Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 26, Number 1, 2004, pp15-26

Instrumented Model Slope Failure due to Water Seepage
Rolando P. ORENSE 1, Suguru SHIMOMA2,
Kengo MAEDA3 and Ikuo TOWHATA3
Chuo Kaihatsu Corporation, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan
2
Shimizu Corporation, Tohoku Branch, Iwate, Japan3
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tokyo, Japan
1(Received for 20. Oct., 2003 and in revised from 15 Sep., 2004)

ABSTRACT
Many slope failures have been observed to occur during or immediately after rainfall. Although conditions
leading to these failures have been described as caused by a rapid rise in pore-water pressure as a result of rainwater infiltration, the important factors that influence the initiation of slope failures have not been adequately clarified. To investigate these factors, a series of laboratory experiments was conducted on model sandy slopes todetermine the initiation process of rainfall-induced slope failure. In the tests, failures were induced in small-scalemodel slopes either by water percolation from the side upslope or by artificial rain falling on top of the slope.
Besides monitoring pore-water pressure, changes in soil moisture contents and ground deformation were measured. Test results showed that slope failure was always induced when the soil moisture content within a certain
region near the toe of the slope reached nearly full saturation, even though other parts of the sliding mass werestill in a partially saturated state. In addition, minute deformations along the slope were shown to precede failure.
The findings presented here show that by monitoring the soil moisture content of slopes and performing displacement measurements, it is possible to predict the occurrence of rainfall-induced slope failure.

1. INTRODUCTION
Landslides induced by heavy rainfall often occur on marginally stable slopes that consist of various types of soil, such as colluvial and residual ones. Because of its frequency and proximity ofvarious infrastructure developments to landslide-prone areas, rainfall-induced slope instability is considered one of the most significant geo-environmental hazards.
Mitigation of damage caused by rainfall-induced slope failures can be classified broadly in two categories; hard-type
approaches, such as slope stabilization methods as in the use ofretaining walls, dewatering techniques, anchor piles, etc. and softtype approaches, such as implementing appropriate alarm andwarning systems. Considering the extent of potentially unstableslopes, the first category may not always be feasible due to financial and environmental constraints. Monitoring systems therefore
offer viable alternatives. In some locations, e.g., Hong Kong
(Brand et al., 1984), the San Francisco Bay area (Keefer et al.,1987), Honolulu (Wilson et al., 1992), and Japan (Okada andSugiyama, 2001), warning systems have been established to help
minimize risk. In general, they are based on correlations between
rainfall intensity and the landslide frequency and are highly empirical because current understanding of the mechanisms and conditions leading to rain-induced failure is not sufficient to develop an
efficient warning system.
To establish accurate warning systems, efforts have focusedon understanding the mechanism and conditions leading to thesefailures and on formulating procedures to predict their occurrence.
Monitoring of various indices, such as deformation (Sasahara,
2001), pore-water pressure (Yagi and Yatabe, 1987), soil suction(Kitamura et al., 1999), groundwater depth (Yokota et al., 2000)
and acoustic emissions (Kousteni et al., 1999), at critical locations
within a slope is being considered as a basis for prediction. In
experimental study presented here, not only pore-water pressure,but soil moisture content and ground deformation were measured
by innovative types of sensors. The findings can be used to formulate site-specific warning systems to minimize damage caused byslope failures.
2. EXAMPLES OF LANDSLIDES CAUSED BY
RAINFALL
Thousands of landslides occurred on the Boso Peninsula,
Chiba Prefecture (Japan) due to rainfall during the passage ofTyphoon No. 25 which struck the eastern part of the Japanese
mainland in September 1971. The peninsula is about 140 km longand 50 km wide. Its mountains, such as the Boso Hills, generally
are not high (in the 200-300 m range). Fig. 1 shows the distribution of slope failures on the peninsula. More than 1,000 werereported in Shibayama Town (dark zone in the figure), which has
an area of approximately 1 km2. Another town which was hit
severely was Omigawa in the northeastern part of the peninsula,where more than 250 landslides were reported. Based on the official description of the disaster caused by this event reported by

KEY WORDS: slope failure, rainfall, seepage, model test, soil moisture content

16

R P. ORENSE, S. SHIMOMA, K. MAEDA AND I. TOWHATA

Chiba Prefecture (1972), precipitation in the Omigawa area fromthe evening of September 6 to the morning of September 7 was
106 mm, with a maximum hourly rainfall of 42 mm.
Some of the landslides in Omigawa have been investigatedextensively by Fukuoka (1980) and Yoshida et al. (1991a, 1991b).
Slopes in the area rise about 50 m above the alluvial plain near themouth of the Tone River. Terrains predominantly consist of
cemented silty sands, but near slope surfaces, the soil is fragmented by tree roots to a depth of about 2-3 m and exists in a loose to
medium dense state. Slope failure took place at shallow depths inthe disintegrated soil layer near the surface. Based on his findings,
Fukuoka (1980) enumerated the causes of these landslides. One isa decrease in the shearing resistance of the soil resulting from anincrease in soil moisture content. Another is an increase in unit
weight due to the increase in soil moisture content. Other causes
include surface erosion and an increase in pore water pressure in
faults or joints.
Based on the above causes, the increase in soil moisture content associated with rainwater infiltration is significant in inducing
slope failure. Fukouka (1980) stressed that to analyze the stabilityof slopes during rainfall, it is necessary to know the change in thesaturation ratio and the strength parameters of highly saturated
soils.
With this in mind, a series of laboratory model tests were performed on small-scale model slopes using sandy materials
obtained from a landslide site in Omigawa. The objectives were toinvestigate the process of rainfall-induced slope failures and toclarify the parameters essential for failure initiation. The tests
focused on detailed observations of the failure process and temporal development of soil moisture contents during water infiltration.
It should be noted that the tests were not intended to simulate thefailure of real slopes, in which non-uniformities that are related tosoil conditions, topographical features, boundary conditions, andrainfall patterns normally exist.

