NATIONAL STRATEGIC PLAN FOR FEDERALAQUACULTURE RESEARCH (2014-2019)

National Science and Technology Council
Committee on Science
Interagency Working Group on Aquaculture

June 2014

EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENTNATIONAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COUNCILWASHINGTON, D.C. 20502

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About the National Science and Technology Council
The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) is the principal means by which the
Executive Branch coordinates science and technology policy across the diverse entities that makeup the Federal research and development (R&D) enterprise. One of the NSTC’s primaryobjectives is establishing clear national goals for Federal science and technology investments.
NSTC prepares R&D packages aimed at accomplishing multiple national goals. The NSTC’s work
is organized under five committees: Environment, Natural Resources, and Sustainability;
Homeland and National Security; Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
Education; Science; and Technology. Each of these committees oversees subcommittees andworking groups that are focused on different aspects of science and technology. More information
is available at www.whitehouse.gov/ostp/nstc.
About the Office of Science and Technology Policy
The Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) was established by the National Scienceand Technology Policy, Organization, and Priorities Act of 1976. OSTP’s responsibilities include
advising the President in policy formulation and budget development on questions in whichscience and technology are important elements; articulating the President’s science and technology
policy and programs; and fostering strong partnerships among Federal, state, and local
governments, and the scientific communities in industry and academia. The Director of OSTP also
serves as Assistant to the President for Science and Technology and manages the NSTC. Moreinformation is available at www.whitehouse.gov/ostp.
About the Interagency Working Group on Aquaculture
The Interagency Working Group on Aquaculture (IWG-A) operates under the Life Sciences
Subcommittee of the Committee on Science of the National Science and Technology Council.
Pursuant to Sec. 6(b) of the National Aquaculture Act of 1980, the IWG-A (formerly known as the
Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture) was created to increase the overall effectiveness andproductivity of Federal aquaculture research, technology transfer, and technology assistanceprograms. The IWG-A supports Sec. 2(c) of the National Aquaculture Act of 1980, which contains
the national policy that encourages the development of aquaculture in the United States.
About this Document
This document is the strategic plan to guide Federal research in aquaculture. Developed by the
IWG-A and published by OSTP, the plan describes ways that government can help advance andexpand domestic interests in aquaculture, providing for greater economic and recreational
opportunities in the United States. The plan identifies the current Federal resources in research andextension, the need for the best research to inform public policy and regulatory decisions, and theneed for improved public understanding of aquaculture, its diversity, and potential benefits andrisks.
Acknowledgements
We thank the many people who contributed their expertise, knowledge, and time. The Strategic
Plan for Federal Aquaculture Research is informed by many different viewpoints and agency
mission areas that range from commercial production to restoration of fishery stocks andconservation of critical habitats. A principal goal is to develop a plan that is realistic in priorities,v

achievable over time, and that will inspire and coalesce stronger collaboration required among
public, private, and non-governmental communities to advance aquaculture in the Nation as apublic good. We also thank the many individuals and organizations that provided public comments
in response to a Federal Register solicitation, which contributed many improvements and added
focus on critical present and emerging needs. In addition, numerous members of the Interagency
Working Group on Aquaculture provided valuable input. Lastly, we want to recognize the efforts
of several OSTP liaisons to the IWG-Aquaculture during the development of this plan, including:
Chavonda Jacobs-Young, Peter Schmeissner, Carlos Peña, and Sean Jones.
Copyright Information
This document is a work of the United States Government and is in the public domain (see 17
U.S.C. §105). Subject to the stipulations below, it may be distributed and copied withacknowledgement to OSTP. Copyrights to graphics included in this document are reserved by
the original copyright holders or their assignees and are used here under the government’s
license and by permission. Requests to use any images must be made to the provider identified in
the image credits or to OSTP if no provider is identified.
Printed in the United States of America, 2014.

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National Science and Technology Council
Chair
John P. Holdren
Assistant to the President for Science and Technology
Director
Office of Science and Technology Policy

NSTC Staff Executive Director
Jayne Morrow
Office of Science and Technology Policy

Committee on Science
Co-Chairs
Francis Collins
Director
National Institutes of HealthFrance Córdova
Director
National Science Foundation
Philip Rubin
Principal Assistant Director for Science
Assistant Director for Social, Behavioral, and Economic Sciences
Office of Science and Technology Policy

Executive Secretary
Mayra N. Montrose
National Science Foundationvii

Interagency Working Group on Aquaculture
Chair
Gary Jensen
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Strategic Research Plan Task Force
Co-Chairs
Michael Rubino
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
Department of Commerce

Jeffrey Silverstein
Agricultural Research Service
U. S. Department of Agriculture

Members
Kevin Amos
Susanne Bolton
Mike Rust
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Department of Commerce
Linda Andreason
Joel Bader
Robert Bakal
Fish and Wildlife Service
Department of Interior
Robin Schrock
U.S. Geological Survey
Department of InteriorCharles EirksonCharles Gieseker
Renate Reimschuessel
Food and Drug Administration
Department of Health and Human Services
Barbara Montwill
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Department of Health and Human Services
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Robert Bastian
Environmental Protection Agency
Gary Egrie
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Maxwell Mayeaux
National Institute for Food and Agriculture
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Howard Hankin
Natural Resources Conservation Service
U. S. Department of Agriculture
David Olson
Army Corps of Engineers
Department of Defense
Harry Rea
Agency for International Development
Greg Warr
National Science Foundationix

CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 2
Vision .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Plan Framework .......................................................................................................................... 3
BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................. 5Role of Aquaculture .................................................................................................................... 5
Aquaculture Sector Status ........................................................................................................... 6
Rationale for Science and Technology Capacity ........................................................................ 8
STRATEGIC RESEARCH GOALS ......................................................................................................... 9Strategic Goal 1: Advance Understanding of the Interactions of Aquaculture and theEnvironment ................................................................................................................................ 9Strategic Goal 2: Employ Genetics to Increase Productivity and Protect Natural Populations 10
Strategic Goal 3: Counter Disease in Aquatic Organisms and Improving Biosecurity ............ 12
Strategic Goal 4: Improve Production Efficiency and Well-Being........................................... 13
Strategic Goal 5: Improve Nutrition and Develop Novel Feeds ............................................... 14
Strategic Goal 6: Increase the Supply of Nutritious, Safe, High-Quality Domestic Seafood ... 15
Strategic Goal 7: Improve Performance of Production Systems............................................... 16
Strategic Goal 8: Create a Skilled Workforce and Enhance Technology Transfer ................... 17
Strategic Goal 9: Develop and Use Socioeconomic and Business Research to AdvanceDomestic Aquaculture ............................................................................................................... 18
PLAN IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES ............................................................................................ 19
APPENDIX A................................................................................................................................... 20x

