Japanese Grammar Guide
Tae Kim
August 28, 2010

Contents
1 Introduction
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1.1 The problem with conventional textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 A Japanese guide to learning Japanese grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 The Writing System
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2.1 The Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Intonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Hiragana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1 What is Hiragana? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 The Muddied Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.3 The Small 「や」、「ゆ」、and 「よ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.4 The Small 「つ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.5 The Long Vowel Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Katakana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.1 What is Katakana? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.2 The Long Vowel Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.3 The Small 「ア、イ、ウ、エ、オ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.4 Some examples of words in Katakana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 Kanji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.1 What is Kanji? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.2 Learning Kanji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5.3 Reading Kanji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5.4 Why Kanji? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Basic Grammar
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3.1 Basic Grammatical Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Expressing State-of-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.1 Declaring something is so and so using 「だ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.2 Conjugating to the negative state-of-being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.3 Conjugating for the past state-of-being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.4 To sum up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Introduction to Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3.1 Deﬁning grammatical functions with particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3.2 The 「は」 topic particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.3 The 「も」 inclusive topic particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.4 The 「が」 identiﬁer particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.1 Properties of Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.2 The na-adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4.3 The i-adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.4.4 An annoying exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5 Verb Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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3.5.1 Role of Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Classifying verbs into ru-verbs and u-verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.3 Appendix: iru/eru u-verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Negative Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1 Conjugating verbs into the negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Past Tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1 Past tense for ru-verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.2 Past tense for u-verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.3 Past-negative tense for all verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Particles used with verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.1 The direct object 「を」 particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.2 The target 「に」 particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.3 The directional 「へ」 particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.4 The contextual 「で」 particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.5 When location is the topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8.6 When direct object is the topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9.1 Pay attention to particles! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10Descriptive Subordinate Clauses and Sentence Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10.1Treating verbs and state-of-being like adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10.2Using state-of-being subclauses as adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10.3Using subordinate verb clauses as adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10.4Japanese Sentence Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11Noun-related Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.1The last three particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.2The Inclusive 「と」 particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.3The Vague Listing 「や」 and 「とか」 particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.4The 「の」 particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11.5The 「の」 particle as explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12Using Adverbs and Gobi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.1Why adverbs and gobi? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.2Properties of Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.3What's a "gobi"? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.4The 「ね」 gobi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.5The 「よ」 gobi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12.6Combining both to get 「よね」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Essential Grammar
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4.1 Polite Form and Verb Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.1.1 Not being rude in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.1.2 The stem of verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.1.3 Using 「〜ます」 to make verbs polite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.1.4 Using 「です」 for everything else . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1.5 「です」 is NOT the same as 「だ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2 Addressing People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2.1 Referring to yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2.2 Referring to others by name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.3 Referring to others with "you" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.4 Referring to others in third person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.5 Referring to family members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3 The Question Marker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.1 Questions in polite form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.2 The question marker in casual speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.3 「か」 used in subordinate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
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4.3.4 Using question words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Compound Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Expressing a sequence of states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2 Expressing a sequence of verbs with the te-form . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Expressing reason or causation using 「から」 and 「ので」 . . . . . . .
4.4.4 Using 「のに」 to mean "despite" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.5 Expressing contradiction using 「が」 and 「けど」 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.6 Expressing multiple reasons using 「し」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.7 Expressing multiple actions or states using 「〜たりする」 . . . . . . . .
4.5 Other uses of the te-form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1 Using 「〜ている」 for enduring states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2 Enduring state of being rather than enduring state of action . . . . . . .
4.5.3 Using 「〜てある」 for resultant states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.4 Using the 「〜ておく」 form as preparation for the future . . . . . . . .
4.5.5 Using motion verbs (⾏く、来る) with the te-form . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Potential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.1 Expressing the ability to do something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.2 The Potential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.3 Potential forms do not have direct objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.4 Are 「⾒える」 and 「聞こえる」 exceptions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.5 「ある」, yet another exception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Using する and なる with the に particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.1 Using 「なる」 and 「する」 for nouns and na-adjectives . . . . . . . . .
4.7.2 Using 「なる」 with i-adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.3 Using 「なる」 and 「する」 with verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.1 How to say "if" in Japanese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.2 Expressing natural consequence using 「と」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.3 Contextual conditionals using 「なら (ば)」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.4 General conditionals using 「ば」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.5 Past conditional using 「たら (ば)」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.6 How does 「もし」 ﬁt into all of this? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9 Expressing "must" or "have to" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.1 When there's something that must or must not be done . . . . . . . . .
4.9.2 Using 「だめ」, 「いけない」, and 「ならない」 for things that must not
be done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.3 Expressing things that must be done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.4 Various short-cuts for the lazy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.5 Saying something is ok to do or not do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10Desire and Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10.1How to get your way in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10.2Verbs you want to do with 「たい」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10.3Indicating things you want or want done using 「欲しい」 . . . . . . . .
4.10.4Making a motion to do something using the volitional form . . . . . . . .
4.10.5Making a motion to do something using the volitional form . . . . . . . .
4.10.6Making Suggestions using the 「ば」 or 「たら」 conditional . . . . . . .
4.11Performing an action on a subordinate clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.1The direct quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.2The interpreted quote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11.3Using 「って」 as a casual version of 「と」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.12Deﬁning and Describing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.12.1The various uses of 「いう」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.12.2Using 「いう」 to deﬁne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.12.3Using 「いう」 to describe anything . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.12.4Rephrasing and making conclusions with 「という」 . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.12.5Using 「って」 or 「て」 for 「という」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.12.6Saying 「ゆう」 instead of 「いう」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.13Trying something out or attempting to do something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.13.1Let's try some stuﬀ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.13.2To try something out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.13.3To attempt to do something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.14Giving and Receiving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.14.1Japanese people like gifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.14.2When to use 「あげる」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.14.3When to use 「くれる」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.14.4When to use 「もらう」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.14.5Asking favors with 「くれる」 or 「もらえる」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.15Making requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.15.1Politely (and not so politely) making requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.15.2「〜ください」－ a special conjugation of 「くださる」 . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.15.3Using 「〜ちょうだい」 as a casual request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.15.4Using 「〜なさい」 to make ﬁrm but polite requests . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.15.5The Command Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.16Numbers and Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.16.1The Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.16.2Counting and Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.16.3Using 「⽬」 to show order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.17Casual Patterns and Slang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.17.1Basic Principles of Slang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.17.2Sentence ordering and particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.17.3Using 「じゃん」 instead of 「じゃない」 to conﬁrm . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.17.4Using 「つ」 for 「という」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.17.5Using 「ってば」 and 「ったら」to show exasperation . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.17.6Using 「なんか」 just about everywhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.17.7Showing contempt for an action with 「〜やがる」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.18Review and more gobi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.18.1The next most often used gobi: 「な」 and 「さ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.18.2Gender-speciﬁc emphasis gobi: 「わ」、「ぞ」、「ぜ」、「かしら」 . . . 118
4.18.3That's a wrap! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5 Special Expressions
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5.1 Causative and Passive Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.1.1 Causative Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.1.2 Passive Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.1.3 Using passive form to show politeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.1.4 Causative-Passive Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.2 Honoriﬁc and Humble Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.2.1 Set Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.2.2 Other substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.2.3 Honoriﬁc and Humble Conjugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.2.4 Making honoriﬁc requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.3 Things that happen unintentionally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.3.1 Using 「しまう」 with other verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.3.2 Using the casual version of 「〜てしまう」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.3.3 Another meaning of 「しまう」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.4 Special expressions with generic nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.4.1 Using 「こと」 to say whether something has happened . . . . . . . . . 133
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5.4.2 Using 「ところ」 as an abstract place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.4.3 Using 「もの」 as a casual feminine way to emphasize . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.5 Expressing various levels of certainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.5.1 Using 「かもしれない」 to express uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.5.2 Using 「でしょう」 to express a fair amount of certainty . . . . . . . . . 135
5.5.3 Using 「でしょう」 and 「だろう」 to express strong amount of certainty 136
5.6 Expressing amounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.6.1 Indicating that's all there is using 「だけ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.6.2 Using 「のみ」 as a formal version of 「だけ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.6.3 Indication that there's nothing else using 「しか」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.6.4 Expressing the opposite of 「だけ」 with 「ばかり」 . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.6.5 Saying there's too much of something using 「すぎる」 . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.6.6 Adding the 「も」 particle to express excessive amounts . . . . . . . . . 141
5.6.7 Using 「ほど」 to express the extent of something . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.6.8 Using 「〜さ」 with adjectives to indicate an amount . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.7 Various ways to express similarity and hearsay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.7.1 Expressing similarity with よう . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.7.2 Using 「みたい」 to say something looks like something else . . . . . . . 143
5.7.3 Guessing at an outcome using 「〜そう」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.7.4 Expressing hearsay using 「〜そうだ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5.7.5 Expressing hearsay or behavior using 「〜らしい」 . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.7.6 「っぽい」: Slang expression of similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.8 Using ⽅ and よる for comparisons and other functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.8.1 Using 「⽅」 for comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.8.2 Using 「より」 for comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.8.3 Using 「⽅」 to express a way to do something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.8.4 Using 「によって」 to express dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.8.5 Indicating a source of information using 「によると」 . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.9 Saying something is easy or diﬃcult to do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.9.1 Variations of 「〜にくい」 with 「〜がたい」 and 「〜づらい」 . . . . . . 151
5.10More negative verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.10.1Doing something without doing something else . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.10.2A casual masculine type of negative that ends in 「ん」 . . . . . . . . . 153
5.10.3A classical negative verb that ends in 「ぬ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.11Hypothesizing and Concluding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.11.1Some things that are not covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.11.2Coming to a conclusion with 「わけ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.11.3Making hypotheses with 「とする」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.12Expressing time-speciﬁc actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.12.1Expressing an action that was just completed using 「〜ばかり」 . . . . 157
5.12.2Using 「とたん」 to express something that occurred immediately afteran action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.12.3Using 「ながら」 for two concurrent actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.12.4Using 「ながら」 with state of being to mean "while" . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.12.5To repeat something with reckless abandon using 「まくる」 . . . . . . . 160
5.13Leaving something the way it is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.13.1Using 「まま」 to express a lack of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.13.2Using 「っぱなし」 to leave something the way it is . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6 Advanced Topics
163
6.1 Formal Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.1.1 What do you mean by formal expressions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.1.2 Using 「である」 to state that something is so in an authoritative tone . 163
6.1.3 Negative of 「である」 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7

6.1.4 Sequential subordinate clauses in formal language . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2 Things that should be a certain way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.2.1 Using 「はず」 to describe an expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.2.2 Using 「べき」 to describe actions one should do . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.2.3 Using 「べく」 to describe what one tries to do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.2.4 Using 「べからず」 to describe things one must not do . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.3 Expressing the minimum expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.3.1 Using 「(で) さえ」 to describe the minimum requirement . . . . . . . . 169
6.3.2 「(で) すら」 - Same as 「(で) さえ」 but diﬀerent? . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.3.3 「おろか」 - It's not even worth considering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.4 Showing signs of something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.4.1 Showing outward signs of an emotion using 「〜がる」 . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.4.2 Using 「ばかり」 to act as if one might do something . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.4.3 Using 「めく」 to indicate an atmosphere of a state . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.5 Formal expressions of non-feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.5.1 Expressing the inability to not do using 「〜ざるを得ない」 . . . . . . . . 175
6.5.2 Expressing the inability to stop doing something using 「やむを得ない」 175
6.5.3 Expressing what cannot be done with 「〜かねる」 . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.6 Tendencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.6.1 Saying something is prone to occur using 「〜がち」 . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.6.2 Describing an ongoing occurrence using 「〜つつ」 . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.6.3 Describing a negative tendency using 「きらいがある」 . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.7 Advanced Volitional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.7.1 Negative Volitional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.7.2 Using the volitional to express a lack of relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.7.3 Using 「であろう」 to express likelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.7.4 Using 「かろう」 as volitional for 「い」 endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.8 Covered by something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.8.1 Using 「だらけ」 when an object is riddled everywhere with something . 183
6.8.2 Using 「まみれ」 to describe a covering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.8.3 「ずくめ」 to express entirety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.9 Advanced proximity of actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.10Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.10.1Using 「思いきや」 to describe something unexpected . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.10.2Using 「〜がてら」 to do two things at one time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.10.3Using 「〜あげく (挙句)」 to describe a bad result . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

8

Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1

The problem with conventional textbooks

The problem with conventional textbooks is that they often have the following goals.
1. They want readers to be able to use functional and polite Japanese as quickly as
possible.
2. They don't want to scare readers away with terrifying Japanese script and Chinesecharacters.
3. They want to teach you how to say English phrases in Japanese.
Traditionally with romance languages such as Spanish, these goals presented no problems orwere nonexistent due to the similarities to English. However, because Japanese is diﬀerent
in just about every way down to the fundamental ways of thinking, these goals create manyof the confusing textbooks you see today. They are usually ﬁlled with complicated rules andcountless number of grammar for speciﬁc English phrases. They also contain almost no
Kanji and so when you ﬁnally arrive in Japan, lo and behold, you discover you can't readmenus, maps, or essentially anything at all because the book decided you weren't smart
enough to memorize Chinese characters.
The root of this problem lies in the fact that these textbooks try to teach you Japanese withEnglish. They want to teach you on the ﬁrst page how to say, "Hi, my name is Smith," butthey don't tell you about all the arbitrary decisions that were made behind your back. They
probably decided to use the polite form even though learning the polite form before thedictionary form makes no sense. They also might have decided to include the subject eventhough it's not necessary and excluded most of the time. In fact, the most common way
to say something like "My name is Smith" in Japanese is to say "am Smith". That's because
most of the information is understood from the context and is therefore excluded. But does
the textbook explain the way things work in Japanese fundamentally? No, because they're
too busy trying to push you out the door with "useful" phrases right oﬀ the bat. The result
is a confusing mess of "use this if you want to say this" type of text and the reader is left
with a feeling of confusion about how things actually work.
The solution to this problem is to explain Japanese from a Japanese point of view. TakeJapanese and explain how it works and forget about trying to force what you want to say
91.2. A JAPANESE GUIDE TO LEARNING JAPANESE GRAMMAR
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

in English into Japanese. To go along with this, it is also important to explain things in anorder that makes sense in Japanese. If you need to know [A] in order to understand [B],
don't cover [B] ﬁrst just because you want to teach a certain phrase.
Essentially, what we need is a Japanese guide to learning Japanese grammar.

1.2

A Japanese guide to learning Japanese grammar

This guide is an attempt to systematically build up the grammatical structures that make up
the Japanese language in a way that makes sense in Japanese. It may not be a practical toolfor quickly learning immediately useful Japanese phrases (for example, common phrases fortravel). However, it will logically create grammatical building blocks that will result in a solid
grammatical foundation. For those of you who have learned Japanese from textbooks, you
may see some big diﬀerences in how the material is ordered and presented. This is because
this guide does not seek to forcibly create artiﬁcial ties between English and Japanese by
presenting the material in a way that makes sense in English. Instead, examples withtranslations will show how ideas are expressed in Japanese resulting in simpler explanations
that are easier to understand.
In the beginning, the English translations for the examples will also be as literal as possible toconvey the Japanese sense of the meaning. This will often result in grammatically incorrecttranslations in English. For example, the translations might not have a subject because
Japanese does not require one. In addition, since the articles "the" and "a" do not exist
in Japanese, the translations will not have them as well. And since Japanese does notdistinguish between a future action and a general statement (such as "I will go to the store"
vs. "I go to the store"), no distinction will necessarily be made in the translation. It is
my hope that the explanation of the examples will convey an accurate sense of what thesentences actually mean in Japanese. Once the reader becomes familiar and comfortable
thinking in Japanese, the translations will be less literal in order to make the sentences morereadable and focused on the more advanced topics.
Be aware that there are advantages and disadvantages to systematically building a grammatical foundation from the ground up. In Japanese, the most fundamental grammaticalconcepts are the most diﬃcult to grasp and the most common words have the most exceptions. This means that the hardest part of the language will come ﬁrst. Textbooks usually
don't take this approach; afraid that this will scare away or frustrate those interested in thelanguage. Instead, they try to delay going deeply into the hardest conjugation rules withpatchwork and gimmicks so that they can start teaching useful expressions right away. (I'mtalking about the past-tense conjugation for verbs in particular) This is a ﬁne approach for
some, however; it can create more confusion and trouble along the way much like building
a house on a poor foundation. The hard parts must be covered no matter what. However,
if you cover them in the beginning, the easier bits will be all that much easier because they'll
ﬁt nicely on top of the foundation you have built. Japanese is syntactically much more consistent than English. If you learn the hardest conjugation rules, most of remaining grammarbuilds upon similar or identical rules. The only diﬃcult part from there on is sorting out andremembering all the various possible expressions and combinations in order to use them inthe correct situations.
※ Before you start using this guide, please note that half brackets like these: 「」 are theJapanese version of quotation marks.

10

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.3

1.3. SUGGESTIONS

Suggestions

My advice to you when practicing Japanese: if you ﬁnd yourself trying to ﬁgure out how to
say an English thought in Japanese, save yourself the trouble and quit because you won't
get it right almost 100% of the time. You should always keep this in mind: If you don't
know how to say it already, then you don't know how to say it. Instead, if you can,ask someone right away how to say it in Japanese including a full explanation of its use andstart your practice from Japanese. Language is not a math problem; you don't have toﬁgure out the answer. If you practice from the answer, you will develop good habits thatwill help you formulate correct and natural Japanese sentences.
This is why I'm a ﬁrm believer of learning by example. Examples and experience will be yourmain tools in mastering Japanese. Therefore, even if you don't get something completely
the ﬁrst time right away, just move on and keep referring back as you see more examples. This will allow you to get a better sense of how it's used in many diﬀerent contexts.
Unfortunately, writing up examples takes time and is slow going. (I'm trying my best!)
But lucky for you, Japanese is everywhere, especially on the web. I recommend practicing
Japanese as much as possible and referring to this guide only when you cannot understandthe grammar.
The Internet alone has a rich variety of reading materials including websites, bulletin boards,
and online chat. Buying Japanese books or comic books is also an excellent (and fun) way toincrease vocabulary and practice reading skills. Also, I believe that it is impossible to learncorrect speaking and listening skills without a model. Practicing listening and speaking skills
with ﬂuent speakers of Japanese is a must if you wish to master conversational skills. Whilelistening materials such as tapes and T.V. can be very educational, there is nothing better
than a real human with which to learn pronunciation, intonation, and natural conversation
ﬂow. If you have speciﬁc questions that are not addressed in this guide, you can discussthem at the Japanese guide forum.
Don't feel discouraged by the vast amount of material that you will need to master. Remember, every new word or grammar learned is one step closer to mastering the language!

11

Chapter 2

The Writing System
2.1

The Scripts

Japanese consists of two scripts (referred to as kana) called Hiragana and Katakana, which
are two versions of the same set of sounds in the language. Hiragana and Katakana consistof a little less than 50 "letters", which are actually simpliﬁed Chinese characters adopted toform a phonetic alphabet.
Chinese characters, called Kanji in Japanese, are also heavily used in the Japanese writing. Most of the words in the Japanese written language are written in Kanji (nouns, verbs,
adjectives). There exists over 40,000 Kanji where about 2,000 represent over 95% of characters actually used in written text. There are no spaces in Japanese so Kanji is necessary
in distinguishing between separate words within a sentence. Kanji is also useful for discriminating between homophones, which occurs quite often given the limited number of distinct
sounds in Japanese.
Hiragana is used mainly for grammatical purposes. We will see this as we learn about particles. Words with extremely diﬃcult or rare Kanji, colloquial expressions, and onomatopoeias
are also written in Hiragana. It's also often used for beginning Japanese students and children in place of Kanji they don't know.
While Katakana represents the same sounds as Hiragana, it is mainly used to represent
newer words imported from western countries (since there are no Kanji associated withwords based on the roman alphabet). The next three sections will cover Hiragana, Katakana,and Kanji.

2.2

Intonation

As you will ﬁnd out in the next section, every character in Hiragana (and the Katakanaequivalent) corresponds to a [vowel] or [consonant + vowel] syllable sound with the single
exception of the 「ん」 and 「ン」 character (more on this later). This system of letter foreach syllable sound makes pronunciation absolutely clear with no ambiguities. However, thesimplicity of this system does not mean that pronunciation in Japanese is simple. In fact,
the rigid structure of the ﬁxed syllable sound in Japanese creates the problem of intonation
12

CHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM

2.3. HIRAGANAin place of the diﬃculties that exist in separate consonant and vowel alphabets such as the
English alphabet.
Intonation of high and low pitches is a crucial aspect of the spoken language. For example,
homophones can have diﬀerent pitches of low and high resulting in a slightly diﬀerently
sounding of the word even if it is written with the same sounds. The largest barrier to properand natural sounding speech is incorrect intonation. Many students often speak without
paying attention to the correct enunciation of pitches making speech sound unnatural (theclassic foreigner's accent). It is not practical to memorize or attempt to logically create rules
for pitches, especially since it can change depending on the context or the dialect. The only
practical approach is to get the general sense of pitches by mimicking native Japanese
speakers with careful listening and practice.

2.3

Hiragana

2.3.1

What is Hiragana?

Hiragana is the basic Japanese phonetic alphabet. It represents every sound in the Japanese
language. Therefore, you can theoretically write everything in Hiragana. However, because
Japanese is written with no spaces, this will create nearly indecipherable text.
Here is a table of Hiragana and similar-sounding English consonant-vowel pronunciations.
It is read up to down and right to left, which is how most Japanese books are written. In
Japanese, writing the strokes in the correct order and direction is important, especially for
Kanji. Because handwritten letters look slightly diﬀerent from typed letters (just like how'a' looks totally diﬀerent when typed) you will want to ﬁnd a source such as a website or
textbook that will show you how to write the characters. I must also stress the importance ofcorrectly learning how to pronounce each sound. Since every word in Japanese is composedof these sounds, learning an incorrect pronunciation for a letter can severely damage thevery foundation on which your pronunciation lies.

n
ん
(n)

Hiragana - Click for stroke order and sound
w
r
y m
h
n
t
s
k
わ
ら や ま
は
な
た
さ
か

あ

a

ゐ*

り
る

ゑ*
を
(o)

れ
ろ

み

ひ

に

ゆ

む

ぬ

よ

め
も

ふ
(fu)
へ
ほ

ね
の

ち
(chi)
つ
(tsu)
て
と

し
(shi)
す

き

い

i

く

う

u

せ
そ

け
こ

え
お

e
o

* = no longer used
Hiragana is not too tough to master or teach and as a result, there are a variety of web sites
and free programs that are already available on the web. I also suggest recording yourself
and comparing the sounds to make sure you're getting it right.
13

2.3. HIRAGANACHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM

When practicing writing Hiragana by hand, the important thing to remember is that thestroke order and direction of the strokes matter. There, I underlined, italicized, bolded,
and highlighted it to boot. Trust me, you'll eventually ﬁnd out why when you read otherpeople's hasty notes that are nothing more than chicken scrawls. The only thing that will
help you is that everybody writes in the same order and so the "ﬂow" of the characters isfairly consistent. I strongly recommend that you pay close attention to stroke order fromthe beginning starting with Hiragana to avoid falling into bad habits. While there are many
tools online that aim to help you learn Hiragana, the best way to learn how to write it is theold fashioned way: a piece of paper and pen/pencil. The following links to pdfs that have a
tracing outline and a free-form to practice your writing.

• Hiragana tracing practice sheet• Hiragana free-form practice sheet※ As an aside, an old Japanese poem called 「いろは」 was often used as the base forordering of the Hiragana alphabet until recent times. The poem contains every single letterof the Hiragana alphabet except for 「ん」 which probably did not exist at the time it
was written. You can check out this poem for yourself in this wikipedia article (http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroha). As the article mentions, this order is still sometimes used inordering lists so you may want to spend some time checking it out.
.Notes
1. Except for 「し」、「ち」、「つ」、and 「ん」、you can get a sense of how eachletter is pronounced by matching the consonant on the top row to the vowel. For
example, 「き」 would become / ki / and 「ゆ」 would become / yu / and so on.
2. As you can see, not all sounds match the way our consonant system works. As
written in the table, 「ち」 is pronounced "chi" and 「つ」 is pronounced "tsu".
3. The / r / or / l / sound in Japanese is quite diﬀerent from any sound in English.
It involves more of a roll and a clip by hitting the roof of your mouth with yourtongue. Pay careful attention to that whole column.
. 4. Pay careful attention to the diﬀerence .between / tsu / and / su /.
5. The 「ん」 character is a special character because it is rarely used by itself anddoes not have a vowel sound. It is attached to another character to add a / n /sound. For example, 「かん」 becomes 'kan' instead of 'ka', 「まん」 becomes'man' instead of 'ma', and so on and so forth.
6. You must learn the correct stroke order and direction! Use the following pdf practice sheets.
• Hiragana tracing practice sheet• Hiragana free-form practice sheet

14

CHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM

2.3.2

2.3. HIRAGANAThe Muddied Sounds

Once you memorize all the characters in the Hiragana alphabet you're done learning thealphabet but not all the sounds. There are ﬁve more possible consonant sounds that are
possible by either aﬃxing two tiny lines similar to a double quotation mark called dakuten(濁点) or a tiny circle called handakuten (半濁点). This essentially creates a "muddy" or lessclipped version of the consonant (technically called a voiced consonant or 「濁り」, whichliterally means to become muddy).
All the possible combinations of muddied consonant sounds are given in the table below.

Voiced Hiragana - Click for Sound
p b
d
z
g
ぱ ば
だ
ざ が
a
ぴ び
ぢ
じ ぎ
i
(ji)
(ji)
ぷ ぶ
づ
ず ぐ
u
(dzu)
ぺ べ
で
ぜ げ
e
ぽ ぼ
ど
ぞ ご
o

.Notesto 「じ」 and both are pronounced.
. 1. Notice that 「ぢ」 sounds essentially identicalas / ji /, while 「づ」 is pronounced like / dzu /.

2.3.3

The Small 「や」、「ゆ」、and 「よ」You can also combine a consonant with a / ya / yu / yo / sound by attaching a small 「や」、「ゆ」、or 「よ」 to the / i / vowel character of each consonant.

All small や、ゆ、and よ combinations in Hiragana - Click for Sound
p
b
j
g
r
m
h
n
c
s
k
ぴゃ びゃ じゃ ぎゃ りゃ みゃ ひゃ にゃ ちゃ しゃ きゃ ya
ぴゅ びゅ じゅ ぎゅ りゅ みゅ ひゅ にゅ ちゅ しゅ きゅ yu
ぴょ びょ じょ ぎょ りょ みょ ひょ にょ ちょ しょ きょ yo

15

2.3. HIRAGANACHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM.Notes
1. The above table is the same as before. Match the top consonants to the vowel
sound on the right. Ex: きゃ= kya.
.

2. Also note that since 「じ」 is pronounced / ji /, all the small 「や」、「ゆ」、「よ」.
sounds are also based oﬀ of that, namely;/ jya / jyu / jyo /.
3. The same thing also applies to 「ち」 which becomes / cha / chu / cho / and 「し」which becomes / sha / shu / sho /. (Though arguably, you can still think of it as /sya / syu / syo /.)2.3.4

The Small 「つ」

A small 「つ」 is inserted between two characters to carry the consonant sound of the second
character to the end of the ﬁrst. For example, if you inserted a small 「つ」 between 「び」
and 「く」 to make 「びっく」 , the / k / consonant sound is carried back to the end of
the ﬁrst character to produce "bikku". Similarly, 「はっぱ」 becomes "happa", 「ろっく」
becomes "rokku" and so on and so forth. I have provided my own simple
mp3 ﬁle to illustrate the sound diﬀerence between 「もと」 and 「もっと」. And in caseyou're wondering, both are actual words and yes, both mean diﬀerent things.
.Notes
1. A small 「つ」 is used to carry the consonant sound of the second character to theend of the ﬁrst. Ex: 「がっき」 = "gakki".
between 「もと」 and 「もっと」.
.
. 2. Download this mp3 ﬁle to hear the diﬀerence
3. The addition of another consonant almost always creates the characteristic clipping
sound. But make sure you're clipping with the right consonant (the consonant of
the second character).

2.3.5

The Long Vowel Sound

Whew! You're almost done. In this last portion, we will go over the long vowel sound which
is simply extending the duration of a vowel sound. You can extend the vowel sound of acharacter by adding either 「あ」、「い」、or 「う」 depending on the vowel in accordance
to the following chart.

16

CHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM

2.4. KATAKANA

Extending Vowel Sounds
Vowel Sound Extended by
/a/
あ
/i/e/
い
/u/o/
う

For example, if you wanted to create an extended vowel sound from 「か」 , you would
add 「あ」 to create 「かあ」 . Other examples would include: 「き→きい」 , 「く→くう」, 「け→けい」, 「こ→こう」, 「さ→さあ」 and so on. The reasoning for this is quite
simple. Try saying 「か」 and 「あ」 separately. Then say them in succession as fast as you
can. You'll notice that soon enough, it just sounds like you're dragging out the / ka / fora longer duration than just saying / ka / by itself. You can try this exercise with the othervowel sounds if you like. Try to remember that you are, in fact, saying two characters withblurred boundaries. In fact, you may not even have to consciously think about long vowels
and simply pronounce the letters together quickly to get the correct sound.
In addition, while the / e / vowel sound followed by 「い」 is usually considered to a longvowel sound, the pronunciation is actually a slurred connection of the / e / and / i / vowel
sounds. In other words, it should be pronounced like / ay / (as in "acorn") and not just along / e /.
It's important to make sure you hold the vowel sound long enough because you can besaying things like "here" (ここ) instead of "High School" (こうこう) or "middle-aged lady"(おばさん) instead of "grandmother" (おばあさん) if you don't stretch it out correctly!
There are rare exceptions where an / e / vowel sound is extended by adding 「え」 or an /o / vowel sound is extended by 「お」. Some examples of this include 「おねえさん」、「おおい」、and 「おおきい」. Pay careful attention to these exceptions but don't worry, there
aren't too many of them.

2.4

Katakana

2.4.1

What is Katakana?

As mentioned before, Katakana is mainly used for words imported from foreign languages.
It can also be used to emphasize certain words similar to the function of italics. For a more
complete list of usages, refer to the Wikipedia entry on katakana (http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Katakana#Usage).
Katakana represents the same set of phonetic sounds as Hiragana except all the characters
are diﬀerent. Since foreign words must ﬁt into this set of [consonants+vowel] combinations, they undergo many radical changes resulting in the case where English speakers can't
understand words that are supposed to have been derived from English! As a result, the useof Katakana is extremely diﬃcult for English speakers because they expect English words
to sound like... well... English. Instead, it is better to completely forget the original English
word, and treat the word as an entirely separate Japanese word, otherwise you can run
into the habit of saying English words with English pronunciations (whereupon a Japaneseperson may or may not understand what you are saying).

17

2.4. KATAKANAnン

CHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM

Katakana - Click for stroke order and sound
w
r
y m
h
n
t
s
k
ワ
ラ ヤ マ
ハ
ナ
タ
サ
カ
ヰ* リ
ミ
ヒ
ニ
チ
シ
キ
(chi) (shi)
ル ユ ム
フ
ヌ
ツ
ス
ク
(fu)
(tsu)
ヱ* レ
メ
ヘ
ネ
テ
セ
ケ
ヲ* ロ ヨ モ
ホ
ノ
ト
ソ
コ
(o)

ア
イ

a
i

ウ

u

エ
オ

e
o

* = obsolete or rarely used
Katakana is signiﬁcantly tougher to master compared to Hiragana because it is only used forcertain words and you don't get nearly as much practice as you do with Hiragana. To learn
the proper stroke order (and yes, you need to), here are the practice sheets for Katakana.
• Katakana tracing practice sheet• Katakana free-form practice sheet
Also, since Japanese doesn't have any spaces, sometimes the symbol 「・」 is used to show
the spaces like 「ロック・アンド・ロール」 for "rock and roll". Using the symbol is completely
optional so sometimes nothing will be used at all.
.Notes
1. All the sounds are identical to what they were for hiragana.
2. As you will ﬁnd out later, since 「を」 is only ever used as a particle and all particles
are in hiragana, you will almost never need to use 「ヲ」 and therefore it can besafely ignored. (Unless you are reading very old telegrams or something.)
3. The four characters 「シ」、 「ン」、 「ツ」、and 「ソ」 are ﬁendishly similar toeach other. Basically, the diﬀerence is that the ﬁrst two are more "horizontal" than
the second two. The little lines are slanted more horizontally and the long line isdrawn in a curve from bottom to top. The second two have almost vertical littlelines and the long line doesn't curve as much as it is drawn from top to bottom.
It is almost like a slash while the former is more like an arc. These characters are.
.
hard to sort out and require some patience and practice.
4. The characters 「ノ」 、 「メ」 、 and 「ヌ」 are also something to pay carefulattention to, as well as, 「フ」、「ワ」、 and 「ウ」. Yes, they all look very similar.
No, I can't do anything about it.
5. You must learn the correct stroke order and direction! Use the following pdf practice sheets.
• Katakana tracing practice sheet• Katakana free-form practice sheet
6. Sometimes 「・」 is used to denote what would be spaces in English.

18

CHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM

2.4.2

2.4. KATAKANAThe Long Vowel Sound

Everything else works exactly the same way as Hiragana, you just need to substitute theequivalent Katakana characters. However, one thing that is diﬀerent is that long vowels
have been radically simpliﬁed in Katakana. Instead of having to muck around thinking
about vowel sounds, all long vowel sounds are denoted by a simple dash like so: ー.
.Summary. 1. All long vowel sounds in Katakana are. denoted by a dash. For example, "cute"would be written in Katakana like so: 「キュート」.

2.4.3

The Small 「ア、イ、ウ、エ、オ」

Due to the limitations of the sound set in Hiragana, some new combinations have beendevised over the years to account for sounds that were not originally in Japanese. Most
notable is the lack of the / ti / di / and / tu / du / sounds (because of the / chi / tsu /sounds), and the lack of the / f / consonant sound except for 「ふ」 . The / sh / j / ch
/ consonants are also missing for the / e / vowel sound. The decision to resolve thesedeﬁciencies was to add small versions of the ﬁve vowel sounds. This has also been done forthe / w / consonant sound to replace the obsolete characters. In addition, the conventionof using the little double slashes on the 「ウ」 vowel (ヴ) with the small 「ア、イ、エ、オ」
to designate the / v / consonant has also been established but it's not often used probably
due to the fact that Japanese people still have diﬃculty pronouncing / v /. For instance,
while you may guess that "volume" would be pronounced with a / v / sound, the Japanese
have opted for the easier to pronounce "bolume" (ボリューム). In the same way, vodka is
written as "wokka" (ウォッカ) and not 「ヴォッカ」. You can write "violin" as either 「バイオリン」 or 「ヴァイオリン」. It really doesn't matter however because almost all Japanesepeople will pronounce it with a / b / sound anyway. The following table shows the added
sounds that were lacking with a highlight. Other sounds that already existed are reused as
appropriate.

v
ヴァ
ヴィ
ヴ
ヴェ
ヴォ

w
ワ
ウィ
ウ
ウェ
ウォ

Additional sounds
f
ch
d
t
ファ チャ
ダ
タ
フィ
チ
ディ ティ
フ
チュ ドゥ トゥ
フェ チェ
デ
テ
フォ チョ
ド
ト

19

j
ジャ
ジ
ジュ
ジェ
ジョ

sh
シャ
シ
シュ
シェ
ショ

a
i
u
e
o

2.5. KANJI

CHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM.Notes
1. Notice that there is no / wu / sound. For example, the Katakana for "woman" iswritten as "u-man" (ウーマン).
2. While the / tu / sound (as in "too") can technically be produced given the rules
as 「トゥ」 , foreign words that have become popular before these sounds wereavailable simply used / tsu / to make do. For instance, "tool" is still 「ツール」 and"tour" is similarly still 「ツアー」.
.
.
3. Back in the old days, without these new sounds, there was no choice but to justtake characters oﬀ the regular table without regard for actual pronunciation. On
old buildings, you may still see 「ビルヂング」 instead of the modern spelling 「ビルディング」 . Incidentally, this is the case for the old Shin-Maru building acrossfrom Tokyo Station where I work. It is, however, soon slated for a complete rebuild
and we will be moving out shortly. Ironically, Shin-Maru (新丸) has the character
for "new" in it (the original one was rebuilt and is now newer).

2.4.4

Some examples of words in Katakana

Translating English words into Japanese is a knack that requires quite a bit of practiceand luck. To give you a sense of how English words become "Japaniﬁed", here are a few
examples of words in Katakana. Sometimes the words in Katakana may not even be correct
English or have a diﬀerent meaning from the English word it's supposed to represent. Of
course, not all Katakana words are derived from English.
Sample Katakana Words
EnglishJapanese
Americaアメリカ
Russiaロシア
cheating
カンニング (cunning)
tour
ツアー
company employee
サラリーマン (salary man)
Mozartモーツァルトcar horn
クラクション (klaxon)
sofa
ソファor ソファー
Halloween
ハロウィーン
French fries
フライドポテト (fried potato)

2.5

Kanji

2.5.1

What is Kanji?

In Japanese, nouns and stems of adjectives and verbs are almost all written in Chinesecharacters called Kanji. Adverbs are also fairly frequently written in Kanji as well. This
20

CHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM

2.5. KANJI

means that you will need to learn Chinese characters to be able to read essentially almost
all the words in the language. Not all words are written in Kanji however. For example, whilethe verb 'to do' technically has a Kanji associated with it, it is always written in Hiragana.
Individual discretion and a sense of how things are normally written is needed to decide
whether words should be written in Hiragana or Kanji. However, a majority of the words
in Japanese will be written in Kanji almost always. (Children's books or any other material
where the audience is not expected to know a lot of Kanji is an exception to this.)This guide begins using Kanji from the beginning to help the reader read "real" Japanese as
quickly as possible. Therefore, we will go over some properties of Kanji and discuss somestrategies of learning it quickly and eﬃciently. Mastering Kanji is not easy but it is by nomeans impossible. The biggest part of the battle is mastering the skills of learning Kanji
and time. In short, memorizing Kanji past short-term memory must be done with a great
deal of study and, most importantly, for a long time. And by this, I don't mean studying
ﬁve hours a day but rather reviewing how to write a Kanji once every several months until
you are sure you have it down for good. This is another reason why this guide starts using
Kanji right away. There is no reason to dump the huge job of learning Kanji at the advanced
level. By studying Kanji along with new vocabulary from the beginning, the immense jobof learning Kanji is divided into small manageable chunks and the extra time helps settle
learned Kanji into permanent memory. In addition, this will help you learn new vocabulary,which will often have combinations of Kanji you already know. If you start learning Kanjilater, this beneﬁt will be wasted or reduced.

2.5.2

Learning Kanji

All the resources you need to begin learning Kanji are on the web for free at Jim Breen's
WWWJDIC (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwjdic.html). In addition to its huge
dictionaries, it has stroke order diagrams for the 1,945 jouyo Kanji (essentially almost all
the Kanji you will need to know). Especially for those who are just starting to learn, you will
want to repeatedly write out each Kanji to memorize the stroke order. Another importantskill is learning how to balance the character so that certain parts are not too big or small.
So make sure to copy the characters as close to the original as possible. Eventually, youwill naturally develop a sense of the stroke order for certain types of characters allowing
you to bypass the drilling stage. All the Kanji used in this guide can be easily looked up by
copying and pasting to the WWWJDIC.

2.5.3

Reading Kanji

Almost every character has two diﬀerent readings called ⾳読み (おんよみ) and 訓読み (くんよみ). ⾳読み is the original Chinese reading while 訓読み is the Japanese reading. Kanji
that appear in a compound or 熟語 is usually read with ⾳読み while one Kanji by itself isusually read with 訓読み. For example, 「⼒」(ちから) is read with the 訓読み while the samecharacter in a compound word such as 「能⼒」 is read with the ⾳読み (which is 「りょく」
in this case).
Certain characters (especially the most common ones) can have more than one ⾳読み or
訓読み. For example, in the word 「怪⼒」, 「⼒」 is read here as 「りき」 and not 「りょく」 . Certain compound words also have special readings that have nothing to do withthe readings of the individual characters. These readings must be individually memorized.
21

2.5. KANJI

CHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM

Thankfully, these readings are few and far in between.
訓読み is also used in adjectives and verbs in addition to the stand-alone characters. Thesewords often have a string of kana (called okurigana) that come attached to the word. Thisis so that the reading of the Chinese character stays the same even when the word isconjugated to diﬀerent forms. For example, the past form of the verb 「⾷べる」 is 「⾷べた」. Even though the verb has changed, the reading for 「⾷」 remain untouched. (Imagine
how diﬃcult things could get if readings for Kanji changed with conjugation or even worse,
if the Kanji itself changed.) Okurigana also serves to distinguish between intransitive andtransitive verbs (more on this later).
Another concept that is diﬃcult to grasp at ﬁrst is that the actual readings of Kanji canchange slightly in a compound word to make the word easier to say. The more common
transformations include the / h / sounds changing to either / b / or / p / sounds or 「つ」
becoming 「っ」. Examples include: 「⼀本」、「徹底」、and 「格好」.
Yet another fun aspect of Kanji you'll run into are words that practically mean the samething and use the same reading but have diﬀerent Kanji to make just a slight diﬀerence inmeaning. For example 「聞く」(きく) means to listen and so does 「聴く」(きく). The only
diﬀerence is that 「聴く」 means to pay more attention to what you're listening to. For
example, listening to music almost always prefers 「聴く」 over 「聞く」. 「聞く」 can alsomean 'to ask', as well as, "to hear" but 「訊く」(きく) can only mean "to ask". Yet anotherexample is the common practice of writing 「⾒る」 as 「観る」 when it applies to watchinga show such as a movie. Yet another interesting example is 「書く」(かく) which means"to write" while 描く (かく) means "to draw". However, when you're depicting an abstract
image such as a scene in a book, the reading of the same word 「描く」 becomes 「えがく」. There's also the case where the meaning and Kanji stays the same but can have multiple
readings such as 「今⽇」 which can be either 「きょう」、「こんじつ」, or 「こんにち」. In
this case, it doesn't really matter which reading you choose except that some are preferredover others in certain situations.
Finally, there is one special character 々that is really not a character. It simply indicates thatthe previous character is repeated. For example, 「時時」、 「様様」、 「⾊⾊」、 「⼀⼀」
can and usually are written as 「時々」、「様々」、「⾊々」、「⼀々」.
In addition to these "features" of Kanji, you will see a whole slew of delightful perks andsurprises Kanji has for you as you advance in Japanese. You can decide for yourself ifthat statement is sarcasm or not. However, don't be scared into thinking that Japanese isincredibly hard. Most of the words in the language usually only have one Kanji associatedwith it and a majority of Kanji do not have more than two types of readings.

2.5.4

Why Kanji?

Some people feel that the system of using separate, discrete symbols instead of a sensiblealphabet is out-dated and overly complicated. In fact, it might not have been a good idea toadopt Chinese into Japanese since both languages are fundamentally diﬀerent in structure.
But the purpose of this guide is not to debate over the decisions made thousands of years
ago but to explain why you must learn Kanji in order to learn Japanese. And by this, I
mean more than just saying, "That's how it's done so get over it!".
Some people feel that Japanese should have just switched from Chinese to romaji to do

22

CHAPTER 2. THE WRITING SYSTEM

2.5. KANJI

away with all the complicated characters that was bewildering the foreign white devils.
In fact, Korean has adopted their own alphabet to greatly simplify their written language
to great success. So why didn't it work for Japanese? And I ask this in the past tense
because I believe that the government did attempt to replace Kanji with romaji shortly
after the second world war with little success. I think anyone who has typed at any length
in Japanese can easily see why this did not work. At any one time, when you convert
typed Hiragana into Kanji, you are presented with almost always at least two choices (twohomophones) and sometimes even up to ten. (Try typing kikan). The 46 or so characteralphabet of set sounds in Japanese makes it hard to avoid homophones. Compare this to
the Korean alphabet which has 14 consonants and 10 vowels. Any of the consonants can bematched to any of the vowels giving 140 sounds. In addition, a third and sometimes evenfourth consonant can be attached to create a single letter. This gives over 1960 sounds thatcan be created theoretically. (The sounds that are actually used is actually much less thanthat, though I don't know the exact number.)Since you want to read at a much faster rate than you talk, you need some visual cues toinstantly tell you what each word is. You can use the shape of words in English to blaze
through text because most words have diﬀerent shapes. Try this little exercise: Hi, envethgouh all teh wrods aer seplled icorrenctly, can you sltil udsternand me?" Korean does thistoo because it has enough characters to make words with distinct and diﬀerent shapes.
However, because the visual cues are not distinct as Kanji, spaces needed to be added toremove ambiguities. (This presents another problem of when and where to set spaces.)
With Kanji, we don't have to worry about spaces and much of the problem of homophones
is mostly resolved. Without Kanji, even if spaces were to be added, the ambiguities andlack of visual cues would make Japanese text much more diﬃcult to read.

23

Chapter 3

Basic Grammar
3.1

Basic Grammatical Structures

Now that we have learned how to write Japanese, we can begin going over the basic grammatical structure of the language. This section primarily covers all the parts of speech:
nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. It will also describe how to integrate the various
parts of speech into a coherent sentence by using particles. By the end of this section, you
should have a basic understanding of how Japanese works and how thoughts are expressedin Japanese.

3.2

Expressing State-of-Being

3.2.1

Declaring something is so and so using 「だ」

One of the trickiest part of Japanese is that there is no verb for the state-of-being like theverb "to be" in English. What Japanese has instead, is a way to declare that something is
the way it is by attaching the Hiragana character 「だ」 to a noun or na-adjective only.
You'll see what this means when we learn about nouns and adjectives.
.Declaring that something is so using 「だ」
Attach 「だ」 to the noun or na-adjective.

(１)

⿂。- Fish.

(２)

⿂だ。- Is ﬁsh.

.

Seems easy enough. Here's the real kicker though.

24

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.2. EXPRESSING STATE-OF-BEING.Note.A state-of-being can be implied without .using 「だ」!
As it stands, (１) is simply the word "ﬁsh" and doesn't mean anything beyond that. However,
we'll see in the next section that with the topic particle, we can infer that something is a ﬁshfrom the context without declaring anything. So the question that should be ﬂoating aroundin your head is, "If you can say something is [X] without using 「だ」, then what's the pointof even having it around?" Well, the main diﬀerence is that a declarative statement makes
the sentence sound more emphatic and forceful in order to make it more... well declarative.
Therefore, it is more common to hear men use 「だ」 at the end of sentences. This is also
why you cannot use 「だ」 when asking a question because then it sounds like you'remaking a statement and asking a question at the same time. (Unless you're declaring aquestion word such as 「どこだ」.)
The declarative 「だ」 is also needed in various grammatical structures where a state-ofbeing must be explicitly declared. There is also the case where you must not attach it. It's
all quite a pain in the butt really but you don't have to worry about it yet.

3.2.2

Conjugating to the negative state-of-being

In Japanese, negative and past tense are all expressed by conjugation. We can conjugate anoun or adjective to either its negative or past tense to say that something is not [X] or thatsomething was [X]. This may be a bit hard to grasp at ﬁrst but none of these state-of-being
conjugations make anything declarative like 「だ」 does. We'll learn, in a later lesson, how
to make these tenses declarative by attaching 「だ」 to the end of the sentence.
First, for the negative tense, you simply attach 「じゃない」 to the noun or na-adjective.
.Conjugation rules for the negative state-of-being.

• Attach 「じゃない」 to the noun or na-adjective.
(例) 友達→

友達じゃない (is not friend)

Examples
(１)
(２)
(３)

⿂じゃない。- Is not ﬁsh.
学⽣じゃない。- Is not student.
静かじゃない。- Is not quiet.

25

3.3. INTRODUCTION TO PARTICLES

3.2.3

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

Conjugating for the past state-of-being

We will now learn the past tense of the state-of-being. To say something was something,「だった」 is attached to the noun or na-adjective.
In order to say the negative past (was not), the negative tense is conjugated to the negative
past tense by simply dropping the 「い」 from 「じゃない」 and adding 「かった」.
.Conjugation rules for the past state-of-being
1. Past state-of-being: Attach 「だった」 to the noun or na-adjective (例) 友達 →友達だった (was friend).
.
2. Negative past state-of-being: Conjugate the noun or na-adjective to the negative tense ﬁrst and then replace 「い」 of 「じゃない」 with 「かった」(例) 友達 → 友達じゃない → 友達じゃなかった (was not friend)
(１)
(２)
(３)

3.2.4

⿂だった。- Was ﬁsh.
学⽣じゃなかった。- Was not student.
静かじゃなかった。- Was not quiet.

To sum up

We've now learned how to express state-of-being in all four tenses. Next we will learnsome particles, which will allow us assign roles to words. Here is a summary chart of the
conjugations we learned in this section.

Non-Past
Past

Summary of state-of-being
Positive
Negative⿂ (だ)Is ﬁsh ⿂じゃない Is not ﬁsh
⿂だった Was ﬁsh ⿂じゃなかった Was not ﬁsh

3.3

Introduction to Particles （は、も、が）

3.3.1

Deﬁning grammatical functions with particles

We want to now make good use of what we learned in the last lesson by associating anoun with another noun. This is done with something called particles. Particles are one
or two Hiragana characters that attach to the end of a word to deﬁne what grammatical
function that word is serving in the sentence. Using the correct particles is very importantbecause the meaning of a sentence can completely change just by changing the particles.
For example, the sentence "Eat ﬁsh." can become "The ﬁsh eats." simply by changing one
particle.