Fig. 1

Location map of Omigawa and the distributions of number of slope failures in the Boso
Peninsula, Chiba Prefecture caused by
Typhoon No. 25 in 1971 (after Fukuoka, 1980)

3. EXPERIMENTAL OUTLINE
3.1 Materials Used
The soil samples used were obtained from a landslide site in
Omigawa (discussed in Section 2). The material is silty sand, witha Fc=9% fines content and the fines are non-plastic. Physicalproperties and grain size distribution curve are given in Fig. 2.
The shear strength parameters in the figure correspond to those ofa sample with Dr=60% relative density obtained in conventional
drained triaxial compression tests. In addition, the soil water characteristic curves of Omigawa sand obtained from water retentivity
tests are shown in Fig. 3. Note that for this soil, the air entry value(defined as the magnitude of matric suction that must be exceeded
before air recedes into the soil pores) is about 2 kPa, which is considered typical for granular materials.
3.2 Experimental Box and Transducers
The tank used in the model tests is shown schematically in
Fig. 4. It is 220cm long, 80cm wide and 100cm high. Its walls are
made of steel plates, except for the front one which is made ofacryl glass for easy observation of the deformation process. The
box is divided into three sections; a central portion 197cm longthat is used to construct the slope and left and right chambers, each
11.5cm wide, respectively used to supply and drain the water.
Perforated steel walls covered with wire mesh divide these three
sections to allow the easy movement of water through them without washing out the soil grains. The left outer wall of the box adjacent to the water supply chamber has small rectangular openings
with covers that are positioned at appropriate locations (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 2Grain size distribution curve and physicalproperties of the soil used

Fig. 3

Soil water characteristic curves for Omigawa soil

INSTRUMENTED MODEL SLOPE FAILURE

Fig. 4

17

Schematic diagram of the experimental slopemodel and the sensor locations

Fig. 5Photo of the experimental soil box

These openings can be uncovered to allow water to flow out of the
supply chamber if there is need to maintain a desired water elevation within the chamber; i.e., to keep a constant head at the ingresspoint.
Various sensors, such as pore-water pressure meters, soil
moisture content transducers, and shear displacement transducer,
were installed in the model slope, as shown schematically in Fig.
4. All the sensors were connected to a computer-based data acquisition system.
Two sets of pore-water pressure meters were used in the tests:
one with a capacity of 20 kPa, the other 100 kPa. The soil moisture sensor used, shown in Fig. 6(a), is the ADR (Amplitude
Domain Reflectometry) type. It measures the change in impedance between the probe body of the sensor and the ground inwhich the sensing head (array of four rods) is embedded. The relative impedance gives the dielectric constant of the ground, a measure of the volumetric water content,θs, the ratio of the volume ofwater in the soil pores to the total volume. Note that the dielectric
constant of water (80) is significantly greater than that of the othersoil matrix materials (3-4) and of air (1); therefore, the dielectric

Fig. 6

Photos of: (a) an ADR-type soil moisture sensor; (b) a laser displacement sensor

Fig. 7Structure of shear displacement transducer.
Left: plan view; Right: lateral view showing a
deformed configuration

constant of the soil primarily depends on the soil moisture content.
This type of sensor gives a stable reading within 1-5 sec, and canmeasure volumetric moisture content to within ±5% (based on generalized calibrations) or even ±1% (with soil-specific calibrations).
It can read data in soils even with high salinity levels and is notaffected by temperature (Muñoz-Carpena, 2004). Because of its
standard circuitry, it is relatively inexpensive and provides thesame level of accuracy and ease of use as the more popular but
costly TDR (time domain reflectometry) and capacitance insertion
probes (Wijaya et al., 2002). In our tests, prior to installation thesensor was appropriately calibrated on Omigawa sand to obtain thecorrelation between the moisture content and the sensor output.
A shear displacement transducer was installed near the toe ofthe slope to monitor variations in sub-surface deformation withtime. This transducer is similar to that originally developed by
Sasaki et al. (1991) and consists of 3cm high by 5cm wide plastic
panels with an accelerometer attached to each panel. These areconnected vertically by flexible wire (Fig. 7). Considering the inbetween spacing, each panel has an effective height of 5cm. The
bottom part of the panel assembly is fixed to the base of the box.

18

R P. ORENSE, S. SHIMOMA, K. MAEDA AND I. TOWHATA

During ground displacement, the panel system is displaced and,based on the acceleration recorded at each panel, the degree of tiltof each one can be estimated. Starting from the lowermost panel,
the lateral displacement of each one is calculated, from which values the lateral displacement of the whole panel system, assumed tobe equivalent to the lateral deformation of the ground, can beassessed. With this transducer, the residual (or static) componentof the recorded acceleration in each panel can be separated fromthe dynamic (or vibrating) component by performing Fourier
analysis, after which it is expressed in terms of the acceleration
due to gravity in order to calculate the degree of tilt of the panel.
This is shown schematically on the right in Fig. 7.
In some tests, surface displacement also was measured byplacing targets securely on the slope surface and monitoring their
movement with a laser displacement transducer fixed in support
adjacent to the target (see Fig. 6b). This sensor uses a high precision laser beam which can detect infinitesimal displacements within 10μm, thereby providing extremely accurate measurements ofminute displacements of the slope surface. The readings are fairly
straight-forward, showing a linear relationship between the analog
output and detected distance. Moreover, it detects objects withvery low surface reflection characteristics, such as black rubber.
Because the beam is easy to aim, precise positioning and alignment
are possible.
In addition to the displacement transducers, pin markers wereplaced on the slope surface and on the side of the model groundadjacent to the acryl glass wall (Fig. 5). In some tests, horizontal
lines consisting of kaolin clay also were laid out on the surface ofthe slope and served as reference lines during the deformation
process. Two video cameras were set-up at strategic points,
respectively to monitor displacement of the side and the surface ofthe model slope.
3.3 Experimental Program
In the experiments, homogenous model soil slopes were constructed in the central portion of the box by laying out Omigawa
soil with the initial (gravimetric) water content of w=10% in seriesof horizontal layers. Each layer was tamped equally with a tamping rod to obtain the prescribed height. This procedure was repeated until the full height of the model slope was obtained. The various sensors described earlier were installed in the slope at specified locations as soil placement progressed.
In the experiments, effects of the initial relative density, Dr,slope inclination, α, slope configuration and seepage operation
were examined. Two types of models, shown in Fig. 8, were considered. Model A consisted of homogenous sloping ground thatwas 90cm thick upslope and 20cm thick downslope, giving a net

