Public Transport Provisionin Rural and Sparsely Populated
Areas in Norway

08

Discussion Paper 2015• 08
Merethe Dotterud Leiren
and Kåre Skollerud

Institute of Transport Economics,
Oslo, Norway

Public Transport Provision in Rural andSparsely Populated Areas in Norway

Discussion Paper No. 2015-08

Merethe DOTTERUD LEIRENKåre SKOLLERUD
Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo, Norway

March 2015

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PUBLIC TRANSPORT PROVISION IN RURAL AND SPARSERLY POPULATED AREAS IN NORWAY

Table of contents

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 4
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................... 4
2. Public Transport in Norway ..................................................................................................... 5
3. Demand Responsive Transport ................................................................................................ 6
Popularity among Travellers...................................................................................................... 7
4. Coordination of Special Transport Services ............................................................................. 8
Organisation of Special Transport Services............................................................................... 9
Utilisation of vehicles and potential savings ........................................................................... 10
The Market of the Transport Providers.................................................................................... 12
User Needs and Political Considerations ................................................................................. 12
5. Summary ................................................................................................................................ 13
References ................................................................................................................................... 13

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1. Introduction

Norway and Finland share several commonalities, being Nordic democracies with a population of
5.1 and 5.5 million and large rural areas. With decreasing population in rural areas, given aging andstructural changes in society, both countries face challenges in trying to keep the costs of passenger
transport services down while ensuring an adequate standard of service nationwide. Grappling withsimilar issues, experiences and information about different policies in Norway may provide useful
information to the Finnish Government. This contribution therefore provides some insights into public
transport provision in rural and depopulated areas in Norway, how the public authorities haveattempted to solve efficiency issues while maintaining good quality services and related experiences
sparsely populated rural areas. It includes aspects concerning the market of transport providers, userneeds and political barriers of reform.
In both Finland and Norway there are many different authorities that are responsible for theadministration, procurement and planning of various passenger transport services. In both countries
there are concerns with increasing costs and certain public authorities are interested in using
coordination among different organisations in order to exploit potential savings, while retaining anadequate level of public services, also in rural areas. This working document includes references toDenmark, as certain Danish municipalities have coordinated their special transport services to a larger
extent than in for example Norway.
The roadmap is as follows. First, we give an overall introduction to public transport in Norway.
Second, we introduce the concept of demand responsive transport, giving different examples andaddressing the popularity among travellers. Third, we describe the possibilities and barriers tocoordination of special public transport services, including how different services are organised,utilisation of vehicles and potential savings as well as user needs and political considerations.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank our contact person in OECD, Jari Kauppila, for information about thesituation in Finland and constructive discussions via telephone. We are also grateful to our colleagues,
Julie Runde Krogstad and Jørgen Aarhaug, for their contributions in particular in the project
Integration of special passenger transportation services in Akershus and Oslo (Leiren et al 2014),
where much of the data used in this working paper has been collected. We would also like to thank
Frode Longva, who has ensured the quality of this work.

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2. Public Transport in Norway