26

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.3.2

3.3. INTRODUCTION TO PARTICLESThe 「は」 topic particle

The ﬁrst particle we will learn is the topic particle. The topic particle essentially identiﬁes
what it is that you're talking about, basically the topic of your sentence. Let's say a person
says, "Not student." This is a perfectly valid sentence in Japanese but it doesn't tell us
much without knowing what the sentence is talking about. The topic particle will allow us
to express what our sentences are about. The topic particle is the character 「は」. Now,
while this character is normally pronounced /ha/, it is pronounced /wa/ only when it isbeing used as the topic particle.

Example 1
ボブ： アリスは学⽣？- Are you (Alice) student?
アリス： うん、学⽣。- Yeah, I am.
Here, Bob is indicating that his question is about Alice. Notice how the 「だ」 is left out andyet the English translation has the word 'are' and 'am'. Since we know the topic is Alice,
we don't need anything else to guess that Alice is a student. In fact, since Bob is asking aquestion, he can't attach 「だ」. That would be like trying to make a statement and asking
a question at the same time.

Example 2ボブ) ジムは明⽇？- Jim is tomorrow?
アリス) 明⽇じゃない。- Not tomorrow.
Since we have no context, we don't have enough information to make any sense of thisconversation. It obviously makes no sense for Jim to actually be tomorrow. Given a context,
as long as the sentence has something to do with Jim and tomorrow, it can mean anything.
For instance, they could be talking about when an exam is being held.

Example 3アリス) 今⽇は試験だ。- Today is exam.
ボブ) ジムは？- What about Jim?
アリス) ジムは明⽇。- Jim is tomorrow. (As for Jim, the exam is tomorrow.)
We need to realize how generic the topic can really be. A topic can be referring to any
action or object from anywhere even including other sentences. For example, in the lastsentence of the conversation above, even though the sentence is about when the exam isfor Jim, the word "exam" doesn't appear anywhere in the sentence!
We'll see a more speciﬁc particle that ties more closely into the sentence at the end of thislesson with the identiﬁer particle.

27

3.3. INTRODUCTION TO PARTICLES

3.3.3

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

The 「も」 inclusive topic particle

Another particle that is very similar to the topic particle is the inclusive topic particle. It isessentially the topic particle with the additional meaning of "also". Basically, it can introduce
another topic in addition to the current topic. The inclusive topic particle is the 「も」character and its use is best explained by an example.

Example 1
ボブ： アリスは学⽣？- Are you (Alice) student?
アリス： うん、トムも学⽣。- Yes, and Tom is also student.
Notice, that Alice must be consistent with the inclusion. It would not make sense to say, "I
am a student, and Tom is also not a student." Instead, Alice would use the 「は」 particle
to remove the additional meaning of inclusion as seen in the next example.

Example 2
ボブ： アリスは学⽣？- Are you (Alice) student?
アリス： うん、でもトムは学⽣じゃない。- Yes, but Tom is not student.

Example 3This is also another possibility.
ボブ： アリスは学⽣？- Are you (Alice) student?
アリス： ううん、トムも学⽣じゃない。- No, and Tom is also not student.
So why would Alice, all of a sudden, talk about Tom when Bob is asking about Alice? Maybe
Tom is standing right next to her and she wants to include Tom in the conversation.

3.3.4

The 「が」 identiﬁer particle

Ok, so we can make a topic using the 「は」 and 「も」 particle. But what if we donʼtknow what the topic is? What if I wanted to ask, “Who is the student?”What I need is somekind of identiﬁer because I donʼt know who the student is. If I used the topic particle, thequestion would become, “Is who the student?”and that doesnʼt make any sense because“who”is not an actual person.
This is where the 「が」 particle comes into play. It is also referred to as the subject particle but I hate that name since "subject" means something completely diﬀerent in English
grammar. Instead, I move to call it the identiﬁer particle because the particle indicates thatthe speaker wants to identify something unspeciﬁed.

28

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.4. ADJECTIVES

Example 1
ボブ： 誰が学⽣？- Who is the one that is student?
アリス： ジムが学⽣。- Jim is the one who is student.
Bob wants to identify who among all the possible candidates is a student. Alice respondsthat Jim is the one. Notice, Alice could also have answered with the topic particle to indicate
that, speaking of Jim, she knows that he is a student (maybe not the student). You can see
the diﬀerence in the next example.

Example 2(１)(２)

誰が学⽣？- Who is the one that is student?
学⽣は誰？- (The) student is who?

Hopefully, you can see that (１) seeks to identify a speciﬁc person for 'student' while (２)is simply talking about the student. You cannot replace 「が」 with 「は」 in (１) because"who" would become the topic and the question would become, "Is who a student?"
The two particles 「は」 and 「が」 may seem very similar only because it is impossible
to translate the diﬀerence directly into English. For example, 「私は学⽣」 and 「私が学⽣」 both translate into, "I am student."* However, they only seem similar because English
cannot express information about the context as succinctly as Japanese sometimes can. In
the ﬁrst sentence 「私は学⽣」, since 「私」 is the topic, the sentence means, "Speaking
about me, I am a student". However, in the second sentence, 「私」 is specifying who the「学⽣」 is. If we want to know who the student is, the 「が」 particle tells us its 「私」.
You can also think about the 「が」 particle as always answering a silent question. For
example, if we have 「ジムが⿂だ」 , we are answering a question such as "Who is theﬁsh?" or "Which person is the ﬁsh?" or maybe even "What food does Jim like?" Or given thesentence, 「これが⾞」, we can be answering the question, "Which is the car?" or "What isthe car?" The 「は」 and 「が」 particles are actually quite diﬀerent if you think of it the rightway. The 「が」 particle identiﬁes a speciﬁc property of something while the 「は」 particle
is used only to bring up a new topic of conversation. This is why, in longer sentences, it iscommon to separate the topic with commas to remove ambiguity about which part of thesentence the topic applies to.
*Well technically, it's the most likely translation given the lack of context.

3.4

Adjectives

3.4.1

Properties of Adjectives

Now that we can connect two nouns together in various ways using particles, we want to describe
our nouns with adjectives. An adjective can directly modify a noun that immediately follows it. It
can also be connected in the same way we did with nouns using particles. All adjectives fall under
two categories: na-adjectives and i-adjectives. We will see how they are diﬀerent and how to usethem in sentences.

29

3.4. ADJECTIVES

3.4.2

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

The na-adjective

The na-adjective is very simple to learn because it acts essentially like a noun. In fact, they are sosimilar; you can assume that they behave the same way unless I speciﬁcally point out diﬀerences.
One main diﬀerence is that a na-adjective can directly modify a noun following it by sticking 「な」
between the adjective and noun. (Hence the name, na-adjective.)(１)

静かな⼈。- Quiet person.

In addition to this direct noun modiﬁcation which requires a 「な」, you can also say that a noun isan adjective by using the topic or identiﬁer particle in a [Noun] [Particle] [Adj] sentence structure(for instance 「⼈は静か」). This is essentially the same thing as the state-of-being with nouns that
we've already covered in the previous two sections. However, since it doesn't make sense for an
adjective to be a noun, you cannot have a [Adj] [Particle] [Noun] sentence structure (for instance「静かが⼈」). This is pretty obvious because, for instance, while a person can be quiet, it makes nosense for quiet to be a person.
(１)

友達は親切。- Friend is kind.

(２)

友達は親切な⼈。- Friend is kind person.

Remember how na-adjectives act almost exactly the same as nouns? Well, you can see this by thefollowing examples.
(１)

ボブは⿂が好きだ。- Bob likes ﬁsh.

(２)

ボブは⿂が好きじゃない。- Bob does not like ﬁsh.

(３)

ボブは⿂が好きだった。- Bob liked ﬁsh.

(４)

ボブは⿂が好きじゃなかった。- Bob did not like ﬁsh.

Do the conjugations look familiar? They should, if you paid attention to the section about state-ofbeing conjugations for nouns. If it bothers you that "like" is an adjective and not a verb in Japanese,
you can think of 「好き」 as meaning "desirable". Also, you can see a good example of the topic andidentiﬁer particle working in harmony. The sentence is about the topic "Bob" and "ﬁsh" identiﬁes
speciﬁcally what Bob likes.
You can also use the last three conjugations to directly modify the noun. (Remember to attach 「な」
for positive non-past tense.)(１)

⿂が好きなタイプ。- Type that likes ﬁsh.

(２)

⿂が好きじゃないタイプ。- Type that does not like ﬁsh.

(３)

⿂が好きだったタイプ。- Type that liked ﬁsh.

(４)

⿂が好きじゃなかったタイプ。- Type that did not like ﬁsh.

Here, the entire clause 「⿂が好き」、 「⿂が好きじゃない」、etc. is modifying "type" to talk abouttypes (of people) that like or dislike ﬁsh. You can see why this type of sentence is useful because「タイプは⿂が好きだ。」 would mean "The type likes ﬁsh", which doesn't make much sense.
We can even treat the whole descriptive noun clause as we would a single noun. For instance, we
can make the whole clause a topic like the following example.
(１)

⿂が好きじゃないタイプは、⾁が好きだ。

30

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.4. ADJECTIVES- Types (of people) who do not like ﬁsh like meat.

3.4.3

The i-adjective

The i-adjective is called that because it always ends in the hiragana character 「い」 . This is theokurigana and it is the part that will change as you conjugate the adjective. But you may know somena-adjectives that also end in 「い」 such as 「きれい (な)」. So how can you tell the diﬀerence?
The bad news is there really is no way to tell for sure. However, the really good news is that I canonly think of two examples of na-adjectives that end with 「い」 that is usually written in hiragana:「きれい」 and 「嫌い」. All other na-adjectives I can think of that end in 「い」 are usually written
in kanji and so you can easily tell that it's not an i-adjective. For instance, in the case of 「きれい」,
which is 「綺麗」 or 「奇麗」 in kanji, since the 「い」 part of 「麗」 is encased in kanji, you knowthat it can't be an i-adjective. That's because the whole point of the 「い」 in i-adjectives is to allow
conjugation without having it aﬀect the kanji. In fact, 「嫌い」 is the only na-adjective I can thinkof that ends in hiragana 「い」 without a kanji. This has to do with the fact that 「嫌い」 is actuallyderived from the verb 「嫌う」
Remember how the negative state-of-being for nouns also ended in 「い」 (じゃない)? Well, you
can treat i-adjectives in the same fashion as the negative state-of-being for nouns. And just like thenegative state-of-being for nouns, you cannot attach the declarative 「だ」 to i-adjectives like you
can with nouns or na-adjectives.

Do NOT attach 「だ」 to i-adjectives.

Now that we got that matter cleared up, we can learn the conjugation rules for i-adjectives. There
are two new rules for i-adjective conjugations. To negate or set to past tense, we ﬁrst drop the 「い」, then add 「くない」 for negation or 「かった」 for past tense. Since 「くない」 ends in an 「い」,you can also treat the negative just like another i-adjective. Therefore, the rule for conjugating tonegative past tense is the same as the rule for the positive past tense.
.Conjugation rules for i-adjectives
Negative: First remove the trailing 「い」 from the i-adjective and then attach 「くない」
例)

⾼い →⾼くない

Past-tense: First remove the trailing 「い」 from the i-adjective or negative i-adjective
and then attach 「かった」.

例)

⾼い →⾼かった例)

⾼くない →⾼くなかった.

Summary of i-adjectives
Positive
Negative
Non-Past
⾼い
⾼くない
Past
⾼かった ⾼くなかった

You can directly modify nouns by just attaching the noun to the adjective.
(１)

⾼いビル。- Tall building.

(２)

⾼くないビル。- Not tall building.

(３)

⾼かったビル。- Building that was tall.

31

3.4. ADJECTIVES(４)

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

⾼くなかったビル。- Building that was not tall.

You can also string multiple adjectives successively in any order in any form.
(１)

静かな⾼いビル。- A quiet, tall building.

(２)

⾼くない静かなビル。- A not tall, quiet building.

Note that you can make the same type of descriptive noun clause as we have done with na-adjectives.
The only diﬀerence, of course, is that we don't need 「な」 to directly modify the noun. In thefollowing example, the descriptive clause 「値段が⾼い」 is directly modifying 「レストラン」.
(１) 値段が⾼いレストランはあまり好きじゃない。
- Don't like high price restaurants very much.

3.4.4

An annoying exception

There is one i-adjective meaning "good" that acts slightly diﬀerently from all other i-adjectives. Thisis a classic case of how learning Japanese is harder for beginners because the most common anduseful words also have the most exceptions. The word for "good" was originally 「よい (良い)」 .
However, with time, it soon became 「いい」. When it is written in kanji, it is usually read as 「よい」
so 「いい」 is almost always hiragana. That's all ﬁne and good. Unfortunately, all the conjugations
are still derived from 「よい」 and not 「いい」. This is shown in the next table.
Another adjective that acts like this is 「かっこいい」 because it is an abbreviated version of twowords merged together: 「格好」 and 「いい」. Since it uses the same 「いい」, you need to use
the same conjugations.

Conjugation for 「いい」Positive
Negative
Non-Past
いい
よくない
Past
よかった よくなかった

Conjugation for 「かっこいい」
Positive
Negative
Non-Past
かっこいい
かっこよくない
Past
かっこよかった かっこよくなかった

Take care to make all the conjugations from 「よい」 not 「いい」.

Examples(１) 値段があんまりよくない。
- Price isn't very good.
(２) 彼はかっこよかった！
- He looked really cool!

32

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.5

Verb Basics

3.5.1

Role of Verbs

3.5. VERB BASICS

We've now learned how to describe nouns in various ways with other nouns and adjectives. This
gives us quite a bit of expressive power. However, we still cannot express actions. This is whereverbs come in. Verbs, in Japanese, always come at the end of clauses. Since we have not yet learned
how to create more than one clause, for now it means that any sentence with a verb must end withthe verb. We will now learn the two main categories of verbs, which will allow us to accurately deﬁnerules for conjugation. Before learning about verbs, there is one important thing to keep in mind.
.Note.A grammatically complete sentence requires. a verb only (including state of being).
Or to rephrase, unlike English, the only thing you need to make a grammatically complete sentence
is a verb and nothing else! Understanding this fundamental property is essential to understanding
Japanese. That's why even the simplest, most basic Japanese sentence cannot be translated into
English! All conjugations will start from the dictionary form (as they appear in the dictionary).
A grammatically complete sentence(１) ⾷べる。- Eat. (possible translations include: I eat/she eats/they eat)

3.5.2

Classifying verbs into ru-verbs and u-verbs

Almost all verbs in Japanese can be classiﬁed into two categories: ru-verb (⼀段動詞) and u-verbs(五段動詞). The only two verbs that are not considered to be in either category are 「する」 meaning"to do" and 「来る」 meaning "to come". Otherwise, the rules for conjugation are almost all thesame depending on what class the verb is in. The way to distinguish between these verbs is fairly
straightforward.
Remember, every verb has a string of kana called okurigana, which you can modify to conjugate
the verb. If you convert the verb to Roman characters (called 「ローマ字」 in Japanese) and it
ends in either "iru" or "eru", then it is usually a ru-verb. For example, 「⾷べる」 is romanized as"taberu" and since it ends in "eru", it is a ru-verb. Another example of a ru-verb is 「起きる」, whichromanizes to "okiru". All other verbs that do not end in "iru" or "eru" are u-verbs.
However, there is just one snag here. Notice that all ru-verbs end with 「る」 and u-verbs always
end in a / u / vowel sound. This unfortunately includes 「る」 in addition to 「つ」 、 「す」 、「く」 、 「ぐ」 、 「む」 、 「ぶ」 、 「う」 、 and 「ぬ」 ( 「死ぬ」 is the only verb that ends
in 「ぬ」 ). Even if a verb ends with 「る」 , if it does not end in "iru" or "eru", it is always anu-verb. However, there are a number of u-verbs that end in "iru" or "eru" and there is no way to
distinguish them from regular ru-verbs apart from memorization. You can refer to the appendix
at the end of this lesson for a list of such verbs. You can also refer to Jim Breen's WWWJDIC(http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/jwb/wwwjdic?1C), if you have any doubts. Ru-verb
are denoted as (v1) while u-verbs are denoted as (v5).
Because of the aural consistency in the rules, with practice, u-verbs will start to "sound" like u-verbs
and likewise for ru-verbs. Eventually, you'll be able to categorize new verbs just like that without
giving it a second thought. Or at least, that should be the intended goal.

33

3.5. VERB BASICS

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR.How to classify ru-verbs and u-verbs.

• Does not end in iru/eru → u-verb.
• Ends in iru/eru → ru-verb with some exceptions

Sample ru-verbs
Verb
ローマ字
⾷べる
taberu着るkiru
信じる
shinjiru
寝る
neru
起きる
okiru
出る
deru
掛ける
kakeru捨てる
suteru調べる shiraberu

Sample u-verbs
Verb ローマ字話すhanasu
聞く
kiku
泳ぐ
oyogu
遊ぶ
asobu
待つ
matu
飲む
nomu
直る
naoru
死ぬ
shinu
買う
kau

Neither ru-verb nor u-verb
Verb
ローマ字
する
suru
くる
kuru

ExamplesHere are some example sentences using ru-verbs, u-verbs, and exception verbs.
(１) アリスは⾷べる。- As for Alice, eat.
(２) ジムが遊ぶ。- Jim is the one that plays.
(３) ボブもする。- Bob also do.
(４) お⾦がある。- There is money. (lit: As for money, it exists.)(５) 私は買う。- As for me, buy.
(６) 猫はいる。- There is cat. (lit: As for cat, it exists.)

3.5.3

Appendix: iru/eru u-verbs

Here is a list of commonly used u-verbs that end in "iru" or "eru". This list is categorized roughly
into three levels to help you focus on the verbs you need to learn. This list is not intended to include
every verb under the sun.

iru/eru u-verbs grouped (roughly) by level
Basic
Intermediate
Advanced
要る
焦る
嘲る
帰る
限る
覆る
切る
蹴る
遮る
しゃべる
滑る
罵る
知る
握る
捻る
⼊る
練る
翻る
⾛る
参る
滅⼊る
減る
交じる
蘇る

34

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.6

3.6. NEGATIVE VERBS

Negative Verbs

Now that we've seen how to declare things and perform actions with verbs, we want to be able tosay the negative. In other words, we want to say that such-and-such action was not performed.
Verbs are negated by conjugating to their negative form just like the state-of-being for nouns andadjectives. However, the rules are a tad more complicated.

3.6.1

Conjugating verbs into the negative

We will now make use of the verb classiﬁcations we learned in the last section to deﬁne the rules
for conjugation. But before we get into that, we need to cover one very important exception to thenegative conjugation rules, the verb 「ある」. 「ある」 is an u-verb used to express existence of
inanimate objects.
For example, if you wanted to say that a chair is in the room, you would use the verb 「ある」 .
The equivalent verb for animate objects (such as people or animals) is 「いる」, which is a normal
ru-verb. For example, if you wanted to say that a person is in the room, you must use the verb
「いる not 「ある」. These two verbs 「ある」 and 「いる」 are quite diﬀerent from all other verbs
because they describe existence and are not an actual action. You also have to go through thebother of picking the right one for inanimate and animate objects.
Anyway, the reason I bring it up here is because the negative of 「ある」 is 「ない」 (meaningthat something does not exist). Remember, this is an exception so do not apply the normal rules ofnegation to this verb.

The negative of 「ある」 is 「ない」.

Here are the rules for all other verbs. To negate a ru-verb, you simply drop 「る」 and add 「ない」
. For u-verbs, it may be helpful to see the romanized version of the verb. You simply drop the / u /vowel sound and add "anai". Or, more preferably, you can refer back to the hiragana table. You takethe last hiragana character which will always be in the / u / row, move up two columns and replace
it with the character in the / a / row. For example 「く」 changes to 「か」.
One important exception to this rule is for verbs that end in 「う」. You must substitute 「わ」 for「う」 and not 「あ」 as the rule would suggest. You will also have to memorize the conjugations forthe two exception verbs and 「ある」. The following tables show the conjugation for sample verbs
and the exception verbs.
.How to conjugate verbs to the negative form
• ru-verbs: To conjugate ru-verbs to their negative, drop the last 「る」 and attach 「ない」 to the result.
例) ⾒る →⾒ない例) 出る →出ない.

.
• u-verbs: To conjugate u-verbs to their negative,
ﬁrst replace the last / u / character withthe / a / sound equivalent and attach 「ない」 to the result.
例) 飲む →飲ま →飲まない
例) 待つ →待た →待たない※ One important exception is verbs that end in 「う」. For
these, you must replace 「う」 with 「わ」 (not 「あ」) and attach 「ない」 to the result.
例) 拾う →拾わ →拾わない35

3.7. PAST TENSE

Sample ru-verbs
Positive Negative
⾷べる
⾷べない
着る
着ない
信じる
信じない
寝る
寝ない
起きる
起きない
出る
出ない
掛ける
掛けない
捨てる
捨てない
調べる
調べない

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

Positive
話す
聞く
泳ぐ
遊ぶ
待つ
飲む
直る
死ぬ
＊買う

Sample u-verbs
Negative ローマ字 ローマ字 (Neg)
話さないhanasuhanasanai
聞かないkiku
kikanai
泳がないoyogu
oyoganai
遊ばない
asobu
asobanai
待たないmatu
matanai
飲まないnomu
nomanai
直らないnaoru
naoranai
死なないshinu
shinanai買わないkaukawanai

Exception Verbs
Positive Negativ
する
しない
くる
こない
＊ある
ない

＊ = exceptions particular to this conjugation

ExamplesHere are some example sentences using the negative form. To look these words up, use the link
labeled "Translate Words in Japanese Text" from the WWWJDIC or just click here (http://www.csse.
monash.edu.au/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/jwb/wwwjdic?9T). It will reverse the conjugation and give you thedictionary form. (And even what conjugations were used to boot!) Here are the example sentencesfrom the last section conjugated to the negative.
(１)
(２)
(３)
(４)
(５)
(６)

アリスは⾷べない。- As for Alice, does not eat.
ジムが遊ばない。- Jim is the one that does not play.
ボブもしない。- Bob also does not do.
お⾦がない。- There is no money. (lit: Money is the thing that does not exist.)
私は買わない。- As for me, not buy.
猫はいない。- There is no cat. (lit: As for cat, does not exist.)

3.7

Past Tense

We will ﬁnish deﬁning all the basic properties of verbs by learning how to express the past andpast-negative tense of actions. I will warn you in advance that the conjugation rules in this section
will be the most complex rules you will learn in all of Japanese. On the one hand, once you havethis section nailed, all other rules of conjugation will seem simple. On the other hand, you mightneed to refer back to this section many times before you ﬁnally get all the rules. You will probably
need a great deal of practice until you can become familiar with all the diﬀerent conjugations.

3.7.1

Past tense for ru-verbs

We will start oﬀ with the easy ru-verb category. To change a ru-verb from the dictionary form into
the past tense, you simply drop the 「る」 and add 「た」.

36

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.7. PAST TENSE.To change ru-verbs into the past tense.

Drop the 「る」 part of the ru-verb and add 「た」.
例) 出る →出た
例) 捨てる →捨てた

Examples(１) ご飯は、⾷べた。
- As for meal, ate.
(２) 映画は、全部⾒た。
- As for movie, saw them all.

3.7.2

Past tense for u-verbs

Changing a u-verb from dictionary form to the past tense is diﬃcult because we must break up
u-verbs into four additional categories. These four categories depend on the last character of theverb. The table below illustrates the diﬀerent sub-categories. In addition, there is one exception to
the rules, which is the verb 「⾏く」. I've bundled it with the regular exception verbs 「する」 and「来る」 even though 「⾏く」 is a regular u-verb in all other conjugations.

Past tense conjugations for u-verbs
Ending Non-Past changes to...
Past
す
話す
す→した
話した
く
書く
く→いた
書いた
ぐ
泳ぐ
ぐ→いだ
泳いだ
む
噛む
む→んだ
噛んだ
ぬ
死ぬ
ぬ→んだ
死んだ
ぶ
遊ぶ
ぶ→んだ
遊んだ
る
切る
る→った
切った
つ
持つ
つ→った
持った
う
買う
う→った
買った

* exceptions particular to this conjugation

Examples(１) 今⽇は、⾛った。
- As for today, ran.
(２) 友達が来た。
- Friend is the one that came.
(３) 私も遊んだ。
- I also played.

37

Exceptions
Non-Past
Past
する
した
くる
きた
⾏く
⾏った*

3.8. PARTICLES USED WITH VERBSCHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR(４) 勉強は、した。
- About homework, did it.

3.7.3

Past-negative tense for all verbs

The conjugation rules for the past-negative tense are the same for all verbs. You might have noticed
that the negative tense of just about everything always end in 「ない」. The conjugation rule forthe past-negative tense of verbs is pretty much the same as all the other negative tenses that end
in 「ない」. You simply take the negative tense of any verb, remove the 「い」 from the 「ない」
ending, and replace it with 「かった」.
.To change verbs into the past-negative tense.

Change the verb to the negative tense and replace the 「い」 with 「かった」.
例) 捨てる →捨てない →捨てなかった例) ⾏く →⾏かない →⾏かなかった

Examples(１) アリスは⾷べなかった。
- As for Alice, did not eat.
(２) ジムがしなかった。
- Jim is the one that did not do.
(３) ボブも⾏かなかった。
- Bob also did not go.
(４) お⾦がなかった。
- There was no money. (lit: As for money, did not exist.)(５) 私は買わなかった。
- As for me, did not buy.
(６) 猫はいなかった。
- There was no cat. (lit: As for cat, did not exist.)

3.8

Particles used with verbs （を、に、へ、で）In this section, we will learn some new particles essential for using verbs. We will learn how to
specify the direct object of a verb and the location where a verb takes place whether it's physical or
abstract.

38

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.8.1

3.8. PARTICLES USED WITH VERBS

The direct object 「を」 particle

The ﬁrst particle we will learn is the object particle because it is a very straightforward particle. The「を」 character is attached to the end of a word to signify that that word is the direct object of theverb. This character is essentially never used anywhere else. That is why the katakana equivalent「ヲ」 is almost never used since particles are always written in hiragana. The 「を」 character, while
technically pronounced as /wo/ essentially sounds like /o/ in real speech. Here are some examplesof the direct object particle in action.

Examples(１) ⿂を⾷べる。
- Eat ﬁsh.
(２) ジュースを飲んだ。
- Drank juice.
Unlike the direct object we're familiar with in English, places can also be the direct object of motion
verbs such as 「歩く」 and 「⾛る」 . Since the motion verb is done to the location, the conceptof direct object is the same in Japanese. However, as you can see by the next examples, it oftentranslates to something diﬀerent in English due to the slight diﬀerence of the concept of direct object.
(３) 街をぶらぶら歩く。
- Aimlessly walk through town. (Lit: Aimlessly walk town)(４) ⾼速道路を⾛る。
- Run through expressway. (Lit: Run expressway)
When you use 「する」 with a noun, the 「を」 particle is optional and you can treat the whole[noun+ する] as one verb.
(５) 毎⽇、⽇本語を勉強する。
- Study Japanese everyday.
(６) メールアドレスを登録した。
- Registered email address.

3.8.2

The target 「に」 particle

The 「に」 particle can specify a target of a verb. This is diﬀerent from the 「を」 particle in which
the verb does something to the direct object. With the 「に」 particle, the verb does something
toward the word associated with the 「に」 particle. For example, the target of any motion verb isspeciﬁed by the 「に」 particle.

Examples(１) ボブは⽇本に⾏った。
- Bob went to Japan.
(２) 家に帰らない。
- Not go back home.

39

3.8. PARTICLES USED WITH VERBSCHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR(３) 部屋にくる。
- Come to room.
As you can see in example (３), the target particle always targets "to" rather than "from". If you
wanted to say, "come from" for example, you would need to use 「から」, which means "from". If
you used 「に」, it would instead mean "come to". 「から」 is also often paired with 「まで」, whichmeans "up to".
(４) アリスは、アメリカからきた。
- Alice came from America.
(５) 宿題を今⽇から明⽇までする。
- Will do homework from today to tomorrow.
The idea of a target in Japanese is very general and is not restricted to motion verbs. For example,
the location of an object is deﬁned as the target of the verb for existence (ある and いる). Time isalso a common target. Here are some examples of non-motion verbs and their targets(６) 猫は部屋にいる。
- Cat is in room.
(７) 椅⼦が台所にあった。
- Chair was in the kitchen.
(８) いい友達に会った。
- Met good friend.
(９) ジムは医者になる。
- Jim will become doctor.
(１０) 先週に図書館に⾏った。
- Went to library last week.
Note: Don't forget to use 「ある」 for inanimate objects such as the chair and 「いる」 for animate
objects such as the cat.
While the 「に」 particle is not always required to indicate time, there is a slight diﬀerence in meaning
between using the target particle and not using anything at all. In the following examples, the target
particle makes the date a speciﬁc target emphasizing that the friend will go to Japan at that time.
Without the particle, there is no special emphasis.
(１１) 友達は、来年、⽇本に⾏く。
- Next year, friend go to Japan.
(１２) 友達は、来年に⽇本に⾏く。
- Friend go to Japan next year.

3.8.3

The directional 「へ」 particle

While 「へ」 is normally pronounced /he/, when it is being used as a particle, it is always pronounced/e/ (え). The primary diﬀerence between the 「に」 and 「へ」 particle is that 「に」 goes to atarget as the ﬁnal, intended destination (both physical or abstract). The 「へ」 particle, on the other
hand, is used to express the fact that one is setting out towards the direction of the target. As aresult, it is only used with directional motion verbs. It also does not guarantee whether the target isthe ﬁnal intended destination, only that one is heading towards that direction. In other words, the「に」 particle sticks to the destination while the 「へ」 particle is fuzzy about where one is ultimately

40CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.8. PARTICLES USED WITH VERBS

headed. For example, if we choose to replace 「に」 with 「へ」 in the ﬁrst three examples of theprevious section, the nuance changes slightly.

Examples(１) ボブは⽇本へ⾏った。
- Bob headed towards Japan.
(２) 家へ帰らない。
- Not go home toward house.
(３) 部屋へくる。
- Come towards room.
Note that we cannot use the 「へ」 particle with verbs that have no physical direction. For example,
the following is incorrect.
(誤) 医者へなる。
- (Grammatically incorrect version of 「医者になる」.)
This does not mean to say that 「へ」 cannot set out towards an abstract concept. In fact, becauseof the fuzzy directional meaning of this particle, the 「へ」 particle can also be used to talk about
setting out towards certain future goals or expectations.
(４) 勝ちへ向かう。
- Go towards victory.

3.8.4

The contextual 「で」 particle

The 「で」 particle will allow us to specify the context in which the action is performed. For example,
if a person ate a ﬁsh, where did he eat it? If a person went to school, by what means did she go?
With what will you eat the soup? All of these questions can be answered with the 「で」 particle.
Here are some examples.

Examples(１) 映画館で⾒た。
- Saw at movie theater.
(２) バスで帰る。
- Go home by bus.
(３) レストランで昼ご飯を⾷べた。
- Ate lunch at restaurant.
It may help to think of 「で」 as meaning "by way of". This way, the same meaning will kindof translate into what the sentence means. The examples will then read: "Saw by way of movie
theater", "Go home by way of bus", and "Ate lunch by way of restaurant."

41

3.8. PARTICLES USED WITH VERBSCHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

Using 「で」 with 「何」
The word for "what" (何) is quite annoying because while it's usually read as 「なに」, sometimes it
is read as 「なん」 depending on how it's used. And since it's always written in Kanji, you can't tellwhich it is. I would suggest sticking with 「なに」 until someone corrects you for when it should be「なん」. With the 「で」 particle, it is read as 「なに」 as well. (Hold the mouse cursor over theword to check the reading.)(４) 何できた？
- Came by the way of what?
(５) バスできた。
- Came by the way of bus.
Here's the confusing part. There is a colloquial version of the word "why" that is used much more
often than the less colloquial version 「どうして」 or the more forceful 「なぜ」. It is also written as「何で」 but it is read as 「なんで」. This is a completely separate word and has nothing to do with
the 「で」 particle.
(１) 何できた？
- Why did you come?
(２) 暇だから。
- Because I am free (as in have nothing to do).
The 「から」 here meaning "because" is diﬀerent from the 「から」 we just learned and will becovered later in the compound sentence section. Basically the point is that the two sentences, while
written the same way, are read diﬀerently and mean completely diﬀerent things. Don't worry. This
causes less confusion than you think because 95% of the time, the latter is used rather than theformer. And even when 「なにで」 is intended, the context will leave no mistake on which one isbeing used. Even in this short example snippet, you can tell which it is by looking at the answer tothe question.

3.8.5

When location is the topic

There are times when the location of an action is also the topic of a sentence. You can attach the
topic particle (「は」 and 「も」) to the three particles that indicate location (「に」、「へ」、「で」) when the location is the topic. We'll see how location might become the topic in the following
examples.

Example 1
ボブ： 学校に⾏った？
- [Did you] go to school?
アリス： ⾏かなかった。
- Didn't go.
ボブ： 図書館には？
- What about library?
アリス： 図書館にも⾏かなかった。
- Also didn't go to library.

42CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.9. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

In this example, Bob brings up a new topic (library) and so the location becomes the topic. The
sentence is actually an abbreviated version of「図書館には⾏った？」 which you can ascertain from the context.

Example 2
ボブ： どこで⾷べる？
- Eat where?
アリス： イタリアレストランではどう？
- How about Italian restaurant?
Bob asks, "Where shall we eat?" and Alice suggests an Italian restaurant. A sentence like, "Howabout..." usually brings up a new topic because the person is suggesting something new. In thiscase, the location (restaurant) is being suggested so it becomes the topic.

3.8.6

When direct object is the topic

The direct object particle is diﬀerent from particles related to location in that you cannot use anyother particles at the same time. For example, going by the previous section, you might haveguessed that you can say 「をは」 to express a direct object that is also the topic but this is not
the case. A topic can be a direct object without using the 「を」 particle. In fact, putting the 「を」particle in will make it wrong.

Examples(１) ⽇本語を習う。
- Learn Japanese.
(２) ⽇本語は、習う。
- About Japanese, (will) learn it.
Please take care to not make this mistake.
(誤) ⽇本語をは、習う。
- [This is incorrect.]

3.9

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

In Japanese, sometimes there are two types of the same verb often referred to as transitive andintransitive verbs. The diﬀerence between the two is that one verb is an action done by an active
agent while the other is something that occurs without a direct agent. In English, this is sometimes
expressed with the same verb, such as: "The ball dropped" vs "I dropped the ball" but in JapaneseSometimes, the verbs changes when
it becomes 「ボールが落ちた」 vs 「ボールを落とした」.
translated into English such as "To put it in the box" (箱に⼊れる) vs "To enter the box" (箱に⼊る) but
this is only from the diﬀerences in the languages. If you think in Japanese, intransitive and transitive
verbs have the same meaning except that one indicates that someone had a direct hand in the action(direct object) while the other does not. While knowing theterminology is not important, it isimportant to know which is which in order to use the correct particle for the correct verb.

43

3.9. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBSCHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

Since the basic meaning and the kanji is the same, you can learn two verbs for the price of just one
kanji! Let's look at a sample list of intransitive and transitive verbs.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive
Intransitive落とす
to drop 落ちる to fall出す
to take out 出る to come out; to leave
⼊れる
to insert ⼊る to enter開ける
to open 開く to be opened
閉める
to close 閉まる to be closed
つける
to attach つく to be attached消すto erase 消える to disappear
抜く
to extract 抜ける to be extracted

3.9.1

Pay attention to particles!

The important lesson to take away here is to learn how to use the correct particle for the correct type of verb. It might be diﬃcult at ﬁrst to grasp which is which when learning new verbs
or whether there even is a transitive/intransitive distinction. The good news is that the WWWJDIC(http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwjdic.html) now indicates whether a verb is transitive (vt)or intransitive (vi) when the distinction applies. However, I have not tested how extensive thecoverage is so I recommend looking at examples sentences from either the WWWJDIC (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwjdic.html) or Yahoo! 辞書 (http://dic.yahoo.co.jp/). For example, looking at example sentences for 「つける」 from the WWWJDIC (http://www.csse.monash.
edu.au/~jwb/cgi-bin/wwwjdic.cgi?1Q%C9%D5%A4%B1%A4%EB_1_) or Yahoo! 辞書 (http://dic.yahoo.co.
jp/dsearch?enc=UTF-8&p=%E3%81%A4%E3%81%91%E3%82%8B&stype=0&dtype=3), you can see that it is atransitive verb from the use of the 「を」 particle.

Examples
(１)
(２)
(３)
(４)
(５)
(６)

私が電気をつけた。- I am the one that turned on the lights.
電気がついた。- The lights turned on.
電気を消す。- Turn oﬀ the lights.
電気が消える。- Lights turn oﬀ.
誰が窓を開けた？- Who opened the window?
窓がどうして開いた？- Why has the window opened?

The important thing to remember is that intransitive verbs cannot have a direct object because there
is no direct acting agent. The following sentences are grammatically incorrect.
(誤)
(誤)
(誤)

電気をついた。- (「を」 should be replaced with 「が」 or 「は」)電気を消える。- (「を」 should be replaced with 「が」 or 「は」)どうして窓を開いた？- (「を」 should be replaced with 「が」 or 「は」)The only time you can use the 「を」 particle for intransitive verbs is when a location is the direct
object of a motion verb as brieﬂy described in the previous section.
(１)

部屋を出た。- I left room.

44

CHAPTER 3. BASIC3.10.
GRAMMARDESCRIPTIVE SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AND SENTENCE ORDER

3.10

Descriptive Subordinate Clauses and Sentence Order

3.10.1Treating verbs and state-of-being like adjectives

Have you noticed how, many forms of verbs and the state-of-being conjugate in a similar manner
to i-adjectives? Well, that is because, in a sense, they are adjectives. For example, consider thesentence: "The person who did not eat went to bank." The "did not eat" describes the person and inJapanese, you can directly modify the noun 'person' with the clause 'did not eat' just like a regular
adjective. This very simple realization will allow us to modify a noun with any arbitrary verb phrase!

3.10.2Using state-of-being subclauses as adjectives

The negative, past, and negative past conjugations of verbs can be used just like adjectives todirectly modify nouns. However, we cannot do this with the plain non-past state-of-being using「だ」. (I told you this was a pain in the butt.) The language has particles for this purpose, which
will be covered in the next section.
.Note
You
cannot use 「だ」 to directly modify a noun
with a noun like you can with 「だった」.
.
、「じゃない」、and 「じゃなかった」.
You can, however, have a string of nouns placed together when they're not meant to modify eachother. For example, in a phrase such as "International Education Center" you can see that it is just astring of nouns without any grammatical modiﬁcations between them. It's not an "Education Center
that is International" or a "Center for International Education", etc., it's just "International Education
Center". In Japanese, you can express this as simply 「国際教育センタ」 (or 「センター」). You will see
this chaining of nouns in many combinations. Sometimes a certain combination is so commonly usedthat it has almost become a separate word and is even listed as a separate entry in some dictionaries.
Some examples include: 「登場⼈物」 、 「⽴⼊禁⽌」 、 or 「通勤⼿当」 . If you have diﬃculties inﬁguring out where to separate the words, you can paste them into the WWWJDICs Translate Words
in Japanese Text (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/jwb/wwwjdic?9T) function and it'll
parse the words for you (most of the time).

ExamplesHere are some examples of direct noun modiﬁcations with a conjugated noun clause. The noun
clause has been highlighted.
(１) 学⽣じゃない⼈は、学校に⾏かない。
- Person who is not student do not go to school.
(２) ⼦供だったアリスが⽴派な⼤⼈になった。
- The Alice that was a child became a ﬁne adult.
(３) 友達じゃなかったアリスは、いい友達になった。
- Alice who was not a friend, became a good friend.
(４) 先週に医者だったボブは、仕事を辞めた。
- Bob who was a doctor last week quit his job.

45

3.10. DESCRIPTIVE SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AND SENTENCE
CHAPTER
ORDER
3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.10.3Using subordinate verb clauses as adjectives

Verbs clauses can also be used just like adjectives to modify nouns. The following examples show
us how this will allow us to make quite detailed and complicated sentences. The verb clause ishighlighted.

Examples(１) 先週に映画を⾒た⼈は誰？
- Who is person who watched movie last week?
(２) ボブは、いつも勉強する⼈だ。
- Bob is a person who always studies.
(３) ⾚いズボンを買う友達はボブだ。
- Friend who buy red pants is Bob.
(４) 晩ご飯を⾷べなかった⼈は、映画で⾒た銀⾏に⾏った。
- Person who did not eat dinner went to the bank she saw at movie.

3.10.4

Japanese Sentence Order

Now that we've learned the concept of subordinate clauses and how they are used as building
blocks to make sentences, I can go over how Japanese sentence ordering works. There's this myththat keeps ﬂoating around about Japanese sentence order that continues to plague many haplessbeginners to Japanese. Here's how it goes.
The most basic sentence structure in English can be described as consisting of the following elementsin this speciﬁc order: [Subject] [Verb] [Object]. A sentence is not grammatically correct if any of
those elements are missing or out of order.
Japanese students will tell you that Japanese, on the other hand, while frothing at the mouth, iscompletely backwards!! Even some Japanese teacher might tell you that the basic Japanese sentenceorder is [Subject] [Object] [Verb]. This is a classic example of trying to ﬁt Japanese into an Englishbased type of thinking. Of course, we all know (right?) that the real order of the fundamental
Japanese sentence is: [Verb]. Anything else that comes before the verb doesn't have to come inany particular order and nothing more than the verb is required to make a complete sentence. In
addition, the verb must always come at the end. That's the whole point of even having particles sothat they can identify what grammatical function a word serves no matter where it is in the sentence.
In fact, nothing will stop us from making a sentence with [Object] [Subject] [Verb] or just [Object][Verb]. The following sentences are all complete and correct because the verb is at the end of thesentence.

Grammatically complete and correctly ordered sentences
(１)
(２)
(３)
(４)
(５)

私は公園でお弁当を⾷べた。
公園で私はお弁当を⾷べた。
お弁当を私は公園で⾷べた。
弁当を⾷べた。
⾷べた。

46

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.11. NOUN-RELATED PARTICLESSo don't sweat over whether your sentence is in the correct order. Just remember the following
rules.
.Japanese sentence order
1. A complete sentence requires a main verb that must come at the end. This also includes
the implied state-of-being.
例) ⾷べた.
例) 学⽣ (だ).
2. Complete sentences (subordinate clauses) can be used to modify nouns to make sentenceswith nested subordinate clauses. (Except for one exception, see above)例) お弁当を⾷べた学⽣が公園に⾏った。

3.11

Noun-related Particles （と、や、とか、の）

3.11.1The last three particles (Not!)

We have already gone over very powerful constructs that can express almost anything we want. We
will see the 「の」 particle will give us even more power by allowing us to deﬁne a generic, abstract
noun. We will also learn how to modify nouns directly with nouns. The three particles we will covercan group nouns together in diﬀerent ways.
This is the last lesson that will be speciﬁcally focused on particles but that does not mean that there
are no more particles to learn. We will learn many more particles along the way but they may not belabeled as such. As long as you know what they mean and how to use them, it is not too important
to know whether they are particles or not.

3.11.2The Inclusive 「と」 particle

The 「と」 particle is similar to the 「も」 particle in that it contains a meaning of inclusion. It can
combine two or more nouns together to mean "and".
(１)(２)

スプーンとフォークで⿂を⾷べた。- Ate ﬁsh by means of fork and spoon.
本と雑誌と葉書を買った。- Bought book, magazine, and post card.

Another similar use of the 「と」 particle is to show an action that was done together with someone
or something else.
(１)(２)

友達と話した。- Talked with friend.
先⽣と会った。- Met with teacher.

3.11.3The Vague Listing 「や」 and 「とか」 particles

The 「や」 particle, just like the 「と」 particle, is used to list one or more nouns except that it
is much more vague than the 「と」 particle. It implies that there may be other things that are47

3.11. NOUN-RELATED PARTICLESCHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

unlisted and that not all items in the list may apply. In English, you might think of this as an "and/or,
etc." type of listing.
(１) 飲み物やカップやナプキンは、 いらない？- You don't need (things like) drink, cup, or napkin,etc.?
(２) 靴やシャツを買う。- Buy (things like) shoes and shirt, etc...
「とか」 also has the same meaning as 「や」 but is a slightly more colloquial expression.
(１) 飲み物とかカップとかナプキンは、いらない？- You don't need (things like) drink, cup, or napkin,etc.?
(２) 靴とかシャツを買う。- Buy (things like) shoes and shirt, etc...

3.11.4

The 「の」 particle

The 「の」 particle has many uses and it is a very powerful particle. It is introduced here because
like the 「と」 and 「や」 particle, it can be used to connect one or more nouns. Let's look at a few
examples.
(１)(２)

ボブの本。- Book of Bob.
本のボブ。- Bob of book.

The ﬁrst sentence essentially means, "Bob's book." (not a bible chapter). The second sentencemeans, "Book's Bob" which is probably a mistake. I've translated (１) as "book of Bob" because the「の」 particle doesn't always imply possession as the next example shows.
(１)

ボブは、アメリカの⼤学の学⽣だ。- Bob is student of college of America.

In normal English, this would translate to, "Bob is a student of an American college." The order of
modiﬁcation is backwards so Bob is a student of a college that is American. 「学⽣の⼤学のアメリカ」
means "America of college of student" which is probably an error and makes little sense. (Americaof student's college?)
The noun that is being modiﬁed can be omitted if the context clearly indicates what is being omitted.
The following highlighted redundant words can be omitted.
(１) そのシャツは誰のシャツ？- Whose shirt is that shirt?
(２) ボブのシャツだ。- It is shirt of Bob.
to become:(１) そのシャツは誰の？- Whose shirt is that?
(２) ボブのだ。- It is of Bob.
( 「その」 is an abbreviation of 「それ + の」 so it directly modiﬁes the noun because the 「の」particle is intrinsically attached. Other words include 「この」 from 「これの」 and 「あの」 from
「あれの」.)
The 「の」 particle in this usage essentially replaces the noun and takes over the role as a noun
itself. We can essentially treat adjectives and verbs just like nouns by adding the 「の」 particle toit. The particle then becomes a generic noun, which we can treat just like a regular noun.
(１) ⽩いのは、かわいい。- Thing that is white is cute.
(２) 授業に⾏くのを忘れた。- Forgot the event of going to class.
Now we can use the direct object, topic, and identiﬁer particle with verbs and adjectives. We don'tnecessarily have to use the 「の」 particle here. We can use the noun 「物」, which is a genericobject or 「こと」 for a generic event. For example, we can also say:(１) ⽩い物は、かわいい。- Thing that is white is cute.
(２) 授業に⾏くことを忘れた。- Forgot the thing of going to class.

48

CHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

3.11. NOUN-RELATED PARTICLES

However, the 「の」 particle is very useful in that you don't have to specify a particular noun. In thenext examples, the 「の」 particle is not replacing any particular noun, it just allows us to modify
verb and adjective clauses like noun clauses. The subordinate clauses are highlighted.
(１) 毎⽇勉強するのは⼤変。- The thing of studying every day is tough.
(２) 毎⽇同じ物を⾷べるのは、⾯⽩くない。- It's not interesting to eat same thing every day.
You might have noticed that the word 「同じ」 is directly modifying 「物」 even though it obviously
isn't an i-adjective. I have no idea why this is possible. One explanation might be that it is actuallyan adverb, which we will soon learn doesn't require any particles.
Otherwise, even when substituting 「の」 for a noun, you still need the 「な」 to modify the noun
when a na-adjective is being used.
(１) 静かな部屋が、アリスの部屋だ。- Quiet room is room of Alice.
becomes:(１) 静かなのが、アリスの部屋だ。- Quiet one is room of Alice.
*Warning: This may make things seem like you can replace any arbitrary nouns with 「の」 but thisis not so. It is important to realize that the sentence must be about the clause and not the noun thatwas replaced. For example, in the last section we had the sentence, 「学⽣じゃない⼈は、 学校に⾏かない」. You may think that you can just replace 「⼈」 with 「の」 to produce 「学⽣じゃないのは、学校に⾏かない」. But in fact, this makes no sense because the sentence is now about the clause "Isnot student". The sentence becomes, "The thing of not being student does not go to school" whichis complete gibberish because not being a student is a state and it doesn't make sense for a state
to go anywhere much less school.

3.11.5

The 「の」 particle as explanation

The 「の」 particle attached at the end of the last clause of a sentence can also convey an explanatory
tone to your sentence. For example, if someone asked you if you have time, you might respond,"The thing is I'm kind of busy right now." The abstract generic noun of "the thing is..." can also be
expressed with the 「の」 particle. This type of sentence has an embedded meaning that explains
the reason(s) for something else.
The sentence would be expressed like so:(１) 今は忙しいの。- The thing is that (I'm) busy now.
This sounds very soft and feminine. In fact, adult males will almost always add a declarative 「だ」
unless they want to sound cute for some reason.
(２)

今は忙しいのだ。- The thing is that (I'm) busy now.

