Adaptation to Climate Change and Reducing Natural
Disaster Risk: A Study on Country Practices and Lesson
between Malaysia and Japan[FINAL RESEARCH REPORT]

JUNE – OCTOBER 2011
VISITING RESEARCHER OF FY2011AASIAN DISASTER REDUCTION CENTER (ADRC)

Surina Binti Othman

Meteorological Officer, Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), MALAYSIA

Disclaimer
This report was compiled by an ADRC visiting researcher (VR) from ADRC
member countries.
The views expressed in the report do not necessarily reflect the views of
the ADRC. The boundaries and names shown and the designations usedon the maps in the report also do not imply official endorsement or
acceptance by the ADRC.

Objectives
1. As a preliminary study on Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) related to Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR) and their applications to developed country like Japan and the developing country such
Malaysia.
2. To study on Japan’s approach in term of climate change policies and adaptation measures ascomparison and reference to Malaysia in enhance the measures.
3. To study recent research project and activities are being done/undertaken by Japan to support thedevelopment of adaptation strategies in regions.
4. To study on Legal Framework & National Climate Change Policy in Japan as comparison to
Malaysia Policy – ‘National Climate Change Policy of Malaysia’
5. To look at the roles of Government Organizations and NGOs involvement in CCA’s planning inJapan and Malaysia.

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Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and lots of thanks to Ms. Miki Kodama –Senior Researcher of Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) as our main supervisor for the whole of
the Visiting Researcher Program of FY2011A (June – October 2011), that had fully conducted to thisprogram until it has been successfully organized. She had done a best hospitality during ourmemorable stay in Japan and fully involved in our research activities during the program.
Specially dedicated to my mentor, Ms. Yumi Shiomi – Researcher of ADRC for the fruitful advise andguidance in order to help me for my research studies and realization of this final research report.
Priceless appreciation and gratitude to all the lecturers for the commitment to share the knowledge andexperience to me in the context of climate change issues; Prof. Dr. Manabu D. Yamanaka (JAMSTEC),
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Koji Asai (Yamaguchi University), Mr. Enomoto Hiroshi – Deputy Director of Office for
Climate Change (JICA Tokyo) and Mr. Koichi Kawada, Planning Department of Kobe Observation
Office (JMA).
Big thanks and warm regards to the members of Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) – Mr.
Atsushi Koresawa (Executive Director of ADRC), Mr. Masaru Arakida, Mr. Tetsuo Ibaraki, Ms.
Nakamura, Mr. Takahiro Ono, Mr. Makato Ikeda, Mr. Sugiura, Ms. Chinoi (ADRC, Tokyo), Mr. Kozo
Arakawa (Admin Manager), Ms. Tae Watanabe (Admin), Ms. Junko Fujinaka (Admin), Ms. Katsura
Kawaguchi (Admin), Mr. Masa (IT engineer) and other staff members, also the staff from JICA, IRP,
IGES, UNISDR etc., in order to give a good cooperation, best friendship and share cherish moments
together from beginning until to the end of the program.
An appreciation and best regards to our Japanese Sensei – Mr. Shoji Kawahara, as being a good
Nihongo’s teacher that always passionate to teach us the Japanese’s language, culture, foods andothers as an important knowledge to us to clearly understand while living in Japan.
Thank you to my God, Allah SWT the Almighty for His blessed to my guts until completely finished thecourse in smooth way and successfully produced this research report of the VR’s Program.
Mostly dedicated to my beloved parents and friends that always gave me fully support, pray andmotivation during my study and stayed in this wonderful and nice country - Japan for almost 4 months.
To my VR colleagues, Ms. Anna-lisa Dumaguing Orallo (Philippines), Mr. Sisira Wanninayake (SriLanka) and Mr. Emin Nazarov (Azerbajian) – the VR’s members, that be my best buddies whenever inhappy or in hard time during our stay in Japan.
Last but not least, for the Government of Japan and Malaysian Government itself, thank you for thisopportunity to me in order to learn new knowledge and gained priceless experience, for all the support
they have given. Hopefully, I can give a best contribution regarding the disaster risk management,
share the Japan’s lesson related to climate change adaptation in a way to reduce the disaster risk andfinally could proposed to my department and country as a brief reference through the Japan’s view
points as developed country.

