自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 37 特別号 73 -91（2018 ）Humanitarian Aid Driven Recoveryof Housing after Cyclone Aila in
Koyra, Bangladesh: Characterization and Assessment of Outcome
Md. Shibly SADIK1, 2, Hajime NAKAGAWA3, Md. Rezaur RAHMAN4, Rajib SHAW5,
Kenji KAWAIKE6, Gulsan Ara PARVIN7 and Kumiko FUJITA8Humanitarian Aid Driven Recovery of Housing after Cyclone
Aila in Koyra, Bangladesh: Characterization andAssessment of Outcome
Md. Shibly SADIK1,2, Hajime NAKAGAWA3,
5
Md. Rezaur RAHMAN4, Rajib SHAW , Kenji KAWAIKE6,
Gulsan Ara PARVIN7 and Kumiko FUJITA8
Abstract
After cyclone Aila, which caused devastation in Bangladesh in 2009, humanitarianagencies extensively supported the housing recovery with in-situ housing provisions. This
research aimed to characterize the housing recovery measures adopted by the NGOs and local
people in Koyra Upazila of Bangladesh after cyclone Aila and also assessed the outcome of the
housing recovery. The methodology was developed to conduct the research from a perspectiveof peoplesʼ perception and expert opinion. It included focus group discussions, an expert
opinion survey, and an institutional survey. The result shows that NGOs and local people
adopted protective measures only for windstorm and regular tidal ﬂoods ignoring measures
to ensure safety against storm surges. The result also reveals that the recovery measures forhousing were short-term and low to moderately contributing to pre-disaster vulnerability
reduction. The housing recovery curve constructed from peoplesʼ perception indicates a
1

2

3

4

5

Doctoral Student, Dept. of Civil and Ear th Resources
Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan
Junior Specialist, Center for Envir onmental andGeographic Information Services, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Prof., Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI),
Kyoto University, Japan
Prof., IWFM, Bangladesh University of Engineering andTechnology, Bangladesh

6
7
8

73

Prof., Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio
University
Assoc. Prof., DPRI, Kyoto University, Japan
Researcher, DPRI, Kyoto University, Japan
Researcher, Graduate School of Frontier Science, The
University of Tokyo, Japan

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Humanitarian Aid Driven Recovery of Housing after Cyclone Aila in Koyra, Bangladesh

development inheriting pre-existing vulnerabilities. This research is critical of the present
approach of in-situ housing recovery and advocates a land-use-based approach.
Key words：Bangladesh, Cyclone Aila, Housing Reconstruction, Disaster risk reduction, Build back better

1. INTRODUCTION

Alam and Collins 2010), the practice of support-

Housing recover y after a natural disaster is

ing affected communities in the reconstruction

considered as one of the prioritized components inof their houses in Bangladesh has been changed

recovery (NRC and IFRC 2016; Rolnik 2010). This

from the past practices. Earlier, it was limited to

sector is complex and critical due to its links withthe provision of traditional housing materials (e.g.

multi-dimensional issues, which include human

CI sheets, bamboo, etc.). Later, the government

rights and security (Rolnik 2010), pre-existing

adopted a strategy of developing cluster villages

political and social conflicts (Fan 2014), sectoral

for landless disaster-affected families (World Bank

planning and allocation of resources (M. Z. Islam,2014). After the 1991 cyclone, international human-

Kolade, and Kibreab 2018), culture and heritage

itarian organizations and development partners(Lin and Lin 2016), land availability (Murao 2015),

first became involved in housing-related humani-

the supply chain of construction material (Murao

tarian aid (K. Alam 2010). Past housing recovery2015), disaster risk reduction (Mallick and Islam

initiatives of Bangladesh were unsuccessful due to2014), and land-use policies (Faure Walker anda lack of resources, coordination, community par-Anna Crawford 2017; Wen et al., 2017). The build

ticipation and a lack of standards (Beck 2005). In

back better (BBB) approach proposes that thethe absence of national policy on housing recovery

housing recovery should be planned considering

guidance and standards, the humanitarian aid-driv-

safety, security, livelihood, equity, permanent hous-en post-Aila housing recovery in Bangladesh wasing, risk reduction, improving the self-recovery ca-

most mostly influenced by the past practices andpacity of the owner, effective implementation, andexperience of post-Sidr housing recovery (World

monitoring. (Kennedy et al., 2008; Mannakkara andBank 2014). In-situ housing reconstruction with

Wilkinson 2014). In order to achieve a safe and re-limited participation of owners in decision making

silient future as a goal of BBB, the housing recov-

is a new trend that appeared recently after cyclone

ery should follow a long-term, comprehensive andSidr and Aila (K. Alam 2010; Mallick and Islam

integrated approach (Kennedy et al., 2008). The

2014). Several studies have investigated the Aila

number of researches on proposing frameworks

housing recovery from the perspective of commu-

to guide housing recover y towards the goals ofnity participation (K. Alam 2010); designing and

BBB has been increasing with an increasing global

planning (Mallick and Islam 2014); and access tofocus on housing in post-disaster recovery (Taheri

resources to build cyclone resilient houses (M. Z.

Tafti and Tomlinson 2015).

