NIHU Program
Islamic Area Studies

TIAS Central Eurasian Research Series
No.2

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim
Camp in Beijing
ONUMA Takahiro

TIAS: Department of Islamic Area Studies
Center for Evolving Humanities
Graduate School of Humanities andSociology
The University of Tokyo

NIHU Program Islamic Area Studies
TIAS: Department of Islamic Area Studies,
Center for Evolving Humanities, Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology,
The University of Tokyo
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033 JAPAN
Tel: (+81)-3-5841-2687
Fax: (+81)-3-5841-2686
URL: http://www.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/tokyo-ias
E-mail: ias-web@l.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Copyright © 2009 Department of Islamic Area Studies,
Center for Evolving Humanities, The University of Tokyo

First Published in 2009
Publisher: Department of Islamic Area Studies,
Center for Evolving Humanities, Graduate School of
Humanities and Sociology,
The University of TokyoONUMA Takahiro
250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing
Central Eurasian Research Series No.2
ISBN 978-4-904039-09-0
Printed in Japan

Contents

Preface and Acknowledgements…………………………………………………1
1. The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor……………………………4
Text: Chinese, Manchu, Mongol, and Turki………………………………8
Translation…………………………………………………………………21
2. The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950……………………………25
Establishment of the Turkic-Muslim Camp………………………………26
The Qing Government and Turkic-Muslims in Beijing……………..……36
Changes in the Turkic-Muslim Camp……………………………………44
Epilogue: Memory of East Anfu Alley…………………………………………51
Glossary…………..……………………………………………………………56
Bibliography…………..………………………………………………………59

Preface and Acknowledgments

In the 18th century, the Manchu Qing dynasty (1616-1912) reached its
peak under the reign of the sixth emperor Qianlong (1736-95). The empire’s
advance into Central Asia during 1755-59, which resulted in the extermination of
the Zhungars and the annexation of Eastern Turkistan oases, is acknowledged as
the most symbolic demonstration of the Qing’s imperial might. The conquest of
this region, today known as Xinjiang, created a unique situation between China
and Central Asia, making it the recipient of much scholarly attention.1
During the Xinjiang conquest, Turkic-Muslims of Eastern Turkistan(today’s Uyghur) were brought to the capital of Beijing and forced to live in agovernment-established residence called “Huiziying,” or the Turkic-Muslim
Camp.2 The Turkic-Muslims of Qing Beijing are often mentioned in narrationsof a tragic Xiangfei (Fragrant Concubine) legend,3 but other attention has notbeen given to them. Indeed, their presence was only a small part in the enormous
system of the dynasty, and they played a relatively small role in history. However,their existence in Beijing was very unique after the Mid-Qing period, and it ispossible that study of their lives may result in a better understanding of therelationship between the Qing emperor and his Muslim subjects. Specifically, a
study of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing may reveal changes in Muslim
subjects’ political and social positions from the Qing time to modern China.
This research has three main objectives:(1) I seek to complete the text and translation of the imperially1

In the last ten years, considerable studies have been published, including Millward 1998, 2007;
Wang 2003; Kim 2004; Newby 2005; Bellér-Hann 2008.
2
The Chinese character “Hui 回” usually refers to Muslim people. Although Huiziying was also
called Huihuying or Huiying, this paper uses Huiziying throughout.
3
See Chap. 2, pp. 36-37.

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

authorized stela placed inside the mosque that was built inside the Turkic-Muslim
Camp on the Qianlong emperor’s order. Although the physical whereabouts ofthe stela are unknown, rubbed copies are stored in some institutions. The stela
was inscribed with four scripts: Chinese, Manchu, Mongol, and Arabic/Turki.
The inscription clearly reflects the emperor’s imperial vision and attitude toward
his Muslim subjects. This work will also benefit recent discussions about theneed to reexamine Qing imperialism.
(2) The Turkic-Muslim Camp was established in 1760 in today’s East
Anfu Alley (Dong’anfu hutong) in the Xicheng ward, where the Xinhua Gate4
crosses Chang’an Street. This area was a center of Turkic-Muslim activity inBeijing, and by detailing its establishment, construction, and decline, I wish tooffer the first monograph of the 250 years of history of the Turkic-Muslim Camp,and to provide a new viewpoint regarding Qing-Muslim relationships.
(3) This research also will offer information about today’s East Anfu
Alley, the original site of the Turkic-Muslim Camp. Although East Anfu Alley is
not what it used to be, some of the camp’s descendants still reside there.
Regretfully, this area is a designated region of the Beijing redevelopment projectand its residents will be forced to move soon. As such, a principal goal of thisresearch will be to preserve the history of the Turkic-Muslim Camp that has been
passed down through generations.
In the course of writing this paper I have received help from many
institutions and individuals. JSPS (the Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science) Research Fellowships for Young Scientists in 2006-2007 and theresearch project of TIAS (the Islamic Area Studies Center at the University ofTokyo) in 2008 supported this research financially.
I am grateful for Professor Zhao Lingzhi’s assistance in researching thestela’s rubbed copies stored in the Library of Central University for Nationalities.
Professor Matsumoto Masumi and Mr. Katagiri Hiromichi also provided me withvaluable information about other rubbed copies stored in the SOAS Library at the
University of London and the Library of Graduate School of Letters at Kyoto
University. Dr. Suzuki Kōsetsu commented on the stela’s contents. I am thankful
for their instructions and help.
My sincere thanks to brothers Chang Baocheng and Chang Baoguang.
They are Muslim descendants of the Turkic-Muslim Camp who still reside in
4

The Xinhua Gate is the front gate to the Zhong’nanhai area, which is the central headquarters for
the PRC government and the Communist Party of China.
2Preface and Acknowledgements

East Anfu Alley. I met them purely by chance on a summer morning in 2006. I
visited them three times to hear their reminiscences, and each time I received ahearty welcome from them and their families. Without my encounter with them,
the idea for this research would surely never have flashed into my mind.
Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Komatsu Hisao formaking me a TIAS project member and consenting to publish this research as apart of the Central Eurasian Research Series.

ONUMA Takahiro
Assistant Professor/Researcher
Research Institute for Oriental Cultures,
Gakushuin University (Tokyo, JAPAN).

31. The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

The purpose of this chapter is to present the text and translation of thestela erected at the mosque in the Turkic-Muslim Camp (hereafter Huiziying
mosque). Although the stela’s physical whereabouts are unknown, 1 rubbed
copies exist in several institutions.2 The stela was inscribed in four languages:
Chinese and Manchu on the front and Mongol and Arabic/Turki on the back. The
sentences were written by the Qianlong emperor in the 5th month of the 29th yearof the Qianlong reign (31 May to 28 June, 1764). The translation process is notclear; perhaps the Chinese version was the original, which was then translated toManchu, and from Manchu to Mongol, and finally from Mongol to Turki.
To my knowledge, the institutions that contain a rubbed copy of thestela are as follows: (1) National Library of China,3 (2) Beijing University
Library,4 (3) Library of Central University for Nationalities,5 and (4) Library of
Graduate School of Letters at Kyoto University.6 In addition to these, the (5)SOAS Library has a photograph of the rubbed copy.7
1

In 1987 this stela was located in what used to be the Inner City Capital City-god temple. See
Naquin 2000: 573, n. 26.
2
According to the date of the National Library of China, the size of the copy is 31 × 33 cm (headtablet) + 92 × 87 cm.
3
1 set. This copy is printed in BTShT, vol. 72: 59-60. Using the online search system, we canretrieve its bibliographical information. See http://www.nlc. gov.cn/index.htm.
4
1 set. Using the online search system for rare books, we can retrieve its bibliographicalinformation. See http://rbdl.calis.edu.cn/pages/Search.htm.
5
2 set. These copies are stored in the rare books room. The numbers for request are 1135 and 1136.
6
1 set. Because of sorting and researching, the rubbed copy was not open to the public in 2008.
According to Katagiri Hiromichi, who has read this copy previously, the condition was good.
7
CIM (China Inland Mission) in the Special Collection Reading Room, Box 21, File 430.

The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

Figure 1. The Front: Manchu (left) and Chinese (right)
Source: Inserted between 532-533 of Meng 1960 [1937].
5

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Figure 2. The Back: Mongol (left) and Turki (Right)
Source: Inserted between 532-533 of Meng 1960 [1937].
6

The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

Next I would like to discuss previous research on the stela that has been
important to this project. Qingding rixia jiuwen kao (Imperial Commissioned
Ancient Accounts Heard in Precincts of the Throne, hereafter QRJK), which is acompilation of materials on Beijing history published in 1774, records the text ofthe stela’s Chinese inscription.8 Some of the lettering on the stela is illegible
because of wear,9 so the record in QRJK is very useful to the restoration of theChinese text. However, the transcription in QRJK has some inaccuracies; forexample, zongshe in line 6 was recorded as zushe by mistake.
Around 1900, philological studies on the stela were made by someWestern scholars. M. Devéria was the first to translate from the Chinese text into
Western language.10 Cl. Huart proposed the Arabic/Turki text and translation.11
His work was very useful in reading worn parts of the Turkic inscription.
Photographs of the stela standing in the mosque, as well as a rubbed copy of it,
are inserted into the book of M. Broomhall.12 This book includes an English
translation with commentaries based on the Turkic inscription. Although thistranslation contains some inaccurate and insufficient parts, it furnished us with
fundamental information about the stela.13
A few Chinese scholars have given attention to the stela. The
posthumous work of Meng Sen, a pioneer in Manchu Qing history, offers
information on the Xiangfei legend along with a rudimentary consideration of thestela’s record.14 His book contains a photograph of a relatively clear rubbed
copy.15 Yang Naiji’s work is one of the most important historical researches on
the Turkic-Muslim Camp. His work includes research not only on the mosque’s

8

QRJK 71, repr. 1981: 1193-1194.
In particular, damage to the lower part of the Turkic inscription is very heavy. It is impossible toread.
10
Devéria 1897. Although Devéria’ paper includes a photograph of the rubbed copy in a goodcondition, I cannot find which institution stores this copy.
11
Huart 1902.
12
This copy can be identified as that at (5) SOAS. For the photograph of the stela standing in themosque, see Chap. 2, p. 46.
13
Broomhall 1910: 92-98.
14
Meng 1960 [1937]: 545-546.
15This copy can be identified with (2) at the Library of Central University for Nationalities.
97

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

architecture, but also on the condition of the East Anfu Alley in the 1980s.16
The stela has been noted since the Qing period. However, no studies
have ever examined its contents deeply or used it to trace the Qing’s imperial
policy toward his Muslim subjects. Before discussing these issues, I must present
an accurate text and translation of the stela.

Text: Chinese, Manchu, Mongol, and Turki
Note: Explanation of symbols for text and translation
回子

Suggested restoration from the Chinese text in QRJK

Abc

Suggested restoration from the context or the comparison withother language texts[]

Supplementary words by Onuma//////

Section that is indecipherable due to damage to the original text。. ,Punctuation marks in the Manchu and Mongol texts are based on
original inscriptions; those in the Chinese and Turki texts aremarked by Onuma for convenience.

^^

Taitou (higher head) grade for showing respect^ One-Taitou grade^^ Two-Taitou grade

16

8

Yang 1982.