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Table of Contents
Chapter

Topic

Acknowledgements
1.0 Introduction
1.1
Terms of Climate and Climate Change Definition
1.2
Effect of Climate Change
1.3
Understanding Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) and Relation to
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
1.3.1 What is Climate Change Adaptation (CCA)
1.3.2 Definition of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
1.3.3 Linkages between Climate Change Adaptation andDisaster Risk Reduction
2.0 Climate Change and Its Impact in Japan
2.1
Japan’s Climate
2.2
Japan’s Situation Impact of Changing Climate
2.2.1 Temperature Rises
2.2.2 Changing in Precipitation Patterns
2.2.3 Increasing of Tropical Cyclones
2.2.4 Changes in Sea Level
2.2.5 Ocean Acidification
Climate Change Plan, Practices and Initiative with Comprehensive Disaster
3.0
Management Measures in Japan
3.1
Legal Policy and Framework of Climate Change in Japan
3.1.1 Background and Significance of the Revised Kyoto
Protocol Target Achievement Plan
3.2
Japan’s Global Warming Countermeasures by National Level
to
Community Peoples
3.2.1 Low Carbon Society in Japan
3.2.2 Nippon Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan for Industrial
Community
3.2.3 Initiatives by the National Government of Japan
3.2.4 Initiatives by NGOs and Community Levels in Japan
3.3
Recent Adaptation Measures by Ministry of Environment of Japan(MOEJ)
3.4
Recent Adaptation Measures by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism (MLIT)
3.5
Recent Activities/Project Related to Adaptation Measures by JMA, JICA
and JAMSTEC
3.5.1 Meteorological Operation by Japan Meteorological
Department (JMA)
3.5.2 Capacity Building by Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA)
3.5.2(i) Low Carbon and Climate Resilient Development
Cooperation
3.5.2(ii) JICA’s Technical Cooperation, Loan Aid andGrant Aid
3.5.2(iii) Policy Based Assistance for Climate Change
Policy in Developing Countries
3.5.3 Research Development by Japan Agency for Marine –Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)
3.5.3(i) Promotion at MCCOE by a Japan-Indonesia
Collaboration Project
4.0

Malaysia as Developing Country faced the Climate Change

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4.1

Malaysia’s Climate
4.1.1 Temperature Analysis by Malaysian Meteorological
Department (METMalaysia)
4.1.2 Rainfall Analysis by Malaysian Meteorological
Department (METMalaysia)
4.2
Changing Climate of Malaysia and the Vulnerability
4.3
Malaysian Approach of Climate Change Adaptation in Reducing the Riskof Impact
4.3.1 Policy Framework and Research Publications by
Government of Malaysia
4.3.2 Research Activities Related to Natural Disaster Impact:
Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)
4.3.3 Research Plan Related to Water-Resource Impact:
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia(NAHRIM)
4.3.4 Flood Mitigation Projects by Department of Irrigation and Drainage(DID), Malaysia
4.3.4 (i) Atmospheric Model-Based Rainfall & Flood Forecasting
System (AMRFF)
4.3.4 (ii) Flood Forecasting and Warning (Operation)
4.3.5 Case Study of Iskandar Malaysia as Sustainable Eco
Planning City: University Technology of Malaysia, Johor
5.0 Recommendation and Future Plan
6.0 Conclusions
References

