shuttle services which are block trains not requiring costly shunting anymore. This concept made railtransport of containers economically viable.
Infrastructure charges were introduced. However, at the start a lower level growing over thefollowing years was introduced allowing the railway system to grow to mature ness and the railway
undertakings to attract their share of the market.
Between 1994 –2004 the market share in international rail transport of containers grew from 8% to
11% (t/km). The tonnage transported grew form 16 million tonnes in 1995 to 36 million tonnes in 2006.
Intermodal Infrastructure Inland Waterways
Several inland waterway terminals were constructed with governmental support allowing the inland
waterway transport to play an important role in the domestic container transport. This attracted new
innovative investments in this market and made this kind of transport grow considerably. Between 1994
and 2004 the market share of inland waterways in container transport grew form 2% to 33% (t/km).
C. AUTONOMOUS GROWTH 2000 – 2006
As from 2000 the supporting schemes by the public authorities were terminated based on the ideathat after a starting period the transport industry should be able to do its business without any
governmental support. To a large extent this proved to be possible. Some new railway undertakings
disappeared; other new ones entered the market. Some inland waterway connections disappeared, others
were introduced. The market decided what was feasible. The Government and the Ministry of Transport
took the position that governmental support is good in a starting phase, but after that, the market has todo the business on its own. The development of intermodal and combined transport developed positively
from that moment on.
In 2007, the new railway freight line to the German hinterland will be opened. The market is
waiting that moment desperately since container flows are growing rapidly.
Maritime container flows
The total number of TEU’s handled in the port of Rotterdam increased to 9.3 mln in 2005. The
number of land mover increased to 4.1 mln in 2005. Modal split: road 59%, inland waterways: 31.1%;
rail: 9.3%.
Continental combined transport
Continental combined transport increased by 19% in the years 2001 – 2005.
Short Sea
Increased of almost 60% in 2000-2005.
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186 — ANNEX III. DEVELOPING INTERMODAL TRANSPORT IN THE NETHERLANDS
D. CONCLUSION
Intermodal transport can only develop when the necessary physical and administrative infrastructure
is available. In most market circumstances these facilities do not emerge by themselves, since their costs
cannot be covered by the price paid by the shipper when compared to through going road transport. Road
transport alternative is in most cases more advantageous.
After ten years of support to the development of intermodal/combined transport by the Government
it is clear that after the initial period this market has developed independently. This was theGovernment’s goal as from the beginning. Now, the market and the transport industry has to do its own
business, the government is not in the position nor has the responsibility to organize this business wise.
With the starting support and infrastructure facilities the Government has laid the basis for this positive
development.

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ANNEX IV. NATIONAL MEASURES TO DEVELOP COMBINED TRANSPORTTHE CASE OF AUSTRIA (JULY 2005)[CEMT/CS/TIL(2007)1/REV1]

1.

IMPORTANCE OF COMBINED TRANSPORT IN THE GENERAL TRANSPORTPOLICYIn the framework of Austrian transport policy, combined transport is considered to be of central
importance for solving present and future problems with regard to freight transport by road caused byAustria’s geographical and topographical situation.
Due to increased traffic flows both within and through Austria, in particular on the roads, Austria
has been introducing early measures for the support of environment-friendly modes, such as rail or
combined transport.
2.

FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR INVESTMENT
Programme for the promotion of combined goods transport by road/rail/ship1

2.1.

The “Programme for the promotion of combined goods transport by road/rail/ship” contains
substantial measures for the financial promotion of combined transport in Austria. The main
characteristics of this programme are as follows.
Objective
Development of combined transport in order to encourage the shift of goods transport from road toenvironment friendly modes of transport and to reduce the growth of road transport.
Duration of the programme
1/1/1999 to 31/12/2002.
What is supported
Investments in installations, systems and equipment, which are necessary for the transport orhandling of goods in combined transport by road/rail/ship.
Applications
Applications may be submitted by physical and legal persons as well as unincorporated firms ofcivil and commercial law; regional administrative bodies are, however, not entitled to submit
applications.
Projects eligible for aid•

Plants and installations for combined transport (in particular combined transport terminals andloading equipment, e.g. cranes and stackers).