However, since the declarative 「だ」 cannot be used in a question, the same 「の」 in questions do
not carry a feminine tone at all and is used by both males and females.
(３)

今は忙しいの？- Is it that (you) are busy now? (gender-neutral)

To express state of being, when the 「の」 particle is used to convey this explanatory tone, we needto add 「な」 to distinguish it from the 「の」 particle that simply means "of".
(１) ジムのだ。- It is of Jim. (It is Jim's.)(２) ジムなのだ。- It is Jim (with explanatory tone).
Besides this one case, everything else remains the same as before.
In actuality, while this type of explanatory tone is used all the time, 「のだ」 is usually substitutedby 「んだ」 . This is probably due to the fact that 「んだ」 is easier to say than 「のだ」 . This
grammar can have what seems like many diﬀerent meaning because not only can it be used with49

3.11. NOUN-RELATED PARTICLESCHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR

all forms of adjectives, nouns, and verbs it itself can also be conjugated just like the state of being.
A conjugation chart will show you what this means.
There's really nothing new here. The ﬁrst chart is just adding 「んだ」 (or 「なんだ」) to a conjugatedverb, noun, or adjective. The second chart adds 「んだ」 (or 「なんだ」) to a non-conjugated verb,
noun, adjective and then conjugates the 「だ」 part of 「んだ」 just like a regular state of being fornouns and na-adjectives. Just don't forget to attach the 「な」 for nouns as well as na-adjectives.
「んだ」 attached to diﬀerent conjugations (You may substitute 「の」 or 「のだ」 for 「んだ」)
Noun/Na-Adj
Verb/I-Adj
Plain
学⽣なんだ
飲むんだ
Negative
学⽣じゃないんだ
飲まないんだ
Past
学⽣だったんだ
飲んだんだ
Past-Neg 学⽣じゃなかったんだ
飲まなかったんだ「んだ」 itself is conjugated (You may substitute 「の」 for 「ん」 and 「の」 or 「のだ」 for 「んだ」)
Noun/Na-Adj
Verb/I-Adj
Plain
学⽣なんだ
飲むんだ
Negative
学⽣なんじゃない
飲むんじゃない
Past
学⽣なんだった
飲むんだったPast-Neg 学⽣なんじゃなかった
飲むんじゃなかった
I would say that the past and past-negative forms for noun/na-adjective in the second chart arealmost never used (especially with 「の」) but they are presented for completeness.
The crucial diﬀerence between using the explanatory 「の」 and not using anything at all is that you
are telling the listener, "Look, here's the reason" as opposed to simply imparting new information.
For example, if someone asked you, "Are you busy now?" you can simply answer, 「今は忙しい」.
However, if someone asked you, "How come you can't talk to me?" since you obviously have some
explaining to do, you would answer, 「今は忙しいの」 or 「今は忙しいんだ」 . This grammar isindispensable for seeking explanations in questions. For instance, if you want to ask, "Hey, isn't itlate?" you can't just ask, 「遅くない？」 because that means, "It's not late?" You need to indicatethat you are seeking explanation in the form of 「遅いんじゃない？」.
Let's see some examples of the types of situations where this grammar is used. The examples will
have literal translation to make it easier to see how the meaning stays the same and carries over
into what would be very diﬀerent types of sentences in normal English. A more natural English
translation is provided as well because the literal translations can get a bit convoluted.

Example 1
アリス： どこに⾏くの？- Where is it that (you) are going?
ボブ： 授業に⾏くんだ。- It is that (I) go to class.
Alice: Where are you going? (Seeking explanation)
Bob: I'm going to class. (Explanatory)

Example 2
アリス： 今、授業があるんじゃない？- Isn't it that there is class now?
ボブ： 今は、ないんだ。- Now it is that there is no class.
Alice: Don't you have class now? (Expecting that there is class)
Bob: No, there is no class now. (Explanatory)

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3.12. USING ADVERBS AND GOBI

Example 3
アリス： 今、授業がないんじゃない？- Isn't it that there isn't class now?
ボブ： ううん、ある。- No, there is.
Alice: Don't you not have class now? (Expecting that there is no class)
Bob: No, I do have class.

Example 4
アリス： その⼈が買うんじゃなかったの？- Wasn't it that that person was the one to buy?
ボブ： ううん、先⽣が買うんだ。- No, it is that teacher is the one to buy.
Alice: Wasn't that person going to buy? (Expecting that the person would buy)
Bob: No, the teacher is going to. (Explanatory)

Example 5
アリス： 朝ご飯を⾷べるんじゃなかった。- It is that breakfast wasn't to eat.
ボブ： どうして？- Why?
Alice: Should not have eaten breakfast, you know. (Explaining that breakfast wasn't to be eaten)
Bob: How come?
Don't worry if you are thoroughly confused by now, we will see many more examples along theway. Once you get the sense of how everything works, it's better to forget the English because thedouble and triple negatives can get quite confusing such as Example 3. However, in Japanese it is aperfectly normal expression, as you will begin to realize once you get accustomed to Japanese.

3.12

Using Adverbs and Gobi

3.12.1

Why adverbs and gobi?

Well, the two are not related to each other but I have decided to group them in one lesson because
we will be covering only the two most common gobi for now and it is too short to be a separate
lesson in itself.

3.12.2

Properties of Adverbs

Unlike English, changing adjectives to adverbs is a very simple and straightforward process. In addition, since the system of particles make sentence ordering ﬂexible, adverbs can be placed anywherein the clause that it applies to long as it comes before the verb that it refers to. As usual, we have
two separate rules: one for i-adjectives, and one for na-adjectives.

51

3.12. USING ADVERBS AND GOBICHAPTER 3. BASIC GRAMMAR.How to change an adjective to an adverb.

• i-adjectives: Substitute the 「い」 with 「く」.
例) 早い →早く.
• na-adjectives: Attach the target particle 「に」.
例) きれい→きれいに(１) ボブは朝ご飯を早く⾷べた。- Bob quickly ate breakfast.
The adverb 「早く」 is a little diﬀerent from the English word 'fast' in that it can mean quickly interms of speed or time. In other words, Bob may have eaten his breakfast early or he may haveeaten it quickly depending on the context. In other types of sentences such as 「早く⾛った」 , itis quite obvious that it probably means quickly and not early. (Of course this also depends on thecontext.)(２) アリスは⾃分の部屋をきれいにした。- Alice did her own room toward clean.
The literal translation kind of gives you a sense of why the target particle is used. There is someargument against calling this an adverb at all but it is convenient for us to do so because of thegrouping of i-adjectives and na-adjectives. Thinking of it as an adverb, we can interpret the sentence
to mean: "Alice did her room cleanly." or less literally: "Alice cleaned her room." (「きれい」 literallymeans "pretty" but if it helps, you can think of it as, "Alice prettied up her own room.")
Note: Not all adverbs are derived from adjectives. Some words like 「全然」 and 「たくさん」 areadverbs in themselves without any conjugation. These words can be used without particles just likeregular adverbs.
(１) 映画をたくさん⾒た。- Saw a lot of movies.
(２) 最近、全然⾷べない。- Lately, don't eat at all.
Let's look at more examples of adverb usage.
(１) ボブの声は、結構⼤きい。- Bob's voice is fairly large.
(２) この町は、最近⼤きく変わった。- This town had changed greatly lately.
(３) 図書館の中では、静かにする。- Within the library, [we] do things quietly.

3.12.3What's a "gobi"?

In this section, we will cover the two most commonly used gobi. 「語尾」 literally means "languagetail" and it simply refers to anything that comes at the end of a sentence or a word. In this guide, I
will use it to describe the one or two hiragana characters that always come at the end of sentences
due to the lack of better terminology. These endings are often very hard to explain because many
do not actually have a speciﬁc meaning. But they can change the 'sound' or 'feel' of a sentence andadd some zest and pep to the sentence. The two we will cover here do have meanings and they areused quite often.

3.12.4

The 「ね」 gobi

People usually add 「ね」 to the end of their sentence when they are looking for (and expecting)agreement to what they are saying. This is equivalent to saying, "right?" or "isn't it?" in English.

Example 1
ボブ： いい天気だね。- Good weather, huh?
アリス： そうね。- That is so, isn't it?

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3.12. USING ADVERBS AND GOBI

The literal translation of 「そうね」 sounds a bit odd but it basically means something like, "Sure is".
Males would probably say, 「そうだね」.

Example 2
アリス： おもしろい映画だったね。- That was interesting movie, wasn't it?
ボブ： え？全然おもしろくなかった。- Huh? No, it wasn't interesting at all.
Since Alice is expecting agreement that the movie was interesting Bob is surprised because he didn't
ﬁnd the movie interesting at all. (「え」 is asound of surprise and confusion.)

3.12.5

The 「よ」 gobi

When 「よ」 is attached to the end of a sentence, it means that the speaker is informing the listenerof something new. In English, we might say this with a, "You know..." such as the sentence, "Youknow, I'm actually a genius."

Example 1
アリス： 時間がないよ。- You know, there is no time.
ボブ： ⼤丈夫だよ。- It's ok, you know.

Example 2
アリス： 今⽇はいい天気だね。- Good weather today, huh?
ボブ： うん。でも、明⽇⾬が降るよ。- Yeah. But it will rain tomorrow, you know.

3.12.6

Combining both to get 「よね」

You can also combine the two gobi we just learned to create 「よね」. This is essentially used when
you want to inform the listener of some new point you're trying to make and when you're seeking
agreement on it at the same time. When combining the two, the order must always be 「よね」.
You cannot reverse the order.

Exampleアリス： ボブは、⿂が好きなんだよね。- You know, you like ﬁsh, dontcha?
ボブ： そうだね。- That is so, huh?

53

Chapter 4

Essential Grammar
We have learned the basic foundation of the Japanese language. Now that we have a generalknowledge of how Japanese works, we can now extend that by learning speciﬁc grammar for various
situations. This section will go over what is considered to be essential grammar for basic practical
Japanese. You will begin to see fewer literal translations in order to emphasize the new grammar
now that you (should) have a good understanding of the basic fundamental grammar. For example,
in sentences where the subject has not been speciﬁed, I might simply specify the subject in thetranslation as 'he' even though it may very well be "we" or "them" depending on the context.
This section starts with transforming what we have learned so far into a more unassuming and politer
form. In any language, there are ways to word things diﬀerently to express a feeling of deferenceor politeness. Even English has diﬀerences such as saying, "May I..." vs "Can I...". You may speak
one way to your professor and another way to your friends. However, Japanese is diﬀerent in that
not only does the type of vocabulary change, the grammatical structure for every sentence changes
as well. There is a distinct and clear line diﬀerentiating polite and casual types of speech. On the
one hand, the rules clearly tell you how to structure your sentences for diﬀerent social contexts. On
the other hand, every sentence you speak must be conjugated to the proper level of politeness. In
section 3, we will cover the polite version of Japanese, which is required for speaking to people ofhigher social position or to people you are unfamiliar with.
This section will then continue to cover the most useful major types of grammar in Japanese. For
this reason, we will learn the most common conjugations such as the te-form, potential, conditional,
and volitional. The latter sections are in no particular order and neither does it need to be. The
grammar that is presented here is essential which means that you have to learn it all anyway andlearn them well.

4.1

Polite Form and Verb Stems

4.1.1

Not being rude in Japan（〜です、〜ます）

The Japanese we have learned so far is all well and good if you're 5-years old. Unfortunately, adults
are expected to use a politer version of the language (called 丁寧語) when addressing certain people.
People you will probably use 丁寧語 with are: 1) people of higher social rank, and 2) people you are
not familiar with. Deciding when to use which language is pretty much a matter of 'feel'. However,
it is a good idea to stick with one form for each person.
Later (probably much later), we will learn an even politer version of the language called honoriﬁc(尊敬語) and humble (謙譲語) form. It will be more useful than you may think because store clerks,54

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.1. POLITE FORM AND VERB STEMS

receptionists, and such will speak to you in those forms. But for now, let's concentrate on just 丁寧語, which is the base for 尊敬語 and 謙譲語.
Fortunately, it is not diﬃcult to change casual speech to polite speech. There may be some slightchanges to the vocabulary (for example, "yes" and "no" become 「はい」 and 「いいえ」 respectively
in polite speech), and very colloquial types of gobi obviously are not used in polite speech. (Don't
worry; we haven't even gone over those yet.) Essentially, the only main diﬀerence between politeand casual speech comes at the very end of the sentence. You cannot even tell whether a person is
speaking in polite or casual speech until the sentence is ﬁnished.

4.1.2

The stem of verbs

In order to conjugate all u-verbs and ru-verbs into their respective polite forms, we will ﬁrst learn
about the stem of verbs. This is often called the masu-stem in Japanese textbooks but we will callit just the stem because it is used in many more conjugations than just its masu-form. The stem isreally great because it's very easy to produce and is useful in many diﬀerent types of grammar.
.Rules for extracting the stem of verbs• ru-verbs - Remove the 「る」例) ⾷べる →⾷べ.

. an / u / vowel sound to an / i / vowel sound.
• u-verbs - The last vowel sound changes from例) 泳ぐ →泳ぎ
• Exceptions - 「する」 becomes 「し」 and 「くる」 becomes 「き」.

The stem when used by itself can be a very specialized and limited way of creating nouns fromverbs. While the 「の」 particle allows you to talk about verbs as if they were nouns, the stem
actually turns verbs into nouns. In fact, in very rare cases, the stem is used more often than theverb itself. For example, the stem of 「怒る」(いかる) is used more often than the verb itself. The
movie, "Fists of Fury" is translated as 「怒りの鉄拳」 and not 「怒る鉄拳」. In fact, 「怒る」 will
most likely be read as 「おこる」 , a completely diﬀerent verb with the same meaning and kanji!
There are a number of speciﬁc nouns (such as 「休み」) that are really verb stems that are used likeregular nouns. However, in general we cannot take any verb and make it into a noun. For example,
the following sentence is wrong.
(誤)飲みをする。- (This sentence makes sense but no one talks like this)However, a useful grammar that works in general for stems of all verbs is using the stem as a target
with a motion verb (almost always 「⾏く」 and 「来る」 in this case). This grammar means, "to goor to come to do [some verb]". Here's an example.
(１)

明⽇、映画を⾒に⾏く。- Tomorrow, go to see movie.

「⾒に」 is the stem of 「⾒る」 combined with the target particle 「に」.
The motion target particle 「へ」 sounds like you're literally going or coming to something while the「に」 particle implies that you are going or coming for the purpose of doing something.
(１) 昨⽇、友達が遊びへきた。
- Yesterday, friend came to a playing activity. (Sounds a bit strange)(２) 昨⽇、友達が遊びにきた。
- Yesterday, friend came to play.

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4.1. POLITE FORM AND VERB STEMSCHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

The expression 「楽しみにする」 meaning "to look forward to" is formed from grammar similar tothis but is a special case and should be considered a set expression.
Other verbs are also sometimes attached to the stem to create new verbs. For example, when 「出す」 is attached to the stem of 「⾛る」, which is 「⾛り」, you get 「⾛り出す」 meaning "to breakout into a run". Other examples include 「切り替える」, which means "to switch over to somethingelse", and 「付け加える」, which means "to add something by attaching it". You can see how the
separate meanings of the two verbs are combined to create the new combined verb. For example,「⾔い出す」 means "to start talking", combining the meaning, "to speak" and "to bring out". There
are no general rules here, you need to just memorize these combined verbs as separate verbs intheir own right.
Things that are written in a formal context such as newspaper articles also use the stem as aconjunctive verb. We will come back to this later in the formal expression lesson.

4.1.3

Using 「〜ます」 to make verbs polite

Of course, the reason I introduced the verb stem is to learn how to conjugate verbs into their polite
form... the masu-form! The masu-form must always come at the end of a complete sentence andnever inside a modifying subordinate clause. When we learn compound sentences, we will see thateach sub-sentence of the compound sentence can end in masu-form as well.
To conjugate verbs into the masu-form, you attach diﬀerent conjugations of 「ます」 to the stem
depending on the tense. Here is a chart.

A conjugation chart with sample stem 「遊び」
ます conjugations
Stem+ ます
Plain
ます
遊びます
Negative
ません
遊びません
Past
ました
遊びました
Past-Neg
ませんでした
遊びませんでした

ExamplesAs usual, let's see some examples.
(１) 明⽇、⼤学に⾏きます。
- Tomorrow, go to college.
(２) 先週、ボブに会いましたよ。
- You know, met Bob last week.
(３) 晩ご飯を⾷べませんでしたね。
- Didn't eat dinner, huh?
(４) ⾯⽩くない映画は⾒ません。
- About not interesting movies, do not see (them).

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.1.4

4.1. POLITE FORM AND VERB STEMS

Using 「です」 for everything else

For any sentence that does not end in a ru-verb or u-verb, the only thing that needs to be done isto add 「です」 or 「でした」. You can also do this for substituted nouns (both 「の」 and 「ん」)
by just treating them like regular nouns. Another important thing to remember is that if there is a
declarative 「だ」, it must be removed. In being polite, I guess you can't be so bold as to forwardly
declare things the way 「だ」 does. Just like the masu-form, this must also go at the end of acomplete sentence. Here is a chart illustrating the conjugations.

i-adjective (だ cannot be used)
CasualPolitePlain
かわいい
かわいいですNegative
かわいくないかわいくないです
Past
かわいかった
かわいかったです
Past-Neg かわいくなかった かわいくなかったです

na-adjective/noun (might have to remove だ)
CasualPolitePlain
静か (だ)
静かです
Negative
静かじゃない静かじゃないです
Past
静かだった※静かでしたPast-Neg 静かじゃなかった 静かじゃなかったです※ Notice in the case of noun/na-adjective only, the past tense becomes 「でした」. A very common
mistake is to do the same for i-adjectives. Remember 「かわいいでした」 is wrong!

ExamplesAs usual, let's see some examples.
(１) ⼦⽝はとても好きです。
- About puppies, like very much. (The most natural translation is that someone likes puppies verymuch but there is not enough context to rule out that the puppies like something very much.)(２) 昨⽇、時間がなかったんです。
- It was that there was no time yesterday.
(３) その部屋はあまり静かじゃないです。
- That room is not very quiet.
(４) 先週に⾒た映画は、とても⾯⽩かったです。
- Movie saw last week was very interesting.

※ Reality Check
I have heard on a number of occasions that the negative non-past conjugation as given here is notan "oﬃcially" correct conjugation. Instead what's considered to be a more "correct" conjugation
is to actually replace the 「ないです」 part with 「ありません」 . The reasoning is that the polite
negative form of the verb 「ある」 is not 「ないです」 but 「ありません」. Therefore, 「かわいくない」 actually becomes 「かわいくありません」 and 「静かじゃない」 becomes 「静かじゃありません」.

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4.1. POLITE FORM AND VERB STEMSCHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

The reality of today's Japanese is that what's supposed to be the "oﬃcial" conjugation sounds rather
stiﬀ and formal. In normal everyday conversations, the conjugation presented here will be usedalmost every time. While you should use the more formal conjugations for written works using thepolite form, you'll rarely hear it in actual speech. In conclusion, I recommend studying and becoming
familiar with both types of conjugations.

A more formal negative conjugation
CasualPoliteNegative
かわいくないかわいくありません
Past-Neg かわいくなかった かわいくありませんでした
Negative
静かじゃない静かじゃありません
Past-Neg 静かじゃなかった 静かじゃありませんでした

Examples(１) その部屋はあまり静かじゃないですよ。
- You know, that room is not very quiet.
(２) その部屋はあまり静かじゃありませんよ。
- You know, that room is not very quiet.

4.1.5「です」 is NOT the same as 「だ」

Many of you who have taken Japanese classes have probably been taught that 「です」 is the polite
version of 「だ」. However, I want to point some several key diﬀerences here and the reasons why
they are in fact completely diﬀerent things. It is impossible to fully explain the reasons why they
are fundamentally diﬀerent without discussing grammar that have yet to be covered so I would liketo target this toward those who have already started learning Japanese and have been incorrectly
misinformed that 「だ」 is the casual version of 「です」. For the rest of you new to this, you caneasily skip this part.
I'm sure most of you have learned the expression 「そう」 by now. Now, there are four ways tomake a complete sentence using the state-of-being with 「そう」 to produce a sentence that says,"That is so."Diﬀerent ways to say, "That is so."
(１)
(２)
(３)
(４)

そう。
そうだ。
そうです。
そうでございます。

The ﬁrst 「そう」 is the implied state of being and「そうだ」 is the declarative. As I've stated before, the non-assuming soft spoken「そう」 is often used by females while the more conﬁdent「そうだ」 is often used by males.
「そうです」 is the polite version of「そう」, created by attaching 「です」 to the noun.
「そうです」 is not the polite version of「そうだ」 where the 「だ」 is replaced by 「です」 and I'll explain why.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.2. ADDRESSING PEOPLE

Perhaps we wanted to make that sentence into a question instead to ask, "Is that so?" There areseveral ways to do this but some possibilities are given in the following. (This grammar is covered
in a later section.)Diﬀerent ways to ask, "Is that so?"
(１)
(２)
(３)

そう？
そうか？
そうですか？

As I've explained before, the 「だ」 is used to declare what one believes to be a fact. Therefore,「そうだか？」 is not a valid way to ask a question because it is declaring a fact and asking a question
at the same time. But the fact that 「そうですか」 is a valid question shows that 「です」 and 「だ」
are essentially diﬀerent. 「そうです」, in showing respect and humbleness, is not as assertive andis merely the polite version of 「そう」.
Besides the diﬀerence in nuance between 「だ」 and 「です」, another key diﬀerence is that 「だ」
is used in many diﬀerent types of grammar to delineate a subordinate clause. 「です」 , on theother hand, is only used at the end of a sentence to designate a polite state-of-being. For instance,
consider the two following sentences. (This grammar is covered in a later section.)(正)(誤)そうだと思います - I think that is so.
そうですと思います - (Incorrect sentence)「そうだと思います」 is valid while 「そうですと思います」 is not because 「です」 can only go at theend of the sentence. 「です」 can only be in a subordinate clause when it is a direct quote of whatsomeone said such as the following.
(１)「はい、そうです」と答えた。

In conclusion, replacing 「です」 with 「だ」, thinking one is the polite equivalent of the other or
vice-versa will potentially result in grammatically incorrect sentences. It is best to think of them as
totally separate things (because they are).

4.2

Addressing People

Not only is it important to use the right type of language with the right people, it is also importantto address them by the right name. It is also important to address yourself with the proper level ofpoliteness. Japanese is special in that there are so many ways of saying the simple words, "I" and"you". We will go over some of ways to refer to yourself and others.

4.2.1

Referring to yourself

There are many ways to say "I" in Japanese. Some of these words are not as common and others
are hopelessly outdated. We will go over the most common ones that are in use today. The usagesof all the diﬀerent words for "I" is separated into two categories: gender and politeness. In otherwords, there are words that are usually used by males and words that are usually only used byfemales and they all depend on the social context.
Before going into this: a note about the word 「私」. The oﬃcial reading of the kanji is 「わたくし」 . This is the reading you is used in a formal context (for example, a speech by the president

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

of a company). This reading will probably be accompanied with honoriﬁc and humble forms, which
we will cover later. In all other situations, it is usually read as 「わたし」. This is the most genericreference to "I" in terms of politeness and gender; therefore it is usually one of the ﬁrst words taught
to students of Japanese.
Here is a list of the most common words for "I" and how they are used:
1. 私 (わたくし) - Used by both males and females for formal situations.
2. 私 (わたし) - Used by both males and females for normal polite situations.
3. 僕 - Used primarily by males from fairly polite to fairly casual situations.
4. 俺 - A very rough version of "I" used almost exclusively by males in very casual situations.
5. あたし - A very feminine and casual way to refer to oneself. Many girls have decided to opt for「わたし」 instead because 「あたし」 has a cutesy and girly sound.
6. One's own name - Also a very feminine and kind of childish way to refer to oneself.
7. わし - Usually used by older men well in their middle-ages.
Let's see how diﬀerent types of sentences use the appropriate version of "I". 「わたくし」 is left out
because we have yet to go over very formal grammatical expressions.
(１)
(２)
(３)
(４)
(５)

私の名前はキムです。- My name is Kim. (Neutral, polite)
僕の名前はキムです。- My name is Kim. (Masculine, polite)
僕の名前はボブだ。- My name is Bob. (Masculine, casual)
俺の名前はボブだ。- My name is Bob. (Masculine, casual)
あたしの名前はアリス。- My name is Alice. (Feminine, casual)

4.2.2

Referring to others by name

Japanese does not require the use of "you" nearly as much as English does. I hope that the examples
with Bob, Alice, and Jim have shown that people refer to other people by their names even when
they are directly addressing that person. Another common way to address people is by their title
such as 「社⻑」、「課⻑」、「先⽣」, etc. The word 「先⽣」 is used to generally mean any person
who has signiﬁcant knowledge and expertise in something. For example, people usually use 「先⽣」 when directly addressing doctors or teachers (obviously). You can also include the person's last
name such as 「⽥中先⽣」 (teacher Tanaka). In the case where your relationship with the person
doesn't involve any title, you can use their name (usually their last name) attached with 「さん」 toshow politeness. If calling them by their last name seems a little too polite and distant, the practiceof attaching 「さん」 to their ﬁrst name also exists. More endearing and colloquial versions of 「さん」 include 「くん」 and 「ちゃん」. 「くん」 is usually attached to the name of males who are ofequal or lower social position. (For example, my boss sometimes calls me 「キムくん」). 「ちゃん」
is a very endearing way to refer to usually females of equal or lower social position.

4.2.3

Referring to others with "you"Please do not use 「あなた」 just like you would use the word "you" in English. In directly addressing
people, there are three levels of politeness: 1) Using the person's name with the appropriate suﬃx,2) Not using anything at all, 3) Using 「あなた」 . In fact, by the time you get to three, you're
dangerously in the area of being rude. Most of the time, you do not need to use anything at all
because you are directly addressing the person. Constantly pounding the listener with "you" every
sentence sounds like you are accusing the person of something.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.2. ADDRESSING PEOPLE「あなた」 is also an old-fashioned way for women to refer to their husband or lover. Unless you area middle-aged women with a Japanese husband, I doubt you will be using 「あなた」 in this fashion
as well.
Here is a list of some words meaning "you" in English. You will rarely need to use any of thesewords, especially the ones in the second half of the list.
1. あなた - Generally only used when there is no way to physically address the person or know theperson's name. For example, direct questions to the reader on a form that the reader must ﬁll
out would use 「あなた」.
2. 君 - Can be a very close and assuming way to address girls (especially by guys). Can also bekind of rude.
3. お前 - A very rough and coarse way to address someone. Usually used by guys and oftenchanged to 「おめえ」.
4. あんた - A very assuming and familiar way to address someone. The person using this is maybe
miﬀed oﬀ about something.
5. ⼿前 - Very rude. Like 「お前」, to add extra punch, people will usually say it like, 「てめ〜〜」. Sounds like you want to beat someone up. I've only seen this one used in movies and comic
books. In fact, if you try this on your friends, they will probably laugh at you and tell you thatyou've probably been reading too many comic books.
6. 貴様 - Very, very rude. Sounds like you want to take someone out. I've also only seen this one
used in comic books. I only go over it so you can understand and enjoy comic books yourself!

4.2.4

Referring to others in third person

You can use 「彼」 and 「彼⼥」 for "he" and "she" respectively. Notice that 「彼」 and 「彼⼥」 canalso mean "boyfriend" and "girlfriend". So how can you tell which meaning is being used? Context,
of course. For example, if someone asks, 「彼⼥ですか？」 the person is obviously asking if she isyour girlfriend because the question, "Is she she?" doesn't make any sense. Another less commonlyused alternative is to say 「ガールフレンド」 and 「ボーイフレンド」 for, well, I'm sure you can guess
what they mean.

4.2.5

Referring to family members

Referring to family members is a little more complicated than English. (It could be worse, try learning
Korean!) For the purpose of brevity, (since this is a grammar guide and not a vocabulary guide) we
will only go over the immediate family. In Japanese, you refer to members of other people's family
more politely than your own. This is only when you are talking about members of your own family
to others outside the family. For example, you would refer to your own mother as 「⺟」 to people
outside your family but you might very well call her 「お⺟さん」 at home within your own family.
There is also a distinction between older and younger siblings. The following chart list some of themost common terms for family members. There may also be other possibilities not covered in thischart.

61

4.3. THE QUESTION MARKER

Parents
MotherFatherWife
HusbandOlder Sister
Older Brother
Younger Sister
Younger BrotherSon
Daughter

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Family member chart
One's own family Someone else's family
両親
ご両親
⺟
お⺟さん
⽗
お⽗さん
妻
奥さん
夫
ご主⼈
姉
お姉さん
兄
お兄さん
妹
妹さん
弟
弟さん
息⼦
息⼦さん
娘
娘さん

Another word for wife, 「家内」 is often considered politically incorrect because the kanji used are"house" and "inside" which implies that wives belong in the home. Amen. (Just kidding)

4.3

The Question Marker

4.3.1

Questions in polite form

（か）The question marker is covered here because it is primarily used to clearly indicate a question inpolite sentences. While it is entirely possible to express a question even in polite form using justintonation, the question marker is often attached to the very end of the sentence to indicate aquestion. The question marker is simply the hiragana character 「か」 and you don't need to add aquestion mark. For previously explained reasons, you must not use the declarative 「だ」 with thequestion marker.

Example 1
⽥中さん：
鈴⽊さん：

お⺟さんはどこですか。- Where is (your) mother?
⺟は買い物に⾏きました。- (My) mother went shopping.

Example 2
キムさん：
鈴⽊さん：

イタリア料理を⾷べに⾏きませんか。- Go to eat Italian food?
すみません。ちょっと、お腹がいっぱいです。- Sorry. (My) stomach is a little full.

Here the question is actually being used as an invitation just like how in English we say, "Won't youcome in for a drink?"「すみません」 is a polite way of apologizing. Slightly less formal is 「ごめんなさい」 while the casualversion is simply 「ごめん」.

4.3.2

The question marker in casual speech

It makes sense to conclude that the question marker would work in exactly the same way in casualspeech as it does in polite speech. However, this is not the case. The question marker 「か」 is62

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.3. THE QUESTION MARKER

usually not used with casual speech to make actual questions. It is often used to consider whether
something is true or not. Depending on the context and intonation, it can also be used to makerhetorical questions or to express sarcasm. It can sound quite rough so you might want to becareful about using 「か」 for questions in the plain casual form.

Examples(１) こんなのを本当に⾷べるか？
- Do you think [he/she] will really eat this type of thing?
(２) そんなのは、あるかよ！
- Do I look like I would have something like that?!
Instead of 「か」, real questions in casual speech are usually asked with the explanatory の particle
or nothing at all except for a rise in intonation, as we have already seen in previous sections.
(１) こんなのを本当に⾷べる？
- Are you really going to eat something like this?
(２) そんなのは、あるの？
- Do you have something like that?

4.3.3「か」 used in subordinate clauses

Another use of the question marker is simply grammatical and has nothing to do with the politeness.
A question marker attached to the end of a subordinate clause makes a mini-question inside a larger
sentence. This allows the speaker to talk about the question. For example, you can talk about thequestion, "What did I eat today?" In the following examples, the question that is being consideredis in red.
(１)
(２)
(３)

昨⽇何を⾷べたか忘れた。- Forgot what I ate yesterday.
彼は何を⾔ったかわからない。- Don't understand what he said.
先⽣が学校に⾏ったか教えない？- Won't you inform me whether teacher went to school?

In sentences like (３) where the question being considered has a yes/no answer, it is common (butnot necessary) to attach 「どうか」. This is roughly equivalent to saying, "whether or not" in English.
You can also include the alternative as well to mean the same thing.
(１) 先⽣が学校に⾏ったかどうか知らない。- Don't know whether or not teacher went to school.
(２) 先⽣が学校に⾏ったか⾏かなかったか知らない。- Don't know whether teacher went to school or
didn't.

4.3.4

Using question words

While we're on the topic of questions, this is a good time to go over question words (where, who,
what, etc.) and what they mean in various contexts. Take a look at what adding the question marker
does to the meaning of the words.

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4.3. THE QUESTION MARKER

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Question Words
Word+Question Marker
Meaning
誰か
Someone
何か
Something
いつか
Sometime
どこか
Somewhere
どれか
A certain one from many

As you can see by the following examples, you can treat these words just like any regular nouns.
(１) 誰かがおいしいクッキーを全部⾷べた。- Someone ate all the delicious cookies.
(２) 誰が盗んだのか、誰か知りませんか。- Doesn't anybody know who stole it?
(３) 犯⼈をどこかで⾒ましたか。- Did you see the criminal somewhere?
(４)
この中からどれかを選ぶの。- (Explaining) You are to select a certain one from inside this[selection].

Question words with inclusive meaning
The same question words in the chart above can be combined with 「も」 in a negative sentence tomean "nobody" (誰も), "nothing" (何も), "nowhere" (どこも), etc.
「誰も」 and 「何も」 are primarily used only for negative sentences. Curiously, there is no way tosay "everything" with question words. Instead, it is conventional to use other words like 「全部」.
And although 「誰も」 can sometimes be used to mean "everybody", it is customary to use 「皆」
or 「皆さん」
The remaining three words 「いつも」 (meaning "always") and 「どれも」 (meaning "any and all"),and 「どこも」 (meaning everywhere) can be used in both negative and positive sentences.

Word+ も
誰も
何も
いつも
どこも
どれも

Inclusive Words
Meaning
Everybody/Nobody
Nothing (negative only)
AlwaysEverywhere
Any and all(１) この質問の答えは、誰も知らない。- Nobody knows the answer of this question.
(２) 友達はいつも遅れる。- Friend is always late.
(３) ここにあるレストランはどれもおいしくない - Any and all restaurants that are here are nottasty.
(４) 今週末は、どこにも⾏かなかった。- Went nowhere this weekend.
(Grammatically, this 「も」 is the same as the topic particle 「も」 so the target particle 「に」 must
go before the topic particle 「も」 in ordering.)

Question words to mean "any"The same question words combined with 「でも」 can be used to mean "any". One thing to becareful about is that 「何でも」 is read as 「なんでも」 and not 「なにでも」64

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.4. COMPOUND SENTENCES

Words for "Any"Word+ でもMeaning
誰でもAnybody
何でもAnything
いつでもAnytime
どこでもAnywhere
どれでもWhichever

(１)
(２)
(３)

この質問の答えは、誰でも分かる。- Anybody understands the answer of this question.
昼ご飯は、どこでもいいです。- About lunch, anywhere is good.
あの⼈は、本当に何でも⾷べる。- That person really eats anything.

4.4

Compound Sentences
ど、し、〜たりする）（て -form、から、ので、のに、が、けIn this section, we will learn various ways to combine multiple simple sentences into one complex
sentence. For example, we will learn how to chain separate sentences together to express multiple
actions or states. In other words, if we have two simple sentences with the same subject, "I ran"and "I ate", we will learn how to group them together to mean, "I ran and ate." We will also learn
how to do this with adjectives and nouns. (Ex: He is rich, handsome, and charming.)

4.4.1

Expressing a sequence of states

It is very easy to combine a chain of nouns and adjectives to describe a person or object. For
example, in English if we wanted to say, "He is X. He is Y. He is Z." since all three sentences havethe same noun, we would usually say, "He is X, Y, and Z." In Japanese, we can do the same thingby conjugating the noun or adjective. The last noun or adjective remains the same as before.
.How to chain nouns and adjectives together
Nouns and na-adjectives: Attach 「で」 to the noun or na-adjective.

.

例)

⼀般的→⼀般的で例)

静か→静かでI-adjectives and negative noun/adjective:
Replace the 「い」 with 「くて」.
.
※ For 「いい」 and 「かっこいい」, the 「い→よ」 exception applies here as well.
例)

狭い →狭くて例)

彼⼥じゃない →彼⼥じゃなくて例)

いい →よくてExamples(１) 私の部屋は、きれいで、静かで、とても好き。
- My room is clean, quiet, and I like it a lot.

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4.4. COMPOUND SENTENCES

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR(２) 彼⼥は、学⽣じゃなくて、先⽣だ。
- She is not a student, she is a teacher.
(３) ⽥中さんは、お⾦持ちで、かっこよくて、魅⼒的ですね。
- Tanaka-san is rich, handsome, and charming, isn't he?
As you can see, the 「で」 attached to 「お⾦持ち」 obviously cannot be the context particle 「で」here because there is no verb. It might be helpful to think of 「で」 as merely a substitution for「だ」 that can be chained together.

4.4.2

Expressing a sequence of verbs with the te-form

In a similar fashion, you can express multiple actions. It is usually interpreted as a sequence of
event. (I did [X], then I did [Y], then I ﬁnally did [Z].) There are two forms: positive and negative.
The tense of all the actions is determined by the tense of the last verb.
.How to chain verbs together
1. Positive: Conjugate the verb to its past tense and replace 「た」 with 「て」 or 「だ」 with
「で」. This is often called the te-form even though it could sometimes be 'de' .
.

2. Negative: Same as i-adjectives, replace 「い」 with 「くて」.
.
This rule also works for the polite 「です」 and 「ます」 endings.
例)学⽣です →学⽣でした →学⽣でして例)買います →買いました →買いまして

Past Tense
⾷べた
⾏った
した
遊んだ
飲んだ

Sample conjugations
Te-form
Negative
⾷べて
⾷べない
⾏って
⾏かない
して
しない
遊んで
遊ばない
飲まない
飲んで

Examples(１) ⾷堂に⾏って、昼ご飯を⾷べて、昼寝をする。
- I will go to cafeteria, eat lunch, and take a nap.
(２) ⾷堂に⾏って、昼ご飯を⾷べて、昼寝をした。
- I went to cafeteria, ate lunch, and took a nap.
(３) 時間がありまして、映画を⾒ました。
- There was time and I watched a movie.

66

Te-form
⾷べなくて
⾏かなくて
しなくて
遊ばなくて
飲まなくて

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.4.3

4.4. COMPOUND SENTENCES

Expressing reason or causation using 「から」 and 「ので」You can connect two complete sentences using 「から」 to indicate a reason for something. The twosentences are always ordered [reason] から [result]. When the reason is a non-conjugated nounor na-adjective, you must add 「だ」 to explicitly declare the reason in the form of 「(noun/naadjective)だから」. If you forget to add the declarative 「だ」 to 「から」, it will end up sounding
like the 「から」 meaning "from" which was ﬁrst introduced inParticles 2.

Examples(１) 時間がなかったからパーティーに⾏きませんでした。
- There was no time so didn't go to party.
(２) 友達からプレゼントが来た。
- Present came from friend.
(３) 友達だからプレゼントが来た。
- Present came because (the person is) friend. (This sentence sounds a bit odd.)
Either the reason or the cause can be omitted if it is clear from the context. In the case of politespeech, you would treat 「から」 just like a regular noun and add 「です」 . When you omit thereason, you must include the declarative 「だ」 or 「です」.
⽥中さん)
⼭⽥さん)

どうしてパーティーに⾏きませんでしたか。- Why didn't you go to the party?
時間がなかったからです。- It's because I didn't have time.

⼀郎)
直⼦)

パーティーに⾏かなかったの？- You didn't go to the party?
うん、時間がなかったから。- Yeah, because I didn't have time.

(１)
(２)

時間がなかった。- I didn't have time.
だからパーティーに⾏かなかったの？- Is that why you didn't go to the party?

Notice that ⼭⽥さん and 直⼦ could have used the explanatory 「の」 to express the same thing.
In other words, ⼭⽥さん could have also said, 「時間がなかったのです」 or 「時間がなかったんです」 while 直⼦ could have said 「時間がなかったの」 (we'll assume she wants to use the more
feminine form). In fact, this is where 「ので」 possibly came from. Let's say you want to combine
two sentences: 「時間がなかったのだ」 and 「パーティーに⾏かなかった」. Remember we can treat
the 「の」 just like a noun so we can use what we just learned in the ﬁrst section of this lesson.
(１) 時間がなかったのだ＋パーティーに⾏かなかった
becomes:(２) 時間がなかったのでパーティーに⾏かなかった。
In fact, 「ので」 is almost interchangeable with 「から」 with a few subtle diﬀerences. 「から」explicitly states that the sentence preceding is the reason for something while 「ので」 is merely
putting two sentences together, the ﬁrst with an explanatory tone. This is something I call causation
where [X] happened, therefore [Y] happened. This is slightly diﬀerent from 「から」 where [Y]happened explicitly because [X] happened. This diﬀerence tends to make 「ので」 sound softer andslightly more polite and it is favored over 「から」 when explaining a reason for doing somethingthat is considered discourteous.
(１) ちょっと忙しいので、そろそろ失礼します。
- Because I'm a little busy, I'll be making my leave soon.
(「失礼します」, which literally means "I'm doing a discourtesy", is commonly used as a polite way
to make your leave or disturb someone's time.)674.4. COMPOUND SENTENCES

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Reminder: Don't forget that the explanatory 「の」 requires a 「な」 for both non-conjugatednouns and na-adjectives. Review Particles 3 to see why.
(１) 私は学⽣なので、お⾦がないんです。
- Because I'm a student, I have no money (lit: there is no money).
(２) ここは静かなので、とても穏やかです。
- It is very calm here because it is quiet.
(３) なので、友達に会う時間がない。
- That's why there's no time to meet friend.
Just like how the explanatory 「の」 can be shortened to 「ん」 , in speech, the 「ので」 can bechanged to 「んで」 simply because it's easier to slur the sounds together rather then pronouncing
the / o / syllable.
(１) 時間がなかったんでパーティーに⾏かなかった。
- Didn't go to the party because there was no time.
(２) ここは静かなんで、とても穏やかです。
- It is very calm here because it is quiet.
(３) なんで、友達に会う時間がない。
- That's why there's no time to meet friend.

4.4.4

Using 「のに」 to mean "despite"

Grammatically, 「のに」 is used exactly the same way as 「ので」 . When used to combine two
simple sentences together, it means "[Sentence 1] despite the fact that [Sentence 2]." However theorder is reversed: [Sentence 2] のに [Sentence 1].

Examples(１) 毎⽇運動したのに、全然痩せなかった。
- Despite exercising every day, I didn't get thinner.
(２) 学⽣なのに、彼⼥は勉強しない。
- Despite being a student, she does not study.

4.4.5

Expressing contradiction using 「が」 and 「けど」Used in the same manner as 「から」 and 「ので」, 「が」 and 「けど」 also connect two sentences
together but this time to express a contradiction. Just like 「から」 the declarative 「だ」 is required
for nouns and na-adjectives. And just like 「から」 and 「ので」, the reason or cause can be left
out.

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4.4. COMPOUND SENTENCES

Examples(１) デパートに⾏きましたが、何も欲しくなかったです。
- I went to department store but there was nothing I wanted.
(２) 友達に聞いたけど、知らなかった。
- I asked (or heard from) a friend but he (or I) didn't know.
(３) 今⽇は暇だけど、明⽇は忙しい。
- I'm free today but I will be busy tomorrow.
(４) だけど、彼がまだ好きなの。
- That may be so, but it is that I still like him. (explanation, feminine tone)
It may seem odd but 「聞く」 can either mean "to listen" or "to ask". You may think this may become
confusing but the meaning is usually clear within context. In (２)、 we're assuming that the friend
didn't know, so the speaker was probably asking the friend. Yet again we see the importance ofcontext in Japanese because this sentence can also mean, "I heard from a friend but I didn't know"
since there is neither subject nor topic.
Similar to the diﬀerence between 「から」 and 「ので」, 「が」 has a softer tone and is slightly morepolite than 「けど」. Though this isn't a rule as such, it is generally common to see 「が」 attached
to a 「〜ます」 or 「〜です」 ending and 「けど」 attached to a regular, plain ending. A more formal
version of 「けど」 is 「けれど」 and even more formal is 「けれども」 , which we may see later
when we cover formal expressions.
Unlike the English word for contradiction such as "but" or "however", 「けど」 and 「が」 do notalways express a direct contradiction. Often times, especially when introducing a new topic, it isused as a general connector of two separate sentences. For example, in the following sentences,
there is no actual contradiction but 「が」 and 「けど」 are used simply to connect the sentences.
Sometimes, the English "and" becomes a closer translation than "but".
(１) デパートに⾏きましたが、いい物がたくさんありました。
- I went to the department store and there was a lot of good stuﬀ.
(２) マトリックスを⾒たけど、⾯⽩かった。
- I watched the "Matrix" and it was interesting.

4.4.6

Expressing multiple reasons using 「し」When you want to list reasons for multiple states or actions you can do so by adding 「し」 to theend of each subordinate clause. It is very similar to the 「や」 particle except that it lists reasonsfor verbs and state of being. Again, for states of being, 「だ」 must be used to explicitly declare thestate of being for any non-conjugated noun or na-adjective. Let's look at some examples.
(１)(２)

どうして友達じゃないんですか？- Why isn't him/her friend (seeking explanation)?
先⽣だし、年上だし・・・。- Well, he's/she's the teacher, and older...

(１) どうして彼が好きなの？- Why (do you) like him?
(２) 優しいし、かっこいいし、⾯⽩いから。- Because he's kind, attractive, and interesting (among
other things).
Notice that 「優しくて、 かっこよくて、 ⾯⽩いから。」 could also have worked but much like thediﬀerence between the 「と」 and 「や」 particle, 「し」 implies that there may be other reasons.

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4.4.7

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Expressing multiple actions or states using 「〜たりする」

This is the verb version of the 「や」 particle. You can make an example list of verbs among a
possible larger list by conjugating each verb into the past tense and adding 「り」. At the end, youneed to attach the verb 「する」. Just like the 「や」 particle, the tense is determined by the lastverb, which in this case will always be 「する」 (since you have to attach it at the end).
You can also use this with the state of being to say that you are a number of things at various
random times among a larger list. Similar to regular verbs, you just take the noun or adjective foreach state of being and conjugate it to the past state of being and then attach 「り」. Then ﬁnally,
attach 「する」 at the end.
.Rules for stating a list of verbs among a larger list using 「〜たりする」.

• Verbs - Conjugate each verb to the past tense and add 「り」. Finally, add 「する」 at thevery end.
例) ⾷べる、飲む →⾷べた、飲んだ →⾷べたり、飲んだり →⾷べたり、飲んだりする.
• State of being - Conjugate the noun or adjective for each state of being and add 「り」.
Finally, add 「する」 at the very end.
例) 簡単、難しい →簡単だった、難しかった →簡単だったり、難しかったり →簡単だったり、難しかったりする(１) 映画を⾒たり、本を読んだり、昼寝したりする。
- I do things like (among other things) watch movies, read books, and take naps.
(２) この⼤学の授業は簡単だったり、難しかったりする。
- Class of this college is sometimes easy, sometimes diﬃcult (and other times something else maybe).
As you can see, the tense and negative/positive state is controlled by the last 「する」.
(３) 映画を⾒たり、本を読んだりした。
- I did things like (among other things) watch movies, and read books.
(４) 映画を⾒たり、本を読んだりしない。
- I don't do things like (among other things) watch movies, and read books.
(５) 映画を⾒たり、本を読んだりしなかった。
- I didn't do things like (among other things) watch movies, and read books.

4.5

Other uses of the te-form〜ていく、〜てくる）（〜ている、〜てある、〜ておく、

The te-form is incredibly useful as it is used widely in many diﬀerent types of grammatical expressions. We will learn about enduring states with the 「〜ている」 and 「〜てある」 form. Even though
we have learned various conjugations for verbs, they have all been one-time actions. We will now
go over how one would say, for example, "I am running." We will also learn how to perform anaction for the future using the 「〜ておく」 expression and to express directions of actions using「〜ていく」 and 「〜てくる」.

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4.5.1

4.5. OTHER USES OF THE TE-FORM

Using 「〜ている」 for enduring states

We already know how to express a state of being using 「です」, 「だ」, etc. However, it only indicatesa one-time thing; you are something or not. This grammar, however, describes a continuing stateof an action verb. This usually translates to the gerund in English except for a few exceptions, which
we will examine later. We can make good use of the te-form we learned in the last section because
the only thing to do left to do is add 「いる」! You can then treat the result as a regular ru-verb.
This 「いる」 is the same ru-verb describing existence, ﬁrst described in the negative verb section.
However, in this case, you don't have to worry about whether the subject is animate or inanimate.
.Using 「〜ている」for enduring states
To describe a continuing action, ﬁrst conjugate the verb to the te-form and then attach
the verb 「いる」. The entire result conjugates as a ru-verb.

.

例)⾷べる →⾷べて →⾷べている

例)

読む →読んで →読んでいる.

The result conjugates as a ru-verb regardless of what the original verb is
Positive
Negative
Non-Past 読んでいる
reading 読んでいないis not reading
Past
読んでいた
was reading 読んでいなかったwas not reading

Examples(１)(２)

友達は何をしているの？- What is friend doing?
昼ご飯を⾷べている。- (Friend) is eating lunch.

Note that once you've changed it into a regular ru-verb, you can do all the normal conjugations.
The examples show the masu-form and plain negative conjugations.
(１)(２)

何を読んでいる？- What are you reading?
教科書を読んでいます。- I am reading textbook.

(１)
(２)

話を聞いていますか。- Are you listening to me? (lit: Are you listening to story?)
ううん、聞いていない。- No, I'm not listening.

Since people are usually too lazy to roll their tongues to properly pronounce the 「い」 , in morecasual situations, the 「い」 is simply dropped. This is a convenience for speaking. If you werewriting an essay or paper, you should always include the 「い」. Here are the abbreviated versionsof the previous examples.
(１)(２)

友達は何をしてるの？- What is friend doing?
昼ご飯を⾷べてる。- (Friend) is eating lunch.

(１)
(２)

何を読んでる？- What are you reading?
教科書を読んでいます。- I am reading textbook.

(１)
(２)

話を聞いていますか。- Are you listening to me? (lit: Are you listening to story?)
ううん、聞いてない。- No, I'm not listening.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Notice how I left the 「い」 alone for the polite forms. Though people certainly omit the 「い」 evenin polite form, you might want to get used to the proper way of saying things ﬁrst before getting
carried away with casual abbreviations. You will be amazed at the extensive types of abbreviations
that exist in casual speech. (You may also be amazed at how long everything gets in super politespeech.) Basically, you will get the abbreviations if you just act lazy and slur everything together.
Particles also get punted oﬀ left and right.
For example:(１) 何をしているの？(Those particles are such a pain to say all the time...)(２) 何しているの？(Ugh, I hate having to spell out all the vowels.)(３) 何してんの？(Ah, perfect.)