model slope height equal to 70cm. Model B consisted of homogenous sloping ground with constant thickness, h. The impermeablesoil base was constructed by dumping soil into the box and covering its surface with a vinyl sheet which then was fastened to theinterior walls to prevent water infiltration into the soil base.
Sandpaper was glued to the upper portion of the sheet to prevent
any sliding of soil on top of the layer. The model slope subsequently was constructed over this impermeable base.
After preparing the model slope, failure was initiated by seepage from the top of the slope (hereafter seepage tests) or by artificial rainfall (hereafter rainfall tests). In the seepage tests, infiltration was simulated by introducing water into the upslope section of
the model slope through the water supply chamber (Fig. 4). The
water level in this chamber was increased to the specified elevationof 80cm and maintained at that level throughout the experiment by
spilling out the excess water through the small windows built into
the outer wall of the experimental box. This process effectively
replicated the effects of groundwater flow from upper locations on
natural slopes. In the rainfall tests, instability was induced by infiltrating water through hoses and nozzles set-up adjacent to theexperimental box (Fig. 9). To minimize water infiltration between
the impermeable sidewalls of the box and the adjacent soil, waterresistant plastic strips were used to seal the boundaries. Efforts
were made to keep the rainfall intensity, r, constant, both in timeand space. Varying the rainfall pattern as occurs in actual situations was not attempted. Therefore such patterns are beyond thescope of this study. Rainfall gauges were placed at two locations,
one at the top, another at the bottom of the slope. The accumulated
rainwater was measured periodically to determine the rainfall
intensity.
The experimental program is outlined in Table 1. Slope inclination was changed from α=30-40 degrees, and the relative densi-

Fig. 9Experimental set-up for the artificial rainfall test

Table 1.

Fig. 8

Two types of model slopes used in the experiment

Experimental program

INSTRUMENTED MODEL SLOPE FAILURE

ty from Dr=50-70%. These values were deemed to represent typical conditions in natural soil slopes. Tests were terminated (bothwater infiltration and data recording were stopped) when sufficientslope failure had been observed. It should be noted that the number of transducers installed in the model slope varied depending on
sensor availability at the time the tests were conducted.
Experimental results for Cases 1-3 have been reported by
Orense et al. (2002), and those for Cases 4-5 by Shimoma et al.
(2002). Only the experimental results for the remaining four cases
therefore are discussed in detail here. For completeness of presentation, a summary of the major findings for Cases 1-5, however, is
included.
4.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

4.1 Seepage Tests
4.1.1 Case 6
The slope in Case 6 is the Model A type with an initial relative density of Dr=50%, slope inclination of α=40°, and crest
width of B=60cm. The water level at the supply chamber wasmaintained at the height of 80cm, and, with the difference in thepressure head within the model ground, water was allowed to percolate through the soil. About 48 minutes after the start of water
infiltration, slope failure started to occur due to the formation oftension cracks near the lower part of the slope adjacent to the steel
wall. Thereafter this failure propagated to other parts of the slope.
In general, the failure surfaces formed were the non-circular retrogressive type. Slope movement within the model ground terminated several minutes after the onset of failure.
Fig. 10 shows the time histories of monitored sub-surface
deformation near the toe of the slope, volumetric moisture content,
θs, and pore water pressure (P.W.P.) at the sensor locations (also
depicted in the figure). Soil moisture sensors were installed at
d=5cm from the surface of the slope. The progress of the wetting
front within the model ground is clear in Fig. 10(c), in which theincrease in pore-water pressure recorded starting from P4 to P1
indicates gradual formation of the water table from left to right,
analogous to the direction of seepage flow.

Fig. 10

Time histories of: (a) toe displacement; (b)volumetric water content, θs; (c) pore-waterpressure (P.W.P.) for Case 6

19

About 2400 sec after the test began, the wetting front reachedthe locations of the soil moisture sensors, and a rapid increase inmoisture content was recorded near the toe of the slope (M1 and
M2). After some time had passed, minute slope movement
occurred, as evidenced by the displacement time history in Fig.
10(a). When the volumetric water content in this region reachedθs=0.42, equivalent to the degree of saturation Sr=90%, large
deformation was triggered near the toe. This deformation was
extremely rapid, reaching a maximum surface displacement of 8cm
within a few seconds (Fig. 10(a)). In contrast, maximum deformation of 4cm was monitored 5cm below the surface, indicative that
only the surficial portion of the downslope was involved in thesliding process. These findings are consistent with those obtainedwith the video cameras which showed that in the upslope section, a
portion about 15-20cm thick slid down the slope (Fig. 11). It
should be stated that during the deformation process, soil moisturesensors M1 and M2 were displaced by the moving ground, causing
erratic readings. Sensor readings therefore were terminated at thattime (see Fig. 10(b)).
As indicated in Table 1, Case 6 was designed to reproduce theresults of Case 1, presented elsewhere (Orense 2002). In Case 1,
pore-water pressure meters were not available and generated porepressures were calculated by FEM-based seepage analysis. The
comparison of the results for Cases 1 and 6 shows that the failure
initiation phenomena, as well as the progress of failure, were very
similar. Fig. 11 shows the inclination of the slope before and after
failure in Case 6. It is notable that in all the tests performed, theaverage slope angle after failure was about 20°. Subsequent calculations showed that this is the minimum inclination (i.e., factor of safety,
FS=1.0) of an infinite slope with the friction angle φ=36°(the sameas that of Omigawa sand) under seepage flow.
4.1.2 Case 7
In Case 6, saturation in the lower half of the slope surface initiated the slope failure. To examine what happens when most of
the slope surface becomes saturated, Case 7, which had a similarslope but a narrower crest width (B=30cm), was investigated.
With this type of model ground, the phreatic surface induced bypercolating water was considered to develop parallel to the slope.
Moreover, to monitor minute deformation of the slope, a target
was fixed on its surface near the toe, and a laser displacementtransducer was used to record displacement of the target along the