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In 2012, consumers in the United States spent an estimated $82.6 billion on seafood, making the
U.S. one of the top three seafood markets worldwide. Yet the domestic farm gate value ofaquaculture products only approaches $1.3 billion annually. Thus, much of the U.S. demand is
supplied by international imports. Current aquaculture productivity in the Nation is driven byannual Federal investments in research and development of approximately $100 million.
Advancing and expanding this sector will provide the domestic production of greater seafood
products and economic opportunities for the United States.
Aquaculture yields public benefits that extend beyond producers to directly impact consumers, andprovides diverse ecosystem services. A sector of agriculture, aquaculture offers alternative farming
in a variety of aquatic environments, from inland freshwater ponds to marine coastal and offshore
waters. Aquaculture also provides an important tool used to enhance commercial and recreational
fisheries, and to restore threatened and endangered species and habitats.
Congress and the Executive Branch recognized the importance of aquaculture with passage of the
National Aquaculture Act in 1980 that stated, “It is, therefore, in the national interest, and it is thenational policy, to encourage the development of aquaculture in the United States”.
The Interagency Working Group on Aquaculture (IWG-A), under the National Science andTechnology Council and the Office of Science and Technology Policy, developed the Strategic
Plan for Federal Aquaculture Research to increase the overall effectiveness of Federal aquaculture
research, technology transfer, and assistance programs.
This plan aligns with the Administration’s outcome-oriented goals for multi-disciplinary researchto accelerate technology commercialization and innovation, and addresses key aims in the National
Bioeconomy Blueprint, the National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan, and Administration
guidance on regulatory efficiency. It is also consistent with the White House Rural Council’s
objectives of strengthening rural communities and promoting economic growth. In addition, theplan reinforces departmental and agency strategic guidance, such as the Department ofAgriculture’s Strategic Plan 2010-2015, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) 5-Year Research and Development Plan 2013-2017, and policies on aquaculture fromthe Department of Commerce.
The plan proposes this vision statement for the future of aquaculture in the U.S.:
A globally competitive, technologically appropriate, and diverse aquaculture sector in the UnitedStates that meets increasing demand for seafood and products that are affordable and meet highstandards for safety, quality, and environmental stewardship, with maximum opportunity forprofitability and economic growth.
The purpose of this plan is to:Communicate Federal priorities for research, science, and technology development thatencourage aquaculture in the Nation with the goal of building an industry that increases

1seafood availability, jobs, economic opportunities, and recreational opportunities, whileproviding for the restoration and promotion of healthy aquatic ecosystems.
Promote adoption and implementation of ideas, concepts, approaches, technologies, andcapabilities to advance U.S. aquaculture production, and further establishment oftechnological and environmental leadership in aquaculture.

This plan includes 9 critical strategic goals, with outcomes and milestones that identify Federal
agency and interagency research, science, and technology priorities over the midterm (5 years)
that will support aquaculture development in the United States.
Strategic Goals
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Advance Understanding of the Interactions of Aquaculture and the Environment
Employ Genetics to Increase Productivity and Protect Natural Populations
Counter Disease in Aquatic Organisms and Improving Biosecurity
Improve Production Efficiency and Well-being
Improve Nutrition and Develop Novel Feeds
Increase Supply of Nutritious, Safe, High-quality Seafood and Aquatic Products
Improve Performance of Production Systems
Create a Skilled Workforce and Enhance Technology Transfer
Develop and Use Socioeconomic and Business Research to Advance Domestic
Aquaculture

The plan includes introductory material to provide background and perspective on the role andscale of aquaculture domestically and worldwide. It also highlights the potential for job creationand economic development through expanded domestic aquaculture.
While there is excellent research and technology development currently underway, the plan
recognizes that multi-disciplinary research and coordination of Federal research programs areneeded to improve competitiveness, production efficiency, economic viability, and long-term
environmental sustainability through advances in genetics, nutrition, health, and technology.
The plan also discusses opportunities to develop industries to meet the growing demand for
seafood and to respond to the challenges of climate change, including the effects on ocean
chemistry. Finally, the plan urges more public-private sector collaboration and cooperation
throughout the supply chain from aquaculture service industries to farms to markets that stimulateinnovation and entrepreneurism and increased market opportunities for U.S. products.

INTRODUCTION
The IWG-A prepared the National Strategic Plan for Federal Aquaculture Research to identify
Federal interagency research, science, and technology priorities, goals, and objectives over themidterm that will support aquaculture development in the Nation, as cited under law. This plan is
not intended to serve as a development plan that addresses policies, regulations, financing, zoning,disaster assistance, crop insurance, or other issues that may impact incentives for development
investment. However, aquaculture-related actions by Federal agencies and partners on research
priorities will contribute to solving such regulatory and socioeconomic challenges. In addition,2

this document is not an implementation plan with budget proposals and agency action details.
Rather, the plan is intended to inform future Federal budget processes and agency level
implementation plans for achieving these strategic goals.
VisionA globally competitive, technologically appropriate, and diverse aquaculture sector in the UnitedStates that meets increasing demand for seafood and products that are affordable and meet highstandards for safety, quality, and environmental stewardship, with maximum opportunity forprofitability and economic growth.
Plan Framework
This plan addresses the critical need to increase the overall effectiveness of Federal aquaculture
research, technology transfer, and assistance programs. While excellent research and technologicaldevelopment is currently underway, the plan recognizes that multi-disciplinary research andcoordination of Federal research programs are needed to improve competitiveness, production
efficiency, economic viability, and long-term environmental sustainability through advances ingenetics, nutrition, health, and technology. The plan also urges more public-private sector
collaborations and cooperation throughout the supply chain, from aquaculture service industries
to farms to markets that stimulate innovation and entrepreneurism, thereby increasing market
opportunities for U.S. products. In particular, this plan is intended to:Communicate Federal priorities for research, science, and technology development thatencourage aquaculture in the Nation, with the goal of building an industry that increases
seafood availability, jobs, economic opportunities, and recreational opportunities, whileproviding for the restoration and promotion of healthy aquatic ecosystems.

Promote adoption and implementation of ideas, concepts, approaches, technologies, andcapabilities to advance U.S. aquaculture production, and further establishment oftechnological and environmental leadership in aquaculture.

The plan identifies nine strategic goals, each with outcomes and milestones:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Advance Understanding of the Interactions of Aquaculture and the Environment
Employ Genetics to Increase Productivity and Protect Natural Populations
Counter Disease in Aquatic Organisms and Improving Biosecurity
Improve Production Efficiency and Well-being
Improve Nutrition and Develop Novel Feeds
Increase Supply of Nutritious, Safe, High-quality Seafood and Aquatic Products
Improve Performance of Production Systems
Create a Skilled Workforce and Enhance Technology Transfer
Develop and Use Socioeconomic and Business Research to Advance Domestic
Aquaculture