4.5.2

Enduring state of being rather than enduring state of action

There are certain cases where an enduring state doesn't translate into the gerund form. In fact,
there is a ambiguity in whether one is in a state of doing an action versus being in a state that
resulted from some action. This is usually decided by context and common practices. For example,
although 「結婚している」 can technically mean someone is in a chapel currently getting married, it isusually used to refer to someone who is already married and is currently in that married state. We'll
now discuss some common verbs that often cause this type of confusion for learners of Japanese.
「知る」「知る」 means "to know". English is weird in that "know" is supposed to be a verb but is actuallydescribing a state of having knowledge. Japanese is more consistent and 「知る」 is just a regularaction verb. In other words, I "knowed" (action) something and so now I know it (state). That's
why the English word "to know" is really a continuing state in Japanese, namely: 「知っている」.
「知る」 vs 「分かる」「分かる」 meaning "to understand" may seem similar to 「知る」 in some cases. However, there is adiﬀerence between "knowing" and "understanding". Try not to confuse 「知っている」 with 「分かっている」. 「分かっている」 means that you are already in a state of understanding, in other words,
you already get it. If you misuse this, you may sound pompous. ("Yeah, yeah, I got it already.") On
the other hand, 「知っている」 simply means you know something.

Examples
(１)
(２)
(３)
(４)

今⽇、知りました。- I found out about it today. (I did the action of knowing today.)
この歌を知っていますか？- Do (you) know this song?
道は分かりますか。－ Do you know the way? (lit: Do (you) understand the road?)
はい、はい、分かった、分かった。- Yes, yes, I got it, I got it.

Motion Verbs (⾏く、来る、etc.)
It is reasonable to assume the actions 「⾏っている」 and 「来ている」 would mean, "going" and"coming" respectively. But unfortunately, this is not the case. The 「〜ている」 form of motion verbs
is more like a sequence of actions we saw in the last section. You completed the motion, and now
you exist in that state. (Remember, 「いる」 is the verb of existence of animate objects.) It might
help to think of it as two separate and successive actions: 「⾏って」、and then 「いる」.

Examples(１)(２)

鈴⽊さんはどこですか。－ Where is Suzuki-san?
もう、家に帰っている。- He is already at home (went home and is there now).

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(３)
(４)

4.5. OTHER USES OF THE TE-FORM

先に⾏っているよ。- I'll go on ahead. (I'll go and be there before you.)
美恵ちゃんは、もう来ているよ。- Mie-chan is already here, you know. (She came and is here.)

4.5.3

Using 「〜てある」 for resultant states

Appropriately enough, just like there is an 「ある」 to go with 「いる」, there is a 「〜てある」 form
that also has a special meaning. By replacing 「いる」 with 「ある」, instead of a continuing action,
it becomes a resultant state after the action has already taken place. Usually, this expression is used
to explain that something is in a state of completion. The completed action also carries a nuance ofbeing completed in preparation for something else.

ExamplesSince this grammar describes the state of a completed action, it is common to see the 「は」 and「も」 particles instead of the 「を」 particle.
(１)(２)

準備はどうですか。- How are the preparations?
準備は、もうしてあるよ。- The preparations are already done.

(１) 旅⾏の計画は終った？- Are the plans for the trip complete?
(２) うん、切符を買ったし、ホテルの予約もしてある。Uh huh, not only did I buy the ticket, I also took care of the hotel reservations.

4.5.4

Using the 「〜ておく」 form as preparation for the future

While 「〜てある」 carries a nuance of a completed action in preparation for something else, 「〜ておく」 explicitly states that the action is done (or will be done) with the future in mind. Imagine
this: you have made a delicious pie and you're going to place it on the window sill for it to cool sothat you can eat it later. This image might help explain why the verb 「おく」 (置く), meaning "toplace", can be used to describe a preparation for the future. (It's just too bad that pies on window
sills always seem to go through some kind of mishap especially in cartoons.) While 「置く」 by itself
is written in kanji, it is customary to use hiragana when it comes attached to a conjugated verb
(such as the te-form).

Examples(１)(２)

晩ご飯を作っておく。- Make dinner (in advance for the future).
電池を買っておきます。- I'll buy batteries (in advance for the future).

「ておく」 is also sometimes abbreviated to 「〜とく」 for convenience.
(１) 晩ご飯を作っとく。- Make dinner (in advance for the future).
(２) 電池を買っときます。- I'll buy batteries (in advance for the future).

4.5.5

Using motion verbs (⾏く、来る) with the te-form

You can also use the motion verb "to go" (⾏く)and "to come" with the te-form, to show that anaction is oriented toward or from someplace. The most common and useful example of this the verb73

4.6. POTENTIAL FORM

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR「持つ」 (to hold). While 「持っている」 means you are in a state of holding something (in possessionof), when the 「いる」 is replaced with 「いく」 or 「くる」, it means you are taking or bringing
something. Of course, the conjugation is the same as the regular 「⾏く」 and 「来る」.

Examples
(１)
(２)
(３)

鉛筆を持っている？- Do (you) have a pencil?
鉛筆を学校へ持っていく？- Are (you) taking pencil to school?
鉛筆を家に持ってくる？- Are (you) bringing pencil to home?

For these examples, it may make more sense to think of them as a sequence of actions: hold andgo, or hold and come. Here are a couple more examples.
(１)(２)

お⽗さんは、早く帰ってきました。- Father came back home early.
駅の⽅へ⾛っていった。- Went running toward the direction of station.

The motion verbs can also be used in time expressions to move forward or come up to the present.
(１) 冬に⼊って、コートを着ている⼈が増えていきます。
- Entering winter, people wearing coat will increase (toward the future).
(２) ⼀⽣懸命、頑張っていく！
- Will try my hardest (toward the future) with all my might!
(３) ⾊々な⼈と付き合ってきたけど、いい⼈はまだ⾒つからない。
- Went out (up to the present) with various types of people but a good person hasn't been foundyet.
(４) ⽇本語をずっと前から勉強してきて、結局はやめた。
- Studied Japanese from way back before and eventually quit.

4.6

Potential Form

4.6.1

Expressing the ability to do something

In Japanese, the ability to do a certain action is expressed by conjugating the verb rather thanadding a word such as the words "can" or "able to" in the case of English. All verbs conjugated into
the potential form become a ru-verb.

4.6.2

The Potential Form

Once again, the conjugation rules can be split into three major groups: ru-verbs, u-verbs, andexception verbs. However, the potential form of the verb 「する」 (meaning "to do") is a special
exception because it becomes a completely diﬀerent verb: 「できる」 (出来る)74

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.6. POTENTIAL FORM

.Rules for creating potential form
1. ru-verbs - Replace the 「る」 with 「られる」.
(例) ⾒る →⾒られる.

2. u-verbs - Change the last character from a / u / vowel sound to the equivalent / e / vowel.
sound and add 「る」.
(例) 遊ぶ →遊べ →遊べる
3. Exceptions - 「する」 becomes 「できる」 and 「くる」 becomes 「こられる」.

※ Remember that all potential verbs become ru-verbs.

Sample ru-verbs
Plain
Potential
⾷べる ⾷べられる
着る
着られる
信じる 信じられる
寝る
寝られる
起きる 起きられる出る
出られる
掛ける 掛けられる
調べる 調べられる

Plain
話す
書く
遊ぶ
待つ
飲む
取る
死ぬ
買う

Sample u-verbs
Potential ローマ字 ローマ字 (Pot.)
話せるhanasuhanaseru
書けるkaku
kakeru
遊べるasobu
asoberu
待てるmatu
materu飲めるnomu
nomeru取れる
toru
toreru死ねるshinushineru
買える
kau
kaeru

Exception Verbs
Plain Potential
する
できる
くる
こられる

It is also possible to just add 「れる」 instead of the full 「られる」 for ru-verbs. For example,「⾷べる」 becomes 「⾷べれる」 instead of 「⾷べられる」 . I suggest learning the oﬃcial 「られる」 conjugation ﬁrst because laziness can be a hard habit to break and the shorter version, thoughcommon, is considered to be slang.

Examples(１) 漢字は書けますか？
- Can you write kanji?
(２) 残念だが、今週末は⾏けない。
- It's unfortunate, but can't go this weekend.
(３) もう信じられない。
- I can't believe it already.

4.6.3

Potential forms do not have direct objects

The potential form indicates that something is possible but no actual action is actually taken. While
the potential form remains a verb, since it is describing the state of something you must not use thedirect object 「を」 as you have done with regular verbs. For example the following sentences areincorrect.
(誤)(誤)

富⼠⼭を登れた。
重い荷物を持てます。

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Here are the corrected versions:(正) 富⼠⼭が登れた。- Was able to climb Fuji-san.
(正) 重い荷物が持てます。- Am able to hold heavy baggage.
Of course, the 「は」 or 「も」 particle is also possible depending on what you want to say.

4.6.4

Are 「⾒える」 and 「聞こえる」 exceptions?

There are two verbs 「⾒える」 and 「聞こえる」 that mean that something is visible and audible,
respectively. When you want to say that you can see or hear something, you'll want to use theseverbs. If however, you wanted to say that you were given the opportunity to see or hear something,
you would use the regular potential form. However, in this case, it is more common to use the typeof expression as seen in example (３).

Examples(１) 今⽇は晴れて、富⼠⼭が⾒える。
- It cleared up today and Fuji-san is visible.
(２) 友達のおかげで、映画はただで⾒られた。
- Thanks to [my] friend, [I] was able to watch the movie for free.
(３) 友達のおかげで、映画をただで⾒ることができた。
- Thanks to [my] friend, [I] was able to watch the movie for free.
You can see that (３) uses the generic noun for an event to say literally, "The event of seeing movie
was able to be done." which essentially means the same thing as 「⾒られる」. You can also justuse generic noun substitution to substitute for 「こと」.
(１)

友達のおかげで、映画を⾒るのができた。

Here's some more examples using 「聞く」 , can you tell the diﬀerence? Notice that 「聞こえる」
always means "audible" and never "able to ask".
(１) 久しぶりに彼の声が聞けた。
- I was able to hear his voice for the ﬁrst time in a long time.
(２) 周りがうるさくて、彼が⾔っていることがあんまり聞こえなかった- The surroundings were noisy and I couldn't hear what he was saying very well。

4.6.5「ある」, yet another exception

You can say that something has a possibility of existing by combining 「ある」 and the verb 「得る」
to produce 「あり得る」. This essentially means 「あることができる」 except that nobody actuallysays that, they just use 「あり得る」. This verb is very curious in that it can be read as either 「ありうる」 or 「ありえる」, however; all the other conjugations such as 「ありえない」、「ありえた」、
and 「ありえなかった」 only have one possible reading using 「え」.

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4.7. USING する AND なる WITH THE に PARTICLE

Examples(１) そんなことはありうる。
- That kind of situation/event is possible (lit: can exist).
(２) そんなことはありえる。
- That kind of situation/event is possible (lit: can exist).
(３) そんなことはありえない。
- That kind of situation/event is not possible (lit: cannot exist).
(４) 彼が寝坊したこともありうるね。
- It's also possible that he overslept. (lit: The event that he overslept also possibly exists.)(５) それは、ありえない話だよ。
- That's an impossible story/scenario. (lit: That story/scenario cannot exist.)

4.7

Using する and なる with the に particle／する）（〜 [よう] になる

We can use the verbs 「する」 and 「なる」 in conjunction with the 「に」 particle to make various
useful expressions. We are used to using the object particle with 「する」 because something is
usually done to something else. We will see how the meaning changes when we change the particle
to 「に」. As for 「なる」, it is always used with the 「に」 particle because "becoming" is not an
action done to something else but rather a target of change. The only grammatical point of interest
here is using 「なる」 with i-adjectives and verbs.

4.7.1

Using 「なる」 and 「する」 for nouns and na-adjectives

As already explained, using 「なる」 with nouns and na-adjectives presents nothing new and acts
pretty much the way you'd expect.
(１) 彼の⽇本語が上⼿になった。
- His Japanese has become skillful.
(２) 私は医者になった。
- I became a doctor.
(３) 私は有名な⼈になる。
- I will become a famous person.
For adjectives, using the verb 「する」 with the 「に」 particle is just a review back to the lessonon adverbs. However, for nouns, when you use the verb 「する」 with the 「に」 particle, it meansthat you are going to do things toward something. This changes the meaning of 「する」 to mean,"to decide on [X]". This is a common expression to use, for instance, when you are ordering items
on a menu.
(１) 私は、ハンバーガーとサラダにします。
- I'll have the hamburger and salad. (lit: I'll do toward hamburger and salad.)(２) 他にいいものがたくさんあるけど、やっぱりこれにする。
- There are a lot of other good things, but as I thought, I'll go with this one.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

If you think this expression is strange, think about the English expression, "I'll go with the hamburger." Exactly where are you going with the hamburger?

4.7.2

Using 「なる」 with i-adjectives

Because the 「に」 particle is a target particle that is used for nouns and by extension na-adjectives,
we need to use something else to show that something is becoming an i-adjective. Since "becoming"
expresses a change in state, it makes sense to describe this process using an adverb. In fact, you'll
notice that we were already using adverbs (of a sort) in the previous section by using 「に」 withna-adjectives.
(１) 去年から背が⾼くなったね。
- Your height has gotten taller from last year, huh?
(２) 運動しているから、強くなる。
- I will become stronger because I am exercising.
(３) 勉強をたくさんしたから、頭がよくなった。
- Since I studied a lot, I became smarter. (lit: head became better)

4.7.3

Using 「なる」 and 「する」 with verbs

You may be wondering how to use 「なる」 and 「する」 with verbs since there's no way to directly
modify a verb with another verb. The simple solution is to add a generic noun such as a generic
event: こと (事) or an appearance/manner: よう (様). These nouns don't refer to anything speciﬁc
and are used to describe something else. In this case, they allow us to describe verbs in the samemanner as nouns. Here are some examples of how to use these generic nouns with 「する」 and「なる」.
(１) 海外に⾏くことになった。
- It's been decided that I will go abroad. (lit: It became the event of going abroad.)(２) 毎⽇、⾁を⾷べるようになった。
- It became so that I eat meat everyday. (lit: It became the appearance of eating meat everyday.)(３) 海外に⾏くことにした。
- I decided I will go abroad. (lit: I did toward the event of going abroad.)(４) 毎⽇、⾁を⾷べるようにする。
- I will try to eat meat everyday. (lit: I will do toward the manner of eating meat everyday.)You can modify a verb with 「なる」 or 「する」 by ﬁrst making it into a noun clause and thentreating it just like a regular noun. Pretty clever, huh? I hope the literal translations give you a senseof why the example sentences mean what they do. For example, in (４) 「〜ようにする」 translates
into "to make an eﬀort toward..." but in Japanese, it's really only a target towards acting in a certain
manner.
Since potential verbs describe a state of feasibility rather than an action (remember, that's why
the 「を」 particle couldn't be used), it is often used in conjunction with 「〜ようになる」 todescribe a change in manner to a state of feasibility. Let's take this opportunity to get some potential
conjugation practice in.
(１) ⽇本に来て、寿司が⾷べられるようになった。
- After coming to Japan, I became able to eat sushi.

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4.8. CONDITIONALS(２) ⼀年間練習したから、ピアノが弾けるようになった。
- Because I practiced for one year, I became able to play the piano.
(３) 地下に⼊って、富⼠⼭が⾒えなくなった。
- After going underground, Fuji-san became not visible.

4.8

Conditionals（と、なら、ば、たら）

4.8.1

How to say "if" in JapaneseThis whole section is dedicated to learning how to say "if" in Japanese. Oh, if only it was as simple asEnglish. In Japanese, there's four (count them, four) ways to say "if"! Thankfully, the conjugations
are sparse and easy especially since you don't have to deal with tenses.

4.8.2

Expressing natural consequence using 「と」We'll ﬁrst cover the simplest type of "if" which is the natural consequence conditional. This meansthat if [X] happens, [Y] will happen as a natural consequence. No question about it. If I drop a ball,it will fall to the ground. If I turn oﬀ the lights at night, it will get dark. We can express this type ofcondition in the following format.
.Rules for using the conditional 「と」1. Attach 「と」 to the condition followed by the result that would occur should the condition
be satisﬁed.
= [Condition] + と + [Result].
2. State of being must be made explicit= [State of Being] + だと + [Result]

Examples(１) ボールを落すと落ちる。
- If you drop the ball, it will fall.
(２) 電気を消すと暗くなる。
- If you turn oﬀ the lights, it will get dark.
These examples are designed to show how 「と」 is used to express natural consequence. However,even if the statement isn't a natural consequence in itself, the 「と」 will tell the audience that it isnevertheless expected to be a natural consequence.
(１) 学校に⾏かないと友達と会えないよ。
- If you don't go to school, you can't meet your friends.
(２) たくさん⾷べると太るよ。
- If you eat a lot, you will get fat, for sure.

79

4.8. CONDITIONALSCHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR(３) 先⽣だと、きっと年上なんじゃないですか？
- If he's a teacher, he must be older for sure, right?
The "for sure" part is the implied meaning supplied by the 「と」. The speaker is saying that thefollowing condition will occur in that situation, no matter what. As you can see from the last example,
if the condition is a state-of-being, it must be expressed so explicitly using 「だ」. This applies toall non-conjugated nouns and na-adjectives as I'm sure you're used to by now. This will also help
prevent confusion with other types of 「と」.

4.8.3

Contextual conditionals using 「なら (ば)」Another relatively easy to understand type of "if" is the contextual conditional. You can use thisparticle to express what will happen given a certain context. For example, if you wanted to say,"Well, if everybody's going, I'm going too" you would use the 「なら」 conditional because you aresaying that you will go in the context of everybody else going. The contextual conditional always
requires a context in which the conditional occurs. For instance, you would use it for saying things
like, "If that's what you are talking about..." or "If that's the case, then..."In a sense, you are explaining what would occur if you assume a certain condition is satisﬁed. In
other words, you are saying "if given a certain context, here is what will happen." You will see thisreﬂected in the English translations as the phrase "if given" in the examples.
The 「なら」 is attached to the context in which the conditional occurs. The format is the same as
the 「と」 conditional, however, you must not attach the declarative 「だ」.
.Rules for using the contextual conditional 「なら」.

1. Attach 「なら」 to the context in which the conditional would occur= [Assumed Context] + なら + [Result].
2. You must not attach the declarative 「だ」.

Examples(１) みんなが⾏くなら私も⾏く。
- If given that everybody is going, then I'll go too.
(２) アリスさんが⾔うなら問題ないよ。
- If given that Alice-san says so, there's no problem.

Example Dialogueアリス) 図書館はどこですか。
- Where is the library?
ボブ)

図書館なら、あそこです。- If given that you're talking about the library, then it's over there.

The following is incorrect.
(誤) 図書館だならあそこです。

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4.8. CONDITIONALS

You can also decide to use 「ならば」 instead of just 「なら」. This means exactly the same thing
except that it has a more formal nuance.

4.8.4

General conditionals using 「ば」

The next type of conditional just expresses a regular "if" condition without any assumptions orembedded meanings. However, it cannot be used with nouns and na-adjectives. Conjugation-wise,
the 「ば」 conditional is fairly easy. For verbs, like the potential form, you change the last / u /vowel sound to an / e / vowel sound but instead of attaching 「る」, you attach 「ば」. This rulealso applies to ru-verbs. For i-adjectives and negatives ending in 「ない」, you take oﬀ the last 「い」and add 「ければ」.
.Conjugation Rules for 「ば」.

1. For verbs, just like the potential form, change the last / u / vowel sound to the equivalent/ e / vowel sound and attach 「ば」(例) ⾷べる → ⾷べれ →⾷べれば(例) 待つ → 待て →待てば.
2. For i-adjectives or negatives ending in 「ない」, drop the last 「い」 and attach 「ければ」.
(例) おかしい → おかしければ(例) ない → なければExamples(１) 友達に会えれば、買い物に⾏きます。
- If I can meet with my friend, we will go shopping.
(２) お⾦があればいいね。
- If I had money, it would be good, huh?
(３) 楽しければ、私も⾏く。
- If it's fun, I'll go too.
(４) 楽しくなければ、私も⾏かない。
- If it's not fun, I'll also not go.
(５) ⾷べなければ病気になるよ。
- If you don't eat, you will become sick.

4.8.5

Past conditional using 「たら (ば)」I call this next conditional the past conditional because it is produced by taking the past tense andjust adding 「ら」. It is commonly called the 「たら」 conditional because all past-tense ends with
「た／だ」 and so it always becomes 「たら／だら」. Like the 「ば」 conditional, it is also a generalconditional except it can also be used with nouns and na-adjectives.

814.8. CONDITIONALSCHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR.Conjugation Rule for 「たら (ば)」1. First change the noun, adjective, or verb to its past tense and attach 「ら」(例) ⾃動 → ⾃動だった →⾃動だったら.
.
(例) 待つ → 待った →待ったら(例) 読む → 読んだ → 読んだら
(例) 忙しい → 忙しかった →忙しかったらExamples(１) 暇だったら、遊びに⾏くよ。
- If I am free, I will go play.
(２) 学⽣だったら、学⽣割引で買えます。
- If you're a student, you can buy with a student discount.
For i-adjectives and verbs, it is very diﬃcult to diﬀerentiate between the two types of conditionals,
and you can make life easier for yourself by considering them to be the same. However, if you
must insist, I searched around the web for an explanation of the diﬀerence that I can agree with.
Here is the original text (http://homepage3.nifty.com/i-yasu/Lesson8.htm). Basically, the 「たら」
conditional focuses on what happens after the condition. This is another reason why I call this thepast conditional because the condition is "in the past" (not literally) and we're interested in the result
not the condition. The 「ば」 conditional, on the other hand, focuses on the conditional part.
Let's compare the diﬀerence in nuance.
(A) 友達に会えれば、買い物に⾏きます。- We will go shopping, if I can meet with my friend.
(B) 友達に会えたら、買い物に⾏きます。- If I can meet with my friend, we will go shopping.
(A)(B)

お⾦があればいいね。- It would be good, if I had money, huh?
お⾦があったらいいね。- If I had money, it would be good, huh?

Going by the context, the 「〜たら」 form sounds more natural for both examples because it doesn't
seem like we're really focusing on the condition itself. We're probably more interested in what's
going to happen once we meet the friend or how nice it would be if we had money.
The past conditional is the only type of conditional where the result can be in the past. It may seem
strange to have an "if" when the result has already taken place. Indeed, in this usage, there reallyis no "if", it's just a way of expressing surprise at the result of the condition. This has little to dowith conditionals but it is explained here because the grammatical structure is the same.
(１) 家に帰ったら、誰もいなかった。
- When I went home, there was no one there. (unexpected result)(２) アメリカに⾏ったら、たくさん太りました。
- As a result of going to America, I got really fat. (unexpected result)
You can also use 「たらば」 instead of 「たら」. Similar to 「ならば」, this means exactly the samething except that it has a more formal nuance.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.8.6

4.9. EXPRESSING "MUST" OR "HAVE TO"

How does 「もし」 ﬁt into all of this?

Some of you may be aware of the word 「もし」 which means "if" and may be wondering how it
ﬁts into all of this. Well, if you want to say a conditional, you need to use one of the conditionals
discussed above. 「もし」 is really a supplement to add a sense of uncertainty on whether thecondition is true. For instance, you might use it when you want to make an invitation and you don't
want to presume like the following example.
(１) もしよかったら、映画を観に⾏きますか？
- If by any chance it's ok with you, go to watch movie?
(２) もし時間がないなら、明⽇でもいいよ。
- If given that there's no time, tomorrow is ﬁne as well. (Not certain whether there is no time)

4.9

Expressing "must" or "have to"らない、〜ても）（〜だめ、〜いけない、〜な

4.9.1

When there's something that must or must not be done

In life, there are things that we must or must not do whether it's taking out the trash or doing ourhomework. We will cover how to say this in Japanese because it is a useful expression and it also
ties in well with the previous section. We will also learn how to the say the expression, "You don't
have to..." to ﬁnish oﬀ this section.

4.9.2

Using 「だめ」, 「いけない」, and 「ならない」 for things that must not
be doneIf you don't know what 「だめ」 (駄⽬) means, I suggest looking it up in WWWJDIC (http://www.
csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwjdic.html) and clicking on the [Ex] link to see the example sentences.
It essentially means "no good" but carefully check out the example sentences because it can be usedin many diﬀerent ways. The other two key words in this section are 「いけない」 and 「ならない」
and they have essentially the same basic meaning as 「だめ」. However, while 「いけない」 can beused by itself, 「ならない」 must only be used in the grammar presented here. In addition, while「いけない」 and 「ならない」 conjugate like i-adjectives they are not actual adjectives. Let's learn
how to use these words to express things that must not be done.
.How to say: Must not [verb].

• Take the te-form of the verb, add the 「は」 (wa) particle and ﬁnally attach either 「だめ」、「いけない」、or 「ならない」.
.
例) ⼊る→⼊って + は + だめ／いけない／ならない = ⼊ってはだめ／⼊ってはいけない／⼊ってはならない(１) ここに⼊ってはいけません。
- You must not enter here.
(２) それを⾷べてはだめ！
- You can't (must not) eat that!
(３)

夜、遅くまで電話してはならない。

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4.9. EXPRESSING "MUST" OR "HAVE TO"

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR- You must not use the phone until late at night.
(４) 早く寝てはなりませんでした。
- Wasn't allowed to sleep early.
The diﬀerence between 「だめ」 、 「いけない」 、 and 「ならない」 is that, ﬁrst of all, 「だめ」 iscasual. While 「いけない」 and 「ならない」 are basically identical, 「ならない」 is generally more
for things that apply to more than one person like rules and policies.

4.9.3

Expressing things that must be done

You may have predicted that the opposite of "You must not do" would use 「いける」 or 「なる」
because they look like the positive version of 「いけない」 and 「ならない」 . However, 「いけない」 and 「ならない」 must always be negative, so this is not correct. In actuality, we still use thesame 「だめ／いけない／ならない」 and use the opposite of the verb that goes in front of it instead.
This double negative can be kind of confusing at ﬁrst but you will get used to it with practice. There
are three ways to conjugate the verb before adding 「だめ／いけない／ならない」 and two of them
involve conditionals so aren't you glad that you just learned conditionals in the previous section?
.How to say: Must [verb]
1. Negative te-form + 「は」 (wa) particle + だめ／いけない／ならない.
. 2. Negative verb + 「と」 conditional + だめ／いけない／ならない
3. Negative verb + 「ば」 conditional + だめ／いけない／ならない● The ﬁrst method is the same as the "must not do" grammar form except that we simply negatedthe verb.
(１)

毎⽇学校に⾏かなくてはなりません。- Must go to school everyday.

(２)

宿題をしなくてはいけなかった。- Had to do homework.

● The second method uses the natural conditional that we learned in the last lesson. Literally, itmeans if you don't do something, then it automatically leads to the fact that it is no good. (In otherwords, you must do it.) However, people tend to use it for situations beyond the natural consequencecharacterization that we learned from the last section because it's shorter and easier to use thanthe other two types of grammar.
(１)

毎⽇学校に⾏かないとだめです。- Must go to school everyday.

(２)

宿題をしないといけない。- Have to do homework.

● The third method is similar to the second except that it uses a diﬀerent type of conditional as
explained in the last lesson. With the 「ば」 conditional, it can be used for a wider range of situations.
Note that since the verb is always negative, for the 「ば」 conditional, we will always be removing
the last 「い」 and adding 「ければ」.
(１)

毎⽇学校に⾏かなければいけません。- Must go to school everyday.

(２)

宿題をしなければだめだった。- Had to do homework.

It may seem like I just breezed through a whole lot of material because there are three grammar
forms and 「だめ／いけない／ならない」 adding up to nine possible combinations (3x3). However,some combinations are more common than others but I did not explicitly point out which were more84

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.9. EXPRESSING "MUST" OR "HAVE TO"

common because any combination is technically correct and going over style would merely confuse
at this point. Also, keep in mind that there is nothing essentially new in terms of conjugation rules.
We already covered conditionals in the last lesson and adding the wa particle to the te-form in the
beginning of this section.

※ Reality Check
Although we spent the last section explaining 「〜なければ」 and 「〜なくては」, the reality is that
because they are so long, they are practically never used in real conversations. While they are often
used in a written context, in actual speech, people usually use the 「と」 conditional or the various
shortcuts described below. In casual speech, the 「と」 conditional is the most prevalent type ofconditional. Though I explained in depth the meaning associated with the 「と」 conditional, youhave to take it with a grain of salt here because people are inherently lazy.

4.9.4

Various short-cuts for the lazyYou may have been grumbling and complaining about how long most of the expressions are just to
say you must do something. You can end up with up to eight additional syllables just to say "I haveto..."!
Well, others have thought the same before and people usually use short abbreviated versions of「なくては」 and 「なければ」 in casual speech. Teachers are often reluctant to teach these overly
familiar expressions because they are so much easier to use which is bad for times when they might
not be appropriate. But, on the other hand, if you don't learn casual expressions, it makes it diﬃcult
to understand your friends (or would-be friends if you only knew how to speak less stiﬄy!). So here
they are but take care to properly practice the longer forms so that you will be able to use them forthe appropriate occasions.
.Casual abbreviations for things that must be done.

1. Simply replace 「なくて」 with 「なくちゃ」.
2. Simply replace 「なければ」 with 「なきゃ」Right now, you may be saying, "What the?" because the "abbreviations" are about the same length
as what we've already covered. The secret here is that, unlike the expressions we learned so far,you can just leave the 「だめ／いけない／ならない」 part out altogether!
(１)(２)

勉強しなくちゃ。- Gotta study.
ご飯を⾷べなきゃ。- Gotta eat.

The 「と」 conditional is also used by itself to imply 「だめ／いけない／ならない」.
(１) 学校に⾏かないと。－ Gotta go to school.
There is another 「ちゃ」 abbreviation for things that you must not do. However, in this case, you
cannot leave out the 「だめ／いけない／ならない」 part out. Since this is a casual abbreviation, 「だめ」 is used in most cases.
One very important diﬀerence for this casual form is that verbs that end in 「む」、 「ぶ」、 「ぬ」
use 「じゃ」 instead of 「ちゃ」. Essentially, all the verbs that end in 「んだ」 for past tense fall inthis category.

85

4.10. DESIRE AND SUGGESTIONSCHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR.Casual abbreviations for things that must not be done.

1. Replace 「ては」 with 「ちゃ」.

2. Replace 「では」 with 「じゃ」(１)

ここに⼊っちゃだめだよ。- You can't enter here.

(２)

死んじゃだめだよ！- You can't die!

On a ﬁnal note, in general, 「ちゃ」 sounds a bit cutesy or girly. You've already seen an example ofthis with the 「ちゃん」 suﬃx. Similarly, 「なくちゃ」 also sounds a bit cutesy or childish.

4.9.5

Saying something is ok to do or not do

Now let's learn how to say either that it's ok to do or not do something. I decided to shove thissection in here because in Japanese, this is essential how to say that you don't have to something(by saying it's ok to not do it). The grammar itself is also relatively easy to pick up and makes for ashort section.
By simply using the te-form and the 「も」 particle, you are essentially saying, "even if you do X..."
Common words that come after this include 「いい」, 「⼤丈夫」, or 「構わない」. Some examples
will come in handy.
(１) 全部⾷べてもいいよ。- You can go ahead and eat it all. (lit: Even if you eat it all, it's good,
you know.)(２) 全部⾷べなくてもいいよ。- You don't have to eat it all. (lit: Even if you don't eat it all, it's
good, you know.)(３) 全部飲んでも⼤丈夫だよ。- It's OK if you drink it all. (lit: Even if you drink it all, it's OK, you
know.)(４) 全部飲んでも構わないよ。- I don't mind if you drink it all. (lit: Even if you drink it all, I don'tmind, you know.)
In casual speech, 「〜てもいい」 sometimes get shortened to just 「〜ていい」 (or 「〜でいい」
instead of 「〜でもいい」 ).
(１) もう帰っていい？- Can I go home already?
(２) これ、ちょっと⾒ていい？- Can I take a quick look at this?

4.10

Desire and Suggestions
らどう）（たい、欲しい、volitional、〜た4.10.1

How to get your way in Japan

We will now learn how to say what you want either by just coming out and saying it or by making
discreet suggestions. The major topics we will cover will be the 「たい」 conjugation and thevolitional form. We will also learn specialized uses of the 「たら」 and 「ば」 conditionals to oﬀer
advice.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.10.24.10. DESIRE AND SUGGESTIONS

Verbs you want to do with 「たい」

You can express verbs that you want to perform with the 「たい」 form. All you need to do is
add 「たい」 to the stem of the verb. However, unlike most conjugations we learned where theverb turns into a ru-verb, this form actually transforms the verb into an i-adjective (notice how 「たい」 conveniently ends in 「い」). This makes sense because the conjugated form is a descriptionof something that you want to do. Once you have the 「たい」 form, you can then conjugate it
the same as you would any other i-adjective. However, the 「たい」 form is diﬀerent from regulari-adjectives because it is derived from a verb. This means that all the particles we normally associatewith verbs such as 「を」、「に」、「へ」、or 「で」 can all be used with the 「たい」 form, which
is not true for regular i-adjectives. Here's a chart just for you.

「たい」 conjugations
Positive
Negative
Non-Past
⾏きたい
⾏きたくないPast
⾏きたかった ⾏きたくなかった

Examples(１) 何をしたいですか。
- What do you want to do?
(２) 温泉に⾏きたい。
- I want to go to hot spring.
(３) ケーキ、⾷べたくないの？
- You don't want to eat cake?
(４) ⾷べたくなかったけど⾷べたくなった。
- I didn't want to eat it but I became wanting to eat.
Example (４) was very awkward to translate but is quite simple in Japanese if you refer to "Using「なる」 with i-adjectives". The past tense of the verb 「なる」 was used to create "became want toeat". Here's a tongue twister using the negative 「〜たくない」 and past-tense of 「なる」：「⾷べたくなくなった」 meaning "became not wanting to eat".
This may seem obvious but 「ある」 cannot have a 「たい」 form because inanimate objects cannot
want anything. However, 「いる」 can be used with the 「たい」 form in examples like the one
below.
(５) ずっと⼀緒にいたい。
- I want to be together forever. (lit: Want to exist together for long time.)
Also, you can only use the 「たい」 form for the ﬁrst-person because you cannot read other people's
mind to see what they want to do. For referring to anyone beside yourself, it is normal to use
expressions such as, "I think he wants to..." or "She said that she wants to..." We will learn how to
say such expressions in a later lesson. Of course, if you're asking a question, you can just use the「たい」 form because you're not presuming to know anything.
(６) ⽝と遊びたいですか。
- Do you want to play with dog?

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4.10. DESIRE AND SUGGESTIONS

4.10.3

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Indicating things you want or want done using 「欲しい」In English, we employ a verb to say that we want something. In Japanese, "to want" is actually an
i-adjective and not a verb. We saw something similar with 「好き」 which is an adjective while "tolike" in English is a verb. While I didn't get too much into the workings of 「好き」, I have dedicateda whole section to 「欲しい」 because it means, "to want something done" when combined with thete-form of a verb. We will learn a more polite and appropriate way to make requests in the "Making
Requests" lesson instead of saying, "I want this done."
Though not a set rule, whenever words come attached to the te-form of a verb to serve a special
grammatical function, it is customary to write it in hiragana. This is because kanji is already used
for the verb and the attached word becomes part of that verb.

Examples(１) ⼤きい縫いぐるみが欲しい！
- I want a big stuﬀed doll!
(２) 全部⾷べてほしいんだけど・・・。
- I want it all eaten but...
(３) 部屋をきれいにしてほしいのよ。
- It is that I want the room cleaned up, you know.
Like I mentioned, there are more appropriate ways to ask for things which we won't go into until
later. This grammar is not used too often but is included for completeness.

4.10.4Making a motion to do something using the volitional form (casual)

The term volitional here means a will to do something. In other words, the volitional form indicatesthat someone is setting out to do something. In the most common example, this simply translates
into the English "let's" or "shall we?" but we'll also see how this form can be used to express aneﬀort to do something in a lesson further along.
To conjugate verbs into the volitional form for casual speech, there are two diﬀerent rules for ruverbs and u-verbs. For ru-verbs, you simply remove the 「る」 and add 「よう」. For u-verbs, you
replace the / u / vowel sound with the / o / vowel sound and add 「う」.
.Conjugations rules for the casual volitional form.

• For ru-verbs: Remove the 「る」 and add 「よう」
例) ⾷べる →⾷べ + よう →⾷べよう.
• For u-verbs: Replace the / u / vowel sound with the / o / vowel sound and add 「う」
例) ⼊る →⼊ろ + う →⼊ろうHere is a list of verbs you should be used to seeing by now.

88

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Sample ru-verbs
Plain Volitional
⾷べる
⾷べよう
着る
着よう
信じる
信じよう
寝る
寝よう
起きる
起きよう
出る
出よう
掛ける
掛けよう
捨てる
捨てよう
調べる
調べよう

Plain
話す
聞く
泳ぐ
遊ぶ
待つ
飲む
直る
死ぬ
買う

4.10. DESIRE AND SUGGESTIONS

Sample u-verbs
Volitional ローマ字 ローマ字 (Vol.)
話そう
hanasuhanasou
聞こう
kiku
kikou
泳ごう
oyogu
oyogou遊ぼう
asobu
asobou
待とう
matu
matou
飲もう
nomu
nomou
直ろう
naoru
naorou死のうshinushinou
買おう
kau
kaou

Exception Verbs
Plain Volitional
する
しよう
くる
こよう

ExamplesI doubt you will ever use 「死のう」 (let's die) but I left it in for completeness. Here are some more
realistic examples.
(１) 今⽇は何をしようか？
- What shall [we] do today?
(２) テーマパークに⾏こう！
- Let's go to theme park!
(３) 明⽇は何を⾷べようか？
- What shall [we] eat tomorrow?
(４) カレーを⾷べよう！
- Let's eat curry!
Remember, since you're setting out to do something, it doesn't make sense to have this verb in thepast tense. Therefore, there is only one tense and if you were to replace 「明⽇」 in (３) with, forexample, 「昨⽇」 then the sentence would make no sense.

4.10.5Making a motion to do something using the volitional form (polite)

The conjugation for the polite form is even simpler. All you have to do is add 「〜ましょう」 to thestem of the verb. Similar to the masu-form, verbs in this form must always come at the end of
the sentence. In fact, all polite endings must always come at the end and nowhere else as we've
already seen.
.Conjugations rules for the polite volitional form.

• For all verbs: Add 「〜ましょう」 to the stem of the verb.
例) ⾷べる →⾷べ + ましょう →⾷べましょう
例) ⼊る →⼊り + ましょう →⼊りましょう894.11. PERFORMING AN ACTION ON A SUBORDINATE CHAPTER
CLAUSE 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Sample verbs
Plain
Volitional
する
しましょう
くる
きましょう
寝る
寝ましょう
⾏く
⾏きましょう遊ぶ
遊びましょうExamplesAgain, there's nothing new here, just the polite version of the volitional form.
(１) 今⽇は何をしましょうか？
- What shall [we] do today?
(２) テーマパークに⾏きましょう- Let's go to theme park!
(３) 明⽇は何を⾷べましょうか？
- What shall [we] eat tomorrow?
(４) カレーを⾷べましょう- Let's eat curry!

4.10.6Making Suggestions using the 「ば」 or 「たら」 conditional

You can make suggestions by using the 「ば」 or 「たら」 conditional and adding 「どう」 . This
literally means, "If you do [X], how is it?" In English, this would become, "How about doing [X]?"Grammatically, there's nothing new here but it is a commonly used set phrase.

Examples(１) 銀⾏に⾏ったらどうですか。
- How about going to bank?
(２) たまにご両親と話せばどう？
- How about talking with your parents once in a while?

4.11

Performing an action on a subordinate clause （と、って）In the section about modifying subordinate clauses, we learned how to treat a subordinate clause
like an adjective to directly modify a noun. We will extend the functionality of subordinate clauses
by learning how to perform an action on a subordinate clause. Obviously, we cannot simply attach
the 「を」 particle to a subordinate clause because the 「を」 particle only applies to noun phrases.
We need something to encapsulate the subordinate clause into a unit that we can perform actions
on. This is done by making a quoted phrase.
While in English, you can just add quotes and a comma to make a quotation, Japanese requires

90CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR
4.11. PERFORMING AN ACTION ON A SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

attaching 「と」 at the end of the quote. This is completely diﬀerent from the 「と」 particle andthe 「と」 conditional. Unlike quotes in English, we can perform many diﬀerent types of actions on
the quote besides the standard "he said", "she said", etc. For example, we can perform the action,"to think" or "to hear" to produce phrases such as, "I think [subclause]" or "I heard [subclause]"
This is very important in Japanese because Japanese people seldom aﬃrm deﬁnite statements. This
also why we will have to eventually cover many other types of grammar to express uncertainty or
probability.

4.11.1The direct quote

We'll learn the simplest type of quoted phrase, which is the direct quote. Basically, you are directly
quoting something that was said. This is done by simply enclosing the statement in quotes, adding「と」 and then inserting the appropriate verb. The most common verbs associated with a direct
quote would be 「⾔う」 and 「聞く」 but you may use any verbs related to direct quotation suchas: 「叫ぶ」, 「呼ぶ」, 「呟く」, etc. This type of quotation is often used for dialogue in novels andother narrative works.

Examples(１) アリスが、「寒い」と⾔った。
- Alice said, "Cold".
(２) 「今⽇は授業がない」と先⽣から聞いたんだけど。- It is that I heard from the teacher, "There isno class today."The verb does not need to be directly connected to the subordinate clause. As long as the verb
that applies to the subordinate clause comes before any other verb, you can have any number ofadjectives, adverbs or nouns in between.
(１)「寒い」とアリスが⽥中に⾔った。- "Cold," Alice said to Tanaka.

4.11.2The interpreted quote

The second type of quote is the quote along the lines of what someone actually said. It's not a wordfor-word quote. Since this is not a direct quote, no quotations are needed. You can also express
thoughts as an interpreted quote as well. By using this and the verb 「思う」 you can say you thinkthat something is so-and-so. You will hear Japanese people use this all the time. You can also use
the verb 「考える」 when you are considering something.

Examples(１) 先⽣から今⽇は授業がないと聞いたんだけど。
- I heard from the teacher that there is no class today.
(２) これは、⽇本語で何と⾔いますか。- What do you call this in Japanese? (lit: About this, what
do you say in Japanese?)(３)

私は、アリスと⾔います。- I am called Alice. (lit: As for me, you say Alice.)914.11. PERFORMING AN ACTION ON A SUBORDINATE CHAPTER
CLAUSE 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

In an interpreted quote, the meaning of 「⾔う」 may change as you see in examples (２) and (３).
Actually, as you can see from the literal translation, the meaning remains the same in Japanese butchanges only when translated to normal English. (We'll learn more about various ways to use 「いう」 in the next lesson.)
Here are some examples of thoughts being used as quoted subordinate clauses. In example (５),the question marker is used with the volitional to insert an embedded question.
(４) カレーを⾷べようと思ったけど、⾷べる時間がなかった。
- I thought about setting out to eat curry but I didn't have time to eat.
(５) 今、どこに⾏こうかと考えている。
- Now, I'm considering where to set out to go.
Unlike the direct quotation, which you can just copy as is, if the quoted subordinate clause is astate-of-being for a noun or na-adjective, you have to explicitly include the declarative 「だ」 toshow this.
(１) 彼は、これは何だと⾔いましたか。
- What did he say this is?
(２) 彼は⾼校⽣だと聞いたけど、信じられない。
- I heard that he is a high school student but I can't believe it.
Notice how 「だ」 was added to explicitly declare the state-of-being that is highlighted in the English
translation. You can really see how important the 「だ」 is here by comparing the following two
sentences.
(A) これは何だと⾔いましたか。
- What did [he] say this is?
(B) 何と⾔いましたか。
- What did [he] say?

4.11.3Using 「って」 as a casual version of 「と」You may be surprised to hear that there is a shorter and casual version of the quoted subordinate
clause since it's already only one hiragana character, 「と」. However, the important point here isthat by using this casual shortcut, you can drop the rest of the sentence and hope your audiencecan understand everything from context.

Examples(１) 智⼦は来年、海外に⾏くんだって。
- Tomoko said that she's going overseas next year.
(２) もうお⾦がないって。
- I already told you I have no money.
(３) え？何だって？
- Huh? What did you say?
(４) 今、時間がないって聞いたんだけど、本当？
- I heard you don't have time now, is that true?

92CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.12. DEFINING AND DESCRIBING(５) 今、時間がないって、本当？
- You don't have time now (I heard), is that true?
「って」 can also be used to talk about practically anything, not just to quote something that wassaid. You can hear 「って」 being used just about everywhere in casual speech. Most of the time it
is used in place of the 「は」 particle to simply bring up a topic.

Examples(１) 明⽇って、⾬が降るんだって。
- About tomorrow, I hear that it's going to rain.
(２) アリスって、すごくいい⼈でしょ？
- About Alice, she's a very good person, right?

4.12

Deﬁning and Describing （という）4.12.1The various uses of 「いう」

In the previous lesson, we learned how to quote a subordinate clause by encasing it with 「と」 .
This allowed us to talk about things that people have said, heard, thought, and more. We also took
a look at some examples sentences that used 「と」 and 「⾔う」 to describe how to say somethingin Japanese and even what to call oneself. In this section, we will learn that with 「と」, we can use「いう」 in a similar fashion to deﬁne, describe, and generally just talk about the thing itself. We'll
also see how to do the same thing with the casual 「って」 version we ﬁrst learned about in the lastlesson.

4.12.2Using 「いう」 to deﬁne

In the last lesson, we brieﬂy looked at how to introduce ourselves by using 「と」 and 「いう」. For
instance, we had the following example, which Alice used to introduce herself.
(１)

私はアリスといいます。- I am called Alice. (lit: As for me, you say Alice.)This sentence pattern is probably one of the ﬁrst things beginner Japanese students learn in theclassroom. In this case, the verb 「いう」 doesn't mean that somebody actually said something.
Rather, Alice is saying that people in general say "Alice" when referring to her. While using kanji for「いう」 is perfectly acceptable, in this case, since nothing is actually being said, using hiragana isalso common.
This idea of describing what a person is known or referred to as can also be extended to objects
and places. We can essentially deﬁne and identify anything we want by using 「という」 in thismanner. As you can imagine, this is particularly useful for us because it allows us to ask what things
are called in Japanese and for the deﬁnition of words we don't know yet.

93

4.12. DEFINING AND DESCRIBING

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Examples(１) これは、なんという⿂ですか。
- What is this ﬁsh referred to as?.
(２) この⿂は、鯛といいます。
- This ﬁsh is known as "Tai".
(３) ルミネというデパートはどこにあるか、知っていますか？
- Do you know where the department store called "Lumine" is?
(４) 「友達」は、英語で「friend」という意味です。
- The meaning of "tomodachi" in English is "friend".

4.12.3Using 「いう」 to describe anything

We learned how to use 「という」 to describe what something is known or referred to as. However,
we can take this idea even further by attaching two subordinate clauses. At this point, 「いう」 is soabstract that it doesn't even really have a meaning. When a subordinate clause is encapsulated with「と」, you must have a verb to go along with it and 「いう」 is simply being used as a generic verb
to enable us to talk about any subordinate clause. This allows us to describe and explain just about
anything ranging from a single word to complete sentences. As you can imagine, this construction
is quite useful and employed quite often in Japanese.

Examples(１) 主⼈公が犯⼈だったというのが⼀番⾯⽩かった。
- The most interesting thing was that the main character was the criminal.
(２) ⽇本⼈はお酒に弱いというのは本当？
- Is it true that Japanese people are weak to alcohol?
(３) 独⾝だというのは、嘘だったの？
- It was a lie that you were single?
(４) リブートというのは、パソコンを再起動するということです。
- Reboot means to restart your computer.
We can abstract it even further by replacing the subordinate clause with a generic way of doing
something. In this case, we use 「こう」、「そう」、「ああ」、and 「どう」, which when combinedwith 「いう」 means "this way, "that way", "that way (far away in an abstract sense)" and "whatway" respectively.

Examples(１) あんたは、いつもこういう時に来るんだから、困るんだよ。
- It's because you always come at times like these that I'm troubled.
(２) そういう⼈と⼀緒に仕事をするのは、嫌だよね。
- [Anybody would] dislike doing work together with that type of person, huh?

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.12. DEFINING AND DESCRIBING(３) ああいう⼈と結婚できたら、幸せになれると思います。
- I think you can become happy if you could marry that type of person.
(４) ⼤学に⾏かないって、どういう意味なの？
- What do you mean, "You're not going to go to college?"

4.12.4Rephrasing and making conclusions with 「という」We can attach the question marker 「か」 to 「という」 in order to add a questioning element.
This construction is used when you want to rephrase or redeﬁne something such as the following
dialogue.

Example Dialogue(Ａ) みきちゃんは、あんたの彼⼥でしょう？
- Miki-chan is your girlfriend, right?
(Ｂ) う〜ん、彼⼥というか、友達というか、なんというか・・・- Um, you might say girlfriend, or friend, or something…
This construction is used all the time, particularly in casual conversations. It can be used to correct
something, come to a diﬀerent conclusion, or even as an interjection.