Fig. 11

Photo showing the model slope after the test (Case 6)

20

R P. ORENSE, S. SHIMOMA, K. MAEDA AND I. TOWHATA

direction of the slope.
In Case 7, the start of mass movement was registered about 23
minutes after the start of water infiltration. Collapse began near
the bottom half of the slope adjacent to the steel wall and propagated upward to the other parts of the slope. Compared with the failure in Case 6, the video images taken by the cameras showed more
rapid progression of movement and failure involving almost theentire slope occurred in less than a minute. This was because theentire slope was in almost fully saturated state and therefore had
lower strength. As in Case 6, non-circular retrogressive failuresurfaces were present.
The time histories recorded by the sensors as well as the sensor locations are shown in Fig. 12. As in Case 6, the advance of
the wetting front is evident from the time history of the pore-waterpressure (Fig. 12(d)), but unlike that case, the wetting front
reached the topmost soil moisture sensor (M4) first, and saturation
started near the top of slope and moved toward the bottom (Fig.
12(c)). Initially, the rise in the volumetric water content was rapid
then became gradual as the ground approached full saturation.
When the volumetric water content at M1 reached θs=0.42 (about
Sr=90%), deformation with maximum surface displacement of
about 3cm was triggered at the toe. Again, only the surficial portion of the slope was involved in the flow. Movement of the target
placed near the toe of slope, obtained by the laser displacement

sensor shown in Fig. 12(b), was consistent with that obtained by
the shear displacement transducer. A more detailed discussion of
the deformation measurements obtained by the laser sensor is presented in a later section.
It is interesting that deformation of the ground did not starteven when the upper (M4) and middle (M3, M2) portions of theslope were almost saturated (Sr>90%). In fact, deformation of theslope began only when there was almost full-saturation near thetoe of the slope. This means that saturation at any point within aslope will not result in slope failure; rather, movement is initiatedonly when the most critical region, in this case the toe of the slope,
becomes saturated. Nevertheless, the high degree of saturation
over the whole slope contributed to the rapid propagation of failure. Fig. 13 shows the deformed configuration of the slope after
the test. Although movement affected almost the entire slope, failure generally involved only the superficial portion of the slope.
The moisture content distribution after slope failure was verified by obtaining soil samples from various locations at the end of
the test. Moisture contents were determined in the laboratory by
the conventional procedure. Although not presented here, the values obtained by sampling clearly agreed with those obtained by the
moisture sensors at the end of the test.
4.1.3 Saturated Zone Distributions
To understand the role of the saturated zone in slope deformation, pore-water pressure heads within the slope (monitored bypore pressure meters installed at the bottom of the box) were calculated and plotted. Distributions of the saturated zone for the slopesin Cases 6 and 7 at the time of slope failure are shown in Fig. 14.

Fig. 12 Time histories of: (a) toe displacement by the shear displacement transducer; (b) target displacement by thelaser displacement sensor; (c) volumetric water content,θs; (d) pore-water pressure (P.W.P.) for Case 7

Fig. 13

(b)

(a)
100

100

Case 6

80

α=40。

32％
60

Elevation（cm）

Elevation（cm）

Photo showing the model slope after the test (Case 7)

Dr=50％
B=60cm

59％
82％

40

95％

fully saturated
zone

20

80
60

Dr=50％
B=30cm

91％
97％

40

94％

fully saturated
zone

20

0

Case 7

α=40。

94％

0
0

50

100
Distance（cm）

Fig. 14

150

200

0

50

100

150

200

Distance（cm）

Distributions of saturated zone at the time of failure: (a) Case 6; (b) Case 7 (seepage tests)

INSTRUMENTED MODEL SLOPE FAILURE

The shaded portions correspond to fully saturated regions within
the model ground whose upper boundaries correspond to piezometric levels. Numbers adjacent to the slope (expressed in percent) represent the Sr as monitored by the soil moisture sensors(shown by black dots) located 5cm below the slope surface. For
Case 7, the water table is almost parallel to the slope, inducing ahigh moisture content over the entire slope. In comparison, theupper portion of the slope in Case 6 is far from the phreatic surface; therefore lower soil moisture contents were recorded at thislocation.
4.2 Rainfall Tests
4.2.1 Case 8
A slope with the Model B type of configuration was used inCase 8. The thickness of the deposit was set at h=20cm. Artificial
rain was sprinkled on top of the slope through a hose positioned
outside the box, with its nozzle directed over the entire exposed
slope surface. The actual rainfall intensity, r, was obtained bymonitoring the rainwater that accumulated at rainfall gauges positioned at the top and at the bottom of the slope. Fig. 15 shows
variation in cumulative rainfall over time at these two locations.
The plots of the data points have almost constant slopes during theduration of the experiment, evidence of constant intensity at eachFig. 15

Accumulated rainfall vs. time upslope anddownslope in the model ground (Case 8)

Fig. 16

Time histories of: (a) toe displacement; (b) volumetric water content, θs; (c) pore-water pressure (P.W.P.) for Case 821location. The upslope registered greater intensity (r=262 mm/h)
than the downslope (r=80 mm/h), however, because it was nearer
the source of rainfall.
Fig. 16 gives the time histories of ground displacement, soil
moisture contents, and pore-water pressures monitored from theonset of rainfall. Fig. 16(b) shows that when infiltrating rainwaterreached the sensor locations (at t=800-900 sec), soil moisture contents at all locations increased simultaneously. Upon reaching values of about θs=0.22-0.25, they remained constant as the wetting
front progressed downward toward the impermeable base. Uponreaching that base, water accumulated and a water table formed(t=2200 sec), specifically in the lower half of the slope, as shownby the increase in pore water pressure (P1, P2, P4) in Fig. 16(c).
The water table continued to rise upward and on reaching the soil
moisture sensor locations, the soil moisture content (at sensors M2,
M3, M4) increased again. Note that the pore-water pressure at theP5 location near the top of the slope did not increase, possibly
because rainwater did not accumulate there but flowed down theslope. Consequently, sensor M5 did not register much of anincrease in soil moisture during the initial phase of the test.
At t=1800 sec, a crack began to appear near the top of theslope (Fig. 17(a)). At t=3500 sec, when the soil moisture sensor
near the toe (M2) registered θs=0.43 (corresponding to Sr=91%),
the slope slowly began to move but stopped 200 sec later. Whenthe volumetric water content near the top (M5) began to increase
however, probably as a result of water infiltrating through thecrack formed adjacent to the sensor, the entire slope suddenly
began to move as a whole. Unfortunately, this movement was not
captured by the shear displacement sensor installed at the slope