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188 — ANNEX IV. NATIONAL MEASURES TO DEVELOP COMBINED TRANSPORT – THE CASE OF AUSTRIA•

Combined transport equipment (in particular containers and swap bodies, vehicles and boxes
specially fitted for the use of combined transport).

•

Implementation of innovative technologies and systems for the improvement of combinedtransport services.

•

Feasibility studies in connection with implementing measures.

•

Costs for training in specific EDP-systems or techniques.

Expected results
Improved co-operation between road, rail and shipping as well as optimised traffic flows, thereby
reducing the strain of heavy goods transport on the road network, less environmental damage andincreased road safety.
Amount of aid
The amount of aid is based on the expected reduction in road traffic and reaches up to max. 30% of
the accountable investment costs for physical investments and up to max. 50% of the accountable costs
for feasibility studies and training measures.
Financial dimension
Approximately 2.9 million Euros per year.
2.2.

Financing of terminal infrastructure

According to paragraph 2 of the Austrian Federal Railways Act, the Republic of Austria pays for theprovision and the improvement of the rail infrastructure. While this also includes infrastructure for
combined transport terminals, it does not cover warehouses and loading equipment. Terminals, where therail infrastructure has been financed with public money, have to be open for third parties according to thelaw on railways, even if the infrastructure is operated and additional equipment (e.g. loading equipment)
is financed by the Austrian Federal Railways. Public financing for a part of the terminal infrastructure isalso possible if the terminals are operated by private owners, on the condition that these private owners
are licensed railway companies. When public funding is provided, open access to the private combinedtransport terminal has to be guaranteed.
3.

FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR OPERATION

Paragraph 3 of the Austrian Federal Railways Act of 1992 states that, according to Regulation(EEC) No. 1191/69 issued by the Council on 26 June 1969, and as amended by Regulation (EEC)
No. 1893/91 issued by the Council on 20 June 1991, transport which is considered to be of public
interest, e.g. for environmental reasons, may be ordered as “public services”.
A preliminary remuneration of 800 million ATS was agreed upon for public service operations
carried out in the framework of combined transport (unaccompanied combined transport in transit
through Austria and all rolling road connections) for the year 2001. The final remuneration depends on
the results achieved (i.e. the number of consignments transported). This system is also foreseen for 2002.
In the context of public services in combined transport, special tariff reductions amounting to
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ANNEX IV. NATIONAL MEASURES TO DEVELOP COMBINED TRANSPORT – THE CASE OF AUSTRIA —189

100 million ATS and concerning only rolling roads were granted in 2001, also due in particular to thetunnel catastrophes.
4.

FISCAL INCENTIVES

4.1

Incentives regarding vehicle tax•

All national vehicles (i.e. motor vehicles and their trailers) exceeding 3.5 t are exempt from vehicle
tax, if -- during that calendar month -- they are used exclusively for initial and terminal haulages for
combined transport rail/road, i.e. the pick-up from and delivery to the nearest technically suitableterminal of containers of at least 20´ length, swap bodies or semi-trailers transported by rail.

•

On request, national vehicles exceeding 3.5 t which make use of rolling roads or (in the case of
semi-trailers) unaccompanied combined transport on Austrian soil are reimbursed 15% of themonthly vehicle tax for each combined transport journey effected by rail. This reimbursement may
rise to 100% of the annual vehicle tax.

4.2

Incentives regarding road usage fee

For accompanied (rolling road) and unaccompanied combined transport, road usage fees for initialand final road hauls to/from the nearest terminal in Austria are refunded. The refund amounts at present
to 8 Euros (= daily road usage fee) per transport of a motor vehicle, semi-trailer or a swap body at least
12 m long or of a container of at least 40 foot. It amounts to 4 Euros per transport of a semi-trailer or aswap body under 12 m, or of a container under 40 foot, but with a minimum length of at least 20 foot.
The refund is shown separately on the combined transport invoice and directly credited to the transporter(which means, for example, that the price paid by the transporter for the rolling road service is reducedby 8 Euros).
5.