Islam, Kolade, and Kibreab 2018). None of them

The Bangladesh government has prioritizedattempted to evaluate or assess the outcome of the

housing recover y after two recent devastating

housing recovery, which motivated us to conduct

cyclones (cyclone Sidr in 2007 and Aila in 2009)

this research aiming at investigating the housing(K. Alam 2010; Mallick and Islam 2014). With arecovery after cyclone Aila and assessing its out-long history of cyclone disaster and response (E.

come based on the people s perception. Failure (in75

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 37 特別号（2018 ）improving safety from cyclone hazard) of housing
recovery after cyclone Sidr (M. Z. Islam, Kolade,

2. CYCLONE AILA AND THE STUDY
AREA

and Kibreab 2018; Nadiruzzaman and Paul 2013)

Cyclone Aila hit the Bangladesh coast on

further influenced us to conduct this research to

25 May 2009 with a maximum wind intensity ofassess the outcome of the new approach of hous-

65 knots and a 2 m〜 6 m storm surge (Sadik et

ing recovery adopted after cyclone Aila (S. Islamal., 2017). It washed away 243,191 houses and2012; Mallick and Islam 2014). This research

left 370,587 houses partially damaged. Housing

particularly investigated the housing recovery to

was prioritized for recovery. In different affectedcharacterize the implemented measures and toareas, NGOs and development partners (Worldassess the outcome of the recovery from the con-Bank 2014) implemented housing reconstruction

text of “build back better (BBB) (Mannakkara andprograms such as creating disaster resilient habi-

Wilkinson 2014).” Among the diverse aspects andtats, affordable housing, core housing, transitional

attributes of BBB, this research only took safety

shelters, core family shelters etc. Besides, local

into consideration. However, other attributes arepeoples who were not provided housing from thealso discussed in a subjective manner.

NGOs reconstructed their houses by themselves.
Koyra upazila 1） of Khulna district (Fig. 1)

Fig. 1 Map of the study area and FGD villages
1）

Upazila is the third level of administrative unit in Bangladesh. Since it functions as a subunit of a district, it can be defined as a
sub-district.

76

Humanitarian Aid Driven Recovery of Housing after Cyclone Aila in Koyra, Bangladesh

was one of the worst af fected areas by cyclone2017).

Aila (UNDP 2010). It is the most southern upazila
of Khulna, bordered by rivers and Sundarbans

3. 1. 1 Adopting the BBB concept for defin-mangrove forest (Fig. 1). Within Koyra upazila,

ing criteria for characterization

Dakshin Bedkashi union (an administrative sub-The United Nations defined the approach ofunit of an upazila) was one of the most severely

BBB as “the use of the recovery, rehabilitation andaffected areas, which also suffered from prolonged

reconstruction phases after a disaster to increase

inundation due to breaching of polders (earthen

the resilience of nations and communities throughembankment) by the storm surge (Kumar et al.,integrating disaster risk reduction measures into

2010; Roy et al., 2009). This research broadly

the restoration of physical infrastructure and so-

considered Koyra as the study area with a special

cietal systems, and into the revitalization of liveli-

focus on Dakshin Bedkashi to assess the recovery

hoods, economies and the environment (UNISDR

progress. In Dakshin Bedkashi, cyclone Aila and2017). This definition highlights the integration

the induced storm surge killed 33 people, washedof disaster risk reduction in all sectoral recovery

away 3520 houses, partially damaged 1800 houses,

processes to increase resilience. This subjective

and inundated almost the entire union (Kumar etdefinition of BBB can be further explained with theal., 2010). The storm surge overtopped the coastal

BBB framework developed by Mannakkara andembankment, breached it in six places and dam-

Wilkinson (2014) where they describe the BBB

aged 20.55 km of embankment (out of 27.37 km)

with four major attributes: risk reduction, commu-(Koyra Upazila Council 2010). Villages were inun-

nity recovery, implementation, and monitoring. A

dated twice a day by tidal water until the rehabilita-

number of attributes of BBB have been proposedtion of coastal polders in 2013. As a result, housing

by different authors, which include safety, security,

recovery along with the recovery of other sectors

livelihood, risk reduction, vulnerability reduction,

was delayed.

equity, community participation, long-term successfulness, comprehensiveness, and mainstream-

3. METHODOLOGY
3. 1 Methodology for Characterizing Recovery Measures

ing of recovery works in the development process(Clinton 2006; Kennedy et al., 2008; Maly 2018).
Among these diverse attributes of BBB, disaster

A composite methodology involving an insti-

risk reduction and effectiveness as a long-term

tutional survey, expert interview, household ques-measure are two frequent attributes directly relat-tionnaire sur vey and criteria-based mapping ofed to a safer community with enhanced resilience.

recovery measures was developed to characterizeThis safer community is the most important goal

the housing recover y measures. Firstly, imple-of BBB (Clinton 2006; Kennedy et al., 2008; Maly

mented recovery measures were identified by an2018). While defining criteria for characterizing theinstitutional sur vey and literature review, which

housing recovery measures, this research consid-

included cash grants, the provision of housing ma-ered this goal of the safer community. Accordingly,

terials, the provision of transitional houses, and thewe considered two criteria – i) effectiveness as aprovision of permanent housing, in 2016-2017 (Sa-long-term recovery measure, ii) its contribution to

dik et al., 2017, 2018). Thereafter, we attempted todisaster risk reduction.

characterize each measure from the perspective of
BBB (Mannakkara and Wilkinson 2014; UNISDR

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 37 特別号（2018 ）77

3. 1. 2 Characterization techniquesafer shelter for the long-term i.e. >10 years) (Fig.