Public passenger transport services are important for the welfare of citizens and the environment.
However, given large areas with dispersed population in Norway, ordinary local public transport
services are lacking or even non-existing in many rural areas. In such areas the only existing public
transport service is school transport, other special transport services and taxi services.
The regional level (i.e. counties) is responsible for the provision of local public transport in
Norway, primarily bus, but also boat, tram and metro services. Taxis are private. The national
government is responsible for the provision of railway services. Special transport services are in thehands of different political authorities (see part 3). There is also a commercial bus market for express
coaches and flight buses. In certain rural areas such express coaches play an important role as a local
transport service. Sometimes counties therefore subsidise such express coach companies to provide
local fares for local travels (Leiren et al 2007; Aarhaug, Christiansen & Fearnley 2011).
Norway is a member of the European Economic Area and is therefore obliged to implement
European Union law. The Norwegian government has transposed the EU procurement regulations andthe Public Service Obligations for Public Passenger Transport Regulation into national law. Today alarge majority of the regional authorities use competitive tendering when awarding contracts for local
public transport services. There has been a shift from net cost contracts to gross cost contracts,
meaning that the responsibilities for planning of services and income have been moved from theoperating companies to the public authorities (Longva & Osland 2010). At the same time, there has
been an increase in public transport agencies, which carry out planning and procuring on behalf of theregional public transport authorities. 10 out of 19 regional authorities have established such quasiautonomous agencies (Leiren forthcoming).
The counties receive government transfers that they use to finance local public transport services.
The amount of subsidies to finance public transport varies from county to county. In the capital urban
area, which is the biggest urban area in Norway, public funding was about 44 per cent, while fares
represented about 56 per cent of the public transport company’s revenues in 2012 (Ruter 2012). In
contrast to this, the county of Hedmark, a county characterised by rural areas and where schooltransport imposes the largest costs, public funding came to about 90 per cent of the public transportcompanies’ revenues in 2013, while the fares amounted to about 10 per cent (Hedmark Trafikk 2013).
Public transport in rural areas is costly because of long distances and few passengers. In contrast tourban areas, where the aim is to create a shift from private car to public transport in order to reduce
congestion, environmental pollution and climate gas emissions, public transport services in rural areas
is primarily a service to people who do not have access to private car transport.
In order to strengthen the public transport services in rural areas, the national government
introduced the grant ‘Public transport in rural areas’ in 2007. The aim is to contribute with solutions
that may improve public transport services in rural areas through more effective coordination of
resources and means. Counties implement projects with a 50 percent deductible, so that state support
comes as an addition to and not a substitute for funds from the regional authorities. The aim is toimplement measures at selected locations and routes to achieve a substantial strengthening of public

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transport services to passengers in rural areas. The measures should be transferable to other areas. The
Ministry of Transport and Communications put great emphasis on dissemination of experience andknowledge. A part of the allocated funds goes to mediation seminars and consultancy.
To make public transport services in rural areas more efficient and improved, possibilities tocoordinate special transport services have been discussed (Ministry of Health and Care Services 2008).
However, the different responsibilities and administrative boundaries create barriers for such
coordination. Another challenge is to maintain taxi services in rural areas. Given unfavourable
working hours and low demand of commercial taxi services, services are decreasing in certain rural
areas (Longva et al 2010). This may create certain issues when designing procurements, if the aim isto ensure a certain level of taxi services in such areas.

3. Demand Responsive Transport

In 2007 the Norwegian government launched a political package containing financial means fordeveloping new systems for public transport in rural districts in Norway. As a response to this,different models of demand-responsive services were developed for some sparsely populated areas in
Norway. The services are different when it comes to target groups, frequency and flexibility, but all ofthem require that the travellers make a request for the service by phone at minimum two hours inadvance.
One example of such demand-responsive service is situated in the south-eastern part of Norway(Østfold). In addition to the regular express bus from the municipality centre to some major cities
more than 25 km away, the inhabitants of the more sparsely populated areas have access to a local
demand-responsive service. Initially the services were restricted to people of old age and co-travellers
exclusively, but after a certain time the transport authorities opened the services for all users.
The service offers two different routes: One serves the northern part of the area three days a week,
while the other serves the southern part on the two other days. Even if the service has specified routes,
it is possible for the passengers to be picked up at home up to two kilometres away from the specified
route.
There are two departures on each of the service days. The services go in a circle and start and end
in the centre of the municipality. The first departure is at about 10 o’clock, i.e. after the schooltransport is finished in the morning. The second service runs about 3 hours later. This schedule makes
it possible to carry out errands in the municipality centre. If nobody demands the service at least twohours in advance of the scheduled departure, there will be no trip. Depending on the number ofpassengers and their special needs (for example, due to wheelchair) the lines will be serviced byminibuses or regular taxis, owned and administrated by the local taxi central. The service was meant toreplace the traditional support for transport for people with special needs (i.e. a yearly amount fromthe county), subsidising the use of taxi.
Another model for demand-responsive services was developed for a sparsely populated andgeographically large municipality in the eastern part of Norway (Hedmark). The public authorities
introduced it as a new public transport concept with departures from the municipality centre every
hour, if requested at least two hours in advance. The service has fixed ‘us’ stops and is supposed topick up or deliver passengers only at these stops. However, from time to time informal solutions are

