2022
BE,
INSPIRED BE
INSPIRINGNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON JAPANESE LANGUAGE EDUCATIONPROCEEDINGSEDITED BY

ROWENA WARD

ISSN

2207-0184 (ONLINE)
REFERENCE

PROCEEDINGS – NSJLEEDITORIAL TEAMEDITORDr Rowena Ward, University of Wollongong

TEXT EDITORPaul Allatson
Satomi Kawaguchi

THE JAPAN FOUNDATION, SYDNEY
Yukiko Menda
Benjamin Trumbull

MONASH JAPANESE LANGUAGEEDUCATION CENTRE
Anne de Kretser

PEER REVIEW COMMITTEE
Dr William Armour, UNSW Sydney
Dr Karen Daly, University of Wollongong
Anne de Kretser, Monash Japanese Language Education Centre
Dr Barbara Hartley, The University of Queensland
Dr Kayoko Hashimoto, The University of Queensland
Emeritus Prof. Vera Mackie, University of Wollongong

DESIGNJon Zhu

PUBLISHER
The Japan Foundation, Sydney
Level 4, Central Park
28 Broadway Chippendale NSW 2008

ISSN-2207-0184 (ONLINE)
This serial publication is available for download from the
National Symposium on Japanese Language Education website
www.nsjle.org.au

The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors, and do
not necessarily coincide with those of the editors, the members of thePeer Review Committee or The Japan Foundation, Sydney.
The papers in this publication were originally presented at the fifthbiennial National Symposium on Japanese Language Education, hosted
by the Monash Japanese Language Education Centre and held on
November 4-5, 2022, at State Library Victoria. They have been peerreviewed and each appears in these proceedings by permission of theauthor(s), who retains copyright. The papers may be reproduced forfair use under the Copyright Act 1968, its later amendments and otherrelevant legislation.
Japanese names are written in first name / surname order, in
accordance with English-language convention.
July 2024© The Japan Foundation, Sydney 2024. All material in this publication is
copyright. Copyright of each paper belongs to the author. Copyright ofthe collection belongs to The Japan Foundation, Sydney. All copyrighted
images have been reproduced with permission and copyright remains
with the original copyright holders. Apart from any fair use as permitted
under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced without theprior permission of The Japan Foundation, Sydney and other copyrightholders.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSCONTENTS
5

Foreword
Yukihiro Ohira

6

Introduction
Rowena Ward

SECTION 1

INCLUSIVE PRACTICES
9Beyond Inclusion: Facilitating LGBTIQA+ Affirmative Japanese Language Learning
Claire Maree

19

Differentiation for Gifted Students in the Japanese Language Class
Victoria Poulos

SECTION 2

TEACHING PRACTICES
30

Leading Languages at Mernda Central College
Anthony Oldmeadow, Nicholas Creed, Steven Miyazawa and Thomas Armstrong

36

Engaging Students in their Japanese Learning through Project Based Learning (PBL)
Nathan Lane

42
小学校教育における異文化間バーチャル・エクスチェンジ： Padletを活用した非同時性活動の試み(Intercultural Virtual Exchange in Primary Education: An Attempt of Asynchronous Activities Using Padlet)
Shinji Okumura and Masae Uekusa

50

Trial Practice of Dialogic Language Assessment in Bilingual Schools in Australia
Kaoru Kadowaki and Takako Morita

57

Japanese Language Education for University Students in Japan with Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Backgrounds —The Potential of Australian Community Language Education
Keiko Okumura

3

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSCONTENTSSECTION 3

JAPANESE AS HERITAGE/COMMUNITY LANGUAGE68

Who are KEISHOGO Youth? Framing the Increasingly Diverse Learners of Japanese as Community Language
Yoji Hashimoto, Chihiro Kinoshita Thomson, Naomi Kurata, Shoko Ono and Kaya Oriyama

76

Connecting with Japanese in the Australian Community: A Case Study from Parents and Children of Japanese-AustralianIntermarriage Families
Miyako Matsui

88

Contributor Biographies

4

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

5FOREWORD
YUKIHIRO OHIRA

Welcome to the fifth volume of proceedings of the National Symposium on Japanese Language Education (NSJLE).
After a two-year postponement due to the COVID 19 pandemic, the fifth symposium, hosted by the Monash Japanese
Language Education Centre, was held on November 4-5, 2022 at State Library Victoria. From its inception in 2012, thebiennial NSJLE has consistently provided a platform for Japanese language educators to gather and exchange innovative
teaching methods and insights and addressing evolving challenges in the field.
Under the theme ‘Be Inspired, Be Inspiring’, this volume of proceedings encapsulates the community’s ongoing commitment
to fostering Japanese language learning. I’d like to thank each author for their time and expertise in contributing to thisvolume. I would also like to give thanks to Dr. Rowena Ward, the chief editor; peer reviewers (in alphabetical order) Dr.
William Armour, Dr. Karen Daly, Anne de Kretser, Dr. Barbara Hartley, Dr. Kayoko Hashimoto, Emeritus Prof. Vera Mackie;
text editors Paul Allatson, Satomi Kawaguchi, and to Yukiko Menda and Ben Trumbull for their invaluable effort and support
in bringing this volume to fruition.
I trust that you will enjoy and find inspiration from these papers.
Yukihiro Ohira
Director
The Japan Foundation, Sydney
July 2024

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

6INTRODUCTIONROWENA WARD
University of Wollongong

The theme for the 2022 National Symposium for Japanese language Education was ‘Be Inspired! Be Inspiring!’. The theme
reflects the importance of ongoing innovation in teaching practices and being a good role model to students across theeducation sector. This theme also recognises the need for new and innovative ways of teaching that resulted from the onsetof the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and the consequential switch to online learning. Importantly, as discussed by a number ofpresenters at the Symposium, the sudden shift online did not prevent innovative collaborative projects between education
institutions in Australia and Japan from continuing albeit perhaps in a different format to what was originally envisaged.
Japanese language education and research on Japan has a long history in Australia. The University of Sydney offered thefirst Japanese language classes in 1917. Since then, Japanese language education has spread across Australia and to alllevels of the education system. This situation is clear from The Japan Foundation’s ‘Survey Report on Japanese-Language
Education Abroad 2021’ which shows that Australia, with 415,348 Japanese language learners, ranked fourth in the world
for Japanese language learners (2023: 13).1 An interesting anomaly continues to be the high number of learners (258,811)
in primary schools (2023: 40). Unfortunately, the same survey showed a fall in teacher numbers since the previous survey
in 2018 which while disconcerting, is not unsurprising in the light of the ongoing nation-wide shortage of language teachers.
The breadth of learners across all levels of the education system is reflected in the range of articles in these Proceedings ofthe ‘2022 National Symposium of Japanese Language Education’.
This volume is divided into three sections. The first – Inclusive Practices - includes an updated version of Professor Claire
Maree’s keynote on Beyond Inclusion: Facilitating LGBTIQA+ Affirmative Japanese Language Learning. As Maree writes, there
is a growth in Japanese language learners who are ‘eager to explore issues of equity and discrimination around gender andsexuality as they relate to Japanese society, culture and language’ (page 10). Importantly, this growth occurs at all levels of
the education system: primary, secondary and tertiary. The second article in the section – by Victoria Poulos - outlines how
differentiation in teaching practices can serve to include, and motivate, gifted learners to continue in their language studies.
The second section - Teaching Practices - includes articles by Oldmeadow et al which discusses the successful implementationof a whole-school Japanese language program at Mernda Central College on Melbourne’s northern outskirts. The section
also includes articles by Nathan Lane and one by Okumura Shinji and Uekusa Masae on the integration of innovative teachingpractices into the classroom. Both articles introduce useful examples of their respective practices which can be expanded
and / or modified for other classroom settings. The last two articles in this section address how practices used in Japan
can be adapted for the Australian classroom or vice versa. In their article on a trial implementation of the Dialogic Language
Assessment for Japanese as a Second Language (DLA) in a bilingual school in Australia, Kadowaki and Morita show how after
the implementation, the Japanese language teacher in the Australian school modified her teaching practice to encourage
students to speak more in Japanese in class. In contrast, Okumura Keiko discusses how she utilises the principles and practicesof Community Language Education which she acquired while teaching in Australia in her teaching practice in a university inJapan. The authors of both articles recommend further trials into the implementation of the practices they introduce.
The third section – Japanese as heritage/community language – includes two articles. The first by Hashimoto et al notes
the increasing diversity among Japanese heritage learners in Australia and some of the problems which they face in local
schools. Importantly, they also recommend one solution to some of these issues in the form of the Watashi-go Portfolio
and explain how it can be used. The second article – by Matsui Miyako – discusses the Japanese language maintenance1

https://www.jpf.go.jp/e/project/japanese/survey/result/survey21.html

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

7

among children of intermarriage marriages. Matsui also explores the experiences of a small number of older children ofsimilar marriages to give an indication of how the situation has changed over time and their reflections on their childhood
experiences as adults.
All articles in this volume are inspirational and mirror the range of practices and research into Japanese language educationin Australia. They also illustrate the ongoing innovations which are a feature of the teaching of Japanese in the Australianeducation system. I trust that readers are as similarly inspired as I am.
I would like to express my thanks to all contributors and reviewers for their submissions and assistance. Similarly, I would
like for thank the staff of The Japan Foundation, Sydney, for the opportunity to edit this volume and for their assistance in its
production. I am especially grateful to Ben Trumbull for his assistance and patience.

SECTION 1

INCLUSIVE
PRACTICESNSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSBEYOND INCLUSION:
FACILITATING LGBTIQA+
AFFIRMATIVE JAPANESELANGUAGE LEARNING
CLAIRE MAREE
University of Melbourne

9

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

10ABSTRACT
While there is increasing interest in exploring issues of equity and discrimination around gender and sexuality as it relates toJapanese society, culture and language, there is still a perception that discussion of sexual orientation and gender identity
is taboo. How can Japanese language professionals facilitate learning and exploration around sexual orientation, gender
identity, expression and sex characteristics (SOGIESC) in Japanese? I turn to work by Knisely & Paiz (2021) which advocatesfor “locally relevant” LGBTIQA+ inclusive pedagogies. I present a brief overview of developments in education policy, shifts inpublic attitudes and recent guidelines for inclusive language. I also introduce some of the creative ways in which Japanese
speakers navigate gendered language norms. The paper concludes by an invitation to consider how Japanese language
professionals might collaborate to create and maintain learning spaces which not only include a diversity of SOGIESC, butalso affirm LGBTIQA+ students and teachers.

INTRODUCTION
There is growing recognition that Japanese language learners in Australia are eager to explore issues of equity anddiscrimination around gender and sexuality as they relate to Japanese society, culture and language. One indicator of thisis the request I received to deliver a keynote on that topic at the National Symposium on Japanese Language Education(NSJLE) 20221 and the comments I received following the talk. Colleagues teaching at primary, junior and senior highschools approached me to share their experiences of teaching trans2 and non-binary3 youth. They spoke of students who
were keen to explore ways in which they can express their own diverse gender identities and ways to refer to trans andnon-binary family and loved ones in and through Japanese. In the “‘Be Inspired Be Inspiring’—Creating affirmative andsupportive learning environments for LGBTIQA+4 teachers and learners of Japanese” later the same day,5 we discussed
what terminology or linguistic strategies might be appropriate for different levels of Japanese Language Education (JLE)in Australia. Colleagues mentioned the entrenched view that any discussion of sexual orientation was taboo in Japanese
language and culture. This viewpoint often makes it difficult to respond to the needs of sexuality and gender diverse
students as well as of staff. This is complicated by anti-gender, anti-LGBTIQA+ discourse, which circulates globally.
Within a climate where there is inquisitiveness, but also caution, how can language professionals facilitate learningand exploration around sexual orientation, gender identity, expression and sex characteristics (SOGIESC)6 in Japanese?
How might we do this at time where there is an increasingly vocal anti-gender backlash playing out across the globe?
Contemporary research into LGBTIQA+ affirmative language teaching (Knisely 2023; Knisley and Paiz 2021; Paiz and Coda
2021), seeks to explore those questions in relation to a diversity of languages (see, for example, Paiz and Coda 2021).
Looking towards Japanese language education (JLE), previous research has pointed to the lack of representation ofsexuality and gender diverse individuals in textbooks and other teaching materials (Arimori 2017; 2020; Maree 1998; 2011;2020b; Moore 2019; Sall Vesselényi 2019; Yoshida 2023) and the difficulties in incorporating queer perspectives into JLE(de Vincenti, Giovanangeli and Ward 2007; Maree 2020b; Yoshida 2023). Less attention has been paid to approaches thatincorporate trans-affirming pedagogies and gender inclusivity.

1

Many thanks to NJSLE for inviting me to present a keynote on this topic in Melbourne, and to all who shared their experiences and thoughts.

2	Trans and transgender are umbrella terms used for those whose gender identity differs from the one they were assigned at birth. The Oxford
English Dictionary (Revised 2018) defines transgender thus: “Designating a person whose sense of personal identity and gender does notcorrespond to that person’s sex at birth, or which does not otherwise conform to conventional notions of sex and gender.”3	Non-binary is an umbrella term for those who do not identify as men or women. The Oxford English Dictionary (Revised 2018) defines nonbinary as: “Of a person: not identifying as male or female; having a gender identity that does not conform to traditional binary notions of gender(according to which all individuals are exclusively either male or female). Also: designating such a gender identity; of or relating to (people with)such a gender identity.”
4	In this article I use the acronym LGBTIQA+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex, Queer, Asexual, plus) except in instances where
alternatives, such as LGBT and/or LGBTQ are used in Japanese. The “+” is used to express other identities that may not be expressed by thisacronym.
5	“‘Be Inspired Be Inspiring’—Creating affirmative and supportive learning environments for LGBTIQA+ teachers and learners of Japanese” wascoordinated by the International Network for Gender and Sexuality in Japanese Language Education (INGS-J) and featured Claire Maree and Maki
Yoshida as presenters and workshop leaders. Many thanks to all participants.
6

The acronym SOGIESC is used widely, including within the United Nations.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

11

Acknowledging that the legal, social and cultural circumstances of LGBTIQA+ people differ significantly across the globe, I
turn to work by Knisely and Paiz (2021, 29), which advocates for “locally relevant, culturally responsive pedagogies.” Transaffirming queer-inquiry based pedagogies, or TAQIBPs (2021, 31), critique heteronormativity7 and also focus on the “(de)construction of gender and cisnormativity” (2021, 29) as it operates in the language classroom and language more broadly.
Cisnormativity is a mechanism of oppression that privileges cisgender8 individuals and sets cisgender as the norm on whichsocial, legal and cultural structures are formulated and operate. The TAQIBPs toolkit commences with “a self-inventory for
instructors to investigate their knowledge, practices, and positionality” (Knisely and Paiz 2021, 31). Provoked by the prompt
to “investigate knowledge” in the target language, and aware that developments in education policy and shifts in public
attitudes in Japan towards LGBTIQA+ people and SOGIESC issues are not widely known to Japanese language educators, I
first present a brief overview of activism-led change. I then introduce recent guidelines for inclusive language and, buildingon Japanese language research, touch on creative ways in which Japanese speakers navigate gendered language norms.
Finally, in conclusion I invite us to think about how we can aim to build and/or maintain learning spaces that not only include
a diversity of SOGIESC, but also affirm LGBTIQA+ students and teachers. At all points, I am mindful of the constraints oflocal teaching and learning environments and advocate for collaborative networking to offer support across the profession.

CIVIC ACTIVISM AND EDUCATIONAL CHANGE
In Japan, civic activism around sexual orientation, gender identity, expression and sex characteristics has had some impact
on educational policies. One of the earliest examples is the removal of the reference to “homosexuality“ (同性愛dōsei’ai)
as “sexual perversion delinquency” (倒錯型性非行tōsakugata seihikō) in the Ministry of Education’s Basic document aboutproblem behaviour of students (生徒の問題行動に関する基礎資料 Seito no mondai kōdō ni kansuru kiso shiryō, 1979)
from 1993. The legal case that gay and lesbian peer support and activist group OCCUR filed against the Tokyo Municipal
Government (TMG) in 1991 was the catalyst for this change. After lodging a complaint about discriminatory behaviour
experienced by members of OCCUR whilst using the Fuchū Youth Center Facilities, which were under the management of
the TMG (Watanabe 2017; for an overview of the case see Nakagawa 2019), the TMG refused the group permission to use
the facilities again. As part of their defense, the TMG cited the Basic document about problem behaviour of students as well
as dictionary definitions of “homosexuality” as evidence of a “lack of consensus” around homosexuality in Japanese society
at the time. OCCUR went on to win the case at the High Court level in 1997.
The passing of the Gender Identity Disorder (GID) Special Cases Act (commonly known as the GID Act) in 2003, effective
in 2004 (for an overview of the law see, Nohno 2004) has also impacted on support offered to trans and gender nonconforming students at primary and secondary schools. Under the GID Act, individuals who meet specific conditions9can alter their gender on official government documents. As GID, or seidōitsusei shōgai,(性同一性障害), is classified as a“disorder” (障害shōgai) and therefore a treatable medical condition, education institutions were duty-bound to establish
policies for GID students who could not yet alter their legal gender (Watanabe 2017; Mitsunari 2017). It wasn’t until 2010,
however, that the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) issued a “notice” (通知tsūchi)outlining the necessity of schools to “take into consideration” (配慮するhairyosuru) children with GID.
As Watanabe (2017) notes, Japan’s National Cabinet formally endorsed human rights policies in 2002, which means
public schools offering compulsory education are also duty-bound to include provisions to counteract anti-homosexual
discrimination. It wasn’t until 2017, however, that direct reference to “homosexuality” (同性愛dōsei’ai) appeared as partof the MEXT Act for the Measures to Prevent Bullying (MEXT 2017) in a clause that calls for schools to adopt appropriate

7	As Wieringa notes, “(h)eteronormativity refers to a system in which sexual conduct and kinship relations are organized in such a way that a
specific form of heterosexuality becomes the culturally accepted ‘natural’ order. Thus biological sex, sexuality, gender identity and expression
and normative gender roles are aligned in such a way that a dominant view on sexual and gender relations, identities, and expressions is
produced” (2014, 210).
8	The term cisgender “can be used to describe individuals who possess, from birth and into adulthood, the male or female reproductive organs(sex) typical of the social category of man or woman (gender) to which that individual was assigned at birth” (Aultman 2014, 60).
9	The individuals must be unmarried, not have children who are minors, have a diagnosis of GID and have completed sex affirmation surgery(referred to as sex reassignment in the laws). These conditions represent severe incursions on human rights and have been contested by UN
Human Rights experts. A recent case brought to the Japanese courts has resulted in a 2023 ruling that the condition of forced sterilization, onepart of required surgical interventions, is unconstitutional.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

12

measures to strengthen teachers’ “correct understanding” of “gender dysphoria” (the term used in Japanese legalese),“sexual orientation and gender identity” as a counter measure for bullying.

RAISING AWARENESS OF THE NEEDS OF LGBTIQA+ STUDENTS AT THE
TERTIARY LEVEL
Since the 1990s, students have created communities and organised LGBTIQA+ peer support events on Japanese university
campuses. The formation of an intercollege sexual minorities network called Rainbow College in 2006 saw support growacross Japan. Since the mid-2010s, too, university initiatives framed around discourses of diversity and inclusion havecomplemented student led clubs. The tragic suicide in 2015 of a graduate university student who was a victim of outing has
been a catalyst for further change. A survey conducted by Kawashima (2017), however, indicates that in 2017 university
campuses in Japan lagged behind secondary schools in regard to support for, and initiatives aimed at increasing awarenessof, the needs of LGBTIQA+ students.
Kawashima (2017, 220–231) lists ten problematic areas in relation to SOGIESC at universities and suggests countermeasures
for the tertiary sector. These include making systematic changes to awareness raising training for staff and students andincreasing the expertise of university counselling services. In an updated examination of the state of support for LGBTIQA+
students and staff, and SOGIESC related measures, Kawashima (2020) notes that more student support services include
reference to LGBT students through diversity initiatives and that the number of universities who issue guidelines on “gender/
sexual diversity” (性の多様性sei no tayōsei) has increased. Students can use their preferred name at an increasing numberof universities, and some do not require a diagnosis of GID to do so. An increasing number of women’s universities accept
or have plans to accept trans students: Ochanomizu University and Nara Women’s University (2020 ~ ), Miyagi Gakuin
Women’s University (2021 ~ ), Notre Dame Seishin University (2023 ~ ), Japan’s Women’s University (2024 ~ ) and Tsuda
College (2025 ~ ). On some campuses trained psychologists can coordinate with the student affairs office to offer aid tostudents. Support for job hunting and career development is available using information from community organizations
such as Work with Pride.

PUBLIC OPINION
Advocacy, activism and lobbying have raised public awareness of the issues LGBTIQA+ individuals face in Japan in regard
to partnership rights and discrimination in the job market. The most recent surveys indicate that over the past decade, theJapanese public has come to demonstrate more positive attitudes towards LGBTIQA+ people (Ikuta et al. 2018; Kamano
et al. 2020; PEW 2020). As of June 2023, 328 local governments had enacted same-sex partnership ordinances by which
couples can register their partnerships locally (Nijibridge, 2023). The partnership certificates do not offer the same rights aslegal marriage, and a campaign for marriage equality is currently being orchestrated through a series of civil court cases
across the country (see the Marriage for All website for more details).
Looking to the workplace we find that, although figures decreased between 2018 and 2020, over 38% of LGBT workers inJapan report experiencing harassment and/or discriminatory behaviour (Muraki, Hiramori, Mikami and Yamawaki 2021, 8).
Lobbying by civic sector groups to raise awareness around “SOGI Harassment” (ソジハラスメント sojiharasumento) led tothe inclusion of reference to sexual orientation and gender identity in amendments pertaining to power harassment in theworkplace under the Act on Comprehensive Promotion of Labor Measures and Stabilization of Employment of Employees
and Enrichment of Their Working Lives, Etc. (the “Labor Measures Comprehensive Promotion Act”) (2021). Employers are
now required to implement measures to prevent workplace harassment, including breaches of privacy.
Legislative changes and changes to public opinion, however, occur within an emerging backlash of anti-LGBT, anti-transrhetoric. Most recently this has occurred alongside public debate surrounding the term “gender identity” in relation tolegislation to “Promote public understanding of diversity of sexual orientation and gender identity”（ 性的指向及びジェン
ダーアイデンティティの多様性に関する国民の理解の増進に関する法律 seiteki shikō oyobi jendā aidentiti no tayōsei）that
was passed in 2023. Three expressions are commonly used for gender identity in Japanese: Jendā aidentiti （ジェンダー
アイデンティティ）in the katakana script, seijinin (性自認) and seidōitsusei (性同一性). Seijinin (性自認), is comprised of

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

13

the character sei (sex/gender) and jinin (self-acknowledgement). Seidōitsusei (性同一性) is comprised of sei (sex/gender)and dōitsusei (identity/oneness). The use of dōitsusei （同一性）as a term for identity can be traced to the translationof Erikson’s ego identity (自我同一性 jigadōitsusei) and this makes the latter more commonly used in medical andpsychological discourses, hence its use in the GID Law (see above). Conservatives argued that the term seijinin (性自認)
was inappropriate as jinin (self-acknowledgement) had connotations of self-determination. After heated debate with atransphobic thrust, jendā aidentītī (gender identity) was adopted making the “SOGI understanding Bill” one of the few to use
a loan word rendered in katakana for a central concept contained in the legislation.

FACILITATING LGBTIQA+ AFFIRMATIVE JAPANESE LANGUAGE LEARNING
The developments in Japanese education and legislation outlined above provide evidence that counteracting discrimination,and enacting inclusive and affirmative practices in the Japanese language sector, are relevant concerns for the teachingprofession. Research in applied linguistics and second language pedagogy, too, argues that we must go beyond the“inclusion” of LGBTIQA+ language learners towards “affirmation.” Indeed, the limitations of token inclusivity are central todiscussions of critical applied linguistics (Pennycook 2001; 2022) and queer approaches to language teaching and learning(Nelson 2006; 2009; Moore 2019). Token inclusivity, which relegates discussion of SOGIESC to only one lesson, may reinforce
the notion that LGBTIQA+ events and issues are “controversial” or relate to the “special interests of a small group” (Knisely
and Paiz 2021, 30). To avoid this and move towards affirmation, in recent approaches educators are encouraged to adopt
an “early and often” approach (Knisely and Paiz 2021, 30) whereby LGBTIQA+ language and peoples are fully integrated into
the curriculum from as early as possible.
The way in which facilitating LGBTIQA+ affirmative Japanese language learning may be achieved will differ for each learning
environment. Any approach must be relevant for the level at which the language is being taught, and the context within
which it is being taught. Knisely and Paiz’s TAQIBPs encourages respectful engagement. The aim of respectful engagement
is to “raise students’ awareness of LGBTQ+ lives and how they are mediated and constrained through language” (Knisely
and Paiz 2021, 29). Through respectful engagement, students become empowered to “not only perform gender and sexual
identities in locally relevant, linguistically fitting ways that render them understandable to socially significant others, butalso to advocate for themselves and others” (29). Note here, the emphasis is on the “locally relevant” and “linguisticallyfit”—that is it must be “fit” for the local learning environment, and “fit” for the target language.
One pathway to building respectful engagement is to “draw student’s attention to the queer world around them” and tobring “local LGBTQ+ content into the classroom instead of relying on often problematic, mass-produced representation”(Knisely and Paiz 2021, 29). Within the Australian JLE context, it may be possible to incorporate local LGBTQIA+ celebrations
such as the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras and/or local Pride festivals into teaching and learning activities, especiallyas reported on Japanese language media such as SBS Japanese. This can be one way of offsetting representationsof LGBTIQA+ people and individuals in Japanese mainstream media, which continue to be somewhat problematic, assuggested by guidelines such as those prepared by the Japan Alliance for LGBT Legislation (2022) and Pride House Tokyo,
in association with GLAAD and Athlete Ally (2021).