Fig. 17(a) Formation of a crack near the top of theslope prior to failure; (b) Photo showing theupslope area undergoing 15 cm displacement

22

R P. ORENSE, S. SHIMOMA, K. MAEDA AND I. TOWHATA

bottom. Video footage, shown in Fig. 17(b), confirmed that theentire slope underwent about 15cm movement.
4.2.2 Case 9
A similar model slope was used in Case 9, except that the
thickness of the ground was set at h=30cm. In addition, the rainfall intensity was decreased to r=42-72 mm/h. Details of therecorded rainfall intensity are given in Fig. 18.
The recorded time histories are shown in Fig. 19. As in Case8, the rise in volumetric water content was a two-step process.

4.2.3 Saturated Zone Distributions
Distributions of the saturated region and moisture content at
the time of failure for Cases 8 and 9 are shown in Fig. 21. As inthe earlier cases, the shaded portions correspond to fully saturated
regions within the model ground as calculated from the pore water

Time histories of: (a) toe displacement; (b) volumetric water content, θs; (c) pore-water pressure (P.W.P.) for Case 9

Fig. 20 Photo showing cracks formed near the toe of the slope

(b)

(a)
100

100

Case 8

80

60％

92％

40

92％
20

h=30cmr=42-72 mm/h

80

100％

60

Case 950％h=20cmr=80-262 mm/h

Elevation（cm）

Fig. 19

Accumulated rainfall vs. time upslope anddownslope in the model ground (Case 9)

Elevation（cm）

Fig. 18

After reaching a value of θs=0.22-0.25, all the soil moisture content readings remained constant, indicative that the rate of infiltration within the model ground was relatively constant. A watertable began to develop near the toe of the slope at t=6000 sec, corresponding to the time the wetting front reached the base. Notethat the time required to develop this water table was longer thanin Case 8 because of the lower rainfall intensity and thicker depth
through which rainwater needed to percolate to reach the base.
The water table formed only near the bottom portion of the base(P1, P2). Rainwater at the top of the slope probably flowed downward, preventing an accumulation of water in the top portion. As
the water table near the toe rose, the wetting front also moved
upward, causing an increase in the volumetric water content near
the surface soil at the slope toe (M2).
At about t=7000 sec, surface cracks perpendicular to thedirection of the slope started to form near the top of the slope, andsmall-scale deformation occurred but soon stopped. When theregion at the toe became saturated (θs=0.42, corresponding to
Sr=90%), as indicated by the M2 sensor reading, water gushed out
near the toe of the slope, triggering failure which propagatedupward. Fig. 20 shows the cracks and small-scale failure on theslope.

58％
60

77％
40

92％

fully saturated
zone

20

fully saturated
zone

0

0
0

50

100
Distance（cm）

Fig. 21

150

200

0

50

100

150

200

Distance（cm）

Distributions of saturated zone at the time of failure: (a) Case 8; (b) Case 9 (rainfall tests)

INSTRUMENTED MODEL SLOPE FAILURE

pressure readings, whereas the numbers (in percent) are thedegrees of saturation as registered by the moisture sensors whose
locations are shown by black dots. In Case 8, the rainfall intensity
was very high (r=262 mm/h), therefore the infiltration rate wasvery fast and a water table was able to form along the sloping
boundary of the impervious base, inducing higher moisture contents in the surficial soil. Moreover, the 20cm thickness of themodel slope allowed easy saturation of the ground. In contrast, therainfall intensity in Case 9 was much lower (r=72 mm/h), and thethickness of the deposit was greater (h=30cm). As a result, rainwater did not accumulate along the slope. Instead it flowed downward. Consequently, only the lower portion of the slope was nearfull saturation at the onset of failure.
4.3 Results for Cases 1-5
As stated earlier, results for Cases 1-3 were reported elsewhere by Orense et al. (2002). In all those tests, the model slopes
were made to fail by seepage of water from the water supply
chamber. Consistent with the similar cases discussed above, slope
failures were initiated by the formation of tension cracks on thelower part of the slope. Thereafter failure propagated to the otherparts of the slope. In general, the failure surfaces formed were thenon-circular retrogressive type. Slope movements within themodel grounds terminated several seconds after the onset of failure. Moreover, ground deformation started only when there wasfull saturation of the upstream portion of the slope, indicative thatfull saturation not only at the toe of the slope, but of a certain
region or zone upslope, precedes failure.
Comparison of the results for Cases 1 and 2, which respectively correspond to slightly steep (α=40°) and mild slopes (α=30°),
showed that, assuming all factors were equal, the ground with agentler slope failed first and more rapidly. This probably was dueto the fact that as the ground water table rose during infiltration,
the wetting front became parallel to the inclination of the mild
slope (Case 2), and most of the ground adjacent to the surface ofthe slope became saturated. This is similar to what happened inCase 7. In contrast, some parts of the slightly steep slope (Case 1)
were not fully saturated. As a result, slope failure occurred at alater time. Note that a more detailed seepage analysis by means offinite element method may be needed to verify this.
In Case 3, in which the model slope was similar to that inCase 1 but with a denser ground condition (Dr=70%), failure
occurred at a much later time compared to Case 1 with loose
ground (Dr=50%). This delayed collapse is attributed to the higher
shear strength and smaller magnitude of the coefficient of permeability associated with dense ground.
An examination of the displacement of surface pins recordedby the video camera was made to investigate in detail the slope
movement in Case 2. Prior to rapid displacement of the surficial
portion of the slope, a minor movement was registered. At thattime, saturation ratios detected by the moisture sensors were very
high (nearly 100%). Movement increased for about 300 sec,
reaching a magnitude of 1cm, after which rapid collapse followed.
In Cases 4-5 however, the model slopes were made to fail by
the seepage of water from artificially-induced rainfall. In Case 4, awater table was not allowed to develop by draining water out ofsmall openings in the upslope section so that a water level of 18cm
was maintained in the water supply chamber. Consequently, no23