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1.0 Introduction
The world is facing an increasing frequency and intensity of disasters – natural and man-made – thathave had devastating impacts. As reported by the secretariat of the UN International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), the last 10 years have seen 478,100 people killed, more than 2.5 billion
people affected and about US$ 690 billion in economic losses due to disasters. Disasters triggered byhydro-meteorological hazards amounted for 97 percent of the total people affected by disasters, and 60
percentof the total economic losses. The tragedy is that many of the losses due to such disasters could havebeen reduced with proper risk management.
Recent year, climate change that accompany anthropogenic global warming (hereinafter referred to as
the “climate change”) are a serious issue as they are predicted to cause serious and large adverse
impacts, including those that may also shake the foundation of people’s life, as well as those on
ecosystems, water resources, foods, coastal and low-land areas, industries, and human health. In
coastal and low-land areas, both the frequencies and scales of floods, sediment disasters and storm
surges are predicted to increase due to sea level rise, increased frequencies of heavy precipitation
events and frequent attack of strong typhoons. Serious droughts are also likely to increase due toenlarged degree of fluctuation in precipitation.
Related to this issue, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed by the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1988
in order to help people understand how the earth’s climate system works and share the knowledge
about the climate change itself. In addition, the IPCC had published its 4th report to suggests thatnations should take adaptation measures since global warming mitigation measures has limitation andglobal warming impacts would continue over centuries even when mitigation measures are taken.
Thus, this final research report will preliminary studied on the climate change phenomena occurring indeveloped country like Japan and Malaysia as developing country to face the vulnerabilities andimpacts. The study between both countries will cover on how to adapt the climate change in a way to
reducing the natural disaster risk which is focusing on Japan’s practices and adaptation measures.
1.1. Terms of Climate and Climate Change Definition“Climate” is a term denoting the state derived by averaging the state of the atmosphere, oceans, andothers over a sufficiently long period of time. The average over a sufficiently long period of time usuallymeans a 30-year average (the average from 1971 to 2000 at present) based on a statisticalmethodology adopted in the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Whereas, “Climate variability”
means variations from the average climate or other statistics (standard deviations, frequency of
extreme values, etc.) on all temporal and spatial scales larger than individual weather events. It
includes short-term variations on temporal scales of seasonal, inter annual, and longer. Examples arevariations of extreme events such as heat waves, droughts, heavy precipitation, tropical cyclones(typhoons, hurricanes) as well as El Niño and La Niña phenomena.
On the other hand, “climate change” refers to a long-term changing trend of climate. It means clearly
noticeable changes in the average state of climate over a period of at least several decades, captured
by such recognition of weather as warmer as or drier than before, or of duration of sunshine as longer
or shorter than before. In addition, this term is usually used for all the observed changes as appears in
the IPCC documents regardless of their cause, be it natural or anthropogenic. But, in the UNFCCC
documents, this term is used under definition only to mean climate change induced by anthropogenic
causes.
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Climate change can be considered from two (2) different aspects of the climate system: responses toexternal forcing and internal natural variability. The climate system is a system that forms and changes
the climate through the dynamic interaction of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface. The actual
climate change is caused by a combination of responses to various external forcing and naturalvariability. Therefore, to understand the climate change that occurred in the past, it is necessary toseparate variability into those two (2) types and examine them individually. Based on this approach,variations of global average temperatures in the 20th century were analyzed using climate models, theresults of which are shown in Fig. 1.1(a) and Fig. 1.1 (b) as comparison between the diagrams:

Source: IPCC 2007 WG1 – AR4

Fig. 1.1(a)Comparison of observed and global-scale changes in surface temperature with results simulated byclimate models using only natural or both natural and anthropogenic forcings. Decadal averages ofobservations are shown for the period 1906-2005 (black line) plotted against the centre of the decade andrelative to the corresponding average for the 1901-1950. Blue shaded bands show the 5 to 95% range for 19
simulations from five climate models using only the natural forcings due to solar activity and volcanoes. Red
shaded bands show the 5 to 95% range for 58 simulations from 14 climate models using both natural andanthropogenic forcings.

Source: IPCC 2007 WG1 – AR4
Fig. 1.1 (b) Various regions of the world all show warming trends over the past 100 years. These graphs compare the observedchanges in temperature (black lines) with model results that include only natural climate forcings like volcanic eruptions andchanges in solar energy (blue) and model results that use both natural and human caused climate forcings (pink).

Whereas based on the IPCC Working Group 1, they reported about the evidence of warming on earth
that cause by the anthropogenic forcing that likely contributed circulation change as shown in Fig. 1.1(c).

7Source: IPCC WG1 TS, Box 3.1

Fig. 1.1(c): The evidence of warming on earth cause by the anthropogenic forcing that likely
contributed circulation change.

1.2 Effect of Climate Change
Over 100 years ago, people in worldwide began burning more coal and oils for homes, factories andtransportation. In addition to that, burning the fossil fuels will release more carbon dioxide (CO2) andother greenhouse gases into the atmosphere that can cause the Earth to warm more quickly than it hasin the past. Scientist from all around the world with Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
said that during the past 100 years, the world’s surface air temperature increased an average of 0.6 ºC(1.1ºF). Although, it may not sound like very much change, but even 1ºC can affect the earth.
Thus, with a few degrees of global warming will lead to more heat waves and fewer frosts. Morewildfires and droughts are expected in some regions of the world with higher rainfalls and resultant
flooding in other areas. Higher latitudes of the globe would receive more rainfall while middle latitudes,
including parts of Australia, are likely to receive less. For these areas, the changes will pose significant
problems for water resource management.
The tropical hurricanes and cyclones may become stronger and sea levels will rise over the coming
decades. Some low-lying coastal areas and islands are already feeling the effect, and will be more
prone to inundation from storm surges. In addition, human induced climate change is another majorstress in a world where natural and social systems are already experiencing pollution, increasing
resource demands and unsustainable management practices.
The effects of climate change (Fig. 1.2) as such as stated below:
Rising of Sea Level
Melting of Arctic Sea Ice, Glacier and Permafrost
Warming of Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and large lakes
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