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made. Maps illustrate the bus stops, but there is no route schedule. The passengers have to be at thebus stop at the time that planners tell them that the service will leave. The planners work in a planningcentre that is common for all the municipalities in a greater area.
Regular taxis service the lines. As the stops are fixed, the service is not intended to replace
services for people with special needs. The structure of the time schedule is based on the time ofdeparture from and arrivals to the municipality centre: Every route starts from and arrives at themunicipality centre half past every hour. The operating time is between seven o’clock in the morningand ten o’clock in the evening on workdays and between nine and 19 o’clock on weekends. From thecentre, it is possible to change to railway and express bus services for trips that cross the border of themunicipality. The fares are regular and equal to ordinary public transport tickets.
Initially the public transport authorities developed the two mentioned models partly as a responseto the opportunity of getting extraordinary funding from the national government as part of the ‘Public
transport in rural areas’ programme. These grants are no longer given and in the aftermath, the twomodels have taken different paths: While the first concept has been developed further andimplemented also in other areas in the county, the future of the second concept is more uncertain. The
public procurement agency considers the service as being too expensive. Therefore the company
hesitates in continuing the level of services without achieving alternative sources of financing.
Currently the county is collecting more information about the number of users and costs and isconsidering new innovative models as to how to organise public transport services in rural areas.

Popularity among Travellers
Evidence from areas where the public transport authorities have removed ordinary bus services
and replaced them by demand responsive transport services, shows that such new demand responsive
transport solutions are popular among the users. Studies of such a pilot, the service “Half past” in themunicipality of Tolga in the County of Hedmark, provides insights into how users experience suchservices (Skollerud 2012). Key user groups are young people and people of older age without adriver's license.
An important characteristic of the typical user is that he or she does not own a car or does not havea driving licence. Access to a car is a more important factor for using the service than the generalactivity level or age. It is interesting that in particular parents greatly value such transport services, as
it relieves them from having to drive their children to activities. Citizens who live outside themunicipality centre use the transport service to a greater extent, but also citizens in the municipality
centre take advantage of the services. The youngest travellers (between 12 and 18 years old) are
diligent users of the service, when going to sports or visiting friends and relatives who do not live in
the neighbourhood. Sports teams have adapted their schedules to fit with the transport offer. In
contrast to the younger users, people of older age use the service “Half past” in the morning, whengoing to meetings, treatments or shopping. This group also uses the service in the evenings, forexample, when going to senior dances and other events. The association for elderly people arrange
walks in the woods by making use of the services.
The first model described in “Popularity among Travellers” has been studied with regard to the use
by elderly people. Major findings were that those who had travelled with this new model for public
transport were satisfied with the services offered, especially the possibility to be transported all theway from and to their own front door. The impression from the qualitative study was that the purpose
for travelling was to a high degree restricted to special errands in the municipality centre, like visiting
the bank, doctors or public offices. If possible, shopping food and other things were mostly organisedin other ways due to special needs like assistance in the shops and help with the carrying the goods
from the grocery to the vehicle.

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In contrast to this “special errands” situation found in the first model, the impression from thestudy of the “Half Past” (the second) model was that here the public transport services were an
integrated part in the organisation of family life, at least when it comes to families with children. One
expression for this is the enthusiastic support to the model given from parents interviewed in the study,
even if they did not this services themselves. In general, people of older age living in rural areas areconcerned with how to be able to maintain their level of activity when they no longer can drive a car(Hjorthol et al 2009). A study by Hjorthol et al (2009) suggests that there are particularly two services
that they would like to have: a ‘trade route’ going to the city centre in the morning and an ‘evening’route, which makes it possible to attend meetings and evening events (Hjorthol et al 2009: 54).
Moreover, a survey focusing on transport solutions for people of older age in rural areas suggestthat the amount of subsidies that the people of older age get as part of the transport service for people
with disabilities, is small compared to their actual transport needs (Hjorthol et al 2009). Almost every
respondent answered that he or she supplements such public services with regular taxi services andother private transportation (for example, as provided by family or friends).