Examples(１) お酒は好きというか、ないと⽣きていけない。
- I like alcohol or rather, can't live on without it.
(２) 多分⾏かないと思う。というか、お⾦がないから、⾏けない。
- Don't think I'll go. Or rather, can't because there's no money.
(３) というか、もう帰らないとだめですけど。
- Rather than that, I have to go home already.
Rather than using 「か」 to rephrase a conclusion, we can also simply use 「こと」 to sum up
something without rephrasing anything.

Example Dialogue(Ａ) みきちゃんが洋介と別れたんだって。
- I heard that Miki-chan broke up with Yousuke.
(Ｂ) ということは、みきちゃんは、今彼⽒がいないということ？
- Does that mean Miki-chan doesn't have a boyfriend now?
(Ａ) そう。そういうこと。
- That's right. That's what it means.

954.12. DEFINING AND DESCRIBING

4.12.5

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Using 「って」 or 「て」 for 「という」As mentioned in the previous lesson, 「って」 is very often used in causal slang in place of 「と」, because it allows us to leave out the rest of the sentence and assume context (or just plain
assumption) will take care of the rest. We already saw that we can use 「って」 to replace 「という」 as well. However, since we just learned how to use 「という」 to do much more than justsimply say something, there is a limit to just how much you can leave out. In any case, 「って」 willallow us to leave out not only 「いう」 but also any accompanying particles as you can see in thefollowing example.

Examples(１) 来年留学するというのは、智⼦のこと？
- The studying abroad next year thing, is that Tomoko?
(２) 来年留学するって智⼦のこと？
- The studying abroad next year thing, is that Tomoko?
「だって」 is also another phrase that leaves out just about everything. By convention, it is used toexpress disagreement or dissatisfaction usually to whine, complain, or to make an excuse but you
can't tell what it means just from looking at it. It is an abbreviation of something along the lines of「とはいっても」 meaning, "even if that was the case".

Example Dialogue 1(A) しないとだめだよ。
- Have to do it, you know.
(B) だって、時間がないからできないよ。
- But (even so), can't do it because there is no time.

Example Dialogue 2(A) ⾏かなくてもいいよ。
- Don't have to go, you know.
(B) だって、みんな⾏くって。私も⾏かないと。
- But (even so), everybody said they're going. I have to go too.
In some cases, the small 「つ」 is left out and just 「て」 is used instead of 「って」. This is done
(as is usually the case for slang) in order to make things easier to say. In general, this is when there
is nothing before the 「て」 or when the sound that comes before it doesn't require the explicit
separation the 「っ」 gives us in order to be understood.

Examples(１) てことは、みきちゃんは、今彼⽒がいないてこと？
- Does that mean Miki-chan doesn't have a boyfriend now?

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL
4.13. GRAMMAR
TRYING SOMETHING OUT OR ATTEMPTING TO DO SOMETHING(２) ていうか、もう帰らないとだめですけど。
- Rather than that, I have to go home already.
Since slang tends to be used in whichever way the person feels like, there are no deﬁnite rules
deﬁning whether you should use 「って」 or 「て」. However, 「て」 is generally not used to express
what people have actually said or heard, which is why it wasn't covered in the last lesson.
(誤) みきちゃんが、明⽇こないて。
- (Can't use 「て」 for something actually said)(正) みきちゃんが、明⽇こないって。
- Miki-chan says she isn't coming tomorrow.

4.12.6

Saying 「ゆう」 instead of 「いう」

Because the 「という」construction is used so often, there are a lot of diﬀerent variations and slang
based on it. While I do not plan on covering all of them here, you can check out casual patterns andslang in the miscellaneous section for yet even more slang derived from 「という」.
The last thing I'm am going to brieﬂy mention here is the use of 「ゆう」 instead of 「いう」. In
conversations, it is quite normal to say 「ゆう」 instead of 「いう」. 「ゆう」 is easier to say because
it is simply one letter with a long vowel sound instead of the two diﬀerent vowel sounds of 「いう」.

Examples(１) てゆうか、もう帰らないとだめですけど。
- Rather than that, I have to go home already.
(２) そうゆうことじゃないって！
- I said it's not like that (lit: it's not that type of thing)!

4.13

4.13.1

Trying something out or attempting to do something（〜てみる、volitional+ とする）
Let's try some stuﬀ

In English, we use the word, "try" to mean both "to try something out" and "to make an eﬀort todo something". In Japanese, these are separate grammatical expressions. For instance, "I tried thecherry ﬂavor" and "I tried to do homework" mean quite diﬀerent things and though English does
not make a distinction, Japanese does.

4.13.2To try something out

To try something out, you simply need to change the verb to the te-form and add 「みる」 . If it
helps you to remember, you can think of it as a sequence of an action and then seeing the result.

97

4.13. TRYING SOMETHING OUT OR ATTEMPTING TO CHAPTER
DO SOMETHING
4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

In fact 「みる」 conjugates just like 「⾒る」. However, just like the 「〜てほしい」 grammar welearned, this is a set phrase and 「みる」 is usually written in hiragana.
.Summary
To say you tried something out, take the action, conjugate it to the te-form and add 「み
る」.
.

例)

切る→切って →切ってみる.

You can treat the whole result as a regular verb just as you would with 「⾒る」.
例)

切ってみる、切ってみた、切ってみない、切ってみなかった

Examples(１) お好み焼きを初めて⾷べてみたけど、とてもおいしかった！
- I tried eating okonomiyaki for the ﬁrst time and it was very tasty!
(２) お酒を飲んでみましたが、すごく眠くなりました。
- I tried drinking alcohol and I became extremely sleepy.
(３) 新しいデパートに⾏ってみる。
- I'm going to check out the new department store.
(４) 広島のお好み焼きを⾷べてみたい！
- I want to try eating Hiroshima okonomiyaki!

4.13.3To attempt to do something

We already learned that the volitional form was used to indicate a will to set out to do something.
If you guessed that this next grammar for attempting to do something would involve the volitional
form, you were right. To say that you tried (as in attempted) to do something, you need to conjugate
the verb into the volitional, enclose it in a quotation (so that we can perform an action on the clause)and ﬁnally add the verb 「する」 . Or put more simply, you just add 「とする」 to the volitional
form of the verb. This is simply an extension of the quoted subordinate clause from the last section.
Instead of saying the quote (⾔う) or treating it as a thought (思う、考える), we are simply doing itwith 「する」.
.Summary.

To say that you are attempting a certain action, convert the action to the volitional form
and add 「とする」.
.
例) ⾒る→⾒よう →⾒ようとする
例)

⾏く→⾏こう →⾏こうとする

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4.14. GIVING AND RECEIVING

Examples(１) 毎⽇、勉強を避けようとする。
- Everyday, she attempts to avoid study.
(２) 無理⽮理に部屋に⼊ろうとしている。
- He is attempting to force his way into the room.
(３) 早く寝ようとしたけど、結局は徹夜した。
- I attempted to sleep early but ended up staying up all night.
(４) お酒を飲もうとしたが、奥さんが⽌めた。
- He tried to drink alcohol but his wife stopped him.
Though we use the verb 「する」 to say, "to do attempt", we can use diﬀerent verbs to do otherthings with the attempt. For instance, we can use the verb 「決める」 to say, "decide to attempt to
do [X]". Here are some examples of other actions carried out on the attempt.
(１) 勉強をなるべく避けようと思った。
- I thought I would attempt to avoid studying as much as possible.
(２) 毎⽇ジムに⾏こうと決めた。
- Decided to attempt to go to gym everyday.

4.14

Giving and Receiving

4.14.1

Japanese people like gifts（あげる、やる、くれる、もらう）

One thing about Japanese culture is that they're big on giving gifts. There are many diﬀerent customs
involving giving and receiving gifts (お歳暮、お中元、etc.) and when Japanese people go traveling,
you can be sure that they're going to be picking up souvenirs to take back as gifts. Even whenattending marriages or funerals, people are expected to give a certain amount of money as a gift tohelp fund the ceremony. You can see why properly learning how to express the giving and receivingof favors and items is a very important and useful skill. For some reason, the proper use of 「あげる」、 「くれる」、and 「もらう」 has always haunted people studying Japanese as being horribly
complex and intractable. I hope to prove in this section that it is conceptually quite straightforward
and simple.

4.14.2

When to use 「あげる」「あげる」 is the Japanese word for "to give" seen from the speaker's point of view. You must use
this verb when you are giving something or doing something for someone else.

Examples(１) 私が友達にプレゼントをあげた。
- I gave present to friend.

99

4.14. GIVING AND RECEIVING

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR(２) これは先⽣にあげる。
- I'll give this to teacher.
In order to express the giving of a favor (verb) you must use the ever useful te-form and then attach「あげる」. This applies to all the other sections in this lesson as well.
(１) ⾞を買ってあげるよ。
- I'll give you the favor of buying a car.
(２) 代わりに⾏ってあげる。
- I'll give you the favor of going in your place.
For third-person, this verb is used when the speaker is looking at it from the giver's point of view.
We'll see the signiﬁcance of this when we examine the verb 「くれる」 next.
(１) 学⽣がこれを先⽣にあげる。
- The student give this to teacher. (looking at it from the student's point of view)(２) 友達が⽗にいいことを教えてあげた。
- Friend gave the favor of teaching something good to my dad. (looking at it from the friend's pointof view)

Using 「やる」 to mean 「あげる」
Usually used for pets, animals, and such, you can substitute 「やる」 , which normally means "todo", for 「あげる」. You would normally never use this type of 「やる」 for people. I only included
this so that you won't be confused by sentences like the following.
(１) ⽝に餌をやった？- Did you give the dog food?
Here, 「やる」 does not mean "to do" but "to give". You can tell because "doing food to dog" doesn't
make any sense.

4.14.3

When to use 「くれる」「くれる」 is also a verb meaning "to give" but unlike 「あげる」, it is from the receiver's point ofview. You must use this verb when someone else is giving something or doing something for you(eﬀectively the opposite of 「あげる」).

Examples(１) 友達が私にプレゼントをくれた。
- Friend gave present to me.
(２) これは、先⽣がくれた。
- Teacher gave this to me.
(３) ⾞を買ってくれるの？
- You'll give me the favor of buying a car for me?
(４) 代わりに⾏ってくれる？
- Will you give me the favor of going in my place?

100CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.14. GIVING AND RECEIVING

Similarly, when used in the third-person, the speaker is speaking from the receiver's point of viewand not the giver.
(１) 先⽣がこれを学⽣にくれる。
- The teacher give this to student. (looking at it from the student's point of view)(２) 友達が⽗にいいことを教えてくれた。
- Friend gave favor of teaching something good to my dad. (looking at it from the dad's point ofview)
The following diagram illustrates the direction of giving from the point of view of the speaker.

From the speaker's point of view, all the giving done to others "go up" to everybody else while thegiving done by everybody else "goes down" to the speaker. This is probably related to the fact that
there is an identical verb 「上げる」 meaning "to raise" that contains the character for "above" (上)and that the honoriﬁc version of 「くれる」 is 「下さる」 with the character for down (下). This
restriction allows us to make certain deductions from vague sentences like the following:(１) 先⽣が教えてあげるんですか。
- Teacher, will you be the one to give favor of teaching to... [anybody other than the speaker]?
Because all giving done to the speaker must always use 「くれる」, we know that the teacher must
be doing it for someone else and not the speaker. The speaker is also looking at it from the teacher's
point of view as doing a favor for someone else.
(２) 先⽣が教えてくれるんですか。
- Teacher, will you be the one to give favor of teaching to... [anybody including the speaker]?
Because the giver is not the speaker, the teacher is either giving to the speaker or anyone else. The
speaker is viewing it from the receiver's point of view as receiving a favor done by the teacher.
Let's see some mistakes to watch out for.
(誤) 私が全部⾷べてくれました。- 「くれる」 is being used as giving done by the speaker. (Wrong)(正) 私が全部⾷べてあげました。- I gave favor of eating it all. (Correct)(誤)

友達がプレゼントを私にあげた。- 「あげる」 is being used as giving to the speaker. (Wrong)1014.14. GIVING AND RECEIVING(正)CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

友達がプレゼントを私にくれた。- Friend gave present to me. (Correct)

4.14.4

When to use 「もらう」「もらう」 meaning, "to receive" has only one version unlike 「あげる／くれる」 so there's very
little to explain. One thing to point out is that since you receive from someone, 「から」 is also
appropriate in addition to the 「に」 target particle.

Examples(１) 私が友達にプレゼントをもらった。
- I received present from friend.
(２) 友達からプレゼントをもらった。
- I received present from friend.
(３) これは友達に買ってもらった。
- About this, received the favor of buying it from friend.
(４) 宿題をチェックしてもらいたかったけど、時間がなくて無理だった。
- I wanted to receive the favor of checking homework but there was no time and it was impossible.
「もらう」 is seen from the perspective of the receiver, so in the case of ﬁrst-person, others usually
don't receive things from you. However, you might want to use 「私からもらう」 when you want toemphasive that fact that the other person received it from you. For instance, if you wanted to say,
"Hey, I gave you that!" you would use 「あげる」. However, you would use 「もらう」 if you wanted
to say, "Hey, you got that from me!"(５) その時計は私からもらったのよ。
- [He] received that watch from me.

4.14.5Asking favors with 「くれる」 or 「もらえる」

You can make requests by using 「くれる」 and the potential form of 「もらう」 (can I receive
the favor of...). We've already seen an example of this in example (４) of the 「くれる」 section.
Because requests are favors done for the speaker, you cannot use 「あげる」 in this situation.

Examples(１) 千円を貸してくれる？
- Will you give me the favor of lending 1000 yen?
(２) 千円を貸してもらえる？
- Can I receive the favor of you lending 1000 yen?
Notice that the two sentences essentially mean the same thing. This is because the giver andreceiver has been omitted because it is obvious from the context. If we were to write out the full
sentence, it would look like this:102CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.15. MAKING REQUESTS(１) あなたが、私に千円を貸してくれる？
- Will you give me the favor of lending 1000 yen?
(２) 私が、あなたに千円を貸してもらえる？
- Can I receive the favor of you lending 1000 yen?
It is not normal to explicitly include the subject and target like this when directly addressing someone
but is provided here to illustrate the change of subject and target depending on the verb 「くれる」
and 「もらえる」.
You can use the negative to make the request a little softer. You'll see that this is true in many othertypes of grammar.
(１) ちょっと静かにしてくれない？
- Won't you be a little quieter?
(２) 漢字で書いてもらえませんか。
- Can you write this in kanji for me?

Asking someone to not do something
In order to request that someone not do something, you simply attach 「で」 to the negative formof the verb and proceed as before.
(１) 全部⾷べないでくれますか。
- Can you not eat it all?
(２) ⾼い物を買わないでくれる？
- Can you not buy expensive thing(s)?

4.15Making requests
command form）（〜ください、 〜ちょうだい、 〜なさい、

4.15.1

Politely (and not so politely) making requests

Similar to asking for favors, which we learned in the last lesson, there are also various ways to makerequests in Japanese. This is eﬀectively the Japanese way of saying, "please do X". We'll ﬁrst learn
the most common way to make requests using a special conjugation of the verb 「くださる」 andthe ﬁrmer 「なさる」. Finally, we'll learn the rarely used excessively strong command form for thesake of completeness. You can safely skip the last part unless you're an avid reader of manga.

4.15.2「〜ください」－ a special conjugation of 「くださる」「ください」 is a special conjugation of 「くださる」, which is the honoriﬁc form of 「くれる」. We
will learn more about honoriﬁc and humble forms in the beginning of the next major section. We
are going over 「ください」 here because it has a slight diﬀerence in meaning from the normal 「くれる」 and the honoriﬁc 「くださる」 . 「ください」 is diﬀerent from 「くれる」 in the following
fashion:103

4.15. MAKING REQUESTSCHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR(１) それをください。- Please give me that.
(２) それをくれる？- Can you give me that?
As you can see 「ください」 is a direct request for something while 「くれる」 is used as a question
asking for someone to give something. However, it is similar to 「くれる」 in that you can make arequest for an action by simply attaching it to the te-form of the verb.
(１) 漢字で書いてください。- Please write it in kanji.
(２) ゆっくり話してください。- Please speak slowly.
The rules for negative requests are same as the rules for 「くれる」 as well.
(１) 落書きを書かないでください。- Please don't write graﬃti.
(２) ここにこないでください。- Please don't come here.
In casual speech, it is often common to simply drop the 「ください」 part.
⽇本語で話して。- Please speak in Japanese.
消しゴムを貸して。- Please lend me the eraser.
遠い所に⾏かないで。- Please don't go to a far place.
For those who want to sound particularly commanding and manly, it is also possible to use 「くれる」 with the 「る」 removed.
⽇本語で話してくれ。- Speak in Japanese.
消しゴムを貸してくれ。- Lend me the eraser.
遠い所に⾏かないでくれ。- Don't go to a far place.
Because 「ください」 like the masu-form must always come at the end sentence or a subordinate
clause, you cannot use it to directly modify a noun. For example, the following is not possible with「ください」.
(１) お⽗さんがくれた時計が壊れた。- The clock that father gave broke.
Of course, since direct quotes is merely repeating something someone said in verbatim, you can put
practically anything in a direct quote.
(１) 「それをください」とお⽗さんが⾔った。- Father said, "Please give me that."

4.15.3Using 「〜ちょうだい」 as a casual request

A casual alternative of 「ください」 used usually by females is 「ちょうだい」. It is always written
in hiragana. Written in kanji, it is usually used in a very formal expression such as 「頂戴致します」.
There's not much more to say here because grammatically; it works the same way as 「ください」.

Examples(１)(２)

スプーンをちょうだい。- Please give me the spoon.
ここに名前を書いてちょうだい。- Please write your name here.

4.15.4Using 「〜なさい」 to make ﬁrm but polite requests「なさい」 is a special honoriﬁc conjugation of 「する」 . It is a soft yet ﬁrm way of issuing acommand. It is used, for example, when a mother is scolding her child or when a teacher wants adelinquent student to pay attention. Unlike 「ください」, 「なさい」 only applies to positive verbs
and uses the stem of the verb instead of the te-form. It also cannot be used by itself but must be
attached to another verb.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.15. MAKING REQUESTS.Using 「なさい」to make ﬁrm but polite requests
Conjugate the verb to its stem and attach 「なさい」.

例)

⾷べる →⾷べなさい

例)

飲む →飲み →飲みなさい

例)する→し →しなさい.

Examples(１)(２)

よく聞きなさい！- Listen well!
ここに座りなさい。- Sit here.

You can also drop 「さい」 portion of the 「なさい」 to make a casual version of this grammar.
(１) まだいっぱいあるから、たくさん⾷べな。- There's still a lot, so eat a lot.
(２) それでいいと思うなら、そうしなよ。- If you think that's ﬁne, then go ahead and do it.

4.15.5The Command Form

We will go over the command form in the interest of covering all the possible verb conjugations. In
reality, the command form is rarely used as Japanese people tend to be too polite to use imperatives.
Also, this coarse type of speech is rarely, if indeed at all, used by females who tend to use 「なさい」
or an exasperated 「くれる」 when angry or irritated. This form is only really useful for reading or
watching ﬁctional works. You may often see or hear 「死ね！」 ("Die!") in ﬁction which, of course,
you'll never hear in real life. (I hope!)
Be sure to note that, in addition to the familiar 「する」, 「くる」 exception verbs, 「くれる」 is also
an exception for the command form.
.Rules for creating command form
• ru-verbs - Replace the 「る」 with 「ろ」.

• u-verbs - Change the last character from an. / u / vowel to an / e / vowel• Exceptions - 「する」 becomes 「しろ」, 「くる」 becomes 「こい」, 「くれる」 becomes「くれ」Sample ru-verbs
Plain Command
⾷べる
⾷べろ
着る
着ろ
信じる
信じろ
寝る
寝ろ
起きる
起きろ
出る
出ろ
掛ける
掛けろ
捨てる
捨てろ

Plain
話す
聞く
遊ぶ
待つ
飲む
直る
死ぬ
買う

Sample u-verbs
Command ローマ字 ローマ字 (Com)話せhanasuhanase
聞け
kiku
kike
遊べ
asobu
asobe
待て
matu
mate
飲め
nomu
nome
直れ
naoru
naore
死ね
shinu
shine
買え
kau
kae

105

Exception Verbs
Plain Command
する
しろ
くる
こい
くれる
くれ

4.16. NUMBERS AND COUNTING

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Examples
(１)
(２)
(３)

好きにしろ。- Do as you please.
あっち⾏け！- Go away!
早く酒を持ってきてくれ。- Hurry up and bring me some alcohol.

The negative command form is very simple: simply attach 「な」 to either ru-verbs or u-verbs.
Don't confuse this with the 「な」 gobi we will be learning at the end of this section. The intonation
is totally diﬀerent.
.Using the negative command form
Attach 「な」 to the verb.
.

例)⾏く→⾏くな例)

する→するな.

Examples(１)(２)

それを⾷べるな！- Don't eat that!
変なことを⾔うな！- Don't say such weird things!

This is not to be confused with the shortened version of 「〜なさい」 we just learned in the lastsection. The most obvious diﬀerence (besides the clear diﬀerence in tone) is that in 「〜なさい」, theverb is ﬁrst converted to the stem while the negative command has no conjugation. For example,
for 「する」 , 「しな」 would be the short version of 「しなさい」 while 「するな」 would be anegative command.

4.16

Numbers and Counting

Numbers and counting in Japanese are diﬃcult enough to require its own section. First of all, thenumber system is in units of four instead of three, which can make converting into English quite
diﬃcult. Also, there are things called counters, which are required to count diﬀerent types of objects,
animals, or people. We will learn the most generic and widely used counters to get you started sothat you can learn more on your own. To be honest, counters might be the only thing that'll makeyou want to quit learning Japanese, it's that bad. I recommend you digest only a little bit of thissection at a time because it's an awful lot of things to memorize.

4.16.1The Number System

The Japanese number system is spread into units of four. So a number such as 10,000,000 is
actually split up as 1000,0000. However, thanks to the strong inﬂuence of the Western world andthe standardization of numbers, when numbers are actually written, the split-oﬀ is three digits. Hereare the ﬁrst ten numbers.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Numerals
漢字
ひらがな
きゅう

1
⼀
いち
じゅう

2
⼆
に

3
三
さん

4.16. NUMBERS AND COUNTING

4
四
し／よん

5
五
ご

6
六
ろく

7
七
しち／なな

8
⼋
はち

9
九

10
⼗

As the chart indicates, 4 can either be 「し」 or 「よん」 and 7 can either be 「しち」 or 「なな」
. Basically, both are acceptable up to 10. However, past ten, the reading is almost always 「よん」
and 「なな」 . In general, 「よん」 and 「なな」 are preferred over 「し」 and 「しち」 in mostcircumstances.
You can simply count from 1 to 99 with just these ten numbers. Japanese is easier than English inthis respect because you do not have to memorize separate words such as "twenty" or "ﬁfty". In
Japanese, it's simply just "two ten" and "ﬁve ten".
(１)
(２)
(３)
(４)

三⼗⼀ (さんじゅういち) = 31
五⼗四 (ごじゅうよん)= 54
七⼗七 (ななじゅうなな)= 77
⼆⼗ (にじゅう) = 20

Notice that numbers are either always written in kanji or numerals because hiragana can get rather
long and hard to decipher.

Numbers past 99
Here are the higher numbers:
Numerals
漢字
ひらがな

100
百
ひゃく

1,000
千
せん

10,000
万
まん

108̂
億
おく

101̂2
兆
ちょう

Notice how the numbers jumped four digits from 104̂ to 108̂ between 万 and 億? That's because
Japanese is divided into units of four. Once you get past 1 万 (10,000), you start all over until you
reach 9,999 万, then it rotates to 1 億 (100,000,000). By the way, 百 is 100 and 千 is 1,000, butanything past that, and you need to attach a 1 so the rest of the units become ⼀万 (104̂)、 ⼀億(108̂)、⼀兆 (101̂2).
Now you can count up to 9,999,999,999,999,999 or 9,999 兆 just by chaining the numbers same
as before. This is where the problems start, however. Try saying 「いちちょう」 、 「ろくひゃく」、「さんせん」 really quickly, you'll notice it's diﬃcult because of the repetition of similar consonant
sounds. Therefore, Japanese people have decided to make it easier on themselves by pronouncing
them as 「いっちょう」、 「ろっぴゃく」、and 「さんぜん」. Unfortunately, it makes it all the harderfor you to remember when to pronounce what. Here are all the slight sound changes.
Numerals
300
600
800
3000
8000
101̂2
(１)
(２)

漢字
三百
六百
⼋百
三千
⼋千
⼀兆

ひらがな
さんびゃく
ろっぴゃく
はっぴゃく
さんぜん
はっせん
いっちょう

四万三千七⼗六 (よんまんさんぜんななじゅうろく) = 43,076
七億六百⼆⼗四万九千⼆百⼆⼗⼆ (ななおくろっぴゃくにじゅうよんまんきゅうせんにひゃくにじゅ

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4.16. NUMBERS AND COUNTING

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMARうに) = 706,249,222(３) 五百兆⼆万⼀ (ごひゃくちょうにまんいち) = 500,000,000,020,001
Notice that it is customary to write large numbers only in numerals as even kanji can become diﬃcult
to decipher.
Some of you may be clamoring for larger numbers but you'll hardly ever use 「億」 much less 「兆」. I will guarantee that you will not need to know this but I looked up a list (http://macky0625.hp.
infoseek.co.jp/ookazukokazu.htm) for curiosity's sake.

Numbers smaller or less than 1
Zero in Japanese is 「零」 but 「ゼロ」 or 「マル」 is more common in modern Japanese. There isno special method for reading decimals, you simply say 「点」 for the dot and read each individual
number after the decimal point. Here's an example:(１) 0.0021 - ゼロ、点、ゼロ、ゼロ、⼆、⼀。
For negative numbers, everything is the same as positive numbers except that you say 「マイナス」
ﬁrst.
(１) マイナス⼆⼗九 = -29

4.16.2

Counting and Counters

Ah, and now we come to the fun part. In Japanese, when you are simply counting numbers,
everything is just as you would expect, ⼀、⼆、三、 and so on. However, if you want to count any
type of object, you have to use something called a counter which depends on what type of object
you are counting and on top of this, there are various sound changes similar to the ones we saw
with 六百, etc.. The counter themselves are usually single kanji characters that often have a special
reading just for the counter. First, let's learn the counters for dates

Dates
The year is very easy. All you have to do is say the number and add 「年」 which is pronounced
here as 「ねん」 . For example, Year 2003 becomes 2003 年 (にせんさんねん). The catch is that
there is another calendar which starts over every time a new emperor ascends the throne. The year
is preceded by the era, for example this year is: 平成 15 年. My birthday, 1981 is 昭和 56 年 (TheShowa era lasted from 1926 to 1989). You may think that you don't need to know this but if you'regoing to be ﬁlling out forms in Japan, they often ask you for your birthday or the current date in theJapanese calendar (和暦). So here's a neat converter (http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2272.html)
you can use to convert to the Japanese calendar.
Saying the months is actually easier than English because all you have to do is write the number(either in numerals or kanji) of the month and add 「⽉」 which is read as 「がつ」. However, youneed to pay attention to April (４⽉), July (７⽉), and September (９⽉) which are pronounced 「しがつ」、 「しちがつ」、and 「くがつ」 respectively.
Finally, we get to the days of the month, which is where the headache starts. The ﬁrst day of themonth is 「ついたち」 (⼀⽇); diﬀerent from 「いちにち」 (⼀⽇), which means "one day". Besides
this and some other exceptions we'll soon cover, you can simply say the number and add 「⽇」
which is pronounced here as 「にち」. For example, the 26th becomes 26 ⽇ (にじゅうろくにち).
Pretty simple, however, the ﬁrst 10 days, the 14th, 19th, 20th, 29th have special readings that you

108

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4.16. NUMBERS AND COUNTING

must separately memorize. If you like memorizing things, you'll have a ball here. Notice that the
kanji doesn't change but the reading does.

Day
What day
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21th
22th
23th
24th
25th
26th
27th
28th
29th
30th
31th

Days of the month
Kanji
Reading
何⽇
なん・にち
⼀⽇
ついたち
⼆⽇
ふつ・か
三⽇
みっ・か
四⽇
よっ・か
五⽇
いつ・か
六⽇
むい・か
七⽇
なの・か
⼋⽇
よう・か
九⽇
ここの・か
⼗⽇
とお・か
⼗⼀⽇
じゅう・いち・にち
⼗⼆⽇
じゅう・に・にち⼗三⽇
じゅう・さん・にち
⼗四⽇
じゅう・よっ・か
⼗五⽇
じゅう・ご・にち⼗六⽇
じゅう・ろく・にち
⼗七⽇
じゅう・しち・にち
⼗⼋⽇
じゅう・はち・にち
⼗九⽇
じゅう・く・にち
⼆⼗⽇
はつ・か
⼆⼗⼀⽇
に・じゅう・いち・にち
⼆⼗⼆⽇に・じゅう・に・にち
⼆⼗三⽇に・じゅう・さん・にち
⼆⼗四⽇に・じゅう・よっ・か
⼆⼗五⽇に・じゅう・ご・にち
⼆⼗六⽇に・じゅう・ろく・にち
⼆⼗七⽇に・じゅう・しち・にち
⼆⼗⼋⽇に・じゅう・はち・にち
⼆⼗九⽇に・じゅう・く・にち
三⼗⽇
さん・じゅう・にち
三⼗⼀⽇ さん・じゅう・いち・にち

In Japan, the full format for dates follows the international date format and looks like: XXXX 年 YY
⽉ ZZ ⽇. For example, today's date would be: 2003 年 12 ⽉ 2 ⽇

TimeNow, we'll learn how to tell time. The hour is given by saying the number and adding 「時」 which
is pronounced here as 「じ」. Here is a chart of exceptions to look out for.

英語
漢字
ひらがな

4 o'clock四時
よじ

7 o'clock
七時
しちじ

9 o'clock
九時
くじ

Notice how the numbers 4, 7, and 9 keep coming up to be a pain in the butt? Well, those andsometimes 1, 6 and 8 are the numbers to watch out for.

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The minutes are given by adding 「分」 which usually read as 「ふん」 with the following exceptions:
英語
漢字
ひらがな

1 min
⼀分
いっぷん

3 min
三分
さんぷん

4 min
四分
よんぷん

6 min
六分
ろっぷん

8 min
⼋分
はっぷん

10 min⼗分
じゅっぷん

For higher number, you use the normal pronunciation for the higher digits and rotate around thesame readings for 1 to 10. For instance, 24 minutes is 「にじゅうよんぷん」 (⼆⼗四分) while
30 minutes is 「さんじゅっぷん」 (三⼗分). There are also other less common but still correct
pronunciations such as 「はちふん」 for 「⼋分」 and 「じっぷん」 for 「⼗分」 (this one is almost
never used).
All readings for seconds consists of the number plus 「秒」, which is read as 「びょう」. There are
no exceptions for seconds and all the readings are the same.
Some examples of time.
(１) 1 時 24 分 (いちじ・にじゅうよんぷん) - 1:24
(２) 午後 4 時 10 分 (ごご・よじ・じゅっぷん) - 4:10 PM(３) 午前 9 時 16 分 (ごぜん・くじ・じゅうろっぷん) - 9:16 AM(４) 13 時 16 分 (じゅうさんじ・じゅうろっぷん) - 13:16(５) 2 時 18 分 13 秒 (にじ・じゅうはっぷん・じゅうさんびょう) - 2:18:13

A Span of Time
Ha! I bet you thought you were done with dates and time, well guess again. This time we will learncounters for counting spans of time, days, months, and years. The basic counter for a span of timeis 「間」, which is read as 「かん」. You can attach it to the end of hours, days, weeks, and years.
Minutes (in general) and seconds do not need this counter and months have a separate counter,
which we will cover next.
(１) ⼆時間四⼗分 (にじかん・よんじゅっぷん) - 2 hours and 40 minutes(２) ⼆⼗⽇間 (はつかかん) - 20 days
(３) ⼗五⽇間 (じゅうごにちかん) - 15 days(４) ⼆年間 (にねんかん) - two years(５) 三週間 (さんしゅうかん) - three weeks(６) ⼀⽇ (いちにち) - 1 day
As mentioned before, a period of one day is 「⼀⽇」 (いちにち) which is diﬀerent from the 1st of
the month: 「ついたち」.
Pronunciations to watch out for when counting weeks is one week: 「⼀週間」 (いっしゅうかん) and8 weeks: 「⼋週間」 (はっしゅうかん).
To count the number of months, you simple take a regular number and add 「か」 and 「⽉」 which
is pronounced here as 「げつ」 and not 「がつ」. The 「か」 used in this counter is usually written
as a small katakana 「ヶ」 which is confusing because it's still pronounced as 「か」 and not 「け」. The small 「ヶ」 is actually totally diﬀerent from the katakana 「ケ」 and is really an abbreviation
for the kanji 「箇」, the original kanji for the counter. This small 「ヶ」 is also used in some place
names such as 「千駄ヶ⾕」 and other counters, such as the counter for location described in the"Other Counters" section below.
In counting months, you should watch out for the following sound changes:
英語
漢字
ひらがな

1 month
⼀ヶ⽉
いっかげつ

6 months
六ヶ⽉
ろっかげつ

110

10 months
⼗ヶ⽉
じゅっかげつCHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.16. NUMBERS AND COUNTING

Just like minutes, the high numbers rotate back using the same sounds for 1 to 10.
(１) ⼗⼀ヶ⽉ (じゅういっかげつ) - Eleven months(２) ⼆⼗ヶ⽉ (にじゅっかげつ) - Twenty months(３) 三⼗三ヶ⽉ (さんじゅうさんかげつ) - Thirty three months

Other Counters
We'll cover some of the most common counters so that you'll be familiar with how counters work.
This will hopefully allow you to learn other counters on your own because there are too many toeven consider covering them all. The important thing to remember is that using the wrong counteris grammatically incorrect. If you are counting people, you must use the people counter, etc.
Sometimes, it is acceptable to use a more generic counter when a less commonly used counter
applies. Here are some counters.

⽇本語
⼈
本
枚
冊
匹
歳
個
回
ヶ所 (箇所)
つ

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

⼈
ひとり
ふたり
さんにん
よにん
ごにん
ろくにん
しちにん
はちにん
きゅうにん
じゅうにん

本
いっぽん
にほん
さんぼん
よんほん
ごほん
ろっぽん
ななほん
はちほん
きゅうほん
じゅっぽん

When to Use
To count the number of people
To count long, cylindrical objects such as bottles or chopsticks
To count thin objects such as paper or shirts
To count bound objects usually books
To count small animals like cats or dogs
To count the age of a living creatures such as people
To count small (often round) objects
To count number of times
To count number of locations
To count any generic object that has a rare or no counter

Counting 1 to 10 (some variations might exist)
枚
冊
匹
歳
個
いちまい
いっさつ
いっぴき
いっさい
いっこ
にまい
にさつ
にひき
にさい
にこ
さんまい
さんさつ
さんびき
さんさい
さんこ
よんまい
よんさつ
よんひき
よんさい
よんこ
ごまい
ごさつ
ごひき
ごさい
ごこ
ろくまい
ろくさつ
ろっぴき
ろくさい
ろっこ
ななまい
ななさつ
ななひき
ななさい
ななこ
はちまい
はっさつ
はっぴき
はっさい
はっこ
きゅうまい きゅうさつ きゅうひき きゅうさい きゅうこ
じゅうまい じゅっさつ じゅっぴき じゅっさい じゅっこ

回
いっかい
にかい
さんかい
よんかい
ごかい
ろっかい
ななかい
はちかい
きゅうかい
じゅっかい

ヶ所 (箇所)
いっかしょ
にかしょ
さんかしょ
よんかしょ
ごかしょ
ろっかしょ
ななかしょ
はっかしょ
きゅうかしょ
じゅっかしょ

つ
ひとつ
ふたつ
みっつ
よっつ
いつつ
むっつ
ななつ
やっつ
ここのつ
とお

The changed sounds have been highlighted.
You don't count 0 because there is nothing to count. You can simply use 「ない」 or 「いない」 .
The chart has hiragana for pronunciation but, as before, it is usually written with either numbers or
kanji plus the counter with the single exception of 「とお」 which is simply written as 「⼗」.
For higher numbers, it's the same as before, you use the normal pronunciation for the higher digits
and rotate around the same readings for 1 to 10 except for 「⼀⼈」 and 「⼆⼈」 which transforms
to the normal 「いち」 and 「に」 once you get past the ﬁrst two. So 「⼀⼈」 is 「ひとり」 while「11 ⼈」 is 「じゅういちにん」 . Also, the generic counter 「〜つ」 only applies up to exactly ten
items. Past that, you can just use regular plain numbers.
Note: The counter for age is often sometimes written as 「才」 for those who don't have the time
to write out the more complex kanji. Plus, age 20 is usually read as 「はたち」 and not 「にじゅっ
さい」.

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4.17. CASUAL PATTERNS AND SLANG

4.16.3

CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

Using 「⽬」 to show order

You can attach 「⽬」 (read as 「め」) to various counters to indicate the order. The most common
example is the 「番」 counter. For example, 「⼀番」 which means "number one" becomes "theﬁrst" when you add 「⽬」 (⼀番⽬). Similarly, 「⼀回⽬」 is the ﬁrst time, 「⼆回⽬」 is the second
time, 「四⼈⽬」 is the fourth person, and so on.

4.17

Casual Patterns and Slang

So far, for every grammar we have covered, we also went over all the casual variations as well.
However, even though we have already covered all the casual forms, truly mastering casual speechin Japanese requires far more than just learning the various casual forms. There are countless
numbers of ways in which wordings and pronunciations change as well as diﬀerences between
male and female speech. Understanding slang also requires knowing various vocabulary that is also
growing with every new generation. Many adults would be hard-pressed to understand the kind ofslang being used by kids today.
While comprehensively covering slang and relevant vocabulary would require a book in and of itself(a book that would soon become out of date), I'll instead cover some broad patterns and common
phenomenon which will at least help you get started in understanding the most common aspects ofJapanese slang. There is no particular order in the material presented here and I expect this pageto grow continuously as I ﬁnd diﬀerent things to cover.
Please note that slang is also heavily inﬂuenced by local dialects. Although all the material presented
here is valid for the greater Tokyo area, your mileage may vary depending on where you are located.

4.17.1

Basic Principles of Slang

In the world of slang, anything goes and rules that apply to written Japanese are often broken. The
most diﬃcult part is that, of course, you can't just say whatever you want. When you break therules, you have to break it the correct way. Taking what you learned from textbooks or Japaneseclasses and applying it to the real world is not so easy because it is impossible to teach all the possible
ways things can get jumbled up in the spoken language. Learning how to speak naturally with all
the correct idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies in a language is something that requires practice withreal people in real-world situations. In this section, we'll look at some common patterns and themesthat will at least help you get an idea of where the majority of slang originates from.
One thing you'll soon realize when you ﬁrst start talking to Japanese people in real life is that manysounds are slurred together. This is especially true for males. The fact is voices in instructional
material such as language tapes often exaggerate the pronunciation of each letter in order to makeaural comprehension easier. In reality, not all the sounds are pronounced as clearly as it should be
and things end up sounding diﬀerent from how it's written on paper.
There is one major driving factor behind the majority of slang in Japanese. The primary goal of
most slang is to make things easier to say. In other words, the goal is to reduce or simplify the
movement of your mouth. There are two primary ways in which this is accomplished, 1) By making
things shorter or, 2) By slurring the sounds together. We have already seen many examples of theﬁrst method such as shortening 「かもしれない」 to 「かも」 or preferring 「と」 to the longer
conditional forms. The second method makes things easier to say usually by substituting parts ofwords with sounds that ﬁt better with the sounds surrounding it or by merging two or more sounds
together. For example, the same 「かもしれない」 might be pronounced 「かもしんない」 since 「しん」 requires less movement than 「しれ」.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.17. CASUAL PATTERNS AND SLANG.Note.
.The fundamental goal of slang is to reduce mouth
movement
Let's see some more examples of words that get shortened or slurred. Try saying both versions to
get a feel for how the slang saves space and some calories for your mouth.

Examples(A)

ここはつまらないから私の家に⾏こう。

(B)

ここつまんないから、私んち⾏こう。

(A)まったく、いつまでこんなところで、ぐずぐずするんだよ。

(B)

ったく、いつまでこんなとこで、ぐずぐずすんだよ。

You'll see that a great deal of slang in Japanese stems from this single principle of making thingseasier to say. It's very natural because it's guided by how your mouth moves. With a fair amount ofpractice, you should be able to naturally pick up shorter, alternative pronunciations and incorporate
them into your own speech.

4.17.2

Sentence ordering and particles (or the lack thereof)

While written Japanese already has fairly loose rules regarding sentence order, casual spoken Japanesetakes it one step further. A complete sentence requires a verb at the end of the sentence to complete
the thought. However, we'll see how this rule is bent in casual conversations.
Conversations are sporadic and chaotic in any language and it's common for people to say the ﬁrst
thing that pops into their head without thinking out the whole proper sentence.
For example, if you wanted to ask what something was, the normal, proper way would be to ask,
「それは何？」 However, if the ﬁrst thing that popped into your head, "What the?" then it would be
more natural to say 「何」 ﬁrst. However, since 「何はそれ？」 doesn't make any sense (Is what
that?), Japanese people simply break it up into what are essentially two sentence fragments asking"what" ﬁrst (何？), and then following it up with the explanation of what you were talking about (「それ」 in this case). For the sake of convenience, this is lumped into what looks like one sentence.

Examples(A) それは何？- What is that?
(B) 何それ？- What? That. (Two sentences lumped into one)
Sometimes, the ﬁrst thing that pops into your head might be main verb. But if the main verb has
already slipped out of your mouth, you're now left with the rest of the sentence without a verb
to complete the thought. In conversational Japanese, it's perfectly acceptable to have the verb
come ﬁrst using the same technique we just saw by breaking them into two sentences. The second
sentence is incomplete of course, but that kind of thing is common in the speech of any language.
(１) ⾒た？あの⼈？- Did you see? That guy?

113

4.17. CASUAL PATTERNS AND SLANGCHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR(２) もう⾷べた？昨⽇買ったアイス。- You ate it already? The ice cream I bought yesterday.

4.17.3Using 「じゃん」 instead of 「じゃない」 to conﬁrm「じゃん」 is an abbreviation of 「じゃない」, the negative conjugation for nouns and na-adjectives.
However, this only applies to 「じゃない」 used in the following fashion.
(１) サラリーマンだから、残業はたくさんするんじゃない？
-Because heʼs a salaryman, doesnʼt he do a lot of overtime?
The important thing to note about the example above is that 「じゃない」 here is actually conﬁrming
the positive. In fact, a closer translation is, “Because heʼs a salaryman, he probably does a lot of
overtime.”But itʼs still a question so thereʼs a slight nuance that you are seeking conﬁrmation eventhough you are relatively sure.
「じゃん」 is a shorter slang for expressing the same type of thing except it doesnʼt even bother to
ask a question to conﬁrm. Itʼs completely aﬃrmative in tone.
In fact, the closest equivalent to 「じゃん」 is 「じゃない」 used in the following fashion.
(２) まあ、いいじゃない。
- Well, itʼs probably ﬁne (donʼt you think?).
This type of expression is the only case where you can attach 「じゃない」 directly to i-adjectives andverbs. Once you actually hear this expression in real life, youʼll see that it has a distinct pronunciationthat is diﬀerent from simply using the negative. Plus, you have to realize that this type of 「じゃない」 sounds rather mature and feminine, unlike 「じゃん」, which is gender-neutral.
Like the above, specialized use of 「じゃない」, you can also attach 「じゃん」 directly to verbs andi-adjectives as well as the usual nouns and na-adjectives. Because slang is usually created to makethings easier, itʼs not surprising that the rules for using 「じゃん」 are so lax and easy.
.Summary.

• Though derived from 「じゃない」, 「じゃん」 is always used to conﬁrm the positive.
.
• It can be attached to the end of any sentence regardless of whether it ends in a noun,
adjective, verb, or adverb.

Finally, letʼs get to the examples. Hopefully, you can see that 「じゃん」 is basically saying somethingalong the lines of, “See, Iʼm right, arenʼt I?”

Examples(１) ほら、やっぱりレポートを書かないとだめじゃん。
-See, as I thought, you have to write the report.
(２) 誰もいないからここで着替えてもいいじゃん。
-Since thereʼs nobody, itʼs probably ﬁne to change here.
(A) たかし君は、ここにいる？- Is Takashi here?
(B) 知らない。- Dunno.
(A) あっ！やっぱ、いるじゃん！- Ah! See, he is here!

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.17. CASUAL PATTERNS AND SLANG

Thereʼs also another variation, which attaches the question marker as well. The meaning is mostly
the same but it adds more to the questioning, conﬁrming tone.
(A) 駅の近くにカラオケがあるじゃんか。- Thereʼs a karaoke place near the station, right?
(B) うん。- Yeah.
(A) あそこのすぐ隣だ。- Itʼs right next to there.

4.17.4Using 「つ」 for 「という」As we learned in the deﬁning and describing section, 「いう」 serves many more functions than theequivalent English verb, "to say". It is used all the time and therefore, it's not too surprising thata number of variations and slang have developed. Here's one more that I felt was too "slangy" tocover so early at that point of the guide.
This may sound hard to believe but if you really slur 「という」 together, it becomes something
resembling 「つ」. Or least, that's what somebody thought when he or she began replacing 「という」 with 「つ」 or in some case 「つう」.
Now, in my opinion, 「つ」 is a lot harder to say than 「という」 so using it like a native might takea bit of practice. Rather than making things easier to say, as is usually the case, the real purposeof this substitution is to sound rougher because 「つ」 has a harder, hissing sound. This is ideal forwhen you're pissed or for that young and rough image you've always wanted. As you might expect,
this type of speech is usually used by males or very tough females.

Examples(１) つうか、なんでお前がここにいんのよ！
-Or rather, why are you here?!
(２) 宿題で時間がないつってんのに、みきちゃんとデートしにいったらしい。
-Although he's saying he doesn't have time due to homework, I hear he went on a date with Mikichan.
(３) 明⽇は試験だぞ。つっても、勉強はしてないだろうな。
-Yo, tomorrow's the test. Even if I say that, you probably didn't study anyway, huh?
(４) だから、違うんだつうの！
-Like I said, you're wrong!
If you want even more emphasis, you can even add a small 「つ」 . This usually means you arereally at the brink of your patience.
(４) だから、違うんだっつうの！
-Like I said, you're wrong!

4.17.5Using 「ってば」 and 「ったら」to show exasperation「ってば」 and 「ったら」 is yet another type of abbreviation for 「という」 similar to 「って」 asdiscussed in the deﬁning and describing section. In this case, it's an abbreviation of the conditional
form of 「という」 , which is 「といえば」 and 「といったら」 . By using this abbreviation, youare essentially saying something along the lines of, "If I told you once, I told you a million times!"115

4.17. CASUAL PATTERNS AND SLANGCHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

You can use this expression when you tired of repeating yourself or when you are exasperated withsomebody for not listening to you.

Examples
１) もう⾏くってば！
-I told you I'm going already!
２) あなたったら、いつも忘れるんだから。
-You're always forgetting.

4.17.6Using 「なんか」 just about everywhere

By now, you're probably aware that 「何」 can be either read as 「なに」 or 「なん」 depending on
what comes after it such as 「何⾊」(なにいろ) versus 「何⼈」(なんにん). In the case of 「何か」,while 「なにか」 is the correct reading, it is often contracted to just 「なんか」 in casual speech.
(A) なにか⾷べる？
-Eat something?
(B) なんか⾷べる？
-Eat something?
However, 「なんか」 also has a function similar to the word "like" in English. By "like", I'm not talking
about the actual word but the kind that has no meaning and some people use just about anywherein the sentence. Similarly, 「なんか」 can also be used as a ﬁller without any actual meaning. For
instance, take a look at the example below.
１) 今⽇は、なんか忙しいみたいよ。
-I guess he's like busy today.
While 「なんか」 is a shorter version of 「なにか」, only 「なんか」 can be used in this way as a ﬁller.
誤) 今⽇は、なにか忙しいみたいよ。
-(「なにか」 cannot be used as a ﬁller word.)
Let's take a look at a few more examples.

Examples１) なんかね。お⾵呂って超気持ちいいよね！
-Like, baths feel really good, huh?
２) お⺟さんが、なんか明⽇まで戻らないんだってよ。
-Mom said she's not coming back until like tomorrow.
３) なんかさ。ボブは、私のことなんか本当に好きかな？
-Hey like, do you really think that Bob likes somebody like me?

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.17.74.18. REVIEW AND MORE GOBI

Showing contempt for an action with 「〜やがる」「やがる」 is a verb suﬃx used to indicate hatred or contempt for the person doing the action. Unlike
the rest of the slang covered here, this extremely strong language is not used in normal, everyday
conversations. You will probably never hear this expression outside of movies, comic books, games,
and the like. However, it is covered here so that you can understand when it is used in thosemediums.
In order to use 「やがる」 , you simply attach it to the stem of the verb. After that, 「やがる」
conjugated just like a regular u-verb.

Examples１) あんなやつに負けやがって。じゃ、どうすんだよ？
-Losing to a guy like that. Well, what are you going to do?
２) やる気か？だったらさっさと来やがれ！
-You want to ﬁght? If so, then hurry up and come on!

4.18

Review and more gobi

We are coming to the end of the fourth major section of the guide. Do you feel like your Japanese
has improved? We've come to the point where we've learned enough conjugations to be able tostart mixing them together in various useful combinations. Of course this can be a little diﬃcult to
do without some practice, which is the reason for this lesson. But ﬁrst, since we've come to the endof yet another section, let's learn some more sentence endings.