The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

Chinese0 御製勅建回人禮拜寺碑記。
1 為天下共主，俾阻遐逖聴，壹禀我約束，而後戎索所屆，風氣莫敢以自私，尚已。顧在昔寄象鞮譯之掌，必與之達志通欲，脩其教不易其宜，厥旨豈相戻哉。蓋惟極天下之不
2 齊以致其大齊，而觀化者益轃於無外。攷前史，囬紇自隋開皇時始入中国，至唐元和初，偕摩尼進貢，請置寺太原，額曰大雲光明，實為禮拜寺所由昉。然其致之也，或以假
3 師或以通市，於納土服屬我甿我隷之義故無當焉。朕寅承4 ^^天地5 ^^宗杜鴻庥，平準噶爾，遂定回部各城。其伯克霍集斯，霍什克等並錫
爵王公，賜居邸舎。而餘衆之不令囬其故地者，咸居之長安門之西，俾服官執伇，受廛旅處，都人因號稱回子
6 營。夫齒繁則見厖，類辨則情渙，思所以統同合異，使瞻聴無竒衺，
初不在闢其教而揉矯之也。且準部四衛拉特内附，若普寧寺，若固爾
札廟，既為次第勅搆，用是寵綏，回人7

亦吾人也，若之何望有缺耶。爰命将作支内帑羨金，就所居適中之地，為建斯寺。穹門塏殿，翊廡周阿，具中程度。經始以乾隆癸未清和吉
月，浹歳落成。回衆以時會聚其下,8而輪年入覲之衆伯克等無不觀欣拜。託西域所未曾覩，問有叨近日之榮，而兼擅土風之美，如是擧者乎。咸鞠月卺虞抃曰，然。復重諗之曰，爾囬之俗嚮，惟知有魯斯訥墨，9

今則朔奉朝正矣。嚮惟知有騰格，今則鑄頒泉府矣。越及屯賦覲饗諸
令典，其大者靡弗同我聲教，而國家推以人治人之則，更為之因其教以和其衆。揆諸萬舞備銅繩之10

技，九賓綴纒頭之班，此物此志云爾。其誰曰不宜。乃為之記而系以
銘。

11 孰為天方，孰為天堂。花門秘刹，依我雲閶。厥城黙伽，厥宗黙克。
派哈帕爾，傳衣鐵勒。經蔵三十，咨之阿渾。西向北向，同皈一尊。
珉墄枏梁，司工所作。會極歸極，萬邦是若。
00

乾隆二十有九年歳在甲申仲夏之吉，御製并書。
9250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Manchu0

Han i arahangge hesei ilibuha hoise sai doroloro hengkilere juktehen ieldengge wehei ejebun.

1

Abkai fejergi i uheri ejen ofi, lakcaha jecen goroki ba i urse be gemu musei
kadalame jafatara doro be dahame yabure de isibuha manngi, feshelehe ele
jase jecen i ba i an kooli, teni gelhun akû cisulerengge akû ombi. Ere yalawesihun kai. Julgei fonde, duin ergi aiman i an tacin, etuku gisun i jergi
baita de afaha urse, urunakû ishunde mujin be hafumbume, buyenin deacabume, tesei tacihiyan be tuwancihiyara dabala, tesei an be halarakû
bihe.

2 Terei gûnin ainahai ereci encu ni. Ainci abkai fejergi i teksin akûngge be,bireme gemu umesi teksin de isibuci, wen be hargašarangge, ele jecen akû
de isinaci ombi. Nenehe suduri be kimcici, hûi he aiman, sui gurun i k’aihûwang sehe forgon de teni durimbai gurun de dosinjiha. Tang gurun iyuwan ho sehe sucungga fonde isinjiha manggi, molo albabun jafanjiha
ildun de baime wesimbufi tai yuwan i bade juktehen ilibufi, boconggo
3tugi jaksaka eldeke sere iletulehen lakiyabuhabi. Ere uthai doroloro
hengkilere juktehen ilibuha deribun. Tuttu seme terei jihengge, embici
cende cooha baire jalin bihe, embici ishunde hûdašara jalin bihe dabala. ba
na nisihai haratu ome dahanjifi, musei irgen ofi, kadalabure jurgan ci
cingkai encu kai. Bi

4 ^^abka na,
5 ^^mafari juktehen, boihoju jekuju i mukdehun i ferguwecuke hûturi begingguleme alifi, jun gar aimen be necihiyefi, geli hoise aiman i geren
hoton be toktobuha. Tere bek hojis, hosik sade, gemu wang gung ni hergenbufi, gemun hecen de boo šangnafi tebuhe. Geli da bade amasi unggirakû
geren hoise sebe, gemu enteheme elhe dukai wargi ergi bade icihiyeme
tebufi, hafan sindafi, alban nekebufi, caliyan ulebume, emu bade tebuhe
turgunde gemungge hecen i niyalma
6

tereci gemu ubabe hoise sai falga seme gebulehebi. Damu anggala gerenoci, gûnin mujin tarin ombi. Duwali encu oci, buyenin gari mari ombi. Ede

10

The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

adalingge be uheleme, encungge be acabume, tuwara donjire de aldungga
akû obuki seci, umai terei tacihiyan be milarabufi, murime tuwancihiyara
de akû kai. Tere anggala, jun gar aiman duin oirat sa, dosi dahanjire jakade,gubci iktakangga juktehen, gûlja juktehen be siran siran i deribume7

weilebufi gosire bilure gûnin be tuwabuhabi. Hoise sa serengge, inu musei
harangga niyalma oho kai. Ainu damu tesei erecun be tesuburakû ni. Tuttu
weilen be kadalara hafasa de afabufi, dorgi namun i fulu tucike menggun
be icinggiyafi, hoise sai tehe falga i tob dulimbade ere juktehen ilibufi,gûldun duka, amba deyen, ashan i boo, šurdeme fu be gemu durum kemun
i songkoi weilebuhe. abkai wehiyehe sahahûn honin aniya duin

8biya ci weileme deribufi, emu aniya ofi šangnaha. Ede geren hoise sa,
erileme ubade isanjimbime, aniyadari idurame hargašanjire geren bek sa,
gemu selame urgunjeme hargašame dorolome, erebe wargi bade oron
sabuhakûngge seme kiyakiyame ferguwendumbi. Tesei baru hargašan dehanci nikenjire derengge be aliha bime, geli tesu ba i an tacin i sain be
yongkiyabuha baita, ere gesengge bio seme fonjici, gemu niyakûrafi
alimbaharakû urugunjeme, yargiyan i akû sehe. Geli9esede ulhibuhe gisun, suweni hoise sai tacin daci damu rusunamai bisire besaha dabala. Te oci, abkai gurun i aniya inenggi be dahahabi. Daci damu
tengge bisire be saha dabala. Te oci, durun i jiha hungkerefi selgiyehebi. Jaialban i usin weilere, šulehen jafara, hargašanjire sarilara amba kooli be oci,
gemu mini tacihiyan wen be dahame yabubuharakûngge akû. Uttu bime
gurun boo, niyalma i niyalma be dasara doro be badarambufi, suweni
tacihiyan be dahame

10suweni geren be hûwaliyambuhabi. Te hacingga maksin i dorgi teišun futade negeleme yabure efin be dabuha. Geren antahasa be sarilara faidan de,uju hûsire urse be dosimbuha be bodoci, ineku suweni jaka be baitalafi,suweni mujin de acabuha kai. Erebe we ojorakû sembio sefi, tuttu ejebun
arafi, folon i gisun ashabuha..

11 Ya babe abkai falga sehe. Ya babe abkai tanggin sehe. Yangsangga saikan
hoise juktehen be yargiyan i dorgi hoton de hanci weilebuhe. Tubai hoton
11250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

be medine sembi. Tubai wesihulerengge be meke sembi. Tuttu paigambar
sere niyalma, tuktan tiyei le gurun de doro be ulhabi. Asaraha gûsin yohi
kuran nomun be, ahun de fonjifi ulhihe. Amargi baru fororo wargi baru
fororongge, aibsi ocibe, emu adali wesihulehe. Eldengge wehe i colgoroko
12

ordo be ere weilen be kadalara hafasa sain i weilehebi. Enteheme ubade
acanjime isanjifi, ede tumen gurun yooni dahanjimbi.

00

Abkai wehiyehe orin uyuci aniya niowanggiyan bonio juwari dulimbaibiyai sain inenggi han i banjibuha arahangge..

12The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

Mongol0Qaγan-u bičigsen bolai jarliγ-iyar bayiγuluγsan qotung-ud-un yosulaqu
mörgükü süm-e-yin gereltü kösiy-e čilaγun-u temdeglel.

1

Delekei dakin-u bügüde-yin ejen boluγad tasuraγai kijaγar qoladaqi
γajar-un ulus-i čöm bidan-u erke-dür oruγuluγad jakirqu yosun-i daγaju
yabuqui-dur kürügülügsen-ü qoyin-a, arbidlaγsan el-e jaq-a kijaγarγajar-un keb qauli sayi ayumsiγ ügei duran meden yabuqui-bar ügeibolumui. Ene inu üneker erkim bolai. Erten-ü čaγ-tur dörben jüg
ayimaγ-un tus tus öber-ün yosun, qubčasu kele jerge kereg-tür tusiyagγsanulsu, erke ügei qarilčunjoriγ-i tuγulγaju, sedgil-dür neyilegülged

2

teden-ü surγaγuli-yi bolbasuraγulqu-ača busu teden-ü jang bayidal-i
araljiqu ügei aγsan ajuγu. Tegün-ü sanaγan yaγunai egünče öger-e ajuγu.
Yerü delekei dakin-u tegsi ügei-yi inu neyiteber čöm masi tegsi-dür
kürügülbasu, soyul-i sösülküi anu, neng kijaγalasi ügei-dür kürčü bolumui.
Uriduki sudur-i kinabasu, küi ke ayimaγ süi ulus-un qai quwang kemeküčaγ-ača sayi dumdadu ulus-tur oruju irebei. Tang ulus-un yuwan qo
kemekü angq-a čaγ-tur kürügsen

3

qoyin-a, molu alba barir-a iregsen ayantal-a γuyun ayiladqaγad tai yuwan-uγajar söm-e bariγad önggetü egülen tülebei geyigülbei kemekü ilerkei
bičig17 elgüjüküi. Ene yerü mön yosulaqu mörgükü süm-e bayiγuluγsanangqan toγurbil bolai. Teyin kemebečü, teγün-ü iregsen anu ese bögesü
teden-eče čerig γuyuqu učir ba. Ese bögesü qarilčan qudalduγ-a kikü-yin
učir aγsan-ača bosu. Γajar orun selte qariyatu bolun oruju ireged biden-u
irgen bolju, jakiraγaqu jirum-ača tung öger-e bui. Bi

4 ^^tngri γajar
5 ^^ebüged-ün süm-e sakiγlsun-u mandal-un γayiqamsiγtu buyan-i
kičiyenggüyilen küliyejü abuγad. Jegün γar-un ayimaγ-i tübsidkejü, basa
qotung ayimaγ-un olun qotan-i toγtaγabai. Tere bek Qojis, Qosiγ tan-dur
čöm wang gung-ün kergem ögčü, neyislel qotan-dur ger šangnaγad17ilerkei bičig: “a clear letter, handwriting.” A calque from Man. iletulehen (tablet).
13250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

saγulγabai. Basa nutuγ-tur qoyisi ilegekü ügei qamuγ qotung-ud-i čöm
asida amuγulangtu qaγalγan-u baraγun eteged-tur si[g]idgejü saγulγaγad,tüsimel talbiju, alban tulγaju
6öggüged, čaling olγaγulju, nigen γajar-a saγulγaγsan učir-tur neyiselel
qotan-u kümün tegünče čöm egün-i qotung-ud-un ayil kemen nerelejügüi.
Γaγčakü aman olan bolbasu sedgil qajaγar mujaγar bolmui. Nam öber-ebolbasu, küsel alaγ čoγuγ bolumui. Egün-dür adaliqan-i inu yerüngkeyileju
öber-e-yi inu neyilegül-ün üjekü sonusqui-dur sonin ügei bolγasuγai
kemebesü, yerü tegün-ü surγaγuli unjiγultu, musgin jalaraqui-dur

7ügei bolai. Tere čü bayituγai, jegün γar-un ayimaγ-un dörben oyirad-ud
dotuγsi oruju iregsen-iyer, qotal-a engkejigülügči süm-e, gülja süm-e-yidaraγ-a-bar ekilejü bariγuluγad, örüsiyekü oltuqu taγalal-i üjügülüsen bui.
Qotung-ud kemegči, mön biden-ü qariyatu kümün boluγsan bolai. Yaγundu
yerü teden-ü egerel-i ülü qangγaqu bui. Teyimü üiledbüri-yi jakiraqu
tüsimed-dür tusiyaju öggüged dotuγadu sayid-un ilegüü γaraγsan

8mönggü-yi ködelgejü qotung-ud-un saγuγsan ayil-un töb dumba ene süm-ebayiγulju γuldung qaγal-a,18 yeke ordu, jigür-ün ger, toγurin kerem-i čömdürim kemjiy-e-yin yosuγar üiledkegülbei. Tngri-yin tedkügsen-ü qaraγčinqoni on-u jun-u terigün sar-a-ača üiledjü ekileged, nigen jil bolju
tegüsgebei. Egün-dür olan qotung-ud čaγ čaγ-iyar egün-dür quraju irekü
büged jil büri jisiyelen baraγalqar-a irekü olan bek-üd čöm amaraju

9bayasulčaju qaraγaljal yosulaju, egün-i baraγun γajar-a oru üjegsen ügeikemen šaγsin γayiqamui. Teden-lüge qaraγaljaγči yamun-dur sidar kürčü
irekü, niγur kürtegegsen büged, basa nutuγ γajar-un keb surtal-un sayin-itegüsgegsen kereg, ene metüs bui buyu kemen asaγubasu, čöm sögüdtüged
teskel ügei bayasulčaju, üneker ügei kemebei. Basa eden-dür uqaγuluγsanüge, tan-u qotung-ud-un surtal, uγ-daγan γaγča-kü rusnama büküi-yi
medeksen

10

18

14

-eče busu. Edüge bolbasu, tngri-yin ulus-un jil edür-i daγajuqui. Uγ-daγanγuldung qaγal-a: “an arched gateway.”

