Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 39，Number 2，2018，pp19-33

Effects of decontextualized tsunami disaster education:
A case study of schools in Acapulco, Mexico
Genta Nakano1, María Teresa Ramírez-Herrera2, Néstor Corona3
1

Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University
Institute of Geography, Tsunami and Paleoseismology Laboratory, National Autonomous
University of Mexico,
3
Center of Human Geography Study, Michoacán’s College, Tsunami and Paleoseismology
Laboratory, National Autonomous University of Mexico
2(Received: Feb. 2, 2018 Accepted: Jul. 13, 2018)
ABSTRACTDisaster risk reduction education is provided through external support at schools. Most
educational programs evaluate the level of knowledge transfer. However, the particular context ofschool is not considered, even though it prescribes the understanding of students. In this study,
tsunami education was provided by a non-Mexican NGO at two schools in Acapulco, Mexico,and questionnaire surveys were conducted. The surveys identified that students were moreinterested in obtaining knowledge than learning action for their self-protection. This tendency inmotivation was generated by the school context: the school teaches decontextualized knowledge
despite the need to contextualize disaster education in daily life. This disparity caused a gap in
the communication between the NGO members and the students. Therefore, it is important thatdisaster education programs remove students from the school context and place them in thecontext of daily life. More localized content could help remove students from the context ofschool. This study argues that the effectiveness of disaster education is influenced by the context
in which students learn, and the findings suggest that educational practices should be designed on
the basis of the context of the learners.

Key words: disaster risk reduction education, tsunami, context of school, Mexico

1. INTRODUCTION
An increasing number of studies on disaster risk reduction education (DRR education) andrelated project reports have been published since 2008 (Johnson et al., 2014), detailing how
researchers, NGOs, and international aid organizations are implementing DRR education. Thereis also a trend for these DRR educational activities to be implemented at schools because they are
considered the center of local communities, and the transferred knowledge and skills are expectedto spread from students to parents and community members (see, for example, Shaw, 2011;
Shiwaku, 2016).
The literature illustrates that many DRR education programs are delivered to school
students by external supporters (non-teachers). Johnson et al. (2014) and Chijiwa (2017) have
19

G.NAKANO,M.T.RAMÍREZ-HERRERA,N.CORONA

conducted a methodological review of DRR education research, noting that the majority
evaluated the degree of knowledge transfer from external supporters (non-teachers) to school
students, asking whether the knowledge of hazards, risks, and protective action taken during
disasters had been accurately learned. In other words, there is a trend in DRR education
evaluation to analyze the level of text, with the external supporter evaluating what is explicitly
written or expressed by students in questionnaire surveys and interviews. However, when DRR
education is evaluated in this manner, an important level of evaluation is overlooked: context.
The school has a unique and particular context different from that of daily life and so the level ofcontext also needs to be considered when evaluating DRR education at a school.
This paper analyzes tsunami education programs provided by a non-Mexican NGO(external supporter) to school students of Pie de la Cuesta in Acapulco, Mexico, while taking into
consideration the level of context, specifically that of the school. The Pacific Coast of Mexico isa tsunami prone area, having experienced 70 tsunamis between 1732 and 2011. Tsunami disastereducation is thus necessary, and Mexican governmental research institutions have developed
various educational materials (e.g., CENAPRED, 2005; CICESE, 2014) and websites (e.g.,
CICESE, 2013; CENAPRED, 2016). However, the distribution of these materials as well as
community-based educational practices for tsunami response remains limited in Mexico. Disastereducation research in Mexico is also limited—a subject that this study seeks to address. In doingso, discussion regarding the uniqueness of the school context is reviewed, before explaining thestudy location and its tsunami history. This paper then provides a detailed explanation of the
DRR education given by the NGO and introduces the questionnaire survey results. Finally, theseresults are analyzed on the basis of the school context, findings distinct from those produced
through an analysis at the level of text.