Heavier Rainfall caused Flooding in many regions.
Increasing of Extreme Drought
Withering of Crops affected the grain production, impact to food shortage
Changing in Ecosystem
Hurricanes have changed in Frequency and Strength characteristics
More Frequent Heat Waves
Health Hazard such, diarrheal illness, increasing of cholera bacteria and etc.
More Acidic condition in Seawater
Changing in Ecosystem, vulnerable species tend to die like coral reefs and polar animals.

Source: by John E Hay, Lead Author of IPCC

Fig. 1.2: Example of Present Impacts; Melting Ice Sheets, Heat waves and Intense Windstorms

91.3 Understanding Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) and relation to Disaster Risk Reduction(DRR)
In many years around the world, many extreme weathers were occurred such in 2008 and 2007, themassive cyclones struck Myanmar and Bangladesh; a hurricane struck the United States in 2005 thatcausing 1,700 people to lose their lives and others. While it is difficult to conclude the extent to which
global warming has contributed to these extreme weather events, it has been scientifically predictedthat if global warming continues, these types of extreme weather events will increase. Nowadays,
issues of climate change are not just discussed in relation to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change but they are discussed in various contexts, such as water resources, food, security
and biodiversity.
1.3.1 What is Climate Change Adaptation (CCA)
Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) is requires in a way to integrated long term planning, comprehensive
risk management, and good natural resources governance and management. For long term adaptation
programs to work, they need to be designed to deal not only with the anticipated problems but also withthose that societies and communities are presently facing. This is not difficult to do for climate change
because the anticipated impacts are already being manifested, with previews of what could be the normin terms of climate events in the future.
An ‘adaptation to climate change’ can be classified into several definitions - such as, bear losses, sharelosses, modify the threat (include increased irrigation water in agricultural activity and flood control
works such as dams, dikes, and levees), prevent effects, change in use (a farmer may choose to
substitute a more drought tolerant crop), change of location, research, encourage behavioral change
through education, information and regulation. Thus, the CCA strategies aim to reduce vulnerability to
expected impacts of climate change.
According to research work by JICA in the Final Report of JICA – FIT (Adaptation) – Finance Impact
Tool for Adaptation by June 2011, Table 1.3.1 below shown the overarching points on adaptation indeveloping countries like Malaysia that can be refers to:10

Table 1.3.1: Overarching Points on Adaptation in Developing Countries
Approach to Adaptation

According to the case studies of adaptation (McGray et al. 2007), adaptations are
divided into three categories as follows:
1) Activities seeking to address economic development which collaterally
contributes to adaptation to climate change as a result2) Activities seeking to incorporate climate information into design andimplementation of development action3) Activities seeking to address impacts associated exclusively with climatechangeThere are 2 major approaches to deal with the relationship between adaptation anddevelopment. The first approach is to address specific risk caused by climatechange, so called the "climate risk oriented approach". The other is the approach to
reduce vulnerability through capacity development for many climate and nonclimate change related tasks, so called "vulnerability oriented approach".

Necessary Actions

The following actions are regarded as necessary in the planning and implementationof adaptation:1) Integration of adaptation into development and poverty prevention.
2) Evaluation and utilization of existing adaptation methods.
Numerous adaptations have been conducted in the past to cope with natural
climate fluctuation in Asia. Strengthening of the measures, evaluation of its
limitations, and integration of these with new technology and methods areneeded.
3) Mainstreaming of adaptation in related sectors
Natural resources, agriculture, disaster, and health sectors are typicallyvulnerable to climate change. The strategy and plans of these sectors should be
implemented in consideration of climate risk (known as “mainstreaming ofadaptation”).
4) Promotion of co-benefit type adaptation; avoidance of maladaptation
5) Involvement of stakeholders
6) Awareness raising and capacity development
Source: Final Report of JICA – FIT (Adaptation), 2011

In order to adapt operationally from theory to action, they are several mechanism that has been
proposed in JICA’s research work; includes as follow:
Step 1: Identifying current and future vulnerabilities and climate risks;
Step 2: Identifying adaptation measures;
Step 3: Evaluating and selecting adaptation options;
Step 4: Evaluating “success” of adaptation.
As we can see the diagram below, John E Hay from Ibaraki University, Japan and as Lead Author IPCC
had discussed in his presentation that the ‘adaptation measure’ is very important in a way to minimize
the unavoidable consequences of climate change.