MISGENDERING
Going beyond inclusion to practice affirmation of LGBTIQA+ in the classroom begins with creating an atmosphere in which
lived experiences, when shared, are not negated. This includes not engaging in misgendering. The Japan Alliance for LGBT
Legislation produced media guide defines misgendering as using “incorrect language” such as honorific address terms andpronouns that “do not respect the individual’s gender identity” (本人の性自認を尊重せず honnin no seijinin o sonchō sezu)(2021, 13).
In Japanese, pronouns form part of a complex network of self and other address terms that relate not only to gender,
but also social hierarchies and the formality of the language setting. Queer and trans speakers adopt different strategies
to negotiate the complex pronoun system. In Maree’s (2007) work on queer Japanese speakers, for example, a lesbian
woman discusses how she uses the hyperfeminine first-person pronoun あたし (atashi) so that she can have it understoodthat “I’m a woman.” Another lesbian speaker spoke of being “stunned” when they were told not to use (informal firstpronoun) ぼく (boku), but (formal first-person pronoun) わたし (watashi) when they entered primary school. It is not only
LGBTIQA+ Japanese language users who negotiate these norms. We only have to turn to autobiographical writings andNSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

14

popular culture to find a variety of writers recounting their personal experiences of navigating Japanese self-reference.
Japanese users (that is, those who use Japanese, Japanese speakers) negotiate self-referencing and pronouns in theireveryday language use. Not everyone uses the same self-reference term in all interactions. The same individual mightuse ぼく(boku I/me), おれ (ore I/me), わたくし (watakushi I/me), パパ (papa Dad/me), or わし (washi I/me) to refer tothemselves over the course of a single day.
Well-known studies by Miyazaki (2004; 2023) note how linguistic repertoires in friendship groups in a high-school homeroom
class vary significantly due to the power dynamics within the group, and their positionality viz-a-viz localised gender norms.
Within their friendship groups, students used a range of terms from ぼく(boku I/me), おれ (ore I/me), あたし (atashi I/me),and would even avoid pronouns all together due to bullying. As Miyazaki explains some groups of girls used ore, which theyevaluated as being “cool,” “powerful,” “independent,” and “assertive” (2023). Not all pronouns and/or address terms might
be deemed appropriate for the local classroom context. However, rather than offering an account of pronoun usage as agrammatical “rule” bound to cisnormative gender binaries, it may be possible to demonstrate the richness of Japanese
self- and other-references as one pathway to encouraging respectful engagement and affirmation in the classroom.
In the language classroom, exercises focused on discussing oneself and one’s family and friends are common. In thesecontexts, students may wish to avoid misgendering their siblings. Indeed this is one concern that educators—from primaryschool to tertiary level—have often voiced to me in conversations. Japanese kinship terms, which mark both gender andage, may be a challenge here if we adhere to textbook patterns. However, just as English has the alternative gender neutralterm sibling, the term kyōdai （きょうだい）can be used in a similar manner. While kyōdai can be written in a combination ofcharacters that indicate gender （兄弟・兄妹）, writing it in the hiragana script （きょうだい）removes the visual reference
to gender. Along the same lines, to refer to a non-binary older or younger sibling in Japanese, using alternatives to indicate
relative age and not gender, is also a possibility (see Table 1).
Table 1
ALTERNATIVES FOR REFERENCING OTHERS
Expressions

Gendered terms

Alternatives

Referring to family

きょうだい きょうだい しまい

きょうだい
年上のきょうだい, 年下のきょうだい

兄弟 , 兄妹, 姉妹
あね あに いもうと おとうと

姉, 兄, 妹, 弟
Referring to others〜ちゃん, 〜くん〜さん

As noted above, introducing inclusive alternatives to the JLE classroom may be met with resistance from other teachers
and/or colleagues. To counteract this, it can be strategically useful to indicate that such initiatives emerge from Japan.
For, as well as the media guidelines mentioned above, many local governments have guidelines on how to avoid
cisheteronormative assumptions about gender and/or sexual orientation in dealings with the public.
Table 2 shows some alternative phrasings used in the Chiyoda Wards LGBTs pamphlet. The term pātonā (パートナー partner)
is given as an alternative to gendered terms such as danna-sama (旦那様your husband) and oku-sama (奥様your wife).
Hogosha no kata (保護者guardian) or go-kazoku no kata (ご家族の方family member) are offered as alternatives for mother
and/or father. Note, too, the suggestion to avoid phrases such as otoko rashii (男らしいmanly/masculine) or onna rashii (女らしいwomanly/feminine). The suggestion is to replace the otoko (男man) and/or onna (女woman) with the referent’s nameand the address suffix san (さん). The resultant phrase ~san rashii (〜さんらしい) does not translate well into English but
could be rendered as “name-like,” “very name” to describe some aspect of the referents behaviour and so on.
Table 2
ALTERNATIVE TERMS INCLUDED IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT GUIDELINES
Gendered terms

Alternatives

だんなさま

パートナー

おくさま

旦那様、奥様
おとこ

おんな

男らしい、女らしい○○さんらしいNSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSGendered terms
とうかあ

お父さん、お母さん

15

Alternatives
ほごしゃ

かた

かぞく

かた

保護者の方、ご家族の方

Recent research into LGBTIQA+ affirmative language classrooms promotes the use of examples from the target language
yet also cautions care when bringing examples to the local context. A wide range of resources is available via the internet;
however, it may be difficult to ascertain the most appropriate materials for the age group language level and local context.
To that end, it may be useful to explore materials available on local government websites that have official relations in thecity or state in which the classroom is located. For example, Osaka, which has a long-standing relationship with Melbourne,
has a comprehensive handbook for employees as well as posters with public service messages around SOGIESC and arange of other resources. This includes a pamphlet for children and their guardians titled LGBTってなんやろ (LGBT tte nan
yaro I wonder what LGBT is), which has suggestions for further reading.
Another resource that may be useful is NPO ReBit’s Ally Teacher’s Tool Kits, which are available online. The tagline for the
Tool Kits is “すべての学校をセクシュアルマイノリティの子どもにとってもすごしやすい場所に” or “Please be a Teacher
Ally who makes school a comfortable place for sexual minority children.” The term sugoshiyasui 過ごしやすい– literally“comfortable to be in” aligns with notions of safe(r) space. ReBit uses a cute arai-guma (アライグマraccoon) to promote theconcept of allyship. Mascots are commonly used in Japanese culture to promote public awareness campaigns and local
government initiatives (see for example, Occhi 2021). The racoon figure plays on the Japanese pronunciation of ally (アライarai) which is a homophone of arai （あらい）in arai-guma（浣熊 raccoon）. ReBit explains the concept of “ally” as “a term
meaning” supporter [lit. a person who understands], which “refers to people who think “I know about LGBT things!” Rebit’sLGBT tool kit for primary school includes a lesson plan, teachers’ and students’ worksheets, a list of recommended books
and audiovisual materials available via YouTube.

TERMS FOR SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY IN JAPANESEAs well as concerns around self-determination and misgendering, Japanese language learners may want to use a variety ofterms to reflect their own personal identities, or those of their loved ones. As terms for sexual orientation, gender identity,
expression and sex characteristics are constantly in flux, contemporary audiovisual content can be instructive here todemonstrate the range of terms in use. One YouTuber by the name Kazue-chan has produced short videos for Coming out
Day (October 21)10 for the past few years. Available via the internet, the videos feature people from LGBTIQA+ communities
who introduce themselves using a variety of different Japanese terms. The terms used by those who appear in Kazuechan’s 2022 video demonstrate the wide range of terms currently in use in Japanese to refer to sexual orientations, gender
identities and/or SOGIESC (Table 3).
Table 3
SOGIESC TERMS USED IN CONTEMPORARY YOUTUBE VIDEOS
Sexual orientations

パンセクシュアル,ジニセクシュアル, バイセクシュ
アル, ポリアモリー, アセクシュアル,

pansexual, gynesexual, bisexual, polyamory,
asexualGender identities

FTM, Xジェンダー, トランスジェンダー, ノンバイナ
リー, FTX, 無性別, トランスジェンダーMTF, MTF,
FTM寄りFTX, トランスジェンダー・FTM, 男性でも女性でもないFTM [female-to-male transgender], X-gender,transgender, nonbinary, FTX [female-to-x], nosex/gender, transgender MTF [male-to-female],male-to-female, FTM leaning FTX, transgender
FTM, neither man nor woman11

Sexual orientation and/or gender identity

ゲイ, レズビアン, ゲイ寄りバイセクシュアル, アロ
マンティックセクシュアル, クィア, Q（決めなくていいと思います）gay, lesbian, gay leaning bisexual, aromantic
asexual, queer, Q (no need to decide)10

National Coming Out Day originated in the USA but has spread to many regions and countries globally.

11
FTM (female-to-male) and MTF (male-to-female) are not widely used in contemporary Australia as they are considered inaccurate
representations of lived experiences.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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Table 3 contains terms that have entered Japanese over decades of interaction with international and/or global communities.
Many of these “loan words” have undergone processes of semantic change. That is, the terms are used within communities
at different times with slightly different meanings. In contemporary Japanese, the term “gay” is used predominantly by
men as a self-reference term. However, as McLelland (2004) notes, the term “gay” can be traced back to what he calls an“original gay boom” in occupation Japan when it was a slang term that played on the English “gay” and Japanese “gei” (芸art/artistic skill). Table 3 also contains terms that have emerged from the sociopolitical and cultural context of Japan. The
term x-gender, for example, emerges from the Kansai area of Japan. As Dale (2014, 270) notes, X-jendā “can be taken to
signify that one’s gender is neither female nor male but ‘x.’” X-gender is not commonly used in “cultural contexts outside
Japan” and Dale goes on to explain that many x-jendā people “frame their identity using terms such as FTX (female to X),
MTX (male to X), or XTX (used by intersex individuals or those who say that they have never identified as a specific gender).”
Within contemporary English language discourse, this framing is often labelled as “obsolete” or “out of date” because it
suggests a transition from “sex assigned at birth” rather than centring the lived experience of many transgender people.
A key component of the discussion of terms used by LGBTIQA+ individuals in reference to their SOGIESC, therefore, mustalso touch on the potential derogatory and/or pejorative force that terms may carry when used to refer to others, especiallyby individuals who are not part of the LGBTIQA+ community, and for how meanings change as terms are adopted into
Japanese. Depending on the context of the specific classroom and/or learning environment, these issues may be linked tocontent-based approaches that encourage students to explore loan words and/or reflect on their own education around
SOGIESC.
The many terms used by Japanese users in Kazue-chan’s Coming out Day 2022 video gives an indication of the variety
currently in use. Not all of these terms will be relevant and/or appropriate for each age-group or each classroom context;
however, turning to resources such as this facilitates awareness of the ways in which language associated with SOGIESC isin constant flux and change. This awareness is, I venture, key to the self-reflection required to build inclusive and affirmative
teaching and learning spaces.

BEYOND INCLUSION
Building and maintaining inclusive and affirmative teaching and learning spaces requires reflection and flexibility. It is no easytask. It can rarely be done alone. It is also constrained by local politics and discriminatory structures. We must, therefore, be
mindful to proactively plan for resistance (Knisely and Paiz 2021) and have strategies for managing any transphobic and or
homophobic discourse that may emerge in our local contexts. Identifying allies who will offer support and encouragement
is key to going beyond inclusion and moving to affirmative practices within local contexts. The International Network for
Gender and Sexuality in Japanese Language Education (INGS-J), formed in 2020, and coordinated by JLE practitioners
in Canada, the USA and Australia, is one such initiative that aims to offer support and work towards change. As well as
facilitating workshops and online seminars, the network supports the sharing of resources through publications and theonline portal.
Building on research into LGBTIQA+ inclusive and affirmative language teaching that advocate for self-reflection on thestate of the target language and culture, in this short article I have presented a brief overview of how activism andadvocacy have impacted on the representations of LGBTIQA+ people in educational contexts and contemporary measure
being adopted in schools and universities. I have also provided concrete examples of inclusive language that is used at
the local government level in Japan, and drawn readers’ attention to the vast diversity of identity terms that are usedby LGBTIQA+ individuals in Japan. It is hoped this may aid JLE professionals in navigating any perceptions that LGBTIQA+
inclusion and affirmation is not relevant to the Japanese language classroom as they move beyond inclusion to facilitate
more LGBTIQA+ affirmative Japanese language learning.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS17

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NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSDIFFERENTIATION FOR
GIFTED STUDENTS IN THE
JAPANESE LANGUAGE CLASS
VICTORIA POULOS
Crest Education

19

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

20

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this paper is to share best practice of how to differentiate curriculum for gifted students in the Japanese
language classroom. Acknowledging that language classes are diverse in not only ability but background culture, it isimportant that every student be taught to best support their learning. Knowing the theory is very different to being able
to implement differentiated curriculum for gifted students in practice, so this paper aims to address both the theory andpractical component using a unit on Family, aligned with the Australian Curriculum.

INTRODUCTION
The education of gifted students has long been a subject of keen interest and debate within the field of educational
psychology and pedagogy. Known as a “quiet crisis,” countless gifted students attend school where their learning needs
are not met (Renzulli and Park 2000). The consequence is lost academic growth, lost ambition, and a loss of their potential
contribution to society. Australia’s PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) ratings are declining (AustralianCouncil for Educational Research, 2018), Australia is ranked 39 out of 41 middle income counties for equitable education(Noone and Varadharajan 2022), and underachievement in the gifted student population is skyrocketing (Jackson and Jung
2022). This is cause for alarm.
While the educational community has made significant strides in recognizing and addressing the distinctive learning needsof gifted students, there remains a paucity of research that specifically examines how these needs can be met throughthe differentiation of instruction in the context of high school Japanese language classes. Lo Bianco’s (2013) compelling
research on Japanese language learning in Victoria is confronting, suggesting most dropouts of high ability students occur
because many language programs lack rigour. To this end, teachers need support in providing gifted students inspiring,
engaging lessons and in designing meaningful tasks that are relevant both to their students and to the world in which
students live (Theisen 2002).
Gifted students, who often have advanced problem-solving skills and a deep thirst for learning, are a diverse group withunique learning needs. Furthermore, due to myriad language and cultural backgrounds, an abundance of varying interests,
and diverse proficiency levels, the Japanese classroom poses a specific set of challenges when it comes to meetingthe needs of gifted learners. To ensure that gifted students’ potential is nurtured into talent, educators must adapt theirinstructional methods to provide an intellectually stimulating and enriching learning environment. This educational context
demands thoughtful consideration and innovation in pedagogical strategies.
This article provides explicit examples of differentiation as a means to cater to the academic needs of gifted students within thehigh school Japanese classroom. Furthermore, the article explores the complex interplay between gifted education and theJapanese language curriculum within high school settings. It aims to provide a structure where Tier 2 tasks and outcomes, which
are suitable for the majority of learners, are modified for the gifted student, demonstrated in Tier 3. Some tasks also have Tier 1
options for students who need more support. Tier 1 and 2 tasks have been included in this paper as a comparison from which
readers can understand the modification process to increase complexity for the gifted student in Tier 3.

BENEFITS OF DIFFERENTIATING CURRICULUM FOR GIFTED STUDENTS
Differentiation stems from the premise that every student should be taught with the intent to support the success of theirlearning (Tomlinson 2017). This links to Vygotsky’s key construct of “the zone of proximal development.” This is the space between
what the student can do unaided and what they can do with assistance (Billings and Walqui 2017). This symbiotic relationshipformed in a stimulating learning environment, helps the gifted student develop intrinsic motivation for learning (Kanevsky 2011).
The teacher who differentiates well for gifted students learns to stimulate creative thinking and shifts from being the providerof knowledge, to the facilitator of maximized student learning (Sousa and Tomlinson 2018). Today’s gifted students have thepotential to be our future leaders, scientists, artists and innovators and need their teachers’ support. In order to facilitate students’abilities to transform into outstanding competencies, teachers not only need to have robust differentiated units, but they alsoneed to ensure this intention is matched with students’ experience in the classroom. In the next section I will outline differentiation
strategies that exemplify best practice in teaching Japanese to gifted students.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS21

PROGRAMTo illustrate this, I introduce the unit on “Family” that was designed to use in a Year 7 class that had been learning beginner
Japanese for six months at an independent coeducational school in outer Melbourne (see Table 1 below). To makeJapanese meaningful to students, language needs to be linked to real life situations with enjoyable activities designed toreinforce vocabulary and concepts. Moreover, language learning also requires frequent repetition and recall as the effectof repetition reflects a neural learning mechanism essential for language acquisition (Christiansen 2016). Unnecessary
repetition, however, should be eliminated (Johnsen et al. 2005).
A differentiation strategy illustrated in the program is curriculum compacting. Curriculum compacting allows teachers toadjust curriculum by replacing content students already know, with new content, enrichment, extension, and acceleration
options. These adjustments allow for the discovery of relationships and concepts which is essential for gifted student
growth and engagement in their learning (Rimm et al. 2018).
Maker’s model of differentiation (1982) has been implemented within this unit to stimulate critical and creative thinking
with students’ interests and educational needs in mind. Maker’s model recommends modifying the content, process,product and learning environment to maximise learning for gifted students. Williams’ (1993) model provides a frameworkfor developing activities and questions to stimulate thinking processes. Relevant elements of this model were also utilised
to add depth and complexity for the gifted students. Furthermore, Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Processes (2001) has
also been incorporated in the unit. There are six levels of cognitive learning, and each level is conceptually different. The six
levels are remembering, understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating, and creating. Focusing on student interest in anime
the unit aims to be student centred and present content that expands beyond the curriculum. Variable pacing is provided,and group interaction is facilitated in many activities.
Table 1
UNIT ON “THE FAMILY”
Unit: Family

Stage: Year 7

Duration: 5 weeks

Concept Generalisations: All families are different.
Unit Questions
Are there any patterns to saying family members or counting them?
How does language link to Japanese culture?
Inquiry questions
What do Japanese families look like? How might the modern Japanese family lifestyle compare with yours? What can be understood about Japaneseculture from evaluating the language used for family members?
General Unit OutcomesKnow:• Japanese family names and counters for people.
• How to write about family in 2 different scripts.
Understand:• Interconnected relationship of language and culture.
• How language and behaviour change according to participants, context and relationship, and how politeness and respect are expressed explicitlyin Japanese through greetings, vocabulary, formulaic expressions, and actions.
Do:• Count and describe family members in Japanese.
• Adjust language to suit different contexts and situations.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

22

PRE-ASSESSMENT
The purpose of pre-assessment is to help teachers understand their students’ learning needs (Tomlinson and Moon 2013)
and to determine their point of entry relative to the outcomes. This is so that instruction can be appropriately targeted
to students’ varied proficiencies across the content. Gauging students’ baseline knowledge ensures value is connected
to students’ learning. Outcomes have been chosen to allow a high ceiling in this context. Due to the nature of learning alanguage as a beginner, Tomlinson and Moon (2013) argue that pre-assessment is best done after the first lesson of theunit. The pre-assessment aims to invite students to work with the teacher, to feel empowered to achieve higher level
learning, and to feel confident about knowing the next step. To foster metacognition and self-regulation for gifted students,
discussions focus on setting learning goals and extended outcomes. Further to this, assistance was given to identify
strategies which would support students to achieve these goals and outcomes and to encourage the transformation ofability to talent. An example of pre-assessment is given in Table 2.
Table 2EXAMPLE OF PRE-ASSESSMENT
After reiterating to students that pre-assessment is a low stakes planning tool to understand their needs, students were asked to:1) Complete 2 family trees using the template. One is for their families and the other is a fictitious family. Use as many Japanese names as possiblein either romaji, hiragana or kanji.
2) Complete a hiragana (script) quiz.
3) Consider why they think there are different terms depending on whose family is being referred to. Consider what this tells them about Japaneseculture. Consider a greeting they would say differently to me as their teacher rather than a classmate. Explain.
4) Out of the following areas, tick all the ones that interest them, or add something that they would like to learn about from Japanese culture(anime/kendo-judo/sumo/manga/ food/kimono/baseball/ cosplay/city life/religion/music/other).

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Formative assessment was implemented over the unit in a variety of ways to provide guidance for students to keep moving
towards their desired outcomes. Formative assessment occurred using both qualitative and quantitative processes ofcollecting data that reflect students’ mode of learning to create a portfolio of evidence of learning over the unit. Many
students enjoy verbally discussing their learning, so conversations with the teacher were recorded and added to students’portfolios as a qualitative measure of data collection. Quizzes, worksheets, and exit cards were utilized as a quantitative
measure of data collection. Exit cards are a tool that require students to reflect on what they have learned during thelesson thus enabling teachers to quickly assess students’ understanding of a concept. In the following section I will outline
a unit of work that was designed specifically to cater for gifted students in a beginner Year 7 Japanese class.

ACTIVITY 1
TEACHING AND LEARNING
The pre-assessment analysis provided critical information specifically about vocabulary recall and script development.
Differentiating via tiering was designed to reduce or amplify the complexity according to students’ readiness (Tomlinson andMoon 2013), and the content, process and product was adjusted using Maker’s Model (1982). Supporting the generalizationthat all families are different, various photos of Japanese families were presented according to the appeal and interest
noted in the pre-assessment. To encourage creative thinking, the SCAMPER1 model (Gladding and Henderson 2000; Pyryt
and Bosetti 2006) was utilised in discussions with students. Students were encouraged to substitute basic scripts withcomplex scripts, combine ideas, eliminate superfluous information through editing and drafting, and adapt or rearrange
how they presented their family tree.

1

SCAMPER is an acronym for Substitute, Combine, Adapt, Modify/Magnify, Purpose, Eliminate/Minimise and Rearrange/Reverse.

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Table 3
SUMMARY OF CORE OUTCOMES FOR ACTIVITY 1
Activity 1 Core OutcomesKnow:• Recognise and understand the relationship between the character-based scripts of hiragana, katakana and kanji (Content Description VCJAU139).
• Know that kanji were brought from China, hiragana was formed by simplifying kanji, katakana was formed using a part of kanji.
Understand:• Understanding that each individual kanji represents meaning as well as sound, such as 日 (“sun,” “day”), and that some kanji come frompictographs, for example, 山.
Do/Skill:• Learning to write high-frequency kanji numbers, family members.
Extended Outcomes• Demonstrate the use of hiragana and kanji accurately while representing social conventions according to Japanese culture, (the difference
between the words for their family compares to someone else’s family) and describing members in full sentences. Analyse how families are
represented through anime.
Resources
Photos, family tree template, printed family names, anime how to draw faces/print out anime faces.
Hook
A variety of “shichi-go-san” family photos with Japanese children wearing traditional dress were shown to the students. This is a significant culturalcelebration for families when their son/daughter turns 3, their son turns 5 or their daughter turns 7 years old. The Imperial Family and anime clips of young
teenagers were shown.
Probing questions given to the students
What do you notice about the different photos? (Is it culturally inappropriate to smile in formal photographs in Japan?) How do the photos reflect culture
different to yours? Using William’s (1993) visualisation skills, “Imagine you were one of the children who were 3, 5 or 7 in the traditional dress in the photo,
how might you be feeling?” What might you be looking forward to in this celebration? Williams’ (1993) “examples of habit” technique was used by asking
students to research what traditions are associated with the shichi-go-san celebration.
Differentiation
Gifted students were asked to complete the Tier 3 task.
Tier 1—Design their family tree labelling each member in Japanese, and then create a fictional family tree, drawing anime faces/using cut outs.
Tier 2—Design their family tree labelling each member in Japanese drawing anime faces/using cut outs. Write family names in Hiragana and kanji unaided.
Research the Imperial Family and evaluate the general similarities and differences with teenagers in the Imperial Family compared to Australian teenagers.
Present results of their research in a paragraph or dot points, and either hand-written or typed.
Tier 3—After learning how to include pets, writes short sentences in Japanese for each member in her family tree including pets. Research how families
are represented in the anime films she enjoys. Negotiate with the teacher on how they would like to present their findings.

ACTIVITY 2
TEACHING AND LEARNING
Activity 2 was designed and differentiated to include ‘attractive’ options and encourage student choice (Kanevsky 2016).
Using Maker’s (1982) framework of thinking, it was student-centred, open, utilised a real audience and encouraged creative
thinking. Many students enjoy producing work that allows them to showcase their creativity, so the “Incubation Model of
Teaching”2 of Torrance and Safter (Hines et al. 2018) was implemented as either the primary goal or a thinking process goal
to complement conceptual content understandings. Scaffolding, a crucial aspect of the zone of proximal development,
was provided to help students engage with the content through reflection, divergent thinking and problem finding. The draft
process allowed sophistication in the development of content, and students were supported to include additional sourcesof information and connect their ideas with their personal experiences. Peer collaboration was offered which allowed theopportunity for peer evaluation and debriefing. Table 4 provides a summary of the core outcomes for Activity 2.

2	The model was originally developed by E. Paul Torrance and provides a framework for the development of lessons consisting of three stages:
Heightening Anticipation, Deepening Expectations and Extending the Learning.

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Table 4SUMMARY OF CORE OUTCOMES FOR ACTIVITY 2
Activity 2 Core OutcomesKnow:• Identify language associated with gender, age, social status, or the purpose of interaction, for example, ぼく/わたし, はい/うん, こんにちは/ハロー, さようなら/バイバイ.
Understand:• Recognise that Japanese language use varies according to the context and situation of the interaction and the relationship between participants(Content Description VCJAU016), therefore it is essential that students understand and use the variations in language use based on the age,
relationship, and level of familiarity between participants. For example, 母はは/お母かあさんand ～先生/～さんavoiding あなた when showing
politeness.
• Recognise the importance of using appropriate forms of address when interacting with different people, for example, using ～くん/～さんwhencommunicating with close friends, family members or other young people, and using ～さん、 ～先生 for adults.
Do/Skill:• Explore connections between languages and cultures as exemplified in particular words, expressions, and communicative behaviours, noticing
how meaning can be culture-specific and difficult to transfer between languages (Content Description VCJAC118).
Extended Outcomes• Display understanding of how language and culture are connected.
• Design and create a profile using sophisticated and varied language, integrating media, language, and culture.
Resources
YouTube, Obento text.
Hook
Sample student profiles were displayed.
Students watched the pop star, Tomohisa and other young Japanese influencers on YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-pHJdxQPzDY andhttps://www.japanbuzz.info/the-top-japanese-influencers-for-2021/ which has a range of fun quirky Japanese influencers).
Differentiation
Gifted students were asked to complete the Tier 3 task.
Tier 2—Create a social media profile page in Japanese with their name, age, and family. Include photos of their family and area of interest in Japaneseculture. Using speech bubbles, add appropriate language for who/what they are communicating.
Scaffolding may include IT support, and language assistance.
Tier 3—Create a social media profile page in Japanese including pictures their family and Japanese related interests. Include their name, age, nationality,
telephone number, pets and further information about themselves and something related to Japanese culture. Demonstrate their understanding of how
language varies according to the context in culturally specific expressions.

ACTIVITY 3
TEACHING AND LEARNING
Drawing on Bloom’s Taxonomy, the incorporation of cognitive processes and knowledge has been used to add depth togifted students’ learning (Davis et al. 2018). Content and processes were modified according to Maker’s Model (1982) touse factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge across the cognitive processes. Successful completionof Activity 3 for the gifted student relied on students’ ability to remember, understand, apply, analyse, and then create a
differentiated product. Gifted students showcased their ability in writing Japanese with a high ceiling, open-ended task
where they decided on the length, breadth of content, and range of scripts they wanted to incorporate. Table 5 provides asummary of the core outcomes for Activity 3.

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Table 5SUMMARY OF CORE OUTCOMES FOR ACTIVITY 3
Activity 3 Core OutcomesKnow:• Family names
Understand:• Language conventions that reflect Japanese culture, for example、はじめまして、どうぞよろしく. (Content Description VCJAC008).
Do/Skill:• Translate and interpret familiar texts in Japanese and interpret words and expressions encountered in simple Japanese that do not translate
easily into English.
• Locate key points of information in a range of texts and resources and use the information in new ways (Content Description VCJAC004).
Extended Outcomes• Collaborate to translate and interpret short texts, noticing and explaining aspects that are similar or different in Japanese and English versions.
• Plan, develop and create a self-introduction in Japanese using a variety of culturally appropriate language.
Hook
Brought in travel brochures, supermarket catalogues, newspaper, children’s books, and readers to display a breadth of sources students could recognize
language from.
Differentiation
Gifted students were asked to complete the Tier 3 task.
Tier 1—Read the entry about someone’s family and follow the prompts to recognise the use of language in the article.
Scaffolding: Students are given a glossary and the article is short.
Tier 2—Read the entry about someone’s family and answer the comprehension questions.
Scaffolding: Students may use a hiragana script chart.
Tier 3—Write a family introduction on genkoyoshi paper, including as many details as possible and noting culturally appropriate language.
Scaffolding: Instruction is given on the conventions of using genkoyoshi paper.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
The purpose of summative assessment is to assess student growth to determine if essential content has been masteredagainst the outcomes of instruction (Sousa and Tomlinson 2018). With student learning preferences considered, theassessment should mirror the learning goals, measure the most essential aspects for students to know, understand anddo, and align with the cognitive level of learning goals (Tomlinson and Moon 2013). This assessment has been designed togive students a high ceiling opportunity to demonstrate what they know, understand, and can do, and empower them as
they recognise their growth against pre-assessment.