large-scale slope failure occurred. Instead, toe erosion caused by
the water accumulated near the toe of the slope resulted in smallscale failure. Note that although failure already had started at thetoe, the weak zone did not propagate to other regions. This isbecause the regions within the potential failure surface were notsaturated enough and still had strength to resist the weight of theslope as well as the seepage forces that had developed. In Case 5,
the small openings in the wall were closed and the water level wasallowed to rise during rainwater infiltration. This resulted in
expansion of the saturated region, and the failure that occurred
near the toe immediately propagated upward as far as the midheight of the slope.
These tests show that slope failure is not induced solely bycontinuous rainwater infiltration. For slope instability to occur, thewater table must rise during infiltration and pore water pressuremust develop. Moreover, when the water table is near the slope
surface, a highly unstable zone develops, most of the time near thetoe, and slope failure may be initiated in that region.
In all the tests performed, slope failures almost always
occurred when soil moisture contents at specific locations
approached saturated values (θs=0.42-0.43, corresponding to
Sr=90-91%) This is similar to observations in Cases 6-9, evidenceof the importance of monitoring changes in soil moisture contents
within a slope as a possible mitigation measure.
5. DISCUSSION
5.1 Mechanism of Failure Initiation
In the series of tests discussed, two processes of rainwater
infiltration for the initiation of slope failure were investigated:seepage of water from the water supply chamber upslope and seepage of water from direct rainfall. In both, failure was induced by
the development of pore-water pressure due to the rise in the waterlevel. Stress measurements were not performed in these tests, but
we conjecture that the saturation process significantly reduced theeffective stress and, consequently, the shear strength of the soil,
specifically near the toe of the slope. This stress change caused by
the hydrologic response initiated the instability of the sandy slope.
The tests also showed that continuous rainwater infiltration
alone does not cause slope failure. Slope instability occurs only
when the water table is allowed to rise during infiltration, andpore-water pressure develops. Moreover, when the water tableapproaches the slope surface, especially near the toe, a highly
unstable zone is developed in that area and slope failure may be
induced. This underscores the necessity of having drainage, suchas gravel drains at the slope toe, to mitigate premature sliding due
to locally high seepage pressure.
Once failure was initiated at the slope toe in the seepage tests,
the unstable zone propagated to other portion of the slope. Whenthe other region within the slope also has a relatively high degreeof saturation (as in Case 7), it is presumed that slope failure is easily induced because of degraded strength of the adjacent groundand that retrogressive failure can occur. In contrast, the experiments using direct rainfall showed that although failure already
was initiated at the toe, it did not propagate rapidly to other regions(Case 8). This is because the regions within the potential failuresurface were not sufficiently saturated and still had enoughstrength to resist the added weight of the slope as well as the seep-

24

R P. ORENSE, S. SHIMOMA, K. MAEDA AND I. TOWHATA

age forces that had developed.
5.2 Impending Slope Failure Warnings
Our test results revealed that there are probable indicative
signs which signify the onset of slope failure during rainfall. All
the tests showed that slope failures almost always are initiatedwhen the soil moisture content in a critical region approaches acertain threshold value; in the case of Omigawa sand aboutθs=0.420.43 (corresponding to Sr=90-91%). These findings complement
the results of the laboratory triaxial tests performed by Farooq etal. (2003), in which initially unsaturated soil specimens were subjected to water infiltration under a constant shear stress drained
condition. Their triaxial test results showed that the soil specimen
deformed slowly (small change in axial strain) during the initial
phase of water infiltration. When a critical degree of saturation
was reached, failure was initiated, and a rapid increase in axial
strain followed. The threshold degree of saturation apparently
depends on the type of soil. The degree of saturation critical for
failure to occur in silty sand (fines content Fc=44%) is 93-95%,
whereas for gravelly soil the threshold is lower, Sr=75-78%.
In the rainfall tests, the rise in soil moisture content was characterized by a two-step process. The first was caused by infiltration of rainwater from the slope surface toward the location of thesensor. This did not fully saturate the soil. In fact, the moisture
content had a more or less constant value as the wetting front propagated toward the bottom of the slope. When it reached the impermeable base, a groundwater table was formed, and rising groundwater induced the second rise in the moisture content, ultimately
leading to failure. Detecting when the second increase in moisture
content would occur therefore provides a reasonable basis for predicting when a slope failure would take place.
Moreover, the rainfall tests in Cases 8 and 9 showed thatcracks are formed in the upper part of the slope before large-scale
deformation occurs. Such tensile cracks formed because of anincrease in the weight of the surface soil and a decrease in strength
at the slip surface due to increased pore water pressure. This isfurther magnified by the seepage forces produced by the flow ofwater near the interface of the impermeable base.
Minute slope deformation, commonly referred to as creep,
also can serve as indicator of impending failure. A number ofstudies on landslides have shown that creep movement in naturalslopes may be the preparatory stage for large-scale rapid slope failure (Terzaghi, 1950; Varnes, 1983; Voight, 1989; Fukuzono,1990). Indeed, creep in slopes can provide adequate warning
before there is catastrophic slope failure. For example,
Punongbayan et al. (2000) reported that several months before theAugust 1999 landslide which buried several houses located on
sloping terrain in Antipolo City, Philippines, cracks formed on thewalls of some houses in the area. Some residents claimed thatwhenever it rained hard, there was sudden cracking of walls andwindows. Other telltale signs of the impending slide (such as progressive cracking of the walls, breaking of windows and bulging offloor pavement) intensified during the height of the intense rainthat began falling four days before the disastrous landslide. Taking
into account the nature of creep as a precursor to landslides, creep
monitoring by crack gages, extensometers, inclinometers and GPSbased systems, has commonly been adopted in conjunction withfield investigations of slope instabilities, as with those that threaten