The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperorγaγča-kü tengge büküi-yi medegsen-eče busu. Edüge bolbasu, keb yosunčidquju taraγajuqui. Basa alban-u tariyalang üiledkü. Alban bariqubaraγalqaqu qurimlaqu yeke qauli-yi bolbasu, čöm minu surγal soyul-idaγaju ülü yabuγad bür ügei. Eyimü büged ulus törü kümün-iyer kümün-i
jasaqu yosun-i badaraγulju tan-u surγaγuli-yi daγaju, tan-u olan-inayiraγulujuqui.
11 Edüge jüil büri büjig-ün dotur-a γauli degesü-dür giskijü yabuqunaγadum-i toγučaγsan. Olan jočid-i qurimlaqu jiγsaγal-dur toluγai
oriyadaqu ulus-i oruγuluγsan-i bodubasu, mön kü tan-u yaγum-a-yi
keregleju tan-u sedkil-dür neyilegülügsen bolai. Egün-i ken bolqu ügeikemeku bui kemeged. Teyin kü temdeglel bičiged seyilümel üge
jegülgebei..
12

Ali γajar-i tngri-yin küriyen kemebei. Ali γajar-i tngri-yin ordu kemebei.
Asuru yangjutai sayiqan qotung süm-e-yi aγui19 yeke dotuγadu qotan-dur
oyir-a bariγulbai. Tendeki qotan-i medine kememüi. Tendeki degedleküi-yi
inu meke kememüi. Teyimü payiγambar kemekü kümün. Teyin kü tiyei leulus-dur yosun-i angqan-a ündüsülejüküi.. Qadaγalaγsan γučin iji küren
nom-i qamuγ egün-eče asaγuγad uqabai.

13

qoyitu jüg ba, baraγun jüg anu, Qamiγ-a bolbaču nigen adali degedlebei.
Erdeni gereltü čilaγun ketüyidügsen ordu-yi inu, ene üiledbüri-yi jakirqutüsimed sayitur üiledčüküi. Egüride ende jolγar-a quraju ireged, egün-dür
tümen ulun bürin-e oruju iremui.

00 Tngri-yin tedkügsen-ü qorin yisüdüger on, köke bečin jun-u dumdadu
sar-a-yin sayin edür-e qaγan-u jokiyan bičigsen bolai.

19aγui < aγuu: “great.”15

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Turki
0

Khān nïng pitigäni yarlïq bilä qofarγan muslmānlar nïng namāzotayduγan20 bash qoyaduγan masjīd chïlalïq21 tash nïng bilgūsï22 ta‘rīfqïlïp qoshdï.

1Āsmān zamīn bārïnïng igäsi bolup, ozulgän yāqā yïraqdaqï yerning ilini

2bārïnï bizning ‘ilāji yoq bashlap, rasmïnï ergäsh23 turup, yürüshkä
yetküzgän

3

din keyin ashïp bolungan yāqā yerning öz rasmïnï alī qorqmay mäylichä24
boladuγanï4

yoq boladu. Bu rāst mu bālïγï.25 Ilgäriki26 zamānda, tört tarafdaki ilning öz
rasmï

5

igin söz qatarlïq ishqa kiriship yürgän il taqīq arasïda könglini tafiship,

6

mīligä qamlashturup, shularnïng tüzä27 almasa, shularnïng rasmïnï
budhaduγan7nemä yoq. Shularnïng köngli qaydaq mundïn böläk boladu. Āslī āsmān
zamīn birdik

8

emäs ikänni här-nä bārusïnï āslī birdik qïlïshqa yetikürsä, ergäship

9

yuluqaduγanlarnï, tola yaqasï yoq yergä yetküzsä boladu. Ilgäriki kitāblarnï

10

akhtarsa, Khūy Kha digän ilning Sūy digän yurtnïng Kāy Khuwāng
digänning

11 chaγïda, yänggi ottradaqï ikhlīmγa28 kirip keldi. Tāng ilning Yuwān Kha
digän awwalqï
1220waqtïda yetip kelgendin keyin, mullā tartïq ālbān tutup kelgändä eyfichä29

otayduγan < otaydurγan. One of the features of this stela’s Turkish is that “‫ﺎﻥ‬‫ﺭﻏ‬‫ﻭ‬‫(ﺩ‬-durγan)”isspelt “‫ﺎﻥ‬‫ﻭﻏ‬‫ﺩ‬- (-duγan).” I cannot accept Huart’s interpretation: “‫ﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺭﻏ‬
‫ﺩ‬
-.”
21
chïlalïq < chïlaylïq.
22
bilgū: “mark, sign, token.” See Jarring 1964: 55.
23
ergäš-: “to follow, to follow after, to go after somebody.” See Jarring 1964: 42.
24
mäyl < mā’il: “inclination.” See Shaw 1880: 184; Jarring 1964: 185.
25
bālïγï < bārlïγï.
26
Ilgär < ilγar~ilqar.
27
There is a possibility of “to[γ]ra (correct, right).” See Huart 1902: 212, n. 1.
28
ikhlīm < iqlīm.
29
eyfichä (‫ﻪ‬
‫ﻔﯽﺟ‬
‫ﻳ‬
‫ﺍ‬
): Huart noted that this word corresponded “hep eyüce” (< hep iyice, or always
pretty good) in Ottoman-Turkish. See Huart 1902: 218, n. 6.
16

The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

tilip, ma‘lūm
13qïlïp, Tāy Yuwān digän yerdä masjīd qofarïp, ränglik bulutdik chïlalïq
rōshan14āshkāra kha asïptur. Bu shu yasunlaydurγan namāz ötidürγan masjīdni

15

qofarïp bashlaγan ikän. Shundaq digän bilän anïng kelgäni, bir bolsa ularγachirik16

tilämäk ichün30 edi, bir bolsa arada sūdā qïlïshmaq ichün edi kelip bolgay.
Yer yurtï

17

bilän ta‘āba31 bolup, ergäship kelip, bizge ra‘īya bolup, bashlatïsh rasmdïn

18

böläk özgichä. Men

19 ^^Āsmān zamīnni,20 ^^bābālarïmnïng sümäsi, arwālarï32 mīdad33 qïlïp ‘ajāyib suwābnï ikrām
birlän koyup
21alïp, Zūng-γār āymāqnï tuqtatïp, yänä muslmān āymāqnïng bār shajrïnï34
tuqtatim. Shu beg

22

Khwāja Sī, Khūshikä beglärgä rāst wāng gūng digän mangsūb35 berip,khāmbalïqda

23

öy shanglap olturγuzdum. Yänä özning yurtïγa yandurmayduγan bārcha
muslmānlarnï

24bārïnï uzaq tinjliq darwāzanïng qibla tarafïda rastlap olturγuzup, beg

25

qopup, ālbān toqtatïp, chinling berdürüp36, bir yerdä olturγuzγan sababdïn

26

khāmbalïqnïng khalq andïn keyin, bārï bu yerni muslmānlarnïng mahhalasï
dep atadï.

27

Alī37 jān tola bolsa, khiyāli uyān buyān38 bī-sar majjān boladu. Köngli

30

ičün < üčün.
ta‘āba < ta‘abiyat.
32arwā < arwā “the spirit of a dead person.” See WTQWJ 19, qiy bu, guiguailei, 14b (repr. 1957:2664); Tamura 1968: 561 [no.10031].
33
mīdad (‫ﻩﺩ‬
‫ﺪ‬
‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻣ‬
): Unclear. Huart identified it with the transcription of “madad” (assistance, help) in
Arabic. See Huart 1902: 218, n. 13.
34
shajr < shahr.
35
mangsūb < manib.
36
I follow Huart’s interpretation. See Huart 1902: 214, n. 1. However, there is a possibility of“yidürüp” (to cause to eat).
31

17

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

qoshulushmay
28

böläk bolsa, näri bäri boladu. Munga okhshāshnï bir qïlïp, böläkni
qamlashturup,

29

ishitishgä körüshgä zābūn körküsiz qïlay desä, alī unï dīndin yïraq qïlïp

30

zūr bilän tüdhmäk tä emäs. Ummā39 turγay, Zūng-γār aymāqnïng dörbün
Oyrāt ichgäri

31

ergäship kelgän sababdïn, bārchanï tinj qïladurγan sümäsi, Γūlja sümälärni

32arqa arqasïdïn bashlap ättürdüm köchürüp siläydüγan könglni körkätti.

33

Muslmān digän rāst yänä bizgä taba‘ bolγan kishmiz emäs mu. Nemäge alīularnïng ārzūshïnï

34

qandurmaγuluq. Anïng ichün ishni qïlduradurγan mangsūb-dārlarγa

35tafshurup, ichgäri γazīnadïn40 ziyāda chïqan kümüshni chïqarïp
muslmānlar

36nïng olturγan mahhalasïnïng jing ottrasïda, bu masjīdni ättürüp,37[ä]gmärä41 darwaza, uluγ masjīd, yanïdaqï öy, chöräsidäki tāmnï chāq42
kemjisi43 bilän

38ättürdüm. Tengri tetküksining qararaq qoy yili törtünchi ayda bashlap,

39ättürüp, bir yil bolup, adā qïldï. Mungä bārcha muslmānlar chaq chaqcha
munda yiγilip

40kelip, yil yildä naubat birlä baralqaγalï kelädürγan bārcha beglär bārïsöyünüp,41

khūshhāllïq bilän körüp, namāz ötip, bash qoyup, mundaq masjīdni maγrīb

42tarafïda orunnï mā44 körgän emäs dep, ‘ajā’ib hay hay dep ta‘rīb qïladu.

43

Ularγa körünüsh bergändä silär yaqïn kelip, körünüsh qïlïp, özlük

37alī < alā.
uyān buyān: “with one thing and another.” See WTQWJ 17, renbu 8, landuolei, 63a (repr. 1957:2418); Tamura 1968: 510 [no.9117].
39ummā < ammā.
40γazīna < kazīna.
41[ä]gmärä (?) > Modern Uyg. ägmä: “an arched gateway.”42
čāγ: “regulation, rule.” See WTQWJ 5, zhengbu, zhenglei, 4b (repr. 1957: 420); Tamura 1968:
92 [no.1598].
43
kemjis: the translation from Mon. kemjiy-e.
44
orunnï mā (‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻨﯽﻣ‬
‫ﻧ‬
‫ﺭ‬
‫ﻭ‬
‫ﺍ‬
) < orun nemä (?).
38

18

The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

44

bolup turup, yänä özünglärning yurt-tunglarnïng rasmïcha yakhshïlïqnï

45

tamām qïlïγan ish, mungä okhshash barmu dep sorasa, bārï söküp, nahāyatī

46

khūshhāl bolup, rāst lā mundaq yoq dedi. Yänä ularγa anglatïp qïlnan45
guf,46 silär

47

muslmānlarnïng kitābinglarda, ilgäri alī rūz-nāma bar dep bilgänsilär. ālībolsa,

48

uluγ yurtnïng yil-künni ergäshiptür. Bashda tänggä barni bilgänsilär. ālībolsa, yosunda

49

yarmaq chïqarïp türgürüp jarladï. Yänä ālbānnïng yerni tarïp, kharāj tutup,

50

baralqaγalï kelgängä tōy berädüγan uluγ yosun bolsa, bārï meningörgäishimni

51

ergäship, yürümädürγanï yoq. Mundaq bolup, uluγ yurt kishning kishisini

52

yasaduγan rasmïnï āshkāra qïlïp, silärning khūyinglarni ergäship,

53

silär hammānglarnï ittifāqlïq qïldïm. ālī här rang oyunnïng ichidä sīm
tanada54

oynayduγan oyunnï kirgüzdüm. Bārcha mihmānlargä tōy berädüγän
sürünγä55

bashγa dāstār chirmaγanlarnï kirgüzgänni isāb qïlsa, silärning nemänglärni

56

lāzim qïlïp, silärning khiyāliklarγa qamlashturγan emäs mu. Munï kim
bolmadï

57

dedür dep, anïng ichün bilgūsïnï qoshup, ta‘rīf guf nu tutti.