RATIONALE FOR THE SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
The designed assessment is relevant to gifted students because it supports their learning needs for product adjustments
to incorporate evaluating, analysing, creating, and connecting with authentic challenges. Passow (1981) argues that not
all students should, could or would want to do the same task, so the Tier 3 activity was designed to specifically match
gifted students’ learning needs. To increase the complexity of the task, a cross-curricular element was implemented
that involved analysing the English language. Metacognition is the process of intentionally thinking about how one thinks
and learns and plays a key role in the processes of successful language learning and teaching for gifted students. Gifted
students generally possess a high level of awareness of the intricacies of the target language they are trying to master,
including how it compares to their mother tongue and other known languages, and the strategies that can be employed
for this purpose (Li 2019). A sensitivity to multi-cultural backgrounds was also embedded to reflect the diverse backgroundof many students. Furthermore, Williams’ (1993) “examples of change” mode was used to develop creative thinking,encourage access to advanced content, and facilitate independent research skills. Table 6 provides a summary of thesummative assessment core outcomes.

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Table 6SUMMARY OF SUMMATIVE CORE OUTCOMES
Summative Assessment Core OutcomesKnow:• Recognise and use features of the Japanese sound system, including pitch, accent, rhythm, and intonation (Content Description VCJAU012).
Understand:• Reflect on the experience of learning and using Japanese in different contexts, commenting on similarities to and differences from their own
usual language use and behaviour (Content Description VCJAC010).
Do/Skill:• Demonstrate Japanese ways of communicating that reflect cultural values and practices such as the expression of respect or familiarity, forexample, 母, ママand お母さん、～さん and ～せんせい.
• Describe and demonstrate differences in ways of showing consideration for others in Japanese, for example, using particular terms of address,
register and body language in greetings, and noticing that a focus on “self” is avoided in Japanese by the minimal use of the pronoun ‘I’ ininteractions.
Extended Outcomes• Analyse language and use metacognition to evaluate their own use of native language.
• Explore relevant experiences and points of view regarding Japanese family structure and influence on society.
• Evaluate the role of the Imperial family/Analyse the changing make up and role of the contemporary Japanese family.
Differentiation for Summative Assessment
Gifted students were asked to complete the Tier 3 task.
Tier 2 Part 1
Talk about their family tree they have previously created, or a photo/picture of their family, in Japanese.
OR
Make a powerpoint using their family tree and do a voice over describing them in Japanese.
Tier 2 Part 2
Talk (in English) about the way family members are described which reflects Japanese culture?
Tier 3 Part 1
Talk about their family tree they previously created, or a photo/picture of their family in Japanese.
OR
Make a powerpoint using their family tree and do a voice over describing them in Japanese.
Then, in English, either written or orally, communicate about the way family members are described which reflects Japanese culture? What parts of the
English language/ their native language that reflect their culture?
Tier 3 Part 2
Describe how the family size and roles of family members are changing in Japanese society? Choose how they would like to present their findings.
OR
Analyse the role of the Imperial family and evaluate the influence on Japanese society today. Use their relative new understanding about the Imperial family,
explain how far they think their influence and/or power extends? Choose how they would like to present their findings and thoughts.

PITFALLS
Designing a unit of work reflecting the needs of a gifted learner requires substantial differentiation to enrich their learning
experience and to produce high quality curriculum. This requires time, effort and understanding. Furthermore, time
management and realistic planning can be an area of weakness for gifted students so providing scaffolding to support real
deadlines is crucial for student success.

CONCLUSION
Units that are proactively planned according to student needs, differences, and similarities in mind, are student centredby nature and lead to increased engagement (Tomlinson 2017). With this as foundational, preassessment was designed
to gauge proximity to essential knowledge, skills and understanding that determined how to plan and support students
to meet their desired negotiated outcomes. The activities within the unit were tiered according to Bloom’s taxonomy andPassow’s test of differentiation (1981) and assessments were designed to allow students to demonstrate their learning
throughout the unit, encouraging the creative and critical thinking processes through modification of content, process andproduct based on models by Maker (1982) and Williams (1993).

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS27

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Billings, E. and A. Walqui. 2017. “The zone of proximal development: an affirmative perspective in teaching ELLs/MLLs.” NYSED: Office of Bilingual Educationand World Languages. https://www.nysed.gov/sites/default/files/programs/bilingual-ed/zone_proximal_development.pdf.
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vic.edu.au/Curriculum/ContentDescription/VCJAC118.
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vic.edu.au/Curriculum/ContentDescription/VCJAC139.
Davis, G. A., S. B. Rimm and D. B. Siegle. 2018. Education of the gifted and talented: 7th edition. New York: Pearson.
Figg, S. D., K. B. Rogers, J. McCormick and R. Low. 2012. “Differentiating low performance of the gifted learner: achieving, underachieving, and selective
consuming students.” Journal of Advanced Academics 23 (1): 53–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X11430000
Gagné, F. 2018. “Academic talent development: theory and best practices.” APA handbook of giftedness and talent. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association, 163–83. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0000038-011
Gladding, S. T., & D. A. Henderson. 2000. “Creativity and family counseling: The SCAMPER Model as a template for promoting creative processes.” The Family
Journal 8 (3), 245–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480700083005
Hines, M. E., S. M. Catalana and B. N. Anderson. 2018. “When learning sinks in: using the incubation model of teaching to guide students through the creative
thinking process.” Gifted Child Today 42 (1), 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1076217518804858
Jackson, R. L. and J. Y. Jung. 2022. “The identification of gifted underachievement: validity evidence for the commonly used methods.” British Journal of
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Kanevsky, L. 2011. “Deferential differentiation: what types of differentiation do students want?” Gifted Child Quarterly 55 (4), 279–299. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0016986211422098.
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Li, R. 2019. “Review: Metacognition in language learning and teaching. Åsta Haukås, Camilla Bjørke, and Magne Dypedahl (eds.) 2018. Abingdon: Routledge.”
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Maker, J. C. 1982. Curriculum development for the gifted. Rockville, MD: Aspen Publishers.
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February 16. https://theconversation.com/australias-education-system-is-one-of-the-most-unequal-in-the-oecd-but-we-know-how-to-help-fix-it-177059
Passow, A. H. 1981. “The nature of giftedness and talent.” Gifted Child Quarterly 25 (1): 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698628102500102
Pyryt, M. & L. Bosetti. 2006. “Accommodating gifted learners in regular classrooms.” In Including the gifted and talented: making inclusion work for more
gifted and able learners, edited by C. M. M. Smith,141–57. Abingdon, UK, and New York: Routledge.
Renzulli, J. S. and S. Park. 2000. “Gifted dropouts: the who and the why.” Gifted Child Quarterly 44 (4), 261–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620004400407
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Theisen, T. 2002. “Differentiated instruction in the foreign language classroom: meeting the diverse needs of all learners.” LOTE CED Communiqué 6. https://
sedl.org/loteced/communique/n06.html
Tomlinson, C. A. 2017. How to differentiate instruction in academically diverse classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Tomlinson, C. A. & T. R. Moon. 2013. Assessment and student success in a differentiated classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
VanTassel-Baska, J. 1986. “Effective curriculum and instructional models for talented students.” Gifted Child Quarterly, 30 (4), 164–169. https://doi.
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Williams, F. E. 1993. “The cognitive-affective interaction model for enriching gifted programs.” In systems and models for developing programs for the gifted
and talented, edited by J. S. Renzulli, 461–84. Highett, Vic.: Hawker Brownlow Education.

SECTION 2

TEACHING
PRACTICESNSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSLEADING LANGUAGES ATMERNDA CENTRAL COLLEGEANTHONY OLDMEADOWNICHOLAS CREED
STEVEN MIYAZAWA
THOMAS ARMSTRONG
Mernda Central College

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ABSTRACTThis paper provides an overview for Japanese language teachers and school leaders seeking motivation and inspiration
for developing, expanding and reshaping existing Japanese programs. It incorporates strategies to engage whole schoolcommunities, including staff, students and parents, in enhancing and enriching a language program to support student learningand engagement. These strategies will be explored along with examples of successful activities and initiatives, in addition
to systems and structures established to attain success. This paper will also address the steps taken at vision, structure,system and curriculum levels to develop and expand the nascent language department from the ground up in a Prep toYear 12 setting at Mernda Central College. This paper also explores some of the resulting successes from these initiatives.

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to share the strategic leadership, curriculum leadership and structural practices established at
Mernda Central College, where a successful Japanese language program has been developed, expanded, and embedded
into the fabric of the school at all levels since its establishment in 2017. This article explores how the various levels of
leadership at the College have enabled students to achieve success in their language learning, and how this leadership has
seen the language program expand its impact both within the College and across schools in the local area. It is hoped thatJapanese teachers and school leaders will be able to take inspiration from our success both to implement some of theideas and practices discussed here into their own settings and to use it to further advocate for language learning.

BACKGROUNDCOLLEGE STRUCTURE
At Mernda Central College the student is at the centre of every decision that is made. Teachers actively work to teacheach student at their point of need, with the High Impact Teaching Strategies (Department of Education and Training 2020)
underpinning effective teacher practice. Our innovative, rich and rigorous curriculum is delivered in a positive, stimulating
and challenging learning environment where every student can experience success and develop a life-long love of learning.
Our students are encouraged to become deep-thinking, informed, resilient and self-directed learners who are able to be thebest they can be and contribute actively to their community.
Mernda Central College’s structure is organised around four stages of learning, referred to as sub-schools. The Junior
School caters for the learning and developmental needs of students in Prep to Year 4 and is based on laying the foundations
for learning. The Middle School caters for students in Years 5 to 7. This sub-school focuses on the needs of the adolescentand aims to foster a learning environment that motivates students to engage and connect to school life through a breadthof curriculum offerings, as well as supporting upper primary students as they transition into secondary school. The Aspire
sub-school at Years 8 and 9 actively engages students in new experiences that encourage them to investigate, makediscoveries and start to explore future career pathways. The Senior School, Years 10 to 12, aims to use formal studies in
the classroom to prepare students for the wider context of everyday life and the world students are navigating towards.

COLLEGE HISTORY
Mernda Central College is a coeducational Prep to Year 12 (P-12) school that opened its doors in 2017. The school issituated to the north of Melbourne, Victoria, and follows the Victorian Curriculum from Foundation (Prep) through to Year
10. Students then typically undertake the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) during Years 11 and 12.
Initially the school opened to students from Foundation to Year 7, and by the following year had introduced Japanese as a
subject for all Year 7 and Year 8 students. From 2019 students in primary classes have learnt Japanese, and from the very
first class the College maintains a focus on ensuring all students who study Japanese can experience success.

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Since its inception, the Japanese program has flourished and expanded. By the end of 2022 there were seven Japaneseteachers and a language assistant employed at the College, and Japanese is taught from prep to Year 12. With nearly halfof all students electing to take the language stream in Year 9, the Japanese program continues to grow.
The College has grown to over 1,600 students and had its first Year 12 cohort graduate at the end of 2022. Japaneseteachers from the College have also assisted in the establishment of Japanese programs at a neighbouring primaryschool. It is an enormous source of pride that the Whittlesea network is benefitting from the program’s continual growthat Mernda Central College.
As buildings have been added to the College, they have been assigned a Japanese name to further embed Japanese
language and culture into the school. Plans are also in place for the construction of a Japanese Garden for our students.
Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) classes ran in 2019, connecting Japanese and History through a study of Edo
Japan. Our CLIL program continues to evolve each year, with connections now being made with Music and the Performing
Arts to establish a Taiko program for students from Years 4 to Year 6. In 2019, 14 students also took the opportunity toparticipate in our inaugural Japan study tour to our sister school in Japan.
The College aspires to be known for its rich and vibrant Japanese program aimed at inspiring student learning in, and beyond,the language classroom. In 2022 the College established a Japanese Enhancement Program, an opt-in program for Year 7
students, which aims to enhance these students’ language learning experiences. It does this by providing opportunities toparticipate in Japanese cooking sessions and calligraphy classes, and through the provision of an enhanced and enrichedcurriculum designed to further challenge and motivate these students.

PROGRAMThe Japanese Program at Mernda Central College commenced with a vision that all students at the College have accessto a high-quality, well-resourced and innovative Japanese program, that aligns with the College mantra “Learn, Grow,
Succeed.” The specific aims for the program are:
• To develop students as global citizens with cultural empathy;• To lead a team of committed and dedicated staff with high quality teaching practice at the centre of what we do;• To build a program that the school is known for, and that provides students with rich and authentic language
learning opportunities;• To support the network and wider Japanese teaching community through sharing of resources and practice;
To enable the College to achieve these goals, there needed to be a significant time commitment to Japanese across thewhole college. In the Junior School (P-4), students have one hour per week of Japanese for the whole academic year. This
provides our students with sufficient time to engage with the content and build on skills each year, with a view to continuing
Japanese through to VCE should they choose. In Middle School (5–7), students move to two hours per week, to facilitate
greater development of their core language skills. They engage in a range of activities, with teacher generated “passports”
at the centre of their learning, with activities targeted to students’ points of need. For example, a student struggling withscript will still be able to access the phrase or structure being taught through scaffolded instructional templates andadjusted language input.
Our Year 8 students continue to learn Japanese as part of the core curriculum for two hours per week. However, Year 9
students may choose a year-long “Japanese Language” elective for two hours per week, or a semester-length “Japanese
Culture” elective—also two hours per week. The language elective is aimed at students intending to continue Japanesestudies into senior school and focuses heavily on the usage and comprehension of the Japanese language. Culture isboth implicitly and explicitly taught alongside this focus. The culture elective blends use of Japanese with a project-based
approach that investigates specific themes and topics of Japanese culture. At the Senior School, students can choose
Japanese as an elective at Year 10, 11 and 12, and should they do so, they receive four hours per week of instruction
throughout the year. The success of these programs is evident though data below:

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

33• 50% of students in Year 9 choose the language stream for the whole year;• In 2022 and 2023 there were two Year 10 Japanese classes, with student numbers over 35 in 2023;• Regular viable classes of VCE Japanese, with 15–20 students selecting Japanese each year it has been on offer;• CLIL programs are well supported with both iterations attracting enrolments of around 20 students.
With such a large number of staff and Japanese language learners, it became essential to ensure each area of the College
has effective curriculum leadership, and a presence at relevant meetings at each sub-school (Junior, Middle, Aspire or
Senior) to advocate for language learning. At these meetings, Japanese curriculum leaders can explore cross-curricular
opportunities, such as letter writing in English classes and Japanese-themed projects in Design and Technology classes,with leaders of other curriculum areas.
Accordingly, curriculum leaders have been appointed for both Middle School and Senior School Japanese, with a coordinatorappointed to the Aspire sub-school (8–9) in 2023. These leaders are responsible for ensuring the planning, documentationand delivery of an innovative curriculum that meets students at their point of need, while ensuring students can also
experience success in their language learning.
To enable opportunities for effective collaboration and differentiation, where possible classes are timetabled next toanother Japanese class of the same year level. This facilitates flexibility of instruction and team-teaching where practical.
Care is taken to ensure students have Japanese timetabled on multiple days in Secondary (7–12) classes, ensuring they
speak Japanese on as many separate occasions as practicable to increase retention of key knowledge and skills.
In 2022, the College created a Japanese Enhancement Program whereby students enrolling in Year 7 can apply by submitting
a formal written application. Successful students are provided an enriched curriculum, with access to further language
structures and vocabulary, in addition to co-curricular opportunities. Students in this class have a high level of engagementwith their Japanese language studies and are constantly seeking further opportunities to use their language beyond theclassroom. The Japanese Enhancement Program has received interest from students across all feeder schools and willcontinue to drive success in language learning into the future, including higher participation in co-curricular Japanese
programs, and increased numbers of students in VCE Japanese classes.
Underpinning all of the above is a constant stream of advocacy at all levels of College life, and the unwavering commitmentof a dedicated group of Japanese teaching staff. From the day-to-day work of the subject teachers in classes, throughcurriculum leaders to instructional leaders and principal-class staff, there is a consistent narrative about the importance oflearning Japanese. This can range from conversations with students, to strategic discussions around the construction of aJapanese-style garden or mandating the subject at various year levels. At all times, Japanese is considered an integral partof the College curriculum, and it is attractive to enrolling students and families as they see a clear pathway for language
learning through all years of schooling.

BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES
BENEFITS
Many and varied benefits have come from the Language Leadership at Mernda Central College. The main benefit lies in
the ability to broaden students’ global perspectives, their empathy and their respect. The strong correlation between theCollege’s value of respect with that of the language and culture students are studying, has allowed students and teachers
to explore deeper-level conversations about core values and attitudes. This in turn has led to a change in attitudes andperceptions about life in everyday Japan, and high-stakes discussions about what is important in both Australian andJapanese societies including the differing responsibilities given to students in Japan and Australia, and environmental
issues and concerns.
The program has also led to increased interest in the College, and a greater profile for the teaching and learning of Japanesein the northern suburbs of Victoria. Students selecting Japanese at non-compulsory levels are continuing to rise, andthere are many families enquiring specifically about the Japanese program on enrolment. Furthermore, extra-curricular
opportunities, such as taiko drumming, Japanese cooking and lunchtime origami and language clubs, have attracted highparticipation rates that reflect students’ engagement in the program. A Japan Study Tour offered in 2019 also attracted ahigh level of interest.

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Despite the challenges posed by COVID-19 in 2020 and 2021, the College was still able to conduct virtual lessons with thesister school Shoyoukan Junior High School in Kitakyushu, Japan. These classes further solidified the connection between
the two schools and the sharing of language and culture. Additionally, while teaching staff in some subjects found it difficult
to engage students in remote learning, the Japanese team found new and engaging methods to maintain student learning.
This included the creation of videos that modelled appropriate language usage. These methods received positive feedback
from students and their families as they were all able to engage collectively in Japanese language learning.
Furthermore, these videos have since become a valuable resource at the school when staff have been absent. A Casual
Relief Teacher (CRT) or the covering staff member has access to a bank of readymade and recorded lessons, ensuring thecontinued viability of the program even when the Japanese teacher is absent.
This language program has also led to student success at Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) level for our Year 11 andYear 12 students. In the first graduating cohort of 2022, student results in Japanese led to outstanding Australian Tertiary
Admissions Rankings (ATARs) received by students in the class, including the College Dux who received a study score forJapanese of 45 (the highest possible score being 50). This placed the student in the top 2% of students across the state
who took Japanese. The VCE results vindicated the support and commitment of the College to the Japanese program, andmore importantly led to fantastic university and career opportunities for the students. Moreover, the experience of learning
Japanese left an indelible mark on all the students in the class, as they left the College with a life-long passion and interestin Japan and Japanese culture. With the program now established, we hope that many more students will experiencesimilar levels of success in the future.

CHALLENGES
As the College has grown, one of the challenges we have faced has been securing and retaining teaching staff, andensuring that employed staff “buy-in” to the culture and norms we have established. The Japanese program is unique,and Mernda employs more Japanese teachers than most schools in the state. This means we provide opportunities for
greater collaboration and planning between staff, but we still have problems retaining staff. The levels of collaboration andplanning on offer benefit new teaching staff and provide them with high levels of mentoring and support. The teachingteam has also fostered a very strong culture within itself that is not limited to curriculum support, yet the retention of staff
remains an issue.
Another challenge the team has had to overcome is the range of student knowledge at Year 7. While not dissimilar to any
secondary school, the fact that students coming through from Grade 6 at Mernda Central College have had access toJapanese classes from Prep makes for an even greater disparity between students coming from other feeder schools.
Enrolments from these feeder schools account for approximately 60% of students in Year 7 each year. To limit this impact,
the college has taken active steps to engage with feeder schools, which has resulted in one of our larger primary feeder
schools introducing Japanese classes.

CONCLUSION
This article has discussed the importance of the strategic leadership, curriculum leadership and structural practices
established at Mernda Central College, where consistent advocacy and the unifying and imperative value of respect has
driven the success of the Japanese program. The article has explored the methods employed by the College to ensure therelevance and value of the program is paramount. These methods include curriculum approaches and lesson planning sothat all students can achieve success. The article has also noted some of the challenges that can affect a nascent program,and some of the ways in which a College can support and enhance their language program. By seeking opportunities,
communicating, advocating, and committing to build the best and most sought-after Japanese program on offer, Mernda
Central College has established a fully integrated program that will continue to support student learning in, and beyond, theclassroom for many years to come.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS35

REFERENCE LIST
Department of Education and Training. 2020. “High impact teaching strategies, excellence in teaching and learning,” Victoria State Government. Accessed
August 22, 2023.
https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/teachers/support/high-impact-teaching-strategies.pdf.

POSTSCRIPTIn July 2023, Mernda Central College officially opened its Japanese Garden. The garden was opened by Mr Junji Shimada,Consul-General of Japan in Melbourne, with Federal and State members of parliament in attendance. Anne de Kretser,
Director of the Monash Japanese Language Education Centre, also attended. This development was a significant milestone
for the Japanese program at the College as it set in stone the presence of Japanese language and culture at the College.
The garden provides a peaceful location for students and staff to sit, reflect and appreciate the beauty of nature and themessage of the garden—that of fall seven times, rise eight—as it encourages resilience in the students of Mernda Central
College. Like our Japanese program, the plants in this garden are now taking root, and with nourishment, care, time andpatience will grow into an important part of the lives of each student who comes into the College.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSENGAGING STUDENTS IN
THEIR JAPANESE LEARNING
THROUGH PROJECT BASEDLEARNING (PBL)
NATHAN LANE
St Mary MacKillop College

36

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ABSTRACTThis paper outlines an approach to engage students in their learning of Japanese through the Project Based Learning(PBL) pedagogy. The way the High Impact Teaching Strategies (HITS) and an instructional model for explicit teaching wereincorporated in the Project Based Learning framework will also be outlined.

INTRODUCTION
There is a lot of information online and in a variety of books published about Project Based Learning (PBL). However, to
my knowledge little has been written about how PBL can be used as a contemporary pedagogy for teaching and learning
Japanese. The purpose of this paper is to outline how PBL can be a vehicle for engaging students in their study of Japanese
at a secondary school level.
A search on the internet provides many reasons about the importance of incorporating PBL into the curriculum.
For instance, Edutopia provides a comprehensive rationale for PBL:
PBL Helps Students Develop Skills for Living in a Knowledge-Based, Highly Technological Society. The old-schoolmodel of passively learning facts and reciting them out of context is no longer sufficient to prepare students to survive
in today's world. Solving highly complex problems requires that students have both fundamental skills (reading,writing, and math) and 21st century skills (teamwork, problem solving, research gathering, time management,
information synthesizing, utilizing high tech tools). With this combination of skills, students become directors andmanagers of their learning process, guided and mentored by a skilled teacher. (Edutopia 2007)
There are a number of misconceptions and myths around PBL. The most common myth is that PBL is not rigorous, there is
no explicit teaching, and it is all about group work. To address these misconceptions, teachers can access PBL frameworks
that provide some structure and sequence to the creation of engaging units of work. One useful framework is available on
the Magnify Learning website (see Figure 1 below). This framework provides a useful structure for teachers to follow fromthe beginning to the end of a PBL unit of work.
The challenge for Japanese teachers embedding PBL into their programs is how to create authentic PBL experiences
without forcing the pedagogy into a unit of work.
The key features of this framework are:
• A driving question or a question to which students are unable to do a simple search online to find out the answer.
Rather this question needs to be open-ended and thought provoking; and it needs to spark interest.
• Entry event—an activity to spark the student’s interest in the unit.
• Scaffolding—this is where a model of explicit instruction can be incorporated, and addresses the misconceptionthat there is no explicit teaching in PBL. This issue will be discussed further below.
• Benchmark tasks—these are formative assessment tasks students complete as they progress through the unit.
• Presentation—or an opportunity for students to present their knowledge to the class, to another class or topeople outside of the school, either individually or in groups.
• Reflection—regular opportunities for students to reflect individually or with others on what they are learning andhow they are learning.

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Figure 1 Traditional Unit vs. PBL Unit

(Source: Magnify Learning (N.d.): https://www.magnifylearningin.org/planning-a-project-based-learning-unit)

MODEL OF EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION
The scaffolding component of the PBL framework allows a model of explicit instruction to be incorporated into PBL.
Recently, many schools have adopted a model of explicit instruction to assist in developing a common structure for theway lessons are taught, and a common language around teaching practice. An explicit instructional model also assists inembedding the High Impact Teaching Strategies (HITS) developed by the Department of Education in Victoria. The HITS “area bank of 10 instructional practices that are internationally recognised as some of the most reliable teaching strategies fordelivering learning outcomes.” (State Government of Victoria 2023) The HITS are: setting goals, structuring lessons, explicit
teaching, worked examples, collaborative learning, multiple exposures, questioning, feedback, metacognitive strategies,
and differentiated teaching. A useful and easy to remember and follow model of explicit instruction uses the LEARN
acronym (see Table 1).
Table 1
AN EXAMPLE OF A MODEL OF EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION
Learning Objective• Learning intentions and success criteria are introduced to students.

Engagement and Prior Knowledge• Engage students with a hook (or entry event) and/or explore student’s prior knowledge.
• Review learning from previous lessons.

Apply Learning• Encounter new learning using the High Impact Teaching Strategies (HITS).
• Opportunities for students to explore, create or build.

Reflect and Feedback• Review learning intentions and success criteria.
• Students indicate their understanding.
• Teachers provide feedback to support student learning.

Next Steps• Identify areas for improvement and address students’ individual needs.This will inform the direction ofteaching in the next class.

Source: Adapted from Bayside P-12 College (2024) https://bayside.vic.edu.au/instructional-framework-2-2/

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AN EXAMPLE LESSON USING THE LEARN EXPLICIT INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL
In this section an example lesson using the LEARN model will be discussed. The lesson is designed for the students to learnbody parts in Japanese.
Learning Objective
To be able to brainstorm adjectives in Japanese.
To be able to sing a song to learn the body parts.
To be able to label the body parts in Japanese on a character/mascot.
Engagement and Prior Knowledge
Brainstorm known adjectives.
Apply Learning
Introduce body parts using the “head, shoulders, knees and toes” song. Label body parts on どーもくん (Doomo-kun, the official
mascot of NHK, Japan’s public broadcaster) and use a Blooket game or Quizlet to practice the vocabulary for body parts.
Reflect and Feedback
Reflect on today’s learning. What did you find easy? What did you find challenging? In what other ways or areas can you
apply today’s learning?
Next Steps
To be able to use adjectives to describe body parts.
The engaging activities and explicit instruction in this lesson ensure the students achieve the Learning Objectives for thelesson.

USING THE PBL FRAMEWORKIn this section an example of the progression through the stages of the PBL framework created by Magnify Learning will beoutlined for a unit of work at Year 9 focusing on ゆるキャラ (see Table 2). The driving question for this unit is “How can wecreate a mascot to effectively promote a place?” Throughout the unit students conduct research and engage in discussions
and reflections on ゆるキャラ in order to respond to the driving question. Examples of where the HITS fit into the stages of
the PBL framework have also been included in italics.
Table 2
AN EXAMPLE OF HOW THE PBL FRAMEWORK CAN BE USED
Entry Event

Scaffolding

Benchmark 1

Scaffolding

Benchmark 2

Hold a ゆるキャラ GrandPrix contest. Students maketheir favourite ゆるキャラ
out of materials they canfind around their home.