The first criterion, “the ef fectiveness” of a2).

recover y measure was defined as the degree of

The other criterion, contribution to PAVR,

success to improve their housing as a safe shel-

was assessed by expert judgment. Since the re-ter for the long-term. This degree of success was

duction of pre-disaster vulnerability is a goal ofassessed based on peoplesʼ perception (Fig. 2). A

disaster risk reduction and an important objective

total of 150 households were interviewed in 2017 toof BBB (Clinton 2006; Sadik et al., 2017), this cri-

grasp the beneficiariesʼ judgment on “the degree of

terion represents an attribute of BBB. To measuresuccess” of each housing recovery measure. The

the degree of contribution to PAVR experts wereinter viewees were requested to give their judg-

selected from NGOs that were directly involved

ment on the “degree of success” following a quanti-in the cyclone Aila recovery through a process oftative scale ranging from 0 (not successful at all)institutional survey (Sadik et al., 2018). A total of

to 5 (highly successful to improve the house as a

13 NGOs were identified by the institutional sur-Fig. 2

Methodological steps for characterizing recovery measures

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Humanitarian Aid Driven Recovery of Housing after Cyclone Aila in Koyra, Bangladesh

vey in 2016, among them six (6) were major NGOs
that had implemented large-scale projects in Koyra

3. 2. 1 Administrating FGD and designing thequestionnaire(Sadik et al., 2018). Among these six major NGOs,

This part of the research on assessing recov-

we inter viewed an expert from four NGOs who

er y progress focused on only Dakshin Bedkashi

were directly involved in Aila recovery in Koyra.

union of Koyra. With the aim of collecting peoples

Additionally, we interviewed another international

perception-based data a total of 10 focus groupexpert who also directly involved in research on

discussions (FGD) were conducted at 10 different

Aila recovery in Koyra. These interviews were con-villages of Dakshin Bedkashi (Fig. 1) in 2017-2018.

ducted in 2017. Experts were asked to quantify the

FGDs were conducted at places where a large

degree of contribution to PAVR of each recovery

number of settlements were found in close vicinity.

measure by their judgment following a scoring

The numbers of participants and the male-female

approach (Gain et al., 2015; Giupponi, Giove, andratio are shown in Fig. 3.

Giannini 2013) and using a quantitative scale (Sadik

A structured questionnaire (which was devel-

et al., 2018) ranging from 0 (no contribution) tooped, trialed, and verified with local people before-

5 (significant contribution).

hand) was followed to administer the FGDs. Whileassessing the progress of recovery we considered

3. 1. 3 Mapping of recovery measures

how many houses adopted DRR measures during

Each housing measure was mapped according

reconstruction rather than considering how manyto the two criteria in a matrix (Fig. 2). The matrix

houses have been reconstructed. In coastal areas

represents the characteristics of recover y mea-of Bangladesh, a cyclone event generally possess-sures according to their recovery outcome. Whilees three hazards: cyclonic winds, induced storm

collecting expertsʼ opinions on PAVR and peoplesʼ

surges and flooding due to excessive rainfall (Shahperceptions on the effectiveness of recovery mea-

Alam Khan 2008). Cyclone Aila exceptionally intro-

sures, respondents took both attributes of a mea-

duced a new disaster: repeated tidal inundations

sure and outcome on overall society into account.

due to breached embankments leading to delays

Therefore, this characterization matrix illustrates

in recovery. Therefore, participants of FGD were

the overall outcome of the housing recovery along

asked how many houses were built adopting pro-with a subjective evaluation of recovery measures.

tection measures for: i) cyclonic winds, ii) storm
surges and iii) continued tidal floods in six differ-

3. 2 Assessing Recovery Progress from Peopleʼs Perception
This research was designed to assess therecover y progress based on peoplesʼ perception,
which of fers synthetic data along with a tr ue
insight of the overall context. A similar stakeholdersʼopinion-based approach can be frequently seenin vulnerability assessment (Dutta et al., 2013), scenario development for planning (Dong, Schoups,
and van de Giesen 2013), and resilience assessment studies (Parvin and Shaw 2011).
Fig. 3

Number of participants of FGD

79

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 37 特別号（2018 ）ent time periods (before Aila, immediately after

tidal flooding. Therefore, local people could easily

Aila, 1 year after Aila, 3 years after Aila, 5 years

recall their past livelihood events and situation cor-

after Aila and at present) with the aim of measur-

responding to the year different phases of polder

ing recovery progress towards the safety aspect ofrecovery were completed (e.g. emergency repair,BBB (Fig. 4).

restoration, rehabilitation).