58Qaysï yeri khodānïng mahhalasï dedi. Qaysï yeri khodānïng ordasï dedi.
gözgüdik47

59

khūshlik muslmānlarnïng masjīdni rāst ichgäri ordaγa yaqïn ättürdi. Andaqï
shahrïnï

60

Madīna dedür. Andaqï uluqla ////γanï Makka dedür. Shundaq faγambar48
digän kish ol bashda

61 Tilū digän yurtγa //////// //////// //////// //////// ottuz tamām safārat qur’ānnï45qïlnan < qïlγan.
guf < guft (?): “a word.”
47
gözgü: “mirror (?).” See Zenker 1994[1866]: 722.
48
faγambar < payγan-bar.
46

19

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

62Āhūn //////// shimāl tarafigä //////// maγrib tarafigä //////// //////// bolsa bir

63//////// //////// //////// tash bilän //////// ordanï ol ishini qïlduradurγanmangsūb-dārlarγa64

yakhshïlïq ättürdi. //////// munda yiγilip kelip, Munga tümän yurtlar här
ergäship keldi.

00 Tengri tetkük sen ning yigirmä toqquzïnchi yili yashïl maymun yili yaznïng
ottra aynïng ābdān künidä khān nïng qamlashturup pütigäni.

20The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

Translation
Imperially Composed Inscription on a Monument of Muslim mosque constructedby Imperial Command.
Since the people in the remotest regions came to follow our controlledway, I, as a united master of the world under Heaven, have never tampered withthe old practices of the extended frontier regions. It is really sublime! In ancient
times, the policy put in place to control each of the tribes from all directions, who
had different practices, clothes, and languages, was always to develop mutual
understanding and to correct the people’s distorted ideas according to theircharacter, but not to change the people’s true nature. Why can it be said that there
is a difference between the [ancient policy’s] heart [and mine]? In my opinion, if
we can put varied things of the world under Heaven in one order, our respects tothe virtue must be even more limitless.
According to an ancient historical book, the Uyghurs (Huihe)49 firstentered the Central Nation during the beginning of the Kaihuang era50 of the Sui
dynasty.51 During the beginning of the Yuanhe era52 of the Tang dynasty, some
Mani [monks]53 came to pay tributes. At that time, a temple was built in Taiyuan
by their request, and the tablet on which was written, “Great colorful clouds are

49

The Huihe correctly corresponds to the “Uyghur,” which was one of the main Turkic tribes thatformed a tribal confederation, referred to by the Chinese as Jiuxing Tiele (Tur. Toquz Ögüz, or Nine
Clans, see p. 24, n. 67), in Mongolia for about a century between the 7th and 8th centuries. In 745,
this tribal confederation overthrew the Second Turk Kaganate and established the Uyghur Kaganate(745-840). However, as Broomhall points out, the Huihe is here used by mistake for “Muslims”(Chin. Huizi), because “hui” in Chinese is usually imaged with the Muslim people. See Broomhall
1910: 95.
50
581-600 A.D.
51
We cannot find from any historical sources such a record that the Huihe/Uyghur first paid tributeto the Sui dynasty during the Kaihuang era. After all, the Sui dynasty at the time opposed theTujue/Turk, and the Uyghurs were known only as a part of Jiuxing/ Toquz Ögüz.
52
806-820 A.D.
53
Broomhall points out that the “Mani” (Chin. moni) engraved here is used by mistake for“Mullā,” or Islamic master, but really applies to the “Manicheans or followers of Manes.” See
Broomhall 1910: 95. It is certain that, in this stela, Chin. moni was translated to Man. molo, Mon.
molu, Tur. mullā. However, I think this “mistake” was an intentional translation by the Qing
government to justify their rule of their new Turkic-Muslim subjects. For a more detailed
discussion, see Chap. 2, pp. 42-43.
21

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

shining brightly,” was hanged.54 This was the first worship-temple (mosque)ever built [in China]. However, the reason why they (the Uyghurs and Mani
monks) came was to either ask for military assistance or to trade with each other.
It is different from the [today’s] situation, which [the frontier people] follow us as
our subjects with their territory and they become our person under our control.
Through the supreme graces of Heaven-earth, Ancestral Hall, andTutelary Hall, I could subjugate not only the Zhungar but also each city in the
Muslim region. 55 The begs such as Khwāja Sī 56 and Khūsh Köpek 57 were
bestowed the titles of wang (Prince) or gong (Duke), and the houses were set
inside the capital for them. Besides, I let all Muslims who did not return to theirhometown live together in the place at the west of the Chang’an Gate, andmoreover appointed the officials, assigned the tributes, and provided money andfood. Because they have lived in the same place since then, this place has cometo be called Huiziying by the citizens of the capital.
However, as the population increases, people’s minds vary, and asclasses differ, people’s natures are inconsistent. Therefore, in the case that wehope to treat the same kind of people together with different people without
spreading strange rumors, [the method] is not to keep them away from their
54

This story is based on the fact that Mani monks as members of the Uyghur Kaganate’s envoy
visited the Tang in 806 (the first year of the Yuanhe era), and the Mani temples built at Henan(Luoyang) and Taiyuan in the next year. See Jiu tangshu 14, Xianzhong benji, Yuanhe 2 (repr. 1975:
420). However, permission to build the Mani temple, called Dayun Guangming Temple, for
Manichean-Uyghurs dates back to 768, and the Dayun Guangming Temples were built in 771 at
Jingzhou, Yangzhou, Hongzhou, Yuezhou and so on. See Zizhi tongjian 237, tangji 53 (repr. 1956:
7638); Devéria 1897: 470-472.
55
This “Muslim region” means Alti/Yetti Shahr (Six/Seven Cities), or today’s south Xinjiang.
56
The former Hakim at Ush (Uch-Turpan) and Hotan. His activity can be found around 1754 in
TKh. During this time, he tried to obstruct the return of Khwaja Yusuf of the Ishaki line from Yili to
Kashgar in cooperation with Dawachi, but his stratagem fell through. After the fall of Zhungar, hecaptured Dawachi at Ush, handed him over to the Qing army, and moreover counseled to use the
Afaqi line’s brothers to overthrow the Ishaki government. In 1758, as the Qing army advanced toEastern Turkistan, he appeared again and was appointed Hakim beg at Ush. However, his
opportunism and ambition gave rise to distrust from the Qing, so he was ordered to reside with hisfamily at Beijing. He received the title of junwang (Commandery Prince). See Onuma 2002;
Brophy 2008: 76-81.
57
The former Hakim at Kashgar. TKh describes him as an irresolute and foolish person.
Immediately after the Qing’s conquest, he was provisionally appointed Hakim Beg at Kashgar, but
was soon sent to Beijing. He received the title of fuguo gong (Bulwalk Duke). His tomb is near the
Afaq Khwaja Mazar at Kashgar. See Fletcher 1995 [1983]; Sugawara 2007: 22.
22

The Stela Erected by the Qianlong Emperor

religions and reform them by force. On the contrary, after the Four Oyirads under
the Zhungar submitted to our dynasty, I showed my benevolence by immediately
starting to build the Puning Temple and the Gulja Temple,58 one after the other.
Now the Muslims equally became my subjects. Why should their wishes not besatisfied? Consequently, accommodating surplus money of the Imperial Treasury,
I ordered the supervising officials to build this mosque at the center of the
Huiziying, with an arched gate, main hall, wing room, and surrounding
quadrangle according to standard regulations. The construction work began on
the good 4th month of the 28th year of the Qianlong reign, and I granted it [tothem] one year later.
Since then, Muslims assemble here at the proper times. And the begs,
who come to the court for audience to the throne by annual rotation, also doworship delightedly. They declare with admiration, “We have never seen such a
Mosque in the Western Region.” When I asked them, “You received an honor toattend in my presence for audience. Is that just the way to complete good parts oflocal-old practices?” They replied appreciatively on their knees, “Certainly!”
Again I admonished them, “In your Muslims’ knowledge, you formerly
only knew the Rūz-Nāma,59 now you follow the true-time calendar60 of our great
dynasty; and you formerly only knew Tänggä,61 now you use the currency.
When cultivating the field for tribute, paying tax, and holding banquets foraudience, you always do everything according to my system. Thus spreading away, ruling the people by the people, our dynasty has harmoniously united yourvarious people in accordance with your practices. Now the acrobatics of walking
on a brass rope 62 by the Turban-Head 63 people was added to various
58

Both the Puning Temple (built in 1755) and the Gulja Temple (a.k.a. Anyuan Temple, built in1764) were Tibetan temples, which were built at Chengde to commemorate the Zhungar conquest.
The latter is a reproduction of the temple at Yili (Gulja), called Jinding Temple in Chinese, which
was burned down at the time of the Zhungar conquest.
59
The Rūz-Nāma here means Islamic almanac.
60
With the introduction of Western astronomy into China via the Jesuits, the motions of both thesun and moon began to be calculated with sinusoids in 1645 the Shixian calendar (Book of the
Conformity of Time) of the Qing dynasty, made by the Jesuit Adam Schall.
61
Tänggä was the nominal monetary unit in Eastern Turkistan. 50 pul (copper coin) = one tänggä.
62This probably refers to East Turkistani’s traditional acrobatics darwaz (ropewalking). See
Millward 2007: 366-370.
23

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijingentertainment groups [in the Court] for treating an honored guest. As I see it, thisis also what I put your hearts together by using your things. Who will say that it
is incorrect? This is a reason why I wrote and added this inscription.
What is the Heavenly Country?64
What is the Heavenly Hall?65
Splendor mosque of Muslims was built near my palace.
The city over there is Medina.
The holy place over there is Mecca.
The Peigambar66 first brought Turk (Tiele)67 the doctrine.
He taught Akhun68 the Koran in thirty parts.69
Traveling north and west, he always honored anywhere.
Supervising officials of the work built beautifully up the Palace
glittering with gems.
People get together there forever.
So all countries come to follow us.
The good day of the 5th month of the 29th year of the Qianlong reign.
Imperially written record.

63
Originally, chantou meant “turban-head” in Chinese, but during the Qing period, it was the
Chinese name for Turkic-Muslims. Today this word is often used with a derogatory nuance.
64
Tianfang in old Chinese means Arabia.
65
Tiantang (Heavenly Hall) here perhaps means Kaaba.
66
The Prophet Muhammad (570-632).
67
The Tiele, identified as Türk, were the nomads who existed in the Central Eurasian steppe in thefirst half of the 6th century. Of course, the story of Muhammad’s propagation to the Tiele is not a
historical fact.
68
The Akhun[d], in a wide sense, can be interpreted as any person familiar with Islamic doctrine.
In Eastern Turkistan it meant a religious leader such as the teacher of Madrasa or the chief of themosque.
69“The Koran in thirty parts” suggests that the Koran (Qur’ān) is divided in thirty parts (juz’) for
reading aloud during the 30 days of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. Daming
yitongzhi has such a record that “the scripture (the Koran) consists of thirty parts, and total a little
more than 3,600 volumes.” See Daming yitongzhi 90, waiyi, Modena guo (Medina); Sugita 1995:
76-77. According to Matsumoto Masumi’s suggestion, Baoming zhenjing, which was the Chinesetranslation of the Koran by Du Wenxiu (1823-72), a leader of Yunnan Muslim rebellion (1856-73),
was also in 30 parts.