Review the ～がありま
す structure from Year
8 and the vocabulary forplaces in a city (e.g. beach,restaurant) and adjectives
to describe a place (e.g.
pretty).

Students choose a city
in Australia or aroundthe world, and create abrochure for this place inJapanese using the ～があります structure.
For example: メルボルンにきれいなうみがあります。

Introduce vocabulary: bodyparts (use song), colours(mini car activity and song),
and adjectives to describe
physical features (e.g. 大きい、小さい、長い).

Vocabulary quizzes onbody parts, colours andadjectives.

Look at photos and a videoof ゆるキャラ. What do yousee, think, wonder when you HITS questioning (what dolook at these viewing texts? we remember from Year 8?)
Throughout the unit ensure
learning intentions andsuccess criteria are provided
for each lesson. HITS setting
goals.

Provide an example of abrochure—HITS worked
examples.

Kahoot/Blooket/Quizlet tolearn vocabulary.
Body parts puzzle.
Fly swat game to learn
colours.
HITS explicit teaching,multiple exposures anddifferentiated teaching.

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Scaffolding

Benchmark 3

Scaffolding

Present

Reflection

Use vocabulary wheels
to learn the grammaticalstructures for describing
appearance.

Put together a poster of 10
different ゆるキャラ anduse the vocabulary wheels
to describe the features of
the characters in Japanese.

Introduce the vocabulary
for writing a profile of acharacter (e.g. name, age,where they live, things theylike).

Students design a ゆるキャラ for the place theycreated the brochure for at
the start of the unit.

Provide an example ofa poster—HITS worked
examples.

Provide an example ofa profil—HITS worked
examples.

Student Reflections• What did I have to do
today?
• What did I find easy?
• What did I find difficult?
• Which skills did I use?
• Where else could I use
these skills? (transfer ofskills to other learning, reallife etc.)• Continue to reflect on thedriving question.
• Use a rubric to assess the
fashion parade task.

Students listen to a
description and make thebody part out of plasticine(e.g. 目が大きいです。)
HITS explicit teaching,multiple exposures anddifferentiated teaching

They describe their mascot
in Japanese and present
their description to the class(and another class) in a
fashion parade activity.
They design the costumefor their mascot that theirpartner will wear during the
fashion parade while theyread the description.

HITS feedback andmetacognitive strategies.

Students write a profile ofthe character they design(e.g. name, age, where they
live, things they like).
Peer feedback will be
provided as well as
feedback from the teacher
in the form of a rubric.
HITS collaborative learning.

Footnote: Spinning vocabulary wheels are useful interactive learning tools. The large wheel has the words written in
Japanese on the side. The smaller wheel has a cut-out section that will reveal the translation of the word in English as it is
moved around. The two wheels are joined together by a split pin.
The Magnify Learning PBL framework uses benchmarks to assess learning throughout the unit. The benchmark tasks
can be formative assessment tasks, for example vocabulary quizzes. The assessment of macro skills throughout the unit
is through the use of rubrics: for example, the brochure and poster writing tasks, written profile and description of the
mascot, and the oral presentation describing the mascot.

CONCLUSION
There are a number of things to consider when implementing PBL pedagogy in a Japanese program. First is student
collaboration. Teachers cannot assume that students know how to collaborate and work effectively in a group situation.
Experience shows that some students do more work than others and this can cause friction. Students therefore need tobe taught the skills on how to collaborate. One way PBL addresses, and supports, student collaboration is to make students
accountable in a group situation through group contracts. These contracts outline how the group will work together, andinclude norms and agreements to help keep the students on track throughout the project.
Second, student voice and agency are important considerations when developing a program that will engage students
in their learning of Japanese. Opportunities for students to be involved in developing PBL units need to be explored. This
includes finding out what students want to learn, and receiving feedback from them at the end of the unit on what they
enjoyed and did not enjoy so the unit can be refined for future use.
Third, a key component of PBL is developing 21st century skills. Rubrics for language learning tend to focus on the way
students are developing their skills to communicate in Japanese, for example, their listening, speaking, reading, writing andviewing skills. However, ways to assess 21st century skills in rubrics, for example, critical thinking, creativity, collaborationand communication, also need to be explored.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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Fourth, another key component of PBL is creating connections with other subject areas. Traditionally secondary school
subjects are taught in silos, but PBL presents an opportunity to explore connections across subject areas. These links
across curriculum areas should be authentic and meaningful, and not forced.
Fifth, a PBL unit is framed around a driving question. One way to develop such questions is by framing them in a similarmanner to the International Baccalaureate (IB) Middle Years Program (MYP), which provides three types of inquiry questions
to promote deeper levels of thinking. These are 1) factual inquiry questions—remembering facts and topics; 2) conceptual
questions—analysing big ideas; and 3) debatable questions—evaluating perspectives and developing theories. This will
enable lots of deep thought and reflection throughout the unit as these questions are explored. At the junior secondary
level, much of the reflection will be in English as students do not have the language skills to reflect in Japanese. However,in the ゆるキャラ unit there are opportunities for students to develop their Japanese language skills through engaging in
the activities outlined above.
Finally, PBL encourages students to share their learning in a public forum. Such a forum may take the form of presenting topeers, adults or people from outside of the school. Opportunities for students to present in Japanese in a public forum need
to be explored more comprehensively. In the ゆるキャラ unit, the students present their fashion parade of characters/
mascots to students from another class. In this way, PBL offers opportunities for teachers to explore how student learning
can be shared and displayed beyond the classroom. Other options may include a display in a public space such as thelibrary, thereby creating links with members of the community and local organisations.

REFERENCE LIST
Bayside P-12 College. 2024. “Instructional Framework.” Accessed April 23, 2023. https://bayside.vic.edu.au/instructional-framework-2-2/.
Edutopia. 2007. “Why is project-based learning important? The many merits of using project-based learning in the classroom.” Accessed April 23, 2023.
https://www.edutopia.org/project-based-learning-guide-importance.
Magnify Learning. N.d. “How do I plan a PBL unit?” Accessed April 23, 2023. https://www.magnifylearningin.org/planning-a-project-based-learning-unit.
State Government of Victoria. 2023. “High impact teaching strategies (HITS).” Accessed April 23, 2023. https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/
teachingresources/practice/improve/Pages/hits.aspx .

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小学校教育における異文化間
バーチャル・エクスチェンジ：
PADLETを活用した非同時性活動の試み(INTERCULTURAL VIRTUAL
EXCHANGE IN PRIMARYEDUCATION: AN ATTEMPTOF ASYNCHRONOUS
ACTIVITIES USING PADLET)SHINJI OKUMURA（奥村 真司）
Bunkyo University
MASAE UEKUSA（植草 雅絵）
Tecoma Primary SchoolNSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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ABSTRACTThis paper reports on an attempt at virtual exchange between Japanese and Australian primary schools, particularly
asynchronous exchange activities, using Padlet. Since this project was conducted while Australian primary schools were
offering remote classes due to the COVID-19 pandemic, only cultural information was provided from the Japanese side,
and comments from Australian students were limited. However, by providing cultural information from learners of thesame age group, the Australian students perceived Japanese culture as more familiar than the ready-made informationfrom the Internet or books. Positive attitudes and awareness toward Japanese students and Japanese culture contributed
to cultivating motivation to learn Japanese. Intercultural Virtual Exchange (VE) across borders requires coordination oftime differences and school schedules. Nonetheless, asynchronous exchanges using Padlet or other means, as in thisproject, can be easily implemented following the participating teachers’ instructional plans. We hope that this case will
be recognized as an example of asynchronous intercultural exchange activities and lead to the expansion of VE practices
across borders.
［キーワード］初等教育、言語（languages）教育1、異文化間コミュニケーション、バーチャル・エクスチェンジ、Padlet

はじめに
近年、発展が著しい情報通信技術（Information Communication Technology : ICT）は、子どもたちの日常生活だけでなく、学校教育においても多様性をもたらしている。Raja and Nagasubramani（2018）は、テレビ会議システムなどのICT
ツールによって、教室の壁や国境を越えてさまざまな場所にいる相手と、容易にコミュニケーションをとることができることが、教育のグローバル化につながっていると主張している。このような遠隔コミュニケーションは、バーチャル・エクス
チェンジ（Virtual exchange: VE）と呼ばれ、学習者グループが、教育者や専門家の指導のもと、他の文化的背景や地理的位置の異なる相手とオンライン上で異文化交流や協働的な学びを行うものである（O'Dowd、2018）。
VEは、時空間的な視点において、同期型と非同期型に分類できる。同期型VEとは、ビデオ会議システムを使用したリア
ルタイムの活動である。非同期型VEには、ソーシャルメディアにおける写真や映像および文字媒体を組み合わせたマル
チモダールなコミュニケーションがある。前者は、参加国や地域間の時差や学校のスケジュールの違いによって、実施ス
ケジュール調整の必要性があるが、後者は実施上の時差の影響を受けることはなく、学校間スケジュール調整も比較的容易にできる（Okumura、2022）。
本論で扱う小学校教育段階における非同時性のVEの研究として、Jauregi and Melchor-Couto（2018）が行ったオラン
ダの中学校生徒とスペインの児童の英語とスペイン語学習のバイリンガルプロジェクトがある。このプロジェクトでは、
オランダの中学校とスペインの小学校の学習者が、非同期で4つのタスクブログの作成）を実施し、グループ毎に設定されたPadletウォールに、自分のグループのVlog を共有した。この研究の結果として、オランダ人生徒よりもスペイン人児童のほうが、オンラインでの交流活動に意義を感じていることを見出した。また、教師が学習者の自主性を尊重しながら積極的に指導に携わることが、児童にとって、海外の学習者とのコミュニケーションがより価値あるものになりうることを示唆した。
我々の先行研究では、教育用ソーシャルネットワークサイトEdmodo2を利用した日本とオーストラリアの児童による異文化間VE交流について報告した（奥村・植草、2018）。このプロジェクトでは、英語を学習する日本の児童と、日本語を学習するオーストラリアの児童が、教育用ソーシャルメディアであるEdmodoの掲示板機能を使用しそれぞれの目標言
語でお互いの国の文化を紹介する活動を行った。このプロジェクトの成果として、双方の児童が自分達の投稿に対して相手からの反応を即座に受け取ることができたことで活動への達成感を得ることができた。また、双方の児童の多くが、目標言語でのコミュニケーションの楽しさを感じることができたこと、更には、本プロジェクトが言語（languages）
学習と異文化理解において、児童の主体的な学びを促す効果があったことが認められた。

1
2

本稿では、ビクトリア州の言語教育政策に鑑み、第2言語、第3言語、外国語を含む付加言語を言語（languages ）と表記する。
Edmodoは、2022年9月にサービスを終了した。

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これらの先行研究に鑑みても、非同時性の異文化間VE 活動は、児童の言語（languages）学習と異文化理解にとって有意義な活動になると言えよう。
そこで、筆者1は、筆者2であるオーストラリアの小学校の日本語教師、日本の小学校の英語専科教師とともに、小学校
教育段階の言語（languages）教育における異文化間VEプロジェクトを2021年4月に計画し、掲示板アプリケーション
Padletを活用した非同時性交流を5月から10月に実施した。

背景
オーストラリア、ビクトリア州の学校教育カリキュラムは、Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authorityによって統括されている。VCAA（n.d.）は、Victorian Curriculumにおいて、ICTの使用を推奨しており、言語（languages）学習者
は、ICTの使用によって、その言語を話す様々な人々とつながり、コミュニケーションをとることができると述べている。一方、オーストラリア国内の日本語教育においては、日本語使用者3と交流する機会が少なく、学習者が日本とのかかわりを意識することが難しい。そのため、ICTを活用し、日本在住の、とりわけ同世代の日本語使用者と交流することは、VCAAが期待する言語（languages）教育における学習者の意欲と異文化理解向上につながると言える（奥村・植草、2018）。
日本においても、小・中学校の外国語（英語）教育において、学習者が目標言語である英語を実践的に使用したり、異文化理解を促進したりするために、ICTを活用した地域社会または国際社会を巻き込んだオンライン交流を推奨している（
文部科学省、2016）。しかし、日本の英語教育においても、英語使用者4とのつながり、とりわけ、同年代の英語使用者との交流は、極めて稀である。Toscu（2021）が、VEプロジェクトを実施するにあたっては、社会的・文化的な視点を共有しやすい同年代との交流が理想的であると指摘しているように、VEによるオーストラリアと日本の児童が国境を越えてオンライン上で交流することは、双方の児童の言語（languages）学習や異文化理解において貴重な経験となると考える。
また、本プロジェクト実施期間に関わるもう一つ重要な背景として、新型コロナウイルス感染症（以下、COVID-19）パンデミックがある。2020年初頭から世界中に広がったCOVID-19は、社会構造を大きく変化させるとともに、世界中の国や地域の学校教育にも多大な影響を及ぼした。ビクトリア州と日本においても、2021年には、一定期間の学校閉鎖が行われたり、遠隔授業が行われたりした。

プロジェクトの概要
目的
異文化間VEを成功させるためには、明確で現実的な目標を設定することが非常に重要である（Chun, 2015）。そこで、
本プロジェクトにおけるオーストラリア側の目標として、以下を設定した。
１）児童の日本文化理解を促進すること
２）学校、保護者、地域社会への日本語教育の啓発
３）日本旅行への関心を高めること
参加校と参加者
小学校教育におけるVEプロジェクトを研究対象としている筆者1は、プロジェクトリーダーとして（以下、PL）、2021年4月に小学校言語（languages）教育のためのVEプロジェクトを構想した。PLは、英語教育および国際理解教育に理解のある、東京都町田市立小山ヶ丘小学校の当時の学校長に打診し、VEプロジェクトを実施する許諾を得た。小山ヶ丘
小学校からの参加者は、英語専科教員1名（以下、JT）およびJTが授業を担当する日本語使用者かつ英語初級者の6年生138名である （以下、JS）。

3
4

本稿では、母語使用者、非母語使用者の用語は使用せず、日本語を日常および学校で使用している者を日本語使用者と表記する。
日本語使用者同様、英語を日常また学校で使用している者を英語使用者と表記する。

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本プロジェクトの相手校を探す段階においては、日本語教育が盛んなオーストラリアに着目した。この理由として、言語（languages）学習者は、その言語の使用者に関わりたい、理解したいという真摯な気持ちや敬意を持つことが、言語（languages）学習への意欲向上につながること（Gardner、2001）、また、学習言語の使用者のコミュニティへの肯定的な感情、学習言語への実用的な価値、学習言語を使用している自分のイメージの融合が、言語（languages）学習の意欲を最大化すること（Cszér & Dörnyei、2005）がある。
オーストラリアの学校を探すため、PLは、当初、オーストラリアの公的な言語教育団体へのアプローチを模索したが、プロジェクトに参加してくれる相手校を確実に見つける保証がなかったため、個人的なネットワークを活用することとした。その結果、PLのモナシュ大学の元同僚であり、メルボルン郊外にあるテコマ小学校で日本語教育に携わる日本人教師（以下AT）が、プロジェクトの趣旨を理解し、参加に同意した。ATは、当時の所属学校長の許可を得て、正式に参加することとなった。所属校長が、日本語教育に大変理解があることが、許可を得ることができた大きな要因であった。この学校の参加
者は、ATとATのクラスで学ぶ英語使用者かつ日本語初級者の5年生62名、6年生60名である（以下、AS）。
2021プロジェクト
1. 使用アプリケーション
今回のプロジェクトでは、掲示板アプリケーションPadletを活用した。Padletは、パワーポイントで作成した資料や撮影した動画などを、他の人と共有することができる掲示板アプリケーションである。英語や日本語を含む40言語に対応しており、一定のサービスを無料で使うことができる。また、設定したページのURLを共有することで、相手を限定して交流することができる。Padletには、いくつかのレイアウトがあり（写真1）、どのレイアウトでもアップロードされた資料や動画を一目で見ることができる。そして、その資料や動画に登録された人がコメントすることができる。Waltemeyer、Hembree、and Hammond（2021）は、教育ツールとしてのPadletの使用は、生徒の創造性と共同学
習を促進する貴重な学習リソースとなると主張している。Lyn（2022）は、COVID-19の大流行時にPadletの利用者が増加し、Padletの利用に関する研究が行われたと述べている。

写真１ Padlet のレイアウト（出典：https://ja.padlet.com/）

2. 計画と内容
プロジェクトは、日本の小学校外国語（英語）教育の内容に基づいて計画することとした。その理由としては、日本の小学校外国語（英語）教育では、学習指導要領に基づいた体系的な指導内容が確立されており、その内容が文部科学省
検定教科書として具現化されているからである。したがって、参加する双方の教師にとって、VE交流のトピックを決めやすいという利点がある。

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本プロジェクトの活動内容は、外国語科（英語）の年間カリキュラムと使用教科書の授業単元に基づいて検討された。5
月の授業で、社会的行事、文化、学校の紹介が扱われていたことから、PLとJTは、この内容をVEプロジェクトに取り入れることとした。その計画内容をATに伝え、テコマ小学校の日本語教育の状況を考慮しながら、内容に修正を加え、最終的な合意を得た。また、PL、JT、ATが、各活動の前後にE-mail やコミュニケーションアプリケーションLINEを使用したオン
ラインミーティングを行い、活動内容の確認や活動における指導上の配慮事項等を話し合う機会を設けた。
表１ Padletを活用した活動のスケジュール
活動時期

活動内容

2021年
5月中旬

JSによる準備活動１
紹介したい学校行事や年間行事の決定と調査発表するテーマごとにグループ分け
発表内容についての話し合い

5月下旬

JSによる準備活動２
発表用原稿作成
発表用写真・スライドの準備
発表台本の作成
発表動画の作成

8月

JTによるATへの動画提供
ATによるPadlet へのアップロード

8月‐9月

ASによる動画視聴とコメント活動

10月

JSによるコメントの閲覧

教室での活動内容は、JTが主として考え、JSをグループ分けし、グループ内での話し合いをもとにビデオ撮影する内容を決めることとした。学校紹介に関する内容としては、遠足や学芸会などが選ばれ、文化に関する内容としては、国民の祝日、お花見、夏祭り、正月、日本食などが選ばれた。
JSは、5月中に日本の学校や日本文化についての発表の準備を開始した。準備の具体的内容は表1に示した通りである。作成した発表動画は、JTがYouTubeにアップロードした後、ATがPadletに掲載した。写真2は、本プロジェクトの
Padlet の一部である。また、写真3は、JSが、子どもの日（Children’s Day）を紹介した内容の一部である。

写真 2 本プロジェクトのPadletの一部

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写真3 子どもの日（Children’s Day）を紹介した内容の一部

本プロジェクトのPadletは、テコマ小学校の学校スケジュールに合わせて、8月にASに共有された。本来は、ASは通常の日本語授業内で、Padlet上の日本文化情報を閲覧し、コメント活動を行う予定であったが、COVID-19パンデミックによる学校閉鎖および遠隔授業への移行により、Padletの閲覧とコメント活動は自宅での自主学習の一つとなった。

実践の成果
ASの日本文化理解
ASが、JSの各文化紹介ビデオに対して投稿したコメントには、日本語で「すごいね」、「ありがとう」、「ta me shi te mita i na（ためしてみたいな）」などや、英語で”Cool”、“Good job”、“I want to try that”や “Very cool drawing”. など動画に対して共感するようなものが多く見受けられた。これは、日本人と日本文化への肯定的な態度の現れであると捉えることができる。
また、テコマ小学校が12月に対面での日本語授業を再開した後には、AS が、JSおよび日本文化に対して好意的な意識や態度を持っていることを、ASの発言から知ることができた。ATは、教師からの一方的な日本文化紹介のインプットよりも、実際に存在する日本人児童の顔を見て、生の日本語を聞き、日本文化の情報に触れることが、ASの日本語学習、文化理解に対する肯定的な意識の構築につながったと認識した。更に、日本語学習者がどのようなことをしたいのか、
また、どのようなことに疑問を持ったり、不思議に思ったりするするのかを認識することができた。他には、距離的に離れた日本を近くに感じ、日本語学習を現実の世界のものと捉えることができたと認識した。
この結果は、Gardner（2001）の、言語（languages）学習者は、その言語の使用者に関わりたい、理解したいという真摯な気持ちや敬意を持つことが、言語（languages）学習への意欲向上につながるという主張に一致するものであり、JSや日本文化に対するASの肯定的な態度や意識は、日本語学習への意欲向上につながると言える。
学校、保護者、地域社会への日本語教育の啓発
プロジェクト終了後、ATはテコマ小学校のニューズレターに活動の記事を執筆し掲載した。他の教員やサポートスタッフ
は、このプロジェクトを肯定的に捉えていた。また、日本の小学校との交流は、参加したAS にとって特別な経験であるという認識を持っていた。教員やサポートスタッフに対する日本語教育への啓発において一定の効果があったと考える。
このプロジェクトに対する保護者および地域社会の感想については、COVID-19パンデミック中であったことから、残念ながら聞くことができなかったが、ニューズレターの記事を読んだ保護者や地域の人々に対しても、最近の日本語教育
実践を知らせることができたと考える。

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日本旅行への関心
このような日本との交流プロジェクトを継続的に実施することは、上述の通り、テコマ小学校全体の日本や日本文化への関心を高めた。そして、テコマ小学校の児童が、もっと日本を知りたい、そして日本へ行ってみたいという意欲を持ち、それぞれの私的な日本旅行への動機を掻き立てるきっかけとなったとも考えられる。これは、COVID-19 パンデミック
後に、多くの児童が日本へ旅行するようになったことからも明らかである。
異文化間VEにおけるPadletの有効性
計画当初、ATは通常授業で指導しながら、本プロジェクトに取り組む予定であったが、前述の通り、COVID-19対策のロックダウンにより、遠隔授業となってしまった。ロックダウンが延長されるたびにこのプロジェクトをどうにか続けられるタスクを設定するようにした。
ASが自宅待機の状況においても、Padletを活用した非同期型の活動によって、自宅でJSの文化紹介を閲覧し、コメントをすることができた。遠隔授業中だったため、コメント回答率は高くなかったが、日本語のタイピングのためにウェブサ
イトを利用し、使いたい表現を模倣するなどし、JSの投稿に対して日本語を使ってコメントしようとする意欲と努力が認められた。
このように、Padletのような非同期性の掲示板アプリケーションの活用は、COVID-19パンデミックによる遠隔授業中という困難な状況にあっても、スケジュールや活動内容の変更に柔軟に対応できる点において、言語（language）教育において有効であると言える。これは、本プロジェクトの大きな収穫となった。

課題
本プロジェクトは、COVID-19パンデミックによる遠隔授業中という困難な状況の中でも、上述のような成果を見出した一方、Padletの使用に関しては、課題もあった。
第一に、1つのインターフェイスに、日本のすべての文化情報が提示されたため、日本語初級学習者であるASが、英語初級学習者であるJSの英語を理解するという複雑な自主学習タスクとなったことが挙げられる。遠隔授業中であったた
め、ATにメール等で質問が来ても、言葉で説明するしかサポートができなかった。その結果、ASが細かい日本文化の情報を十分に理解することが難しくなってしまった。
第二に、JSの作成した一部のビデオの内容が、英語を使って説明されているものの、発話が理解しにくく、十分な視覚情報が準備されなかったことも、ASが十分に投稿の内容を理解できない要因となった。初級言語（languages）学習
者が文化情報を提供する場合には、絵などの 視覚情報は必須であろう。
以上のように、VEの活動を充実させるためには、十分な事前準備と活動中の適切な支援が必要となることから、Jauregi and Melchor-Couto（2018）が指摘している、教師が積極的に指導に携わることの重要性が示された。

おわりに本プロジェクトは、COVID-19パンデミックによる遠隔授業中での実施となったため、テコマ小学校側の活動が限定的で、小山ヶ丘小学校からだけの文化情報提供になってしまったが、この点を肯定的に捉えるならば、オーストラリアの日
本語教育への文化的リソース提供の一端を担うことができたと考える。同じ年齢の学習者が、同じ社会的、文化的経験を持っているかどうかは今後検討の余地があるが、少なくとも、インターネットや書籍などの既製の情報よりも、日本文化を身近なものにとらえることができたと言える。
また、今回のプロジェクトはPadletを活用した非同時性活動の初めての取り組みであったことから、2021年の5月から10月までの1回のみの実施となったが、それでも双方の児童にとって、普段の教室内の授業では経験することができな

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い異文化理解の貴重な機会になったと考える。将来的には、日本とオーストラリアの小学校の年間スケジュール内で調整することにより、複数回の交流も可能となるであろう。
国境を越えた異文化間VEは、時差や学校スケジュールの調整が必要となるが、本プロジェクトのような掲示板アプリケーションを使用した非同期性の交流であれば、参加する教師の指導計画に沿った形で実践がしやすく、小学校での言語（languages）教育における異文化理解活動に一定の成果を見出すことが可能となる。
本事例が、非同期性異文化間交流活動の一例として認知され、日本、オーストラリアのみならず、世界中の言語（languages）の教師が興味を持ち、国境を越えたVE実践の広がりにつながっていくことを期待する。

参考文献
和文文献
奥村真司・植草雅絵（2018）「オーストラリアと日本の子どもたちをつなぐテレコラボレーションプロジェクト」＜https://nsjle.org.au/
proceedings/#2018-proceedings＞2023年11月2日参照文部科学省（2016）「外国語教育におけるＩＣＴの活用について（たたき台）（現状と今後の方向性）」 ＜http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/058/siryo/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2016/05/25/1371098_5.pdf＞ 2023年
12月7日参照
英文文献
Chun, D. M. 2015. Language and culture learning in higher education via telecollaboration. Pedagogies: An International Journal, 10(1):5-21.
Cszér, K. and Dörnyei, Z. 2005. “Language Learners’ Motivational Profiles and Their Motivated Learning Behaviour.” Language Learning, 55 (4):613-659.
Gardner, R. C. 2001. “Integrative motivation and second language acquisition”. In Motivation and second language acquisition, edited by Z. Dörnyei and R.
Schmidt, 1-19. Honolulu: National Foreign Language Resource Centre.
Jauregi, K., and Melchor-Couto, S. 2018. “Successful Telecollaboration Exchanges in Primary and Secondary Education: What Are the Challenges?”
Research-publishing.net, Paper presented at the EUROCALL 2018 Conference (26th, Jyväskylä, Finland, 2018).
Lyn, J.C.I. 2022. “Using Padlet as a learning space for simulating real-life business communication.” TESL-EJ, 26 (3): 1-12.
O’Dowd, R. 2018. From telecollaboration to virtual exchange: State-of-the-art and the role of UNICollaboration in moving forward. Journal of Virtual
Exchange, 1-23. https://journal.unicollaboration.org/article/view/35567
Okumura, S. 2022. “Toward successful telecollaboration using SNSs in EFL instruction: What elements should be incorporated and considered?” Information
and Communication Studies, 65:1-10.
Raja, R., and Nagasubramani, P. 2018. “Impact of Modern Technology in Education”, Journal of Applied and Advanced Research, 3, S33-S35.
Ramírez-Lizcano, N., & Cabrera-Tovar, M. A. 2020. “EFL Learners’ Perceptions About Language Learning and Culture When Using Telecollaboration”. Profile:
Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 22(2): 95-113.
Toscu, S. 2021. “Dos and don’ts of an effective telecollaboration project”. Kuramsal Egitimbilim Dergisi [Journal ofTheoretical Educational Science], 14(2):202-222.
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA) n.d. Victorian Curriculum. Information and Communication Technologies and Languages. https://
victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au/static/docs/Languages%20ICT%20v2.pdf
Waltemeyer, S., J. H., and Helen, H. 2021. Padlet: the multipurpose web 2.0 tool. Journal of Instructional Research, 10: 93-99.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSTRIAL PRACTICE OF
DIALOGIC LANGUAGE
ASSESSMENT IN BILINGUALSCHOOLS IN AUSTRALIAKAORU KADOWAKI
Setsunan University, Osaka, Japan
TAKAKO MORITA
Caulfield Primary School, Melbourne

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ABSTRACTIn Australian primary schools offering English-Japanese bilingual education, Japanese language is taught using the CLIL
(Content and Language Integrated Learning) approach, which partially teaches the content of subjects in Japanese.
However, the approach to measure students’ Japanese language proficiency itself has not been established yet.
This research examines whether “Dialogic Language Assessment (DLA) for Japanese as a Second Language” canbe adopted to assess Japanese language ability at the end of the 6 years of bilingual education. The implementationof DLA directly contributed to the teacher’s understanding of students’ Japanese language skills, which guided
their adoption of improved teaching practices. This adoption of DLA suggested that “DLA Speaking” can be aparticularly effective tool to assess learners’ proficiency not only at bilingual primary schools but potentiallyalso at secondary schools and “Hoshuko” (Saturday schools) in Australia and other locations outside Japan.