While collecting this time series data, milestone years (Fig. 4) were selected to refer to thecompletion year of different phases of coastal pol-3. 2 .2 Measuring the progress using synthetic data

der recover y (e.g. the completion of emergency

Participants of FGDs were asked to provide

recovery works, the completion of rehabilitation).

perception-based scores following a numeric

Recover y of different sectors including housing

scale as illustrated in Fig. 4. The minimum scoreand economy was dependent on the completion“0” corresponded to “ 0 % houses” and maximumof the recovery of coastal polders (repair, recon-score “5” corresponded to “100%” houses. Thus

struction, and rehabilitation) (Sadik et al., 2018).

the FGD helped to collect time series data of hous-

The recover y of coastal polders was critical foring recover y of the last nine years. Finally, thislocal people because they could not return to theirperception-based score allowed us to construct ahomes and could not initiate house reconstruction

synthetic recovery curve to illustrate the progressuntil the polder was recovered to prevent the dailyof housing recovery up to the present.

Fig. 4 Methodological framework of peoples perception-based approach of measuring recovery

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Humanitarian Aid Driven Recovery of Housing after Cyclone Aila in Koyra, Bangladesh

4. CHARACTERIZATION OF HOUSINGRECOVERY MEASURESor transitional type houses to around 32% families of Dakshin Bedkashi (Fig. 5). Later, around 4%

Cyclone Aila and the induced storm surgesof households received provision of core family

caused long-term continued inundation damage toshelters from UNDP-led Early Recovery Facility

almost 80% of houses (3520 completely destroyed,(ERF) Project (Fig. 5). Village-wise distribution

and 1800 partially damaged) in Dakshin Bedkashiof direct housing support is shown in Fig. 5. While(Kumar et al., 2010). The growth of scattered andselecting beneficiaries NGOs followed a partici-

isolated settlements along the rivers and in low ly-

pator y process maintaining communication withing areas, traditional housing structures, the weakNGO coordination mechanism at upazila.

condition of earthen coastal polders, and the lack

Houses provided by NGOs were of mostlyof risk-based land use policies for housing, were

three types (Table 1). The cost and structural

major vulnerabilities that resulted in devastating

strength of these houses were different (Worlddamage during cyclone Aila (Mallick and Islam

Bank 2014). At the time of selecting eligible candi-

2014; Sadik et al., 2017, 2018; World Bank 2014).

dates (beneficiaries) for receiving emergency or

Cyclone Aila forcefully displaced around 95% of thetransitional shelters, both groups of implement-

total population of Dakshin Bedkashi (Kumar et al.,ing agencies (local NGOs) and local people were2010). People were mostly living on higher roads,

unaware of the coming provision of core family

embankments, and cyclone shelters. To enableshelters. When the provision of core family shelter

self-recovery, the government provided 250 USD(CFS) arrived, local NGOs excluded people who

cash for the affected families, although it reached

had already received other housing provision (i.e.

an average of 68% of households in Dakshin Bed-emergency shelters and transitional shelters )kashi (Fig. 5). Humanitarian organizations initiat-

from the selection process. While providing emer-

ed in-situ housing provision where different NGOs

gency and transitional houses to people theconstructed different types of houses (Table 1).

process failed to address the transition to what

In the first phase, several NGOs (mostly Prodipan,

aspect (Kennedy et al., 2008) of BBB. People who

Caritas and Islamic Relief) provided emergency

had received aemergency and(Source: FGDs in 2017-2018)
Fig. 5Distribution of housing recovery initiatives in Dakshin Bedkashi, source: FGD

transitional

81

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 37 特別号（2018 ）houses could not reconstruct their permanentbankment was open. Thus, these safety measures

houses. Therefore, people who received emer-(Table 1) cannot ensure safety from storm surges

gency shelters or transitional shelters felt un-such as Aila nor even any flood due to breaches tofortunate, and a victim of favoritism and political in-

the embankment by an extreme tide. Despite thefluence compared with beneficiaries who received

weakening of coastal polders (Sadik et al., 2017,

core family shelters. Evidence from the Aceh re-2018), houses have been constructed considering

covery suggest that blind aid (without considering

the coastal polder as a safety measure for storm

social dynamism and the multi-disciplinary nature)

surges. Since these coastal polders can only act as

may create new inequalities and exclusions, whicha first line of defense, which can give a few more

may lead to social conflicts (Fan 2014). Aila recov-

minutes for evacuation (Kibria and Khan 2017), re-ery in Koyra similarly led to social conflict due toconstructed houses are still exposed to storm surg-

the creation of new inequalities in the community

es with similar pre-existing vulnerabilities. Figure

by providing different types of houses to different

6 characterizes the housing recovery where eachpeople. This social conflict was a result of a lack ofrecover y initiative has been mapped in a matrix

an effective mechanism for coordinating recovery

with respect to: i) its contribution to pre-Aila vul-projects and a lack of inadequate consideration

nerability reduction and ii) effectiveness (Fig. 6).

of BBB attributes (i.e. “fairness and equity” andThese two criteria together represent the safety“transition to what”) as suggested by Kennedy etaspects of the BBB as it has been discussed earlieral., (2008).

in the methodology section. The matrix (Fig. 6)

NGOs also organized several training pro-therefore also represents the degree of agreement

grams on how to protect houses from cyclonicof each recovery measure/initiative with the safety

winds. People who were not provided housing byaspect of BBB.