4.18.1

The next most often used gobi: 「な」 and 「さ」Next to 「よ」 and 「ね」, 「さ」 and 「な」 are the next most commonly used gobi.
「さ」, which is basically a very casual form of 「よ」, is similar to the English "like" in that somepeople throw it in at the end of almost every single phrase. Of course, that doesn't mean it'snecessarily a very sophisticated manner of speech but just like using "like" all the time, I cannot
deny that it is an easy habit to fall into. In that sense, due to its over-use, it has almost lost any
speciﬁc meaning. You may overhear a conversation like the following:
⼤学⽣１： あのさ・・・
⼤学⽣２： うん⼤学⽣１： この間さ・・・
⼤学⽣２： うん⼤学⽣１： ディズニーランドに⾏ったんだけどさ、なんかさ、すっごい込んでて・・・
⼤学⽣２： うん⼤学⽣１： 何もできなくてさ・・・
And it goes on like this, sometimes the other person might break in to say something related to the
topic.
You can use 「な」 in place of 「ね」 when it sounds too soft and reserved for what you want to say
or for the audience you are speaking to. Its rough sound generally applies to the male gender but
is not necessarily restricted to only males.

1174.18. REVIEW AND MORE GOBICHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

洋介： 今、図書館に⾏くんだよな。
- You are going to the library now huh? (seeking explanation)
智⼦： うん、なんで？
- Yeah, why?
ボブ： ⽇本語は、たくさん勉強したけどな。まだ全然わからない。
- I studied Japanese a lot, right? But, I still don't get it at all.
アリス： ⼤丈夫よ。きっとわかるようになるからさ。
- No problem. You'll become able to understand for sure, you know?
ボブ： ならいいけどな。
- If so, it would be good.
The 「な」 gobi is often used with the question marker 「か」 to indicate that the speaker isconsidering something.
(１) 今⽇は⾬が降るかな？
- I wonder if it'll rain today.
(２) いい⼤学に⾏けるかな？
- I wonder if I can go to a good college.

4.18.2

Gender-speciﬁc emphasis gobi: 「わ」、「ぞ」、「ぜ」、「かしら」

These gobi are primarily used just to emphasize something and doesn't really have a meaning per
se. However, they can make your statements sound much stronger and very gender-speciﬁc. Using「わ」 is just like 「よ」 except it will make you sound almost sickeningly female (putting diﬀerent
dialects aside). Use sparingly. 「かしら」 is also a very feminine version of 「かな」, which we justwent over. 「ぞ」 and 「ぜ」 are identical to 「よ」 except that it makes you sound "cool" and manly,or at least, that is the intent. These examples might not be very helpful without actually hearing
what they sound like.
(１) もう時間がないわ。
- There is no more time.
(２) おい、⾏くぞ！
- Hey, we're going!
(３) これで、もう終わりだぜ。
- With this, it's over already.
(４) いい⼤学に⼊れるかしら？
- I wonder if I can enter a good college.

4.18.3That's a wrap!

We learned quite a lot of things in this section. Let's try to put it all together by seeing how diﬀerent
kinds of conjugations are used in diﬀerent combinations. This is of course by no means an exhaustive
list but merely an illustration of how we can use what we learned in various combinations to create
a lot of useful expressions.

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CHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR

4.18. REVIEW AND MORE GOBI

Example 1
アリス：加賀先⽣、ちょっと質問を聞いてもいいですか？
加賀先⽣：うん、いいですよ。
アリス： 「Hello」を⽇本語で何と⾔えばいいですか。
何と⾔えば = quoted sub-clause + if conditional of ⾔う
加賀先⽣：そうね。⼤体、「こんにちは」と⾔うと思いますよ。ただし、書く時は「こんにちわ」じゃなくて、「こんにちは」と書かなくてはなりません。
「と⾔うと思います」 = quoted sub-clause + quoted sub-clause「じゃなくて」 = negative sequence of states
アリス：

そうですか。他に何かいい表現はありますか。

加賀先⽣：これも覚えといてね。朝は、 「おはよう」と⾔うの。でも、上の⼈には「おはようございます」と⾔ってください。
「覚えといて」 - 覚える +abbreviated form of 〜ておく + casual 〜てください with ください dropped.
アリス：

はい、分かりました。間違えないようにします。いい勉強になりました！

Literal translation of Example 1
Alice: Kaga-sensei, is it ok to ask you a question?
Kaga-sensei: Yes, it's ok.
Alice: If you say what for "hello" in Japanese, is it ok?
Kaga-sensei: Well, mostly, I think people say "konnichiwa". Only, when you write it, you must write"konnichiha" and not "konnichiwa".
Alice: Is that so? Are there any other good expressions?
Kaga-sensei: Please memorize this too (in preparation for the future). In the morning, everybody
says, "ohayou". But, please say, "ohayou-gozaimasu" to a higher person.
Alice: Yes, I understood. I'll do in the manner of not making mistake. It became good study!

Interpretative translation of Example 1
Alice: Kaga-sensei, is it ok to ask you a question?
Kaga-sensei: Sure.
Alice: How do you say "Hello" in Japanese?
Kaga-sensei: Well, most of the time, I think people say "konnichiwa". Only, when you write it, youmust write "konnichiha" and not "konnichiwa".
Alice: Is that so? Are there any other good expressions?
Kaga-sensei: You should know this too. In the morning, everybody says, "ohayou". But, please say,"ohayou-gozaimsu" to a higher person.
Alice: Ok, I got it. I'll try not to make that mistake. That was very informative!

Example 2
洋介： お！アリスだ。あのね、質問を聞いてもいい？
アリス： 何？
洋介：

ちょっと英語を教えてもらいたいんだけどさ、もし時間があれば、教えてくれない？

1194.18. REVIEW AND MORE GOBICHAPTER 4. ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR「教えてもらいたい」 = receiving favor + to want (たい)アリス：

え？英語を勉強するの？

洋介： うん、アメリカで留学してみたいなと思ってね。去年も⾏こうとしたけど、お⾦がなくて・・・「してみたいなと思って」 = to try something out (〜てみる) + want to (たい) + な gobi + quoted
subquote + te-form of 思う「⾏こうとした」 = volitional of ⾏く + to attempt (とする)
アリス： そうなの？いいよ。いつ教えてほしいの？
洋介： いつでもいいよ。
アリス： じゃ、来週の⽊曜⽇からはどう？
洋介： うん、いいよ。ありがとう！
アリス： 勉強を怠けたり、来なかったり、しないでね。
「怠けたり来なかったりしないで」 = List of actions (〜たりする) + negative request of する.
洋介：

そんなことしないよ！

Literal translation of Example 2
Yousuke: Oh! It's Alice. Hey, is it ok to ask a question?
Alice: What?
Yousuke: I want to receive the favor of you teaching English and if, by any chance, you have time,
will you give the favor of teaching?
Alice: Huh? You are going to study English?
Yousuke: Yeah, I was thinking that I want to try studying abroad in America. I tried to make motion
toward going last year too but, without money...
Alice: Is that so? It's good. When do you want me to teach you?
Yousuke: Anytime is good.
Alice: Then what about from next week Thursday?
Yousuke: Yeah, ok. Thanks!
Alice: Don't do things like shirk on your studies or not come, ok?
Yousuke: I won't do anything like that!

Interpretative translation of Example 2
Yousuke: Oh! It's Alice. Hey, can I ask you a question?
Alice: What up?
Yousuke: I want to learn English so if you have time, can you teach me?
Alice: Huh? You're going to study English?
Yousuke: Yeah, I was thinking about studying abroad in America. I tried going last year too but I
didn't have the money.
Alice: Really? No problem. When do you want me to teach you?
Yousuke: Anytime is ﬁne.
Alice: What about from next week Thursday then?
Yousuke: OK, thanks!
Alice: You're not going to shirk on your studies or not come or anything right?
Yousuke: I won't do anything like that!

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Chapter 5

Special Expressions
I have decided to call this next section "Special Expressions" only because with the exception of
the ﬁrst few lessons, most of the grammar here applies to more speciﬁc areas than the grammar
we have covered so far. These special expressions, while individually not vital, are, as a collection,necessary for regular everyday conversations. We are slowly entering the stage where we've built
the toolbox and we now need to acquire the little tools that will make the toolbox complete. Now
that we covered most of the base, it is time to look at all the little itty gritty bits. You are welcome
to skip around the lessons, however; the examples will assume that you have gone over all previous
sections.

5.1

Causative and Passive Verbs

We will now learn the last two major types of verb conjugations: causative and passive forms. These
two verb conjugations are traditionally covered together because of the notorious causative-passive
combination. We will now go over what all these things are and how they are used.

5.1.1

Causative Verbs

Verbs conjugated into the causative form are used to indicate an action that someone makes happen.
Like Captain Picard so succinctly puts it, the causative verb means to "make it so". This verb isusually used in the context of making somebody do something. The really confusing thing about thecausative verb is that it can also mean to let someone do something. Or maybe this is a diﬀerent
type of verb with the exact same conjugation rules. Whichever the case may be, a verb in thecausative form can mean either making or letting someone do something. The only good news isthat when the causative form is used with 「あげる」 and 「くれる」, it almost always means to "letsomeone do". Once you get used to it, surprisingly, it becomes quite clear which meaning is being
used when.
(１)(２)

全部⾷べさせた。- Made/Let (someone) eat it all.
全部⾷べさせてくれた。- Let (someone) eat it all.

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5.1. CAUSATIVE AND PASSIVE VERBSCHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS.Causative Conjugation Rules
Here are the conjugation rules for the causative form. All causative verbs become ru-verbs.
.

• ru-verbs - Remove the 「る」 and add 「させる」.
.
• u-verbs - Change the last character as you would for negative verbs but attach 「せる」instead of 「ない」.
• Exception Verbs - 「する」 becomes 「させる」 and 「くる」 becomes 「こさせる」.

Sample ru-verbs
Plain Causative
⾷べる ⾷べさせる
着る
着させる
信じる 信じさせる
寝る
寝させる
起きる 起きさせる
出る
出させる
掛ける 掛けさせる
捨てる 捨てさせる
調べる 調べさせる

Plain
話す
聞く
泳ぐ
遊ぶ
待つ
飲む
直る
死ぬ
買う

Sample u-verbs
Causative ローマ字 ローマ字 (Caus.)
話させるhanasuhanasaseru
聞かせる
kiku
kikaseru
泳がせるoyogu
oyogaseru
遊ばせる
asobu
asobaseru
待たせるmatu
mataseru
飲ませるnomu
nomaseru
直らせるnaoru
naoraseru
死なせる
shinu
shinaseru
買わせるkaukawaseru

Exception Verbs
Positive Causative
する
させる
くる
こさせる

ExamplesHere are some examples using the causative verb. Context will usually tell you which is being meant,but for our purposes we will assume that when the verb is used with 「あげる」 and 「くれる」(ください) it means "to let someone do" while it means, "to make someone do" when used without it.
(１) 先⽣が学⽣に宿題をたくさんさせた。
- Teacher made students do lots of homework.
(２) 先⽣が質問をたくさん聞かせてくれた。
- Teacher let [someone] ask lots of questions.
(３) 今⽇は仕事を休ませてください。
- Please let me rest from work today. (Please let me take the day oﬀ today.)(４) その部⻑は、よく⻑時間働かせる。
- That manager often make [people] work long hours.
When asking for permission to let someone do something, it is more common to use the 「〜てもいい」 grammar.
(１) トイレに⾏かせてくれますか。
- Can you let me go to the bathroom? (Sounds like a prisoner, even in English)(２) トイレに⾏ってもいいですか。
- Is it ok to go to the bathroom? (No problem here)122

CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

5.1. CAUSATIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS

A Shorter Alternative
There is a shorter version of the causative conjugation, which I will go over for completeness.
However, since this version is mostly used in very rough slang, you are free to skip this section until
you've had time to get used to the regular form. Also, textbooks usually don't cover this version of
the causative verb.
The key diﬀerence in this version is that all verbs become an u-verbs with a 「す」 ending. Therefore,
the resulting verb would conjugate just like any other u-verb ending in 「す」 such as 「話す」 or「指す」. The ﬁrst part of the conjugation is the same as the original causative form. However, forru-verbs, instead of attaching 「させる」 , you attach 「さす」 and for u-verbs, you attach 「す」instead of 「せる」. As a result, all the verbs become an u-verb ending in 「す」.
.Shortened Causative Form
• This form is rarely used so you may just want to stick with the more traditional version of
the causative form.
– ru-verbs - Remove the 「る」 and add 「さす」.
∗ 例)

⾷べる →⾷べさす∗ 例)

⾏く →⾏か →⾏かす.
– u-verbs - Change the last character as you would for negative verbs but attach 「す」instead of 「ない」.

.

– Exception Verbs - 「する」 becomes 「さす」 and 「くる」 becomes 「こさす」.

Examples(１) 同じことを何回も⾔わすな！
- Don't make me say the same thing again and again!
(２) お腹空いているんだから、なんか⾷べさしてくれよ。
- I'm hungry so let me eat something.

5.1.2

Passive Verbs

Passive verbs are verbs that are done to the (passive) subject. Unlike English style of writing which
discourages the use of the passive form, passive verbs in Japanese are often used in essays andarticles.
.Passive Conjugation Rules
For once, the conjugations rules are same for both ru-verbs and u-verbs. All passive verbs
become ru-verbs.
.

.
• ru-verbs and u-verbs - Change the last characterfrom an / u / vowel sound to an / a /vowel sound and add 「れる」.
• Exception Verbs - 「する」 becomes 「される」 and 「くる」 becomes 「こられる」.

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5.1. CAUSATIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS

Sample ru-verbs
Plain
Passive
⾷べる ⾷べられる
着る
着られる
信じる 信じられる
寝る
寝られる
起きる 起きられる出る
出られる
掛ける 掛けられる
捨てる 捨てられる
調べる 調べられる

Plain
話す
聞く
泳ぐ
遊ぶ
待つ
飲む
直る
死ぬ
買う

CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

Sample u-verbs
Passive ローマ字 ローマ字 (Pass.)
話される hanasu
hanasareru
聞かれる
kiku
kikareru
泳がれるoyogu
oyogareru
遊ばれる
asobu
asobareru
待たれるmatu
matareru
飲まれるnomu
nomareru
直られる
naoru
naorareru
死なれる
shinu
shinareru
買われるkau
kawareru

Exception Verbs
Positive Passive
する
される
くる
こられる

Examples(１) ポリッジが誰かに⾷べられた！
- The porridge was eaten by somebody!
(２) みんなに変だと⾔われます。
- I am told by everybody that [I'm] strange.
(３) 光の速さを超えるのは、不可能だと思われる。
- Exceeding the speed of light is thought to be impossible.
(４) この教科書は多くの⼈に読まれている。
- This textbook is being read by a large number of people.
(５) 外国⼈に質問を聞かれたが、答えられなかった。
- I was asked a question by a foreigner but I couldn't answer.
(６) このパッケージには、あらゆるものが含まれている。
- Everything is included in this package.

5.1.3

Using passive form to show politeness

While we will go over various types of grammar that express a politeness level above the normal-masu/-desu forms in the next lesson, it is useful to know that using passive form is another morepolite way to express an action. In Japanese, a sentence is usually more polite when it is less direct.
For example, it is more polite to refer to someone by his or her name and not by the direct pronoun"you". It is also more polite to ask a negative question than a positive one. (For example, 「しますか？」 vs. 「しませんか？」) In a similar sense, using the passive form makes the sentence lessdirect because the subject does not directly perform the action. This makes it sound more polite.
Here is the same sentence in increasing degrees of politeness.
(１) どうする？- What will you do? (lit: How do?)(２) どうしますか？- Regular polite.
(３) どうされますか？- Passive polite.
(４) どうなさいますか？- Honoriﬁc (to be covered next lesson)(５) どうなさいますでしょうか？- Honoriﬁc + a lesser degree of certainty.
Notice how the same sentence grows longer and longer as you get more and more indirect.

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5.1. CAUSATIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS

Examples(１) レシートはどうされますか？
- What about your receipt? (lit: How will you do receipt?)(２) 明⽇の会議に⾏かれるんですか？
- Are you going to tomorrow's meeting?

5.1.4

Causative-Passive Forms

The causative-passive form is simply the combination of causative and passive conjugations to meanthat the action of making someone do something was done to that person. This would eﬀectivelytranslate into, "[someone] is made to do [something]". The important thing to remember is theorder of conjugation. The verb is ﬁrst conjugated to the causative and then passive, never the otherway around.
.Causative-Passive Conjugation Form.

• The causative-passive verb is formed by ﬁrst conjugating to the causative form and thenby conjugating the result to the passive form.
.
例) ⾷べる →⾷べさせる →⾷べさせられる例) ⾏く →⾏かせる →⾏かせられる

Examples(１) 朝ご飯は⾷べたくなかったのに、⾷べさせられた。
- Despite not wanting to eat breakfast, I was made to eat it.
(２) ⽇本では、お酒を飲ませられることが多い。
- In Japan, the event of being made to drink is numerous.
(３) あいつに⼆時間も待たせられた。
- I was made to wait 2 hours by that guy.
(４) 親に毎⽇宿題をさせられる。
- I am made to do homework everyday by my parent(s).

A Shorter Alternative
Going along with the shorter causative alternative, you can also use the same conjugation for thecausative-passive form. I won't cover it in too much detail because the usefulness of this form israther limited just like the shorter causative form itself. The idea is to simply used the shortenedcausative form instead of using the regular causative conjugation. The rest is the same as before.

1255.2. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS

CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS.Shortened causative-passive form examples.

• First conjugate to the shortened causative form. Then conjugate to the passive form.
.
例) ⾏く →⾏か →⾏かす →⾏かされる
例) ⽴つ →⽴た →⽴たす →⽴たされるThis form cannot be used in cases where the shorter causative form ends in 「さす」, in other words,
you can't have a 「さされる」 ending.
.Verbs that cannot be used in this form.

• Examples of verbs you can't use in this form.
.
誤) ⾷べる →⾷べさす → ⾷べさされる
誤) 話す →話さす → 話さされる

Examples(１) 学⽣が廊下に⽴たされた。
- The student was made to stand in the hall.
(２) ⽇本では、お酒を飲まされることが多い。
- In Japan, the event of being made to drink is numerous.
(３) あいつに⼆時間も待たされた。
- I was made to wait 2 hours by that guy.

5.2

Honoriﬁc and Humble Forms

Japanese can be roughly separated into three levels of politeness: casual, polite, and honoriﬁc/humble.
So far, we have already gone over the polite forms using 「〜です」 and 「〜ます」. We will now
cover the next level of politeness using honoriﬁc and humble forms. You will often hear this typeof language in any customer/consumer type situations such as fast food counters, restaurants, etc.
For now, the ﬁrst thing to remember is that the speaker always considers himself/herself to be at
the lowest level. So any actions performed by oneself are in humble form while actions performedby anyone else seen from the view of the speaker uses the honoriﬁc form.

5.2.1

Set Expressions

The diﬃcult part of learning honoriﬁc and humble language is that there are a number of words thathave separate verbs for honoriﬁc and humble forms. Anything that does not have its own special
expression fall under the general rules of humble and honoriﬁc conjugations that we will cover next.

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CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

Plain
する
⾏く
来る
いる
⾒る
聞く
⾔う
あげる
くれる
もらう
⾷べる
知っている

5.2. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS

Honoriﬁc and Humble Verbs
Honoriﬁc
Humble
なさる
致す
いらっしゃる／おいでになる
参る
いらっしゃる／おいでになる
参る
いらっしゃる／おいでになる
おる
ご覧になる
拝⾒する
－
伺う
おっしゃる
申す／申し上げる
－
差し上げる
下さる
－
－
いただく
召し上がる
－
ご存知 (です)
存じる

Honoriﬁc verbs with special conjugations
A number of these verbs do not follow the normal masu-conjugation rules and they include: 「なさる」、 「いらっしゃる」、 「おっしゃる」、 「下さる」、 and 「ござる」 (which we will soon cover).
For all masu-form tenses of these verbs, instead of the 「る」 becoming a 「り」 as it does withnormal u-verbs, it instead becomes an 「い」. All other conjugations besides the masu-form do notchange from regular u-verbs.

Plain
なさる
いらっしゃる
おっしゃる
下さる
ござる

ます -form
なさいます
いらっしゃいます
おっしゃいます
下さいます
ございます

ます -conjugations
Past ます -form
Negative ます -form
なさいました
なさいません
いらっしゃいました
いらっしゃいません
おっしゃいました
おっしゃいません
下さいました下さいません
ございましたございませんPast-negative ます -form
なさいませんでした
いらっしゃいませんでした
おっしゃいませんでした
下さいませんでした
ございませんでした

Examples of honoriﬁc form
We can now begin to see that 「ください」 is just a special conjugation of 「下さる」 which is thehonoriﬁc version of 「くれる」. Let's look at some actual examples. Since these examples are allquestions directed directly to someone (second person), they all use the honoriﬁc form.
(１) アリスさん、もう召し上がりましたか。
- Alice-san, did [you] eat already?
(２) 仕事で何をなさっているんですか。
- What are you doing at work?
(３) 推薦状を書いてくださるんですか。
- You're going to give me the favor of writing a recommendation letter?
(４) どちらからいらっしゃいましたか。
- Where did you come from?
(５) 今⽇は、どちらへいらっしゃいますか。
- Where are you going today?

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CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

Examples of humble form
The following examples are all actions done by the speaker so they all use the humble form.
(１) 私はキムと申します。
- As for me, [people] say Kim. (I am called Kim.)(２) 私が書いたレポートを⾒ていただけますか。
- Will I be able to receive the favor of getting my report looked at?
(３) 失礼致します。
- Excuse me. (lit: I am doing a discourtesy.)

5.2.2

Other substitutions

In addition to these set expressions, there are some words that also have more polite counterparts.
Probably the most important is the politer version of 「ある」, which is 「ござる」. This verb can
be used for both inanimate and animate objects. It is neither honoriﬁc nor humble but it is a step
above 「ある」 in politeness. However, unless you want to sound like a samurai, 「ござる」 is always
used in the polite form: 「ございます」.
By extension, the politer version of 「です」 is 「でございます」. This is essentially the masu-form
conjugation of 「でござる」 , which comes from 「である」 literally meaning, "to exist as" (to becovered much later).

Examples(１ A) こちらは、私の部屋です。
- Over here is my room.
(１ B) こちらは、私の部屋でございます。
- This way is my room.
(２ A) お⼿洗いはこのビルの⼆階にあります。
- The bathroom is on the second ﬂoor of this building.
(２ B) お⼿洗いはこのビルの⼆階にございます。
- The bathroom is on the second ﬂoor of this building.
Other examples include 「いい」, which is more formally expressed as 「よろしい」. There are also
six diﬀerent ways to say, "I'm sorry" (not counting 「悪いね」 or slight inﬂection changes like 「すいません」).
Successively politer expressions for apologizing:(１) ごめん。
(２) ごめんなさい。
(３) すみません。
(４) 申し訳ありません。(申し訳 is the humble form of ⾔い訳)
(５) 恐れ⼊ります。
(６) 恐縮です。
In addition, the politest suﬃx for names is 「様」 , one level above 「さん」 . You won't be using
this suﬃx too often in actual speech even if you speak to that person in honoriﬁc/humble speech.

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5.2. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS

However, expect to use it when writing letters even to people you are somewhat familiar with. Also,
service people such as cashiers or waitresses/waiters will normally refer to the customer as 「お客様」. Of course, royalty and deities are always accompanied by 「様」 such as 「神様」.

5.2.3

Honoriﬁc and Humble Conjugations

For all other verbs without set expressions, there are conjugation rules to change them into honoriﬁcand humble forms. They both involve a common practice of attaching a polite preﬁx 「御」 . In
Japanese, there is an practice of attaching an honoriﬁc preﬁx 「御」 to certain (not all) nouns toshow politeness. In fact, some words like 「お酒」、 「お茶」、or 「お⾦」 come with this preﬁx so
often that it's become practically the word itself. In general, 「御」 is written in hiragana as either「ご」 for words read as ⾳読み (例：ご意⾒、ご飯) or 「お」 for words read as 訓読み (例：お⾦、 お仕事). In fact, you may have been using this preﬁx already without realizing it like 「お好み焼き」 or「お⼟産」. There are some exceptions to this rule such as 「お返事」. Luckily since 「御」 is rarely
written in kanji, identifying the exceptions should not really be a problem.

Honoriﬁc Form
The honoriﬁc form of verbs that are not among the set honoriﬁc expressions given above can beformed in two diﬀerent ways.
Honoriﬁc Conjugation 1: お + stem + に + なるThis kind of makes sense if you think of it as a person becoming the honoriﬁc state of a verb. All
subsequent conjugations follow the normal rules of conjugating the u-verb 「なる」. To be honest,
this type of sentence formulation is rarely used.
(１) 先⽣はお⾒えになりますか。
- Have you seen the teacher?
Honoriﬁc Conjugation 2: お + stem + です(２) もうお帰りですか。
- You're going home already?
(３) 店内でお召し上がりですか。
- Will you be dining in?
Service people want to be extra polite so they will often use this type of "double honoriﬁc" conjugationor ⼆重敬語 (in this case, the honoriﬁc 「召し上がる」 combined with the honoriﬁc conjugation).
Whether it's necessary or grammatically proper is another story.

Using 「ください」 with honoriﬁcs
You can also use 「下さい」 with a honoriﬁc verb by replacing 「になる」 with 「ください」. This isuseful for when you want to ask somebody to do something but still use a honoriﬁc verb.
Yet another often-used expression.
(１) 少々お待ちください。- Please wait a moment.
Similarly, with 「ご覧になる」, you simply replace 「になる」 with 「ください」.

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5.2. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE FORMS

CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS(２) こちらにご覧下さい。
- Please look this way.
This works for other nouns as well. For example, riding the trains...
(３) 閉まるドアにご注意下さい。
- Please be careful of the closing doors.

Humble Form
Humble verbs are formed in the following fashion.
Humble Conjugation: お + stem + する
You've probably already heard the ﬁrst example many times before but now you know exactly where
it comes from.
(１) よろしくお願いします。
- I properly make request.
(２) 先⽣、お聞きしたいことがありますが。
- Teacher, there's something I want to ask you.
(３) すみません、お待たせしました。
- Sorry, I made you wait (causative form).
(４) 千円からお預かりいたします。
- We'll be holding on [from?] your 1000 yen.
You'll hear something like example (４) when, for example, you need to get change after paying
1000 yen. Again, the ⼆重敬語 where 「する」 has been converted to the humble 「致す」 form
when it's already in the お +stem+ する humble form. Some Japanese people complain that thismakes no sense and that 「から」 should really be 「を」.

5.2.4

Making honoriﬁc requests

We learned how to make polite requests using 「〜ください」 in a previous section and we justlooked at how to use honoriﬁc verbs with requests as well. However, there is yet another way tomake requests using honoriﬁc verbs. This grammar only applies to the honoriﬁc verbs with special「〜ます」 conjugations that we just covered. This includes 「下さる」、「いらっしゃる」、「なさる」、
and 「おっしゃる」.
I've never actually seen this used with 「おっしゃる」, but it is grammaticallypossible.

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5.3. THINGS THAT HAPPEN UNINTENTIONALLY.Making requests for honoriﬁc actions.

• Conjugate the honoriﬁc verb to the special masu-conjugation and replace the last 「す」with 「せ」
例) 下さる →下さいます →下さいませ例) いらっしゃる →いらっしゃいます →いらっしゃいませ.
• An abbreviated and less formal version of this is to simply remove the 「ます」 after
conjugating to special the masu-form
例) 下さる →下さいます →下さい
例) いらっしゃる →いらっしゃいます →いらっしゃい

Now you ﬁnally know where grammar such as 「しなさい」 and 「してください」 actually camefrom. Let's look at a few quick examples.

ExamplesYou'll probably hear this one a million times every time you enter some kind of store in Japan.
(１) いらっしゃいませ。
- Please come in!
However, a middle-aged sushi chef will probably use the abbreviated version.
(２) いらっしゃい！
- Please come in!
Some more examples...
(３) ありがとうございました。またお越しくださいませ。
- Thank you very much. Please come again.
(４) どうぞ、ごゆっくりなさいませ。
- Please take your time and relax.

5.3

Things that happen unintentionally／〜じゃう）（〜てしまう、〜ちゃうThis is the ﬁrst of many useful tools that will become essential in your day-to-day conversations. We
will now learn how to express an action that has taken place unintentionally often with unsatisfactory
results. This is primarily done by the verb 「しまう」. Let's look at an example.
康介： 宿題をやった？- Did you do homework?
アリス： しまった！- Oh no! (I screwed up!)

5.3.1

Using 「しまう」 with other verbs

When 「しまう」 is used in this sense, it is normal to attach it to the te-form of another verb to
express an action that is done or happened unintentionally. As is common with this type of grammar,
the tense is decided by the tense of 「しまう」.
(１) そのケーキを全部⾷べてしまった。
- Oops, I ate that whole cake.

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5.3. THINGS THAT HAPPEN UNINTENTIONALLY

CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS(２) 毎⽇ケーキを⾷べて、２キロ太ってしまいました。
- I ate cake everyday and I (unintentionally) gained two kilograms.
(３) ちゃんと⾷べないと、痩せてしまいますよ。
- If you don't eat properly, you'll (unintentionally) lose weight you know.
(４) 結局、嫌なことをさせてしまった。
- In the end, I (unintentionally) made [someone] do something distasteful.
(５) ごめん、待たせてしまって！
- Sorry about (unintentionally) making you wait!
(６) ⾦⿂がもう死んでしまった。
- The goldﬁsh died already (oops).
If you want to see many more examples, look up 「しまう」 on WWWJDIC and click the [EX] link.
There are over 100 examples with translations for you to enjoy.

5.3.2

Using the casual version of 「〜てしまう」

In casual speech, the 「〜てしまう」 is often substituted by 「〜ちゃう」 while 「〜でしまう」 issubstituted by 「じゃう」. Both 「〜ちゃう」 and 「〜じゃう」 conjugate just like regular u-verbs.
(１) ⾦⿂がもう死んじゃった。
- The goldﬁsh died already.
(２) もう帰っちゃっていい？
- Is it OK if I went home already?
(３) みんな、どっか⾏っちゃったよ。
- Everybody went oﬀ somewhere.
(４) そろそろ遅くなっちゃうよ。
- It'll gradually become late, you know.
There is yet another very colloquial version of 「〜てしまう」 and 「〜でしまう」 where it is replacedby 「〜ちまう」 and 「〜じまう」 respectively. Unlike the cuter 「〜ちゃう」 and 「〜じゃう」 slang,this version conjures a image of rough and coarse middle-aged man.
(１) また遅刻しちまったよ。
- Darn, I'm late again.
(２) ごめん、ついお前を呼んじまった。
- Sorry, I just ended up calling you unconsciously.

5.3.3

Another meaning of 「しまう」

If you look up 「しまう」, the edict dictionary will say:
仕舞う【しまう】(v5u) (uk) to ﬁnish; to close; to do something completely; to put away; to put an
end to;
You may want to consider this a totally separate verb from the 「しまう」 we have covered so far.
Occasionally but not usually, 「しまう」 will have this meaning rather than the unintended action.

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CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS5.4. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS WITH GENERIC NOUNS(１) 宿題をやってしまいなさい。
- Finish your homework completely.

5.4

Special expressions with generic nouns （こと、 ところ、 もの）

We've already learned how to use generic nouns in order to modify nouns. Now we will go oversome special expression used with generic nouns.

5.4.1

Using 「こと」 to say whether something has happened

When you combine 「こと」, the generic word for an event with 「ある」, you can talk about whether
an event exists or not.

Examples(１) 徹夜して、宿題することはある。
- There are times when I do homework while staying up all night.
(２) ⼀⼈で⾏くことはありません。
- I never go by myself.
Using the past tense of the verb with 「こと」, you can talk about whether an event has ever takenplace. This is essentially the only way you can say "have done" in Japanese so this is a very usefulexpression. You need to use this grammar any time you want to talk about whether someone hasever done something.

Examples(１) パリに⾏ったことはありますか。
- Have you ever gone to Paris?
(２) お寿司を⾷べたことがある。
- I've had sushi before.
(３) ⽇本の映画を観たことないの？
- You've never seen a Japanese movie?
(４) ヨーロッパに⾏ったことがあったらいいな。
- It would be nice if I ever go to Europe.
(５) そういうのを⾒たことがなかった。
- I had never seen anything like that.
(６) ⼀度⾏ったこともないんです。
- I've never gone, not even once.

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5.4.2

Using 「ところ」 as an abstract place「ところ」 (所) is usually used to indicate a generic physical location. However, it can also hold amuch broader meaning ranging from a characteristic to a place in time.

Examples(１) 早くきて。映画は、今ちょうどいいところだよ。
- Come quickly. We're at the good part of the movie.
(２) 彼は、優しいところもあるよ。
- His personality has some gentle parts too.
(３) 今は授業が終ったところです。
- Class has ended just now.
(４) これから⾏くところでした。
- I was just about to go from now.

5.4.3

Using 「もの」 as a casual feminine way to emphasize

The generic object noun 「もの」 can be used as a casual and feminine way of emphasizing something. This is identical to the explanatory feminine emphasis expressed by the 「の」 particle. Just
like the explanatory 「の」 particle, the 「の」 is often changed into 「ん」 resulting in 「もん」.
Using 「もん」 sounds very feminine and a little cheeky (in a cute way).

Examples(質問) どうしてこなかったの？- Why didn't (you) come?
(１) 授業があったの。- I had class. (feminine explanatory)(２) 授業があったもの。- I had class. (feminine explanatory)(３) 授業があったもん。- I had class, so there. (feminine explanatory)

5.5

Expressing various levels of certainty
しょう、だろう）（かもしれない、 でIn general, Japanese people don't assert themselves of something unless they are absolutely surethat it is correct. This accounts for the incredibly frequent use of 「〜と思う」 and the various grammatical expressions used to express speciﬁc levels of certainty. We will go over these expressions
starting from the less certain to the most certain.

5.5.1

Using 「かもしれない」 to express uncertainty「かもしれない」 is used to mean "maybe" or "possibly" and is less certain than the word 「多分」. It
attaches to the end of a complete clause. For noun and na-adjective clauses, the declarative 「だ」

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must be removed. It can also be written in kanji as 「かも知れない」 and you can treat it the sameas a negative ru-verb (there is no positive equivalent) so the masu-form would become 「かもしれません」. In casual speech, it can be abbreviated to just 「かも」. There is also a very masculine
version 「かもしれん」, which is simply a diﬀerent type of negative verb.
.Expressing uncertainty with 「かもしれない」• Simply attach 「かもしれない」 or 「かも知れない」 to the clause
例) 映画を⾒たかもしれない例) 彼は学⽣かもしれない例) それは⾯⽩いかもしれない.

. the declarative 「だ」• Noun and na-adjective clauses must not use例) 先⽣だかもしれない→先⽣かもしれない例) 退屈だかもしれない→退屈かもしれない• It can be abbreviated to just 「かも」 in casual speech例) ⾯⽩いかもしれない →⾯⽩いかも

Examples
(１)
(２)
(３)
(４)
(５)

スミスさんは⾷堂に⾏ったかもしれません。- Smith-san may have gone to the cafeteria.
⾬で試合は中⽌になるかもしれないね。- The game may become canceled by rain, huh?
この映画は⼀回⾒たことあるかも！- I might have already seen this movie once.
あそこが代々⽊公園かもしれない。- That might be Yoyogi park over there.
もう逃げられないかもしれんぞ。- Might not be able to escape anymore, you know.

5.5.2

Using 「でしょう」 to express a fair amount of certainty (polite)「でしょう」 is used to express a level of some certainty and is close in meaning to 「多分」. Just
like 「〜です／〜ます」, it must come at the end of a complete sentence. It does not have any otherconjugations. You can also replace 「〜ですか」 with 「〜でしょうか」 to make the question soundslightly more polite and less assuming by adding a slight level of uncertainty.

Examples
(１)
(２)
(３)

明⽇も⾬でしょう。- Probably rain tomorrow too.
あなたは、学⽣さんでしょうか。- Are (you) student?
これからどこへ⾏くんでしょうか？- Where (are you) going from here?

If you want to sound really, really polite, you can even add 「〜でしょうか」 to the end of a 「〜ます」 ending.
(４) 休ませていただけますでしょうか。- May I receive the favor of resting, possibly?

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5.5.3

CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

Using 「でしょう」 and 「だろう」 to express strong amount of certainty(casual)The casual equivalent of 「でしょう」 is surprisingly enough 「でしょう」. However, when you are
speaking in a polite manner, the 「でしょう」 is enunciated ﬂatly while in casual speech, it has arising intonation and can be shortened to 「でしょ」 . In addition, since people tend to be more
assertive in casual situations, the casual version has a much stronger ﬂavor often sounding more
like, "See, I told you so!"

Examples(１)(２)

あっ！遅刻しちゃう！- Ah! We're going to be late!
だから、時間がないって⾔ったでしょう！- That's why I told you there was no time!

(３)
(４)

これから⾷べに⾏くんでしょ。- You're going to eat from now aren't you?
だったら？- So what if I am?

(５)
(６)

掃除、⼿伝ってくれるでしょう。- You're going to help me clean, right?
え？そうなの？- Huh? Is that so?

「だろう」 means essentially the same thing as 「でしょう」 except that it sounds more masculine
and is used mostly by males.
(A) アリスはどこだ？- Where is Alice?
(B) もう寝ているだろう。- Probably sleeping already.
(A)(B)

もう家に帰るんだろう。- You're going home already, right?
そうよ。- That's right.

5.6

Expressing amounts （だけ、 のみ、 しか、 ばかり、 すぎる、
Amount+ も、ほど、さ）This lesson will cover various expressions used to express various degrees of amounts. For example,
sentences like, "I only ate one", "That was all that was left", "There's just old people here", or "I ate
too much" all indicate whether there's a lot or little of something. Most of these expressions are
made with particles and not as separate words as you see in English.

5.6.1

Indicating that's all there is using 「だけ」

The particle 「だけ」 is used to express that that's all there is. Just like the other particles we havealready learned, it is directly attached to the end of whichever word that it applies to.

Examples(１) りんごだけ。
- Just apple(s) (and nothing else).

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CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

5.6. EXPRESSING AMOUNTS(２) これとそれだけ。
－ Just that and this (and nothing else).
When one of the major particles are also applied to a word, these particles must come after 「だけ」
. In fact, the ordering of multiple particles usually start from the most speciﬁc to the most general.
(１) それだけは、⾷べないでください。
- Just don't eat that. (Anything else is assumed to be OK).
(２) この歌だけを歌わなかった。
- Didn't sing just this song.
(３) その⼈だけが好きだったんだ。
- That person was the only person I liked.
The same goes for double particles. Again 「だけ」 must come ﬁrst.
(１) この販売機だけでは、500 円⽟が使えない。
- Cannot use 500 yen coin in just this vending machine.
With minor particles such as 「から」 or 「まで」, it is diﬃcult to tell which should come ﬁrst. Whenin doubt, try googling to see the level of popularity of each combination. It turns out that 「からだけ」 is almost twice as popular as 「だけから」 with a hit number of 90,000 vs. 50,000.
(１) ⼩林さんからだけは、返事が来なかった。
- A reply has not come from only Kobayashi-san.
Unlike some particles, you can directly attach 「だけ」 to verbs as well.
(１) 準備が終わったから、これからは⾷べるだけだ。
- Since the preparations are done, from here we just have to eat.
(２) ここに名前を書くだけでいいですか？
- Is it ok to just write [my] name here?

5.6.2

Using 「のみ」 as a formal version of 「だけ」

A particle that is essentially identical both grammatically and in meaning to 「だけ」 is 「のみ」 .
However, unlike 「だけ」, which is used in regular conversations, 「のみ」 is usually only used in a
written context. It is often used for explaining policies, in manuals, and other things of that nature.
This grammar really belongs in the advanced section since formal language has a diﬀerent ﬂavor andtone from what we have seen so far. However, it is covered here because it is essentially identicalto 「だけ」. Just googling for 「のみ」 will quickly show the diﬀerence in the type of language thatis used with 「のみ」 as opposed to 「だけ」.
(１) この乗⾞券は発売当⽇のみ有効です。
- This boarding ticket is only valid on the date on which it was purchased.
(２) アンケート対象は⼤学⽣のみです。
- The targets of this survey are only college students.

1375.6. EXPRESSING AMOUNTS

5.6.3

CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

Indication that there's nothing else using 「しか」

I carefully phrased the title of this section to show that 「しか」 must be used to indicate the lackof everything else. In other words, the rest of the sentence must always be negative.
(１)

これしかない。- There's nothing but this.

The following is wrong.
(誤) これしかある。- (Wrong, wrong, wrong)
As you can see, 「しか」 has an embedded negative meaning while 「だけ」 doesn't have any
particular nuance.
(１) これだけ⾒る。- See just this.
(２) これだけ⾒ない。- Don't see just this.
(３) これしか⾒ない。- Don't see anything else but this.

ExamplesLet's see some example sentences.
(１) 今⽇は忙しくて、朝ご飯しか⾷べられなかった。
- Today was busy and couldn't eat anything but breakfast.
Notice that unlike 「だけ」, it is necessary to ﬁnish oﬀ the sentence.
(質問) 全部買うの？- You're buying everything?
(１) ううん、これだけ。- Nah, just this.
(２) ううん、これしか買わない - Nah, won't buy anything else but this.
(誤) ううん、これしか。- (Wrong, the sentence must explicitly indicate the negative.)
While the major particles always come last, it turns out that 「しか」 must come after 「から」 and「まで」. A google search of 「からしか」 beats「しかから」 by an overwhelming 60,000 to 600.
(１) アリスからしか何ももらってない。
- I didn't receive anything except from Alice.
You can also use this grammar with verbs.
(１) これから頑張るしかない！
- There's nothing to do but try our best!
(２) こうなったら、逃げるしかない。
- There no choice but to run away once it turns out like this.
(３) もう腐っているから、捨てるしかないよ。
- It's rotten already so there's nothing to do but throw it out.

「っきゃ」, an alternative to 「しか」
「っきゃ」 is another version of 「しか」 that means essentially the same thing and works exactly
the same way. Just substitute 「しか」 with 「っきゃ」 and you're good to go. This version is a bit

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5.6. EXPRESSING AMOUNTS

stronger than 「しか」 in emphasis but it's not used nearly as often so I wouldn't worry about it too
much. I brieﬂy cover it here just in case you do run into this expression.

Examples(１) これは買うっきゃない！
- There's nothing but to buy this!
(２) こうなったら、もうやるっきゃない！
- If things turn out like this, there nothing to do but to just do it!

5.6.4

Expressing the opposite of 「だけ」 with 「ばかり」「ばかり」 is used to express the condition where there's so much of something to the point where
there's nothing else. Notice this is fundamentally diﬀerent from 「しか」 which expresses a lack ofeverything else but the item in question. In more casual situations, 「ばかり」 is usually pronounced「ばっかり」 or just 「ばっか」 . For example, let's say you went to a party to ﬁnd, much to yourdismay, the whole room ﬁlled with middle-aged women. You might say the following.
(１) 何だよ！おばさんばっかりじゃないか？
- What the? Isn't it nothing but obasan?
Or perhaps a little more girly:(２) いやだ。おばさんばっかり。
- Eww. It's nothing but obasan.

ExamplesLet's look at some more examples.
(１) 崇君は漫画ばっかり読んでてさ。かっこ悪い。
- Takashi-kun is reading nothing but comic books... He's so uncool.
It is quite common in casual speech to end midsentence like this.
Notice 「読んでて」 is the te-form of 「読んでいる」 with the 「い」 dropped. We assume that theconclusion will come somewhere later in the story.
(２) 彼は⿇雀ばかりです。
- He's nothing but mahjong. (He does nothing but play mahjong.)(３) 直美ちゃんと遊ぶばっかりでしょう！
- You're hanging out with Naomi-chan all the time, aren't you!
(４) 最近は仕事ばっかだよ。
- Lately, it's nothing but work.

5.6.5

Saying there's too much of something using 「すぎる」「すぎる」 is a regular ru-verb written 「過ぎる」 meaning, "to exceed". However, much like 「〜て1395.6. EXPRESSING AMOUNTSCHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

ほしい」 you can modify the meaning of other verbs and adjectives. When 「すぎる」 is attachedto the end of other verbs and adjectives, it means that it is too much or that it has exceeded thenormal levels. For verbs, you must directly attach 「すぎる」 to the stem of the verb. For example,
to eat too much would become 「⾷べすぎる」 and to drink too much would become 「飲みすぎる」. For adjectives, you just attach it to the end after you remove the last 「い」 from the i-adjectives(as usual). One more rule is that for both negative verbs and adjectives, one must remove the 「い」from 「ない」 and replace with 「さ」 before attaching 「すぎる」 . There is no tense (past or
non-past) associated with this grammar. Since 「すぎる」 is a regular ru-verb, use of this grammar
results in a regular ru-verb.
.Using 「すぎる」to indicate there's too much of something
1. For verbs, ﬁrst change the verb to the stem and attach 「すぎる」.
例)

⾷べる →⾷べすぎる例)

太る →太り →太りすぎる

2. For na-adjectives, simply attach 「すぎる」 . For i-adjectives, remove the last 「い」ﬁrst before attaching 「すぎる」.

.

例)

静か→静かすぎる

例)

⼤きい →⼤きすぎる

3. For negative verbs and adjectives, replace the last 「い」 from 「ない」 with 「さ」 andthen attach 「すぎる」.
例) ⾷べない →⾷べなさ →⾷べなさすぎる
例)

⾯⽩くない →⾯⽩くなさ→⾯⽩くなさすぎる

Note: I-adjectives that end in 「ない」 which incorporate the negative 「無い」 such as「もったいない」(勿体無い) or 「情けない」(情け無い) follow the third rule.
例)

もったいない →もったいなさ →もったいなさすぎる

例)

情けない →情けなさ →情けなさすぎる

Most regular i-adjectives such as 「危ない」 or 「少ない」 follow the regular rule (rule 2).
例)

危ない →危なすぎる

例)

少ない →少なすぎる

Examples(１) 佐藤さんは料理が上⼿で、また⾷べ過ぎました。
- Satou-san is good at cooking and I ate too much again.
(２) お酒を飲みすぎないように気をつけてね。
- Be careful to not drink too much, ok?
(３) ⼤きすぎるからトランクに⼊らないぞ。
- It won't ﬁt in the trunk cause it's too big, man.
(４) 静かすぎる。罠かもしれないよ。
- It's too quiet. It might be a trap, you know.
(５)

時間が⾜りなさすぎて、何もできなかった。

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CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

5.6. EXPRESSING AMOUNTS- Due to too much of a lack of time, I couldn't do anything.
(６) 彼には、彼⼥がもったいなさすぎるよ。
- She is totally wasted on him (too good for him).
It is also common to change 「すぎる」 into its stem and use it as a noun.
(A さん) 昨晩のこと、全然覚えてないな。
- Man, I don't remember anything about last night.
(B さん) それは飲みすぎだよ。
- That's drinking too much.

5.6.6

Adding the 「も」 particle to express excessive amounts

When the 「も」 particle comes after some type of amount, it means that the amount indicated is
way too much. For instance, let's look at the next example.
(１) 昨⽇、電話三回もしたよ！
- I called you like three times yesterday!
Notice that the 「も」 particle is attached to the amount "three times". This sentence implies thatthe speaker called even three times and still the person didn't pick up the phone. We understandthis to mean that three times are a lot of times to call someone.
(２) 試験のために三時間も勉強した。
- I studied three whole hours for the exam.
(３) 今年、⼗キロも太っちゃった！
- I gained 10 whole kilograms this year!

5.6.7

Using 「ほど」 to express the extent of something

The noun 「ほど」(程) is attached to a word in a sentence to express the extent of something. It
can modify nouns as well as verbs as seen in the next example.
(１) 今⽇の天気はそれほど寒くない。
- Today's weather is not cold to that extent.
(２) 寝る時間がないほど忙しい。
- Busy to the extent that there's no time to sleep.
When you use this with conditionals, you can express something that translates into English as, "Themore you [verb], the more..." The grammar is always formed in the following sequence: [conditionalof verb] followed immediately by [same verb+ ほど](１) 韓国料理は⾷べれば⾷べるほど、おいしくなる。
- About Korean food, the more you eat the tastier it becomes.
The literal translation is, "About Korean food, if you eat, to the extent that you eat, it becomes
tasty." which essentially means the same thing. The example uses the 「ば」 conditional form, but
the 「たら」 conditional will work as well. Since this is a general statement, the contextual 「なら」conditional will never work. The decided 「と」 conditional won't work very well here either since it1415.6. EXPRESSING AMOUNTSCHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

may not always be true depending on the extent of the action.
(１) 歩いたら歩くほど、迷ってしまった。
- The more I walked, the more I got lost.
(２) 勉強をすればするほど、頭がよくなるよ。
- The more you study, the more you will become smarter.
You can also use this grammar with i-adjectives by using the 「ば」 conditional.
(１)
iPod は、ハードディスクの容量が⼤きければ⼤きいほどもっとたくさんの曲が保存できます。
- About iPod, the larger the hard disk capacity, the more songs you can save.
(２) 航空券は安ければ安いほどいいとは限らない。
- It's not necessarily the case that the cheaper the ticket, the better it is.
For na-adjectives, since you can't use the 「ば」 conditional you have to resort to the 「なら」conditional. Because it sounds strange to use the 「なら」 conditional in this fashion, you will hardly
ever see this grammar used with na-adjectives. Since 「ほど」 is treated as a noun, make sure you
don't forget to use 「な」 to attach the noun to the na-adjective.
(１) ⽂章は、短ければ短いほど、簡単なら簡単なほどよいです。
- The shorter and simpler the sentences, the better it is.