Fig. 1.3.1: Adaptation Futures, by John E Hay
Source: by John E Hay, Lead Author of IPCC

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1.3.2 Definition of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
Whereas, Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) as defined by UNISDR is ‘the systematic development andapplication of policies, strategies and practices to minimize vulnerabilities, hazards and the unfolding ofdisaster impacts throughout a society, in the broad context of sustainable development’ (UNISDR, 2004:p3). DRR is multi-disciplinary in nature, recognizing the importance of links between hazards and thewider environment (Lewis, 1999; Wisneret al., 2004; Tran and Shaw, 2007). The strategies for DRR
include hazard, vulnerability and capacity assessments.
1.3.3 Linkages between Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction
The expressions “disaster risk reduction” and “climate change adaptation” represent policy goals, one
concerned with an ongoing problem (disasters) and the other with an emerging issue (climate change).
While these concerns have different origins, they overlap a great deal through the common factor of
weather and climate and the similar tools used to monitor, analyze and address adverse consequences.
It makes sense, therefore, to consider them and implement them in a systematic and integrated manner.
For example, risk assessments, flood management systems and building code enforcement contributeto both policy goals. At the same time there are areas of non-overlap, such as in earthquake riskengineering for disaster risk reduction and agricultural or trade policy initiatives for adaptation. Fig. 1.3.3
illustrates the relationship, with each pyramid representing the hierarchy from a distinctive top-level
policy goal, down through institutions and mechanisms, to a base of concrete programme actions that
increasingly overlap.
Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction share another common feature – they are notsectors in themselves but must be implemented through the policies of other sectors, in particular,
those of agriculture, water resources, health, land use, environment, finance and planning. There arealso linkages with other policies, most notably poverty eradication and planning for sustainable
development, and education and science.

Fig. 1.3.3 Relationship between CCA and DRR

In addition, Table 1.3.3 below shown the ‘Summary of Differences and Possibilities for Convergence
between CCA and DRR’ that proposed by Tearfund, 2008.

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Table 1.3.3: Summary of Differences and Possibilities for Convergence between CCA and DRR

Source: Tearfund, 200813

2.0 Climate Change and Its Impact in JapanThe research report will basically studied on Japan’s climate and the changing of climate all over Japanthat happen year by year recently. Natural disasters occur in Japan such as severe floods; typhoon,
temperature rises and changing rainfall patterns, increasing sea level and ocean acidification will be
discuss in this Chapter 2.
2.1 Japan’s Climate
Japan, located on the east side of Eurasia, is a long and thin archipelago stretching approximately
betweenlatitudes 24º N and 46º N, and consists of 4 major islands—(from north to south) Hokkaido, Honshu,
Shikoku, and Kyushu —as well as more than 6,800 other islands (Fig. 2.1).

Fig. 2.1: Map of Japan

Japan stretches over a great distance from North to South with subtropical zones in the south andsubarctic zones in north. In addition, Japan has rich seasonal changes. Topographically, mountain
ranges stretching from the south to north also serve to produce significant climatic change between
different regions of Japan. In winter, seasonal cold winds from Siberia bring a large amount of snowfall
to the coastal areas facing the Japan Sea, while seasonal warm winds from the south make summer
hot and humid.
As we can see in Table 2.1 stated below, it is the major climate statistic averages (30-year average forthe period 1971-2000) for several meteorological stations, which are considered, affected only slightly
by urbanization.