INTRODUCTION
Bilingual and immersion education in English and other languages is provided in some Australian primary and secondary
schools. According to the Japan Foundation (2020), five primary schools offer Japanese-English bilingual programsin Australia. In these schools, Japanese language is taught using the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
approach, which partially teaches the content of some school subjects in Japanese. However, specific teaching methods
and assessments to measure Japanese language proficiency have not yet been established.
In this study, the authors attempted to measure students’ Japanese language proficiency by administering the Dialogic
Language Assessment (DLA) for Japanese as a Second Language at two Japanese-English bilingual primary schools
in Australia. DLA, which was developed by the Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology(MEXT), is widely used in schools in Japan to assess students’ Japanese language proficiency. This paper reports on theimplementation of DLA at one of the two Japanese-English bilingual primary schools, where DLA was administered.1 As aresult of conducting DLA and understanding students’ abilities, the Japanese classroom teacher (co-author) was able toreflect on her own lessons and improve her teaching method.

BACKGROUND
JAPANESE LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT IN JAPANESE-ENGLISH BILINGUAL PRIMARY SCHOOLSIn the past, one of the authors (Kadowaki) visited four out of the five Japanese-English bilingual schools in Australia andobserved classes. Some schools have one to three classes at each grade level, while others have one or two compositeclasses with two grades, such as Years 1 and 2, together. In most of the schools visited, the teaching subjects for thebilingual class are divided equally into those taught in Japanese and those taught in English. The bilingual program at eachschool varies in its specific curriculum and content. Depending on the curriculum and subject topics, Japanese language
teachers need to decide on the Japanese vocabulary and grammatical items to be taught. As there are not many readymade, easy-to-use teaching materials available that cater for teaching such specific items in the Japanese language,
teachers are obliged to create their own teaching materials. It was observed that they spend a considerable time each day
preparing for classes.
The students’ understanding of subjects offered as part of the Australian Curriculum as well as their Japanese proficiency
associated with such subjects are assessed in academic performance within an individual school. However, an effective
methodology to measure students’ Japanese proficiency itself had not yet been established in any of the four schools
visited. Therefore, the authors considered applying existing research findings on Japanese language education for children
with foreign roots in Japan to the teaching of Japanese language in bilingual primary schools in Australia.

1	This experimental work is a part of a research project to support Japanese language education outside Japan. A detailed analysis of theassessment of ’students’ Japanese language proficiency will be reported separately in another paper.

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Japanese language for children with foreign roots in Japan is referred to as “Japanese as a Second Language (JSL).” In JSL
teaching, school subjects are taught in Japanese, which is similar to the situation in Australian’s bilingual primary schools,
where some subjects are taught in Japanese using the direct method.
As there is no standardised method of assessment of students’ level of Japanese, the authors decided to use DLA—an
instrument that is widely adopted in schools in Japan—in bilingual Australian schools on an experimental basis. DLA aspractised in Japan was accordingly implemented in two Australian bilingual Japanese-English schools in two different
states with Year 6 students. This paper focuses on the practice in Caulfield Primary School in Victoria, one of the twobilingual primary schools to have implemented DLA.
The following section presents an overview of DLA, based on its accompanying teacher’s manual (MEXT 2014).

IMPLEMENTATIONWHAT IS “DLA”?
DLA was designed to assess the Japanese language skills of children, what kind of learning support is necessary, and how
to support their learning of school subjects. DLA has Speaking, Reading, Writing and Listening sections, and a teacher’smanual explaining specific procedures for each section is available online.2 The teacher’s manual contains detailed
instructions on how to administer the tests and how to ask questions in Japanese. It is therefore easy for any educator tocarry out DLA, and no special training for conducting interviews is required.
DLA takes into account the cognitive abilities of growing children in measuring Japanese language proficiency. The Speaking
section usually takes about twenty minutes to administer and the Reading section about twenty five minutes. The amountof time the assessment process takes varies according to a student’s Japanese proficiency level. It is not necessary to do
all four sections at once, and it is sufficient to measure speaking skills first and then implement the other sections in stages
as the child’s Japanese language skills develop (MEXT 2014: 179).
Due to space limitations, this paper focuses on the Speaking and Reading sections, which were conducted face-to-face,
one-to-one between teacher and student at one of the two schools in which DLA was administered. All interviews wererecorded for later review and to assess each student’s Japanese language ability on the six-stage proficiency rating in therespective Evaluation Reference Frames for DLA Speaking and Reading. Each stage indicates the level a student in theschool year is in. In any year level, stages 5 and 6 are considered to be the levels where students can keep up with theirstudy in a school in Japan with some learning support when necessary.
The interviews were conducted in a private room. The interviewer sat alongside the student to create a relaxing atmosphere,
instead of sitting opposite each other.
(1) DLA Speaking
DLA Speaking is divided into three parts. The first part is “Introductory Conversation.” The interviewer (teacher) starts withgreetings and explains the procedure of the interview in Japanese. Then the interviewer asks the student some questions
about himself/herself. After the “Introductory Conversation” is a “Vocabulary Check.” In this part, the interviewer shows
the student some picture cards and asks him or her to name them in Japanese. All picture cards can be downloaded fromthe internet.3
Part 3 consists of three tasks—the “Basic Task,” the “Dialogue Task” and the “Cognitive Task.” These tasks involve looking
at pictures first, then answering questions about the pictures, followed by role-playing conversations with the teacher. The

2	These materials can be downloaded free of charge from the MEXT website. Only the speaking part of the teacher’s manual is translated into
English (https://www.dla-kaken.jp/20220212wsdocuments).
3	These words were selected from a list of fifty-five words across thirteen areas, including body parts, food, animals, school behaviour andemotions (MEXT 2014, 180).

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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Basic Task measures the retention of basic sentence patterns at an elementary level, while The Dialogue Task measures
a student’s ability to speak in a situation without any assistance. The Cognitive Task measures the child’s ability to talkcoherently about content related to school subjects. For the Cognitive Task, three or four cards are chosen from a stack ofseven cards, according to child’s age and development. Two or three cards are suitable for younger children.
After the interview is finished, the teacher listens to the recording and checks the student’s Japanese proficiency based on
the relevant checklist in the teacher’s manual. The check sheets are used to determine at which level of the six stages4 of
The Evaluation Reference Frame the child is positioned.
(2) DLA Reading
DLA Reading takes place after the DLA Speaking Cognitive task has been completed. Its purpose is to find out “how well
the child understands the text”, “how the child reads”, and “how familiar the child is with reading books”. There are sevendifferent levels of books for Reading.5 A student’s reading comprehension is measured through a dialogue rather thanwritten tests in order for teachers to draw out the potential of each child (MEXT 2014: 178).
The DLA Reading process is as follows. First, before starting reading, the teacher shows the student the illustrations andkey words in the book to help him or her understand the meaning. The student is then asked to predict the content of thebook, and the teacher reads aloud a part of the book while the student listens to the story. Finally, the student reads thebook aloud. When the student has finished reading, the teacher asks the student to summarise the story in Japanese andasks questions in Japanese to check the student’s understanding of the content. At the end, the student is asked to share
his/her impressions of the book. The teacher asks the student questions about his/her reading habit such as “What kind ofbooks do you usually read?,” and, “In which languages and how often do you read books?”(3) DLA Writing
For Writing, eight themes are set according to the different age groups, and students write compositions in Japanese on
these themes. The themes are “favorite animal” for Year 1 students and “school” for Years 5 and 6 students. The themes
may be selected by the teacher according to the children’s Japanese level. Students in Years 1-3 are required to write for
10-20 minutes, while students in Years 4-6 write for 20-30 minutes.
(4) DLA Listening
In order to measure the listening skills necessary for learning a subject, students watch 3-5-minute videos on eight different
themes according to their age. As examples, Year 1 students watch “Field Trip Information” and Years 5-6 watch a video on“Energy.” After watching the videos, each student is asked to talk about the content.
The above is an overview of DLA. The next section presents how authors implemented DLA at Caulfield Primary school in
Victoria.

JAPANESE-ENGLISH BILINGUAL PROGRAMS AT CAULFIELD PRIMARY SCHOOL
Caulfield Primary School (CPS) is a government school, and one of the two Japanese-English bilingual schools in Victoria.
Incidentally, there are 11 bilingual primary schools in total in Victoria, two of which are Japanese-English bilingual schools(Bilingual Schools Network 2020). Students learn Japanese language for a total of seven years from Prep to Year 6.6
Students learn Japanese in a “partial immersion environment” (Baker 1993), with 50% of class time evenly divided between
Japanese and English. Most of the students learn Japanese as a Foreign Language (JFL), but recently a few students who
are learning Japanese as a Heritage Language (JHL) have joined the class.

4	Stage 2 students are able to perform the Basic Task. Stage 3 students can respond in single sentences. Stage 4 students are able to perform the
Dialogue Task, which means they can use daily vocabulary, show fluency, and answer questions asked of them. Stage 6 students can performthe Cognitive Task related to age-appropriate subject content, and speak coherently with grammatical accuracy and fluency.
5	The books are distributed free of charge by MEXT. Book A is for pre-school children, B and C1 are at Year 1, C2 is at Year 2, D is at Year 3 and 4, E
is at Year 5 and 6 and F is at the end of primary school to early middle school level.
6

Primary schools in Victoria consist of Prep (preparation level) and Years 1 to 6.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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IMPLEMENTATION OF DLADLA Speaking, Reading and Writing sections were administered to Year 6 students at CPS. All students (a total of thirty-five)were given the task of introducing their school in the Writing section.7 For DLA Speaking, the students’ Japanese language
ability in class was divided into four levels based on their performance in class. Then seventeen students, several fromeach level, were selected and were interviewed individually. In addition, DLA Reading was conducted with seven of thesestudents. This DLA was conducted together with the Year 6 classroom teachers.
The Basic Tasks and the Dialogue Tasks in DLA Speaking are designed to measure basic speaking ability in Japanese forchildren and are not limited to the context in Japan. In the Cognitive Tasks, students are asked questions about global
warming and earthquakes, and Year 6 students at CPS had learnt the content. Therefore, we believe that DLA Speaking
can be used even by primary school students who do not reside in Japan.

TEACHER’S PERCEPTION FROM DLA RESULTS
The Japanese classroom teacher (co-author) at CPS implemented DLA for the first time during Term 4, 2021. After the
implementation, the teacher reflected on the process and provided some insights.
The Japanese literacy assessments at the school are aligned to the Victorian curriculum to indicate where the students’Japanese language skills lay within the school and how well they understood what they had learnt in class in Japanese. The
implementation of standardised tests such as DLA has shown that it is possible to objectively assess students’ Japanese
language skills.
Overall, the results of the DLA Speaking study indicated that the students were not as fluent in Japanese as had been
expected. During the DLA Speaking interviews, it was observed that students could not remember vocabulary that they
had learnt previously and could not answer the “Vocabulary Check.” The students were also frustrated because they could
not express freely what they wanted to say in Japanese in response to the interviewer’s questions. During DLA Reading, theteacher realised that she had not incorporated “telling a synopsis after reading a book” into class, which is a requirementof this assessment activity. Therefore, based on the results of the DLA, the classroom teacher considered how to teachstudents to speak more fluently in Japanese and implemented a change in teaching method in classes from 2022. Someof the teacher’s reflections are addressed in the next section.

EXAMPLES OF IMPROVED TEACHING PRACTICES
Based on the experience reported here, we claim that DLA Speaking could potentially be used as an assessment tool
to measure children’s Japanese speaking ability, as there is no standardised Japanese speaking test for the students at
Japanese-English bilingual primary schools in Australia.
It was clear from the results of the DLA trial that students were not able to speak in Japanese as well as they had been
expected. Thus, the teacher changed her teaching style to provide more opportunities for students to speak in Japanese.
Previously, when students were asked to talk about something in Japanese classes, they would first write a draft of
the theme or topic and then practice speaking the script. However, the teacher realised that this was not enough forthe students to say what they wanted to say in Japanese, as they were reading the script. Therefore, she changed thesequence so that students first did sufficient speaking activities in Japanese and then wrote about the content.
For example, the following lesson practice was carried out for Year 1 students on the topic of the “Geography of Japan.”
For the speaking activity, the students practiced simple conversation using brochures from a travel agency. Then theyrole-played an interview session with Japanese speaking staff, verbally asking about their hometown in Japan. This wasfollowed by preparing posters on some Japanese cities. At the end, each student in turn gave a presentation on the city inthe poster in front of the rest of the students, without looking at a script.

7

Due to space limitations, the results of the analysis of the students’ essays are not covered in this paper.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS55

The same method was applied in the Year 2 class on the theme of “Japanese Folktales.” First, students were asked
to individually prepare a poster about their favorite Japanese folktale, with a picture and key words in Japanese thatsummarised the story. Then students in turn told the story of their choice to the other students in the classroom without
using a script.
In both cases, speaking practice and an oral presentation preceded writing practice. Consequently, students in both classes
were able to speak well in Japanese on themes and topics without looking at drafts during their presentations. Furthermore,
students wrote essays about what they had talked about after speaking practice and oral presentations, which seemed toease the burden of writing.
After implementing DLA, the teacher adopted the concepts inherent in DLA in her classes more actively and confidently.
In DLA, the interviewer does not correct the student’s Japanese mistakes, but praises and encourages the students sothat they can produce Japanese. She tried to “let students speak freely without being corrected each time they speak
incorrectly” and to “do her best to praise and encourage them.”

CONCLUSION
In this study the trial implementation of DLA provided an objective indication of students’ Japanese language skills, as wellas leading the classroom teacher to reflect on her own teaching and ways to improve her own teaching. DLA would be
beneficial for students, parents, and teachers to objectively show what sixth graders in bilingual schools can do with theJapanese they have learnt over the past seven years and at what stage of Japanese language proficiency they are. At theend of the DLA interview session we conducted, most students commented in their final remarks that it was difficult but
enjoyable. Though DLA is an assessment tool, it suggests that going through the DLA procedures can be enjoyable learning
activities for students using Japanese language. It is important to encourage students to become aware of the Japanese
language and their own learning through DLA. This requires teachers to bring out and measure students’ strengths, torecognise and develop them. The advantages of DLA are that it is an assessment designed for children. The detailed
teacher’s manual and its clear assessment criteria can be used by teachers to effectively administer interviews.
Japanese-English bilingual primary schools in Australia have students from diverse backgrounds, including JFL and JHL
students. JHL students are also enrolled in Japanese Hoshuko (Saturday Schools). DLA could be an appropriate tool formeasuring the Japanese language skills of these students in Australia as well as in other locations outside Japan. DLA’s
implementation policy, basic concepts and specific methods can be used not only in bilingual schools but also in primaryand secondary schools outside Japan.
Although this research could not empirically demonstrate the validity of the implementation of DLA through a detailed
analysis of students’ Japanese language proficiency, the trial was ground-breaking in the way that a standardised test like
DLA was carried out as a Japanese speaking assessment in a Japanese language program in Australia.
In future, it is desirable to have more Japanese language teachers in Japanese-English bilingual schools conduct DLA tomeasure students’ Japanese language proficiency by grade level. The authors also hope to conduct further research on
how DLA can be incorporated into Japanese language education in Australia more broadly.

NOTE
This study is a part of the results of the research under the Grant-in-Aid for Publication of Scientific Research (C) 2019-2023(Japan Society for the Promotion of Science),
Principal Researcher: Kaoru KADOWAKI, Grant Number: 19K00752

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS56

REFERENCE LIST
Baker, C. 1993. Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Bilingual Schools Network. 2022. Department of Education, State Government of Victoria. Accessed December 15, 2023. https://www.bilingualschools.vic.edu.au.
Japan Foundation [国際交流基金] 2020. Kuni Chiikibetsu no Nihongokyoiku jyoho: Australia [国・地域別の日本語教育情報 オーストラリア（2020年度）]
Accessed December 15, 2023. https://www.jpf.go.jp/j/project/japanese/survey/area/country/2020/australia.html.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) [文部科学省] 2014. Gaikokujin jidou no tameno JSL taiwagata asesumento DLA [外国人児童生徒のためのJSL対話型アセスメントDLA]. Accessed December 15, 2023. https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/003/1345413.htm.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSJAPANESE LANGUAGEEDUCATION FOR UNIVERSITYSTUDENTS IN JAPANWITH CULTURALLY AND
LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSEBACKGROUNDS —THE POTENTIAL OF
AUSTRALIAN COMMUNITYLANGUAGE EDUCATIONKEIKO OKUMURA
Meiji Gakuin University

57

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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ABSTRACT
Australian community language education contributes positively to the life and careers of citizens from culturally andlinguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds. The concept of community language education has great potential not only inAustralia, but also in other countries such as Japan that are becoming increasingly multicultural, as it serves to connect
individual local residents and nations with the world. It can also lead to career education related to the Japanese language
for Japanese Background Speakers (JBS) in Japan and overseas. This paper first reviews the concept of community
languages and community language education in Australia. It then discusses the effectiveness of career education
practices for CALD students enrolled in a university in Japan.

INTRODUCTION
The author lived in Victoria, Australia for four years from 2011 to 2015. During this time, they had the opportunity toteach Japanese Background Speaker (JBS) classes at a Japanese language supplementary school (community language
school) where they first became acquainted with the concept of community language education. The idea of a community
language is not part of the Japanese linguistic or educational landscape: the prevailing view is that as the national languageof Japan, the Japanese language is used by all Japanese citizens. However, in multiethnic and multicultural Australia, theconcept of a “community language” emerged as a result of the arrival of migrants from around the world.
Japan has also entered an era of multiculturalism and as a result, Japanese language education in Japan is undergoing amajor transformation. In this context, the Australian approach to community language education serves as a touchstone
and it is recommended that universities in Japan consider adopting the approach in the future.

PEOPLE WITH CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE BACKGROUNDSFirst, it is important to define what is meant by “people with culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.” Underpinningthe concept is the notion that a person cannot be categorized solely on the basis of nationality. In the past, in the field ofJapanese language education in Japan, terms such as “日本語指導が必要な児童生徒” (Students in need of Japanese
language instruction) or “外国人児童生徒” (foreign students)” were commonly used (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology, 2020). In practice, however, these phrases have little meaning. As an example, a child born andraised in Japan whose parents are of non-Japanese origin, may not identify with their parents’ country of origin but consider
themselves Japanese. On the other hand, some children with Japanese nationality, if they were raised abroad, may notconsider themselves to be the same as Japanese people born and raised in Japan in terms of their own identity. Thus,
children’s backgrounds are diverse and assumptions about children’s cultural or linguistic identity based on their nationality
can be easily misplaced. As children’s culture and language are primarily influenced by the international migration of theirparents it is important to recognize that individual children do not have a single culture or language and as such they are“young people with culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds” (Okumura 2022b).

CALD AND COMMUNITIES IN AUSTRALIA
In multicultural Australia, culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) children make up a significant proportion of the
population, with around a quarter of children and young people now coming from a CALD background (Australian Instituteof Family Studies, 2024). The term CALD was introduced by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 1999 to replace the term
“Non-English-Speaking-Background” (NESB), which lumped together people from non-English speaking backgrounds anddid not identify separate cultural or linguistic groups. This led to the acronym’s negative connotations. In contrast, CALD isan inclusive term that recognizes the cultural and linguistic diversity that makes up Australian society and encompasses
the essence of co-existence and unity regardless of differences (LEXIGO Team, 2023).
According to the 2021 Census, 27.7% of the Australian population was born overseas (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021).
Across Australia, more than 300 languages other than English are spoken by more than six million people (Community
Language Australia, n.d.). It is not uncommon for a child born to parents of different ethnicities to live in Australia whereNSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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they simultaneously have, and maintain, three different cultures and languages: the culture and language of the father,
the culture and language of the mother, as well as English, which is Australia’s common language. In the case of suchinternational families, while English is the common language of the entire family, some children may consider one or bothof their parents’ first languages and cultures to be part of their roots. For instance, many JBS are willing to make the effort
to learn Japanese on their days off in order to participate in Japanese community events and to deepen their awarenessof their roots, even if it is not necessary for their everyday lives. This situation is an example of language education policy
at the smallest level of community, the family.

COMMUNITY LANGUAGESIn Australia, the language of an ethnic community is referred to as a “community language” (Clyne, 1991). According to Liddicoat(2013), community languages have both internal- and external-community contexts. With respect to the former, Australia’s
support for multiculturalism since the 1970s has been accompanied by respect and support for the maintenance of community
languages or those spoken by migrant communities. With regard to the external-community contexts, the emphasis on close
and active social, economic, and security ties with various non-English-speaking countries has led to the promotion of language
education from the primary level for languages of geographically close Asian countries including Japan.
An example of community internal- and external-oriented language education is the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE)
program, which is divided into first and second language categories; that is, students who speak a language as their first
language (e.g. JBS) and those who are learning the language as a second language. VCE Japanese First Language Study
Design 2022–2026 explains the significance of Japanese language study as follows:
The study of a language other than English contributes to the overall education of students, most particularly in the areaof communication, but also in the areas of cross-cultural understanding, cognitive development, literacy and generalknowledge. It provides continued access to the cultures of communities that use the language and promotes understandingof different attitudes and values within the wider Australian community and beyond. (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment
Authority 2021, 2)This description is written about the need for learning Japanese to be useful in the community as a JBS. The following
explanation also accompanies the above explanation:
The study of Japanese develops students’ abilities to understand and use the language of a country that is one of Australia’s
most significant trading partners. There is a vibrant and longstanding Japanese-speaking community in Australia and there
are important links between Australia and Japan in areas such as business, tourism and education. The study of Japanese
promotes the strengthening of these links. Students may wish to study Japanese as an academic subject for educational
purposes, or to further develop their knowledge and use of a language already important to them, or to link this study toother areas of interest such as tourism, technology, the arts, finance and business. (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment
Authority 2021, 2)
The above is clearly a description of the benefits for the “external community.”
VCE Second Language also explains the significance of learning Japanese outside the community as follows:
The study of Japanese provides students with a direct means of access to the rich traditional and popular cultures of Japan.
Japan and the Japanese-speaking communities have an increasing influence in Victoria through innovations in science,technology, design, retail, fashion, cuisine, sport and the arts. A knowledge of Japanese, in conjunction with other skills, canprovide employment opportunities in areas such as tourism, hospitality, the arts, diplomacy, social services, journalism,
commerce, fashion, education, translating and interpreting. (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2021, 6)
It is natural that there are different types of learning in each community. The basic premise of Japanese language education
as a community language is to learn “Japanese” for different purposes, as well as the ability to communicate, accept, andunderstand each other’s similarities and differences in values. To promote community language education, community
language Schools are organized in each state and territory.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS60COMMUNITY LANGUAGE SCHOOLS
Across Australia, many non-native English-speaking children attend government-endorsed community language schools
to learn the language (AFESA n.d.). In terms of Japanese language, Japanese language supplementary schools offer
various forms of Japanese language education to children of Japanese expatriates and students living permanently inAustralia. These schools were previously regarded as problematic because they grouped all learners in one class anduniformly provided lessons similar to the Japanese school education system. In recent years, however, an increasing
number of schools use different methods of teaching that take into account the backgrounds of the learners. For example,
students who plan to return to Japan are taught Japanese language lessons that follow the Japanese school system,
while students who are permanent residents of Australia are taught Japanese as a community language (Okumura 2021).
While it is idealistic to vary teaching methods according to learners’ backgrounds and needs, there are effective aspectsof collaborative Japanese language learning among CALD students that can only be achieved in community language
learning settings. The author conducted a study of the effectiveness of community language teaching in a CALD class at auniversity in Japan (Okumura 2022a).

CLASSROOM PRACTICE AT A JAPANESE UNIVERSITY INCORPORATING THE
CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY LANGUAGES
Okumura (2022a) discusses in Japanese the effectiveness of collaboration (peer learning) among students from different
backgrounds. In this article, these practices are discussed from the perspective of community language education.
The students in the classes are a mix of Japanese students with no overseas experience, international students, andJapanese-English bilingual students. The department enrolls CALD students and offers a degree program in English. The
author is in charge of courses taught in Japanese and offered a course called “Career Japanese,” in which students withdiverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds can learn together.
The term “career” here refers not only to so-called occupations, but also to “the ability to become socially and professionallyindependent in the future, to fulfill one’s own role in society, and to realise one’s own way of life.” This is synonymous withthe “ability to live” in the new curriculum guidelines (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2011).
University teaching methods that incorporate collaborative learning among learners of diverse backgrounds requireinnovative practices. To this end, the author applied practices utilised in the JBS community language classes in Australia,
in their teaching in their university in Japan. For example, in the internal community or the local Japanese students, theuse of Japanese and learning new language items is used. For the external community on the other hand, a collaborative
learning approach was used in which the diverse learners learn about how to live better together by understanding theirpersonal views and coping strategies regarding everyday cultural interactions and conflicts, as well as the views andcoping strategies of others. Below are the specifics of this practice.

SIGNIFICANCE AND GOALS OF THE CAREER JAPANESE COURSES
The significance of the Career Japanese courses lies in the development of global human resources that will allow thestudents to work as members of society in Japan and abroad after graduation. Therefore, the students’ achievement
objectives are to improve their intercultural understanding skills as well as their Japanese language skills. In these courses,
emphasis was placed on understanding how individuals think and deal with everyday cultural interactions and conflicts thatthey may themselves encounter in the future. This leads to learning how to live better with others in a multicultural society.
The courses were offered throughout the year in two elective options: “Career Japanese A” in the spring semester of 2021and “Career Japanese B” in the autumn semester of 2021. Both courses could only be taken from the second semesterof the second year of university, so all students who were enrolled had to have at least one and a half years of university
experience. There were three types of students: those who took only A, those who took only B, and those who took both A
and B. The courses are open to all students with intermediate or advanced Japanese language skills, regardless of culturalor linguistic background, so they are not only open to international students and returnees, but also to native speakers ofJapanese who were born and raised in Japan.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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According to the preliminary questionnaire distributed to students at the beginning of each course, the twenty-six students
enrolled in “Career Japanese A” came from ten countries and regions including Japan. The twenty-one students enrolledin “Career Japanese B” came from eight different countries including Japan. The questionnaire included a question about
the students’ Japanese language study history.
The Japanese language study history of the students enrolled in “Career Japanese A” and “Career Japanese B” as well as
their linguistic and cultural backgrounds were diverse. For example, there are those who studied in the Japanese school
system all the way through high school, those who had studied in the Japanese school system as well as returnees, those
who studied in international schools in Japan all the way through high school, children of international marriages who had
repeatedly moved between Japan and abroad, and those who were born and raised in Japan or came to Japan with theirparents. Each student was interviewed individually during the orientation for the first class. The purpose of the interview
was to ascertain whether the students could generally understand what was being discussed in class, whether they werecomfortable with reading, discussing, and writing activities in Japanese alone, and whether they could prepare for class,actively participate in class, and complete the after-class summary assignment. Only one student withdrew from the classafter the interview.