These strategic goals will help Federal agencies, with public and private sector partners, to build
an interagency collaborative and multi-disciplinary research framework to meet the Nation’s
aquaculture priorities through coordination with the Office of Science and Technology Policy and
the National Science and Technology Council.
3This plan aligns with the Administration’s outcome-oriented goals for multi-disciplinary researchto accelerate technology innovation and commercialization and key aims found in the National
Bioeconomy Blueprint,1 the National Ocean Policy’s Implementation Plan,2 and Administration
guidance on regulatory efficiency,3 and it is consistent with the White House Rural Council
objectives of strengthening rural communities and promoting economic growth.4 The plan alsoadheres to departmental and agency strategic guidance, including: The Department ofAgriculture’s Strategic Plan 2010-2015,5 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) 5-Year Strategic Plan 2013-2017,6 and The National Science Foundation’s Empowering
the Nation through Discovery and Innovation, NSF Strategic Plan for 2011-2016.7
In addition, the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommended that consumers increaseseafood consumption.8 A seafood diet offers a healthy protein choice for children to help reducechildhood obesity, which is an Administration priority.9
Solutions are required for aquaculture to overcome numerous critical challenges and to realize theopportunities for expansion of commercial enterprises, stock-enhancement programs, and species
and habitat restoration. These solutions depend on the understanding and application of scientificknowledge, as well as strong public-private collaborative partnerships to optimize societal andscientific benefits from the Nation’s collective capacity for research and technology developmentin aquaculture.
This plan was developed by an interagency team of Federal scientists and agency staff. The writing
team for each strategic goal had representatives from the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce,and Interior. The teams consulted published literature and summaries of recent research priorities
including, but not limited to, the following: A 2008 workshop on technical barriers to marine aquaculture in the United States cosponsored by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and NOAA;10
 The NOAA/USDA Alternative Feeds Initiative;11
 The National Aquatic Animal Health Plan;12
1 Building a 21st Century Bioeconomy, Mary Maxon and Mike Stebbins,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2011/10/12/building-bioeconomy (accessed 2 January 2012);
2 National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan
http://www.whitehouse.gov//sites/default/files/national_ocean_policy_implementation_plan.pdf
3 Executive Order 13563 of January 18, 2011 Improving Regulation and Regulatory Review
http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/inforeg/eo12866/eo13563_01182011.pdf
4 White House Rural Council objectives of strengthening rural communities and promoting economic growth(http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/rural-council).
5Department of Agriculture, Strategic Plan, http://www.ocfo.usda.gov/usdasp/usdasp.htm
6 http://nrc.oarhq.noaa.gov/CouncilProducts/ResearchPlans/5YearRDPlan.aspx
7 National Science Foundation, Strategic Plan,
http://www.nsf.gov/news/strategicplan/nsfstrategicplan_2011_2016.pdf
8 U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines forthAmericans, 2010. 7 Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 2010.
9 http://www.letsmove.gov/white-house-task-force-childhood-obesity-report-president
10 Browdy, C.L. and J.A. Hargreaves (editors). 2009. Overcoming Technical Barriers to the
Sustainable Development of Competitive Marine Aquaculture in the United States. U.S.
Department of Commerce, Silver Spring, MD USA. NOAA Technical Memo NMFS F/SPO100. 114pp.
11 The Future of Aquafeeds, http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/aquaculture/docs/feeds/the_future_of_aquafeeds_final.pdf
12 National Aquatic Animal Health Plan, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/animal_dis_spec/aquaculture/

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USDA’s 5-year aquaculture stakeholder workshop (hosted in 2008 and 2013 by USDA’s
Agricultural Research Service Projects and National Institute of Food and Agriculture,
Regional Aquaculture Centers);
The 2008 NOAA National Symposium on Shellfish and the Environment; 13
The Department of Commerce (DOC)14 and NOAA15 aquaculture policies (2011); andPriorities identified by the DOC Marine Fisheries Advisory Council and the NOAA
National Sea Grant College Program, State governments and tribes, and industry, nonprofit, scientific, and other associations and groups.

Public comments were solicited on the draft plan in a Federal Register notice published in July
2012. The plan incorporates many of the suggestions made via public comment.
Many public comments noted that the draft plan lacked detailed implementation actions andspecific numeric goals. For the purposes of this plan, the strategic goals outlined are intended toprovide targets and directions. Specific implementation planning for Federal action is needed, andalignment with this strategic plan will be identified in implementation documents.
One set of comments not addressed specifically in this plan focused on marine algal research. The
commercial potential in this sector seems promising; however, the current scope of Federal
research in this area is limited. We anticipate development in algal production for food and fuelcould result in increased Federal investment. New factors and trends over the next 5 years will
influence research investments based on commercial opportunities, markets and technologicaldevelopments.

BACKGROUND
Role of Aquaculture
For purposes of this plan, aquaculture is defined as the propagation and rearing of aquaticorganisms (for commercial, recreational, or public purpose) in controlled or selectedenvironments. Commercial aquaculture contributed half of the world’s seafood in 2012.16
Aquaculture, both private and public, helps restore endangered, threatened, and depletedcommercially and recreationally fished species and addresses essential fish habitat, shoreline
protection, and water quality concerns (such as oyster restoration and aquatic plant and seaweed
recovery activities). Regional planning approaches can support future marine aquaculture
development, in harmony with other resource use issues, as described in the National Ocean Policy
Implementation Plan for the National Ocean Council.17
A compelling case can be made for increasing scientific and technical knowledge for aquaculture
to produce safe and nutritious seafood in the United States, create new jobs from the coastal
13 NOAA National Symposium on Shellfish and the Environment, http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/pdf/shellfishsymp08.pdf
14 Department of Commerce Aquaculture Policy, http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/trade/DOCAQpolicy.htm
15 NOAA Marine Aquaculture Policy,

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/aquaculture/docs/policy/noaa_aquaculture_policy_2011.pdf
16 FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. 2011. World Aquaculture 2010. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture
Department. Technical Paper. No. 500/1. Rome, FAO. 105 pp.
17 National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan. Op. cit. 45

communities to the agricultural heartland, foster sustainable aquaculture practices, and enhance orrestore wild fisheries and habitats. An increase in aquaculture and wild-harvest fisheries will help
meet the growing demand for seafood, a food source high in healthful protein and omega-3 fatty
acids with many essential vitamins and minerals. Aquaculture provides new ways to generate
prosperity while conserving and enhancing the Nation’s natural resources.
Aquaculture is now recognized as one of the most efficient ways to produce protein. 18 Aquatic
species are highly resource-efficient, with feed conversion rates (amount of feed needed to produce
a product) for fish and shrimp that compare very favorably with terrestrial animal production.19
For example, mollusks and seaweeds take up nutrients from the surrounding water and require no
supplemental feed. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) projects thataquaculture will be critical to feeding a growing world population.20
Aquaculture Sector Status
Globally, aquaculture has evolved dramatically since Federal legislation was first enacted in 1980
and 198521. While wild fish harvests have stabilized, aquaculture has driven growth of the seafood
sector, influenced product diversity, and addressed both economic development and environmental
conservation goals in aquatic ecosystems. The sector is driven by knowledge and technology andcontinues to innovate and adapt to societal needs for nutritious food, jobs, species enhancement,
and species and habitat restoration.
Several factors and new trends may drive an increase in U.S. commercial aquaculture production.
The U.S. has bountiful freshwater and marine natural resources, plentiful feed grains, world classaquaculture research infrastructures, and scientists, pioneers, and entrepreneurs to drive
innovation. The seafood supply chain ranges from farmers and fishermen to upstream anddownstream industries (feed and equipment manufacturing, harvesting processing, distribution,and retail outlets) to consumers.
The United States is now among the three largest seafood markets in the world. Aquaculture isbecoming an increasingly integral source of safe, sustainable seafood for consumers worldwide as
supplies from wild-capture fisheries remain flat. In 2011, U.S. consumer seafood expenditures
were $57 billion in food service and $27.6 billion in retail sales for home consumption.22 The top
10 species presently consumed domestically represent about 90 percent of the total U.S. seafood
consumption; six of these species come from farmed or a mix of farmed and wild sources,
including shrimp, salmon, and tilapia.
The United States and other countries are currently working to rebuild wild stocks of seafood. But,
even if habitats are restored and well-managed wild stocks contribute more to the world supply of

18 Hall, S.J., A. Delaporte, M.J. Phillips, M. Beveridge, and M. O’Keefe. 2001. Blue Frontiers: Managing theEnvironmental Costs of Aquaculture. The WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia.
19 Torrisson, O., R.E. Olsen, R. Toresen, G.I. Hemre, A.G.J. Tacon, F. Asche, R.W. Hardy, and S. Lall. 2011. Atlantic
Salmon (Salmo salar): The “Super-Chicken” of the Sea? Reviews in Fisheries Science, 19(3): 257-278.
20 FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. Op. cit.17
21 National Aquaculture Act, Op. cit.1
22 Fisheries of the United States 2011, Current Fishery Statistics No. 2011, National Marine Fisheries Service, Officeof Science and Technology, August 2012.