2. Particular context of the schoolContext is an important component of communication as it provides implicit situational
information that defines the meaning of what is explicitly expressed. Research on recognition
psychology claimed that context was static and constituted within individuals. Thus, for example,
in the context of a conversation, which “self” is speaking is understood through the independent
context of the self, while which “other” listens is similarly understood through the independent
context of the other. As such, the context between the self and the other was considered detached.
The idea of static context was replaced by the concept of dynamic context in the 1970s.
According to Kawadoko (2007), the concept of dynamic context claims that context is constituted
through the mutual acting of the self and other reflexively. In other words, the context of which
self speaks and which other listens is reflexively constituted, thereby enabling the self and theother to identify the meaning of a conversation. Kawadoko (2007) emphasizes that context issituation-dependent. Hence, the meaning of a conversation also varies depending on the situationeven if the self and other utilize the same text. For example, imagining a boy teases a girl in aclassroom saying “I hate you”. The meaning of the text “I hate you” clearly denotes a feeling ofdislike; however, it can also be understood as a feeling of like depending on the context.
Context prescribes the meaning of communication. Various studies have pointed out theparticular context observed in formal school education (see, for example, Kawadoko, 2007;
Murayama, 1995; Fujie, 2012). Formal school education is produced by an institutionalized
educational system and implemented through a chronological curriculum; knowledge is provided
in an organized and structural way, and learning is intentional from the learners’ point of view20

Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 39，Number 2，2018，pp19-33(Coombs and Ahmed, 1984; Dib, 1988). School education tries to ensure the transfer ofinterrelated systematic knowledge and skills based on the developmental stages of the child.
Kawadoko (2007) notes that the knowledge and skills provided in school education isdecontextualized, thus enabling its application to another context. Take the following question
from Kawadoko (2007), for example: “There are three oranges in a box. There are four boxes oforanges. How many oranges are there in total?” The way to solve the question is “three oranges
times four boxes equals 12 oranges.” When this knowledge and calculation skill is learned by
students, they can also answer questions like: “There are eight elementary school students andeach student weighs six kilograms. What is the weight of all the students in total?” Students thusanswer “48 kilograms” even though it is an unrealistic figure (Kawadoko, 2007). This is theeffect of the type of knowledge and skills provided at schools, which are characteristicallydecontextualized, abstracted and symbolized. Murayama (1995) has also raised the issue of the
discontinuity between the knowledge learned at schools and that learned in daily life.
Murayama’s (1995) study pointed out that school education－especially mathematics and scienceeducation－asks students to find the answer using processes not used in everyday life, so thatstudents memorize the solution without linking the scientific knowledge to their daily lives.
Similarly, Vygotsky (2005) has explained the differences between the personal concepts
children develop in everyday life and in those they develop through school education. In fact, theflow of concept development works in the opposite direction. In the case of the development of
personal concepts, a child finds a sunflower or a violet on the street and learns those names
separately. At this moment, however, the child does not relate the sunflower and/or the violet
with the concept “flower”; thus, the knowledge is not conceptually structured. However, in thecase of the development of concepts in school education, “flower” is taught first, and “sunflower”
and “violet” are taught afterwards as they fall under the categorization of “flower.” As such, theconcept becomes structured and organized.
The explanations discussed above do not appear to show the context of school, but thecharacteristics of school education. The following example, however, clarifies that answering aquestion like that regarding the oranges in the box posed by Kawadoko (2007) is already strongly
influenced by the particular context of the school. Kawadoko (2007) uses Depman’s (1987) study
to illustrate that the particular school context is not necessarily implemented in a school. Depman
provided an example of a mathematics class given in North East Siberia, in which a teacher asked
the students: “A hunter named A killed five seals on the first day. On another day, the same
hunter killed 6 seals. How many seals did the hunter kill in total?” The students proceeded to ask:
“Who is hunter A? Is it hunter B (mentioning the name of a real person in the community)?
Because hunter A is not capable of killing many seals. How can we solve this false question?”
While the intention of the teacher was to infer the capability of the calculation (5 + 6 = 11), thestudents tried to answer the question by relating it to their reality and judged it to be a false
situation. What this case seeks to show is the failure of the teacher and students to share acommon context. While the teacher asked the question from the particular context of the school(testing whether students were capable of calculation), the students—who tried to identify thehunter, etc.—were in the context of daily life. Similar experimental results are presented by Cole(1989).
In short, the particular school context has characteristics that make the knowledge it
transfers conceptually structured, as well as decontextualized and abstracted at the same time. As
such, the knowledge is disconnected from everyday life. This must be taken into account whenevaluating DRR education in this study area: Pie de la Cuesta, Acapulco, Mexico. Moreover,21