PRACTICAL METHODSThe overarching theme of both courses is conflicts. The major theme of “Career Japanese A” is conflicts with others instudent life at Japanese universities, and the major theme of “Career Japanese B” is conflicts with others in Japanese
corporate society.
For materials, we used the Miyazaki’s case-based textbook (2016). This textbook, written in Japanese, shows various
situations, such as conflicts in mutual negotiations with classmates and faculty members in university life in Japan,
happenings at a part-time job, troubles with workmates, conflicts with superiors and colleagues at work, and possible
actions by the individual characters in the situations. Although the title of the textbook is marked “for foreign learners,”
it is best suited to students with an intermediate or higher Japanese language proficiency. For students who are notnative speakers of Japanese, the textbook functions as means to encourage their communication skills in Japanese whilelearning vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic skills.
The learning process was divided into three steps: 1. before class activity; 2. during class activity; and 3. after class activity.
The first step was pre-reading. If a student did not understand the vocabulary or an expression in the text, that student
first independently checked the meaning of the vocabulary word or expression. Then, when the students understood thecontents of each paragraph, they wrote a summary outline of the paragraph. This work was set as pre-class preparation
to be completed individually. These outlines were submitted online the day before each class to confirm that the work had
been completed and that the students had understood the content.
The second step was to read aloud the case of the textbook and to organize discussions during class. In these courses, inaccordance with the rule that Japanese is the common language of the class, students used Japanese in the discussions.
After the discussion, a representative from each group shared a summary of the points raised with the class.
The third step was a summary activity. After the end of the class, each student carried out individual work. The students
derived solutions to the case protagonist’s problems from the discussion. They then compared their own opinions withthose of others, reflected on them and analysed new perspectives that had not emerged from the discussion. Students
were required to submit an “opinion paper” at the end. This opinion paper was to be between 400 and 800 characters.
The opinion essay could be written freely according to the students’ level of Japanese sentence production skill. These
opinion pieces were made available to all students in the class. In the following classes, the instructor also summarised
the common content of the students’ opinion sentences in key sentences and introduced them to the students.
On the last day of the fifteen-week course, students wrote about a cross-cultural conflict they had experienced, using
the same case-writing process as in the textbook. They also shared what they had written with their classmates andcommented on each other’s experiences. The scoring of the end-of-semester assessments included scores for all threeof the above steps. In the oral presentations and essays, students were assessed not on fluency, accuracy of writing,vocabulary or grammar, but on whether they described in their essays their positive and active attitudes and statements
in class and their attitudes towards learning.

NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS62

RESULTS OF PRACTICE
At the end of the semester, a questionnaire was administered to students to learn what they thought of the classes. The
questionnaire was administered using the questionnaire section of the online class support system, which allowed theresearcher to know the names of the respondents, but it was mutually agreed that the names of the participants who
responded to the questionnaire would not be made public.
Appendix 1 lists some students’ impressions about the class as a whole and some excerpts from the written responses
from the students who agreed to them being published. The responses were written in Japanese and translated into
English by the author. For details, see Okumura (2022a).

CONCLUSION
As indicated in the table in the Appendix, students who had studied in Japan from elementary school through high school
and considered Japanese to be their native language mainly emphasized cross-cultural communication and recognized theopportunities to understand the similarities and differences between their peers.
On the other hand, students who had studied abroad from elementary school through high school, including international
students, or those who had spent most of their study abroad and viewed Japanese as their second or third language,
focused mainly on their language learning, and the communicative activities in Japanese they had with native Japanese
speakers.
The results of the above practices suggest that Japanese language education as a community language can contribute toaddressing the needs of increasingly diverse learners of Japanese. If Japanese language teaching practices are designedwith both internal and external communities in mind, the practices can adapt to the needs of learners with different
backgrounds in different contexts. Language learning does not end simply with the acquisition of language skills. Learninga language leads to understanding different cultures which in turn leads to a greater understanding of one’s own culture.
Finally, language learning leads to an appreciation of multiculturalism. It is highly significant that a language learning place
can be a place for community building among people from different backgrounds. Moreover, in the process of community
formation, the prospect of being able to use the language learnt (Japanese), can be a useful tool for students’ careerdevelopment.

REFERENCE LIST
Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2021. Accessed January 20, 2024.
https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/cultural-diversity-census/2021.
Australian Federation of Ethnic Schools Associations (AFESA). N.d. Community languages Australia. Accessed April 20, 2024.
https://www.communitylanguagesaustralia.org.au/AboutUs.
Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 2019. Cultural and linguistic diversity (CALD) strategy 2018–2021. Accessed January 20,
2024. https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/cald-strategy-2018-2021.
Australian Institute of Family Studies. 2024. Key organisations for working with culturally and linguistically diverse families. Accessed January 20, 2024.
https://aifs.gov.au/resources/resource-sheets/key-organisations-working-culturally-and-linguistically-diverse-families.
Clyne, M. 1991. Community languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
LEXIGO Team（2023）“A comprehensive guide to CALD in Australia.” Accessed April 20, 2024. https://lexigo.com/post/a- comprehensive-guide-to-cald-inaustralia/.
Liddicoat, A. J. 2013. Language-in-education policies: the discursive construction of intercultural relations. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. 2020. Gaikokujin jidoo seito tou no kyouikuno jyuujitsu nitsuite [外国人児童生徒等の教育の充実について]. Accessed April 30, 2024. https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20200326-mxt_kyousei01-000006202_02.pdf.
———. 2011. Kyaria kyouiku towa nanika [キャリア教育とは何か]. Accessed April 30, 2024. https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/education/
detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/ 2011/06/16/1306818_04.pdf.
Miyazaki, N. [宮崎七湖]. 2016. Ryugakusei no tame no keesu de Manabu nihongo: mondaihakkennouryoku wo nobasu [留学生のためのケースで学ぶ日本語：
問題発見解決能力を伸ばす]. Tokyo: Coco shuppan. [東京 ココ出版].

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Okumura, K. 2021. A paradigm shift from inherited japanese language education to global human resource development: the possibility of Australiancommunity language education. Kankoku nichigo kyouiku gakkai Nihongo kyouikukenkyuu [韓国日語教育学会日本語教育研究] 54: 181–97.
———. 2022a. “Designing learning environments in Japanese for university students with diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.” Meiji Gakuin Review
International and Regional Studies 61: 19–35.
———. 2022b. Tayoona haikei no kodomotachi to tsunagaru Tayoo na kyouiku genbade sodateagerushimin riterashii (Dai sankai) [「多様な背景の子供たちとつながる」多様な教育現場で育て上げる市民リテラシー（第3回）Naigaikyouiku [内外教育]:12–13.
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. 2020. VCE Japanese second language study design 2019–2023. Accessed April 30, 2024. https://www.
vcaa.vic.edu.au/curriculum/vce/vce-study-designs/japanesesecondlanguage/Pages/Index.aspx.
———. 2021. VCE Japanese first language study design 2022–2026. Accessed April 30, 2024. https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/curriculum/vce/vce-studydesigns/japanesefirstlanguage/Pages/Index.aspx.

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APPENDIX
Opinions and Comments about “Career Japanese A”
1. Do you think this class will be helpful in your college life?
Very helpful

27% (7)

Helpful

65% (17)

Neither helpful nor unhelpful

8% (2)

Not very helpful

0% (0)

Not helpful at all

0% (0)

2. Why did you answer “very helpful / helpful” in #1? Please describe freely.
International students• This department is a very special environment, and I was able to learn more about university life and issues in Japanthrough this class.
• There were many episodes that I have experienced.
• I can practice my Japanese through discussions in class.

Returnees• I am satisfied because I learned about communication skills in Japanese and how to improve problems.
• I am glad that I have never learned how to communicate in Japanese.
• The reason I didn’t find it very useful is that sometimes I don’t think I have much experience with the cases.
• I was able to think of some ideas with the other students to help me with the case.
• It was very interesting to hear the different opinions and ideas of the students around us. In addition, the slides
summarized by the professor allowed me to hear the deeper thoughts of the students, which led me to new
discoveries that I had never paid attention to before. I learned that I may have unintentionally offended them, which
made me realize that I had to be more careful about my words and actions.

Children of foreigners in Japan• I was interested in this program because it gives me the opportunity to deal with problems that may occur in my daily
life and to discuss them with others, so I can learn about different values.
• I looked forward to the opportunity to work with other students because learning about their problems and how tosolve them will help me to write a good resume.

Graduates of Japanese schools• It was good to hear everyone’s opinions.
• I am glad that I was able to learn from the lecturer’s experience.
• I think I am now better able to deal with conflicts caused by different cultures.
• I could learn a lot of cases that could really happen in university life through the textbook and discussions.
• I could see things objectively because I could discuss other people’s cases.

Graduates of international
schools in Japan• I think this class will be very useful for my university life. The reason is that in this class, we dealt with cases that
could have happened at various universities, and we were able to exchange opinions on how to deal with those cases,
which I think broadened our perspectives. Therefore, I think that this class will be very useful for my university life in
the future.

Children of international
marriages• Each case was a problem that I often face in my college life. So, I thought it was very good that I could think about
realistic countermeasures to various problems with my classmates. I am very happy to have had this opportunity.

3. Do you think this class will be helpful in your career path?
Very helpful

23% (6)

Helpful69% (18)

Neither helpful nor unhelpful

4% (1)

Not very helpful

4% (1)

Not helpful at all

0% (0)

4. Why did you answer “very helpful” in #3? Please describe freely.
International students• 1: My Japanese is getting better. 2: I have more courage to speak Japanese.3: I could understand more about
Japanese culture.
• I usually don’t talk much with Japanese students at school, so this class helped me to talk properly.
• I had a chance to think about various problems in my life.

Returnees• I think that studying Japanese will be useful in the future.
• I don’t know what the term “career path” means, so I will refrain from commenting on it.
• I think it will be useful to learn about the rules of seniority and teamwork in Japan, as these are things that are
possible in society.
• I assume that by learning about them, I will be able to communicate more smoothly with a wide variety of people
from different backgrounds.
• Through the cases, I was able to think about other people’s standpoints and perspectives.
• The faculty I am studying now is international, so I can learn in advance about the conflicts and problems that may
arise when I work in a Japanese company in the future.

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4. Why did you answer “very helpful” in #3? Please describe freely.
Children of foreigners in Japan• I am now a better candidate for a job because I can understand and respect various values.

Graduates of Japanese schools• It was a good opportunity for me because I could not meet many people due to covid-19 and could not hear theiropinions, even though we all have similar problems.
• I thought it would be a good opportunity for me to learn about conflicts caused by cultural differences based on casestudies, and I thought it would be something that could happen when I go out into the world and work at a company.
• I would like to live abroad in the future, and I am sure that I will encounter problems caused by cultural differences.
• I was able to learn both solutions from the perspective of a foreign student and a Japanese student, so I was able
to gain an international way of thinking. Therefore, I think it will broaden my future perspective and lead to a better
career path.

Children of international
marriages

The reason is that the case was realistic.

5. What is the best thing about this class?
International students• The pace is good, and I liked the way we were made to think.
• I can study in a relaxed atmosphere.
• I can have discussions with everyone. I think I can hear various opinions.
• I usually don’t talk much with Japanese students at school, so this class helped me to talk properly.
• The teacher listened to my opinions and experiences with interest.

Returnees• The teacher was kind. The amount of assignments was just right.
• I think it was the opportunity to be able to discuss various cases together. It was good practice for my Japanese. In
addition, the teacher and students were kind, so I enjoyed the class.
• It was good to be able to talk while seeing everyone’s face, so I could see how everyone was reacting. It was also
good to have breakout sessions because I didn’t have as many opportunities to talk with my classmates since I
started taking the class online.
• It was great to hear different opinions about the same thing that came from various backgrounds.
• I could hear the opinions of my friends from various backgrounds, such as Japanese who have lived in Japan for along time, foreigners who have lived in Japan for a long time, and international students, which made each class very
fresh and beneficial.

Children of foreigners in Japan• I had a lot of opportunities to discuss issues with my classmates.
• The best part was that we could all discuss together.

Graduates of Japanese schools• It was very refreshing to be able to talk in Japanese with so many people from different departments, as I have not
had the opportunity to do so very often.
• I could learn about various cases and think about solutions to those cases through discussions. I could listen to otherpeople’s opinions, so I could find new discoveries for myself. It was also interesting to hear about the real experiencesof the class members at the beginning of each class.
• The case studies were very interesting because they dealt with issues and cultural backgrounds that we don’t usually
think about in our daily lives.
• I had opportunities to talk with my classmates and learn how they think and feel about the cases.
• I thought it was only for international students, but I was relieved that Japanese people who grew up in Japan could
also take this class.
• I was able to deepen my understanding of different cultures.

Graduates of international
schools in Japan• I think one of the best parts of the class was the exchange of opinions at the beginning and end of the class.
• Many of the students in this class have grown up in a variety of environments, so I think that the ideas and solutions
that I had never thought of were presented to me, which broadened my perspective.

Children of international
marriages• It was nice to have a solid amount of time to research the case with my classmates.

Opinions and Comments about “Career Japanese B”
1. Do you think this class will be useful in your working life?
Very helpful

29% (5)

Helpful

65% (11)Neither helpful nor unhelpful

6% (1)

Not very helpful

0% (0)

Not helpful at all

0% (0)

2. Why did you answer “very helpful / helpful” in #1? Please describe freely.
International students• I think I learned more about my future university life and job-hunting life from the scenario of “what might happen.”• It is good practice for Japanese conversation.

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2. Why did you answer “very helpful / helpful” in #1? Please describe freely.
Returnees• I am very pleased to have had this opportunity to speak “proper” Japanese, as I do not use Japanese academically ona daily basis.
• The content of the class is applicable to human relations as a whole.

Graduates of Japanese schools• I think I can make use of my knowledge and experience by learning about real-life problems through the stories.
• I think it was very interesting to hear the opinions of international students, which I would never have thought ofmyself.
• I was able to exchange opinions with my classmates based on what they had experienced in Japan.

Graduates of international
schools in Japan• In college life, many students find part-time jobs and other social experiences very beneficial and enrich their college
experience.

3. Do you think this class will be helpful in your career path?
Very helpful

29% (5)

Helpful

65% (11)Neither helpful nor unhelpful

6% (1)

Not very helpful

0% (0)

Not helpful at all

0% (0)

4. Why did you answer “very helpful / helpful” in #3? Please describe freely.
International students• It was a good learning experience for me to share my thoughts through discussions and how to deal with situations
that I had never imagined.
• I think that if I know about cultural conflicts in advance, I will not be nervous or shocked when I am in such a situation.

Returnees• I don’t use Japanese academically on a daily basis, so it was very helpful for me to have this kind of time. It wasvery useful for me when I filled in an “entry sheet” (the document or form used by students when applying for job
opportunities) and the questionnaire after the internship.
• I learned the importance of respecting other people’s opinions, and I realised that each person has his/her own way of
doing things and sense of values.

Graduates of Japanese schools• I think it will be useful in all aspects, not in terms of career, but in terms of preparation for the constant changes insociety in the future.
• I think it will improve my discussion skills in discussions.
• When we discussed the problems in the relationship between supervisors and junior staff, I was able to learn
solutions from various perspectives, and I thought I would be able to cope with such problems if I faced them in the
future.
• The cases we dealt with in the fall semester were different from those in the spring semester in that they involved
working adults and cross-cultural conflicts in the workplace. I thought this class was useful in my future career pathbecause I was able to discuss with my classmates how to deal with and understand cross-cultural conflicts that I
may face after I graduate from college, and I think we were able to find clues that led to a solution.

Graduates of international
schools in Japan

This is a very important part of their future careers, as it allows us to envision real cases that our students will face inthe near future and to prepare them in advance.

5. What is the best thing about this class?
International students• There was a lot to talk about, and I thought it was important for the students to exchange their opinions. I think it wasa good exchange, especially because I could feel the differences in the cultures from which the students came.

Returnees• It was a great experience for me because I rarely have a chance to discuss things in Japanese in my department.
• I was able to exchange opinions with students from various backgrounds. It was interesting to see the different waysof thinking in different cultures.

Graduates of Japanese schools• The class respects each student’s opinion. I think the class was persuasive and deepened my understanding bylistening to students’ opinions and asking them to give specific examples.
• It was very enjoyable to discuss and exchange opinions with students from various cultural backgrounds, such as
international students and returnees.
• I am glad that I took this class in the spring and fall semesters because I think I can grow not only in discussions with
my classmates but also in my ability to explain what we discussed as a group when we return to the main room after
the breakout room.

Graduates of international
schools in Japan

I felt that it was very good to be able to exchange opinions with students from various cultural backgrounds.

SECTION 3

JAPANESEASHERITAGE/COMMUNITYLANGUAGENSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGSWHO ARE KEISHOGO YOUTH?
FRAMING THE INCREASINGLY
DIVERSE LEARNERS OF
JAPANESE AS COMMUNITYLANGUAGE
YOJI HASHIMOTO
Australian Network for Japanese as Community Language
CHIHIRO KINOSHITA THOMSONUNSW Sydney
NAOMI KURATA
Monash University
SHOKO ONO
University of Technology Sydney
KAYA ORIYAMAThe University of Melbourne

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ABSTRACTAs a result of the long-term rising trend of the Japanese-speaking population in Australia, the number of students andchildren with connections to Japan has also increased in recent years. Consequently, their unique Japanese-language
capabilities and learning needs have increasingly become a subject of pedagogical attention. In this context, the Australian
Network for Japanese as Community Language has proposed the notion of 繋生語 (KEISHOGO or “Japanese as Community
Language”) in order to better capture the unique characteristics of their language. Based on various interview surveys, thispaper delineates and unpacks the experiences of the youth as they follow their learning trajectories. The challenges thatboth these young people and their teachers face are presented, along with some learning resources and suggestions forways forward beyond situations where confusion and mismatched expectations are currently commonplace.

INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, Japanese language education in Australia has dealt with learners of Japanese as a Second Language (JSL)
who have no familial Japanese connection. However, the increasing number of children with Japanese connections
presents a hitherto under-addressed challenge for teachers. In this context, the focus of this paper is to undo somecommon misunderstandings. It also aims to offer pointers for parents/guardians and school/tertiary teachers who teach,or may teach, students with connections to Japan, and to invite them to further explore ways the particularities of thispopulation of students can be used to enhance and enrich their learning experiences. For these purposes, we first delineate
the backgrounds of such children and their families using various surveys and research conducted in educational settings.
Useful resources, like the Watashi-go Portfolio—a series of activity-based log-books that nurture both language skills andplurilingual sensitivities amongst children—will also be introduced.

JAPANESE IN AUSTRALIA, ANJCL (AUSTRALIAN NETWORK FOR JAPANESE AS
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE) AND THE BACKGROUNDS TO THE SURVEYS
THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE EDUCATION PROFILE IN AUSTRALIA
Bolstered by a series of language education policies including The National Policy on Languages (Lo Bianco 1987), theJapanese language has become one of the most commonly studied languages in Australia since the 1980s (De Kretser andSpence-Brown 2010, 15). According to a survey conducted by The Japan Foundation in 2021, there were well over 400,000
learners of Japanese in Australia at that time (Japan Foundation 2022). This is the fourth largest number of Japaneselanguage learners amongst the 212 countries and regions surveyed, indicating that the language is, on a per capita basis,far more popular in Australia than in any other part of the world. The other striking feature from The Japan Foundation
survey is that 96% of Japanese language learners in Australia are concentrated in the primary and secondary school levels.
As far as the number of the learners is concerned, the educational focus in Australian classrooms is on JSL.

JAPANESE COMMUNITY IN AUSTRALIA
Turning our attention to the Japanese population in Australia, the annual MOFA (Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) surveyof 2021 showed that there were 93,451 Japanese nationals (MOFA 2021), which was the third greatest number in the world
after the USA and China. Again, accounting for the total population in each country, it represents the highest concentrationof Japanese nationals outside Japan.
The Australian Census provides another set of statistics that delineates the long-term trend of the Japanese population in
the country. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2021), 45,267 Japan-born individuals resided in the country.
This is a 28% increase since the 2011 iteration of the Census and is an indication of the rise in the number of Japan-born
citizens in recent years. There appears to be no signs of this steady flow abating in the near future.

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It should be noted that there is a difference of over 48,000 between the number of Japanese nationals living in Australia in
MOFA (2021) at 93,451, and the “Japan-born” in the 2021 Australian Census, which accounted for 45,267. It is assumed that
this discrepancy reflects the number of Australian-born Japanese nationals, who are not counted in the figure from theAustralian Census (i.e. children of Japanese parentage).

ANJCL AND ITS ACTIVITIESAgainst this backdrop, the Australian Network for Japanese as Community Language (ANJCL) was established in 2020,by academics and educational professionals from around the country. Its initial mission was to carry out a series ofsurveys commissioned by The Japan Foundation in Sydney, with a focus on investigating the current states of learning
environments and learning resources for children growing up in Australia with connections to Japan.1
To date, ANJCL has conducted three studies over the course of 2019–2022.2 The three studies gathered information fromparents (both native and non-native Japanese speakers) currently raising children with connections to Japan, teachers,
Japanese-language school/institution managers/organisers, veteran parents whose children have already become adults,
and young adults who grew up as children in Australia. The first two surveys were based on a questionnaire and wereconducted in, respectively, New South Wales and then the entire country. The third survey involved a series of interviews
conducted via Zoom aimed at collecting more detailed and nuanced information. All the data gathered were collated foranalysis, and relevant thematic issues were identified and extracted.

KEISHOGO3
The results of the surveys and interviews provide more concrete and detailed pictures of the young people with Japaneseconnections growing up in Australia. At the same time, it became increasingly clear that the existing ways of framing theirlanguage variety, namely the notion of “heritage language” or keishogo (継承語: 継 means “to inherit” or “to succeed”;
承 connotes “to receive” or “to comply”; 語 stands for “language”), is insufficient. We believe these terms do not entirely
encapsulate the Japanese-language use and needs of these young people. While respecting the term keishogo andaccepting the significance of the language being inherited from previous generations as the term keishogo suggests, aneed was felt for a new concept or term to refer to young people’s language: the word KEISHOGO (繋生語), or “Japaneseas Community Language,” written in italicised capital letters, was coined for this reason. The character 繋 represents“connections,” “bonds” and “links,” and 生 means “to generate” or “to be born.” Thus, KEISHOGO is defined as:
the language that is born from connections with parents, family, friends and society, including the language that children
living overseas who are connected to Japan inherit from their parents; this language generates new meanings, creates
further connections, and passes these connections on to the next generation.4 (Thomson 2021, 3)
As seen above, it is important to note that KEISHOGO is used in, and evolves through, contact with the Japanese-speaking
community (see also Oriyama 2021, 39–40). We also refer affectionately to young people growing up with such language
as “KEISHOGO Youth.”

KEISHOGO YOUTH
So, what did our studies reveal about the general profiles of KEISHOGO youth? Approximately 90% of those surveyed(n = 241) were born in Australia, or migrated here before they reached the age of five. Over 70% of these children wereborn to Japanese mothers and non-Japanese fathers, around 25% to Japanese parents, and slightly under 5% to Japanese

1

Ethics approvals for the surveys were obtained at UNSW. The relevant HREC Approval numbers are HC200071, HC200828 and HC210468.

2

Summaries of the three studies are downloadable from the ANJCL Homepage (2023).

3

KEISHOGO/繋生語 and keishogo/継承語 are both pronounced “keishōgo.”4	“4 Following is the original Japanese text from Thomson (2021): 海外在住の日本と繋がる子どもたちが親から受け継ぐことばも含めて，親や家族，友だち，社会との繋がりから生まれ，さらなる繋がりを生み，そこで新しい意味を生み出し，その繋がりを次の世代に繋げていくことば.”NSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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fathers and non-Japanese mothers. It was also found that they often used Japanese in family communications, mosttypically with their native Japanese parent(s), although there were significant variations in how this was done in different
families given factors such as the children’s ages. Reflecting the current Australian settings where the concentration of JSL
learners is the highest in global comparisons, many of the non-Japanese parents spoke at least some level of Japanese,with a number of them having very advanced proficiencies. This has resulted in some families employing Japanese as amain language for the whole family at home, even when one parent has a non-Japanese-language background.

GROWING UP AS KEISHOGO YOUTH
Notwithstanding the above, Australian KEISHOGO speakers are found to have complex and diverse backgrounds. This
diversity gives rise to varying linguistic and sociocultural educational needs, as well as challenges distinct from those faced
by JSL students in school settings. Examples of these backgrounds have been discussed in previous research into the livesof KEISHOGO speakers, including those conducted by ANJCL members. According to Kurata (2015), each KEISHOGO young
person’s family background, educational background, and degree of familiarity with Japan and the Japanese language isunique. For example, Rika, a participant in Kurata’s study, was an 18-year-old female who had been living in Australia for
four years at the time of the interview.5 With her Japanese parents, she had lived in five Asian countries, including Japan(when she was 0–1 year old), prior to arriving in Australia. At the time she took part in the study, she was studying Japanese
in an upper-intermediate level course at her university. Her family background is multilingual, and her parents speak both
English and Japanese. Her mother also speaks Portuguese and her father Cantonese. She described this as “weird” as one
specific language was not chosen as the family’s common language.
As other studies also indicate, KEISHOGO youth are often seen by both teachers and their classmates to be “experts” (Cho etal. 1997; Hornberger and Wang 2008; Yoshimitsu 2008) in the language classroom. However, Rika seemed to regard herself
as a learner keen to develop her knowledge of Japanese, often feeling inferior to her more fluent peers. As will be shown in
the next sub-section, it is not uncommon for younger KEISHOGO youth in high school to suffer from similar predicaments.
As in Rika’s case, KEISHOGO speakers have complex and diverse backgrounds, and have different Japanese-language learningneeds from those of non-KEISHOGO youth. However, this may not always be obvious or understood by their teachers. Due tothese unfortunate mismatched circumstances, KEISHOGO youth may end up feeling frustrated in a beginner class because of
the lack of advanced courses (Wu 2008). Or, conversely, they may be “embarrassed in a higher-level course where classmates
and teachers place high expectations on their typically weaker literacy skills” (Yoshimitsu 2008).
An overestimation of KEISHOGO speakers’ Japanese ability based on presumptions of background knowledge is a criticalissue that hangs over them. This can lead to teachers, parents and other educators overlooking inherent challenges thatthese young people may face, or being disappointed when personal expectations are not met. When combined with
KEISHOGO youth unease when under pressure to perform well, these issues could result in them dropping courses, or
losing critical self-esteem and/or interest in the language and culture.