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seafood, experts note that most of the future increase in seafood production will come fromaquaculture.23
Increases in demand for aquaculture products, food security considerations, and job creation
highlight the need for increased domestic development. Demand for seafood in the United States
may grow as a result of a growing population and increased consumer awareness of seafood’s
health benefits (as long as demand is not dampened by higher seafood prices). The 2010 Dietary
Guidelines for Americans,24 published by the Departments of Agriculture and Health and Human
Services, recommends that Americans double their current consumption of seafood from a wide
range of species as a healthy food choice.
Future supplies of seafood for U.S. consumers will largely come from a combination of increased
domestic aquaculture production and imported aquaculture products. As the growing middle classin many emerging economies consumes more seafood, competition for quality seafood products
will increase and these products may cost more, impacting seafood-dependent businesses andconsumers. The growing global demand for seafood also presents an export opportunity for U.S.
producers.25
Although current U.S. aquaculture production largely comprises fish and shellfish, the cultivationof marine algae is showing promise as a source of food, animal feed, cosmetics, health, biofuels,and other industrial products. Commercial aquaculture also produces baitfish and hatchery stock
for recreational and commercial fishing, ornamental fish and other products for the aquarium trade,
alligator and other species for leather goods, and various products and co-products forpharmaceutical, cosmetic, and industrial uses.
Despite these global and national trends that may drive an increase in U.S. aquaculture production,
the United States today is a minor producer, supplying only about 5 percent of the seafood
consumed domestically.26 The Nation is increasingly dependent on imports to meet seafood
demand. In fact, 80 to 90 percent (by value) of the seafood that Americans eat is imported, creatinga seafood trade deficit nearing $11 billion in 2012. Approximately 50 percent of this seafood isfrom aquaculture and 50 percent from capture fisheries. 26 Compared with U.S. manufacturing,
agriculture, and fisheries, commercial aquaculture is relatively small and at an early stage ofdevelopment. The annual farm gate sales of private domestic aquaculture production approached$1.3 billion in 2010.27
Aquaculture also supports commercial and recreational fisheries and fisheries restoration. Private
and public salmon hatcheries release juvenile fish that are later caught in capture fisheries andsupply about 40 percent of the commercial catch of salmon around Alaska and more than 80
percent of catches off the Washington, Oregon, and California coasts. These hatcheries use fish
23 FAO Op. cit.17

24 U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Op.cit.
25 See for example, USDA Foreign Agricultural Service GAIN Report No CH11853, “Demand for high-end U.S.

Seafood in South China remains strong” December, 7, 2012.
26 Department of Commerce, NOAA Fisheries, Office of Science and Technology, US Foreign Trade, Current
Fisheries Statistics No. 2010-2, Imports and Exports of Fishery Products Annual Summary, 2010.
http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st1/trade/documents/TRADE2010.pdf (accessed 3 January 2012).
27 Fisheries of the United States 2011. Op cit. 23

7culture during the critical early life rearing stage before releasing juvenile fish into the naturalenvironment for stock enhancement and restoration programs.
In 2006, more than 40 million licensed anglers generated over $46 billion in retail sales with a$115 billion impact on the Nation’s economy, creating employment for more than 828,000 people
and stimulating local businesses.28 Many of these anglers, and the resultant economic benefits,depend on aquaculture for these hatchery reared and released fish. A recent economic study29
estimated that the economic contribution of the private, recreation-based aquaculture industry in
the western region of the United States is $1.9 billion annually, and supports 26,229 full-time jobs.
The top trout hatcheries of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service produced fish that generated morethan 3.9 million angler days, directly supporting more than 3,500 jobs with $325 million in total
economic benefits to local economies.30 The 123 million fish (all species) stocked by the National
Fish Hatchery System generated more than 13 million angler days in 2006.31 States in the Gulf of
Mexico region have proposed new hatcheries to supplement recreational and commercial species
and to restore species affected by the Deep Water Horizon oil spill. Hatchery stocks are also used
to help restore Atlantic salmon in Maine, Pacific salmon and abalone on the West Coast, and native
oysters and aquatic plants (marsh grasses) around the country.
Rationale for Science and Technology Capacity
Annual Federal expenditures for aquaculture research have averaged approximately $94 million
in recent years, with a split of $40 million to extramural (Federal funds awarded to non-Federal
entities) and $54 million to intramural programs (Federal funds allocated to Federal agencysupported research programs). These funds support core research capabilities in universities andFederal facilities and small businesses that solve critical problems and generate new technologies
and better practices. While there is currently excellent research and technology development
ongoing in Federal, university, and private research facilities, the plan recognizes that multidisciplinary research and coordination of Federal research programs are needed to improve
competitiveness, production efficiency, economic viability, and long-term environmental
sustainability through advances in genetics, nutrition, health, and technology. There are also
opportunities to develop new industries to meet the growing demand for seafood and to respondto the challenges of climate change, including the effects on ocean chemistry.
The primary rationale for Federal investment in aquaculture research, science, and technology
development is to:

28 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service News Release, June 18, 2007. “Preliminary Data Shows Americans Spent $120

Billion on Wildlife Related Recreation in 2006.
http://www.fws.gov/news/NewsReleases/showNews.cfm?newsId=3FCF5C3E-9D8A-682C-8154BFD40A3656AF(accessed 3 January 2012).
29 Deisenroth, D., and C.A. Bond. 2010. The Economic Contribution of the Private, Recreation-Based Aquaculture
Industry in the Western United States. Ft Collins, CO: Colorado State University. Available at:
http://dare.colostate.edu/tools/aquaculture.aspx .
30 “The Economic Effects of Rainbow Trout Stocking by Fish and Wildlife Service Hatcheries in FY 2004” by Dr. Jim
Caudill, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Economics, Arlington, Virginia, December, 2005.
31 Conserving America’s Fisheries: An assessment of Economic Contributions from Fisheries and Aquatic Resource
Conservation by Joseph John Charbonneau and James Caudill, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of
Economics, Arlington, Virginia, September 2010.