G.NAKANO,M.T.RAMÍREZ-HERRERA,N.CORONA

questions asked in the classroom already share the context of testing. Thus, students know thatthey are being asked the questions by teachers for the purposes of testing. It can be assumed thatthe particular context of the school is also strong in the study area as the school enrollment rate
for pre-, primary, and junior high school is 97% in Guerrero state, in which the study area islocated (SEP, 2017). Furthermore, the Secretary of Public Education is now in the process of
introducing a “New Educational Model” (Nuevo Modelo Educativo) in order to modify theeducational method in Mexican schools from knowledge-centered education—which produces astrong school context—to active learning. As noted, most DRR education is provided by external
supporters at schools. As long as students receive DRR education in school, the particular school
context should also be taken into consideration when analyzing DRR education.

3. TSUNAMI HISTORY AND RISK AT LOS MOGOTES AND PIE DE LA CUESTA,ACAPULCO
Schools implementing the tsunami education program are located at Los Mogotes and Pie de laCuesta, on the west side of Acapulco Bay in the state of Guerrero, Mexico (Fig. 1). Inhabitants
simply call this area “La Barra” (“The Bar”), as it is a large sandbar having a length of 16 km anda maximum width of 650 m, forming a smooth rugged plain 7 m above sea level. The narrowest
stretch of the bar is located on the east, close to the marginal urban area of Acapulco. The
sandbar terminates at Coyuca Lagoon in the north and at the Pacific Ocean in the south. It is thus
extremely difficult to evacuate residents to higher ground quickly and smoothly if a tsunami
occurs. There are approximately 6,650 inhabitants across the four settlements on this sandbar:
Los Mogotes, Pie de la Cuesta, Colonia Luces del Mar, and San Nicolás de las Playas.
Guerrero has experienced numerous large earthquakes, notably the Ms 7.8 quake in 1911.
Several events around Ms 6 in scale have occurred since 1911—particularly along the edges of
the Guerrero gap, where the Acapulco region is located (Kostoglodov and Ponce, 1994; Lowry etal., 2001; Larson et al., 2004). There is a high probability of a major inter-plate earthquake withan estimated Mw of 8.1–8.4 along this coast (Suárez et al., 1990). Thus, there is also a highprobability of a tsunami occurring.

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Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 39，Number 2，2018，pp19-33

Fig. 1. Study area and school locations: a) regional context; b) close-up view of sites where
schools are located; c) panoramic view of the sandbar, with schools highlighted; d) imageof the secondary school; and e) CBTA Los Mogotes.
Source: Made by author

While four large earthquakes of Mw7 or greater occurred along the Guerrero coast in theearly twentieth century－on January 14, 1900, January 20, 1900, April 15, 1907, and December
16, 1911 (Fig. 2)－a tsunami was associated with only the first of these (Milne, 1911; Soloviev
and Go, 1975; Sanchez and Farreras, 1993; Garcia‐ Acosta and Suárez, 1996). Approximately 31
tsunamis have occurred along the Guerrero coast between 1537 and 2012 (Ramírez-Herrera et al.,2015). In the majority of cases, information is sparse because of the historically low population
density along Mexico’s Pacific Coast. With the exception of the events in 1925 and September 19
and 21, 1985－which affected Zihuatanejo at different maximum water depths than in Acapulco－ tsunami effects have only been reported for the city of Acapulco, the oldest and mostpopulated locality on the Guerrero coastline (Ramírez-Herrera et al., 2015).

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G.NAKANO,M.T.RAMÍREZ-HERRERA,N.CORONA