NGOs tried to build houses either following the

The characterization according to PAVR andtraining or design of neighbors houses construct-effectiveness classifies recovery into: i) retreat/ed by NGOs. People decided the plinth level of

new construction reality is required (dark green

their houses on the basis of their own judgment

to light green cells in Fig. 6), ii) struggle to reachon the maximum height of the tidal flood that theynormalcy (yellow to light orange cells in Fig. 6),

observed in the last couple of years when the em-iii) returning to normalcy with PAVR (orange

Table 1

Key features of different types of house constructed by NGOs
Implementing
Agencies

Housing Type

Design Feature

Emergency Shelter

Timber frame, cement stump or timber postwith isolated T-footing for foundation, bamboo Prodipan, Caritas,
mat wall, timber-framed pitch roof with corru- UNDP
gated iron (CI) sheet, earthen plinth and floor

Timber frame, cement stump or timber postwith isolated T-footing for foundation, bamboo
Transitional Shelter mat wall, timber-framed pitch roof with CI sheet, Islamic Relief
ear then plinth and floor with foundations ofbrick masonry

PAVR features (from perception ofexperts and local people)

Protection from a wind storm andthe usual tidal flooding. Replacing
traditional earthen wall to preventthe rapid collapse of houses during
a tidal flood or storm surge.

Protection from wind. The plinth
Reinforced brick column, with foundations of
UNDP (Early Recovery level is above the tidal flood level.
Core Family Shelter brick masonr y, earth filled plinth, mezzanine
Facility Project)
A storm surge might inundate thefloor, metal roof truss,
house but cannot wash away.
Source: (World Bank 2014), FGDs and expert interview

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Humanitarian Aid Driven Recovery of Housing after Cyclone Aila in Koyra, Bangladesh

Fig. 6

Housing recovery characterization matrix showing its agreement with build back better

cells in Fig. 6) and iv) a safer community withThis research considered that the “retreat/new

the attributes of BBB (red cells in Fig. 6). The

construction reality” would appear if recover y

first three types are theoretically similar to recov-

measures were either short-term but contribut-

ery patterns developed from the social context ofed highly to PAVR; or long-term but contributed

Kobe recover y (Tatsuki 2007) where the author

poorly to PAVR. In both cases, the safety goal of

explained three typologies of recovery depending

BBB would not be achieved. In cases where bothon how the society felt about their lives after theef fectiveness and contribution to PAVR would

recover y. The assumption on recover y progress

be moderate or below moderate, the communityand outcomes in the recover y types proposed inwould struggle to reach a level that was normal

this paper are similar to those of Tatsuki (2007).

before the disaster. When both criteria would be83

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 37 特別号（2018 ）Table 2Typologies of recovery developed from the safety aspect of BBB

Terminology
Retreat/new construction reality is required

Struggle for reaching a normalcy

Returning to normalcy with PAVR

A safer community with the attributes of BBB

Definition
When a sector/community at non-functioning or near non-functioning state, whichis performing far below its normal pre-disaster level despite recovery (Kuromiya etal., 2006). The following conditions are in the state-“retreat/new construction reality is required”
・Recovery measures failed to restore pre-disaster normalcy
・People are more vulnerable than before
When a sector/community is struggling to reach normalcy with recovery efforts.
If the following conditions prevail, the status of the sector/community can be referred to as “struggling to reach normalcy”:
・Recovery measures did not adequately consider DRR People are living in similar conditions to those pre-disaster or higher than pre-disaster vulnerability.
When a sector/community has reached normalcy (pre-disaster status) or is evidently showing a trend toward reaching normalcy with recovery efforts (Kuromiya
et al., 2006). If the following conditions prevail, the status of the sector/community
can be referred to as “returning to normalcy with PAVR”:
・With recovery efforts the sector has been (or will soon be) performing as it
had been before the disaster・Recovery measures moderately addressed disaster risk reduction (pre-disaster
vulnerabilities)
・People are living in conditions similar to those pre-disaster with less vulnerability
When a sector/communityʼs recovery efforts have established a new normalcy
ensuring DRR and effective implementation of long-term measures to eliminate
pre-disaster vulnerabilities. (This is an adoption of the BBB concept as defined by
the UN (UNISDR 2017) and explained by the BBB framework (Mannakkara andWilkinson 2014)). More details about the adoption are presented in Section 3.1.
If the following conditions prevail, the status of the sector/community can be referred as “a safer community with the attributes of BBB”:
・A new normalcy ensuring disaster risk reduction has been established・The sectoral condition is improved compared to the pre-disaster time・People are living in a safer community

better than moderate, the resulted recovery would

shrimp farmers, lack of community participation,

be in a process to returning to normalcy inherit-

land zoning to regulate unsustainable growth ofing PAVR. However, the goal of BBB would only

shrimp farming etc.) (Sadik et al., 2018). Conse-be achieved when recover y measures would bequently, the polder was weakened again and failed

long-term and significantly contribute to PAVR.