cultural and historical sites (e.g., Furuya et al., 1997; Sassa et al.,
2000; and Vlcko, 2004).
In our experimental tests, small-scale movement was registered prior to rapid displacement of the surficial portion of a slopeby observing the motion of surface markers with digital video
cameras. The same phenomenon can be observed, although lessdistinctly, in deformation time histories near the toe of a slope(Figs. 10(a), 12(a), 16(a) and 19(a)). When minute deformation
began, volumetric moisture contents detected by moisture sensors
located in critical sections of the slope ranged from θs=0.42-0.43(Sr=90-91%). As water continued to infiltrate the soil profile, thisslow, minor movement was transformed into a more rapid type of
failure.
To expound on this, the results for Case 7 are presented, inwhich the motion of a target installed on the slope surface wasobserved with a laser displacement transducer. The target’s location is shown by the arrow in Fig. 12, and the laser displacementtransducer is positioned upslope of the target (Fig. 6b). Surface
displacement readings obtained by the laser sensor (Fig. 12(b)) areconverted to the equivalent shear strain by considering a 2cm thicksurface soil undergoing uniform straining. The calculated shear
strain time history as well as the soil moisture contents are presented in detail in Fig. 22. The figure shows that when the volumetricwater content in the upper portions of the slope (M4 and M3)
located far enough from the target began to increase (t=600 sec),minor deformation started at the bottom of the slope. Such movement may be associated with downward seepage forces as the wetting front moves from the top to bottom portion of the slope.
Slope deformation continued to increase as water continued to seepin. When the soil moisture content in M1 location reached thethreshold value (t=1300 sec), failure was triggered.
Two possible indicators of impending failure are evident fromthe test results presented here: (a) when the region, judged to be
critical in terms of instability, becomes saturated; and (b) the
detection of cracks or small magnitude of movement. By properly
selecting the region in which moisture contents and displacements
should be monitored, such as in areas where seepage forces may

Fig. 22

Time histories of: (a) volumetric water content,θs; (b) shear strain near the toe calculated fromlaser displacement sensor readings in Case 7

INSTRUMENTED MODEL SLOPE FAILURE

25

develop, it is possible to predict when slope failures will occur.
This involves knowing the temporal rate of the increase in soil
moisture contents in the critical region within the slope and thethreshold saturation ratios at which failure is initiated. In addition
to pore water pressures, careful monitoring of soil moisture contents and slope displacement during rainwater infiltration can provide a basis for designing appropriate warning and alarm systemsof slope failures caused by rainfall.
It is note-worthy that new techniques were used in the tests tomeasure volumetric soil moisture contents and slope deformation.
The ADR-type soil moisture sensor was found to be very reliable
and to provide accurate, stable soil moisture measurements on acontinuous basis when properly calibrated with respect to the target soil. The shear displacement transducer, composed of vertically-arranged panels with accelerometers attached, measures not
only surface displacements but sub-soil deformations as well. The
readings obtained with this transducer correlate well with the
movements of neighboring pin markers as recorded by video cameras. The highly-sensitive laser displacement transducer also provides accurate measurements, especially of minute slope deformations that precede large-scale failure. Although these instruments
were applied to a small-scale model ground, they can be easily
adapted and installed in-situ for actual field monitoring.
As stated, the results presented here were obtained in smallscale model tests under a controlled environment. Validation
through numerical analyses, such as by saturated-unsaturated seepage analysis programs, and in-situ monitoring of actual slopes during rainfall are required to develop a comprehensive warning system based on changes in soil moisture content.

saturation ratios associated with the rise in the water level
were necessary to create highly unstable zones.
(7) In tests in which slopes failed due to seepage of water fromupslope, generally the monitored soil moisture contents
showed continuous increase during infiltration until saturation
was reached. In contrast, in slopes subjected to artificial rainfall, there was a two-step process; an increase associated with
infiltration of water from the surface toward the location of
the sensor, then a second increase caused by the rise in the
groundwater table from the impermeable base.
(8) Minor slope displacements were recorded prior to rapid failure. In some cases, these were accompanied by formation of
cracks upslope.
(9) New techniques to measure volumetric soil moisture contents
and sub-surface soil deformations were introduced in themodel tests. Although applied to small-scale ground, they areeasily adapted for actual field monitoring.
(10) Two possible indicators of impending failure were evident
from the experimental results: saturation of critical regions
within the slope and the formation of cracks or small magnitudes of movement.
(11) The experiments showed that prediction of slope failure initiation is possible by monitoring changes in soil moisture contents and displacements within the slope, in addition to monitoring pore-water pressure. Further studies based on numerical analyses and in-situ monitoring are recommended to verify
this conclusion.

6. CONCLUSIONSThis research was conducted under the auspices of Disaster
Mitigation Engineering for Transport Infrastructures (Endowed
Chair) sponsored by the East Japan Railway (JR-East) Company.
The model tests were performed with the assistance of Messrs. T.
Honda and K. Farooq of the University of Tokyo. Sampling at the
Omigawa landslide site was done with the assistance of Mr. K.
Ono of Civil Works Office, Chiba Prefecture and Dr. Y.
Tsukamoto of Tokyo University of Science. We are deeply grateful to JR-East and the above-mentioned individuals.