Fig. 2. Seismic activity along Guerrero coast
Source: NGDC/WDS (2017)
Evidence of three earthquakes and their probable resulting tsunamis have been identified
at Laguna Mitla, near Pie de la Cuesta, using the geological record of different sites in the
Guerrero area (Ramírez-Herrera et al., 2007, 2009, 2012). Furthermore, additional paleotsunamis (Ramírez-Herrera et al., 2005) have been tentatively proposed based on geologicalevidence found elsewhere on the Guerrero coastline. A significant event occurred in the late
Holocene (c 3400 BP) near Laguna Mitla—an environmental shift and relative rise in sea levelindicating a tectonic collapse preceded by marine flooding approximately 5 km inland. The 1979
earthquake and the 1985 earthquake and tsunami have also left an imprint in the geologicalrecord (Ramírez-Herrera et al., 2012).
While some studies have lacked an understanding of the seismotectonic context andhistory of earthquakes and tsunamis in the area (e.g. Bianchete et al., 2016), and some reviews
have been incomplete and skewed (Chagué-Goff et al., 2017), several researchers have provided
convincing geological, historical, and archeological evidence of past earthquakes and tsunamis on
the Guerrero coast (González-Quintero, 1980; Kennett et al., 2004; Ramírez-Herrera et al., 2005,
2007, 2009, 2015; Suárez and Albini, 2009). As such, tsunami hazard assessments based entirely
on instrumental and historical data may underestimate the tsunami hazard in this area, which is
now highly populated and has attained considerable affluence through tourism. It is important tointegrate instrumental, historical, and prehistorical tsunami records based on geological evidenceof tsunami deposits. Moreover, geological evidence clearly indicates the importance of assumingthat larger tsunamis than those that have occurred in the twentieth century are possible,
highlighting the importance of educating the population about tsunami hazards to reduce loss oflife and economic damage.

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Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 39，Number 2，2018，pp19-33

4. METHODOLOGY
In this study, tsunami education was conducted at Barra de Coyuca by two non-Mexican
members of a non-governmental organization (NGO) based in the United States, from August 18
to August 24, 2014. Instruction was provided in Spanish by a fluent Spanish speaker. The class
was presented in a classroom during school hours as part of the extra-curricular education. The
second and third authors of this article observed the tsunami education with no direct
participation. The DRR education program was provided at two schools. One was Guerrero State
High School, Los Mogotes (hereinafter, “the high school”), comprising 113 students aged 15–18
years old. The high school provides general education as well as occupational training. The other
was Technical Secondary School 10079 (hereafter, “the technical school”), comprising 165
students aged 12–15 years. Although the school is referred to as “technical,” its course
curriculum is basically that of an ordinary junior high school. Figure 1 shows the locations ofthese schools. These two schools were selected because they are located in areas that have a very
high risk of being affected by a tsunami: sandwiched between the Pacific Ocean and Coyuca
Lagoon, quick evacuation is the only countermeasure in the case of a tsunami. As such, the needsof DRR education are prioritized.
Students responded to questionnaires before and after an informative talk about
earthquakes and tsunamis. Both the pre- and post-education surveys were paper-basedquestionnaires consisting of two types of questions: multiple-choice questions scored in a 1–5
range and descriptive free responses. The survey questionnaire conducted before the program
examined students’ motivation regarding the education program, as well as their risk perceptionof earthquakes and tsunamis. The survey questionnaire conducted after the program asked about
their learning through the program and their impressions of it, as well as the action they shouldtake to prepare for earthquakes and tsunamis. In total, 113 students from the high school and 164from the technical school responded to the survey, and the results were analyzed with a specificfocus on the descriptive responses in order to understand risk perceptions and the effect of theeducational program.

5. TSUNAMI EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES AT SCHOOLS IN PIE DE LA CUESTA,ACAPULCO
The disaster education programs took 30 minutes each. The class content can be divided into nineparts: 1) introduction, 2) earthquakes in Mexico, 3) the tectonic plate model and inter-plate
earthquake generation, 4) the effects of earthquakes, 5) security measures in the case of anearthquake, 6) tsunami generation mechanisms, 7) tsunami damage, 8) tsunami-related
knowledge as the primary safety countermeasure, and 9) the most appropriate response to atsunami. A summary of the class content is provided in Table 1. The presentation was
supplemented by multimedia material (Power Point slides). All images and videos showed
general mechanisms and features, which did not necessarily focus on the situation of Acapulco orPie de la Cuesta.