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Table 2.1: Major Climate Components of Japan

Source: JMA – ‘Climate Table of Japan’ (CD Rom – 8th Edition)

Two (2) primary factors influence Japan's climate are the location near the Asian continent and theexistence of major oceanic currents. The climate from June to September is marked by hot, wetweather brought by tropical airflows from the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia. These airflows are fullof moisture and deposit substantial amounts of rain when they reach land. There is a marked rainyseason, beginning in early June and continuing for about a month. It is followed by hot, sticky weather.
Five or six typhoons pass over or near Japan every year from early August to early September,sometimes resulting in significant damage. Annual precipitation, which averages between 1,000 and
2,000 mm (39.4 and 78.7 in), is concentrated in the period between June and September. In fact, 70 to
80 percent of the annual precipitation falls during this period. In winter, a high-pressure area develops
over Siberia, and a low-pressure area develops over the northern Pacific Ocean. The result is a flow ofcold air eastward across Japan that brings freezing temperatures and heavy snowfalls to the central
mountain ranges facing the Sea of Japan, but clear skies to areas fronting on the Pacific.

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2.2. Japan’s Situation Impact of Changing Climate
Since 70% of the national land of Japan is mountainous, about a half of the population and three-fourthof the total assets exist in alluvial plains, which account for only 10% of the area as shown in the Fig.
2.2(a).

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT), Japan

Fig. 2.2(a): Comparison between Kinki Region and Kanto Region

Areas below sea level in the three major bays of Japan (Tokyo, Ise and Osaka Bays) occupy an area of
577 km2, accommodating 4.04 million habitants. In Japan, which is located on the circum-Pacificorogenic zone, mountains are steep, rivers are short and fast, many fracture zones and landslide-prone
areas exist; thus, Japan is topographically and geologically prone to disasters. The islands are locatedon the eastern end of the Monsoon Asia, which is marked by high precipitation, receive a mean annual
precipitation of about 1,700 mm, which is twice as much as the world average, are on the route of
typhoons, and suffer severe climate events such as large hourly precipitation of almost 200 mm. The
land is thus vulnerable to floods, sediment-related disasters, and storm surges. The mechanism ofglobal warming and climate change in Japan can be summarized in the Fig. 2.2(b).

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT), Japan

Fig. 2.2(b): Mechanism of Global Warming and Climate Change in Japan

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In Japan, weather stations began to be set up in various type of the country at 1870s where theweather observation using instruments were launched. With the enactment of the MeteorologicalObservation Law in 1886, observation and statistical methodologies were standardized and suchstandardized methodologies have since been employed in Japan. At present, surface weather
observations are being carried out at about 160 meteorological observatories and weather stations
distributed across the country. In addition, automatic observations of temperature, precipitation, andother elements are being performed over the network called Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition
System (AMeDAS) of about 1,300 observation stations, including meteorological observatories andweather stations. Some of those observation stations have kept long-term records since the end of the
19th century, which provide valuable information for tracking climate change in Japan. It is importantthat the uniformity of observation data is maintained over a long period to enable an understanding ofclimate change.
Thus, in terms of precipitation, which is rarely influenced by urbanization, JMA use observation records
obtained at 51 observation stations where the uniformity of observation data has been maintained;
whereas in terms of temperature, which is substantially influenced by urbanization, the observation
records obtained at 17 observation stations as we can see in Fig. 2.2(c) where urbanization is not very
advanced besides the uniformity of records has been maintained. Those observation stations are notfully free from environmental impacts such as urbanization, but they believe that their observation
records are appropriate for monitoring natural variability in the climate and temperature change caused
by global warming,

Source: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)
Remark: The blue triangles represent the 51 observation stations for deriving precipitation ratios and the red circles are the 17
observation stations for deriving average temperature anomalies

Fig. 2.2(c): Observation stations whose data are used to estimate the surface temperature and precipitation in
Japan

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2.2.1 Temperature Rises
Due to climate change phenomenon, the annual temperature in Japan has been rising at a rate of
1.1°C per century since 1898. The long-term trend of the annual temperature anomaly in Japan isabout 1.1°C per century (statistical period: from 1898 to 2008) is shown in Fig. 2.2.1(a). Hightemperature years have been particularly frequent after the 1990s. As temperatures rise, the numbersof days with minimum temperatures (Tmin) of ≥ 25°C and days with maximum temperatures (Tmax) of≥ 35°C are increasing respectively, while that of days with Tmin < 0°C is decreasing. In particular, mostof temperature rises since the mid-20th century are very likely to be attributable tothe increases inanthropogenic GHG concentrations.
The period of relatively low temperatures continued up to the 1940s, but temperatures began to riseabruptly in the latter half of the 1980s. The years that recorded significantly high temperatures areconcentrated in the period after 1990. The cause behind the frequent appearance of high temperaturein recent years is considered to be a combination of global warming due to increased emissions of
GHGs and natural variations on the time scale of several years to several decades, similar to the cause
behind the rise of global average temperatures. As shown in Table 2.2.1 (b), the significant temperaturerise is found in all seasons for the all four areas of Japan — Northern, Eastern, Western Japan, andOkinawa-Amami.