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Provide building blocks for jobs and economic growth:32 The Federal government has anational interest in fostering technological innovation and transfer in partnership withindustry entrepreneurs. 32 In fact, commercial aquaculture can create an estimated 75,000
to 100,000 direct and indirect jobs in the U.S. with every 1 million metric tons of
production because of its significant economic multiplier factor;33
Maintain research capabilities for basic and applied research so that today’s investment inresearch drives future growth in productivity: New technologies will improve theeffectiveness of inputs and integrate evolving technologies in new and better ways for highpayoffs from Federal investments. Such growth is critical for future aquaculture sector
expansion and competitiveness;
Support effective extension education functions that help translate and deliver new
knowledge for the public good and facilitates farm-level adoption of new technology;
Fill research gaps in a sector dominated by small companies with limited ability to conduct
research and advance the industry and address societal interests; andSupport sound science for policy, regulatory, and permitting decisions that allow
sustainable industry development: Scientific knowledge is required to understand theenvironmental effects of private and public sector aquaculture and mitigation options forsustainable development that is acceptable to the public.

STRATEGIC RESEARCH GOALSStrategic Goal 1: Advance Understanding of the Interactions of Aquaculture and theEnvironment
The need for practices to increase seafood production in a way that avoids or minimizes harm to
the environment, native species, and habitats resonates globally in all agricultural production
sectors, including aquaculture. Successful aquaculture depends on healthy ecosystems that provide
clean water and nutrient cycling to process or reuse wastes and co-products. In the United States,
aquaculture’s environmental performance has improved dramatically during the past 20 years,
driven by the need for more efficient use of resources and inputs due to rising costs of fuel andfeed, public awareness of environmental issues, application of science-based best management
practices, technological innovation, knowledge about proper siting of facilities, and evolving
aquaculture-specific environmental regulations at the State and Federal levels. Commercial
aquaculture production in the United States operates under some of the most stringent
environmental requirements in the world. Similarly, Federal agencies adhere to sound science andbest management practices when fulfilling their recovery and restoration missions.
Aquaculture production, like any human activity, can have a variety of potential impacts beyond
minimally adverse effects on the environment, depending on species, production system, andlocation. In some cases, pathogens and parasites may be transferred from wild to farmed fish andvice versa, and protected marine mammals or migratory waterfowl may interact with aquaculture
32“Promoting Research and Development: The Government's Role” Chairman Ben S. Bernanke, At the Conferenceon "New Building Blocks for Jobs and Economic Growth," Washington, D.C., May 16, 2011
http://www.Federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/bernanke20110516a.htm
33Knapp, Gunnar (2008). “Potential Economic Impacts of U.S. Offshore Aquaculture,” in Rubino, Michael (editor).
Offshore Aquaculture in the United States: Economic Considerations, Implications & Opportunities. U.S. Departmentof Commerce; Silver Spring, MD; USA. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS F/SPO-103. 263 pages.

9activities. New technology and management approaches are now in use and are required tominimize or eliminate negative environmental interactions including impacts to water quality,
benthic geochemistry, biodiversity, and interactions with protected species.
Outcomes Aquaculture that operates in harmony with healthy, productive, and resilient freshwaterand marine ecosystems
 Science-based Federal agency policies, regulations, and permitting decisions concerningaquaculture that incorporate practical conservation measures New knowledge and tools to monitor, predict, and adapt to the effects of climate change
and ocean acidification
Milestones
 Expanded science knowledge that provides the necessary ecological and technological
data, tools, and analyses to: (1) effectively and efficiently improve and manage aquaculture
development in harmony with species and habitat restoration; and (2) monitor, assess, andaddress any adverse and positive environmental effects of aquaculture Verified models and spatial planning tools for inland, coastal, and marine ecosystems thatpredict the carrying capacity for various cultured aquatic species, consider the cost andfeasibility of ecosystem-level management to appropriately site aquaculture activities, andreduce or eliminate potential adverse environmental effects
 Innovative, efficient, improved designs and operating methods for aquaculture production
systems that reduce energy and feed consumption per unit of output, avoid potential
unacceptable adverse environmental effects, and generate net environmental benefits (e.g.
incorporate use of irrigation water) Identification and expansion of ecosystem service benefits of commercial and public
aquaculture (e.g., water quality and habitat restoration due to shellfish planting and harvest
operations, shellfish restoration, and seaweed farming).
 Innovative approaches to sustain financing of aquaculture activities that create andmaintain ecosystems services (e.g., nutrient trading) Ongoing monitoring and mitigation of the effects of climate change and ocean acidification
on aquaculture and development of adaptation strategies
Strategic Goal 2: Employ Genetics to Increase Productivity and Protect Natural
Populations
To support the growth of seafood consumption in the United States and worldwide, criticalresearch and development needs include the domestication and genetic improvement of theaquaculture production traits of cultivated species. Also, as genetic changes are made in cultured
populations, the nature of interactions and mating between escaped farmed species and wild
populations in close proximity to them must be understood in order to minimize adverse genetic
impacts. Aquaculture faces the challenge of domesticating and enhancing the agronomic traits ofaquatic animals for commercial production, while learning best science-based practices tosuccessfully integrate commercial interests with protective measures for natural populations.

10Currently, fewer than 15 percent of all animals produced in aquaculture have been improved foraquaculture production through selective breeding; many juveniles or seed stocks are directly
harvested from wild populations or are the offspring of wild parents. Unlike much of terrestrial
agriculture, wild progenitor populations still exist for a wide variety of cultured aquatic organisms.
In those few aquatic species that have been domesticated, genetic selection is only a few
generations advanced. Furthermore, there is tremendous opportunity to apply genomic advances
to agronomic improvement. Desirable production traits include disease resistance and fast,
efficient growth, which means increased product yield with lower inputs and lower waste
production.
Federal efforts for stock restoration, the recovery of imperiled species, and stocking for recreation
programs currently strive to minimize genetic impact on wild stocks by ensuring that only
genetically appropriate animals are released into native waters.34 There are opportunities for
public and private entities to raise aquatic species for public restoration and recreation purposes,
in addition to products for commercial markets. Yet the genetic management of each type of
population is different.
Outcomes The establishment of breeding programs and other genetic tools that can rapidly improve
the agronomic, product quality and production traits of aquaculture species
 Conservation of genetic variation and diversity in wild populations
 Measure, monitor, model, and control the risks of the genetic impacts of cultured
populations on wild stocks
Milestones
 Development and implementation of genetic improvement programs with multi-trait selective
breeding for growth efficiency, disease resistance, and product quality that maximize
production efficiency and environmental compatibility of aquaculture Defined distribution of genetic variation within and between populations of interest forcommercialization, augmentation, restoration, or recreation. This will inform decisionmaking on which populations have the most potential for economic development or which
natural populations are most sensitive to environmental perturbation and responsive tohabitat restoration
 Development and refinement of genetic risk models to aid in science-based regulation andmanagement of commercial and public aquaculture activities
 Development of techniques to reduce the risks of undesired genetic impacts on natural
populations that can adversely impact sensitive native or endangered species or
biodiversity in natural systems

34 P. J. Paquet, T. Flagg, A. Appleby, J. Barr, L. Blankenship, D. Campton, M. Delarm, T. Evelyn, D. Fast, J.

Gislason, P. Kline, D. Maynard, L. Mobrand, G. Nandor, P. Seidel, S. Smith. 2011. Hatcheries, Conservation, andSustainable Fisheries—Achieving Multiple Goals: Results of the Hatchery Scientific Review Group's Columbia River
Basin Review. Fisheries Vol. 36 (11): 547-561.