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Table 1. Overview of the DRR class content
Topic1) Introduction2) Earthquakes in
Mexico3) Tectonic platemodel and inter-plate
earthquake
generation

4) Effects ofearthquakes5) Security measuresin the case of anearthquake

6) Tsunami
generation
mechanisms

7) Tsunami damage

8) Tsunami-related
knowledge as themain safety measure

Content (multimedia resource)
NGO members briefly introduced themselves. Speakers asked students
whether they knew about any local hazards. Pictures of the NGO in
fieldwork and other workshops.
The presenter explained that many earthquakes (tremors) with Ms>6.5
have occurred since 1900. They then asked students: “Do you know why
earthquakes occur?” Students responded in their own words. Image ofearthquake epicenter distribution along the Mexican Pacific coast.
Students were provided an explanation of how earthquakes occur. This
included a brief overview of the tectonic plate model and the continuous
movement of plates throughout the world, noting that subduction zones
produce the largest earthquakes. When oceanic and continental plates
collide, one sinks beneath the other in ongoing slow motion. The
truncation of this movement accumulates energy, and when theseenormous slabs of rock can no longer resist the strain, they break andrelease energy, producing an earthquake. Having explained this process, a
map of the Middle-American Trench was used to show that the Acapulco
is on a subduction zone. It was then explained that while nobody knows
when an earthquake might occur, scientists can say where they mightoccur by using geological and historical data. Global plate tectonic image.
Image of the Middle-American Trench. Image of historical epicenter data
the Acapulco region, 1900–2010. Seismic rupture areas map.
A 53-second video of the 1995 Kobe Earthquake was presented: showing
the catastrophic effects of the earthquake and chaos of the event, such asbuildings crumbling and objects falling to the floor. After the video, thespeaker asked students to identify the mistakes made by the people in thevideo. YouTube video of the 1995 Kobe Earthquake.
Students were provided an explanation of appropriate responses indifferent situations during an earthquake. This included a description ofwhat to do if you are inside a building during an earthquake: crouch,cover, and hold on, then proceed to a safe area when conditions permit.
The students participated in a roleplay of an earthquake occurring.
Pictures of the three actions to take during an earthquake.
A brief overview of tsunami generation was provided, and the speaker
explained how subduction-related earthquakes are the main source oftsunamis. This was followed by showing how Acapulco is located in atsunami zone. Video of tsunami generation in an animated model
Students watched a 2.6-minute video about tsunami effects, mainly
showing what happens when a tsunami strikes a coast, and how theirdestructive power and velocity sweep away everything in their path.
Special mention was made of evacuation measures. An NGO-edited videoof the effects of a tsunami.
Students were shown that the most effective way of facing a tsunami isthrough knowledge, particularly knowing what happens after anearthquake when living near the coast. The Tilly Smith case and Laut
Moken tribes were used as examples. A collage of images showing a Tilly
Smith newspaper article, Moken tribes, and sea retreat.

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Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 39，Number 2，2018，pp19-33

9) The mostappropriate response
to a tsunami

Learners were told that: “If you feel an earthquake so intense that you canbarely remain standing, run to high land as soon as you are able.”

6. RESULTS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
Students at the high school showed a strong interest in the tsunami education program before it
was held: of the 113 students, 96 (85%) answered “interested,” 16 (14%) answered “neutral,”none answered “not interested,” and one student did not answer this question. To increase ourunderstanding of their motivation, the survey asked students to explain their answers. The natureof the answers could be categorized as: “to know what to do,” “to learn something,” “to learn therisks,” “for mutual help,” “for precaution,” “for awareness,” or “no answer.” After tallying theanswers, 38 were categorized as “to know what to do,” and 64 as “to learn something” and “tolearn the risks” (see Table 2). While the majority of students were interested in the education
program, these answers show that they had two main motivations: the “to know what to do”
group (34%) considered the program an opportunity to learn action, while the other group (57%)
considered the program an opportunity to gain knowledge. A similar tendency was observed in
the questionnaire conducted at the technical school: of 164 students, 119 (73%) answered“interested,” 42 (26%) answered “neutral,” while one student stated that they were “not interested”
in the education program. In the descriptive answers, using the same categorizations noted above:
57 students (35%) considered the program an opportunity to learn action, while 80 (49%)
considered it an opportunity to deepen their knowledge.