OTHER SUPPORT MEASURES

5.1

Payload adjustment

According to the Austrian “Motor Vehicle Act” (“Kraftfahrgesetz”) the sum of the total weight andthe sum of the axle weight of motor vehicles and their trailers are laid down as follows:•

Transport of goods by road generally 38 t•

Initial and final road hauls in combined transport to/fromterminal in Austria:− For semi-trailers which can be handled by crane: 39 t
− For the carriage of containers and swap bodies: 42 t

the nearest technically suitable

These weights are increased by 5% for motor vehicles registered within the European Union(i. e. 40 t for transport of goods by road in general, and for initial and final road hauls in combinedtransport, 41 t for semi-trailers which can be handled by crane and 44 t for the carriage of containers andswap bodies). The limit values indicated for vehicles registered in an EU State are also valid for vehicles
registered in countries which have a transport agreement with the EU and where full reciprocity is
granted.
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190 — ANNEX IV. NATIONAL MEASURES TO DEVELOP COMBINED TRANSPORT – THE CASE OF AUSTRIA
5.2

Liberalised initial and final combined transport hauls

For combined transport operations, the initial and final road leg is liberalised for motor vehicles
registered within the European Union or the European Economic Area and holding a Community licence,taking into account the relevant legal provisions of the European Union (in particular also regulation(EC) 881/92).
5.3

Liberalised corridors for rolling roads

According to a decree of the Austrian Federal Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology
specific road corridors for initial and final hauls of rolling road connections to the terminals quoted
below do not require permits (i. e. no bilateral road permit for goods transport is necessary on these
corridors, provided that the journey is an initial or final road haul of rolling road connections):

5.4•

Corridors to Terminal Wels:− Wels - border crossing Suben (Germany)− Wels - border crossing Braunau (Germany)− Wels - border crossing Schärding-Neuhaus (Germany)− Wels - border crossing Walserberg/Autobahn (Germany)− Wels - border crossing Wullowitz (Czech Rep.)•

Corridors to Terminal Villach Süd:
− Villach Süd - border crossing Thörl-Maglern/Autobahn (Italy)− Villach Süd - border crossing Karawankentunnel (Slovenia)− Villach Süd - border crossing Lavamünd (Slovenia)− Villach Süd - border crossing Bleiburg (Slovenia)•

Corridor to Terminal Wörgl:− Wörgl - border crossing Kiefersfelden•

Terminal Brennersee:
No corridor arrangement exists for the Ro-La Brennersee – Manching, but free approach ispossible from the border crossing Brennerpass to the loading place. Control is effected by thecustoms authorities.
Liberalised areas for rolling roads

Initial and final hauls used for loading and unloading do not require any permit within a radius of
70 km around the terminals of Wels and Salzburg, if rolling roads are used.
5.5

Exemption from the Weekend and holiday driving ban on lorries

Journeys with motor vehicles and trailers exceeding 3.5 t as well as motor vehicles and tractors
exceeding 7.5 t are forbidden on Saturdays from 3 p.m. to 12 p.m. and on Sundays and holidays from00 a.m. to 10 p.m. Journeys, which are carried out in the context of combined transport only and do not
exceed a radius of 65 km to or from the following terminals, are exempted from that ban:
• Brennersee• Graz - Ostbahnhof• Salzburg - Hauptbahnhof
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ANNEX IV. NATIONAL MEASURES TO DEVELOP COMBINED TRANSPORT – THE CASE OF AUSTRIA —191• Villach - Fürnitz• Wels - Verschiebebahnhof• Wien - Südbahnhof• Wien - Nordwestbahnhof• Wörgl
5.6

Exemption from the Summer holidays driving ban on lorries

On every Saturday from 1 July to 31 August each year, journeys with motor vehicles and trailers
exceeding 7.5 t are forbidden from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m. on certain roads. Journeys, which are carried out inthe context of combined transport rail-road from and to the nearest suitable rail loading station, areexempted from that ban.
5.7