KEISHOGO YOUTH EXPERIENCES IN SCHOOLS
We will now look more closely at KEISHOGO youth experiences in Japanese-language learning within school settings. The
data here come from interviews with KEISHOGO young people and/or their parents in the ANJCL’s (2022) and Oriyama’s(2017) studies. Nine KEISHOGO learners (seven from the ANJCL’s (2022) and two from Oriyama’s (2017) studies), who were
all born in Australia or had migrated here at a young age, were interviewed. Their accounts of school learning, coveringboth positive and negative aspects, shall be looked at with a view to identify possible clues to help improve the outlook forsuch children, and to offer practically useful perspectives for teachers.
Some KEISHOGO youth reported that they felt as though they were treated like unwelcome misfits by their Japaneselanguage teachers due to their background or perceived “advantage.” For example, Student A was told by his principal
to quit the Higher School Certificate (HSC) course at the end of Year 11 because his mother spoke to him in Japanese,and Student B was instructed to study by herself in the library during the Japanese classes. Student C reported that
she had complained to her school about the unfair treatment she received in class, but no action was taken because
no classmate attested in support of her. Furthermore, Student D confided that, even when she did well, her native-

5

All individual interviewees’ names that appear in this paper are pseudonyms.

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speaking Japanese teacher did not give her the same encouraging feedback that her non-Japanese-backgroundclassmates were given.
As mentioned in the previous section, KEISHOGO youth are often seen by people in their classroom to be “experts” in thelanguage. The above cases suggest that such an assumption could ironically position them as hard-to-handle outliers.
While we note that it is not always possible to know the facts through the interview process, it is nevertheless important totake the KEISHOGO youth seriously and to make sure that they feel they are being listened to, rather than judged. We would
like to share how these young people feel through their experiences so that we can better understand them.
As in the case of Student A discussed above, at the senior secondary level the stakes are high as their academic
performances affect their graduation and entrance to university. While differentiated language streams are offered andaccessed across the country based on specific criteria for so-called “background/first language speakers” or “Students
with Prior Learning and/or Experience” (SPLEs6), the challenges in accommodating the highly diverse proficiency levels andneeds of those young people who are learning KEISHOGO are so great that they inevitably result in some exclusion (Oguro
and Moloney 2012; Oriyama 2017).
Alongside these critical cases, other more encouraging stories were also told, particularly when KEISHOGO learners wereable to study Japanese at senior secondary and onwards. Some became fluent in the language while on school/university
exchange in Japan, or while studying at university. Where their needs were met and effective support was provided, school
and university programmes were able to help them reconnect with their Japanese family/relatives, enhance the sensethat they belong to Japanese-speaking communities, embrace their identities, and feel happy to be who they are.
What, then, would be some of the key basic principles in educational orientations that could offer effective support for
KEISHOGO learners? The uplifting comments below made by the mother of a young girl attending kindergarten might offer
clues, even for older children.
My daughter and I were both so thrilled when her kinder chose to learn Japanese … I was happy to help by readingchildren’s books and teaching some songs. It made my daughter and me so happy for our culture and language tobe recognised by the kinder community. My daughter felt more comfortable with everyone being interested in her
language at kinder and came out of her shell more easily. It is so great for Australian children to be surrounded byother cultures and languages from a young age, and for them to learn from people from different cultures. (Liddell
2022)
Here, the child’s language and culture, and the expertise that both the child and her mother bring to the kindergarten, are
all highly valued and appreciated. Utilising their knowledge and skills and getting them involved in class activities madethe little girl happier, more confident, and more motivated to enthusiastically share her language and culture with otherchildren. Being treated as a precious ‘asset’ rather than a ‘problem’ seems to have left a positive impact on her self-esteem,
in-depth intercultural understanding, and so forth. The mother also mentions this learning/teaching as a reciprocal process
where children from different backgrounds learn from one another, thereby nurturing mutual respect and conviviality.
Putting the underlying thoughts above into practice requires careful planning and creative efforts. Such endeavours could
be supported by the introduction of practical, versatile resources.

WATASHI-GO PORTFOLIO
Here, we would like to introduce and recommend Watashi-go Portfolio as a resource to complement existing learningmaterials. The Watashi-go Portfolio (the Portfolio) is a series of activity-based log-books designed to encourage interactions
between children and adults in order to nurture plurilingual sensitivities while assisting with their language learning.

6	The term SPLE was shared and used widely during the 2022 Watashi-go portfolio workshops hosted by the Japanese Teachers’ Associationof NSW. Where sub-streams for SPLE or background speakers are offered, KEISHOGO youth are often placed in such courses regardless of
proficiency.

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The Watashi-go Portfolio is a set of materials designed to foster self-esteem and intercultural understanding amongst
KEISHOGO learners growing up in plurilingual environments.7 Originally developed by the German-based Team Motto
Tsunagu (“Further Connections”) for children aged between five and ten, it is fun and easy to use. An Australian editionof the Portfolio was developed to suit the local context. It was released in 2021 and, together with its User Guide, isdownloadable free of charge from the ANJCL website (N.d.).
The concept of “Watashi-go” or “Me-language” was borne out of the belief that each individual child has a unique language
repertoire. The Portfolio is a three-part series of logbooks originally designed for parents and children to work together
to develop language competencies.8 The Portfolio was further developed for use within Japanese community language
schools, or for collaboration between schools and families. We propose that the Portfolio can also be an effective tool foraccommodating SPLEs in mainstream primary-level Japanese-language classes.
The three parts of the Portfolio are: My Profile, My “Can Do” File, and My Collection.

My Profile: is a compilation of worksheets and other materials designed to raise awareness of the language and culture
as they relate to each child. It aims to do so by visualising their profiles or what makes up each individual child (language,
culture, etc) in fun and interactive ways. The topics covered include “About me,” “Me and my languages,” “Me and Japanese.”
My “Can Do” File: nurtures a sense of self-affirmation and positive identities through collecting what you can do and know
in Japanese. Children come up with lists of things they can do using the Japanese language. They will also record things
that they know and think about Japan, including through comparison with other cultures. The File can come in the form of
written texts, pictures, photos etc.

7

https://tsunagu.jpf.go.jp/watashigo/

8	Video-on-demand (VOD) of the two-part ANJCL online seminars introducing Watashi-go Portfolio are helpful resources and are available below.
Summary reports of the two seminars are also available in English and Japanese from the ANJCL web pages below.
KEISHOGO Seminar 7: Watashi-Go Portfolio In Action (Australian Edition) (December 2021)
VOD: https://jpf.org.au/events/vod-registration-japanese-language-education-seminar-with-unsw-dec-2021/
Summary Reports (in English & Japanese): https://us5.campaign-archive.com/?u=e811cbdf8af0639ead289d62b&id=82f0cfe93c
KEISHOGO Seminar 8: Watashi-Go Portfolio for Creating Connections - How to make the most of the Australian Edition (February 2022)
VOD: https://jpf.org.au/events/vod-registration-japanese-language-education-seminar-with-unsw-feb-2022/
Summary reports (in English & Japanese): https://us5.campaign-archive.com/?u=e811cbdf8af0639ead289d62b&id=b6bf9d856a
	The ANJCL website also has links to various teaching and learning resources, including the Facebook group page and English and Japanesebilingual ANJCL Newsletters: https://www.keisho-australia.org/resources.

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My Collection: is a compilation of what each child has achieved and/or created using Japanese. It can show links between
what they have already done and their future goals.
These three parts are designed to naturally encourage conversations at home through various reflective activity-sheets
covering familiar everyday themes. As children visualise their own language, culture, environment, and background throughthe Portfolio’s activities, they come to better understand themselves. They also further develop respect for other people,
languages and cultures, which is a prerequisite for living well in plurilingual Australian society. Children are expected to gain
confidence as Japanese-speaking individuals while developing respect towards others and other languages and cultures.
They do this through realising who they are, what they can/could do now and in the future, and how they are situated in theplurilingual and pluricultural society of today. With these perspectives in mind, parents and teachers can facilitate the useof the Portfolio at school, at home or both.

CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have attempted to describe who KEISHOGO youth are, and what challenges these distinctively diverse
individuals potentially face in their everyday school and home environments. We have also aimed at suggesting ways thesechallenges may be addressed and providing resources for use in classrooms and homes. In addition, we have identified
mismatched expectations between children/families and teachers/school settings. At the outset, we presented long-termand recent demographic trends where the number of KEISHOGO speakers has risen and is expected to continue increasing
in number and presence over the coming years. In other words, they are, and will remain, integral members of multi- andpluricultural Australia. In addition, we have seen that each KEISHOGO learner has unique linguistic abilities and needs. They
are often faced with unfounded expectations regarding their Japanese-language abilities, which may create issues aroundtheir identity formation. One of our broader aims is to rectify such issues and support the teaching of these children byhelping related parties build ideal relations and educational environments based on mutual understanding.
The growing awareness of realities surrounding the experiences of KEISHOGO learners poses new challenges to teachingefforts at all levels. For Japanese-language teachers who are not well prepared for such situations, it is possible, or evenlikely, that having KEISHOGO learners in their classrooms could be a challenging or daunting experience. We thus suggested
ways of empowering teachers who may feel unsure in these situations, and ways to accommodate KEISHOGO youth andtheir needs. It is important that the mismatch in expectations held by both teachers and students/parents needs to be
discussed and resolved. This could be done by embracing such children, and by all concerned parties working together,rather than struggling in isolation to deal with the issues.
The challenges described above can be helped greatly by community and forum building amongst stakeholders including
teachers, students/pupils, parents/guardians, schools, government officials, researchers, and so forth. Through interactions
within such communities, specific needs of teachers/students, teacher-training ideas, and required institutional support
may be identified. Sharing experiences and learning from other teachers’ practices will support the operation of classes
that may include KEISHOGO learners, and encourage collaboration for future teaching projects.
The Australian edition of Watashi-go Portfolio introduced here is an example of an educational resource for children who
have connections to Japan. It was developed as a result of broad international collaborations amongst parents, teachers
and academics. It is hoped that similarly fruitful concerted efforts in future would lead to the successful creation of usefulmaterials and/or learning environments elsewhere as well.
Communities could be newly established, and/or existing communities, such as local state- and territory-based Japaneseteachers’ associations may be utilised. Alternatively, networking and collaboration through online communities, forexample, the Japanese Language Teachers of Australia group on Facebook (2024), could also help as a powerful sourceof inspiration.
Finally, we wish to inspire classroom teachers to have a good understanding of KEISHOGO Youths and want to help makeclassrooms more inclusive and inspiring for all students. We believe that by working together, we can achieve these goals.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our special thanks to all the participants of our surveys and interviews, and for The JapanFoundation Sydney for their funding and secretarial support. Additionally, we would like to express our gratitude to Matt
Yeldham and Adam Russell who proofread this paper.

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UK: Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315727974-20/reforming-australian-policy-chinese-indonesian-japanese-koreanheritage-languages-kaya-oriyama?context=ubx.
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Thomson, C. K. [トムソン木下 千尋]. 2021. Keishogo kara KEISHOGO e - Nihon to tsunagaru kodomo tachi no kotoba wo kangaeru [継承語から繋生語へ―日本と繋がる子どもたちのことばを考える]. Jaanaru ‘Idō suru kodomo tachi’ - Kotoba no kyōiku wo sōhatsu suru. [ジャーナル「移動する子どもたち」―ことばの教育を創発する]. 12: 2–23. Accessed March 10, 2023. http://gsjal.jp/childforum/journal_12.html#art1.
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CONNECTING WITH JAPANESEIN THE AUSTRALIANCOMMUNITY: A CASE STUDYFROM PARENTS AND CHILDREN
OF JAPANESE-AUSTRALIANINTERMARRIAGE FAMILIES1MIYAKO MATSUI
University of Wollongong, James Cook University

1

Ethics Approved by UNE Human Research Ethics Committee (2016: HE16-256).

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ABSTRACTThis paper explores six Japanese and Australian (English-speaking) intermarriage families’ use of Japanese at home
and in the community and its impact on children’s Japanese language maintenance and cultural identities. Fifteenchildren including four adults who were raised in such families participated in the study. The research revealed thatchildren who have strong connections with the Japanese community have a stronger sense of Japanese cultural
identity than those without these connections. Nonetheless, Japanese parents’ use of Japanese in the home with theirchildren was also a strong factor in maintaining children’s Japanese language use although there were considerable
challenges in committing to using Japanese regularly. It was evident that both the Japanese parents’ home practices
and commitment, and community connections were vital factors in maintaining the Japanese language and culture with
their children. This research aims to contribute to supporting heritage language speakers to maintain their languages
with their children in Australia.

KEYWORDS
intermarriage families, heritage language maintenance, parents’ perspectives, children’s perspectives, cultural identities

INTRODUCTION
Australia is a multicultural nation with a significant number of immigrants who speak languages other than English athome. As a school teacher and a parent, I encountered many families living in Australia who are of different cultural
backgrounds and speak a language (or languages) other than English. Maintaining one’s heritage language (languages) is
challenging, especially in countries such as Australia where one language—in this case English—is predominantly used.
This article focused on the results of a study that investigates the Japanese language maintenance of six intermarriage
families in Australia, where one parent is a Japanese-origin immigrant with Japanese as their first language, and theother is of Australian- (or other-) origin and a speaker of English or other languages. The study explored their use ofJapanese at home and the resulting impact on their children’s Japanese language ability and use, as well as on theirperceived identities as plurilinguals. The children’s perspectives in relation to Japanese and Australian cultural influences,and parental attitudes and feelings about the maintenance of the heritage language, and use of Japanese and English, arealso explored. As there are increasing numbers of intermarriage families in a world that Vertovec (2015, 2) describes ascharacterised by “super-diversity,” it is important to reform the existing framework of nationality, language, identity, andbilingualism from the perspectives of children (Kawakami 2011). My research aims to understand the complex feelingsof children of intermarriage families and find ways to support the needs of immigrant parents and their children in an
increasingly inclusive nation celebrating its cultural and linguistic diversity.

BACKGROUNDThis article explores the results of a study that arose from my PhD thesis focusing on the experiences of the six JapaneseAustralian intermarriage families’ language use in the home and community. I spent four years of primary school inAustralia with my family due to my father’s work. This was my first experience of moving between cultures, countries andlanguages, hence the challenges I encountered navigating these shifts that impacted on my sense of identity. I raised myJapan-born children in Australia noticing the language shifts and owned a small private Japanese language tutoring centre,
where I observed the interactions between Japanese parents and their Japanese and Australian children’s language. Suchexperiences motivated me to research further the importance of parental involvement in maintaining Japanese in thehome and community.
A large number of studies on heritage language maintenance have been conducted in the United Kingdom, the UnitedStates, and Canada, but very few in Australia. Moreover, no studies have focussed on Japanese–Australian intermarriage
families’ experiences of heritage language maintenance in the field of bilingual and bicultural identity and language use
in Australia. With an increasing number of people crossing borders (Kawakami 2011), there is a growing need for suchresearch in recognition of Australia’s cultural and linguistic diversity, the significant number (26,890 families) of Japanese-

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origin families living in Australia, and the fact that 39.5% of Japan-born immigrants were married to Australian-bornpartners (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS] 2021). Maintaining Japanese language skills in Australia—a country where
English is the dominant language—is complex and challenging, so there is an urgent need to identify how such families canbe assisted and to contribute to supporting language education.
The main domain of heritage language maintenance is the home, although the community, including a child’s school, also
plays an important role in language maintenance. Language exposure, language choice, and language use are the threethemes that link all participants (including parents, children, extended families, friends, and community networks) as wellas the domains (home, community, and school). Parents’ decisions about language choice at home and the motivation ofboth the parents and children to use (or not) the heritage language are factors that strongly influence language use in thefamily (DeCapua and Wintergerst 2009).

METHODOLOGY
A phenomenological case studies research approach (Grant 2008; Henry et al. 2008; Sumsion 2002) was used in thisstudy to explore in-depth participants’ experiences of the languages used at home. The aim was to represent the actual
voices of the individuals who participated in the study (Heigham and Sakui 2009). Family observation, in-depth interviews,
and questionnaires were collected in 2017 as data to provide what some researchers term thick description (Croker 2009;
Hood 2009; Kervin et al. 2006). This combination of methods was implemented to better understand each participant’s
perspectives on parents’ use of Japanese and its impact on their children’s language abilities and identities.
Observations took place at the participating families’ homes, which provided a natural research setting (Creswell 2015;
Patton 2015) to investigate the language interactions between all family members. Audio and video recordings were madeto assist with my analysis and supplemented by recorded field notes taken to capture the experience observed by the
researcher (Johnson and Christensen 2019; Kawulich 2005; Kervin et al. 2006).
One-on-one interviews were conducted with parents, children, and adult children of Japanese-Australian intermarriage
families and answers were recorded from one participant at a time (Creswell 2015). Semi-structured interviews were used
to obtain comparable data across the range of participants (Bogden and Biklen 2003), which provided me with backgroundinformation about the language use of each individual. Similar interview questions were used for children and adult childrenof Japanese-Australian intermarriage families. Interview data were analysed by grouping the interview transcripts into
segments and labelled to identify common themes and experiences across participants. During this process, I highlighted
important points in the interview transcripts and took notes of participants who had similar perspectives as well as
different perspectives on the same topic. This allowed me to later reorganise the material into more detailed topics and touse participants’ quotes as examples to understand their actual feelings.
Questionnaires were distributed by email to each participating family and adult children of Japanese-Australian intermarriage
families. Questionnaires allowed me to obtain a variety of additional information from participants such as “thoughts,
feelings, attitudes, beliefs, values, perceptions, personality, and behavioural intentions” (Johnson and Christensen 2019,192) focusing on what languages are used within the family and their children’s abilities in using the Japanese language.
This was achieved by using checklist responses where participants select one of the presented alternatives (Burns 2000).
Furthermore, closed questions were used to gather data about participants’ backgrounds and ethnic identity (relevant tochildren and adult children of Japanese-Australian intermarriage families), and open-ended questions were used to gather
additional detailed information and to gather descriptions of the circumstances of language use in the family.
The use of multiple sources of data allowed me to consider a range of perspectives from the interviews when comparedwith the other data sources; this was achieved by cross-checking information and drawing conclusions through the useof multiple interpretive procedures, based on thematic analysis (Bogdan and Biklen 2003; Burns 2000; Creswell and Poth2018; Glesne and Peshkin 1992; Johnson and Christensen 2019; Kervin et al. 2006; Yin 1993).

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RESEARCH QUESTION
The research question discussed in this article is “How does the involvement of intermarriage parents in Japanese language
maintenance impact on their children’s language ability, for Japanese, English, and hybrid language use; and on theiridentities?” This question was derived from the findings that focused on Japanese parents’ perspectives and children’s
perspectives on Japanese language and culture maintenance.

PARTICIPANTS
Six Japanese-Australian (or Japanese-Swiss) families who are currently raising their children in a bilingual environment
and four adult children of Japanese-Australian intermarriage families are the participants of this study. Of the six families,
three Japanese-origin fathers and three Japanese-origin mothers participated in the study. My PhD study also investigated
the genders of parents in relation to the use of Japanese with their children; however, this will not be explored in this paper.
All six families live in a large regional city adjacent to a capital city in Australia and two of the four adults were raised in
the same regional city whereas the other two adults were raised in the capital city. It can be more challenging if the local
heritage language community is small, unlike in large capital cities where many speakers of community languages live andhave opportunities to connect (Clyne 2005). Pseudonyms are used for all participants.

SIX JAPANESE-AUSTRALIAN (OR JAPANESE-SWISS) INTERMARRIAGE FAMILIES
An overview of the backgrounds of the participants from the six families is provided in Table 1.1. The first three families inthe table have a Japanese-origin mother, and the next three families have a Japanese-origin father. All English-speaking
parents are of Australian-origin except for the father of the Berna family who is Swiss. The Berna children were born in
Canada and moved to Australia in 2013. Lucy (from the Kitajima family) was born in Japan but came to Australia at the ageof one. All the other participating children were born in Australia. The children range in age from six to thirteen. Except for
two children who attended secondary school, all were primary school-aged children. Data was collected in 2017.
Table 1.1
OVERVIEW OF THE BACKGROUNDS OF PARTICIPANTS IN THE SIX FAMILIESFamilyJapanese-origin parent(mother/father, birthplace)

Australian- (or other-)origin parent (mother/father)Children (age)Children’s birthplace

Brown family

Fukie (mother, Japan)

Darren (father)

Max (10)Australia

Berna family

Chie (mother, Japan)

Martin (Swiss father)

Lorenz (11)Markus (7)Trina (6)CanadaCanadaCanadaBradley family

Yoko (mother, Japan)

Jason (father)

Adam (13)Tessa (10)Australia
Australia

Uchimura family

Tomoki (father,
United States)

Louisa (mother)

Lachlan (13)
Jasper (10)Sienna (7)Australia
Australia
Australia

Kitajima family

Riku (father, Japan)

Josephine (mother)

Lucy (7)Joel (1; not a participant)Japan

Okuda family

Yasuhiro (father, Japan)

Sharon (mother)

Hibiki (6)Australia

FOUR ADULT CHILDREN OF JAPANESE-AUSTRALIAN INTERMARRIAGE FAMILIES
Table 1.2 provides an overview of the four adult children of Japanese-Australian intermarriage families: one male and threefemales. Yamato and Sara were raised in the state capital city whereas Sonia and Samantha were raised in the same
regional city as the six families studied. All adult participants have a Japanese mother and at least one sibling. Samantha
was the only adult participant who was born in Japan but she relocated to Australia at the age of four.

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Table 1.2
OVERVIEW OF THE BACKGROUNDS OF PARTICIPATING ADULT CHILDREN OF JAPANESE–AUSTRALIANINTERMARRIAGE FAMILIES
Adult children (age)Participants’ birthplace(current residence)

Japanese-origin parent

Australian- (or other-)origin parent

Siblings

Yamato Burgess (23)Australia (state capital city,
Australia)

MotherFather2 older brothers

Sonia Stevens (47)

Australia (large regional city,
Australia)

MotherFather1 older sister

Sara Crowley (18)Australia (state capital city,
Australia)

MotherFather

1 younger sister

Samantha Alford (25)Japan (large regional city,
Australia)

MotherFather1 older brother

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SIX JAPANESE-AUSTRALIAN (OR JAPANESE-SWISS) INTERMARRIAGE
FAMILIES
Six Japanese-Australian (or Japanese-Swiss) intermarriage families will be introduced separately focusing on theirlanguage use at home and connections to Japan, the amount of exposure in the community, and children’s perspectives
towards their parents’ use of Japanese and their identity. Although this is a very brief summary of each family’s experienceson their use of languages in the home and community, it provides some insights into the challenges each family encountersand how their language use impacts children’s language abilities and identities.
Table 2.1
BROWN FAMILY
Language used by Japanese parents and children
English (E), Japanese (J)Children’s Japanese proficiency

Exposure in the community or school

Mother (Fukie) → Max (E & J)
Max → Mother (Mostly E)

Max: greetings and routine words.

Playgroup, Japanese language centre, local
Japanese families, culture in the home.

LANGUAGE USE AT HOME AND CONNECTION TO JAPANThe Brown family consists of a Japanese mother, Fukie, an Australian father, Darren, and their ten-year-old son, Max.
Fukie uses a mixture of English and Japanese within the one sentence and uses more English if she finds it difficultfor Max to understand her Japanese. Max responds mostly in English. Darren understands Japanese but only has basic
communication skills so he uses mostly English with his family. Fukie revealed that she cannot communicate and feels
emotionally distant from him due to her limited English ability and her son’s limited Japanese ability. Fukie wishes her
husband spoke more Japanese but on the other hand, she feels she may exclude her husband if she were to speak only
Japanese with Max. Moreover, she feels pressured by other Japanese parents who use Japanese to communicate with
their children. Fukie’s mother sends gifts to Max from Japan and the family visits Japan every two years. The familycelebrates various Japanese cultural events at home and watches Japanese anime and TV programs.

EXPOSURE TO THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE AND CULTURE IN THE COMMUNITY
The Brown family is actively involved in the Japanese community such as attending a playgroup, my Japanese language
centre, and organising regular playdates with children of Japanese background. Max plays kendo once a week. Max takes
origami to his class and demonstrates it, and he feels proud when his teacher and peers show interest.

CHILD’S PERSPECTIVES ON LANGUAGE USE AND IDENTITY
Max can understand his mother’s Japanese but cannot express himself using contextually appropriate Japanese, whichleads him to respond to her in English. However, he reacts when he sees Japanese popular children’s characters and tends
to become friends with children of Japanese background. Regardless of his limited Japanese proficiency, he has developed
a strong sense of pride towards Japan and Japanese culture. Regular exposure to Japanese culture and connecting with

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people of Japanese backgrounds in the community may have contributed to developing his sense of identity as JapaneseAustralian.
Table 2.2
BERNA FAMILY
Language used by Japanese parents and children
English (E), Japanese (J)Children’s Japanese proficiency

Exposure in the community or school

Mother (Chie) ↔ Lorenz (E & J)
Mother ↔ Marcus (E & J)
Mother ↔ Trina (E & J)

Lorenz: converse freely.
Markus: converse freely.
Trina: basic conversation.

Local school in Japan (Lorenz & Markus), local
Japanese families.

LANGUAGE USE AT HOME AND CONNECTION TO JAPANThe Berna family consists of a Japanese mother, Chie, a Swiss father, Martin, and three children who were born in Canada.
Martin’s first language is Swiss-German and he is a fluent English speaker. He understands Japanese but only has basic
communication skills so he uses English as the main language to communicate with his family. The family moved toAustralia in 2013. Chie uses a mixture of English and Japanese without mixing the languages within a sentence. Children
respond in the language spoken by Chie; that is, if Chie speaks Japanese, they respond in Japanese. The family visits Japanevery two years and each stay lasts for two to five months. Chie’s language choice was to use English with their children;
however, as the children developed their Japanese proficiency, she began using more Japanese with them. All threechildren use Japanese textbooks and workbooks to study Japanese at home in preparation for their next visit to Japan.
They all watch Japanese anime and YouTube programs in Japanese without subtitles and read manga.

EXPOSURE TO THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE AND CULTURE IN THE COMMUNITY
The Berna family socialises with some Japanese families in the local community in Australia. Chie organises playdates
with other children of Japanese background and they all communicated using Japanese when they were young. During
their stay in Japan, the two older sons, Lorenz and Markus attend a local Japanese school. The youngest daughter, Trina
did not attend school as she was too young. The two older sons can communicate freely using Japanese as they were
immersed in the Japanese school. However, Trina cannot communicate as well as her brothers.

CHILDREN’S PERSPECTIVES ON THEIR LANGUAGE USE AND IDENTITIES
Lorenz and Markus did not find any negative aspects of using Japanese and do not find it difficult to speak Japanese with
their mother and relatives in Japan. Trina, however, finds it difficult to speak Japanese and feels that she cannot speak
Japanese as fluently as her brothers. Lorenz identifies himself as Japanese-Swiss whereas Markus and Trina identify
themselves as Canadians.
Table 2.3
BRADLEY FAMILY
Language used by Japanese parents and children
English (E), Japanese (J)Children’s Japanese proficiency

Exposure in the community or school

Mother (Yoko) → Adam (Mostly J)
Adam → Mother (Mostly E)
Mother → Tessa (Mostly J)
Tessa → Mother (E)Adam: basic conversation.
Tessa: greetings and routine words.

Playgroup, Mothers’ group, Japanese community
language school, local Japanese families,
Japanese study at secondary school (Adam),
culture in the home.

