Awareness Workshop in Aizawl 28/02/12
Strategygy for extendingg sanitation services
by an integrated coverage of on‐site andoff‐site
ff i systems ini Japan

Muneharu HAMADA
Sewageg Works Expertp
Japan Sanitation Consortium1

Human waste (night soil) in cities was a valuable fertilizer 100 year ago
Cities (towns)

Human waste
Agriculturalproducts
Farming villages insuburban areas

Sales amount of human waste in the Cityy ofKyoto was ¥80,000 in 1909 (Equivalent to80% of the city’s tax revenues)

ca. 1900.

2Impact of Cholera outbreaks• The first priority was set to prevent Cholera
outbreak• Water supply was under focus since V. Cholera
isolation by R. Koch (1884).
• Water supply was first developed also inJapan, followed by sewer systems after WorldWar IIII.

3

19

19

19

19

71

66

61

56

51

46

41

36

R
Railwayttransportation ofhuman wastehO
Ocean
dumping
gby ironclad shipp

Establishment of humanwaste disposaal site in Ayasee

1933 1935

19191919

32

27

Establishhment of human waste dumping
gsites at S
Sumida River

1500 1896 1901 1913 1916

191922End off the purchasess of humanwaste01917

Start of domestic production ofammmonium sulfate

300

19600
Start of tthe import ofammonium sulfate

900

1203

1200

1919

Development of chemical fertilizer (ammonium sulfate),
consumption and changes of human waste disposal methods（million ｔ）
1800

1944

(Dictionary of Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility: published by Yokendo, 1980)
4

Pollution and clean‐up of Sumida River IIn Japan,Jlegalll andd iinstitutional
tit til
improvement, in addition totechnological development in the1970s has enabled the rapid increase
1970s,of sewerage coverage, leading to theimprovement of river water quality andurban environments.
Polluted Sumida River in the 1970s

普及率（％）

1009080706050403020100Construction ofsewerage facilities
f iliti

2520 水15105（uality(ppm)）
Water quDiffusion rrate (%)

Diffusion of the sewerage system and change ofwater quality in Sumida River
下水道の普及と隅田川の水質の変化

質
ppm

0

Water
quality (BOD) (Sumida River)
水質(BOD）（隅田川）
Diffusion rate of the sewerage system
下水道処理人口普及率（隅田川）based on population (Sumida River)

Diffusion rate of the sewerage
下水道処理人口普及率（全国）system based on population(nationwide)

Water quality improvement resulted in therestoration of firework displays along Sumida River
5

History of Domestic Wastewater Management in Japan
140120
Night soil treatment plantPopulation， million

100
Individual management

80

Johkasou system

60
Dumping into the sea

40200

P bli Sewerage
PublicSsystem
t

1955

1965

1975

1985

1995

Year

Development of domestic Wastewater management in Japan(1955-2000)
6

Wastewater Law• Local governments are primarily responsible forpublic health and the promotion of a sound city
environment as well as the protection of publicwater bodies.
b di• To ensure water quality,quality local governments havethe responsibility for the planning, construction
and operation of wastewater treatment
systems.
• Rainwater management is also included in local
governments’ responsibilities.
7Changing purposes of sewerage systems
背景
BackgroundPurposesof sewerage
下水道の役割systems

SSewerage
LLaws
下水道法令

Applicable laws
関係法令
and regulations

明治３３年３月

Cholera epidemic,
コレラの流行、浸水問題

Maintaining
the cleanlinessof the areaの保持
土地の清潔的に規定

flooding
Heightened interest in
生活環境への関心の高まり
living environments

Deterioration of water
quality of river and ocean河川や海等の水質の悪化

Healthy developmentof urban areas
都市の健全な発達
Improvement
ofpublichealth
公衆衛生の向上Water quality conservation in
公共用水域の水質保全
public water bodies

Adventofofenergy
energy-saving/gysaving/gAdvent
energy-saving/
省エネ リサイクル社会の到来
省エネ・リサイクル社会の到来
recycling-orientedsociety
recycling-oriented society

Effective use of resources recovered
下水道資源等の有効利用
from sewage

Heightened interest in
潤いのある空間への関心の高まり
pleasant space

Creationof desirable water cycle
望ましい水循環・水環境のand water environment
創出

Growing needs of safety
安全・安心へのニーズの高まり
and peace of mind

Strengthening countermeasures
都市浸水対策の強化
against urban floods

Frequent floods in urban areas
都市型水害の頻発
Sluggish water quality improvement
進まない閉鎖性水域の水質改善
in closedwater areas