Table 2. Results of motivation categorization
Category

Number of students in highschoolTo know what to do
To learn something
To learn the risks
For mutual help
For precaution
For awarenessNo answer
Total

38
28
36
3
2
1
5
113

Number of students in technicalschool
57
48
32
2
0
16
10
164

The surveyed schools are located in a critically high-risk area for earthquakes andtsunamis (Fig. 1). However, the results of the tsunami education program surveys show that half
the students at both schools were interested in knowledge rather than action, despite their inherent
interest in action due to their living in such a high-risk area.
The post-program questionnaire was answered by 113 students at the high school and 164 at thetechnical school. The first part of the survey questioned the students’ risk perception of27

G.NAKANO,M.T.RAMÍREZ-HERRERA,N.CORONA

earthquakes and tsunamis, and to what extent they had obtained knowledge. Students responded
to each question on a numerical scale from one (do not at all agree) to five (strongly agree). The
objective of the program was considered to have been achieved if students answered agree(numerical scale of four) or strongly agree (numerical scale of five); the number of students who
answered in this range was converted to a percentage. The questions and results are provided inTable 3.
Table 3. Risk perception and knowledge (students answering agree or strongly agree)
Questions/School

84%
78%

Technical
school
(N=164)
66%
65%

79%

61%

67%

62%

High school(N=113)I am at risk of earthquakes
I am at risk of tsunamis
I know what to do in the caseof an earthquake
I know what to do in the caseof a tsunami

Approximately 84% of students at the high school and 66% at the technical school
perceived the risk of an earthquake, while 78% of students at the high school and 65% at thetechnical school perceived the risk of a tsunami. As such, a larger number of high school students
recognized risk than did technical school students. However, a certain percentage of students at
both schools did not perceive the risk, even after the tsunami education. A similar tendency wasobserved in the question regarding their understanding about what to do in the case of anearthquake and tsunami; even though the education program explained what to do, as Table 3
shows, a certain percentage of students did not retain the knowledge.
In further exploring the descriptive answers categorized as “I know what to do in the caseof an earthquake” provided by the high school students, we observed a tendency among 44
students to use the term “calm” (calmar in Spanish), even though this term was not emphasizedin the program. In contrast, usage of this term was rarely observed in the descriptive answers oftechnical school students. One possible reason for this difference is varying exposure to
information depending on age group. As noted, the high school students were around 15–18 years
old, while those of the technical school were aged 12–15 years. In the event of an earthquake in
Mexico, television broadcasters request that viewers remain calm; earthquake safety brochuressimilarly instruct readers to remain calm in such a scenario. The term “calm” is thus frequently
used in connection with earthquake safety procedures, and it was assumed that older groups ofstudents have been exposed to such information more often.
The education program taught the appropriate response to an earthquake in 11 potential
situations, such as “if you are in your classroom,” “if you are in your house,” “if you are in theplayground,” and “if you are in the library.” However, no students explained what to do indifferent situations in their open responses. The technical school showed a similar tendency inthis respect. The education program also emphasized the importance of getting under a desk,
using illustrations on a Power Point slide to do so. In the open responses to the questionnaire,
however, only 36 (32%) of the 113 high school students and 81 (49%) of the 164 technicalstudents mentioned getting under a desk in the event of an earthquake—a minority of students in28

Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 39，Number 2，2018，pp19-33

both cases. This suggests that a primary message of the education program was not wellunderstood by the students.
These results may be because, while the tsunami education was presented using numerous
figures, photos, and videos intended to promote the students’ understanding, the formal
educational curriculum rarely provides earthquake and tsunami instruction. According to Iwahori
et al. (2017), there is a unit covering the history of the Earth in the 6th grade at elementary level,
and this briefly introduces plate tectonics. Indeed, this is the only aspect of mandatory education
regarding earthquakes at elementary and junior high school levels; while earthquakes are
introduced in physics and environment classes in the junior high school curriculum, this class is
optional. As such, even though many illustrative materials were utilized, students lacked the basic
knowledge required to understand the lectures provided by NGO members. Furthermore, theillustrative materials detailed cases such as the 1995 Great Kobe earthquake in Japan and the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, in addition to location specific information—such as historical
epicenter data of Acapulco. Consequently, transmission of the primary message was hampered.
Thus, in the space of a 30-minute lecture, students were provided an abundance of information,from the mechanisms of earthquakes and tsunamis to the response procedures. Since students did
not have basic scientific knowledge about earthquakes, the lecture may have been overly
informative for students, making it difficult for them to follow its content. Moreover, that thedegree of understanding was higher for high school students than it was for technical school
students is possibly due to the level of school year. In addition, taking into consideration theparticular school context, the motivation gap between students and NGO members may be
another important factor.