4. Coordination of Special Transport Services

In addition to the mentioned ‘Public transport in rural areas’ scheme, there are suggestions ofincreased coordination of special transport services. The idea is, firstly, to coordinate different typesof transport services that are in the hands of different public authorities. This may contribute to a more
efficient use of the vehicle fleet as the same vehicle can be used for different types of transport
throughout the day. It may also increase the pool of passengers that may be able to travel together inthe same vehicle at the same time, thereby contributing to increased efficiency in terms of lessnumbers of travels.
Secondly, the concept is about opening up special transport services, which today are restricted to
citizens with special rights (i.e. ‘closed’ transport services), to citizens without such travel rights. The
aim is to improve the transport services for citizens in rural areas, where the ordinary public transport
services are poor or non-existing. Experiences from demand responsive transport services such as in
Hedmark shows that such open services are popular among both old and young users, who evenreschedule their recreational activities to fit with the routes of such demand responsive transport
services (see part 2).
However, open solutions may also provide challenges and for some users, in particular existingusers who are used to individual transport solutions, constitute worsened quality of their transport
services as compared to the services that they currently enjoy.
Moreover, there is hesitation among certain responsible public authorities. Issues include different
management systems and concerns about the rights of certain user groups. Within certain transportareas there are also considerable coordination work going on, which means that the benefits of further
coordination may be smaller than for example has been the case in Denmark, where municipalities
have achieved considerable savings by cooperating about services using an inter-municipal public
transport company for coordination (see “Utilisation of vehicles and potential savings”). For example,
hospitals aim to coordinate patient travels with ambulance driving and some municipalities combine
the day centre transport with caretaker services. There may also be political provisions that aim toensure free user choice (i.e. the users can choose the transport company they prefer themselves). This

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may complicate coordination, as in procurement processes the public authorities ensures the winner ofthe competitive tenders a certain transport volume. If users freely choose between transport operators,
there is uncertainty about whether the public authorities can ensure the winning operator the transportvolume as agreed upon in contracts between them. Some actors also consider each other ascompetitors, which is not a convenient starting point for coordination.

Organisation of Special Transport Services
One objective of coordinating publicly funded passenger transport services is to take advantage of
economies of scale. Today, the responsibility for ordinary public transport and the various specialtransport services are in the hands of several different authorities and organisations. In addition to theordinary public transport services (see part 1), special transport services such as patient transport, workand educational transport, transport for people with disabilities, school transport and day care centre
transport are national, regional or local responsibilities and traditionally associated with the sectors towhich they belong (e.g. education and health and not the transportation sector). The responsibilities
are fragmented and located at different political levels (see Figure 1). They have various funding
sources, sector-specific considerations, passenger rights and legislative rules.
Figure 1. Responsibilities of special transport services

Source: Leiren et al., 2014.

School transport includes transport for pupils – both children and adults – to elementary and highschool. It includes ordinary public transport, school routes (fixed routes which are open to all, but thatis not running during the school holidays) and special transport solutions for students with special
needs due to health issues, place of residence or dangerous school roads in terms of traffic safety. The
counties are responsible for organising school transport to elementary and high school pupils,
including services for school way distances of more than two or four kilometres (distance depends on
the age of the pupils). The regional authorities manage the ordinary school routes in the municipalities.
Municipalities have the financial responsibility for the school transportation when the roads are
particularly dangerous or difficult, and the distance between home and school is less than two to four
kilometres.

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In addition, there are different types of transport services related to school activities such astransport of students to swimming lessons or excursions. The municipalities (or schools) organise suchservices themselves. While some municipalities purchase such services from operators, othermunicipalities own their own buses for such transport.
Working and educational transport is a national scheme that ensures people with disabilities theability to get to and from work or higher education, when lack of transport possibilities otherwise
would prevent them from being able to take a job or training. The scheme covers people who are inneed of support beyond the basic allowance for transportation for people with disabilities. People withlasting mobility difficulties can get a taxi to and from work or education at the price of a bus ticket in
the area where they live. The authorities introduced this as an experiment in 2001. In 2013 it became anationwide permanent scheme. With the new nationwide scheme everyone, who has been granted
work and educational transport, get a travel card and can freely choose between taxi operators.
Social welfare centre transport is a service for people who live at home, but that have special
needs and therefore have the right to visit day care centres. Such centres may offer services such as
physiotherapist, hairdresser, dinner or other activities. Transportation to and from such centres are in
the hands of the municipalities. While some municipalities have their own small buses that they use
for such transport, others have outsourced such services for example to a local taxi company or they
have established their own municipal transport company.
Patient transport includes travels to and from the consultation and treatment at hospitals or
primary health care. Patient transport is a national responsibility, which the regional health authorities
or health trusts implement. The delivery of patient transport sometimes includes a requisition,
sometimes not. When a passenger travels without a requisition, the passenger pays for the journey andthen applies to get a refund. The health trust covers the cheapest travel alternative. If the traveller does
not have the opportunity to make use of scheduled public transport (because it does not exist or it is
not possible due to health reasons), the passenger can get a requisition from the patient travel office,which organises transport for example a seat at a health bus that collects passengers.
Transport for people with disabilities is a taxi-based service that aims to contribute to increased
mobility and participation in society for people with disabilities in their leisure time. It is a regional
responsibility. In most counties, the users receive a subsidy in the form of an electronic card. They use
this card as a kind of ‘credit card’.