Exemption from the Night driving ban

Motor vehicles exceeding 7.5 t which do not comply with the noise emissions standards for the socalled “lärmarme KFZ” (“low noise vehicles”) are not allowed to circulate from 10 p.m. to 5 a.m.
Journeys, which are carried out in the context of combined transport from and to the following rail
stations on clearly specified road corridors, are exempted from that ban in both directions:• Wien Südbahnhof - border crossing Nickelsdorf (Hungary)• Wien Südbahnhof - border crossing Klingenbach (Hungary)• Graz Ostbahnhof - border crossing Spielfeld (Slovenia)• Graz Ostbahnhof - border crossing Heiligenkreuz (Hungary)• Villach-Fürnitz - border crossing Rosenbach (Slovenia)• Villach-Fürnitz - border crossing Arnoldstein (Italy)• Verschiebebahnhof Wels - border crossing Suben (Germany)• Verschiebebahnhof Wels - border crossing Walserberg (Germany)• Verschiebebahnhof Wels - border crossing Wullowitz (Czech Rep.)• Bahnhof Salzburg - border crossing Walserberg (Germany)• Bahnhof Brennersee - border crossing Brenner (Italy)• Terminal Wörgl - border crossing Kiefersfelden (Germany)
5.8

Exemption from Eco-points system

According to Protocol 9 of the Accession Treaty between Austria and the European Union
transit-journeys, which are carried out in the context of combined transport and whereby the Austrianborder is crossed once by rail and once by road, are exempted from the Eco-Point System.
5.9

Supplementary permits for the use of combined transport

Numerous bilateral agreements on road goods transport (for example with Hungary and Slovenia)
have been drawn up with additional protocols for the promotion of combined transport. These additional
protocols state, amongst other specific measures, that supplementary permits for road goods transport
will be issued if rolling roads in, to and from Austria are used.
5.10“Bonus” Eco-points (“Belohnungsökopunkte”) for the use of combined transport

On 1st January 1997, a “bonus” system for eco-points was introduced for the use of combinedtransport. Austrian hauliers, who use rolling roads, are entitled to additional eco-points. On request, one
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192 — ANNEX IV. NATIONAL MEASURES TO DEVELOP COMBINED TRANSPORT – THE CASE OF AUSTRIA
journey with eco-points is credited for each round-trip (or for 2 single journeys) on a rolling road inAustria.
5.11

Rest periods on rolling/floating roads

According to Austrian labour legislation, the time a lorry driver spends on a rolling road train will
be regarded as a rest period.
6.

MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE FUTURE

The measures for the support of combined transport quoted above are regularly revised and updated
according to the latest developments. Apart from the measures indicated above, the Austrian measures
for the promotion of rail and combined transport include clearly defined measures for infrastructure on
the following main axes:• Brenneraxis (München - Verona - Bologna)• Tauernaxis (München - Salzburg - Villach - Tarvisio - Udine/Rosenbach-Ljubljana)• Axis Phyrn-Schoberpass (Regensburg - Graz - Spielfeld/Straß - Maribor)• Donauaxis (Nürnberg - Wien - Nickelsdorf/Sopron (Ödenburg)/Bratislava)• Pontebbana-axis (Prag - Wien - Tarvisio - Pontebba - Udine)

NOTES
1.

For further information:
ERP-Fonds, Renngasse 5, 1010 Wien, Tel. 53 464/4002, Fax 53464/4015 or on the Website http://www.erpfonds.gv.at/erp/richtlinien/erp_verk.htm.

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ANNEX V. GUIDE TO INTERMODAL TRANSPORT ROAD/RAIL COST AND PRICE CALCULATION —193