7. GAPS IN MOTIVATION BETWEEN TEACHERS (NGO) AND STUDENTS
As observed by the pre-program survey, half the students in each school considered the program
an opportunity for deepening their knowledge. This tendency can be understood in relation to theparticular context of the school. As discussed earlier, the knowledge transferred through school isabstracted and symbolized, and thus decontextualized from the learners’ daily environment. In
other words, the school is a place for students to learn how to answer the given questions, obtainknowledge, and prepare for examinations in a testing context. They do not have to link schoolobtained knowledge with their everyday life. As such, we consider that the students who wereinterested in knowledge were strongly influenced by this particular school context, and that theirattitude was to learn decontextualized knowledge that is not necessarily linked with their daily
life. This also supports the fact that some students did not perceive the risk of earthquakes ortsunamis, as the post-program survey showed (Table 3).
The fundamental and ultimate goal of DRR education is to protect lives and property bypromoting everyday action before, during, and after a disaster. Knowledge transferred throughdisaster education should thus be contextualized according to the learners’ circumstances.
However, there is a gap between the desire of students for knowledge and that of education
providers for action. This gap contributed to the interrupted communication between NGO
members and students. Therefore, knowledge transfer will be improved if that gap is removed. As
such, it is important that DRR education programs be contextualized to daily life, rather than tothe particular context of school. For example, the educational materials used in the NGO tsunami
education program addressed only two of nine topics (Table 1) that directly explained or referredto the Los Mogotes–Pie de la Cuesta region. More localized content could help students learn
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outside of the school context. Examples might include listening to the experiences of local
tsunami survivors, letting students plan evacuation routes to higher ground from their homes, orcreating floorplans of students’ homes with furniture placement in order to specify safe anddangerous places should an earthquake occur.
This study has implications for the methodology applied to the pre- and post-program
surveys. Quantitative data obtained through the questionnaire showed that most students were
motivated to learn before the education program, while the post-program survey showed thatmost students perceived the risk of earthquakes and tsunamis and learned what to do in disaster
scenarios. When descriptive answers were analyzed and integrated into the analysis, however, we
identified two categories of student motivation toward the program, and a motivation gap
between students and the NGO emerged. There are many comparative studies of pre- and postDRR education surveys, which tend to be statistically analyzed only to isolate post-programchanges. This study highlights the importance of integrating qualitative analysis into themethodology of the comparative analysis of disaster education.

8. CONTEXTUALIZED DISASTER EDUCATIONThis study analyzed changes in student motivation for learning by comparing pre- and postprogram surveys in tsunami education conducted in the Los Mogotes–Pie de la Cuesta area of
Acapulco, Mexico. The area has experienced several tsunamis, and we assumed that residents
were aware of natural disaster risks. As questionnaire surveys clarified, however, students weremore motivated to obtain knowledge than they were action from the DRR education program.
Even after the program, some students did not perceive the risk of earthquakes and tsunamis.
Students intending to obtain knowledge who did not perceive risk were strongly influenced by
the particular context of school. This result suggests that DRR educational practices should bedesigned not only on the basis of risk and awareness levels in targeted areas but also on learnercontexts. In other words, some students remained unaware of the risks because of incongruity
between the intended NGO contexts and actual student contexts. To maximize the effectivenessof DRR education, such a misalignment should be mitigated through the introduction of localized
DRR education content. Today, DRR education is used as an outreach activity by variousorganizations. Those who engage in such outreach activities should abandon their stereotypes
regarding risk perception. For example, students in the Los Mogotes–Pie de la Cuesta area did
not necessarily feel the tsunami risk expected by outsiders given their living in a high-risk area.
Narrowing such context gaps is necessary for more effective implementation of DRR education.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by PAPIIT-109117 granted to Ramírez-Herrera. Special thanks to thepeople of Pie de la Cuesta, to Pamela, Daniel, Canela and Shadow Fox for their hospiltality andhelp. We also aknowlege the SATREPS project (JICA and JST) for allowing collaboration
between Japan and Mexico ".

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Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 39，Number 2，2018，pp19-33

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