24

2. The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

In 2008 Beijing, the capital of the People’s Republic of China (PRC),
was the most visible city in the world. The 2001 naming of Beijing as the site of
the 2008 Summer Olympics prompted an unprecedented economic boom in
Beijing. Redevelopment made rapid progress everywhere, and new high-risebuildings sprang up like so many mushrooms after a rain. The stately buildings
on Chang’an Street bears no resemblance to the place once derided as the “great
countryside.”
If one were to head westward from Tian’an Gate along Chang’an Street
and turn south just before coming to Xidan Street, where the department storesare concentrated, one would find a small futong (alley), called Dong’anfu (East
Anfu). The construction of high-rise buildings is limited in this area because it
fronts the Zhong’nanhai area across Chang’an Street, which is the central
headquarters for the PRC government and the Communist Party of China. As aresult, the area still contains many traditional types of residence, called Siheyuan.
In this chapter, I begin 250 years of unknown history that can still be seen in thisordinary back alley with the flavor of “lao Beijing (Old Beijing).”250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Establishment of the Turkic-Muslim CampThe Qing’s Conquest of Eastern Turkistan
This story dates back to the Mid-Qing period, about 250 years ago. The
Qing, the last imperial dynasty of China, was not founded by Han-Chinese
people. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Tungusic Manchu people, whorose in one corner of today’s Northeastern China (Manchuria), rallied thenomadic Mongols and forced the surrender of the Han-Chinese troops from theMing dynasty, establishing the Daicing Gurun (Chin. Daqing guo, or the Great
Qing Empire) at Shenyang in 1636. After the Ming’s collapse in 1644, the Qingarmy went beyond the Great Wall. The Manchu ruler took Beijing easily andinstantly became the successor of the Ming dynasty. After that, the Qing
gradually conquered the surrounding groups to expand its domain. During thereign of the sixth emperor Qianlong (r. 1736-95), the dynasty’s power reached its
peak.
A noteworthy incident symbolic of the Qianlong’s “shengshi(Flourished Period)” is the overthrow of the Zhungar nomadic empire and theannexation of extensive territory in Central Asia (today’s Xinjiang). In the firsthalf of the 17th century, the Oyirads/West Mongolians throughout the northern
steppe land of the Tianshan range (Zhungaria) combined under the Zhungar tribe,and its influence extended over nearly all of Central Asia. The Qing and the
Zhungar repeatedly battled for rule over Mongolia and Tibet. However, in 1755,
exactly twenty years after Qianlong’s enthronement, the Qing army conquered its
sworn enemy’s headquarters, Yili (Gulja), taking advantage of the Zhungar’s
internal disturbances. The Qing at last fulfilled their long-cherished desire.
At the time of the Zhungar conquest, the Qing had already made a plan
to obtain not only Zhungaria but Eastern Turkistan, situated at the south of the
Tianshan. The Turkic-Muslim people (today’s Uyghurs), who were farmers,
handicraftsmen, and merchants, made up the larger part of the population in thisoasis area. In Eastern Turkistan, the arrival of the khwāja clans (Mahudūm-zāda),who were leaders of an Islamic Sufi order, Naqshbandīya, exerted great influence
26

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

over Bukhara and Samarqand at the end of the 16th century. There were two main
sects: Ishakiya (Qara Tāγlïq, or Black Mountainees) and Afaqiya (Aq Tāγlïq, orWhite Mountainees). The leadership struggle between them,1 which radicalized
during the second half of the 17th century, caused the Zhungar’s intervention, andthe two sect leaders were abducted to Yili at the beginning of the 18th century.
The Zhungar forced the Ishaki Khwajas to return to Eastern Turkistan as puppet
rulers. However, after the Zhungar were struck with internal conflict, the Ishaki
Khwajas recovered their own ruling power, beginning in 1755.
When the Qing conquered Yili, they were keenly interested in thebrothers of the Afaqi line who were confined there. The elder brother, Burhanal-Din, was sent to Eastern Turkistan with the Qing troops in order to overthrow
the Ishaki Khwajas and to win the Turkic-Muslim’s hearts.
Although this mission succeeded, the Afaqi brothers gradually took adefiant attitude toward the Qing after the younger brother, Khwaja Jahan,
returned. At that time, the Qing was struggling to manage the Oyirads and they
could not take effective action against the brothers. 2 In 1758, when the
suppression of the Oyirads was in reach, the Qianlong emperor dispatched anarmy to Eastern Turkistan. After more than a year’s hard fight, the Afaqi Khwajas
were finally driven from Eastern Turkistan. Thus the Qing succeeded in
expanding his power into Central Asia.
Establishment of the Turkic-Muslim Camp
Key rear assaults in the battle with the Afaqi Khwajas at Yarkand andKashgar were instrumental to the Qing’s victory. The fighters involved in theseassaults also belonged to the line of the Mahudum-zada, not through Khwaja
Afaq but through his younger brother, Khwaja Kiramat. They accepted theinvitation of the Qing and arrived in Beijing one after another from the end of1759 to the beginning of 1760.3 They were given titles of nobility and placed
1

For more detail on the conflict between the Khwaja sects, see Shaw and Elias 1897; Saguchi
1948; Schwarz 1976; Sawada 2005.
2
For information on the Qing policies to Eastern Turkistan during 1755-59, see Onuma 2003.
3
PDZFL, zhengbian (main) 80: 4a, QL24. 10. jimao; zhengbian 85: 6a-b, QL25. 2. xinsi; Qinding27

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

under the Lifanyuan (Court of Colonial Dependencies). They were received asstate royalties, called Waifan (Outer Vassals), like Mongol nobles. However, theQianlong emperor ordered them to settle in Beijing, not permitting them to returnto their homes because of their great influence in Eastern Turkistan.4 In addition,some of the local chiefs, called beg, who were thought to pose an obstacle to
Qing rule were also taken to Beijing with their families. Thus, exclusive place ofresidence was secured for Turkic-Muslims at the outside of West Cang’an Gate at
the southwest of the Imperial City, today’s East Anfu Alley.
What we notice here is a residence restriction in Beijing City under the
Qing. Cheng in Chinese does not mean a “fortified castle” for influential persons
like shiro in Japanese, but rather a “walled city” containing a citizen’s place ofresidence. Beijing City, constructed during the Ming dynasty, had a fourfold
structure: the Inner City (neicheng) in the north, the Outer City (waicheng) in thesouth, the Imperial City (huangcheng) at the center of the Inner City, and theForbidden City (gongcheng, zijincheng, or today’s Gugong/The Palace Museum)at the center of the Imperial City. The Qing, after taking Beijing City in 1644,
shut the Han-Chinese people out of the Inner City, making it the residence placeof the Bannermen (Man. gûsa-i niyalma, Chin. qiren), who belonged to the Eight
Banners (Man. jakûn gûsa, Chin. Baqi). The Eight Banners were military,administrative, and social organizations into which all Manchu families, some
Mongols, and the Han-Chinese were placed. Each Banner had a flag color bywhich it was called. The Manchu, Mongol, and Han-Chinese who were organized
into the Eight Banners (total 24 Banners) were called qiren. They had many
privileges and they were sharply distinguished from Han-Chinese citizens(minren). The Eight Banners/Bannermen were the foundation of the Qing dynasty.
Under the Qing, Beijing Inner City was the exclusive domain of the Bannermenso, as a general rule, Han-Chinese citizens were forbidden to live there.5

waifan menggu huibu wanggong biaozhuan 107; Xiao 1985 [1979]: 40.
4
Saguchi 1963: 80-89.
5Elliot 2001: 98-105.
28

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

The wall of the Inner City

The wall of the Imperial City

Figure 3. The site of the Huiziying
Source: MMZ 3, jingshi, neicheng, 44b-45a.

This regulation was applicable to the Turkic-Muslims as well. Whenforcing them to reside in the Inner City, the Qianlong emperor ordered thefollowing:
Among the Turkic-Muslims living in the capital, Hussein has gong title,
Mahmud and Turdi Khwaja have jasaγ title. Therefore they should be placed
under the Lifanyuan. On the other hand, form one niru from musicians,craftsmen, and entertainers, and appoint Bay Khwaja the zouling (Company
Captain). They should be placed under the Neiwufu. From now on,
incorporate all Turkic-Muslims who will come [to Beijing] into this niru.
Thus, I order that Babaq and his families be incorporated into Neiwufu, who
was dismissed from Ghazanaci beg and fu zongguan (Vice Supervisors-inChief), and who will soon arrive in the capital. Make them reside together
with Turkic-Muslims who already have arrived.6

6

PDZFL, zhengbian 84: 21a-b, QL 25. 1. renxu.
29

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Thus the Turkic-Muslims, except for the khwajas under the Lifanyuan, wereorganized into niru (Chin. zouling, or the fundamental subunit of the Banner). To
be more exact, they were incorporated into the Plain White Banner of Mongol.
One noteworthy feature is that Neiwufu (Man. dorgi yamun, or Imperial
Household Department),7 which managed the Court finance, supervised this niru.
We can say that Turkic-Muslims in Beijing were under the direct control of the
Qing emperor.
Soon this niru would be called with the prefix “huizi” or “huiren,”meaning “[Turkic] Muslim.” And the niru officials—one zouling (Company
Captain),one

xiaoqixiao(Courageous

Guard),

andfour

lingcui(Corporals)—were appointed. They were treated as qiren and received silver andrice as a monthly salary from the dynasty. 8 The management office of theTurkic-Muslim affairs (Banli huiren zouling shiwuchu) was set up at theirresidence place.9
At the beginning of 1760, the Turkic-Muslims who were moved to
Beijing numbered 126 people, and in a while, 203 people were admitted. The
government repaired or built public housing with 147 rooms for them; the total
number of rooms reached 310 by 1762. 10 The expanded Turkic-Muslim
residence at the outside of West Cang’an Gate came to be called “Huiziying,”“Huihuiying,” or “Huiying” (Turkic-Muslim Camp) by Beijingites. This is theorigin of 250 years of history of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing.
The Inhabitants
What kind of people lived in the Turkic-Muslim Camp? The following
is a list of the names and backgrounds of the main inhabitants.
Khwajas of the Kiramat line:・Khwājassein Erke (Chin. Eseyin)
7

For Neiwufu, see Torbert 1977.
PDZFL, xubian (sequel) 1: 25b-26a, QL 25. 4. yihai; xubian 2: 18b-19a, QL 25. 4. guimao.
9
QRJK 71, repr. 1981: 1193.
10
Niu 2008.
8

30

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

The fifth son of Khwaja Kiramat’s second son Mumin. Because of his
meritorious service in the attack on Burhan al-Din, he received the titleof fuguo gong (Bulwalk Duke) after arriving in Beijing.
・Pārsā (Chin. Pai’ersa)
The sixth son of Mumin. The fourth-ranked Taiji.
・Mamūd (Chin. Mamute)
The sixth son of Mumin’s eldest son Musa. The first-ranked taiji withjasaγ title.
・Turdī (Chin. Tu’erdu)
The son of Mumin’s third son Ali and the elder brother of Rongfei.11
After Rongfei entered the inner palace, he was raised from the firstranked taiji with jasaγ title to fuguo gong.
・Bābā (Chin. Baba)
The son of Mamud. The third-ranked Taiji.
Begs:・Khwāja Sī[r] Beg (Chin. Huojisi boke)
See Capt. 1, p. 22, n. 56.
・Khūsh Köpek Beg (Chin. Heshike boke)
See Capt. 1, p. 22, n. 57.
・Bay Khwāja (Chin. Bai Hezhuo)
The eldest son of Manggalik, who had been Darqan bek at Turfan under
the Zhungar. After the Qing advance, Manggalik was appointed one of
the jasaγ in Turfan, and he dispatched Bay Khwaja to Beijing. Shortly
thereafter, because Manggalik revolted against the Qing in conspiracy
with the Oyirads, the Qing ordered Bay Khwaja to reside in Beijing.
The first zuoling of the Huizi-niru.
・Bābā[q] (Chin. Baba[ke])A beg of Aqsu originally. He was appointed fu zongguan and