5.6.8

Using 「〜さ」 with adjectives to indicate an amount

We will now learn how to add 「さ」 to adjectives to indicate an amount of that adjective. For
example, we can attach 「さ」 to the adjective for "high" in order to get "height". Instead of looking
at the height, we can even attach 「さ」 to the adjective for "low" to focus on the amount of lowness
as opposed to the amount of highness. In fact, there is nothing to stop us from using this with any
adjective to indicate an amount of that adjective. The result becomes a regular noun indicating theamount of that adjective.
.Adding 「〜さ」to adjectives to indicate an amountFor i-adjectives: First remove the trailing 「い」 from the i-adjective and then attach
「さ」

.

例)

⾼い →⾼さ例)

低い →低さ.

For na-adjectives: Just attach 「さ」 to the end of the na-adjective
例)

穏やか→穏やかさThe result becomes a regular noun.

Examples(１) このビルの⾼さは何ですか？
- What is the height of this building?

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CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS
5.7. VARIOUS WAYS TO EXPRESS SIMILARITY AND HEARSAY(２) ⽝の聴覚の敏感さを⼈間と⽐べると、はるかに上だ。
- If you compare the level of sensitivity of hearing of dogs to humans, it is far above.

5.7

Various ways to express similarity and hearsay
みたい、〜そう、〜そうだ、〜らしい、〜っぽい）（よう、〜

In Japanese there are many diﬀerent ways to express likeness or similarity depending on appearance,
behavior, or outcome. When learning these expressions for the ﬁrst time, it is diﬃcult to understandwhat the diﬀerences are between them because they all translate to the same thing in English. Thislesson is designed to study the diﬀerences between these expressions so that you can start to geta sense of which is appropriate for what you want to say.

5.7.1

Expressing similarity with よう (様)We've already brieﬂy gone over 「よう」 and learned that 「よう」 means an appearance or manner.
We can use this deﬁnition to say that something has an appearance or manner of a certain state.
This word can be used in many ways to express similarity. The simplest example is by directly
modifying the subordinate clause. When the sentence ends in 「よう」, you must explicitly express
the state of being by adding 「だ」, 「です」, or 「でございます」.
(１)(２)

ここには、誰もいないようだ。- Looks like no one is here.
映画を観たようです。- Looks like [he] watched the movie.

When directly modifying nouns or na-adjectives, you must use the 「の」 particle for nouns or attach「な」 to na-adjectives.
(３) 学⽣のようだ。- Looks like it's a student.
(４) ここは静かなようだ。- Looks like it's quiet.
Notice that (３) does not say that the person looks like a student. Rather, the explicit state of being
states that the person appears to be a student. On a side note, you can't say 「おいしいようだ」 tosay that something looks tasty. This is like saying, "This dish apparently is tasty," which can actually
be kind of rude.
You can also use it as a na-adjective to describe something that appears to be something else.
(５) あの⼈を⾒たような気がした。- Had a feeling like I saw that person before.
(６) 彼は学⽣のような雰囲気ですね。- He has a student-like atmosphere.
Finally, we can attach the target particle to say things like, "I heard it like that" or "I said it like...".
(７) ちょっと怒ったように聞こえた。- Was able to hear it like (she) was a little mad.
(８) 何も起こらなかったように⾔った。- Said (it) like nothing happened.

5.7.2

Using 「みたい」 to say something looks like something else

Another way to express similarity which is considered more casual is by using 「みたい」. Do notconfuse this with the 「たい」 conjugation of 「⾒る」. The main diﬀerence is that this 「みたい」can be attached directly to nouns, adjectives, and verbs just like particles which i-adjectives like 「〜たい」 obviously can't do.

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5.7. VARIOUS WAYS TO EXPRESS SIMILARITY AND CHAPTERHEARSAY 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS.Using 「みたい」to say something looks like something else
Attach 「みたい」 to the noun that bears the resemblance. 「みたい」 conjugates like anoun or na-adjective and not an i-adjective.
.
Non-Past
Past.
Conjugation Example
with 「⽝」
Positive
Negative
⽝みたい
Looks like a dog ⽝じゃないみたい Doesn't look like a dog
⽝だったみたい Looked like a dog ⽝じゃなかったみたい Didn't look like a dog

Examples(１) もう売り切れみたい。- Looks like it's sold out already.
(２) 制服を着ている姿をみると、学⽣みたいです。- Looking at the uniform-wearing ﬁgure, (person)
looks like a student.
The implied meaning here is the person wearing the uniform is not really a student because he/she
only looks like a student. This is diﬀerent from (３) of the previous 「よう」 section which impliedthat the person appears to be (but might not be) a student. Again, we also can't say 「おいしいみたい」 to say that something looks tasty because it implies that, in actuality, the food might not be
so good. Similarly, you would never say 「かわいいみたい」 to say that something looks cute.
Don't forget that 「みたい」 does not conjugate like the 「〜たい」 form or i-adjectives.
(誤) このピザはお好み焼きみたくない？- (みたい conjugates like a na-adjective.)(３) このピザはお好み焼きみたいじゃない？- Doesn't this pizza looks like okonomiyaki?
「みたい」 is really a grammar only used in conversation.
Do not use it in essays, articles, anything that needs to sound authoritative. You can use 「よう」
instead in the following fashion.
(６) もう売り切れのようだ。- It appears that it is sold-out already.
(７) このピザはお好み焼きのように⾒える。- This pizza looks like okonomiyaki.

5.7.3

Guessing at an outcome using 「〜そう」The problem with English is that the expression, "seems like" has too many meanings. It canmean similarity in appearance, similarity in behavior or even that current evidence points to a likely
outcome. We will now learn how to say the third meaning; how to indicate a likely outcome given
the situation.
Just like the grammar we have learned so far in this lesson, we can use this grammar by simply
attaching 「そう」 to the end of verbs, and adjectives. However, there are four important diﬀerent
cases. Actually, I just noticed this but the conjugation rules are exactly the same as the 「〜すぎる」
grammar we learned in the last section. The only diﬀerence is that for the adjective 「いい」, youneed to change it to 「よさ」 before attaching 「そう」 to create 「よさそう」.

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5.7. VARIOUS WAYS TO EXPRESS SIMILARITY AND HEARSAY.Rules for conjugation
1. Verbs must be changed to the stem.
2. The 「い」 in i-adjectives must be dropped except for 「いい」.
.
. 3. 「いい」 must ﬁrst be conjugated to 「よさ」
4. For all negative tenses, the 「い」 must be replaced with 「さ」.
5. This grammar does not work with plain nouns.

1. Verb must be changed to the stem.
For ru-verbs, remove the 「る」(１) バランスが崩れて、⼀瞬倒れそうだった。
- Losing my balance, I seemed likely to fall for a moment.
For u-verbs, change the / u / vowel sound to an / i / vowel sound(２) この辺りにありそうだけどな。
- It seems likely that it would be around here but...

2. The 「い」 in i-adjectives must be dropped.
In the next example, the 「い」 has been dropped from 「おいしい」.
(１) この漬物はおいしそう！
- I bet this pickled vegetable is tasty! (This pickled vegetable looks good!)
Exception: The only exception to this rule is the adjective 「いい」. When using this grammar with
「いい」, you must ﬁrst change it to 「よさ」.
(２) これも結構よさそうだけど、やっぱり⾼いよね。
- This one also seems to be good but, as expected, it's expensive, huh?
Nothing needs to be done for na-adjectives.
(３) お前なら、⾦髪の⼥が好きそうだな。
- Knowing you, I bet you like blond-haired girls.

3. For all negative tenses, the 「い」 must be replaced with 「さ」.
The negative of 「来る」 is 「こない」 so when used with 「〜そう」, it becomes 「こなさそう」.
(１) もう 10 時になったから、来なさそうだね。
- Since it already became 10:00, it's likely that (person) won't come.
(２)

これはただの試合じゃなさそうだ。

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5.7. VARIOUS WAYS TO EXPRESS SIMILARITY AND CHAPTERHEARSAY 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS- This isn't likely to be an ordinary match.
Identical to the 「〜すぎる」 grammar, i-adjectives that are derived from the negative 「〜ない」
like 「もったいない」 or 「情けない」 also follow this rule as well (which would be 「もったいなさそう」 and 「情けなさそう」 in this case).

4. This grammar does not work with plain nouns.
(誤)

その⼈は学⽣そう。

There are other grammar we have already covered that can be used to indicate that something islikely to be something else.
(１) その⼈は学⽣でしょう。
- That person is probably student.
(２) その⼈は学⽣だろう。
- That person is probably student.
Be careful never to use 「かわいい」 with this grammar. 「かわいそう」 is a completely diﬀerent
word used when you feel sorry for somethingor someone. 「かわいい」 means, "to look cute" already so you never need to use any of thegrammar in this lesson to say something looks cute.
(１) この⽝はかわいそう。
- Oh, this poor dog.
(２)

この⽝はかわいい。- This dog is cute.

5.7.4

Expressing hearsay using 「〜そうだ」

The reason that there are so many annoying rules to using 「〜そう」 is to distinguish it from thisnext grammar we will learn. This is a useful grammar for talking about things you heard that doesn't
necessary have anything to do with how you yourself, think or feel. Unlike the last grammar welearned, you can simply attach 「そうだ」 to verbs and i-adjectives. For na-adjectives and nouns,
you must indicate the state of being by adding 「だ」 to the noun/na-adjective. Also, notice that
「そう」 itself must always end in 「だ」、「です」、or 「でございます」. These diﬀerences are what
distinguishes this grammar from the one we learned in the last section. There are no tenses for thisgrammar.
(１)(２)

明⽇、⾬が降るそうだ。- I hear that it's going to rain tomorrow.
毎⽇会いに⾏ったそうです。- I heard he went to meet everyday.

Don't forget to add 「だ」 for nouns or na-adjectives.
(３) 彼は、⾼校⽣だそうです。- I hear that he is a high school student.
When starting the sentence with this grammar, you also need to add 「だ」 just like you do with「だから」
(１) 今⽇、⽥中さんはこないの？- Is Tanaka-san not coming today?
(２) だそうです。- So I hear.

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5.8.EXPRESSIONSUSING ⽅ AND よる FOR COMPARISONS AND OTHER FUNCTIONS

5.7.5

Expressing hearsay or behavior using 「〜らしい」「らしい」 can be directly attached to nouns, adjectives, or verbs to show that things appear to
be a certain way due to what you've heard. This is diﬀerent from 「〜そうだ」 because 「〜そうだ」 indicates something you heard about speciﬁcally while 「らしい」 means things seem to be acertain way based on some things you heard about the subject. 「らしい」 conjugates like a normal
i-adjective.
(Ａ)(Ｂ)

今⽇、⽥中さんはこないの？- Is Tanaka-san not coming today?
こないらしい。- Seems like it (based on what I heard).

(Ａ)
(Ｂ)

あの⼈は何なの？- What is that person over there?
美由紀さんの友達らしいですよ。- Seems to be Miyuki-san's friend (based on what I heard).

Another way to use 「らしい」 is to indicate that a person seems to be a certain thing due to his
behavior.
(１) あの⼦は⼦供らしくない。- That child does not act like a child.
(２) ⼤⼈らしくするつもりだったのに、⼤騒ぎしてしまった。- Despite the fact that I planned to act
like an adult, I ended up making a big ruckus.

5.7.6「っぽい」: Slang expression of similarity

A really casual way to express similarity is to attach 「っぽい」 to the word that reﬂects the resemblance. Because this is a very casual expression, you can use it as a casual version for all thediﬀerent types of expression for similarity covered above.
「っぽい」 conjugates just like an i-adjective, as seen by example (３) below.
(１)
(２)
(３)

あの⼈はちょっと韓国⼈っぽいよね。- That person looks like a Korean person, huh?
みんなで、もう全部⾷べてしまったっぽいよ。- It appears that everybody ate everything already.
恭⼦は全然⼥っぽくないね。- Kyouko is not womanly at all, huh?

5.8

Using ⽅ and よる for comparisons and other functions（より、の⽅、stem ＋⽅、によって、によると）

If you were wondering how to make comparison in Japanese, well wonder no more. We will learn
how to use 「⽅」 and 「より」 to make comparisons between two things. We will also learn otheruses of 「⽅」 and 「よる」 along the way.

5.8.1

Using 「⽅」 for comparisons

The noun 「⽅」 is read as 「ほう」 when it is used to mean a direction or orientation. It can also
be read as 「かた」 when it is used as a politer version of 「⼈」. But that's neither here nor there.
When we use 「⽅」 to mean direction, we can use it for comparison by saying one way of things isbetter, worse, etc., than the other way. Grammatically, it works just like any other regular nouns.

1475.8. USING ⽅ AND よる FOR COMPARISONS AND OTHER
CHAPTERFUNCTIONS
5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

ExamplesUse it with nouns by utilizing the 「の」 particle.
(１) ご飯の⽅がおいしい。- Rice is tastier. (lit: The way of rice is tasty.)(２) 鈴⽊さんの⽅が若い。- Suzuki-san is younger. (lit: The way of Suzuki is young.)
Grammatically, it's no diﬀerent from a regular noun.
(３) 学⽣じゃない⽅がいいよ。- It's better to not be a student. (lit: The way of not being student
is good.)(４) ⾚ちゃんは、 静かな⽅が好き。- Like quiet babies more. (lit: About babies, the quiet way isdesirable.)
The tricky part of making comparisons with verb is the use of tenses. For absolutely no reason,
non-negative verbs must always be past tense.
(５) ゆっくり⾷べた⽅が健康にいいよ。- It's better for your health to eat slowly.
(６) こちらから⾏った⽅が早かった。- It was faster to go from this way.
The same thing does not apply for negative verbs.
(７) マトリックス・レボリューションを観ない⽅がいいよ。- It's better not to watch "Matrix Revolution".
The negative verb is only in the past tense when the comparison is of something that happened in
the past.
(８) そんなに飲まなかった⽅がよかった。- It was better not to have drunk that much.

5.8.2

Using 「より」 for comparisons

You can think of 「より」 as being the opposite of 「⽅」. It means, "rather than" or "as opposedto". It attaches directly to the back of any word. It is usually used in conjunction with 「⽅」 to saysomething like, "This way is better as opposed to that way."

Examples(１) 花より団⼦。
- Dango rather than ﬂowers. (This is a very famous proverb.)(２) ご飯の⽅が、パンよりおいしい。
- Rice tastes better than bread. (lit: The rice way is tasty as opposed to bread.)(３) キムさんより鈴⽊さんの⽅が若い。
- Suzuki-san is younger than Kim-san. (lit: The way of Suzuki is young as opposed to Kim-san.)For those curious about the meaning of the proverb, dango is a sweet doughy treat usually sold atfestivals. The proverb is saying that people prefer this treat to watching the ﬂowers, referring to
the 「花⾒」 event where people go out to see the cherry blossoms (and get smashed). The deeper
meaning of the proverb, like all good proverbs, depends on how you apply it.
Of course, there is no rule that 「より」 must be used with 「⽅」. The other way of things can begleaned from context.
(鈴⽊) 毎⽇仕事に⾏くのが嫌だ。- I don't like going to work everyday.
(スミス) 仕事がないよりましだよ。- It's not as bad as opposed to not having a job.
Words associated with 「より」 do not need any tense. Notice in the following sentence that 「⾷べ148

CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL
5.8.EXPRESSIONSUSING ⽅ AND よる FOR COMPARISONS AND OTHER FUNCTIONSる」 in front of 「より」 is present tense even though 「⾷べる」 in front of 「⽅」 is past tense.
(１) ゆっくり⾷べた⽅が早く⾷べるよりいい。- It is better to eat slowly as opposed to eating quickly.

Using 「より」 as a superlative
You can also use 「より」 with question words such as 「誰」 、 「何」 、 or 「どこ」 to make asuperlative by comparing with everything or everybody else. In this case, though not required, it iscommon to include the 「も」 particle.

Examples(１) 商品の品質を何より⼤切にしています。
- We place value in product's quality over anything else.
(２) この仕事は誰よりも早くできます。
- Can do this job more quickly than anyone else.

5.8.3

Using 「⽅」 to express a way to do something

You can also attach 「⽅」 to the stem of verbs to express a way to do that verb. In this usage,「⽅」 is read as 「かた」 and the result becomes a noun. For example, 「⾏き⽅」(いきかた) means,"the way to go" or 「⾷べ⽅」(たべかた)means, "the way to eat". This expression is probably what
you want to use when you want to ask how to do something.

Examples(１) 新宿の⾏き⽅は分かりますか。
- Do you know the way to go to Shinjuku?
(２) そういう⾷べ⽅は体によくないよ。
- Eating in that way is not good for your body.
(３) 漢字の書き⽅を教えてくれますか？
- Can you teach me the way of writing kanji?
(４) パソコンの使い⽅は、みんな知っているでしょう。
- Probably everybody knows the way to use PC's.
When verbs are transformed to this form, the result becomes a noun clause. Sometimes, thisrequires a change of particles. For instance, while 「⾏く」 usually involves a target (the 「に」 or「へ」 particle), since 「⾏き⽅」 is a noun clause, (１) becomes 「新宿の⾏き⽅」 instead of thefamiliar 「新宿に⾏く」.

5.8.4

Using 「によって」 to express dependency

When you want to say, "depending on [X]", you can do this in Japanese by simply attaching 「によって」 to [X].

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DO
5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

Examples(１) ⼈によって話が違う。
- The story is diﬀerent depending on the person.
(２) 季節によって果物はおいしくなったり、まずくなったりする。
- Fruit becomes tasty or nasty depending on the season.
This is simply the te-form of 「よる」 as seen by the following simple exchange.
(和⼦) 今⽇は飲みに⾏こうか？- Shall we go drinking today?
(⼤樹) それは、裕⼦によるね。- That depends on Yuuko.

5.8.5

Indicating a source of information using 「によると」

Another expression using 「よる」 is by using it with the target and the decided conditional 「と」to indicate a source of information. In English, this would translate to "according to [X]" where 「によると」 is attached to [X].

Examples(１) 天気予報によると、今⽇は⾬だそうだ。
- According to the weather forecast, I hear today is rain.
(２) 友達の話によると、朋⼦はやっとボーイフレンドを⾒つけたらしい。
- According to a friend's story, it appears that Tomoko ﬁnally found a boyfriend.

5.9

Saying something is easy or diﬃcult to do
にくい）（〜やすい、〜This is a short easy lesson on how to transform verbs into adjectives describing whether that action
is easy or diﬃcult to do. Basically, it consists of changing the verb into the stem and adding 「やすい」 for easy and 「にくい」 for hard. The result then becomes a regular i-adjective. Pretty easy,huh?
.Using 「〜やすい、〜にくい」to describe easy and diﬃcult actions
To describe an action as being easy, change the verb to the stem and add 「やすい」. To
describe an action as being diﬃcult, attach 「にくい」 to the stem.

.

例)ru-verb: ⾷べる →⾷べやすい例)

u-verb: しゃべる →しゃべり →しゃべりにくい.
The result becomes a regular i-adjective.
Positive
Negative
Non-Past
⾷べにくい
⾷べにくくない
Past
⾷べにくかった ⾷べにくくなかった

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5.9. SAYING SOMETHING IS EASY OR DIFFICULT TO DO

Examples(１) この字は読みにくい- This hand-writing is hard to read.
(２) カクテルはビールより飲みやすい。
- Cocktails are easier to drink than beer.
(３) 部屋が暗かったので、⾒にくかった。
- Since the room was dark, it was hard to see.
As an aside: Be careful with 「⾒にくい」 because 「醜い」 is a rarely used adjective meaning,"ugly". I wonder if it's just coincidence that "diﬃcult to see" and "ugly" sound exactly the same?
Of course, you can always use some other grammatical structure that we have already learned toexpress the same thing using appropriate adjectives such as 「難しい」 、 「易しい」 、 「簡単」 、「容易」、etc. The following two sentences are essentially identical in meaning.
(１) あの⾁は⾷べにくい。
- That meat is hard to eat.
(２) あの⾁を⾷べるのは難しい。
- The thing of eating that meat is diﬃcult.

5.9.1

Variations of 「〜にくい」 with 「〜がたい」 and 「〜づらい」

The kanji for 「にくい」 actually comes from 「難い」 which can also be read as 「かたい」. As aresult, you can also add a voiced version 「〜がたい」 as a verb suﬃx to express the same thing as「にくい」. 「にくい」 is more common for speaking while 「がたい」 is more suited for the written
medium. 「にくい」 tends to be used for physical actions while 「がたい」 is usually reserved forless physical actions that don't actually require movement. However, there seems to be no hard ruleon which is more appropriate for a given verb so I suggest searching for both versions in google toascertain the popularity of a given combination. You should also always write the suﬃx in hiragana
to prevent ambiguities in the reading.

Examples(１) 彼との忘れがたい思い出を⼤切にしている。
- I am treating importantly the hard to forget memories of and with him.
(２) とても信じがたい話だが、本当に起こったらしい。
- It's a very diﬃcult to believe story but it seems (from hearsay) that it really happened.
Yet another, more coarse variation of stem + 「にくい」 is to use 「づらい」 instead which is aslightly transformed version of 「⾟い」(つらい). This is not to be confused with the same 「⾟い」(からい), which means spicy!

Examples(１) ⽇本語は読みづらいな。
- Man, Japanese is hard to read.

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5.10. MORE NEGATIVE VERBSCHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS(２) 待ち合わせは、分かりづらい場所にしないでね。
- Please don't pick a diﬃcult to understand location for the meeting arrangement.

5.10

More negative verbs（ないで、ず、〜ん、ぬ）

We already learned the most common type of negative verbs; the ones that end in 「ない」. However,there are couple more diﬀerent types of negatives verbs. The ones you will ﬁnd most useful are theﬁrst two, which expresses an action that was done without having done another action. The others
are fairly obscure or useful only for very casual expressions. However, you will run into them if you
learn Japanese for a fair amount of time.

5.10.1

Doing something without doing something else

Way back when, we learned how to express a sequence of actions and this worked ﬁne for both
positive and negative verbs. For instance, the sentence "I didn't eat, and then I went to sleep"
would become 「⾷べなくて寝た。」 However, this sentence sounds a bit strange because eating
doesn't have much to do with sleeping. What we probably really want to say is that we went tosleep without eating. To express this, we need to use a more generalized form of the negative
request we covered at the very end of the giving and receiving lesson. In other words, instead of
substituting the last 「い」 with 「くて」, we need only append 「で」 instead.
.Doing something without doing something else.

To indicate an action that was done without doing another action, add 「で」 to thenegative of the action that was not done. .
例)

⾷べる →⾷べない →⾷べないで

Examples(１) 何も⾷べないで寝ました。
- Went to sleep without eating anything.
(２) ⻭を磨かないで、学校に⾏っちゃいました。
- Went to school without brushing teeth (by accident).
(３) 宿題をしないで、授業に⾏くのは、やめた⽅がいいよ。
- It's better to stop going to class without doing homework.
(４) 先⽣と相談しないで、この授業を取ることは出来ない。
- You cannot take this class without consulting with teacher.
Hopefully not too diﬃcult. Another way to express the exact same thing is to replace the last 「ない」
part with 「ず」. However, the two exception verbs 「する」 and 「くる」 become 「せず」 and 「こず」 respectively. It is also common to see this grammar combined with the target 「に」 particle.
This version is more formal than 「ないで」 and is not used as much in regular conversations.

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5.10. MORE NEGATIVE VERBS.Doing something without doing something else.

• Another way to indicate an action that was done without doing another action is to replace
the 「ない」 part of the negative action that was not done with 「ず」.
例) ⾷べる →⾷べない →⾷べず
例) ⾏く →⾏かない →⾏かず.
• The two exception verbs 「する」 and 「くる」 become 「せず」 and 「こず」 respectively.
例外 1) する →せず
例外 2) くる →こず

Examples(１) 彼は何も⾔わず、帰ってしまった。
- He went home without saying anything.
(２) 何も⾷べずにそんなにお酒を飲むと当然酔っ払いますよ。
- Obviously, you're going to get drunk if you drink that much without eating anything.
(３) 勉強せずに東⼤に⼊れると思わないな。
- I don't think you can get in Tokyo University without studying.

5.10.2A casual masculine type of negative that ends in 「ん」

Finally, we cover another type of negative that is used mostly by older men. Since 「ない」 is so longand diﬃcult to say (sarcasm), you can shorten it to just 「ん」. However, you can't directly modify
other words in this form; in other words, you can't make it a modifying subordinate clause. In thesame manner as before, 「する」 becomes 「せん」 and 「くる」 becomes 「こん」 though I've
never heard or seen 「こん」 actually being used. If you have ever heard ｢すまん」 and wondered
what that meant, it's actually an example of this grammar. Notice that 「すみません」 is actually inpolite negative form. Well, the plain form would be 「すまない」, right? That further transforms tojust 「すまん」. The word brings up an image of おじさん but that may be just me. Anyway, it's amale expression.
.A shorter way to say negative verbs.

• A shorter way to say a negative verb is to use 「ん」 instead of 「ない」.
例) 知る →知らない →知らん.
• The two exception verbs 「する」 and 「くる」 become 「せん」 and 「こん」 respectively.
例外 1) する →せん
例外 2) くる →こんExamples(１) すまん。
- Sorry.

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CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS(２) 韓国⼈と結婚しなくてはならん！
- You must marry a Korean!
(３) そんなことはさせん！
- I won't let you do such a thing!
You can even use this slang for past tense verbs by adding 「かった」.
(４) 皆、今⽇⾏くって、知らんかったよ。
- I didn't know everybody was going today.

5.10.3

A classical negative verb that ends in 「ぬ」

There is yet another version of the negative verb conjugation and it uses 「ぬ」 instead of the 「ない」 that attaches to the end of the verb. While this version of the negative conjugation is oldfashioned and part of classical Japanese, you will still encounter it occasionally. In fact, I just saw
this conjugation on a sign at the train station today, so it's not too uncommon.
For any verb, you can replace 「ない」 with 「ぬ」 to get to an old-fashion sounding version of thenegative. Similar to the last section, 「する」 becomes 「せぬ」 and 「くる」 becomes 「こぬ」.
You may hear this grammar being used from older people or your friends if they want to bring backye olde days.
.An old-fashioned way to say negative verbs.

• An old-fashioned way to say a negative verb is to use 「ぬ」 instead of 「ない」.
例) 知る →知らない →知らぬ.
• The two exception verbs 「する」 and 「くる」 become 「せぬ」 and 「こぬ」 respectively.
例外 1) する →せぬ例外 2) くる →こぬExamples(１) 韓国⼈と結婚してはならぬ！
- You must not marry a Korean!
(２) 模擬試験に何回も失敗して、実際に受けてみたら思わぬ結果が出た。
- After having failed mock examination any number of times, a result I wouldn't have thought cameout when I actually tried taking the test.

5.11

Hypothesizing and Concluding （わけ、〜とする）

5.11.1

Some things that are not covered

In writing this section, I considered a large number of topics that fall on the border between vocabulary and grammar. In the end, I decided to skip any topic that can be looked up and learned with154

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5.11. HYPOTHESIZING AND CONCLUDING

examples. Some examples of grammar that fall under this category are 「にとって、に対して、に関して、and について」. When you come across such grammar in the course of learning Japanese,
you can look them up at the WWWJDIC (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwjdic.html) andlook at the example sentences. That's all you should need to give you an idea of what each phrase
means and how it is used. On the other hand, I've decided to go over two types of grammar that
does deserve some explanation: 「わけ」(訳) and 「とする」.

5.11.2Coming to a conclusion with 「わけ」

The ﬁrst type of grammar is, in actuality, just a regular noun. However, it is used to express a
concept that deserves some explanation. The noun 「わけ」(訳) is deﬁned as: "meaning; reason;can be deduced". You can see how this word is used in the following mini-dialogue.

Mini-Dialogue 1(直⼦) いくら英語を勉強しても、うまくならないの。
- No matter how much I study, I don't become better at English.
(ジム) つまり、語学には、能⼒がないという訳か。
- So basically, it means that you don't have ability at language.
(直⼦) 失礼ね。
- How rude.
As you can see, Jim is concluding from what Naoko said that she must not have any skills at learning
languages. This is completely diﬀerent from the explanatory 「の」 , which is used to explain
something that may or may not be obvious. 「わけ」 is instead used to draw conclusions thatanyone might be able to arrive at given certain information.
A very useful application of this grammar is to combine it with 「ない」 to indicate that there is
no reasonable conclusion. This allows some very useful expression like, "How in the world am I
supposed to know that?"(１) 中国語が読めるわけがない。
- There's no way I can read Chinese. (lit: There is no reasoning for [me] to be able to read Chinese.)
Under the normal rules of grammar, we must have a particle for the noun 「わけ」 in order to use
it with the verb but since this type of expression is used so often, the particle is often dropped tocreate just 「〜わけない」.

Mini-Dialogue 2(直⼦) 広⼦の家に⾏ったことある？
- Have you ever gone to Hiroko's house?
(⼀郎) あるわけないでしょう。
- There's no way I would have ever gone to her house, right?

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Mini-Dialogue 3(直⼦) 微積分は分かる？
- Do you understand (diﬀerential and integral) calculus?
(⼀郎) 分かるわけないよ！
- There's no way I would understand!
There is one thing to be careful of because 「わけない」 can also mean that something is very easy
(lit: requires no explanation). You can easily tell when this meaning is intended however, because
it is used in the same manner as an adjective.
(１) ここの試験に合格するのはわけない。- It's easy to pass the tests here.
Finally, although not as common, 「わけ」 can also be used as a formal expression for saying thatsomething must or must not be done at all costs. This is simply a stronger and more formal version
of 「〜てはいけない」. This grammar is created by simply attaching 「わけにはいかない」. The 「は」is the topic particle and is pronounced 「わ」 . The reason 「いけない」 changes to 「いかない」
is probably related to intransitive and transitive verbs but I don't want to get too caught up in thelogistics of it. Just take note that it's 「いかない」 in this case and not 「いけない」.
(１) 今度は負けるわけにはいかない。
- This time, I must not lose at all costs.
(２) ここまできて、あきらめるわけにはいかない。
- After coming this far, I must not give up.

5.11.3Making hypotheses with 「とする」

While this next grammar doesn't necessary have anything to do with the previous grammar, I thought
it would ﬁt nicely together. In a previous lesson, we learn how to combine the volitional form with「とする」 to indicate an attempt to perform an action. We will now learn several other ways 「とする」 can be used. It may help to keep in mind that 「とする」 is really just a combination of thequotation particle 「と」 and the verb 「する」 meaning "to do". Let's say you have a sentence:[verb] とする. This means literally that you are doing like "[verb]" (in quotes). As you can see, whenused with the volitional, it becomes: "Doing like making motion to do [verb]". In other words, youare acting as if to make a motion to do [verb]. As we have already seen, this translates to "attempt
to do [verb]". Let's see what happens when we use it on plain verbs.

Examples(１) 明⽇に⾏くとする。
- Assume we go tomorrow.
In (１), the example is considering what would happen supposing that they should decide to go
tomorrow. You can see that the literal translation still makes sense, "Do like we go tomorrow." butin this situation, we are making a hypothesis unlike the grammar we have gone over before withthe volitional form of the verb. Since we are considering a hypothesis, it is reasonable that theconditional will be very handy here and indeed, you will often see sentences like the following:(２) 今から⾏くとしたら、９時に着くと思います。
- If we suppose that we go from now, I think we will arrive at 9:00.

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5.12. EXPRESSING TIME-SPECIFIC ACTIONS

As you can see, the verb 「する」 has been conjugated to the 「たら」 conditional form to consider
what would happen if you assume a certain case. You can also change 「する」 to the te-form (して) and use it as a sequence of actions like so:(３) 観客として参加させてもらった。
- Received favor of allowing to participate as spectator.
(４) 被害者としては、⾮常に幸いだった。
- As a victim, was extremely fortunate.
(５) 朝ご飯を⾷べたとしても、もう昼だからお腹が空いたでしょう。
- Even assuming that you ate breakfast, because it's already noon, you're probably hungry, right?
The same idea applies here as well. In (３), you are doing like a "spectator" and doing like a "victim"in (４) and ﬁnally, doing like you ate breakfast in (５). So you can see why the same grammar
applies for all these types of sentences because they all mean the same thing in Japanese (minus
the use of additional particles and various conjugations of 「する」).

5.12

Expressing time-speciﬁc actions （ばかり、 とたんに、 ながら、まくる）In this lesson, we will go over various ways to express actions that take place in a certain time-frame.
In particular, we will learn how to say: 1) an action has just been completed, 2) an action is taken
immediately after another action took place, 3) an action occurs while another action is ongoing,
and 4) one continuously repeats an action.

5.12.1

Expressing an action that was just completed using 「〜ばかり」

This is a very useful grammar that is used to indicate that one has just ﬁnished doing something.
For instance, the ﬁrst time I really wished I knew how to say something like this was when I wanted
to politely decline an invitation to eat because I had just eaten. To do this, take the past tense ofverb that you want to indicate as just being completed and add 「ばかり」. This is used with only
the past tense of verbs and is not to be confused with the 「ばかり」 used with nouns to express
amounts.
Just like the other type of 「ばかり」 we have covered before, in slang, you can hear people use「ばっか」 instead of 「ばかり」.
.Using 「ばかり」for actions just completed• To indicate that an action has ended just recently, take the past tense of the verb and add「ばかり」.
例) ⾷べる →⾷べた →⾷べたばかり.

• For casual speech, you can abbreviate 「ばかり」 to just 「ばっか」.
例) ⾷べたばかり → ⾷べたばっか
You can treat the result as you would with any noun.
Positive
Negative
⾷べたばかり (だ) Just ate ⾷べたばかりじゃない Didn't just eat

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Examples(１) すみません、今⾷べたばかりなので、お腹がいっぱいです。
- Sorry, but I'm full having just eaten.
(２)
10 キロを⾛ったばかりで、凄く疲れた。
- I just ran 10 kilometers and am really tired.
(３) 今、家に帰ったばかりです。
- I got back home just now.
Here are some examples of the abbreviated version.
(１) 昼ご飯を⾷べたばっかなのに、もうお腹が空いた。
- Despite the fact that I just ate lunch, I'm hungry already.
(２) まさか、今起きたばっかなの？
- No way, did you wake up just now?

5.12.2Using 「とたん」 to express something that occurred immediately
after an action

Kind of as a supplement to 「ばかり」, we will cover one way to say something happened as soon
as something else occurs. To use this grammar, add 「とたん」 to the past tense of the ﬁrst actionthat happened. It is also common to add the 「に」 target particle to indicate that speciﬁc point intime.
.Using 「とたん」to indicate one thing happened right after another
Change the verb that happened ﬁrst to the past tense
and attach 「とたん」 or 「とたんに」.
.

例)

開ける →開けた →開けたとたん (に) .

例)

取る →取った →取ったとたん (に)※ Note: You can only use this grammar for things that happen outside your control.

Examples(１) 窓を開けたとたんに、猫が跳んでいった。
- As soon as I opened window, cat jumped out.
For many more examples, check these examples sentences (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/cgi-bin/
cgiwrap/jwb/wwwjdic?1Q%C5%D3%C3%BC_1_) from our old trusty WWWJDIC.
An important thing to realize is that you can only use this grammar for things that occur immediately
after something else and not for an action that you, yourself carry out. For instance, compare thefollowing two sentences.
(誤)

映画を観たとたんに、トイレに⾏きました。

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5.12. EXPRESSING TIME-SPECIFIC ACTIONS- (You carried out the action of going to the bathroom so this is not correct.)(正) 映画を観たとたんに、眠くなりました。
- (Since becoming sleepy is something that happened outside your control, this sentence is ok.)

5.12.3Using 「ながら」 for two concurrent actions

You can use 「ながら」 to express that one action is taking place in conjunction with another action.
To use 「ながら」 , you must change the ﬁrst verb to the stem and append 「ながら」 . Thoughprobably rare, you can also attach 「ながら」 to the negative of the verb for express the negative.
This grammar has no tense since it is determined by the second verb.
.Using 「ながら」for concurrent actions
Change the ﬁrst verb to the stem and append 「ながら」.

例)

⾛る →⾛り →⾛りながら例)

⾛る →⾛らない →⾛らないながら.
For the negative, simply attach 「ながら」 to the negative tense

Examples(１) テレビを観ながら、宿題をする。
- Do homework while watching TV.
(２) ⾳楽を聴きながら、学校へ歩くのが好き。
- Like to walk to school while listening to music.
(３) 相⼿に何も⾔わないながら、⾃分の気持ちをわかってほしいのは単なるわがままだと思わない？
- Don't you think that wanting the other person to understand one's feelings while not saying anything is just simply selﬁshness?
Notice that the sentence ends with the main verb just like it always does. This means that the main
action of the sentence is the verb that ends the clause. The 「ながら」 simply describes anotheraction that is also taking place. For example, if we switched the verbs in (１) to say, 「宿題をしながら、 テレビを観る。」 , this changes the sentence to say, "Watch TV while doing homework." Inother words, the main action, in this case, becomes watching TV and the action of doing homework
is describing an action that is taking place at the same time.
The tense is controlled by the main verb so the verb used with 「ながら」 cannot have a tense.
(１)

ポップコーンを⾷べながら、映画を観る。- Watch movie while eating popcorn.

(２)

ポップコーンを⾷べながら、映画を観た。- Watched movie while eating popcorn.

(３)

⼝笛をしながら、⼿紙を書いていた。- Was writing letter while whistling.

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5.12.4

CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

Using 「ながら」 with state of being to mean "while"

A more advanced use of 「ながら」 is to use it with the implied state of being. In other words,
you can use it with nouns or adjectives to talk about what something is while something else. The
implied state of being means that you must not use the declarative 「だ」, you just attach 「ながら」 to the noun or adjective. For example, a common way this grammar is used is to say, "While
it's unfortunate, something something..." In Japanese, this would become 「残念ながら・・・」
You can also attach the inclusive 「も」 particle to 「ながら」 to get 「ながらも」. This changes themeaning from "while" to "even while".
.Using 「ながら」with state of being to mean "while" or 「ながらも」to mean "even while"
To say [X] is something while something else, attach 「ながら」 to [X].

例)

残念→残念ながら例)

貧乏→貧乏ながらも.
To say [X] is something even while something else, attach 「ながらも」 to [X]Examples(１) 仕事がいっぱい⼊って、残念ながら、今⽇は⾏けなくなりました。
- While it's unfortunate, a lot of work came in and it became so that I can't go today.
(２) 貧乏ながらも、⾼級なバッグを買っちゃったよ。
- Even while I'm poor, I ended up buying a high quality bag.
(３) 彼は、初⼼者ながらも、実⼒はプロと同じだ。
- Even while he is a beginner, his actual skills are the same as a pro.

5.12.5To repeat something with reckless abandon using 「まくる」

The WWWJDIC very succinctly deﬁnes the deﬁnition of this verb as a "verb suﬃx to indicate recklessabandon to the activity". Unfortunately, it doesn't go on to tell you exactly how it's actually used.
Actually, there's not much to explain. You take the stem of the verb and simply attach 「まくる」.
However, since this is a continuing activity, it is an enduring state unless you're going to do it in the
future. This is a very casual expression.

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5.13. LEAVING SOMETHING THE WAY IT IS.Using 「まくる」for frequent actions
Change the ﬁrst verb to the stem and append 「まくっている」.
例).

やる →やり →やりまくっている

You can use all the normal conjugations. you would expect with any other verb.
Positive
Negative
Non-Past やりまくっている
Doing all the time やりまくっていない Don't do all the time
Past
やりまくっていた Did all the time やりまくっていなかった Didn't do all the time

Examples(１) ゲームにはまっちゃって、最近パソコンを使いまくっているよ。
- Having gotten hooked by games, I do nothing but use the computer lately.
(２) アメリカにいた時はコーラを飲みまくっていた。
- When I was in the US, I drank coke like all the time.

5.13

Leaving something the way it is（まま、っぱなし）

Up until now, we've mostly been talking about things that have happened or changed in the courseof events. We will now learn some simple grammar to express a lack of change.

5.13.1

Using 「まま」 to express a lack of change「まま」 , not to be confused with the childish expression for "mother" (ママ), is a grammaticalphrase to express a lack of change in something. Grammatically, it is used just like a regular noun.
You'll most likely hear this grammar at a convenience store when you buy a very small item. Since
store clerks use super polite expressions and at lightening fast speeds, learning this one expression
will help you out a bit in advance. (Of course, upon showing a lack of comprehension, the person
usually repeats the exact same phrase... at the exact same speed.)

Examples(１) このままで宜しいですか？
- Is it ok just like this?
In other words, the clerk wants to know if you'll take it just like that or whether you want it in asmall bag. 「宜しい」, in case I haven't gone over it yet, is simply a very polite version of 「いい」.
Notice that 「まま」 grammatically works just like a regular noun which means, as usual, that you
can modify it with verb phrases or adjectives.
(２) 半分しか⾷べてないままで捨てちゃダメ！
- You can't throw it out leaving it in that half-eaten condition!

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CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS

Ok, the translation is very loose, but the idea is that it's in an unchanged state of being half-eaten
and you can't just throw that out.
Here's a good example I found googling around.
Hint: The 「いさせる」 is the causative form of 「いる」 meaning "let/make me exist".
(３) 今⽇だけは悲しいままでいさせてほしい。
- For only today, I want you to let me stay in this sad condition.
Finally, just in case, here's an example of direct noun modiﬁcation.
(４) その格好のままでクラブに⼊れないよ。
- You can't get in the club in that getup (without changing it).

5.13.2Using 「っぱなし」 to leave something the way it is

The verb 「放す」 meaning "to set loose", can be used in various ways in regards to leaving something
the way it is. For instance, a variation 「放っとく」 is used when you want to say "Leave me alone".
For instance, you might use the command form of a request (くれる) and say, 「ほっといてくれ！」(Leave me alone!). Yet another variant 「ほったらかす」 means "to neglect".
The grammar I would like to discuss here is the 「っぱなし」 suﬃx variant. You can attach thissuﬃx to the stem of any verb to describe the act of doing something and leaving it that way withoutchanging it. You can treat the combination like a regular noun.
As usual, you can click the [EX] link after looking up the word at the WWWJDIC (http://www.csse.
monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwjdic.html) to see examples. In fact, here's a direct link to examples of thisgrammar (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/jwb/wwwjdic?1Q%A4%C3%A4%D1%A4%CA%A4%
B7_1_). As you can see by the examples, this suﬃx carries a nuance that the thing left alone is due
to oversight or neglect. Here are the (simple) conjugation rules for this grammar.
.Using 「っぱなし」to complete an action and leave it that way.

Take the stem of the verb and attach 「っぱなし」.
.
例) 開ける →開けっぱなし
例)

書く →書き →書きっぱなし

Examples(１) テレビを付けっぱなしにしなければ眠れない⼈は、結構いる。
- There exists a fair number of people who cannot sleep unless they turn on the TV and leave it thatway.
(２) 窓が開けっ放しだったので、蚊がいっぱい⼊った。
- The window was left wide open so a lot of mosquitoes got in.

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Chapter 6

Advanced Topics
Whew! We've come a long way from learning the basic phonetic alphabet to covering almost all
the grammar you're going to need for daily conversations. But wait, we're not ﬁnished yet! In fact,
things are going to get even more challenging and interesting because, especially toward the latterpart of this section, we are going to learn grammar that only might come in handy. In my experience,
the most useful things are easiest to learn as they come up again and again. However, in order tocompletely master a language, we also must work hard to conquer the bigger area of things that
don't come up very often and yet every native Japanese speaker instinctively understands. Believe
it or not, even the more obscure grammar will come up eventually leaving you wondering what it's
supposed to mean. That's why I bothered to learn them at least.

6.1

Formal Expressions（である、ではない）

6.1.1

What do you mean by formal expressions?

So far we have learned casual, polite, and honoriﬁc/humble types of languages. So what do I mean
by formal expressions? I think we are all aware of the type of language I am talking about. We hear
it in speeches, read it in reports, and see it on documentaries. While discussing good writing style
is beyond the scope of this guide, we will go over some of the grammar that you will commonlyﬁnd in this type of language. Which is not to say that it won't appear in regular everyday speech.
(Because it does.)

6.1.2

Using 「である」 to state that something is so in an authoritative tone

We have already learned how to speak with your friends in casual speech, your superiors in politespeech, and your customers in honoriﬁc / humble speech. We've learned 「だ」、「です」、and 「でございます」 to express a state of being for these diﬀerent levels of politeness. There is one more
type of state of being that is primarily used to state facts in a neutral, oﬃcial sounding manner 「である」. Just like the others, you tack 「である」 on to the adjective or noun that represents thestate.

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Examples(１) 吾輩は猫である- I am a cat. (This is the title of a famous novel by 夏⽬漱⽯)
Since I'm too lazy to look up facts, let's trot on over to the Japanese version of Wikipedia (http://ja.wikipedia.org/) and look at some random articles by clicking on 「おまかせ表⽰」.
(２)
混合物 (こんごうぶつ, mixture) とは、 2 種類以上の純物質が混じりあっている物質である。
(Wikipedia - 混合物 (http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B7%E5%90%88%E7%89%A9), July 2004)－ An amalgam is a mixture of two or more pure substances.
To give you an idea of how changing the 「である」 changes the tone, I've included some fakecontent around that sentence.
1. 混合物は何？
混合物は、2 種類以上の純物質が混じりあっている物質だ。
2. 混合物は何ですか？
混合物は、2 種類以上の純物質が混じりあっている物質です。
3. 混合物は何でしょうか。
混合物は、2 種類以上の純物質が混じりあっている物質でございます。
4. 混合物とは？
混合物は、2 種類以上の純物質が混じりあっている物質である。
Newspaper articles are diﬀerent in that the main objective is to convey current events as succinctly
and quickly as possible. For this reason, 「である」 is not normally used in newspaper articles
favoring 「だ」 or nothing at all.
Though, in general, since newspaper articles detail events thattook place or quotations, almost all sentences end in plain dictionary-form verbs anyway.
(１) 国⼟交通省は２年後に利⽤率を７０％まで引き上げる考えで、買い替え時に利⽤する気になるかどうかがカギになりそうだ。朝⽇新聞, 2004/8/16)－ With the idea of raising percentage of usage to 70% in two years, it seems likely that the key will
become whether the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport will employ [it] when it buys
replacements.

6.1.3

Negative of 「である」

Because the negative of 「ある」 is 「ない」, you might expect the opposite of 「である」 to be 「でない」. However, for some reason I'm not aware of, you need to insert the topic particle before 「ない」 to get 「ではない」.

Example(１) それは不公平ではないでしょうか。
- Wouldn't you consider that to be unfair?
(２) ⾔語は簡単にマスターできることではない。
- Language is not something that can be mastered easily.

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6.1. FORMAL EXPRESSIONS.Using 「である」to sound oﬃcial
Attach 「である」 to the verb or adjective that the state of being applies to.
例)

学⽣→学⽣である

For the negative, attach 「ではない」 to the verb or adjective that the state of being applies
to.
.

例)

学⽣→学⽣ではない.
For the past tense state of being, apply the regular past tenses of 「ある」Complete conjugation chart for 「である」
Positive
Negative
学⽣である
is student 学⽣ではないis not student
学⽣であった was student 学⽣ではなかったwas not student

6.1.4

Sequential subordinate clauses in formal language

In the Compound Sentence lesson, we learned how to use the te-form of verbs to express multiples
sequential actions in one sentence. This practice, however, is used only in regular everyday speech.
Formal speeches, narration, and written publications employ the verb stem instead of the te-form todescribe sequential actions. Particularly, newspaper articles, in the interest of brevity, always preferverb stems to the te-form.

Examples(１) 花⽕ (はなび) は、⽕薬と⾦属の粉末を混ぜたものに⽕を付け、燃焼時の⽕花を楽しむためのもの。
(Wikipedia - 花⽕ (http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8A%B1%E7%81%AB), August 2004)－ Fireworks are for the enjoyment of sparks created from combustion created by lighting up a
mixture of gunpowder and metal powder.
(２) 企業内の顧客データを利⽤し、彼の⾏⽅を調べることが出来た。
- Was able to investigate his whereabouts using the company's internal customer data.
For the 〜ている forms, the stem becomes 「〜てい」 but because that doesn't ﬁt very well into the
middle of a sentence, it is common to use the humble form of 「いる」 which you will remember is「おる」. This is simply so you can employ 「おり」 to connect subordinate clauses instead of just「い」. It has nothing to do with the humble aspect of 「おる」
(３) 封筒には写真が数枚⼊っており、⼿紙が添えられていた。
- Several pictures were inside the envelope, and a letter was attached.
(４) このファイルにはパスワードが設定されており、開く際にはそれを⼊⼒する必要がある。
- A password has been set on this ﬁle, and it needs to entered when opening.

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6.2

CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS

Things that should be a certain way （はず、べき、べく、べからず）In this lesson, we'll learn how to express the way things are supposed depending on what we meanby "supposed". While the ﬁrst two grammar points 「はず」 and 「べき」 come up often and arequite useful, you'll rarely ever encounter 「べく」 or 「べからず」. You can safely skip those lessons
unless you are studying for the １級⽇本語検定.