Utilisation of vehicles and potential savings
Estimates by Kjørstad and Smith (2012) and lessons learnt from the coordination of different
public paid transport services in Denmark, suggest that there may be potential savings and economies
of scale through coordination of special transport services (Deloitte 2013). In this part, we discuss
whether coordination can contribute to lower the cost per journey.
There are three important aspects related to possible savings through coordination of specialtransport services (see Leiren et al 2014):


Pooling of passengers



Utilisation of the vehicle fleet

Common planning and purchasingFirst, coordination contributes to the possibility of viewing more travels together, thereby making
it easier to find people who can travel together on the same trip. However, it could imply a ‘stiffer’service, i.e. passengers who are used to a transport service that is adapted to them need to adapt to

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transport routes. In cases of door-to-door transport, it also implies increased journey time, having topick up and wait for other passengers.
Second, coordination may contribute to a higher utilisation of the vehicle fleet. In contrast to thefirst point, which is about getting more passengers to drive together, higher utilisation of vehicles isalso about using the vehicles during a greater part of the day, thereby contributing with cost savings.
Travel patterns show that there is activity in the various sub-markets at different times of the day. In
the morning and afternoon, there is a lot of school and work travels. Between the rush hours, there isextensive patient transport activity and municipal transport services. In the evening, there is moreleisure transport for people with disabilities. In other words, a vehicle can be used for schooltransportation during rush hours, patient transport during the day and leisure trips for people withdisabilities in the evening. This is largely how taxi companies operate. However, different publicauthorities have contracts with different transport companies, which limits the ability to coordinate
across sub-sectors.
Another observation is that the vehicles, which for example the municipalities own themselves,
have a low utility rate. In comparison to a taxi, a municipal vehicle is used only ¼ of the usage of ataxi. It means that there is a lot of free capacity in the municipal fleet. Theoretically, this means thateach ‘municipal’ mile is expensive, given the investment cost of a vehicle that is not much in use.
However, the municipality itself may not consider such transport as expensive. When the investmentof purchasing a vehicle has already been made (or the municipality has inherited or been given a
vehicle as a gift) and labour costs are already covered (for example, if the driver is hired for otherwork tasks than driving such as caretaking services, but also drives passengers during working hours),
such costs are not visible in the budgets. As a result, the municipal-run service is perceived as lessexpensive than purchased services, where such other costs are included in the payment for each trip.
Third, there may be economies of scale related to common planning and purchasing. If publictenders are designed in such a way that they become more attractive to transport operators, moretransport operators could be willing to compete for the services, thereby increasing competition andlowering the price that the public authorities have to pay. Coordination provides the opportunity tolook at different transport needs together, and thus lead to different calls for tenders than under thecurrent fragmented distribution of responsibility. However, the effect of such tenders is dependent on
the market of transport providers.
Deloitte (2013), in a study of Denmark, argue that there are substantial economies ofscale. Deloitte is of the opinion that the Danish municipalities can achieve lower contract prices bycoordinating tenders across institutions and administrative boundaries, because they can achieve agreater volume in the bids, making it attractive for more operators to bid. According to Deloitte (2013:164), the average price difference is about 20 percent higher for special transport in municipalities thatprovide transport services by themselves without coordinating special transport services internallythan for municipalities that use an inter-municipal public transport company to coordinate the services
for them. It means that if the municipalities would achieve the same prices as a public transportcompany, they would save 430 million DKK. By not making use of a common coordination company,
but only coordinating the transport services internally in each municipality, the consultant assume thata Danish municipality, on average, can achieve savings of about 5-10 per cent (see Deloitte 2012). In
Norway special transport services such as school transport, which make up the largest transportvolumes, is already coordinated internally in several areas. It means that the potential savings in
Norway is probably smaller than in Denmark.
To sum up, coordination of transport services provides for efficiency gains: the opportunities fordriving passengers together is greater, when the pool of passengers is greater. The utilisation ofvehicles improves when the same fleet can be used in different sub-markets at different times of the

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day. For example, patient transport and day centre transport occur at times when there is available
capacity (i.e. not in rush hours).