to prevent tidal floods in recent years. Similarly,

A further description of the recover y categories

most of the NGOs-provided transitional houses

is provided in Table 2. The mapping of housing

and self-constructed houses are becoming weaker,

recovery measures of Koyra (Fig. 6) shows thatand peoples capacity for regular maintenance andthe recovery matches the condition of struggle torehabilitation is limited. Therefore, the housing

meaning class. The housing recovery initiatives

recovery has placed the community in a conditionso far implemented were of short-term to mid-term

where pre-existing vulnerabilities are prevailing.

and low̶moderately contributing to PAVR. The

The goal of BBB has not yet been achieved. This

coastal polder (which is directly linked with theresearch further investigated the outcome of theprotection of settlements from tidal flood) has been

recovery by the direct approach of measuring, byrehabilitated to the pre-disaster condition without

peopleʼs perception.

resolving the root causes of pre-Aila vulnerabilities(e.g. unsustainable growth of saline water shrimp
farming, illegal breaching of embankments by

84

Humanitarian Aid Driven Recovery of Housing after Cyclone Aila in Koyra, Bangladesh

5. MEASURING THE PROGRESS OFRECOVERY

to its earlier condition and NGOs (with funding
from development partners) could start construct-

Figure 7 illustrates the synthetic recovery re-ing in-situ transitional shelters and emergency

curves constructed from peoples perceptions. Cy-

shelters (with cost recovery from beneficiaries).

clone Aila caused damage to almost all houses in

While constructing those houses, NGOs adopted

Dakshin Bedkashi. Only 10-15% people in Dakshin

protective measures against cyclonic winds andBedkashi could reconstruct their houses in the 1

tidal floods. People who constructed their houses

year after Aila. People started reconstructing theirby themselves tried to follow that practice to somehousing when the Bangladesh Water Development

extent. In 2013, under the ERF project, core fami-

Board (BWDB) (a government organization) in-ly shelter type in-situ houses (see Table 1 for de-stalled emergency countermeasures for coastal

scription) were provided to 265 families (UNDP etembankment recovery. However, the attempts toal., 2013). In between 2013 to 2015, the rest (aroundclose all openings of the embankment were not40%) of the people reconstructed their houses.

successful. NGOs extended their help by con-Figure 7 shows a slight improvement in threestructing temporar y ring dikes around the deep

criteria at the present time. The trend of improve-inundated areas and embankment openings, which

ment started one year after Aila and it returned tosomewhat controlled tidal flooding in some areas.

the pre-disaster level five years after Aila. Thereaf-

Thereafter, people started reconstructing houses inter, with a little improvement, it settled. However,those controlled flooding areas. By 2012, only 50%

the number of houses protected from windstormof people could reconstruct their houses. Finally,

was an exception. It showed a remarkable improve-in 2010-2013, BWDB recovered the embankment

ment and it returned to the pre-disaster condition

Note: housing recovery scores are a number that defines the level of recovery. “0”＝0 houses, “1” ＝20% houses,“2”＝40% houses, “3”＝60% houses, “4”＝80% houses and “5”＝100% houses. The graphs have been constructedby the average of scores received from 10 FGDs.
Fig. 7

Progress of housing recovery

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 37 特別号（2018 ）85

three years after Aila and reached its highest level

were found to be somewhat effective in preventing

five years after Aila. However, after five years, it

low-intensity storm surges during weak cyclone

showed a slight downward trend. Local people

events (Shah Alam Khan 2008). Following a cy-

mentioned that houses that had been reconstruct-clone event in 1985, under a foreign-aided projected earlier including those provided by NGOs

entitled cyclone protection project II, the BWDB

(except CFS) were becoming weaker due to a lackstar ted considering rehabilitation of damagedof maintenance and the expiring lifetime of someembankments across coastal areas, claiming theyhousing materials. Specially, houses made with CI

played a structural role in preventing storm-surges.

sheets were weakening faster due to salinity (ac-

Meanwhile, the government took other initiatives

cording to local people).

of coastal afforestation, constructing multi-purpose

Although there are general signs of return-cyclone shelters, developing a vast network of

ing to a better condition than before, the goal ofvolunteers to facilitate evacuation, raising commu-

BBB (i.e. a safer houses against cyclone hazards

nity awareness, and improving dissemination ofincluding storm surges) has not yet been achieved.

cyclone warnings, which improved the countryʼsSpecially, the safety aspects of BBB i.e. adoption of

performance in saving human lives during cyclone

structural measures for improving safety (of hous-

event (Haque et al., 2012; Shah Alam Khan 2008).

ing) against cyclone hazards including storm surg-

However, with the success in saving human lives,es, long-term effectiveness of measures, etc. are

BWDBʼs claim that earthen coastal polders are

insufficient. The root causes of the housing-related

highly effective in preventing storm surges be-vulnerabilities i.e. absence of a risk-based land-use

came more widely accepted. Local people started

policy for housing, weak housing structure, ab-believing coastal polders to be a strong measure tosence of safety measures for storm surges, growth

prevent storm surges. Moreover, BWDB recentlyof isolated housing in vulnerable areas, etc. (Sadik

initiated another project for rehabilitating coastal

et al., 2018) still prevail.

polders considering increasing tide levels and climate complexity due to the changing climate and6. OUTCOME OF HOUSING RECOVERY: FROM THE SAFETY ASPECT
OF BBBjustified the project on coastal polders as a protec-