ANNEX V. GUIDE TO INTERMODAL TRANSPORT ROAD/RAIL COST
AND PRICE CALCULATION

Based on typical case studies in West and Central Europe, the following costs are incurred inintermodal transport.
Pre-carriage and final delivery road operation
Operated between the shippers ramp or forwarders freight centre, and gate-in or gate-out of anintermodal terminal.
A road vehicle normally carries either:• 1 x 40 ft. container or similar length class European Intermodal Loading Unit
• 2 x 20 ft. containers or similar length class European Intermodal Loading Unit
• 1 x 20 ft. or 7 m tank or bulk container laden with liquids or bulk
A road vehicle with one driver carrying the above described units in short haul must earn 250 –300 euros in revenue per day to survive and stay in the market. The number of paid operations this driver
could achieve varies according to the distance to be covered, waiting time at the terminal and at the
shipper’s ramp, the distribution of loading points in the region, road congestion, etc. if the driver can sell
3 operations per day, he must charge a minimum of 100 euros per operation.
Inland terminal transfer
All terminal transfer costs are per box (and not per TEU).
Simple operation: 1 loading unit delivered in terminal for same day dispatch:•

In Germany (subsidised terminals) 20 euros•

Most other countries 35 – 40 euros

Depot operation: 1 empty loading unit delivered for taking over, setting into depot, reporting toowner or leaser about availability: 30 – 50 euros per operation for a time period in depot of up to 14 days.
Rail line haul
Most railways charge 12.50 – 15 euros per km for a train, including traction and network fees. Sucha train may carry up to 80 TEU (half in the case of Ro-La operation) and is normally commerciallycalculated at an average capacity use of 75 – 80%.

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194 — ANNEX V. GUIDE TO INTERMODAL TRANSPORT ROAD/RAIL COST AND PRICE CALCULATIONThe rail wagons must be leased and the cost for a 4 axle platform wagon with a capacity of 60 ft.
loading (3 TEU) is 22 euros per day. A full length train will consist of 26 such railcars and cost
572 euros per day in leasing fees.
(Ro-La wagons are considerably more expensive: 6 axle wagons with 2 x 15 m loading length aremuch more expensive; pocket wagons for carriage of semi-trailers are more expensive; and multi-fretwagons with loading platform that are considerably lower than 1 100 mm above rail, are more
expensive.)
Hence, a full length train moved from terminal A over 600 km to terminal B will cost about
9 500 euros. In the case of 80% capacity use, the rail carriage will cost about 150 euros per TEU.
These figures apply typically for intermodal transport in Central Europe. The Turkish rail network ismore limited in train length. While a Central European standard train will offer a train length of 750 m,
Turkish rail is limited to 550 m train length (including the locomotive). This will reduce the number ofrailcars that make up the train, but it will also reduce the per train revenue.
ExampleA 45 ft. pallet wide container from a North Sea Port to South East Germany (600 km):•

Import− Take over in Port: 50 €− Line haul to München: 300 €− Final delivery: 100 €− Return empty to terminal: 100 €•Export− Take empty over from terminal to shipper’s ramp, wait 2 h for loading− Return to terminal1: 20 €− Line haul to Hamburg: 300 €− Delivery in Hamburg at normal− Port handling charge: 77 €INTERMODAL TRANSPORT – NATIONAL PEER REVIEW: TURKEY – ISBN 978-92-821-0222-0 - © OECD/ITF, 2009

OECD PUBLICATIONS, 2 rue André-Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16
PRINTED IN FRANCE(75 2009 02 1 P) ISBN 978-92-821-0222-0

Intermodal
TransporT
Turkey is growing fast, owing mainly torapidly increasing trade. In order to facilitate
this trade, efficient logistics and transport
services are crucial. Yet Turkey is at an
early stage in developing sophisticated andmodern logistic services and at present is
too dependent on road transport. This bookargues that Turkey’s continuing economic
expansion depends on the diversification of
its transport modes and especially on theIntermodal Transport

National Peer Review: Turkey

Intermodal
TransporTdevelopment of efficient multimodal services.
Turkey’s role as a hub for Europe, Asia,and the Middle East and as a facilitator ofstrategy and measures to support a range
of intermodal logistic and transport services.
This work analyses the current situation andsets forth some of the actions and policies
needed to stimulate the development of atruly multimodal transport system.

National Peer Review: Turkey

global exchange will be enhanced with a

www.internationaltransportforum.org

www.oecd.org/publishing(75 2009 02 1 P1)ISBN 978-92-821-0222-0-:HSTCSC=VUWWWU:

2009

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