11

Strategic Goal 3: Counter Disease in Aquatic Organisms and Improving Biosecurity
Disease has the potential to induce economic and ecological losses across the aquaculture sector.
It is essential to control endemic, emerging, and catastrophic infectious diseases that can cause
commercial and environmental loss of aquatic animal and plant production. It is equally important
to control potential transfer of disease between wild and farmed populations of aquatic organisms.
The National Aquatic Animal Health Plan (NAAHP),35 developed through the IWG-A, provides
guiding principles and recommendations to industry, states, tribes, and Federal agencies on actions
to protect the health of wild and farmed aquatic animals (finfish, mollusks, and crustaceans, etc.)
and minimize the impact of disease when they occur.
While progress has been made in combating certain pathogens that can cause disease throughvaccines and a limited number of approved animal drugs and chemicals, significant losses still
occur in commercial and restoration aquaculture. Little is known about diseases of aquatic plants
or seaweeds. The diversity of cultured aquatic species and associated pathogens and parasites is asignificant challenge. Great demand exists for improving the survival, growth, vigor, and healthof cultivated stocks through improved technologies and practices. For example, a critical needexists to develop validated techniques for early and rapid detection of many diseases in order toprevent and quickly respond to outbreaks and to facilitate safe and timely commerce.
Research is needed to improve the characterization of causative agents of disease, their diversity,and basic epidemiological traits such as host, vector, and geographical range. Further
understanding of host immunity is needed to develop effective immuno-biologics, diet/feeds,
drugs, pesticides, and genetic selection that offer broad protection and improve mass delivery
systems for these agents. Molecular tools allow new and comprehensive ways to examine hostimmunity and disease resistance, while aiding in the production of vaccines and development ofspecific pathogen-resistant stocks. Advances in understanding and characterizing the microbial
environments both within and surrounding the cultured organisms (metagenomics) will be usefulin aquaculture settings.
Important targets for aquaculture animal health-related science and technology are to: (1) increase
the understanding of disease transmission dynamics, including carrier states, pathogen, vector andparasite movements, and environmentally permissive factors, including internal and external
microbial environments; (2) advance the understanding of the interactions between cultivatedaquatic species and natural populations from an aquatic animal health perspective; (3) expand andstandardize biosecurity practices within culture systems to reduce the spread of disease andoptimize efficient disinfection; (4) identify therapeutics that effectively treat disease and biologics
to prevent disease; and (5) develop surveillance and certification systems that provide reliable
information on disease status that enable low-risk animal movement.
Outcomes

35 National Aquatic Animal Health Plan, Op. cit. 13

12








Biosecurity practices and measures for commercial farms and hatchery operations toprevent pathogen introduction and reduce losses due to disease outbreaks
Reduction in the risks of potential disease transmission between aquaculture operations
and wild stocks and the environment
Improved surveillance and diagnostic technologies
Characterization of disease-causing agents, including genetic diversity, host andgeographic range, and variation in pathogenesis and pathogenicity
Improved understanding of immunity using molecular tools and development of effective
vaccines, drugs, and probiotics
Enhanced public-private partnerships to identify, evaluate, and approve new vaccines
and aquatic animal drugs

Milestones
 Increased availability of rapid, efficient, inexpensive, sensitive, and specific diagnostic andsurveillance assays for detection and control of diseases to improve aquaculture
production, ensure biosecurity, maintain and expand market access for aquatic animals indomestic and international trade, and serve restoration efforts
 New tools to characterize pathogenic agents in terms of host specificity and geographic
range New tools to identify and characterize host defense mechanisms important in immunity
and to compare animals with resistant/susceptible phenotypes
 Increased availability of well-designed, safe, and effective vaccines; new approved animaldrugs; registered pesticides; and new probiotics
Strategic Goal 4: Improve Production Efficiency and Well-Being
Efficient, effective aquaculture production systems reduce inputs, operating costs, and wastes andcreate optimal conditions for growth, adaptability, and reproduction. Production efficiency andanimal or plant well-being start with properly matching species to appropriate production
environments and market demands. Defining optimal conditions requires a comprehensive
understanding of the physiology of early development, growth, stress response, and reproduction.
Achieving the desired partitioning of nutrients into the competing systems of muscle development,
digestive metabolism, health maintenance, and reproductive development is critical for improving
productivity and reducing cost and waste. Stressors caused by nutritional and environmental
factors and their interactions must be understood to limit adverse impact on animal or plant wellbeing that leads to poor health, sub-optimal growth and production efficiency, poor productquality, and excess waste.
Outcomes
 Improved reproductive efficiency and early life-stage development methods to enhancesurvival and juvenile availability
 Enhanced feed efficiency, reduced feed costs, improved growth and nutrient retention, andreduced production of waste
 Novel tools to define and reduce stressors on fish well-being
 Models to facilitate both production of target sized organisms and the ability of producers
to respond to changing market opportunities and trends
13Milestones
 Expanded choices of commercially viable species to meet production environment andmarket demands
 Efficient growth and feed use to lower input costs and reduce loss of nutrients to theenvironment, thus improving environmental sustainability and profitability Improved animal well-being and product quality Practices to enable efficient production of target sizes in changing markets
Strategic Goal 5: Improve Nutrition and Develop Novel Feeds
Although supplies of the key aquaculture feed ingredients—fish meal and fish oil—have been
relatively constant for more than 30 years, these resources are limited. Aquaculture worldwide
currently uses the majority of available marine fish oils and fish meals. Therefore, if finfish andshrimp aquaculture is to increase worldwide, alternatives to marine fish meal and fish oil must be
found. Also, feed ingredients need to be used more efficiently.
There are about 40 essential nutrients needed by all animals including vitamins, dietary minerals,
essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids. These nutrients can be provided by a number ofalternative ingredients. Alternative sources of protein and oil, for example, include feed ingredientsused in livestock and companion animal feeds, novel byproducts from other industries,
underutilized resources, or completely novel products. Existing commodities that have thepotential for greater use in aquafeeds include protein concentrates from grains or oilseeds andbyproducts from animal and fish processing. Novel byproducts from other industries include
proteins recovered from biofuel production or single-cell proteins produced from inexpensive
carbon sources. New products with potential for feeds include meals produced from worms,
insects, and marine invertebrates, and meals and oils from micro-algae and seaweeds. Obtaining
U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval of new aquatic animal feed ingredients will be
critical for the development and use of novel ingredients.
Economics drive feed ingredient choices. Feed costs account for about 40 to 70 percent of thevariable cost of finfish and shrimp culture. A global challenge is to identify novel feed ingredientsand develop nutritionally complete diets that support optimal performance and health. Prepared
feeds are the main source of essential nutrients necessary for optimal growth, reproduction, andhealth in commercially produced aquatic animals. Care must be taken to ensure that feeds support
the health and performance of the cultured aquatic animals as well as confer the human healthbenefits of eating seafood. The potential for environmental impacts of the feeds or feed metabolites
must also be considered.
Many of the human health benefits of seafood consumption stem from the long-chain, highly
unsaturated omega-3 fatty acids found in many seafood products. These fatty acids, found inmarine fish processed for fish meal and fish oil are not produced by these forage fish themselves,
but rather by marine algae. The long chain omega-3 fatty acids then accumulate through the food
web and become stored in aquatic animals after their consumption of prey and food items
containing these fatty acids. The feeds produced and provided to cultured animals can be prepared
to contain target levels of these fatty acids and other nutrients. Fish meal and fish oil can be