The Market of the Transport Providers
Coordination of services may have implications for the market foundation of the taxi industry, as
other actors (for example, mini bus companies that operate under different conditions than taxi
companies) may enter the traditional ‘taxi markets’. This has already largely happened, particular in
the market of patient transport. A consequence is that the income foundation of the taxi industry
decreases. This is an issue because the taxi industry has a 24 hour duty to ensure transport, thereby
providing emergency preparedness. However, in rural areas the taxi industry to some extent depends
on public transport services in order to maintain a sufficient income in areas, where the demand forcommercial taxi services is small.
The issue related to the taxi market is complex. In competitive tendering rounds it has occurredthat taxi providers have offered a price level, which is higher than the metered rates, such as for‘residue transport’. There are several reasons as to why the public authorities do not always achieve‘quantity discounts’ for such transport, for example because the public transport services coincide withtransport peaks, where the demand is already high and the car park is already well exploited.
On the one hand, there is an aim to increase the number of transport bidders in competitive rounds.
Otherwise, lack of competition may push the prices up and contribute to a cost increase. Therefore
mini-bus companies are invited to competitive rounds.
On the other hand, because of the reasons already mentioned there is a concern with lack of taxi
services in rural areas. When mini-bus companies win contracts that are crucial for the survival of taxi
companies, the transport preparedness related to taxis may disappear.

User Needs and Political Considerations
A difference between closed and open transport is that closed transport is fitted to individual needs
to a greater extent than open transport. Individual needs among vulnerable users limits the potential for
driving passengers together and thus the possibilities to open such services to others. While sometravellers (e.g. school children and people of older age) seem to enjoy open transport, because of its
social aspect (i.e. they like travelling with others), this is not perceived as positive among for example
people with disabilities. Some passengers experience that they feel less safe when travelling withothers or – in case of work and educational transport – a lack of certainty due to the possibility ofdelays.
Furthermore, pooling passengers when opening a service for all travellers may result in ‘stiffer’services, e.g. the special transport services become more like the ordinary public transport system,
where users need to adapt to the transport routes and not vice versa. Resistance to having to adapt to asuch offers are expressed among users, who currently benefit from individual transport services andwho, because of a disability, feel that they are in an unfortunate situation in the first place, given theirdisabilities. To introduce political reform that is perceived as a worsening of the offer for existingusers is politically difficult, in particular when interest groups are powerful.
To change the principle of transport (e.g. by going from a solution with individual transport to anoffer that is more similar to public transport) can be a difficult political decision. If wanted, it isimportant to draw up clear definitions of quality requirements in cooperation with user groups anddrivers – and make the requirements and specifications for quality explicit. Such aspects include forexample how long a user has to be prepared to wait for a transport service. A disadvantage of such a

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set of rules is that the specifications may become so rigid that there is a lack of room for flexible
solutions in practice.

5. Summary

The responsibility for ordinary public transport and the various special transport services are in thehands of several different authorities and organisations in Norway. Grappling with questions about
how to keep the costs down, while retaining a good quality service level in rural areas, there isincreasing interest in innovative solutions of coordination among public authorities as well as demandresponsive transport services. Evidence suggests that demand responsive transport pilots are popularamong the users; however, their popularity makes them expensive. In contrast, integration of special
passenger transportation services include benefits such as increased economic savings. A more
efficient use of vehicles and more passengers per vehicle contribute to such effects. However, such
coordination of transportation services increases the travel time for existing passengers. It is likely tomeet resistance from certain powerful user groups. In addition, there are certain organisational
barriers, given the different responsibilities and experiences of the various public authorities – atdifferent political levels and sectors – that are responsible for the services today. Another issue is thatcoordination may decrease the transportation preparedness in sparsely populated areas, where taxi
companies may be dependent on public contracts to keep a minimum basis of income.

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M. Dotterud Leiren and K. Skollerud — Discussion Paper 2015-08 — © OECD/ITF 2015

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