広域的な雨水排除
Regional
storm drainage
Promotionof advanced treatment
流域単位での高度処理のat river 推進
basin level

Response
to global warming
地球温暖化への対応
球温暖化
応
Creation
ofarecycling
循環型社会の構築 society

Mar.1900
Old旧下水道法制定
version of Sewerage Law
Enactedaiming at maintaining
・土地の清潔の保持を目
the cleanliness of the area

Changeof the role of a sewerage system
健全な水循環・資源循環を創
to a recycling system
出する「循環出する「循環のみち下水道」
みち 水道
that creates healthy water cycleへの転換
and resources recycling

Dec.1958
New
昭和３３年４月
Sewerage Law Enacted
新下水道法制定

aiming at improving urban
・都市環境の改善、公衆衛
environments
and publichealth生の向上を目的に規定

Dec.1970
昭和４５年１２月
Revised Sewerage Law
下水道改正（公害国会）(Pollution session of theDiet)
Enacted aiming at
・公共用水域の水質保全
water quality conservation inを目的に追加
publicwater bodies

平成８年６月Jun.1996
下水道法改正RevisedSewerage Law

Basic Act for Environmental
公害対策基本法
Pollution Control Aug.1967（昭和４２年８月）

Water Quality Pollution Control
水質汚濁防止法
Act Dec.1970（昭和４５年１２月）

Environmental Basic Act

環境基本法
Nov 1993
Nov.1993（平成５年１１月）*Obligation to make effort to・汚泥処理の努力義務付
treat sludge
・光ファイバー*Optical fiber

平成１５年６月
Jun.2003
Act on Countermeasures against
特定都市河川浸水被害対
Flood
Damage of Specified Rivers
Runningacross Cities was enacted
策法制定*Planning regional flood control
・流域水害対策計画
measures*Requiredrainage
systems to be equipped
・排水設備の貯留浸透機
with storage and infiltration capacities
能の義務付
平成１７年６月
成１７年６月Jun.2005
RevisedSewerage Law
下水道法改正*Regional rainwater sewer
・雨水流域下水道
system・高度処理の推進*Promotionof advanced
wastewater treatment
・事故時の措置の義務付*Obligationgto implementpmeasures at the time ofaccidents

Basic Act on Establishing a
循環型社会形成推
Sound
Material-Cycle
ySocietyy
進基本法
Jun.2000（平成１２年６月）

Enforcement of the Kyoto
京都議定書発効
Protocol Feb.2005（平成１７年２月）

The Third Basic Environmental
第３次環境基本計画
Plan Apr.2006（平成１８年４月）
Securing sound water cycle for・環境保全上健全な水循
environmentalil conservation
i
環の確保

8

Financial system supporting the evolution of sewerage services
IIn viewioff personall benefits,b
fit suchh as flflushh ttoilets,
il t andd public
bli policy
li objectives
bj ti
including water quality conservation of public water area and control of flood, thenational government expenses, local expenditure, and charges have been properly
combined to promote the sewerage service.

建設費の財源構成
Fund composition
for construction costs

Fund composition for
下水道管理費の財源構成
sewerage maintenance costs

例：分流式下水道の管渠の場合
Example: Separate sewer system

例：処理区域内人口密度25～50人／haの地域
Example:Treatment area with the internal population
density of 25 – 50 people/haSubsidy
補助510

4.510

National government
国費
国費
expenses(Governmentalsubsidy)（国庫補助金）（国庫補助金）Stormwater
雨水Independent
単独

Principal and interest
redemption of bondSSewage worksk下水道
construction
下水道事業債
bond
事業債

Sewage works
下水道事業債
下水道事業債
construction
bond

10%

Wastewater
汚水

50%

40%

起債元利償還費
起債
償 費
Local grant tax inclusion ratio
交付税算入率(60%＊0.7＝42%）(60%*0.7= 42%)

Maintenance
cost
維持管理費

Stormwater
雨水

汚水
Wastewater

0.5
10
受益者負担金等
Users’ fee,, etc.