11

The problem on Rongfei is taken up later.
31250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Ghazanachi beg at Aqsu after the Qing conquest. He was sent to Beijingwith his families and servants in 1759 because he was accused ofembezzling public properties.12
・Pulat/Fūlād (Chin. Polate)
A beg of Aqsu originally. He was appointed fu zongguan and Ishik-agha
Beg at Aqsu after the Qing conquest. Although he succeeded in the
impeachment of Baba[q], he was also taken to Beijing for embezzling
public properties in 1760.
・Chalama
Originally a Hakim of Arghun in the Kashgar district. Because his
younger brother, Niyaz, and his son, Mulla Khwaja, toed the Afaqi line,
he was ordered to move to Beijing with his family in 1760.13
・Saqal ūfī (Chin. Sahale Suofei)
Details unclear. He submitted to the Qing with Mendu Sufi and Niyaz
Sufi, and was appointed the first xiaoqixiao of Huizi-niru in 1760.
・Mendū ūfī (Chin. Menduo Suofei)
Details unclear. The first lingcui of the Huizi-niru.
・Niyāz ūfī (Chin. Niyasi Suofei）
Details unclear. A candidate for the lingcui of the Huizi-niru.
Chaghatay clans:
・Mansūr (Chin. Mansu’er)
The descendant of Chinggis Khan’s second son Chaghatay. After the
Qing advance, he submitted to the Qing. At first, the Qing planned tomake him Turfan’s ruler, but he had already lost political power in thelocal society. Thus, the Qing decided to abandon this plan and take him
to Beijing in 1760. The first-ranked Taiji.14
・Qāsim (Chin. Hashimu)
12Onuma 2007: 50-52.
Wang 2003: 176.
14
Saguchi 1968: 35-39.
13

32

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

The younger brother of Mansur. The first-ranked Taiji.
Others:・Nūr Mamūd (Chin. Nu’er Mamute)
The cook who served Rongfei.15
Khwajas, begs, and Chaghatay clans had been influential in Eastern
Turkistan, and they were treated well by the dynasty. The persons, serving as theImperial Guard (Man. hiya, Chin. shiwei) or the Banner office, were on the
payroll of the dynasty according to the grade of their title or post; moreover, theyreceived financial assistance for ceremonial occasions such as marriages, funerals,
and so on.16 They could take part in the banquets held under the auspices of theemperor with the Manchu and Mongol princes. Some of them were married toManchu women, or allowed to be buried in their hometowns. In one case, a childwith no one to support it in Beijing was allowed to return to his hometown to bewith relatives there.17 However, as generations passed, the clans of khwajas andbegs gradually declined so that there was not much difference between them andordinary Muslims.18
Although not leaving behind the names, there were Turkic-Muslim
professionals such as musicians, craftsmen, and entertainers, serving at the Court.
They belonged to the Heshengshu (Music Office)19 under the Neiwufu, which
was a department that managed entertainment (music, dance, circus, opera, etc.)
in the Court. In the stela, as was introduced in Chapter 1, the Qianlong emperor
said, “Now the acrobatics of walking on a brass rope by the Turban-Head people
was added to various entertainment groups [in the Court] for treating an honored
guest.” This “acrobatics of walking on a brass rope” probably referred to Darwaz(ropewalking), which is a well-known part of traditional Uyghur culture.
15

Xiao 1985 [1979]: 43.
Neige daku dangan, 022539-001, QL 41. 10. 14, the memory of Yu Minzhong.
17
Renzhong shilu 98: 8b-9b, JQ 7. 5. dingchou.
18
Saguchi 1963: 85-86; Millward 1994: 434.
19
The Heshengshu was reorganized in 1827, and the name was changed to Shengpingshu (Court
Theatrical Office).

16

33

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Picture 1. The Tomb of Khūsh Köpek Beg at Kashgar
Photo: Onuma, 2006.

Figure 4. Stringed Instruments of Eastern Turkistan in the Qing Court
Source: MMZ 3, jingshi, neicheng, 12a.
34

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

Incidentally, it would be untrue to say that only forced immigrants from
Eastern Turkistan made up the population of the Camp. Since ancient times, thepeople of Central Asia had organized caravans and engaged in long-distance
trade. Caravansaries, where travelers could stay, existed at every major city inEurasia; those who immigrated of their own accord were not unusual. The Sogds
in the Tang period are the most typical example. We must also draw attention to
the circumstances that could be observed in Qing Beijing. In 1676, a Russian
envoy, Sparthary, witnessed the arrival of 400 Central Asian traders during his
stay in Beijing. According to his report, most aggressive traders in Beijing were
Turkic-Muslims, and their activity was free.20 Zhungar leader Galdan Khan (r.
1671-97) dispatched 3,000 people in a tribute mission to Beijing in 1684. Most ofthese 3,000 people were organized by Central Asian traders.21 Furthermore,
recent research on Qing Beijing history has revealed that many Han-Chinese
citizens went into the Inner City to engage in various works, and some boughtlands or houses from the Bannermen and lived there. 22 Thus, the previous
understanding that “only the Bannermen were allowed to live in the Inner City”
must be reformed.
From this evidence it is clear that Turkic-Muslims existed in Beijing
City before the conquering of Eastern Turkistan; therefore, it seems reasonable tostate that the Qing government gathered these residents in one place at the timeof the establishment of the Turkic-Muslim Camp. Added to this, one descendantof the Camp, who is still living in East Anfu alley, told me that someTurkic-Muslims were brought from Chengde in Hebei province. This indicatesthat Turkic-Muslims living in other cities were later enrolled in the
Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing.

20

Baddeley 1919: 374.
For the Central Asian Muslim traders under the Zhungar, called “Buharians,” see Haneda 1982:
258-262.
22
Liu 1998: 262-346; Liu 2006; Liu 2008: 240-440.
2135

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

The Qing Government and Turkic-Muslims in Beijing
Xiangfei and Rongfei
There is a legend surrounding the reason for the Qing government’s
establishment of an encampment of Turkic-Muslims just outside the wall of theImperial City.
When the Qing army began the expedition in the western region, theQianlong emperor heard a rumor that a sister (or wife, daughter in other versionsof the legend) of Khwaja Jahan (or Burhan al-Din) was of matchless beauty.
After conquest, she was brought to the capital and installed within the imperial
harem. Because her body emitted a sweet-smelling fragrance without perfume,
she came to be called Xiangfei (Fragrant Concubine). The Qianlong emperor wasobsessed with Xiangfei. He courted her fervently day and night, paying noattention to state affairs. However, the Qianlong emperor was the deadly enemy
to Xiangfei’s clan, and she stubbornly remained chaste. To ease her deep
homesickness, the Qianlong emperor built a Central Asian-style hall (Baoyuelou,
or Precious Moon Hall) and bathroom, and caused a Turkic-Muslim town to bebuilt outside the southwest wall of the Imperial City, on which Xiangfei could
look down from the Baoyuelou. However, the Empress Dowager, who was
anxious about the dynasty’s future, granted Xiangfei the favor of death during theemperor’s absence. At last, according to a version of the legend, her corpse wascarried to her hometown of Kashgar and buried in the Khwaja Afaq Mazar, theholy tomb of the khwaja family of Afaqi line.
In the Xiangfei legend, the Huiziying was established in order toconsole her heart. Needless to say, this was a story created and later embellished;however, a real model of Xiangfei existed: Rongfei (?-1788) of the Kiramat line.
Unlike the legend of Xiangfei, there is little tragic color to be seen in Rongfei’s
life at Court. She was specially treated in a way appropriate to a Muslim woman;
she lived in a Baoyuelou, and ate Muslim cuisine cooked by the chef attached toher. She lived out her allotted span, and finally her remains were buried together
with those of the Qianlong emperor in his tomb (Yuling) at Zunhua, Hebei
36

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

province. Although this is a marked difference from the Xianfei legend, it may bethat Rongfei also was reminded of her hometown far away when she saw the
Huiziying below.23

24

Figure 5. Xiangfei portrait painted by Giuseppe Castiglione
Source: Feng 2002: 31.

23

For Xiangfei and Rongfei, see Meng 1960 [1937]; Yu and Dong 1985; Millward 1994.
It is said that this woman in European armor was Xiangfei, but it is not certain. For this problem,see Millward 1994.
24

37

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

The Role of the Turkic-Muslim Camp
Next, we consider the role of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in the Qing
dynasty. Their roles in the Qing Court as musicians, dancers, and acrobats havebeen mentioned before. But Turkic-Muslims in Beijing also held more political
positions in the dynasty.
The Most important role is that their participation in administrative
affairs related to frontier control. Immediately after the Zhungar conquest in 1755,
the Qianlong emperor showed his belief that the Imperial edict issued to the
Oyirads and the Turkic-Muslims as new subjects should be written in their own
languages. In those days, however, very few had the ability to write
Oyirad-Mongolish (Todo script) or Chaghatay-Turkish (Arabic script) in Beijing,
so the Qianlong emperor gave an order to Commander Zhaohui at Yili to “selectseveral persons with a high ability to write Todo script or Muslim (Arabic) scriptand send them with their families to the capital city.”25 In the next year, the Qing
government established a “government-managed Turkic-language school (huizi
guanxue)” to train members of the Imperial Household in the Turkic language
near the Wuyingdian (Hall of Military Brilliance) in the Forbidden City.26 After
incorporating Zhungaria and Eastern Turkistan, the Qing came in contact with
Turkic-speaking groups in the western part of Central Asia, the Kazakhs, Kirghiz,
and Khoqand khanate, and their rulers regularly dispatched envoys to Beijing.
There is no doubt that the role of Turkic-Muslims in Beijing as secretaries andinterpreters grew even more.27
The beg officials of the oasis towns in Eastern Turkistan, as mentioned
below, visited the Turkic-Muslim Camp when they came to Beijing for an
audience with the Qing emperors. J. Millward has also pointed out that the East
Turkistani merchants and clerics joined in the Camp.28 In the Zhungar empire
there were merchant groups called “bederge[n]” organized from Central Asian
25

Junjichu manwen shangyu dang, junwu, 3-17 (1), QL 20. 9. 16, the edict of the Qianlong
emperor.
26
QRJK 71, repe. 1981: 1195; Naquin 2000: 572.
27
The Qianlong emperor spoke to envoys from Khoqand khanate through Turkish interpreters. See
Howorth 1880, vol. 2: 818; Fletcher 1968: 221-222; Newby 2005: 46-47.
28
Millward 1998: 160.
38

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

Muslim traders. After the Zhungar disappeared, the Qing authority also usedthem for the Sino-Russ trade at Kyakhta. 29 Of course, the East Turkistani
merchants came to trade in Beijing occasionally. Far from their hometowns, theTurkic-Muslim Camp, where the people had the same language and customs,
must have been a comforting place.
Mosque Construction by the Qianlong Emperor
Regarding the establishment of the Turkic-Muslim Camp, the mostnoteworthy point is the magnificent mosque (qingzhensi or libaisi) built in theCamp site on the Qianlong emperor’s order. Whenever one hears mention of a“mosque at Beijing,” we are reminded of the one at Niujie, Xuanwu ward.
However, the Niujie mosque was built for Chinese-speaking Muslims (huimin or
hanhui, today’s Huizu) living in the Outer City. In contrast, the Huiziying mosque
was for Turkic-Muslims in the Inner City.
The construction of this mosque began on the fourth month of the
Qianlong 28 year (May 13 ~ June 10, 1763), and it was completed one year later.
On the premises, an “Imperially Composed Inscription on a Monument of
Muslim mosque constructed by Imperial Command” was erected, in which the
Qianlong emperor explained the origin of the mosque. It was inscribed in four
languages: Chinese, Manchu, Mongol, and Turki. He remarked:
After the Four Oyirads under the Zhungar submitted to our dynasty, I
showed my benevolence by immediately starting to build the Puning Temple
and the Gulja Temple, one after the other. Now the Muslims equally became
my subjects. Why should their wishes not be satisfied? Consequently,
accommodating surplus money of the Imperial Treasury, I ordered thesupervising officials to build this mosque at the center of the Huiziying, withan arched gate, main hall, wing room, and surrounding quadrangle according
29

Saguchi 1986: 242-243. According to Saguchi, “bederge[n]” means “merchant” in Turkish andMongolish. We can also find in TKh the existence of “bāzar-gān” who arrived at Yili. For example,
see TKh, Ms. Orient, 4°3357, p. 115, l. 10.
39

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

to standard regulations.
The Qing Emperor, a ruler who held together various ethnic groups, had to do all
people impartial favors (yishi tongren). The mosque construction was anembodiment of this principle, which the successive Qing emperors attached great
importance to. The expenses for the construction were disbursed not from the
National Treasury but from the Court Treasury, that is to say from the emperor’s
pocket money.
The Qing materials tell us about a few of the mosque’s structures. Fromthe stela’s inscription, we can only know that the mosque was situated in thecenter of the Huiziying, and that it had an arched gate, a main hall, a wing room,
and a surrounding quadrangle. Based on later records, the mosque had azure blue
roof tiles and cinnabar red pillars, and it was surrounded by one hundred oak andwillow trees.30 The main gate, which included a lofty building for the Islamic callto prayer (adhān), was named Banggelou. The mosque had a semi-Arabic andsemi-Chinese style.