6. 1 The Fuzziness of Risk Perception due

tu housing provision for Aila affected families, ERF

to the Role of Coastal Polders

tive measure for storm surges in the project document (World Bank 2017). While constructing in-sialso considered coastal polders (to be constructedWith the trend of constructing coastal polders

by BWDB) to be structural measures against storm

in 1961̶late 1970s, peripheral earthen embank-surges. On the other hand, the national disasterments along rivers in coastal areas, coastal polder

management plan of 2010-2015 (DMB-MFDM

No. 14/1 was constructed in Dakshin Bedkashi of2010) and the new draft national plan for disaster

Koyra in 1967 to 1970 as a protection against highmanagement (2016-2021) (MoDMR 2017) avoided

tides (CEIP-I 2012; Shah Alam Khan 2008; van Stav-the issue of coastal polders. Thus the true role oferen, Warner, and Shah Alam Khan 2017). At thecoastal polders in managing cyclone disaster is un-time of constructing coastal polders, the objective

clear. These coastal polders can act as a first line of

was to prevent salinity intrusion and flooding due

defense and can slow down the intrusion of a surge

to high tides. Those polders were not constructedin protected areas (Kibria and Khan 2017). But

to prevent storm surges. However, those polders

perceiving it as a savior may give a false sense of

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Humanitarian Aid Driven Recovery of Housing after Cyclone Aila in Koyra, Bangladesh

security and affect the evacuation behavior during

their houses. When 20.55 km of embankment wasa disaster event (Paul and Dutt 2010). The role ofdamaged (including 6 large openings) (Koyra Up-

coastal polders should be clearly mentioned in pol-azila Council 2010) by Aila, and the rehabilitation

icies, plans and especially in polder recovery plans.

work was delayed, the tide continued to inundate

The implementing agency of polder rehabilitation

the area twice a day for almost four years. Which,should also clearly explain the possible function of

influenced the people and NGOs to raise the plinth

coastal polders at the time of storm surges to thelevel of houses above that usual tidal inundation

local people.

level. People believe that replacing the earthen wallwith either a bamboo or wooden frame or CI sheet

6. 2 Insufficient DRR Measures for Housing
Improvement

would prevent their houses suddenly collapsing
during inundation by surge water. People living in

Table 3 compares the present scenario of

remote coastal areas such as Koyra practiced tradi-

adopting DRR measures in housing reconstruction

tional safety measures e.g. raising the plinth level,with the situation before Aila. Before Aila, almostchanging the orientation of the house, roof fitting,

90% of houses were built by ear then walls andand adding corner bracing(Hossain et al., 2008).

thatched roofs (by Nypa Palm). When the induced

In the Aila recovery, these perceptions of possible

storm surge over topped and breached the em-

DRR measures were not only inherited throughbankment, it flooded the entire area and left almost

indigenous knowledge, people also followed the

80% of houses in Dakshin Bedkashi damaged (3520housing construction techniques of NGOs (Table

completely destroyed and 1800 partially damaged).

1). However, the performance of these DRR mea-

When the surge water flooded the houses, thesures (Table 3) during a real disaster situation isearthen walls collapsed. The thatched roofs of most

unknown and have rarely been scientifically eval-of the houses were also blown away by the cyclonic

uated. The function of these improvements, e.g.

winds. Therefore, during housing reconstruction,

replacing thatched roofs with CI sheets, is also un-

local people perceived that replacing the earthencertain and controversial. CI sheets, may become

walls and thatched roofs of their housing would

health hazards if they are blown away by cyclonic

reduce their risk. Another important DRR measurewinds (Nadiruzzaman and Paul 2013).

that people adopted was to raise the plinth level ofTable 3

Local people who did not receive housing pro-

Adoption of DRR measures for housing improvement

DRR Measure

Perceived Functions

Before Aila

Present Day

<1%

<1%

% of houses built above the usual flood level

Protection from tidal flooding during spring and neap
during the post-cyclone period tide (if the embankmentis extensively damaged by storm surge)

60%-70%70%-80%% houses with an earthen wall

Prevent rapid collapse of houses during inundation bya storm surge or tidal flooding>90%

Around 10%% houses with a thatched roof

% of houses built above the surge level of Aila Protected from a storm surge like Aila

Protection from heavy rain and strong winds>90%

Around 10%% houses with a special technique for roof
Protection from heavy winds/cyclonic winds
fitting<10%

50%-70%% houses with concrete pillar / isolated conProtection from cyclonic winds/heavy winds
crete T-footing<10%

40%-60%Note: all the data and information provided in the table were collected by FGDs. The functions of the DRR measures mentioned in
the table were also perceived by local people during FGD, which were not possible to validate by engineering experiment or survey.