A series of laboratory tests were performed on small-scalemodel slopes to investigate onset of failure in sandy slopes causedby rainwater infiltration. Slope failure was induced by increasing
the degree of saturation within the slope through seepage from theupslope section or by direct rainfall. The major findings and conclusions obtained are as follows:(1) Slope failure always occurred when the soil moisture content
within a certain region near the toe of slope became nearly
fully saturated, even if other parts of the sliding mass werestill only partially saturated.
(2) The threshold value of volumetric water content required for
failure to occur in Omigawa sand slope with Dr=50% wasθs=0.42-0.43, corresponding to Sr=90-91%.
(3) Once failure was initiated at the toe of slope, the unstablezone propagated upward to other portions of the slope. Whenthe entire slope was under a high degree of saturation, rapid
propagation of failure occurred.
(4) The failure process involved only the superficial portion of theslope with non-circular retrogressive failure surfaces.
(5) Slopes consisting of dense deposits failed later than those consisting of loose deposits because of their higher strength andlower permeability. The relative density or void ratio therefore can be used to pinpoint critical areas that may have highpotential for failure.
(6) Water infiltration alone was not sufficient to induce instability. Rather, generation of pore-water pressure and increase in

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES
Brand, E. W., J. Premchitt and H. B. Phillipson, 1984. Relationshipbetween rainfall and landslides in Hong Kong. Proceedings, 4 thInternational Symposium on Landslides, Toronto, 377-384.
Chiba Prefecture Civil and River Division, 1972. Report of Disaster in
Chiba due to Autumn Rain Front of September 6-7, 1971 andTyphoon No. 25 (in Japanese).
Farooq, K., R. Orense and I. Towhata, 2003. Response of unsaturated
sandy soils under constant shear stress drained condition, Soils andFoundations, 44 (2), 1-13.
Fukuoka, M., 1980. Landslides associated with rainfall, GeotechnicalEngineering, 11, 1-29.
Fukuzono, T., 1990. Recent studies on time prediction of slope failure,
Landslide News, 4, 9-12.
Furuya, G., K. Sassa, H. Fukuoka, H. Hiura, J. Wang and Q. J. Yang, 2000.
Monitoring of slope deformation in Lishan Landslide, Xi’an, China,
Proceedings, 8th International Symposium on Landslides, Cardiff,

26

R P. ORENSE, S. SHIMOMA, K. MAEDA AND I. TOWHATA

591-596.
Kefeer, D. K., R. C. Wilson, R. K. Mark, E. E. Brabb, W, M. Brown III, S.
D. Ellen, E. L. Harp, G. F. Wieczorek, C. S. Alger and R. S. Zatkin,1987. Real-time landslide warning during heavy rainfall, Science,
238, 921-925.
Kitamura, R., K. Jomoto, K. Yamamoto, T. Terachi, H. Abe and T. Iryo,
1999. Field measurement of suction in soil and rainfall in Kagoshima
Prefecture, Proceedings, 1 st International Symposium on Slope
Stability Engineering, Shikoku, 1, 141-145.
Kousteni, A., R. Hill, N. Dixon and J. Kavanagh, 1999. Acoustic emission
technique for monitoring soil and rock slope instability, Proceedings,
1st International Symposium on Slope Stability Engineering, Shikoku,
1, 151-156.
Muñoz-Carpena, R., 2004. Field devices for monitoring soil water content,
Extension Bulletin 343, Dept. of Agricultural and BiologicalEngineering, University of Florida.
Okada, K. and T. Sugiyama, 2001. Prediction of slope failure by criticalrainfall in railway and its application, Tsuchi-to-Kiso, 49 (7), 22-24(in Japanese).
Orense, R., S. Shimoma, K. Maeda, K. Farooq and I. Towhata, 2002.
Laboratory model tests on rainfall-induced landslides, Proceedings,
International Symposium on Landslide Risk Mitigation and Protectionof Cultural and Natural Heritage, Kyoto, Japan, 61-71.
Punongbayan, R. S, R. A. Arboleda, R. V. Bornas and M. T. Abigania,
2000. The 3 August 1999 Landslide in Antipolo City, Philippines,
Landslide News, 13, 12-15.
Sasahara, K., 2001. Mechanical model for prediction of steep sandy slope
failure due to rainfall using surface displacement, Tsuchi-to-Kiso, 49(7), 13-15 (in Japanese).
Sasaki, Y., K. Tokida, H. Matsumoto, S. Saya and T. Mori, 1991.
Deformation characteristics of eccentrically loaded ground induced bysoil liquefaction, Technical Memorandum No. 3000, Public Works
Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan.
Sassa, K., H. Fukuoka, T. Kamai and H. Shuzui, 2000. Landslide risk at
Inca’s World Heritage in Machu Picchu, Peru, Landslide Risk
Mitigation and Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage,

International Geological Correlation Programme, 1, 1-14.
Shimoma, S., R. Orense, T. Honda, K. Maeda and I. Towhata, 2002. Modeltests on slope failures caused by heavy rainfall, Proceedings,
Interpraevent2002 in the Pacific Rim International Congress,
Nagano, Japan, 2, 547-557.
Terzaghi, K., 1950. Mechanism of landslides, Application of Geology to
Engineering Practice, Berkey Volume, Geological Society ofAmerica, 83-123.
Varnes, D.J., 1983. Time-deformation relations in creep to failure of earthmaterials, Proceedings, 7th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference,
Hong Kong, 2, 107-130.
Vlcko, J., 2004. Extremely slow slope movements influencing the stabilityof Spis Castle, UNESCO site, Landslides, 1 (1), 67-71.
Voight, B., 1989. A relation to describe rate-dependent material failure,
Science, 243, 200-203.
Wijaya, K., T. Nishimura and M. Kato, 2002. Estimation of bulk density ofsoil using amplitude domain reflectometry (ADR) probe,
Proceedings, 17th World Congress of Soil Science, Bangkok, Paper
No. 0385.
Wilson, R. C., J. D. Torikai and S. D. Ellen, 1992. Development of rainfall
warning threshold for debris flows in Honolulu District, Oahu, U. S.
Geological Survey Open-file Report 92-521, Washington, D.C.
Yagi, N. and R. Yatabe, 1987. Prediction method of slope failure in sandy
soil due to rainfall, Proceedings, 8th Asian Regional Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Kyoto, 217-220.
Yokota, S., A. Iwamatsu, R. Imura, K. Matsuyuki and T. Ohkawa, 2000. A
new warning index for debris flows based on rainfall and groundwater
depth, Proceedings, GeoEng2000: An International Conference on
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Melbourne, Paper No.
SNES0481.
Yoshida, Y., J. Kuwano and R. Kuwano, 1991a. Effects of saturation on
shear strength of soils, Soils and Foundations, 31 (1), 181-189.
Yoshida, Y., J. Kuwano and R. Kuwano, 1991b. Rain-induced slope failures caused by reduction in soil strength, Soils and Foundations, 31(4), 187-193.