Picture 2. Banggelou
Source: Inserted between 14-15 of Broomhall 1910.

30

40

Tang 1938: 57.

Figure 6. Sketch of the Main Hall
Source: Huijiao yuekan, 1 (7), 1938.

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

Justifying the Qing’s Rule
The Qing emperor was an infidel ruler to East Turkistani Muslims. But
some Muslims, especially beg officials and intellectuals, did not necessarily
regard the Qing emperor as a target to defeat by jihād (holy war); rather, they put
confidence in his “Fair Rule” and were rewarded by his grace for their loyalty.31
Mulla Musa Sayrami (1836?-1917?), a historian of Eastern Turkistan who
participated in Ya’qub Beg’s rebellion against the Qing rule, justified submission
to the Qing Emperor by a moral norm of ancient Turkic origin, the “namak
aqqï”(obligation of salt).32 The Qing emperor, on the other hand, thought thatthe relationship with his Muslim officials was rhetorically represented in terms ofimperially bestowed grace (Man. kesi) and the servant’s deep, personal obligationin return.33
A Russian Orthodox Priest, P. Kafarov, also known by his monastic
name Palladii, who made a long stay in Qing China around the middle of the 19th
century, heard from an old akhun (a chief religious leader in the mosque) of amosque in Beijing in which they said the Qing emperor’s name aloud during theIslamic sermon (khuba) at Friday Service.34 According to J. Bredon, a visitor of
the Huiziying mosque in the 1920s, “Manchu Emperors ruled almost as many
Moslem subjects as the Sultan of Turkey and the Shah of Persia together.”35
It is very important that not only Beijing Turkic-Muslims but also local
beg officials from Eastern Turkistan who came as part of “tribute missions”
prayed to Allah in this mosque.36 In the stela, the Qianglong emperor said:
31This logic for justification of infidel rule can be observed in Central Asia under the Moghul rulein the 14th century and under Russian rule at the end of the 19th century. See Kato 1999: 62-67;
Komatsu 2007: 4-9.
32
Hamada 1994, 2001.
33
Atwood 2000; Millward and Newby 2006: 119-120.
34
Kafarov 1866: 455. Kafarov does not mention this mosque’s name and place, but he noted that
there were sixteen mosques in Beijing in those days. See Kafarov 1866: 453. However, the Russian
Tatar ‘ulamā’ Abdurreshid Ibrahim, visiting Beijing in 1909, heard the name of the Ottomanemperor with the title Caliph called at Friday Service while the Ottoman ‘ulamā’, dispatched by II.
Abdulhamid (r. 1876-1909), had been in Beijing. See Komatsu 1995: 138. This gap between the
Mid-Qing period and the Late-Qing period may suggest a decline in the allegiance of the Muslim
subjects to the Qing emperor.
35
Bredon 1922: 151.
36
In Beijing, the Muslim nobles of Hami (Qumul) and Turfan stayed in the Hami guan (Hami41250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Since then, Muslims assemble here at the proper times. And the begs, whocome to the court for audience to the throne by annual rotation, also doworship delightedly. They declare with admiration, “We have never seensuch a Mosque in the Western Region.” When I asked them, “You received
an honor to attend in my presence for audience. Is that just the way tocomplete good parts of local-old practices?” They replied appreciatively on
their knees, “Certainly!”
The Xuiziying mosque was one of the graces granted by the Qing emperor. We
should not ignore that his subjects could read the Turkish inscription on the stela,which characterized the Qing’s imperial vision and ethnic policy. What kind of
emotion must the beg officials who worshiped in the mosque and read thephrases on the Imperial monument have felt on their return trip from Beijing?
The Huiziying mosque occupied a very important position in the process ofcreating the “Fair Ruler” image of the Qing emperor.
However, at the same time, we should not overlook the Qing’s
shrewdness. As for the history of the worship-temples (mosques) built for
Muslim subjects in China, the Qianlong emperor explained in the stela:
According to an ancient historical book, the Uyghurs (Huihe) first entered
the Central Nation during the beginning of the Kaihuang era of the Sui
dynasty. During the beginning of the Yuanhe era of the Tang dynasty, some
Mani [monks] came to pay tributes. At that time, a temple was built inTaiyuan by their request, and the tablet on which was written, “Greatcolorful clouds are shining brightly,” was hanged. This was the firstworship-temple (mosque) ever built [in China].
Here, it is not so important whether the historical interpretation of the Qianlong

Hostel), the beg officials stayed in the Siyi guan (Translator Hostel). See Qingding huijiang zeli 3:
20b-21a.
42

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

emperor was correct or not.37 More noteworthy is that he considered the Huihes
to be the first Muslims to enter China, and the Mani monks dispatched to theTang dynasty from the Huihes as mullā (< Mon. molu < Man. molo < Chin.
moni). In his interpretation, the Mani temple built for them was an Islamic
mosque. Broomhall thought that these were just his misunderstandings about
history. But I think it is not so simple.
We can find record of Muslim people with the title mullā (Man. molo,
Chin. muluo~moluo~maola, etc) in the edicts and memorials written during the
Xinjiang conquest. Undoubtedly, the Qianlong emperor, who read those official
documents almost every day, knew the difference between moni and mullā. At
the beginning of the construction of the mosque, it is unlikely that any
Turkic-Muslims in the Camp could have read the complicated Chinese sentenceson the stela. The difference in nuance between the Chinese and Turkish version
should suggested that the manipulation of the translation was performed
intentionally and officially. In a word, this is an example of a ruler who alteredhistory in order to accomplish the submission of his new subjects. In recent
discussions of Qing imperialism, scholars often emphasize the “almighty” or“multiple” properties of the Qing dynastic system. Yet, at the same time, we must
keep in mind the “clever” side of the Qing rulers as well.

37

See Capt. 1, p. 21, n. 51.
43

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Changes in the Turkic-Muslim Camp
Expansion
After the construction of the mosque, records of the Turkic-Muslim
Camp decreased sharply. The reason for this was perhaps that an incident worthyof mention did not occur in the Camp under the patronage of the Qing
government. A peaceful life brought an increase in population to the residents ofthe camp, and by the end of the 19th century, Huizi niru had doubled. These twonirus were called tou zuoling (Head Niru) and er zuoling (Second Niru).38
Moreover, other Turkic-Muslim residence places outside East Anfu
Alley were established in the Inner City. Wu Changyuan wrote in Chenyuan
shilüe, published in 1788, as follows:
Pushou Temple on Jinshifang Street has an Imperial tablet.
Changyuan thinks that this temple concerns Islam. There is a small
tetrahedral tower within the main gate, which rises into the sky. It must
be the place of the Huibu-Muslims’ morning-evening worship service,namāz.39
This Pushou mosque, where Huibu-Muslims (East Turkistani Muslims) did thenamāz in the Mid-Qing period, exists near the Fucheng Gate today; however, it is
the mosque for Huizu (Chinese Muslim) now. Wu Changyuan also said that there
was another Huiziying on the north side of the Baita Tibetan temple.40
According to an inquiry after the Qing collapse, the number of Muslims
living in East Anfu Alley in the 1930s rose to 108 houses/795 people, andmoreover, Beijing had five place names with the “Huihuiying” (including East
Anfu Alley). All of them were new communities formed by the Turkic-Muslims
moving from East Anfu Alley.41
38

Yang 1938: 44.
Chenyuan shilüe 7, neicheng 3: 26a.
40
Chenyuan shilüe 8, neicheng 4: 2a.
41
Tang 1938: 57.

39

44

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

Picture 3. Today’s Pushou Mosque
Photo: Onuma, 2008.

Twilight in the Turkic-Muslim Camp
Into the Late-Qing period, foreigners visiting Beijing left records on the
Turkic-Muslim Camp. M. Broomhall, who generally introduced the various
problems of Chinese Muslims, referred to the Turkic-Muslim Camp at East Anfu
Alley. He took photographs of the inside of the mosque and tried to translate thestela inscriptions into English. Additionally, he mentioned the situation in the
Turkic-Muslim Camp:
The older ones among them can speak the Turkish language, but none of thechildren, who now all speak Chinese. All their customs and dress, except for
45

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

religious matter, are purely Chinese. They are not well educated nor
industrious. Every three years they are visited by officials from Chinese
Turkistan, and according to the testimony of these visitors the aged Turks of
Peking are well aware of their decadent position, and the danger there is of
their losing their nationality. These men are eager to find some way of
improving their position and reviving their national language.42
130 years after its establishment, the Sinicization of the Muslim inhabitants had
become nearly decisive. Although they narrowly kept a connection with theircountrymen in Eastern Turkistan, their existence, coupled with the fact that the
Muslim children no longer spoke Turkish, gave the aged Muslims tremendous
worry about losing their national characteristics.

Picture 4. Imperially Erected Stela

Picture 5. Mosque Entrance

Source: Inserted between 92-93 of Broomhall 1910.
Two of the persons with turbans standing at the side of the stela (Picture 4) and theentrance (Picture 5) are mullās from Kashgar. It is possible that the person standing at
the leftmost in Picture 5 is Ma Rong’en (see below).

42

46

Broomhall 1910: 263-264.

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

The mosque structures became superannuated. At one time, there had
been a ruined shrine on the mosque premises of a pilgrim to Mecca who had
formerly managed worship service. An elderly man maintained it along withseveral faithful, but after he died in 1908, the inner wall and pillars fell in. The
mosque was “still beautiful in the last stage of ruin,” but it was not what it used
to be and was now a “pathetic monument.” 43 A scene of happy children
innocently playing in the courtyard of a ruined mosque suggests well enough that
the Turkic-Muslim Camp would soon reach its twilight.44
Collapse of the Qing and New Crisis
The outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution worsened the Camp’s situation.
After the collapse of the Qing in 1912, payment of wages to the Xuiziying
Muslims as Bannermen (qiren) was stopped. This brought about their ruin. In
addition, what the government of Yuan Shikai, the first President of the Republicof China (RC), placed at Zhong’nanhai caused serious problems. The wall of theImperial City had been at the south of Baoyuelou. The government of Yuan Xikai
diminished a part of the wall and exposed the whole Baoyuelou to Chang’an
Street. The name was then changed to Xinhua Gate after its repair. Yuan Shikai
was displeased with the Xuiziying mosque in front of the RC government, and hepressed to move the mosque, in part because the sorrowful tone of the Koran
recitation, heard from the mosque every midnight, made his hair stand on end.45
The akhun Ma Rong’en, his ancestor from Aqsu, discussed this problem with
Muslim elders, but they disagreed on the move of the mosque with its nearly 200
years of history. Yuan Shikai was so enraged that he immediately sent his soldiers
to destroy the worship hall, wing rooms, and the Banggelou on the main gate. Ma
Rong’en tried to rebuild the destroyed buildings, but his work was unfinishedwhen he died at the age of 81 in 1937, when the Japanese-Chinese War broke out.

43

Backhouse and Bland 1914: 340.
Bredon 1922: 155. A gazetteer compiled by the military headquarters of the Japanese army also
described how decadent the Xuiziying mosque was. See Pekin shi 1908: 681.
45
Tang 1938: 58.
44

47

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

③
①

④

②
⑤

Figure 7. The Xuiziying mosque and its Akhuns① Repaired main gate after the attack, ② Sketch of main gate before the attack, ③ Ma Yuting,④ Banggelou before the attack, ⑤ Ma Rong’en.
Source: Huijiao yuekan, 1 (7), 1938.
48

The Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing: 1760-1950

The new akhun, Ma Yuting, the grandson of Ma Rong’en, was only 21
years old in 1938. Nevertheless, he was well-informed about Islamic history andNorthwest China geography. He devoted himself to Islamic education, and at one
time, opened an “Islamic School” (qingzhen yishu).46
His life was full of turbulence. Immediately after the Lugouqiao (Marco
Polo Bridge) Incident in 1937, which marked the start of the Japanese-Chinese
war, Beijing was occupied by the Imperial Japanese army. With strategy in mind,
Japanese military authorities enthusiastically built up the “Muslim Campaigns”(kaikyō seisaku), also known as “Hui-Muslim Campaigns” (kaimin kōsaku) inorder to gain Chinese Muslims’ cooperation.47 In 1938, two big events occurredon the Japanese mainland: the establishment of the Tokyo mosque and theGreater Japan Muslim League (Dai nihon kaikyō kyōkai). Keeping up with thismovement, the United Association for Chinese Muslims (Zhongguo huijiao
zhong lianhehui) was organized in Beijing.
It is very interesting that Ma Yuting’s paper and lecture notes for the
students of the China Young Muslim Association (Zhongguo huijiao qingniantuan) 48 were carried in “Huijiao yuekan” (Monthly Islam), which was the
Chinese journal published by the China United Association for Islam in order tospread its propaganda. He expressed his opinions on the Islamic doctrine and theFive Pillars (declaration of belief, ritual pray, almas-giving, fasting during themonth of Ramadan, and pilgrimage), and advocated reviving the Islamic culture
in China, calling himself “Xiangfei Descendant” (Xiangfei yihou). 49 His
connection with Japanese military authorities is unclear, but the insistence in his
articles was sincere, and we cannot discern any comments that accommodated
the Japanese “Muslim Campaigns.” It seems clear that he sincerely wished
Chinese Muslims’ development.