14

screened and, if necessary, further processed to remove contaminants such as polychlorinatedbiphenyls and heavy metals.
Outcomes New protein and oil alternatives for cultured aquatic animals to complement and reducereliance on wild caught marine fish
 Feed and ingredient manufacturing systems to accommodate use of non-traditional
ingredients
 Formulated diets that support optimal performance throughout the complete life cycle andacross traditional and new species of commercial and restoration interests
 Determination of the consequences of changes to aquatic animal diet composition on
consumer acceptance, human health and nutritional benefits, and environmental impacts
Milestones
 Increased availability of complete diets for traditional and new aquaculture species, with
reduced reliance on marine fish meal and fish oil, and exploitation of new and improved
feedstuff products and co-products made in the U.S.
 Development of feeds that define and support the nutritional value of fish and shellfish tohuman health and well-being
 Increased number and types of ingredients available to feed manufacturers
 Increased number of species with defined nutritional requirements to optimize thedevelopment of new species-specific commercial diets
Strategic Goal 6: Increase the Supply of Nutritious, Safe, High-Quality Domestic Seafood
Aquaculture food products contribute proven nutritional and health benefits to American
consumers. Increasing evidence from human nutrition and medical research support the healthbenefits of seafood consumption. For example, positive health outcomes of seafood consumption
include improved cognitive and cardiovascular function. Thus, the increased consumption of
farmed and wild seafood supports national priorities to reduce obesity, early childhood diabetes,
and the risk of chronic diet related disease. Yet the price and availability of seafood for U.S.
consumers could be disrupted due to the low level of domestic seafood production, dependence on
imported products, and increasing international demand for seafood. Increasing domestic
production is needed to ensure U.S. food security generally and seafood security specifically, andto reduce the $11 billion seafood trade deficit. Given the health benefits of eating seafood, adependable supply is also a national public health issue.
Outcomes Increased domestic supply of affordable and nutritious farmed seafood that meets U.S.
food standards for safety and nutritional value Improved consumer understanding of the nutritional and sensory value, quality, and safetyof farmed seafood to encourage acceptance and consumption
 Improved understanding of the factors and attributes that drive consumer preferences foraquaculture foods to align new products to consumer preferences15 Innovative methods, technologies, and approaches to improve product processing andtracking, shelf-life, and packaging that promote product quality, food safety, and humanhealth Analytical methods for affordable, rapid detection of microbial and biological toxins,
chemical residues, and human pathogens of highest concern for farm-raised products
Milestones
 Increased consumption of domestic aquaculture products Increased availability and diffusion of research-based information on the nutritional andquality attributes of aquaculture food products
Strategic Goal 7: Improve Performance of Production Systems
Production systems for aquaculture in the United States include pond-based systems (e.g., catfish
and crawfish production); raceway systems (e.g., rainbow trout); near-shore and offshore net-pensand cages (e.g., Atlantic salmon); hatcheries (e.g. Pacific salmon); intertidal, off-bottom, and longline coastal shellfish production; freshwater and marine algae (including seaweed) production
systems; and recirculation systems (e.g., salmon, yellow perch, tilapia, ornamental species, andoyster spat). Significant opportunities exist to improve the performance and productivity of
aquaculture production systems through advanced innovative engineering, as well as new devices
and technologies. There is significant potential to adapt current commercial technologies andengineering solutions from other sectors of the economy, such as municipal wastewater treatment,
manufacturing, medicine, information technology, and energy that can be integrated into
aquaculture systems to improve productivity and efficiency.
Outcomes Cost-effective production systems and culture technologies to increase yield with reduced
inputs (feed, freshwater, and energy)
 Performance of aquaculture production systems that is compatible and integrated withdesired animal well-being conditions and ecological factors
 Innovative systems and commercial scale demonstrations with field trials that measure
economic and environmental outcomes to facilitate adoption by farmers and companies
Milestones
 Increased production efficiency and reduced production and operating costs fromtechnological innovations in engineering design, rearing, feeding, transporting, andharvesting fish and shellfish
 Development of systems that require less water, feed, and energy resources to contributeto sustainable intensification of aquaculture production
 Improved effluent treatment technologies to significantly reduce or eliminate wastes andthe escape of established and potential aquatic nuisance species of concern
 Advances in aquaculture production systems that contribute to ecosystem services, species
restoration, and stock enhancement for commercial and recreational fishing16

Strategic Goal 8: Create a Skilled Workforce and Enhance Technology Transfer
U.S. Aquaculture depends on progressive science and technological innovation to create jobs,
compete in world seafood markets, meet environmental requirements, and meet evolving social
expectations. Continued U.S. leadership in aquaculture science and technology development will
require building human capacity in diverse scientific fields to find solutions to scientific,
economic, social, and management challenges. Public education and understanding of aquaculturescience and the performance of diverse aquaculture systems create a scientifically literate
population leading to sound policy-making. Science-based information, integrated withinformation delivery systems, offers new outreach opportunities to the public and the aquaculturecommunity.
The purpose of Federal and university extension education and technology transfer is to efficiently
integrate ideas, inventions, and technologies developed with both public and private funds into thecommercial and restoration aquaculture sectors. Unlike in some sectors, most support foraquaculture research and technology development originates from public funding sources.
Encouraging private sector involvement through cooperative and collaborative research ensures
the relevance of research investments. Federally-funded technology transfer is facilitated throughcooperative research and technology development agreements with the commercial and noncommercial aquaculture community.
Research and extension scientists, private for-profit and non-profit businesses, professionalsocieties, and industry associations all share a need for timely information exchange on researchoutcomes and emerging issues. International scientific and industry exchanges can all acceleratetechnology development and diffusion at a global scale. New public policy choices andconsumer preferences also raise new technology questions and drive the direction of future
curriculum development and educational needs. The long-term development and sustainability of
aquaculture will be determined, in part, by training scientists and technicians; effectively
connecting science, industry, and society; and using innovations in education and technology
transfer.
Outcomes New teaching tools and technologies that enhance and stimulate aquaculture education andtraining
 Technology transfer through integrated research, demonstration projects, and extension
and education programs
 Effective communication strategies to disseminate best-available, science-basedknowledge, tools, and technologies to reach target stakeholders including farmers
 Assessment of the trends and needs in domestic post-secondary education and training
specific to aquaculture
Milestones
 Development of a prepared and trained workforce with specialized skills to support futuretechnology driven industry growth17 Full use of effective technology transfer mechanisms such as patents, cooperative researchand technology development agreements, licensing agreements, public-private
partnerships, business incubators, demonstration farms, and extension education
partnerships to encourage the co-development of future generations of technologies
 Enhanced dissemination and use of new information and communication technologies toprovide timely, objective, science-based knowledge regarding aquaculture Completed national assessment of aquaculture education at post-secondary institutions in
the United States
Strategic Goal 9: Develop and Use Socioeconomic and Business Research to AdvanceDomestic Aquaculture
As interest in aquaculture for commercial use, wild species enhancement, and restoration
increases, so too has debate about the potential economic and social effects of aquaculture. In
addition, the economic viability of domestic aquaculture continues to be constrained by regulatory,
environmental, economic, social, market, industry, and technological factors that have been citedsince the 1980s.36,37 Economic and social challenges can include complicated and uncertain
regulatory processes, market competition affecting domestic seafood product prices that affectboth aquaculture farmers and fishermen, competition with other users of aquatic resources, anddiverse cultural traditions and values.
Global market forces create economic and social pressures on aquaculture. Globalization has
affected U.S. seafood markets beyond the increasing trade deficit. A significant, but difficult toquantify, percentage of imported aquaculture products can be attributed to the diffusion of U.S.
science and technology as well as specialized equipment, exported feeds and grains, and capital
investment. American consumers have benefited from lower-priced, abundant seafood, imported
from more than 125 countries, and in many cases now available year-round due to aquaculture.
U.S. equipment suppliers, feed manufacturers, and foodservice and retail companies have also
benefitted from foreign business and investments and imported products; but reliance on imported
seafood has costs and risks.
The United States has not captured the economic opportunity of the production and processing
segment of the seafood value chain or the opportunity for added employment in these sectors.
Concerns have also been raised with regard to food safety, environmental impacts, and the social
effects of farming practices in some countries. In addition, some U.S. aquaculture producers (e.g.
catfish) have been affected by low-cost imports of substitute products.
Some aquaculture activities operate in public waters rather than on privately owned property.
Securing approval for a new commercial or restoration aquaculture project in public waters can bedifficult, costly, and lengthy. Many competing uses for public waters, including tourism and