6.2.1

Using 「はず」 to describe an expectation

The ﬁrst grammar we will learn is 「はず」 , which is used to express something that was or is
supposed to be. You can treat 「はず」 just like a regular noun as it is usually attached to theadjective or verb that is supposed to be or supposed to happen.
The only thing to be careful about here is expressing an expectation of something not happening.
To do this, you must use the negative existence verb 「ない」 to say that such an expectation does
not exist. This might be in the form of 「〜はずがない」 or 「〜はずはない」 depending on which
particle you want to use. The negative conjugation 「はずじゃない」 is really only used when you
want to conﬁrm in a positive sense such as 「〜はずじゃないか？」.
.Using 「はず」to describe an expectation
Use 「はず」 just like a regular noun to modify the expected thing.

例)

受験⽇のはず (noun)

例)

可能なはず (na-adjective)

例)

おいしいはず (i-adjective)

例)

帰るはず (verb).

For the case where you expect the negative, use the 「ない」 verb for nonexistence
例)

帰るはず →帰るはずがない

Examples(１) 彼は漫画マニアだから、これらをもう全部読んだはずだよ。
- He's has a mania for comic book so I expect he read all these already.
(２) この料理はおいしいはずだったが、焦げちゃって、まずくなった。
- This dish was expected to be tasty but it burned and became distasteful.
(３) ⾊々予定してあるから、今年は楽しいクリスマスのはず。
- Because various things have been planned out, I expect a fun Christmas this year.
(４) そう簡単に直せるはずがないよ。
- It's not supposed to be that easy to ﬁx.
(５) 打合せは毎週２時から始まるはずじゃないですか？
- This meeting is supposed to start every week at 2 o'clock, isn't it?

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6.2. THINGS THAT SHOULD BE A CERTAIN WAY

Here are more examples (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/jwb/wwwjdic?1Q%C8%A6_1_) from the WWWJDIC.
You may also want to check out the jeKai entry (http://www.jekai.org/entries/aa/00/nn/aa00nn81.
htm).

6.2.2

Using 「べき」 to describe actions one should do「べき」 is a verb suﬃx used to describe something that is supposed to be done. This suﬃx is
commonly deﬁned as "should", however, one must realize that it cannot be used to make suggestions
like the sentence, "You should go to the doctor." If you use 「べき」, it sounds more like, "You aresupposed to go to the doctor." 「べき」 has a much stronger tone and makes you sound like a knowit-all telling people what to do. For making suggestions, it is customary to use the comparison 「⽅がいい」 grammar instead. For this reason, this grammar is almost never used to directly tell someone
what to do. It is usually used in reference to oneself where you can be as bossy as you want or ina neutral context where circumstances dictate what is proper and what is not. One such example
would be a sentence like, "We are supposed to raise our kids properly with a good education."
Unlike the 「はず」 grammar, there is no expectation that something is going to happen. Rather,
this grammar describes what one should do in a given circumstance. In Japanese, you might deﬁne
it as meaning 「絶対ではないが、強く推奨されている」.
There is very little of grammatical interest. 「べき」 works just like a regular noun and so you canconjugated it as 「べきじゃない」、 「べきだった」, and so on. The only thing to note here is thatwhen you're using it with 「する」 , the verb meaning "to do", you can optionally drop the 「る」from 「するべき」 to produce 「すべき」. You can do this with this verb only and it does not apply
for any other verbs even if the verb is written as 「する」 such as 「擦る」, the verb meaning "torub".
.Using 「べき」for actions that should be done
Attach 「べき」 to the action that should be done.

例)

⾏う→⾏うべき例)

する→するべき.

For the generic "to do " verb 「する」 only, you can remove the 「る」例)

するべき→すべき

Examples(１) 何かを買う前に本当に必要かどうかをよく考えるべきだ。
- Before buying something, one should think well on whether it's really necessary or not.
(２) 例え国のためであっても、国⺠を騙すべきではないと思う。
- Even if it is, for example, for the country, I don't think the country's citizens should be deceived.
(３) 預⾦者が⼤⼿銀⾏を相⼿取って訴訟を起こすケースも出ており、⾦融庁は被害者の救済を優先させて、⾦融機関に犯罪防⽌対策の強化を促すべきだと判断。(朝⽇新聞)- With cases coming out of depositors suing large banks, the Financial Services Agency decided itshould prioritize relief for victims and urge banks to strengthen measures for crime prevention.

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6.2.3

CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS

Using 「べく」 to describe what one tries to do

Grammatically, 「べく」 is really a conjunctive form (連⽤形) of 「べき」, similar to what the te-form
does to connect another phrase. However, what needs mentioning here is that by changing it into a
conjunctive and adding a predicate, the meaning of 「べく」 changes from the ordinary meaning of「べき」. While 「べき」 describes a strong suggestion, changing it to 「べく」 allows you to describe
what one did in order to carry out that suggestion. Take a look that the following examples to see
how the meaning changes.
(１) 早く帰るべき。
Should go home early.
(２) 早く帰るべく、準備をし始めた。
In trying to go home early, started the preparations.
As we can see in this example, adding the 「準備をし始めた」 tells us what the subject did in orderto carry out the action he/she was supposed to do.In this way we can deﬁne 「べく」 as meaning,"in order to" or "in an eﬀort to". Similarly, 「べく」 might mean the Japanese equivalent of 「しようと思って」 or 「できるように」. This is a very seldom-used old-fashioned expression and is merely
presented here to completely cover all aspects of 「べき」.
.Using 「べく」for actions that are attempted to be done
Attach 「べく」 to the action that is attempted to be done.

例)

⾏う→⾏うべく例)

する→するべく.

Same as 「べき」, you can remove the 「る」 for the generic "to do " verb 「する」 only
例)するべく→すべく

Examples(１) 試験に合格すべく、皆⼀⽣懸命に勉強している。
Everybody is studying very hard in an eﬀort to pass the exam.
(２) 今後もお客様との対話の窓⼝として、より充実していくべく努⼒してまいります
We are working from here in an eﬀort to provide a enriched window for customer interaction.

6.2.4

Using 「べからず」 to describe things one must not do

Moving on to yet another from of 「べき」 is 「べからず」. This is undoubtedly related to the 「ず」negative ending we learned in a previous section. However, it seems to be a conjugation of an old
未然形 of 「べから」. I have no idea what that means and you don't have to either. The only thing
we need to take away from this is that 「べからず」 expresses the opposite meaning of 「べき」 asan action that one must not do. I suppose the short abrupt ending of the 「ず」 form makes thismore useful for laying out rules. In fact, searching around on google comes up with a bunch of 「べし･ベからず」 or "do's and don'ts". (べし is an even older form of べき, which I doubt you'll everneed.)

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6.3. EXPRESSING THE MINIMUM EXPECTATION.Using 「べからず」for actions that must not be done
Attach 「べからず」 to the action that must not be done.

例)

⾏う→⾏うべからず

例)

する→するべからず.

Same as 「べき」, you can remove the 「る」 for the generic "to do " verb 「する」 only
例)

するべからず→すべからず

Examples(１) ゴミ捨てるべからず。
-You must not throw away trash.
(２) 安全措置を忘れるべからず。
-You must not forget the safety measures.

6.3

Expressing the minimum expectation （でさえ、ですら、おろか）In this section, we'll learn various ways to express the minimum expectation. This grammar is not
used as often as you might think as there are many situations where a simpler expression would
sound more natural, but you should still become familiar with it.

6.3.1

Using 「(で) さえ」 to describe the minimum requirement

In English, we might say, "not even close" to show that not even the minimum expectation has been
met. In Japanese, we can express this by attaching 「さえ」 to the object or verb that miserably
failed to reach what one would consider as a given. Let's see some examples of this with nounsﬁrst. You can also use the same grammar in a positive sentence to show that that is all you need to
produce a desired eﬀect.

Examples(１) 宿題が多すぎて、トイレに⾏く時間さえなかった。
- There was so much homework, I didn't even have time to go to the bathroom.
(２) お⾦さえあれば、何でも出来るよ。
- The least you need is money and you can do anything.
(３) お弁当を買うお⾦さえなかった。
- I didn't even have money to buy lunch.

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For nouns only, you can add 「で」 and use 「でさえ」 instead of just 「さえ」 . There are nogrammatical diﬀerences but it does sound a bit more emphatic.
(４) 私でさえ出来れば、あんたには楽ちんでしょう。
- If even I can do it, it should be a breeze for you.
You can also attach 「さえ」 to the stem of verbs to express a minimum action for a result. Thisis usually followed up immediately by 「する」 to show that the minimum action was done (or notdone in the case of negative).
(５) ビタミンを⾷べさえすれば、健康が保証されますよ。
- If you just eat vitamins, your health will be guaranteed.
(６) ⾃分の過ちを認めさえしなければ、問題は解決しないよ。
- The problem won't be solved if you don't even recognize your own mistake, you know.
.Using 「(で) さえ」to describe the minimum requirement
For nouns, attach 「さえ」 or 「でさえ」 to the minimum requirement

.

6.3.2

例)

私さえ - even me

例)

⼦供でさえ - even children

例)

⾷べる →⾷べさえ例)

⾏く →⾏き →⾏きさえ.
For verbs, change the verb to the stem and attach 「さえ」「(で) すら」 - Same as 「(で) さえ」 but diﬀerent?

「(で) すら」 is a variation of 「(で) さえ」 that means essentially the same thing and is used in theexact same way. However, it is more obscure and is usually ignored in favor of 「(で) さえ」. The
main reason we are covering it here is because since it's the same as 「(で) さえ」, it's a cinch to go
over. Plus, it's covered in the Japanese Language Proﬁciency Test (JLPT) level 1 (if you're thinkingof taking that).

Examples(１) この天才の私ですらわからなかった。
- Even a genius such as myself couldn't solve it.
(２) 私は緊張しすぎて、ちらっと⾒ることすら出来ませんでした。
- I was so nervous that I couldn't even take a quick peek.
(３) 「⼈」の漢字すら知らない⽣徒は、いないでしょ！
- There are no students that don't even know the 「⼈」 kanji!

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6.4. SHOWING SIGNS OF SOMETHING.「(で) すら」is used in exactly the same way as 「(で) さえ」and means the same thing to bootFor nouns, attach 「すら」 or 「ですら」 to the minimum requirement.

例)

私すら - Even me

例)

⼦供ですら - Even children

For verbs, change the verb to the stem and. attach 「さえ」
例)

⾷べる →⾷べすら例)

⾏く →⾏き →⾏きすらHowever, it is more common to attach the generic noun 「こと」 to the verb and just treat
the whole thing as a regular noun. (ie ⾷べることすら and ⾏くことすら)6.3.3「おろか」 - It's not even worth considering

I suspect this grammar comes from the adjective 「愚か」 which means to be foolish or stupid.
However, in this case, you're not making fun of something, rather by using 「おろか」 , you can
indicate that something is so ridiculous that it's not even worth considering. In English, we might
say something like, "Are you kidding? I can't touch my knees much less do a full split!" In thisexample, the full split is so beyond the person's abilities that it would be foolish to even consider it.

Examples(１) 漢字はおろか、ひらがなさえ読めないよ！
- Forget about kanji, I can't even read hiragana!
(２) 結婚はおろか、2ヶ⽉付き合って、結局別れてしまった。
- We eventually broke up after going out two months much less get married.
(３) ⼤学はおろか、⾼校すら卒業しなかった。
- I didn't even graduate from high school much less college.

6.4

Showing signs of something （〜がる、ばかり、〜めく）

In this lesson, we'll learn various expressions involving how to describe people who are expressing
themselves without words. For example, we'll learn how to say expressions in Japanese such as"They acted as if they were saying goodbye," "He acted disgusted," and "She acts like she wants to
go."

6.4.1

Showing outward signs of an emotion using 「〜がる」

The 「〜がる」 grammar is used when you want to make an observation about how someone is
feeling. This is simply an observation based on some type of sign(s). Therefore, you would not use
it for your own emotions since guessing about your own emotions is not necessary. This grammar
can only be used with adjectives so you can use this grammar to say, "He is acting scared," but171

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CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS

you cannot say "He acted surprised," because "to be surprised" is a verb in Japanese and not an
adjective. This grammar is also commonly used with a certain set of adjectives related to emotions
such as: 「嫌」、「怖い」、「嬉しい」、or 「恥ずかしい」.
.Using 「〜がる」for observing the emotions or feelings of others
For i-adjectives: First remove the trailing 「い」 from the i-adjective and then attach
「がる」
例)
.

怖い →怖がるFor na-adjectives: Just attach 「がる」 to the end of the na-adjective.
例) 重宝→重宝がる
All adjectives that are conjugated with 「〜がる」 become an u-verb
Positive
Negative
Non-Past
怖がる
act scared 怖がらない not act scared
Past
怖がった acted scared 怖がらなかった didn't act scared

Examples(１) 早くきてよ！何を恥ずかしがっているの？
- Hurry up and come here. What are you acting all embarrassed for?
(２) 彼⼥は朝早く起こされるのを嫌がるタイプです。
- My girlfriend is the type to show dislike towards getting woken up early in the morning.
(３) うちの⼦供はプールに⼊るのを理由もなく怖がる。
- Our child acts afraid about entering a pool without any reason.
This grammar is also used to observe very frankly on what you think someone other than yourself
wants. This involves the adjective 「欲しい」 for things one wants or the 「〜たい」 conjugation
for actions one wants to do, which is essentially a verb conjugated to an i-adjective. This type ofgrammar is more suited for things like narration in a story and is rarely used in this fashion for normal
conversations because of its impersonal style of observation. For casual conversations, it is morecommon to use 「でしょう」 such as in, 「カレーを⾷べたいでしょう。」. For polite conversations, it
is normal to not make any assumptions at all or to use the 「よね」 sentence ending such as in 「カレーを⾷べたいですか。」 or 「カレーを⾷べたいですよね。」

Examples(１) 家に帰ったら、すぐパソコンを使いたがる。
- [He] soon acts like wanting to use computer as soon as [he] gets home.
(２) みんなイタリアに⾏きたがってるんだけど、私の予算で⾏けるかどうかはとても怪しい。
- Everybody is acting like they want to go to Italy but it's suspicious whether I can go or not goingby my budget.
(３) 妻はルイヴィトンのバッグを欲しがっているんだけど、そんなもん、買えるわけないでしょう！
- My wife was showing signs of wanting a Louis Vuitton bag but there's no way I can buy something
like that!

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6.4. SHOWING SIGNS OF SOMETHING「〜がる」 is also used with 「屋」 to indicate a type of person that often feels a certain way suchas 「恥ずかしがり屋」 (one who easily feels or acts embarrassed)、 「寒がり屋」 (one who easily
feels cold)、or 「暑がり屋」 (one who easily feels hot).
(３) 私は寒がり屋だから、ミネソタで暮らすのは⾟かった。
- I'm the type who easily gets cold and so living in Minnesota was painful.

6.4.2

Using 「ばかり」 to act as if one might do something

We just learned how to observe the emotions and feelings of other by using 「〜がる」 with adjectives. But what about verbs? Indeed, there is a separate grammar used to express the fact thatsomeone else looks like they are about to do something but actually does not. Similar to the 「〜がる」 grammar, this is usually not used in normal everyday conversations. I have seen it several
times in books and novels but have yet to hear this grammar in a conversation.
For the regular non-past, non-negative verb, you must ﬁrst conjugate the verb to the negative
ending with 「ん」 , which was covered here. Then, you just attach 「ばかり」 to the end of theverb. For all other conjugations, nothing else is necessary except to just add 「ばかり」 to the verb.
The most common verb used with this grammar is 「⾔う」 . It is also usually used with the 「に」target particle attached to the end of 「ばかり」.
This grammar is completely diﬀerent from the 「ばかり」 used to express amounts and the 「ばかり」 used to express the proximity of an action.
.Using 「ばかり」to indicate that one seems to want to do something
For present, non-negative tense: Conjugate the verb to the 「ん」 negative form andattach 「ばかり」
例).

⾔う →⾔わない →⾔わん →⾔わんばかり

For all other tenses: Simply attach 「ばかり」 to the end of the verb.
例) ⾔わなかった→⾔わなかったばかり

Non-Past
Past

Positive
⾔わんばかり⾔ったばかりSummary of basic conjugations
Negative
as if to say ⾔わないばかり as if [she] doesn't say
as if [she] said ⾔わなかったばかり as if [she] didn't say

Examples(１) ボールは爆発せんばかりに、膨らんでいた。
- The ball was expanding as if it was going to explode.
(２) 「あんたと関係ない」と⾔わんばかりに彼⼥は彼を無視していた。
- She ignored him as if to say, "You have nothing to do with this."(３) 昨⽇のケンカで何も⾔わなかったばかりに、平気な顔をしている。
- Has a calm face as if [he] didn't say anything during the ﬁght yesterday.

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6.4.3

CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS

Using 「めく」 to indicate an atmosphere of a state

By now, you're probably thinking, "Ok, we've done adjectives and verbs. What about nouns?" As amatter of fact, there is a similar grammar that is used usually for nouns and na-adjectives. It is used
to indicate that something is showing the signs of a certain state. Unlike the 「〜がる」 grammar,
there is no action that indicates anything; merely the atmosphere gives oﬀ the impression of thestate. Just like the previous grammar we learned in this section, this grammar has a list of commonlyused nouns such as 「謎」、「秘密」、or 「⽪⾁」. This grammar is used by simply attaching 「めく」 to the noun or na-adjective. The result then becomes a regular u-verb.
.Using 「めく」to indicate that one seems to want to do something
Simply attach 「めく」 to the noun or na-adjective. The result then becomes a regularu-verb.
例)

謎→謎めく

.
Non-Past
Past

Positive
謎めく
謎めいた

Summary of basic conjugations.
Negativepuzzling atmosphere* 謎めかない not puzzling atmospherepuzzled atmosphere* 謎めかなかった not puzzled atmosphere* I suppose the negative tenses are theoretically possible but probably not practically.
The most common tense is by the far the past tense.

Examples(１) 紅葉が始まり、すっかり秋めいた空気になってきた。
- With the leaves starting to change color, the air came to become quite autumn like.
(２) そんな謎めいた顔をされても、うまく説明できないよ。
- Even having that kind of puzzled look done to me, I can't explain it very well, you know.
(３) いつも⽪⾁めいた⾔い⽅をしたら、みんなを嫌がらせるよ。
- You'll make everyone dislike you if you keep speaking with that ironic tone, you know.
For a whole slew of additional real world examples, check out the jeKai entry (http://www.jekai.
org/entries/aa/00/np/aa00np21.htm). It states that the grammar can be used for adverbs and otherparts of speech but none of the numerous examples show this and even assuming it's possible, it's
probably not practiced in reality.

6.5

Formal expressions of non-feasibility
むを得ない、〜かねる）（〜ざるを得ない、やWe learned how to express feasibility in the section on the potential form quite a while ways back.
In this section, we'll learn some advanced and specialized ways to express certain types of feasibilityor the lack thereof. Like much of the grammar in the Advanced Section, the grammar covered here
is mostly used for written works and rarely used in regular speech.

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6.5.1

6.5. FORMAL EXPRESSIONS OF NON-FEASIBILITY

Expressing the inability to not do using 「〜ざるを得ない」

This grammar is used when there's something that just can't be helped and must be done. It is thenegative version of the grammar we previously covered for something that has to be done. It uses
the negative of the verb 「得る」 or "obtain", to roughly mean that "one cannot obtain not doing ofan action". This means that you can't not do something even if you wanted to. As a result of theuse of double negatives, this grammar carries a slight suggestion that you really don't want to do it,
but you have to because it can't be helped. Really, the negative connotation is the only diﬀerence
between this grammar and the grammar we covered in this "have to" section. That, and the factthat this grammar is fancier and more advanced.
This grammar uses an archaic negative form of verbs that ends in 「〜ざる」. It is really not usedin modern Japanese with the exception of this grammar and some expressions such as 「意図せざる」. The rules for conjugation are the same as the negative verbs, except this grammar attaches「ざる」 instead. To reiterate, all you have to do is conjugate the verb to the negative form and thenreplace the 「ない」 with 「ざる」. The two exception verbs are 「する」 which becomes 「せざる」and 「くる」 which becomes 「こざる」. Finally, all that's left to be done is to attach 「を得ない」 to
the verb. It is also not uncommon to use hiragana instead of the kanji.
.Using 「〜ざるを得ない」for actions that must be done.

• To say that you can't not do something replace the 「ない」 part of the negative verb with
「ざる」, then attach 「を得ない」 to the end of the verb.
例) ⾷る →⾷べない →⾷べざる →⾷べざるを得ない例) ⾏く →⾏かない →⾏かざる →⾏かざるを得ない.
• The two exception verbs 「する」 and 「くる」 become 「せざる」 and 「こざる」respectively.
例外 1) する →せざる →せざるをえない例外 2) くる →こざる →こざるをえない

Examples(１) このテレビがこれ以上壊れたら、新しいのを買わざるを得ないな。
- If this TV breaks even more, there's no choice but to buy a new one.
(２) ずっと我慢してきたが、この状態だと⻭医者さんに⾏かざるを得ない。
- I tolerated it all this time but in this situation, I can't not go to the dentist.
(３) 上司の話を聞くと、どうしても海外に出張をせざるを得ないようです。
- Hearing the story from the boss, it seems like I can't not go on a business trip overseas no matter
what.

6.5.2

Expressing the inability to stop doing something using 「やむを得ない」

This grammar is very similar to the one we just learned above except that it uses the verb 「⽌む」 to say that one cannot obtain the stopping of something. Remember that we normally can't
just attach the 「を」 direct object particle to verbs, so this is really a set expression. Just like theprevious grammar we learned, it is used to describe something that one is forced to do due to somecircumstances. The diﬀerence here is that this is a complete phrase, which can be used for a generalsituation that doesn't involve any speciﬁc action. In other words, you're not actually forced to do

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CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS

something; rather it describes a situation that cannot be helped. If you have already learned 「仕⽅がない」 or 「しょうがない」, this grammar means pretty much the same thing. The diﬀerence liesin whether you want to say, "Looks like we're stuck" vs "Due to circumstances beyond our control..."Since this is a set expression, there are really no grammar points to discuss. You only need to takethe phrase and use it as you would any regular subordinate clause.

Examples(１) やむを得ない事由により⼿続が遅れた場合、必ずご連絡下さい。
- If the paperwork should be late due to uncontrollable circumstance, please make sure to contactus.
(２) この仕事は厳しいかもしれませんが、最近の不景気では新しい仕事が⾒つからないのでやむを得ない状態です。
- This job may be bad but with the recent economic downturn, it's a situation where nothing can be
done.

6.5.3

Expressing what cannot be done with 「〜かねる」

The meaning and usage of 「かねる」 is covered pretty well in this jeKai entry (http://www.jekai.
org/entries/aa/00/np/aa00np03.htm) with plenty of examples. While much of this is a repetition of
what's written there, 「かねる」 is a ru-verb that is used as a suﬃx to other verbs to express the factthat something is impossible. By impossible, we are not talking so much about physical impossibility,
such as creating matter out of nothing, but more about what cannot be accomplished given certain
conditions.
「かねる」 is more often used in the negative tense as 「かねない」 to indicate that there is apossibility that the verb in question might happen. As the jeKai entry mentions, this is usually inreference to something bad, which you might express in English as, "there is a risk that..." or "there
is a fear that..."One important thing that the jeKai doesn't mention is how you would go about using this grammar.
It's not diﬃcult and you may have already guessed from the example sentences that all you needto do is just attach 「かねる」 or 「かねない」 to the stem of the verb.
.Using 「〜かねる」for things that cannot be done.

• To say that something cannot be done using 「かねる」, change the verb to the stem andattach 「かねる」
例) 決める →決めかねる
例) する →しかねる.
• 「かねる」 is the same as a regular ru-verb so you negate it to 「かねない」 to say thatsomething (bad) might happen.
例) なる →なりかねる →なりかねない例) する →しかねる →しかねない

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6.6. TENDENCIES

Examples(１) この場ではちょっと決めかねますので、また別途会議を設けましょう。
- Since making a decision here is impossible, let's set up a separate meeting again.
(２) このままでは、個⼈情報が漏洩しかねないので、速やかに対応をお願い致します。
- At this rate, there is a possibility that personal information might leak so I request that this bedealt with promptly.

6.6

Tendencies （〜がち、〜つつ、きらいがある）

In this lesson, we will go over various types of grammar that deal with tendencies. Like much of theAdvanced Section, all the grammar in this lesson are used mostly in written works and are generally
not used in conversational Japanese.

6.6.1

Saying something is prone to occur using 「〜がち」This is arguably the most useful grammar in this lesson in terms of practically. By that, I mean thatit's the only grammar here that you might actually hear in a regular conversation though again, it is
far more common in a written context.
With this grammar, you can say that something is likely to occur by simply attaching 「がち」 to thestem of the verb. While, 「がち」 is a suﬃx, it works in much same way as a noun or na-adjective.
In other words, the result becomes a description of something as being likely. This means that we
can do things like modifying nouns by attaching 「な」 and other things we're used to doing withna-adjectives. You can also say that something is prone to be something by attaching 「がち」 to
the noun.
As the word "prone" suggest, 「がち」 is usually used for tendencies that are bad or undesirable.
.Using 「〜がち」as a description of an action prone to occur• To describe an action that's prone to occur using 「がち」, attach 「がち」 to the stem of
the verb.
例) ⾒る →⾒がち例) なる →なり →なりがち.

• To say that something is prone to be something, attach 「がち」 to the appropriate noun
例) 病気→病気がち.
All adjectives that are conjugated with 「〜がち」 become a noun/na-adjective
Positive
Negative
Non-Past
なりがち
prone to become なりがちじゃない is not prone to become
Past
なりがちだった was prone to become なりがちじゃなかった was not prone to become

1776.6. TENDENCIESCHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS

Examples(１) 確定申告は忘れがちな⼿続のひとつだ。
- Filing income taxes is one of those processes that one is prone to forget.
(２) 留守がちなご家庭には、⽝よりも、猫の⽅がおすすめです。
- For families that tend to be away from home, cats are recommended over dogs.
(３) ⽗親は病気がちで、みんなが⼼配している。
- Father is prone to illness and everybody is worried.
For more examples, check out the WWWJDIC examples (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/cgi-bin/wwwjdic.cgi?1Q%BE%A1%A4%C1_1_%A4%AC%A4%C1).

6.6.2

Describing an ongoing occurrence using 「〜つつ」「つつ」 is a verb modiﬁer that can be attached to the stem of verbs to express an ongoing occurrence. Though the meaning stays essentially the same, there are essentially two ways to use thisgrammar. The ﬁrst is almost identical to the 「〜ながら」 grammar. You can use 「つつ」 to describe
an action that is taking place while another action is ongoing. However, there are several majordiﬀerences between 「つつ」 and 「〜ながら」. First, the tone of 「つつ」 is very diﬀerent from thatof 「〜ながら」 and you would rarely, if ever, use it for regular everyday occurences. To go alongwith this, 「つつ」 is more appropriate for more literary or abstract actions such as those involving
emotions or thoughts. Second, 「〜ながら」 is used to describe an auxiliary action that takes place
while the main action is going on. However, with 「つつ」, both actions have equal weight.
For example, it would sound very strange to say the following.
(誤)

テレビを⾒つつ、寝ちゃダメよ！- (Sounds unnatural)(１)

テレビを⾒ながら、寝ちゃダメよ！- Don't watch TV while sleeping!

The second way to use this grammar is to express the existence of a continuing process by using「ある」, the verb for existence. Everything is the same as before except that you attach 「ある」 to「つつ」 to produce 「〜つつある」. This is often used in magazine or newspaper articles to describea certain trend or tide.
.Using 「〜つつ」to describe a repetitive occurrence.

• To describe an ongoing action using 「つつ」, attach 「つつ」 to the stem of the verb.
例) ⾒る →⾒つつ.
例) 思う →思い →思いつつ• To show the existence of a trend or tide, add 「ある」 to 「つつ」
例) なる →なり →なりつつ →なりつつある

Examples(１) ⼆⽇酔いで痛む頭を押さえつつ、トイレに⼊った。
- Went into the bathroom while holding an aching head from a hangover.

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6.7. ADVANCED VOLITIONAL(２) 体によくないと思いつつ、最近は全然運動してない。
- While thinking it's bad for body, haven't exercised at all recently.
(３) 電気製品の発展につれて、ハードディスクの容量はますます⼤きくなりつつある。
- With the development of electronic goods, hard disk drive capacities are becoming ever larger.
(４) 今の⽇本では、終⾝雇⽤や年功序列という雇⽤慣⾏が崩れつつある。
- In today's Japan, hiring practices like life-time employment and age-based ranking are tending to
break down.
For more examples, check out the WWWJDIC examples (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/cgi-bin/
cgiwrap/jwb/wwwjdic?1Q%A4%C4%A4%C4_0__).

6.6.3

Describing a negative tendency using 「きらいがある」「きらいがある」 is a ﬁxed expression used to describe a bad tendency or habit. I suspect that 「きらい」 here might have something to do with the word for hateful: 「嫌い」. However, unlike 「嫌い」, which is a na-adjective, the 「きらい」 in this grammar functions as a noun. This is made plainby the fact that the 「が」 particle comes right after 「きらい」, which is not allowed for adjectives.
The rest of the phrase is simply expressing the fact that the negative tendency exists.
.Using 「きらいがある」to describe a negative tendency.

• The 「きらい」 in this grammar functions as a noun. 「ある」 is simply the existence verb.
for inanimate objects.
例) 依存症のきらいがある。

Examples(１) 多くの⼤学⽣は、締切⽇ぎりぎりまで、宿題をやらないきらいがある。
- A lot of college students have a bad tendency of not doing their homework until just barely it's due
date.
(２) コーディングが好きな開発者は、ちゃんとしたドキュメント作成と⼗分なテストを怠るきらいがある。
- Developers that like coding have a bad tendency to neglect proper documents and adequate testing.

6.7

Advanced Volitional（まい、であろう、かろう）

We learned in a previous lesson that the volitional form is used when one is set out to do something.
In this section, we're going to cover some other ways in which the volitional form is used, mostnotably, the negative volitional form.

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6.7.1

CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS

Negative Volitional

You may have seen the negative volitional form in a verb conjugation table and wondered, "What theheck is that used for?" Well the answer is not much, or to put it more accurately, there are various
ways it can be used but almost all of them are extremely stiﬀ, formal, and seldom used. In fact, it's
so rare that I only found one explanation (http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwverbinf.html) in
English on the web or anywhere else. (I also found this one (http://www.geocities.jp/niwasaburoo/
32kanyuuisi.html#32.10) in Japanese.)
The negative volitional is used to express negative intention. This means that there is a will forsomething to not happen or that someone is set out to not do something. As a result, because
one is trying not to do something, it's probably not going to happen. Essentially, it is a very stiﬀ
and formal version of 「でしょう」 and 「だろう」. While this form is practically never used in daily
conversations, you might still hear it in movies, etc.
Verbs are conjugated to the negative volitional by simply attaching 「まい」 to the verb. Anotheralternative is to attach 「まい」 to the stem. The conjugation for the negative volitional is quite
diﬀerent from those we are used to because it is always the last conjugation to apply even for themasu-form. There is no way to conjugate 「まい」 to the masu-form, you simply attach 「まい」 to
the masu-form conjugation.
.Using 「まい」to express a will to not do something• ru-verbs - Add 「まい」 to the stem.
(例) ⾒る →⾒まい.

• u-verbs - Attach 「まい」 to the end of the verb
(例) ⾏くまい.
• Exceptions - 「する」 can become 「するまい」 or 「しまい」, 「くる」 becomes 「くるまい」.
• This conjugation must always come last. For masu-form, attach 「まい」 to the masu-form
verb.
例) なる →なり →なります →なりますまい

Examples(１) 相⼿は剣の達⼈だ。そう簡単には勝てまい。
- Your opponent is a master of the sword. I doubt you can win so easily.
(２) そんな無茶な⼿段は認めますまい！
- I won't approve of such an unreasonable method！
We already learned that you could use the volitional form to say "let's" and to express an attempt
do something. But that doesn't mean you can use the negative volitional to say "let's not" or "try
not to". The tone of this grammar is one of very strong determination to not do something, as you
can see in the following examples.
(１) その時までは決して彼に会うまいと⼼に決めていた。
- Until that time, I had decided in my heart to not meet him by any means.
(２) あの⼈は、⼆度と嘘をつくまいと誓ったのです。
- That person had sworn to never lie again.

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6.7. ADVANCED VOLITIONAL

In order to express "let's not", you can use the verb, 「やめる」 with the regular volitional. In order
to express an eﬀort to not do something, you can use 「ようにする」 with the negative verb.
(１) 明⽇に⾏くのをやめよう。
- Let's not go tomorrow. (lit: Let's quit going tomorrow.)(２) ⾁を⾷べないようにしている。
- Trying not to eat meat.

6.7.2

Using the volitional to express a lack of relation

We will now learn a grammar that's actually practical for everyday use using the negative volitional
grammar. Basically, we can use both volitional and negative volitional forms to say it doesn't matter
whether something is going to happen or not. This is done by attaching 「が」 to both the volitional
and the negative volitional form of the verb that doesn't matter.
.Using the volitional to express a lack of relation.

• Attach 「が」 to the volitional and negative volitional form of the verb.
.
例) ⾷べる→⾷べよう、⾷べまい →⾷べようが⾷べまいが例)

⾏く→⾏こう、⾏くまい →⾏こうが⾏くまいがExamples(１) あいつが⼤学に⼊ろうが⼊るまいが、俺とは関係ないよ。
- Whether that guy is going to college or not, it has nothing to do with me.
(２) 時間があろうがあるまいが、間に合わせるしかない。
- Whether there is time or not, there's nothing to do but make it on time.
(３) 最近のウィルスは強⼒で、プログラムを実⾏しようがしまいが、ページを⾒るだけで感染するらしい。
- The viruses lately have been strong and whether you run a program or not, I hear it will spreadjust by looking at the page.

6.7.3

Using 「であろう」 to express likelihood

We already found out that the negative volitional can be used as kind of a formal version of 「でしょう」 and 「だろう」 . You may wonder, how would you do the same thing for the volitional? The
answer is to conjugate the verb 「ある」 from the formal state of being 「である」 to the volitional toproduce 「であろう」. Remember 「でしょう」 can already be used as a polite form, so this form iseven a step above that in formality. We'll see what kind of language uses this form in the examples.

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6.7. ADVANCED VOLITIONAL

CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS.Using 「であろう」to express likelihood.

• Attach 「であろう」 to the noun, adjective, or verb.
.
例) 困難→困難であろう
例) する→するであろう

Examples(１) 今後 50 年、 ⼈間が直⾯するであろう問題に正⾯から向き合って、 ⾃ら解決をはかりつつ、 そのノウハウが次の産業となるシナリオを考えたい。(from www.jkokuryo.com (http://www.jkokuryo.com/
papers/online/20020107.htm))- I would like to directly approach problems that humans have likely encounter the next 50 years
and while measuring solutions, take that knowledge and think about scenarios that will become thenext industry.
(２)
もちろん、 ⽣徒数減少の現在、 学科の新設は困難であろうが、 職業科の統廃合や科内コースの改編などで時代に合わせた変⾰が求められているはずである。(from www1.normanet.ne.jp (http://www1.normanet.ne.jp/~ww100114/library/li-01.htm))- Of course, new educational facilities will likely be diﬃcult with this period of decreasing student
population but with reorganizations of subjects and courses within subjects, there is supposed to be
demand for reform ﬁt for this period.

6.7.4

Using 「かろう」 as volitional for 「い」 endings

We learned in the lesson about formal grammar that 「ではない」 was the negative of 「である」. So how would we say something like 「であろう」 but for the negative tense? The answer is
to use yet another type of volitional for negative tenses and i-adjectives used only in formal andliterary contexts. You can think of this grammar as a very old-fashioned version for i-adjectives andnegative 「い」 endings.
The conjugation rule is simple: remove the last 「い」 and attach 「かろう」 . You can use it for
negative tenses and i-adjectives just like the 「かった」 past conjugation form.
.Using 「かろう」to express volition for 「い」endings.

• Drop the last 「い」 and attach 「かろう」.
例) ではない →ではなかろう
例)

早い →早かろう

Examples(１) どんな商品でもネットで販売するだけで売上が伸びるというものではなかろう。(from www.kojii.net(http://http://www.kojii.net/opinion/col010205.html))- It's not necessarily the case that sales go up just by selling any type of product on the net.

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6.8. COVERED BY SOMETHING(２) 運動を始めるのが早かろうが遅かろうが、健康にいいというのは変わりません。
- Whether you start exercising early or late, the fact that it's good for your health doesn't change.
(３) 休⽇であろうが、なかろうが、この仕事では関係ないみたい。
- Whether it's a holiday or not, it looks like it doesn't matter for this job.

6.8

Covered by something （だらけ、まみれ、ずくめ）

This is a short lesson to cover several specialized expressions that describe the state of being coveredby something. Mostly, we will focus on the diﬀerences between 「だらけ」、「まみれ」 and 「ずく
め」.

6.8.1

Using 「だらけ」 when an object is riddled everywhere with something「だらけ」 is usually used when something is riddled everywhere. It generally carries a negative
connotation. As a result, you'll often see 「だらけ」 used with expressions like 「間違えだらけ」 ,「ゴミだらけ」 , or 「埃だらけ」 . There is no conjugation rule to cover here, all you need to do is
attach 「だらけ」 to the noun that is just all over the place. You should treat the result just like you
would a regular noun.
.Using 「だらけ」to describe the state of being riddled everywhere by something.

• Attach 「だらけ」 to the noun that is covering the object or place.
例) 間違え→間違えだらけ (riddled with mistakes)
例)

埃→埃だらけ (riddled with dust)

Examples(１) このドキュメントは間違えだらけで、全然役に⽴たない。
- This document is just riddled with mistakes and is not useful at all.
(２) 携帯を２年間使ってたら、傷だらけになった。
- After using cell phone for 2 years, it became covered with scratches.
※ Notice how the 「の」 particle is used to modify since 「だらけ」 functions like a noun.
(３) この埃だれけのテレビをちゃんと拭いてくれない？
- Can you properly dust this TV completely covered in dust?

6.8.2

Using 「まみれ」 to describe a covering「まみれ」 may seem very similar to 「だらけ」 but there are some very important subtle diﬀerences.
First, it's only used for actually physical objects so you can't say things like 「間違えまみれ」 likeyou can with 「だらけ」. Plus, you can only use it for things that literally cover the object. In other183

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CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS

words, you can't use it to mean "littered" or "riddled" like we have done with 「だらけ」 So you canuse it for things like liquids and dust, but you can't use it for things like scratches and garbage.
The grammatical rules are the same as 「だらけ」.
.Using 「まみれ」to describe a covering by sticking.

• Like 「だらけ」, you attach 「まみれ」 to the noun that is doing covering.
例) ⾎→⾎まみれ (covered in blood)例) 油→油まみれ (covered in oil).
• You can only use 「まみれ」 for physical objects that literally covers the object.
例) 間違えまみれ (not a physical object)例) ゴミまみれ (doesn't actually cover anything)

Examples(１) 彼は油まみれになりながら、⾞の修理に頑張りました。
- While becoming covered in oil, he worked hard at ﬁxing the car.
(２) たった１キロを⾛っただけで、汗まみれになるのは情けない。
- It's pitiful that one gets covered in sweat from running just 1 kilometer.

6.8.3「ずくめ」 to express entirety

The 「⼤辞林」 dictionary describes exactly what 「ずくめ」 means very well.
名詞およびそれに準ずる語句に付いて、何から何まで、そればかりであることを表す。すべて…である。
「うそ―の⾔いわけ」「いいこと―」「⿊―の服装」「結構―」In other words, 「ずくめ」 describes something that applies to the whole thing. For instance, if wewere talking about the human body, the expression "is [X] from head to toe" might be close to what
「ずくめ」 means.
In actuality, 「ずくめ」 is an expression that is rarely used and usually with a color to describe
people completely dressed in that color. For example, you can see some examples of 「⿊ずくめ」 via Google Images (http://images.google.com/images?um=1&hl=en&client=firefox-a&rls=org.
mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aofficial&q=%E9%BB%92%E3%81%9A%E3%81%8F%E3%82%81&btnG=Search+Images).
Grammatically, 「ずくめ」 works in exactly the same ways as 「だらけ」 and 「まみれ」.
.Using 「ずくめ」to describe something that applies to the whole thing.

• Attach 「ずくめ」 to the noun that applies to the whole thing.
.
例) ⽩→⽩ずくめ
例) いいこと→いいことずくめ

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6.9. ADVANCED PROXIMITY OF ACTIONS

Examples(１) ⽩ずくめ団体は去年ニュースになっていた。
- The organization dressed all in white was on the news last year.
(２) ⼥の⼦と共通の話題ができて、 ⾃分の体も健康になる。いいことずくめですよ。(from www.desire.net (http://www.de-sire.net/food.html))- A common topic to talk about with girls is able to be made and one's own body also becomes
healthy. It's all good things.

6.9

Advanced proximity of actions （が早いか、や否や、そばから）In this section, we will be covering some advanced grammar that describe an action that takes placeright after something else has occurred. I suggest you look over this section if you are really serious
about completely mastering Japanese, or if you plan to take the level 1 JLPT exam, or if you enjoy
reading a lot of Japanese literature.
Using 「が早いか」 to describe the instant something occurred
The phrase 「が早いか」 is used to describe something that happened the instant something else
occurred.
It is more common to use the word 「すぐ」 with the te-form of the verb to describe the same typeof thing but 「が早いか」 has a more instantaneous nuance. In addition, unlike 「すぐ」 , whichsimply means "soon", 「が早いか」 has several distinct characteristics.
First of all, this grammar is used to describe an action that immediately occurs as a direct result of
the ﬁrst verb so it is unnatural to use this grammar for unrelated or naturally occurring events. For
instance, you would not use it to say, "It started raining the moment we went out" because it wasgoing to rain whether or not you went out. In addition, this grammar is only used for things thathave actually occurred and therefore always employs the past tense.
To use this grammar, you attach 「が早いか」 to the ﬁrst verb, then you describe the event that
happened the next instant. While it's conventional to use the non-past tense (dictionary form) for
the ﬁrst verb, you can also use the past tense. For example, you can say either 「⾔うが早いか」 or「⾔ったが早いか」. The curious thing about this grammar is that the 「が」 particle comes right after
the verb. Remember, you can do this only with this speciﬁc grammatical phrase.
Using 「が早いか」 to describe what happened the instant something occurred• Attach 「が早いか」 to the non-past or past tense of the verb that just occurred例) ⾔う→⾔うが早いか例) ⾔う →⾔った →⾔ったが早いか• You can only use this grammar only for events that are directly related.
• You can only use this grammar only for events that actually happened (past tense).
Examples(１) 彼⼥は、教授の姿を⾒るが早いか、教室から逃げ出した。
- The instant [she] saw the teacher's ﬁgure, [she] ran away from the classroom.
(２) 「⾷べてみよう」と⾔うが早いか、⼝の中に放り込んだ。
- The instant [he] said "let's try eating it", he threw [it] into his mouth.

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6.9. ADVANCED PROXIMITY OF ACTIONSCHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS(３) 「⾷べてみよう」と⾔ったが早いか、⼝の中に放り込んだ。
- The instant [he] said "let's try eating it", he threw [it] into his mouth.
Using 「や／や否や」 to describe what happened right after
The 「や」 or 「や否や」(やいなや) phrase, when appended to a verb, is used to described somethingthat happened right after that verb. Its meaning is essential the same as 「が早いか」.
It is also another type of grammar that is not really used in regular conversational Japanese.
「否」 (read here as 「いな」) is a fancy Kanji for "no" used in words like 「否定」 and similar to「不」. The literal meaning of this grammar is"whether the action was taken or not". In order words, the second action is taken before you eventake the time to determine whether the ﬁrst event really happened or not.
You can use this grammar by attaching 「や」 or 「や否や」 to the dictionary form of the ﬁrst verb
that occurred. Since this grammar is used forevents that already have occurred, the second verb is usually in the past tense. However, you can
use the dictionary tense to indicate that the events
happen regularly.
Using 「や／や否や」 to describe what happened right after• Attach 「や」 or 「や否や」(やいなや) to the dictionary form of the ﬁrst verb that occurred例) ⾒る→⾒るや
例) ⾒る→⾒るや否や• This grammar is almost always used for events that actually happened (past tense).
• This grammar can be used with the present tense for regularly occurring events.
Examples(１) 私の顔を⾒るや、何か⾔おうとした。
- [He] tried to say something as soon as he saw my face.
(２) 搭乗のアナウンスが聞こえるや否や、みんながゲートの⽅へ⾛り出した。
- As soon as the announcement to board was audible, everybody started running toward the gate.
Using 「そばから」 to describe an event that repeatedly occurs soon after「そばから」 is yet another grammar that describes an event that happens right after another. However, unlike the expressions we have covered so far, 「そばから」 implies that the events are arecurring pattern. For example, you would use this grammar to express the fact that you just clean
and clean your room only for it to get dirty again soon after.
Besides this diﬀerence, the rules for using this expression are exactly the same as 「が早いか」 and「や否や」. Just attach 「そばから」 to the dictionary form of the ﬁrst verb that occurred. The pasttense, though rare, also appears to be acceptable. However, the event that immediately follows
is usually expressed with the non-past dictionary form because this grammar is used for repeated
events and not a speciﬁc event in the past.
Using 「そばから」 to describe an event that repeatedly occurs soon after• Attach 「そばから」 to the dictionary form of the ﬁrst verb that occurred例) 読む→読むそばから例) する→するそばから• This grammar implies that the events occur repeatedly.
Examples186

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6.10. OTHERS(１) ⼦供が掃除するそばから散らかすから、もうあきらめたくなった。
- The child messes up [the room] (repeatedly) as soon as I clean so I already became wanting togive up.
(２) 教科書を読んだそばから忘れてしまうので勉強ができない。
- Forget (repeatedly) right after I read the textbook so I can't study.

6.10

Others （思いきや、がてら、あげく）

Hopefully, you've managed to get a good grasp of how grammar works in Japanese and how to usethem to communicate your thoughts in the Japanese way. In this ﬁnal section, we'll be coveringsome left-over grammar that I couldn't ﬁt into a larger category. Don't worry, this won't be theabsolute end as there will be an additional miscellaneous section that will contain all sorts of useful
information about other various aspects of the language.

6.10.1

Using 「思いきや」 to describe something unexpected

This is a grammar I learned out of a book and was surprised to actually hear it used in real life
on a number of occasions. You use this grammar when you think one thing, but much to yourastonishment, things actually turn out to be very diﬀerent. You use it in the same way as you would
express any thoughts, by using the quotation 「と」 and 「思う」. The only diﬀerence is that you use「思いきや」 instead of 「思う」. There is no tense in 「思いきや」, or rather, since the results alreadywent against your expectations, the original thought is implicitly understood to be past tense.
.Using 「思いきや」to describe something unforeseen or unexpected.

• Attach 「思いきや」 to the thought using the. quotation 「と」.
例) ある→あると →あると思いきや

Examples(１) 昼間だから絶対込んでいると思いきや、⼀⼈もいなかった。
- Despite having thought that it must be crowded since it was afternoon, (surprisingly) not a single
person was there.
(２) このレストランは安いと思いきや、会計は 5 千円以上だった！
- Thought this restaurant would be cheap but (surprisingly) the bill was over 5,000 yen!

6.10.2Using 「〜がてら」 to do two things at one time

This rather formal and seldom-used grammar is used to indicate that two actions were done at thesame time. The nuance is a bit diﬀerence from 「ながら」 in that some or all of the time spent on
doing one action was also used to do another action as an aside. Remember, 「ながら」 is used todescribe two exactly concurrent actions.

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CHAPTER 6. ADVANCED TOPICS

The interesting thing about this grammar is that no verb is required. You can just attach it a noun,
and the verb "to do" is inferred. For instance, "while taking a stroll" can simply be expressed as「散歩がてら」. In the case where you want to employ a diﬀerent verb, you also have the option of
attaching 「がてら」 to the stem similar to the 「ながら」 usage. In addition, the verb or noun thatis accompanied by 「がてら」 is the main action while the following action is the one done on theside.
.Using 「〜がてら」to do two things at one time.

• Attach 「がてら」 to the noun or verb stem of the main action. In case of a noun, the verb
「する」 is inferred.
.
例) 散歩→散歩がてら
例) 作る→作り →作りがてら

Examples(１) 散歩がてら、タバコを買いに⾏きました。
- While taking a stroll, I also used that time to buy cigarettes.
(２) 博物館を⾒がてらに、お⼟産を買うつもりです。
- While seeing the museum, I plan to also use that time to buy souvenirs.

6.10.3Using 「〜あげく (挙句)」 to describe a bad result「あげく」 is a grammar used to describe a result, usually negative, that came about after a great
deal of eﬀort. The rule for this grammar is very simple. You modify the verb or noun that was
carried out with 「あげく」 and then describe the ﬁnal result that came about from that verb or
noun. Because this grammar is used to describe a result from an action already completed, it isused with the past tense of the verb. 「あげく」 is essentially treated the same as any noun. In
other words, you would need the 「の」 particle to modify another noun.
「あげくの果て」 is another stronger version of this grammar.
.Using 「〜あげく」to describe a ﬁnal result.

• Attach 「あげく」 to the verb or noun created the end result (「の」 particle is required
for nouns).
例) けんか→けんかのあげく
例) 考えた→考えたあげく

ExamplesThe brackets show what is being implied by the grammar.
(１) 事情を 2 時間かけて説明をしたあげく、納得してもらえなかった。
- [After a great deal of] explaining the circumstances for 2 hours, [in the end], couldn't receive188

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6.10. OTHERS

understanding.
(２) 先⽣と相談のあげく、退学をしないことにした。
- [After much] consulting with teacher, [in the end], decided on not dropping out of school.

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