87

自然災害科学 J. JSNDS 37 特別号（2018 ）vision from NGOs constructed their houses either

recovery should be well connected with the recon-by themselves or by hiring local laborers and car-struction of roads, infrastructure, cyclone shelters,

penters. None of them had any institutional train-

and coastal polders. Thus, the in-situ housing re-ing in house construction. Therefore, uncertainty

construction without those connections would end

about the proper installation of DRR measures andup inheriting pre-existing vulnerabilities, which intheir desired function at the time of disaster re-fact happened in the Aila recovery case in Dakshin

mains. Moreover, the local people do not know theBedkashi. For a developing countr y like Bangla-

maximum wind speed that is safe for the housing

desh, ensuring the connection of roads, cyclone

type. Hence, there is a chance of appearing false

shelters, infrastructure, etc. to each house; and thesense of security in peoplesʼ mind that would influ-

safety of each house are difficult. The growth ofence them to stay at home and reluctant to heed

isolated settlements after Aila further challenged

cyclone warnings. Ultimately, people may decidedisaster management practices (M. Z. Islam, Ko-

not to evacuate. Although some DRR measureslade, and Kibreab 2018). The north-eastern part ofagainst the cyclonic wind and tidal flood (Table

Bangladesh faces a similar situation due to deep

3) have been implemented, housing safety mea-

monsoon flooding and people traditionally devel-sures (e.g. risk-based land-use-based planning for

oped their villages on elevated lands (BHWDP andhousing, resilient infrastructure, a buffer zone for

CEGIS 2012). This practice looks promising for thestoring surge water) for storm surges have seldom

coastal area as well. It would be easier to ensure

been adopted.

protection of a small village developed on a higher
platform rather than ensuring protection to each

6. 3 Land use-based Disaster Management

scattered settlement on low lying areas. In such

Plans and Practices, A Missing Link

case, when a storm surge would strike the area,

Hazard-based land use planning is one of

agricultural lands would be flooded but villages on

the six basic principles of BBB as proposed byelevated land would be flood free. Although hous-

Mannakkara and Wilkinson (2014) in their BBB

ing relocation is the greatest challenge for imple-

framework. Along with the principle- improvement

menting such concept in coastal areas, a post-disas-of structural design, land-use planning shapes theter recovery could be considered an opportunity torisk reduction aspects of the BBB (Mannakkara

initiate such relocation. Relocation of settlements

and Wilkinson 2014). One of the critical sources

to a safer area following a new hazard-based landof housing-related vulnerabilities in Koyra before

use planning was a key principle in the Great East

cyclone Aila was the absence of risk-based land use

Japan earthquake recover y (Nakabayashi 2014)

planning for housing (E. Alam and Collins 2010;

and typhoon Morakot recover y in Taiwan (WenMallick and Islam 2014; Sadik et al., 2017, 2018).

et al., 2017). Unfortunately, such opportunity was

Unfortunately, such land use planning ensur-

not taken in Aila recovery. Hazard-based land use

ing no growth of settlement in highly vulnerable

planning for housing is a missing link in the Aila

areas was not considered in Aila recovery. In-situ

recovery in Koyra.

reconstruction of houses was the core of housing
recover y in Koyra, which did not take any loca-

7. CONCLUDING REMARKS

tion-specific vulnerabilities into account. Rising ofThis research characterized the implemented

the plinth level (to a high tide level) only cannot

housing recover y measures in Koyra from theensure safety from a storm surge. The housing

safety perspective of BBB and assessed the out-

88

Humanitarian Aid Driven Recovery of Housing after Cyclone Aila in Koyra, Bangladesh

come of the housing recovery. Characterization oforative research project (SATREP) between thethe housing recovery revealed that recovery initia-

Bangladesh and Japanese governments, whichtives were mostly successful for the short to mid-

was funded by JST and JICA. The first author ofterm period. Those measures low to moderately

this article was a recipient of a Japan Government

contributed to PAVR. This research concludes that

Scholarship (MEXT). The authors express theirfrom the safety perspective of BBB, the overallsincere thanks and appreciation to the funding

recover y resembles the pattern of struggle toagencies and the SATREPs members. The authors

reach normalcy, which indicates the adoption ofalso express their gratitude to the local people ofeffective DRR measures for a successful recovery

Koyra for giving their valuable time and support

towards safer housing is yet to be achieved. Thisduring the conduct of the survey.

research also found signs of social conflict createdby the humanitarian aid driven housing recovery.

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（投 稿 受 理：平成30年 4 月 6 日
訂正稿受理：平成30年 7 月 4 日）

旨2009年にバングラデシュを直撃したサイクロンアイラは多くの被害をもたらし，人道的組織
により，現地の住宅規定に基づいた住宅再建支援が大々的に行われた。本研究はサイクロンア
イラの被災地コイラ郡において，NGO や現地被災者による住宅復興方法の特性を明らかにし，その結果を被災者の認識と専門家の意見に基づいて評価した。具体的には被災者とのグループ
ディスカッション（Focus group discussion），専門家への聞き取りと，制度の調査を行った。その結果，NGO と被災者は高潮による洪水に配慮せず，暴風と通常の潮汐による洪水のみを考慮
した安全対策をとっていたことが明らかとなった。また住宅再建にかける時間は短く，災害前の脆弱性を低度から中度ほど軽減する程度であった。被災者の認識に基づいて作成された住宅
復興カーブは，災害前の脆弱性を引き継いでいることを示していた。これらのことより，本研
究は現在の住宅復興のあり方に一石を投じ，土地利用を基にした住宅復興方法を提案する。