雨水＝公費負担
StormwaterStt 雨水= public
bli 公費負担
expenditure
ditPortion covered by public expenditure for
汚水のうち公費負担部分
Portion covered by the
汚水のうち私費負担部分
wastewater
・分流式下水道等に要する経費
private expenditure for（使用料）‐ Expenditure
required for separate sewer
・高資本費対策に要する経費
wastewater (charge)
system‐ Expenditure to cope with high capital
expenditure99On‐site treatment plantl（ hk（Johkasou））

Treatment plant for ruralareas（Johkasou）

This type of Johkasou canbe used for organic
pollutants removal as wellas nitrogen andphosphorous removal
On‐site treatment plantfor individual houses（J hk（Johkasou））

On‐site treatment plant for black water treatment(Tandoku‐shori johkasou)

Nigght soil treattment
and organnic waste reccycling centeerOn‐site Sanitation Systems (Johkasou)and night soil treatment

Biogasproduction

Compostproduction
Night soil storage tank （Vault toilet）

10

Advantages of On‐site Sanitation Systems (Johkasou)••••

Low initial investment cost, high treatment performance
Little topographic limitation, short installation time and early realizationof the effects
Invaluable contribution to maintaining sufficient water in small rivers andaquatic environments near inhabited areas
Johkasou‐treated water and sludge are easy to reuse
Be flexible enough to respond to population decreaseLess vulnerable to earthquakes and other disasters
1009080
7060
50
4030
20
100Percentage, %••(as of the end of FY 2007)
99.2

88.9

87.1

82.7

75.5
67.6

Sum of major domestic wastewater treatment systems

0.6

6.2

More than 500-1,000
1,000

7.2

96
9.6

300-500

100-300

16.4

13 7
13.7

Johkasou system
50-100Less than50

Size of municipalities, thousand

11Johkasou Law and Service Population• 1983: Johkasou Law, 1985 set into effect.
– Regulating manufacturing, installing, operating andsludge‐disposal of johkasou.

• 1987: National subsidy program for individuals,
100 million yen.
• 1994: Subsidy to municipalities for promotion ofgappei‐johkasou• 2000: Revision of Johkasou Law
Law, banningtandoku‐shori johkasou.
• 2004:2004 NNationalti
l subsidyb id amountedt d 2525.7
7 billion.
billi• 2008: Johkasou serves 11.3 million people, i.e.
8 9% off the8.9%
h totall population.
l i12

Sanitation systems based on careful study of population density and the cost

Conceptual diagram of cost comparisonCappita(Construuction coost +mainteenance cost)

一人当当たりのコススト（建設設費＋維持管管理費）

Equilibriumpoint(Cost comparison must be made from a total view point covering
the construction cost as well as the maintenance cost.)

On‐site treatment proves
区域は個別処理
economical for areas withthinly scattered population

On-site treatment
Off-site treatment
Population density

人口が密集した区域
Off‐site treatment proves
は集合処理が経済的
economical for densely

populated areas※In comparing the cost per person between centralized treatment (sewerage systems, rural sewerage systems, etc.) and individualtreatment (gappei-shori johkasou), there is an equilibrium point, which is determined by the characteristics of the region.

13Conclusion• History of sanitation in Japan: custom of storing– Cause less environmental pollution– From ocean dumping to night soil treatment• Spread of flush toilets: further improvement of living
environments– Sewerage systems cover densely‐populated areas andwork as storm‐water drainage facilities in urban areas– (Tandoku‐shori/gappei‐shori)(T d k h i/i h i) Johkasous
J hkcover thinly‐hi lpopulated areas• Japan’sp
experience:pkeyy to the improvement
pof sanitation– High coverage rate of Japan’s sanitation services wasrealized by an ideal combination of on‐site and off‐site
systems– Financial support– Regulations
gand standards / standardization– Hygiene education
14

Thank you

Thank You for Your Attention

15

Data on sewerage charge• User’s charge per month(average water consumption amount from typicalfamily: 20m3/month)（USD/20m3/month）
year
category
Major
CitiesGeneral
CitiesAverage ofNation

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

14 6
14.6

15 3
15.3

15 9
15.9

16 5
16.5

17 2
17.221.0

22.0

22.7

23.3

24.3

20.9

21.9

22.6

23.2

24.2
16

International charge comparison（USD /20m3/month）

Sewerage

Water
supplySewerage/water supply

Tokyo

16.9

25.8

0.65

Hamburg
g

57.4

32.3

1.78

Berlin

41.8

29.2

1.44

New York

11 3
11.3

71
7.1

1 58
1.58

Paris

13.9

32.4

0.42

London

17.8

18.7

0.95

Researched in December 1994
17