36 National Research Council. 1978. Aquaculture in the United States: Constraints and Opportunities. A report ofCommittee on Aquaculture, Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources, Commission on Natural Resources,
National Academy of Sciences. 123 pp.
37 Jensen, G.L. 2007. The evolutionary role of Federal policies and actions to support the sustainable development ofaquaculture in the United States. Pages 179-207 in P.S. Leung, C.S. Lee and P. O’Bryen, editors. Species andSystem Selection for Sustainable Aquaculture, Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa.

18

recreation, fishing, shipping, oil and gas facilities, and marine protected areas may further impede
opportunities for aquaculture.
The economic and social value of aquaculture for enhancement and restoration purposes andcollaboration among commercial, enhancement, and restoration aquaculture interests need to bebetter integrated. For example, State, Federal, tribal, non-profit, and commercial hatcheries (i.e.
aquaculture facilities) produce fish and shellfish for release to enhance commercial fisheries (e.g.,pink and chum salmon in Alaska); supply recreational species (e.g., salmon, trout, bass, andredfish); restore endangered, threatened, or imperiled species (e.g., salmon, trout, paddlefish,
abalone, and corals); rehabilitate habitat (e.g., oysters, aquatic vegetation, and seaweeds); andmitigate for public fisheries lost as a result of water projects. These hatcheries create substantial
economic value or generate monetary and nonmonetary benefits via species and habitat restoration.
Although some programs have been quantified, the total economic value of captive propagationand stock enhancement in the United States has not been estimated.
Outcomes Identification of key regulatory, policy, socioeconomic, and environmental constraints
to the improvement of the economics of commercial aquaculture and public stockenhancement and restoration in the United States Economic models to evaluate the relative cost and value of major components ofaquaculture production, such as feed, survival, transport, harvest, processing, valueadded processing, distribution, and marketing Collaborative opportunities among the aquaculture industry, the commercial fishingindustry, and the conservation community (e.g. product marketing and employment
crossover) Socioeconomic models to assess and report economic and social impacts of U.S.
aquaculture in job creation and economic, environmental, and social development terms
Milestones
 Socio-economic research that informs Federal policy and management actions; land use
or coastal zoning and marine spatial planning; economic incentive programs such as
revolving loan, loan guarantee, or insurance programs; public-private partnerships; andoutreach and education efforts
 Development of agricultural economic sensitivity analyses for major aquaculture species
that inform existing models and indicate research priorities Market research that enables aquaculture producers to better respond to major trends
affecting the profitability or competitiveness of U.S. aquaculture businesses Expanded seafood market demand that is met by complementary increases in domestic
aquaculture and capture fisheries
 Assessment of the monetary and non-monetary benefits of Federal stock enhancement
programs aimed at species and habitat restoration

PLAN IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES
The IWG-A, under the National Science and Technology Council, will serve as the coordinating
agent for implementation actions that will emerge from this plan, as defined in its mission to19

“increase the overall effectiveness and productivity of Federal aquaculture research, technology
transfer, and assistance programs,” as established by the National Aquaculture Act of 1980.38
Specific implementation actions include the following: The IWG-A, with support from the National Science and Technology Council, will develop
and implement measures to improve coordination and cooperation and lower
organizational barriers among departments and agencies to maximize available Federal
government resources for public value.
 The IWG-A will promote and facilitate the exchange of technologies and breakthroughs
between departments and agencies to maximize the effectiveness of Federal aquaculture
research and technology development investments and effective outreach to maximize
public value.
 Federal agencies will develop specific implementation plans to align critical Federal assets
and programs with priorities identified in this plan.
 Federal agencies will identify the most critical assets needed to maintain a core capacity
and competency for the Federal role in research and technology development based onneeds of the broader user community.
 Federal agencies will engage industry, academia, and other non-Federal stakeholders inFederal aquaculture research and technology development.
 Federal agencies will improve the dissemination of Federal research and technology
development outcomes. Federal agencies will identify and promote innovative policies,
regulations, and approaches that complement and enhance Federal research and technology
development investments to realize applications in aquaculture activities and field
operations.

APPENDIX A
The National Aquaculture Act of 1980, as amended39, outlines government support and policy foraquaculture40 development in the Nation by:
1. Declaring that aquaculture development is in the national interest;
2. Calling for the establishment and implementation of a national aquaculture development
plan; and3. Encouraging aquaculture activities and programs in both the public and private sectorsof the economy that will result in increased aquaculture production, coordination ofdomestic aquaculture efforts, conservation and enhancement of aquatic resources, andcreation of new industries and job opportunities.
The legislation emphasizes the need for government-wide coordination of national activities
regarding aquaculture, and to this end, it established a Federal interagency aquaculture
coordinating group through the Office of Science and Technology Policy that operates as the
38 National Aquaculture Act, Op. cit.1
39 The National Aquaculture Act (Public Law 96-362, 94 Stat. 1198, 16 U.S.C. 2801, et seq.) and the National

Aquaculture Improvement Act (Public Law 99-198, 99 Stat. 1641)
40 The Act defines aquaculture as the propagation and rearing of aquatic species in controlled or selectedenvironments. For purposes of this plan, aquaculture is defined as the propagation and rearing of aquatic organisms
for commercial, recreational, or public purpose.

20Interagency Working Group on Aquaculture (IWG-A). Currently, the IWG-A exists within the
National Science and Technology Council’s Committee on Science’s Life Sciences
Subcommittee. One of the primary functions of the IWG-A is to increase the overall effectivenessof Federal aquaculture research, technology transfer, and assistance programs.

21