46

See Tang 1938: 58-60.
See Liu and Liu 1990: 99-107; Komura 1988: 89-128; Andō 2003.
48
The China Young Muslim Association was an educational organization for young Muslims
under the direction of the United Association for Chinese Muslims. But in actuality, the main
subject of teaching was secret military training under the Japanese army. See Shinbo 2000.
49
Ma 1938a, b.
47

49

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Picture 6. Okada and Akhun (Ma Yuting?)
Source: Komura 1988: 528.

In addition to this, it is noteworthy that some Japanese Muslims stayedat the Xuiziying mosque to practice Islam. Komura Fujio, also named Mustafa
Komura, visited there many times since the spring of 1938. According to his
memoirs, Ibrahim, the son of the late Khwaja Niyaz,50 lived together with hismother and younger brother. Ibrahim presented Komura a Koran with gold thread
made in Kashgar and a copy of Xiangfei’s portrait. Also, Japanese Muslim Okada
Yoshio studied Islamic doctrine with Ibrahim during 1943-45.51
We cannot know how Ma Yuting, Ibrahim, and Okada spent their lives
later. Their fortunes were tossed about by the intensification of the JapaneseChinese war and the Chinese Civil War.

50

Khwaja Niyaz was a leader of the First Eastern Turkistan independence movement. For his life,
see Shinmen 1991.
51
Komura 1988: 528-531.
50

Epilogue: Memory of East Anfu Alley

In 1949 Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the PRC on the
Tian’an Gate. Maybe some Muslims were present at that scene near East Anfu
Alley, but the expectations for the dawn of a new era were swallowed up in thetorrent of the Cultural Revolution (1966-76). The Xuiziying mosque was also
destroyed completely by the Red Guard. We have not been able to find any
records on the Xuiziying during the Cultural Revolution. It is possible that young
Muslims were taken to the countryside.
Yang Naiji, researching the Xuiziying of the East Anfu Alley in the
1980s after that confused era, reported that many Muslims still lived there. He
met an old Muslim named Chang (Chang daye), whose maternal grandfather had
been a player of the Central Asian instrument belonging to the Shangpingshu.
Chang daye told him that part of the relief of the mosque’s main gate still existed
on a private wall at the back of the public lavatory, and he took a photograph ofit.1
In July 2006, on a visit to East Anfu Alley, I confirmed the existence of
this relief. While I was taking my photographs, an old man suddenly called out tome. His features were noticeably different from Han-Chinese people. I wondered
if he might be a descendant of the Xuiziying Muslims; he was indeed. His namewas Chang Baoguang (then 60 years old), the fourth son of Chang daye, whose
real name was Chang Wenling (d. 2004). Chang Baoguang readily answered myquestions with the help of his younger brother, Chang Baocheng (then 59 years
old), the fifth son of Chang Wenling.2

1

Yang 1982.
The following includes the contents of my interview with them in November 2006 and
September 2008.
2

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Picture 7. A Part of the Main Gate Relief
Photo: Onuma, 2006.

The Chang brothers were born in the 1940s, so in childhood they
played together in the mosque, and learned easy phrases to recite at worship time.
However, the akhun at that time was not Ma Yuting but Yang Wenguang. They
did not know where Yang Wenguang lived now, but he would be over eighty if hewere still alive. Before its demolition, the mosque contained “Three Treasures”:
the architecture erected by the Qianlong emperor, the Koran, and Xiangfei’s
portrait with an amulet mirror. This portrait is probably the same one that Ibrahim
52

Epilogue: Memory of East Anfu Alley

gave to Komura.
Figure 8 is a diagram of the inside of the mosque around 1950, drawn
from their memory. The shape of the main gate was almost the same as that fromthe RC period, but the upper part of the gate had collapsed. In the courtyard, thepillar-bottoms of the original worship hall and the wing rooms constructed by the
Qianlong emperor and destroyed by Yuan Shikai’s soldiers still remained here
and there. Compared with the original main hall, the rebuilt one was smaller andsimpler. The well and water house was used for purifying with water. The stela
erected by the Qianlong emperor was standing at the north side of the mosque; itlooked just like the facing the former Baoyuelou. However, they told me that
there was another pedestal without a stela at the left side, after entering the maingate. I think it is possible that the imperially erected stela was moved.

Chang’an Street
Stela
Pillar-bottoms
Well
Alley

Water
Main Hall

Hall(Worship Hall)

Shadow Wall (yingbei)
5~6m

Pedestal without Stela

Main Gate
East Anfu Alley

Figure 8. Inside of the Xuiziying Mosque (1950s)

53

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Picture 8. Rebuilt Main Hall

Picture 9. Well and Water House

Source: Huijiao yuekan, 1 (7), 1938.

The ratio of Muslims living in East Anfu Alley is lower than before.
Today, most of the inhabitants are Han-Chinese people. As for the ethnic
category of the PRC government, the descendants of the Xuiziying Muslims were
not registered as Uyghur but Huizu (Han-Chinese Muslim). The Chang brothers
did not know why this was the case, but they had kept their identity as“descendants of the ‘Xinjiang people (Xinjiangren)’ or the Persians.” Of course,
they have faith in Islam and don’t eat pork. But it is rare for them to go to themosque in the city for worship except on Islamic fate day, so they indicated that
their belief in Islam was very light. Their response to my question, “What do you
think about losing your own national language?” was simply, “We have nothing
special to say.” This left a deep impression on me.
The East Anfu Alley has been designated as a rezoning area by the city
government. Its inhabitants must move out before long, and with them, 250 yearsof history of the Xuiziying, which was influenced by the political powers of eachera, will come to an end.

54

Epilogue: Memory of East Anfu Alley

Picture 10. Today’s East Anfu Alley
Photo: Onuma, 2008.

Picture 11. The Chang Brothers
Chang Baocheng (left), Chang Baoguang (upper right), and their younger sister (front).
Photo: Onuma, 2008.

55

Glossary

Chineseanyuan 安遠Baba[ke] 巴巴[克]Baqi 八旗
Bai Hezhuo 白和卓
Baita 白塔
Banli huiren zouling shiwuchu
辦理回人佐領事務処
Banggelou 邦歌楼
Baoming zhenjing 宝命真経
Baoyuelou 宝月楼
Beijing 北京
Chalama 察拉瑪
Chantou 纏頭Chang Baocheng 常宝成
Chang Baoguang 常宝光
Chang daye 常大爺Chang Wenling 常文齢
Chang’an 長安
Cheng 城Chengde 承徳
Daqing guo 大清国
dayun guangming 大雲光明
Dong’anfu 東安福
Du Wenxiu 杜文秀
Eseyin 額色尹

er zouling 二佐領
fuguo gong 輔国公
futong 胡同
fu zongguang 副総管
gong 公gongcheng 宮城
Gugong 故宮Hami guan 哈密館
Hashimu 哈什木han 漢Hanhui 漢回
Hebei 河北Henan 河南Heshengshu 和声署
Heshike boke 和什克伯克
Hongzhou 洪州
huangcheng 皇城
hui 回
Huibu 回部
Huihe 回紇, 回鶻Huihuiying 回回営
Huijiao yuekan 回教月刊
Huimin 回民
Huiying 回営
Huizi 回子Glossary

Huizi guanxue 回子官学
Huiziying 回子営
Huojisi boke 霍集斯伯克
Jinshifang 錦石坊
Jinding 金頂
Jingzhou 荊州
jiuxing 九姓
junwang 郡王Kaihuang 開皇
lao Beijing 老北京
libaisi 礼拝寺
Lifangyuan 理藩院
lingcui 領催
Luoyang 洛陽
Ma Rong’en 馬栄恩
Ma Yuting 馬雨亭
Mamute 瑪穆特
manla 満拉Mansu’er 満蘇爾
Mao Zedong 毛沢東
maola 毛喇
Menduo Suofei 們多索丕
minren 民人
moluo 摩羅moni 摩尼neicheng 内城Neiwufu 内務府
Niyasi Suofei 呢雅斯索丕
Niujie 牛街
Nu’er Mamute 努儞瑪穆特Pai’ersa 帕爾薩
Polate 頗拉特puning 普寧
pushou 普壽
qi 旗
qiren 旗人
Qianglong 乾隆

Qing 清qingzhensi 清真寺
qingzhen yishu 清真義塾
Rongfei 容妃
Sahale Suofei 薩哈勒索丕Shenyang 瀋陽
Shengpingshu 昇平署
shengshi 盛世
shiwei 侍衛
shixian 時憲
siheyuan 四合院
Siyi guan 四夷館
Sui 隋taiji 台吉Tang 唐Taiyuan 太原
Tian’an 天安
Tianfang 天方
Tianshan 天山
Tiantang 天堂
Tiele 鉄勒
tou zouling 頭佐領
Tu’erdu 図爾都Tujue 突厥
waicheng 外城wang 王Wuyingdian 武英殿
Xiangfei 香妃
Xiangfei yihou 香妃裔後Xicheng 西城
Xidan 西単xiaoqixiao 驍騎校
Xinhai 辛亥
Xinhua 新華
Xinjiang 新疆Xinjangren 新疆人
Xuanwu 宣武57

250 Years History of the Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Yangzhou 揚州
Yang Wenguang 楊文広
Yili 伊犂Yuling 裕陵
yishi tongren 一視同仁
yingbei 影背Yu Minzhong 于敏中
Yuezhou 越州
Yuanhe 元和
Yuan Shikai 袁世凱
Zhaohui 兆恵Japanese
Dai nihon kaikyō kyōkai
大日本回教協会
kaikyō seisaku 回教政策
kaimin kōsaku 回民工作

58

Zhongguo huijiao zong lianhehui
中国回教総連合会
Zhongguo huijiao qingnian tuan
中国回教青年団
Zhong’nanhai 中南海
Zijincheng 紫禁城
zongshe 宗社
zouling 佐領
zushe 祖社
Zunhua 遵化

Komura Fujio 小村不二男
Okada Yoshio 岡田義雄
shiro 城Bibliography

1. Archival and Manuscript Sources
Junjichu manwen shangyu dang 軍機処満文上諭檔 [The Manchu Edict in theGrand Council]. Document Category in the First Historical Archives ofChina, Beijing.
Neige daku dangan 内閣大庫檔案 [Grand Secretariat Archives]. Document
Category in Fu Sinian Library, the Institute of History and Philology,
Academia Sinica, Taibei.
TKh: Muammad ādiq Kāshgharī. ca. 1768, Tadhkira-yi Khwājagān[Bibliography of Khwajas] (or Tadhkira-yi ‘Azīzān [Bibliography ofNobles]). In Orientabteilung der Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. Ms. Orient. 4°3357,
202 p.

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Changyuan 呉長元 (comp.), 1788. → Repr., in Shen Yunlong 沈雲龍(ed.), 近代中国史料刊 Jindai zhongguo shiliao congkan. Taibei: Wenhai
chubanshe, 1972.

250 Years History of Turkic-Muslim Camp in Beijing

Daming yitongzhi 大明一統志 [An United Gazetteer of the Ming Daynasty]. Li
Xian 李 賢 et al. (comp.), 1461. → Repr., 10 vols, Taibei: Wenhai
chubanshe, 1965.
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MMZ: Morokoshi meisyō zue 唐土名勝圖會 [Illustrations of Scenic Beauty
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