LANGUAGE USE AT HOME AND CONNECTION TO JAPANThe Bradley family consists of a Japanese mother, Yoko, an Australian father, Jason, and their two children Adam who
attends high school and Tessa who is in upper primary school. Yoko uses mostly Japanese to communicate with her
children. Yoko’s sister lived with the Bradley family when Adam was in preschool so Japanese was used predominantly
at home. The language gradually shifted to English when Yoko’s sister returned to Japan before Adam entered primaryschool. Both her children refused to speak Japanese during the early years of primary school. Yoko recognised theNSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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decreased use of Japanese at home so she decided to increase her use of Japanese with her children when they werein middle to upper primary school. During the family observation of this study, the mother used mostly Japanese but her
children responded mostly in English. The family was having a Japanese traditional breakfast during the observation. Yokocontinues to use Japanese despite Jason, who only has basic Japanese communication skills, being present. Yoko hasvery strong connections with her family in Japan and not only do the Bradleys visit Japan every two years but her parents
also visit Australia.

EXPOSURE TO THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE AND CULTURE IN THE COMMUNITY
Yoko has strong connections to the local Japanese community in Australia. She established a Japanese community
language school in the local area with other Japanese parents. Yoko teaches Japanese at the community language schooland her children attend there as students. Yoko joined the mother’s group as well as a playgroup for her children when they
were young. Adam studies Japanese as an elective subject at secondary school.

CHILDREN’S PERSPECTIVES ON THEIR LANGUAGE USE AND IDENTITIESAdam seems to have more confidence in his Japanese than his sister, Tessa. This may be due to more exposure to
Japanese he had as a young child and taking Japanese as an elective subject at his school. Tessa has anxiety about
speaking Japanese in front of her Japanese relatives and prefers to have her mother by her side. While Adam can respondto his mother in Japanese, which was not observed during the data collection, Tessa understands her mother’s Japanese
but has difficulty responding in Japanese. Yet, she still wishes her mother to continue using Japanese with her. Bothchildren identify themselves as Japanese-Australian.
Table 2.4
UCHIMURA FAMILY
Language used by Japanese parents and children
English (E), Japanese (J)Children’s Japanese proficiency

Exposure in the community or school

Father (Tomoki) ↔ Lachlan (Mostly J)
Father ↔ Jasper (Mostly J)
Father → Sienna (Mostly J)
Sienna → Father (E)Lachlan: basic conversation.
Jasper: basic conversation.
Sienna: greetings and routine words.

Japanese language centre(Lachlan & Jasper), Japanese study at secondary
school (Lachlan).

LANGUAGE USE AT HOME AND CONNECTION TO JAPANThe Uchimura family consists of a Japanese father, Tomoki, an Australian mother, Louisa, and three children, Lachlan,
Jasper, and Sienna. The oldest son, Lachlan attends secondary school and Jasper and Sienna are in primary school.
Tomoki was born in the United States where his father was working but returned to Japan when he was ten months old.
He is very determined to use Japanese with his children and made the decision to use Japanese with them before they
were born. He uses Japanese to communicate with his children and the two older sons respond to him in Japanese. The
youngest daughter, Sienna either responds to him in English or ignores him when Japanese is spoken to her. Their mother,
Louisa has very limited Japanese so only English is spoken with her. Tomoki’s commitment to using Japanese is inspiredby his older sister who insisted he raise his children bilingually. Tomoki believes that his wife is against his use of Japanesewith their children; however, she shared in the interview that she was glad that Tomoki has been using Japanese withthem. Regardless of how he thinks she may feel, Tomoki continues to use Japanese with them. The family visited Japan
three times in total due to the consideration of Louisa who might think, “Japan again?” although Tomoki wants to visit Japan
more often.

EXPOSURE TO THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE AND CULTURE IN THE COMMUNITY
The two older sons Lachlan and Jasper learnt Japanese at my Japanese language centre for over three years. Since
the start of secondary school, Lachlan withdrew from the Japanese language centre and took Japanese as an elective
subject at school. Other than these connections to their Japanese learning, the family hardly have any connections with theJapanese community. Although Tomoki wishes to connect with Japanese people in the local community, he does not want
Louisa to feel excluded. Sienna does not have any exposure to Japanese besides her father’s use of Japanese.

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CHILDREN’S PERSPECTIVES ON THEIR LANGUAGE USE AND IDENTITIESRegardless of their Japanese proficiency, all children responded that they were glad that their father continued to speak
Japanese with them. The second son, Jasper speaks Japanese most fluently among his siblings; however, he identified
himself as Australian whereas Lachlan and Sienna identified themselves as Japanese-Australian. Lachlan and Jasper havemore exposure to Japanese than their sister as she spends more time with their mother than her father. The older twosons spend more time with their father when he is at home although he works full-time during the week.
Table 2.5
KITAJIMA FAMILY
Language used by Japanese parents and children
English (E), Japanese (J)Children’s Japanese proficiency

Exposure in the community or school

Father (Riku) ↔ Lucy (Mostly E)

Lucy: greetings and routine words.

Japanese language centre, Japanese community
language school, local Japanese families,
favourite pop culture.

LANGUAGE USE AT HOME AND CONNECTION TO JAPANThe Kitajima family consists of a Japanese father, Riku, an Australian mother, Josephine, and two children, a seven-yearold Lucy and a one-year-old Joel. Lucy was the only child participant in this family. Lucy was born in Japan and moved
to Australia when she was one year old due to the evacuation caused by the nuclear power plant in Fukushima. Riku andJosephine agreed to use English in Japan and Japanese in Australia so English was used mostly at home in Japan. Aftermoving to Australia, they were unable to adhere to their original decision and the use of Japanese gradually decreased.
Riku wanted to use more Japanese with Lucy; however, the pressure from his wife and daughter forced him to use more
English. Nevertheless, Josephine has basic Japanese communication skills and is positive towards Lucy being bilingual but
she feels frustrated if she cannot understand the Japanese that Riku uses or express her feelings in Japanese.
Riku is absent from home three days during the week due to his work. During his absence, Josephine spends time with theirchildren using English. These factors cause reduced exposure to Japanese. The family visited Japan once since relocating
to Australia due to the fear of radioactivity. During their visit, Riku and Josephine noticed that Lucy spoke Japanese outside
the home and on their return to Australia, she renewed her interest and was inspired to maintain Japanese. Riku’s parents
visited Australia a few times, and Japanese was used during their visits. Josephine feels the pressure when her mother-inlaw (Riku’s mother) constantly tells the family, “Speak Japanese! Speak Japanese!” Yet, Lucy has a good relationship with
her Japanese grandparents.

EXPOSURE TO THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE AND CULTURE IN THE COMMUNITY
Lucy attended preschool when the family lived in Japan. Even though English was used at home, she was exposed toJapanese in the community. In Australia, Lucy attended my Japanese language centre for six months when she was three
years old. Later, she moved to a Japanese community language school which was set up by Yoko Bradley. Lucy tends tobecome friends with children of similar backgrounds (Japanese-Australian) and has a few friends of Japanese backgroundwhom she has met through her parents. These connections with the community show her parents’ wish to provide
opportunities for more exposure to Japanese.

CHILD’S PERSPECTIVES ON THEIR LANGUAGE USE AND IDENTITIESLucy mentioned that she wished her father did not speak Japanese in front of her friends as it made her feel embarrassed.
On the other hand, she wishes her father spoke more Japanese with her as she wants to learn more Japanese. She
realises that her father does not use as much Japanese with her as before. Lucy identifies herself as Japanese-Australian.

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Table 2.6
OKUDA FAMILY
Language used by Japanese parents and children
English (E), Japanese (J)Children’s Japanese proficiency

Exposure in the community or school

Father (Yasuhiro) → Hibiki (E & J)
Hibiki → Father (E)Hibiki: greetings and routine words.

Japanese language centre, local Japanesefamilies, Japanese pop culture, karate.

LANGUAGE USE AT HOME AND CONNECTION TO JAPANThe Okuda family consists of a Japanese father, Yasuhiro, an Australian mother of Indonesian heritage, Sharon, and a sevenyear-old son, Hibiki. Sharon is a fluent speaker of Japanese and she and Yasuhiro use mostly Japanese. Yasuhiro usually
begins a conversation using Japanese with Hibiki, however, he often gets ignored or Hibiki replies back in English. Although
Yasuhiro is keen to use more Japanese to communicate with Hibiki, he gives up and uses English instead. Hibiki seems tounderstand Japanese as he was able to respond appropriately through his physical movement when his parents asked him
to do something in Japanese, which was evident during the observation. Yasuhiro works as a plumber and travels far fromhome and occasionally returns home late. During his absence, Sharon speaks English to Hibiki, although she can speak
Japanese. This results in an increase in exposure to English. Hibiki has some connections to Japanese culture, such as
having a strong interest in Pokemon and doing karate. The family visits Japan once every two or three years for two weeks
to visit Yasuhiro’s family. During their visits, Hibiki is immersed in Japanese as his cousins and relatives do not speak English.
However, according to his mother, Hibiki responds to them in English and learns “naughty Japanese words.”

EXPOSURE TO THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE AND CULTURE IN THE COMMUNITY
Hibiki attended my Japanese language centre with Lucy Kitajima for six months. They were neighbours at that time andhave known each other since the Kitajima family moved in as their neighbour sometime before. After leaving my Japanese
language centre, Hibiki did not attend other community groups in the local area. Hibiki has connections with children of
Japanese background through their neighbourhood or from his parents. Learning karate also promotes his connections
with Japanese culture.

CHILD’S PERSPECTIVES ON THEIR LANGUAGE USE AND IDENTITIES
Similar to Lucy, Hibiki does not like his father speaking Japanese outside the home in front of his friends, as he feels
embarrassed. He tells his father to speak English. However, he did not say that he himself was embarrassed to speak
Japanese. As Hibiki was young at the time of the interview, it was difficult to capture his identity; however, he responded
that he feels Japanese-Australian.

FINDINGS FROM THE SIX JAPANESE-AUSTRALIAN (OR JAPANESE-SWISS)INTERMARRIAGE FAMILIESThe families faced considerable challenges in trying to maintain Japanese. The challenges described by the families are only
a few of the many challenges they face. Although all Japanese parents wished to maintain Japanese with their children,
various social and practical factors such as pressures from family and absences from home added to the difficulty in thecontinued use of Japanese at home. It was evident that children whose Japanese parents committed to using Japanese
at home or were immersed in Japanese at a Japanese school were able to communicate in Japanese. Nevertheless,children who have considerable exposure to Japanese culture regardless of their Japanese proficiency seem to develop
strong Japanese identities. On the other hand, if children have limited exposure to Japanese culture or connections with
the Japanese community, their Japanese identity does not develop much even if Japanese is used at home.
Although some children were embarrassed by their Japanese parents’ use of Japanese outside the home or found it
difficult to respond in Japanese, all the children were positive towards their Japanese parents’ use of Japanese. In short,
an exposure to both the Japanese language and culture at home as well as connections to a local Japanese community
are crucial to maintaining children’s Japanese language and identities.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOUR ADULT CHILDREN OF JAPANESE-AUSTRALIANINTERMARRIAGE FAMILIES
Four adult children of Japanese-Australian intermarriage families shared their perspectives on their Japanese parents’use of language, their own Japanese proficiency, and their cultural identification. Each participant’s experiences will be
explored separately.
Table 3PERSPECTIVES ON JAPANESE USE AND IDENTITIES OF PARTICIPATING ADULT CHILDREN OF
JAPANESE-AUSTRALIAN INTERMARRIAGE FAMILIES
Adult children (age)Language used withJapanese parent

Japanese proficiency

Feelings about Japanese
use by Japanese-origin
parents

Cultural identity

Yamato (23)Japanese

Very good

GladJapanese–Australian

Sonia (47)EnglishVery limited

Wishes she could speak

AustralianSara (18)

Mostly Japanese

Very good

GladJapanese

Samantha (25)Mother to Samantha:
Japanese and English
Samantha to Mother: mostly
EnglishLimitedWishes she could speak

Japanese–Hungarian

YAMATO
Yamato is a twenty-three-year-old man who works as a researcher at a finance-related company involved in theJapanese market. His mother is Japanese and his father is Australian. His mother, who is a Japanese-English
interpreter, used Japanese with him since he was born. He spent a lot of time with his mother when he was a childand communicated with her in Japanese. He rather feels awkward using English with her. Yamato mentioned that his
two older brothers speak more fluently than him. His father cannot speak Japanese much so when all the family
is present, they use English; however, when talking to his mother, he switches to Japanese.
Yamato lives in a state capital city and attended the Japanese community language school from Kindergarten to Year nine,
as his mother was a teacher there. He did not enjoy attending the Japanese community language school as most of hisclassmates’ parents were Japanese, which caused him to feel inferior. The family visited Japan once a year and he likes
watching Japanese TV programs. Yamato identifies himself as Japanese-Australian.

SARA
Sara is an eighteen-year-old secondary school student who lives in the same state capital city as Yamato. She was born toa Japanese mother and an Australian father of British heritage. She now communicates using Japanese with her motheralthough she felt disconnected and refused to use Japanese during her early primary school years.
As opposed to Yamato, Sara found a strong connection with the Japanese community language school. She made a
special bond with her classmates and their encouragement motivated her to learn Japanese with them. She played an
active role in organising annual Japanese festivals in the capital city.
Sara visits Japan once a year and she attended a local Japanese school when she was younger. She likes Japanese picture
books, anime, and manga. She identifies herself as Japanese.

SAMANTHA
Samantha is a 25-year-old woman who was born in Japan but moved to Australia when she was four years old. She wasborn to a Japanese mother and an Australian father of Hungarian heritage. Samantha moved to Australia with her father
and older brother, but her mother did not join them until two years later due to her work commitments in Japan. During
her mother’s absence, her father, who is a fluent Japanese speaker, raised her and her brother in Australia. Although heNSJLE 2022 PROCEEDINGS

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planned to continue to use Japanese with his children, English became the dominant language at home. Samantha’s
mother continues to use Japanese but reluctantly switches to English when her daughter replies to her in English.
Samantha lives in the same large regional city as the six families. During her childhood, there was no local Japanesecommunity language school. She hardly had any exposure to Japanese in Australia other than her mother’s use of Japanese.
She visited Japan less than five times but during their visits, they saw their cousins and relatives. Samantha has a strong
connection with her Japanese grandmother. Samantha was enrolled in a Japanese course at the university, which shows
her interest in learning Japanese. She wishes she could speak Japanese and identifies herself as Japanese-Hungarian.

SONIA
Sonia is a 47-year-old woman who works as a researcher at a university library. She has a Japanese mother and an
Australian father. She lives in the same large regional city as Samantha and the six families. Sonia’s mother worked fulltime outside the home and her father was mostly at home due to health issues. She spent most of the time with her
English-speaking father while her mother was absent and English was mostly used at home even with her mother. She
had the opportunity to listen to Japanese when her mother talked to her Japanese friends on the telephone.
As Sonia spent her childhood in the 70s and 80s, there were hardly any Japanese programs or resources easily accessible.
Similar to Samantha, there was no Japanese community language school in the local area. There was a very limited
exposure to Japanese for Sonia and she mentioned in the interview many times that she wished she could speak Japanese.
Sonia has visited Japan five times since she was born until the time of the interview. Due to the lack of exposure to
Japanese both at home and community, she identifies herself as Australian.

FINDINGS FROM THE FOUR ADULT CHILDREN OF JAPANESE-AUSTRALIANINTERMARRIAGE FAMILIES
Important results were identified from the interview data provided by the four adults whose language use and identities
were affected by the language spoken at home. In the case of Yamato and Sara, their Japanese parents’ use of Japanese
seemed to have helped them develop their use of Japanese. Additionally, they perceived stronger Japanese identities, as
they were provided with opportunities to attend Japanese community language schools and access Japanese resources. On
the other hand, Samantha and Sonia, who both have limited Japanese proficiency, not only had a lack of local opportunities
within their regional city but also in the era in which they spent their childhood; access to Japanese resources was limited
compared to children of the six families. It is therefore highly likely that the combination of fewer opportunities and lesscultural support to learn heritage languages impacted their language learning activities and inclinations.

CONCLUSION
This study uncovered various challenges and some emotional turmoil caused by the gap between the ideal of using
Japanese with their children and the reality of not being able to use much Japanese experienced by Japanese-origin
parents striving to maintain the Japanese language and culture for their children. All the children are proud of Japaneseculture, reflecting their Japanese parent’s efforts to retain their heritage language for their children. Their experiences ofdifficulties in speaking Japanese, and eventually resisting the learning of Japanese, reminded me of myself as a child whogrew up in Japan and Australia moving between cultures, countries, and languages.
The most immediate environment for heritage language maintenance that parents can provide for their children is throughtheir own use of Japanese in the home and with grandparents or relatives in Japan (Cruickshank 2015; Kasuya 1998). As
there is a limit to the influence of parents’ use of Japanese on their children, the local Japanese community also helps
facilitate heritage language maintenance (McCabe 2014; Pauwels 2005). Parents’ use of Japanese and the exposure to
Japanese that the children receive from the Japanese community impacted the children’s Japanese abilities. Furthermore,parents’ use of Japanese and their connections with their Japanese families and the local Japanese community in Australia
appears to have shaped the children’s cultural identities.

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Understanding the benefits of using Japanese and finding opportunities to use Japanese can help children increase theirmotivation to learn Japanese. I hope that the results of this study will encourage immigrant parents of intermarriage
families living in Australia (and elsewhere) to be proud of their heritage languages and to establish positive cultural identities
for their children.

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CONTRIBUTOR
BIOGRAPHIESClaire Maree is Professor in Japanese at the Asia Institute, University of Melbourne, Victoria. Claire’s expertise lies in the
linguistic analysis of identity and mediatisation of language styles. She has taught Japanese and Japanese linguistics
in Japan and Australia for over 20 years. Claire’s third monograph queerqueen: Linguistic Excess in Japanese Media(2020, OUP) illustrates how a diversity of gender identifications, sexual orientations, and discursive styles are packaged
together to form a homogenous character—the queerqueen. Claire is President, International Gender and Language
Association (IGALA) and Co-Coordinator, International Network of Gender, Sexuality & Japanese Language Education(INGS-Japanese).
Victoria Poulos has been teaching Japanese for over 25 years in Victorian schools, combined with 20 years’ experiencein gifted education. She completed her B.A & Dip Ed majoring in Japanese at Monash University and has a Masters in
Gifted education at UNSW. Victoria is a committee member of VAGTC, a teacher assistant at UNSW, a research assistantat UNSW, was the 2022 postgraduate recipient of the Dean’s award for academic excellence and is the Gifted andTalented Leader at Crest Education.
Anthony Oldmeadow is the Principal for Mernda Central P to 12 College. Anthony has been with the College since
the start of 2020 and was officially appointed to the role of Principal in June 2020. Prior to his appointment at Mernda
Central, Anthony has been involved in the start-up of two new schools from their first day. Anthony worked as a Leading
Teacher and Assistant Principal at Laurimar Primary School when it opened in 2010 and then as an Assistant Principal
in the Junior (Prep to 4) and Middle (5 to 8) school at Hazel Glen College since it opened in 2014. Throughout his career,
Anthony has worked extensively with adolescent students across multiple schools in both Physical Education andClassroom settings. Anthony has also had time working in the Northern Metropolitan Region as an ICT support coachfor schools across our network. He has gained valuable experience in all settings and is passionate about working withchildren to achieve their best. Anthony has a strong interest in P to 12 education settings. He is passionate about student
engagement, wellbeing and success and is committed to learning about the way students develop through the Prep
to 12 continuums. Anthony loves harnessing the power of ICT and seeing how it can be utilised in schools to engage,
support and strengthen students’ understanding of curriculum concepts. Anthony is considered a family man who tries
to stay fit. He has been involved in a wide range of sports throughout his life as both a competitor and coach.
Nicholas Creed is the College Innovations Assistant Principal at Mernda Central College, also leading College Data,
Assessment and Reporting. He completed a Bachelor of Arts at The University of Melbourne alongside a Diploma in
Modern Languages (Japanese). Nicholas subsequently completed a Graduate Diploma of Education (Secondary), andin 2012 completed a Professional Certificate in Education (CLIL). Nicholas moved to Mernda Central College in 2018
to establish the Japanese program. Prior to this, he taught Japanese and History for 12 years at Mount Waverley
Secondary College. Nicholas has extensive experience teaching Year 7-VCE Japanese in flexible learning environments,
and a passion for sharing knowledge of Japanese language and culture. He is also responsible for the development of
the College timetable and oversees the leadership of a range of co-curricular programs.
Steven Miyazawa is the Curriculum Leader of Japanese in the Middle School at Mernda Central College. He has beenteaching Japanese since graduating with postgraduate qualifications in education from The University of Melbourne in2013. Prior to his postgraduate study, Steven attended Sophia University, Tokyo, on a one-year exchange program, which
afforded him the opportunity to enrich his cultural and linguistic knowledge about his subject area. Steven moved to
Mernda Central College in 2018 to help start the College’s new Japanese language program. He is passionate about theeducation of young adults and is a strong advocate of second language learning.

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Thomas Armstrong has been working at Mernda Central College since 2019 and is the Curriculum Leader of Japanesein the Senior School at Mernda Central College. Thomas completed a Bachelor of Arts, majoring in Japanese at La
Trobe University (Melbourne Campus), including a semester exchange at Momoyama Gakuin University, Osaka. Thomas
subsequently completed a Graduate Diploma of Education (Secondary). He has lived and worked extensively in Japan aspart of the Japan Exchange Teaching (JET) program. He is passionate about Japanese language education and providing
students with a rich and challenging learning environment.
Nathan Lane has been teaching Japanese in Victorian Government and Catholic secondary schools for over twenty
years. Currently he is the Deputy Principal Teaching and Learning at St Mary MacKillop College. Nathan has presented
at state, national and international language conferences and has been involved in resource development and external
assessment for students studying Japanese at secondary level. He is the current President of the Japanese Language
Teachers’ Association of Victoria Inc. (JLTAV). In 2017 Nathan was awarded a Certificate of Merit by the Modern Language
Teachers’ Association of Victoria Inc. (MLTAV) in recognition of his exceptional and outstanding contribution to languages
teaching in Victoria.
Shinji Okumura obtained his doctoral degree in Applied Linguistics at Monash University. He is currently an Associate
Professor of Applied Linguistics in the Faculty of Information and Communications at Bunkyo University, Japan. He
has served as a reviewer for Computer-Assisted Language Learning (Taylor and Francis). His research interests arefocused on technology-enhanced language learning and additional language education in primary schools. Dr. Okumura
has conducted virtual exchange projects for young language learners involving the global community to enhance theiradditional language learning and intercultural understanding.
Masae Uekusa obtained her master’s degree in Applied Linguistics and postgraduate degree in Education at Monash
University. She is currently a primary school teacher at a government school in Victoria. Her research interests areforeign language education in Australia and Japan, ICT-based language teaching, and gesture-based language teaching
methods.
Kaoru Kadowaki, Professor in the Faculty of International Studies at Setsunan University in Japan, was Visiting
Professor of The University of Queensland from 2017 to 2018. At Setsunan University, Kaoru teaches how to teachJapanese to Japanese students who want to become Japanese language teachers, and Japanese language and culture
to international students. Her research interests are acquisition of Japanese language as a second language and teacher
training. She has conducted research on Japanese language education at primary and secondary schools outside Japansuch as South Korea, Thailand, Indonesia and Australia, receiving Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (2012-2014, 20152018,2019-2023) from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.
Takako Morita teaches Literacy and Numeracy in Japanese and serves as the Japanese Literacy Leader at CaulfieldPrimary School in Victoria. She is also a member of the Teachers Executives, Bilingual School Network, working in thefield of bilingual education. Prior to moving to Australia, Takako taught Japanese as a Second Language at tertiary levelin Tokyo. She holds a Bachelor of Arts (Major in Spanish) from the University of Massachusetts, and a Master of Teachingfrom the University of Melbourne.
Keiko Okumura is an Assistant Professor in Global and Transcultural Studies at Meiji Gakuin University, Japan. She
received a Master in Japanese Language Education in 2008 from the Graduate School of Japanese Applied Linguistics in
Waseda University, Japan. Her research interests are Japanese language education, language education for Japanesebackground speakers, citizen Literacy, multiculturalism and Japanese education for foreign care workers.
Yoji Hashimoto has taught in several universities in both Australia and Japan, including Monash University, The
University of Melbourne, and most recently in the University of Tasmania from which he retired at the end of 2020. Yoji’steaching-related expertise includes overseas studies and school-university connections. His research interests include
language maintenance, language & identities, TJFL/TJSL (Teaching Japanese as a Foreign/Second Language) and COIL
(Collaborative Online International Learning). He has co-authored and/or has been involved in the development of several
Japanese language textbook series in both Australia and Japan. Yoji is the current Chief Editor of ANJCL Newsletter.

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Chihiro Kinoshita Thomson is Professor of Japanese Studies at UNSW Sydney. She is a multi-award winning teacher
of Japanese. Her research interests include Australian learners of Japanese as a second and community language, andtheir communities of practice. Her most recent book is Foreign Language Learning Communities of Practice: Mechanisms
for Participatory Learning (2017). She has published numerous papers including “From Keishogo (Heritage language) to
KEISHOGO (Community language): An examination of language of children with connections to Japan” in Journal forChildren Crossing Borders (2021). She currently leads the Australian Network for Japanese as Community Language(ANJCL).
Naomi Kurata is a lecturer at Monash University in Australia. Her research interests include teaching and learning
Japanese as a foreign and community language, language learners’ motivation and identity, and sociolinguistics. She
is the author of Foreign Language Learning and Use: Interaction in Informal Social Networks (London: Continuum, 2011)
and a co-editor of Social Networks in Language Learning and Language Teaching (London: Bloomsbury, 2021). Her recent
publications include “The effects of social networks on L2 experiences and motivation” in this book. She is a member ofthe ANJCL and has conducted KEISHOGO research targeting parents and teachers in Victoria.
Shoko Ono has been teaching Japanese language and culture in various Australian institutions for many years. She
currently lectures Japanese Language and Culture at the University of Technology Sydney, and is a lecturer of Japanese
language at the Japan Foundation, Sydney. She is the Manager and one of the founding members of Australian Network
for Japanese as Community Language (ANJCL). Her interests include how educators can effectively support the further
development of young heritage Japanese language users, as well as teaching Japanese language learners at advanced
and upper-advanced levels.
Kaya Oriyama is a lecturer in Japanese Studies at the University of Melbourne and a core ANJCL member. Her researchareas are heritage/community language maintenance, transnational/mixed-heritage Japanese identities, Japanese as(an) additional/heritage/community language education, plurilingualism and plurilingual literacy, and language policy.
Her recent publications include “Fitting in at last? Learners of Japanese as community language in search of belonging
and legitimacy” in Melbourne Asia Review, 13 (2023) and “Social networks with purpose: Heritage Language Networksof Practice among transnational and transcultural Japanese youth in Sydney” in Carhill-Poza and Kurata (Eds.), Social
Networks in Language Learning and Language Teaching, Bloomsbury (2021).
Miyako Matsui has extensive language teaching experience both in Japan and Australia. She completed her PhD at
James Cook University in 2022 and teaches Japanese at the University of Wollongong. This paper arose from her
PhD thesis which investigated the perspectives of Japanese-Australian intermarriage families’ use of Japanese in thehome and community. Her experience of living in Japan and Australia since childhood inspired her interest to research
heritage language and cultural maintenance. She wishes to further develop her knowledge of the community language
programs and language studies at schools in Australia.