Source: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 2009
Remark:Annual surface temperature anomalies obtained at 17 observation stations (Fig. 2.2(c)) are shown. The bar graph represents

anomalies from normal (i.e. the 1971 – 2000 average). The heavy line (blue) shows the five-year running mean. The
straight line (red) is the long-term trend.

Fig. 2.2.1(a):Annual surface temperature anomalies from 1898 to 2008 in Japan18

Table 2.2.1(b): Long-term trend in annual and seasonal average surface temperatures in Japan

Source: Adapted from JMA, 2005a.

Long-term trends obtained by linear regression analysis. Statistical period: 1898 to 2008. Regardless of the area and season,
all increasing trends are significant with a 95% confidence level. Observation stations used for this estimation: Northern
Japan (Abashiri, Nemuro, Suttsu, Yamagata, Ishinomaki); Eastern Japan (Fushiki, Nagano, Mito, Iida, Choshi); WesternJapan (Sakai, Hamada, Hikone, Miyazaki, Tadotsu); Okinawa/Amami (Naze, Ishigakijima)

Due to temperature rising in Japan, it is also connected to the ‘Urban Heat Island Effect’ – phenomenon
which raises urban temperatures more than suburban temperatures as a result of anthropogenic heatemissions, heat accumulation, and restraint of water evaporation and transpiration when urban groundis covered with asphalt or concrete. Recent temperature rises in urban areas like in Tokyo or othermetropolitan cities in Japan, in conjunction with global warming. For example, the annual averagetemperature rise in Tokyo is about 3°C per century (Source: JMA). The average temperature rise inother large Japanese cities, including Sapporo, Sendai, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, and Fukuoka, is morethan 2°C per century. The temperature rise in those cities is far greater than the 17 station averagetemperature representing the average temperature rise in Japan attributable to global warming (1.1°C).
This implies that the heat island phenomenon is causing a temperature rise equivalent to or surpassing
the level attributed to global warming.
2.2.2 Changing in Precipitation Patterns
In Japan, the annual precipitation varies largely from year to year as recorded by JMA, and no clear
trends of increases or decreases have been observed. On the other hand, the number of heavy
precipitation days, such as days with daily precipitation of ≥ 100 mm or 200 mm, has been increasingover a long period, and suggests the possibility of influence from global warming. Fig. 2.2.2 (a) below
shown the severe floods occurred in year 2008 – Hyogo Prefecture and Aichi Prefecture, Japan due tolargest – ever amount of rainfall.

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan (MLIT)

Fig. 2.2.2(a): Severe floods disaster in Hyogo and Aichi Prefectures, JapanAs shown in Fig. 2.2.2(b) below, from the annual precipitation changes in Japan, it is known that heavy
precipitation occurred in the years up to the mid-1920s and also around the 1950s, but annual
variations have gradually increased since the 1970s.
19Source: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 2009

Remark:Changes in annual precipitation ratio taken at 51 stations in Japan are shown. The bar graph represents annual precipitation
ratios to the normal (i.e. the 1971 – 2000 average). The heavy line (green) shows the five-year running mean.

Fig. 2.2.2(b): Annual Precipitation Ratios from 1898 to 2008 in Japan

Refer to IPCC AR4, they provided a view that the frequency of heavy precipitation was likely to haveincreased in the latter half of the 20th century in most regions in the world, a similar trend seen in theincreased number of years with heavy precipitation in Japan. This suggests the possibility that theincreasing trend of heavy precipitation in Japan has occurred under the influence of global warming as
an effect of climate change as well. Due to global warming, Japan also had experienced of rainfall
pattern changing in spring season that occur between April - June, as we can see in the Fig. 2.2.2(c).
The diagram summarized the decreasing amount of rainfall in most areas in Japan from March throughJune by comparing between the present rainfall and predicted rainfall after 100 years.

Source: Water Resources in Japan 2007, Land and Water Bureau, MLIT

Fig. 2.2.2(c): Comparison between the Present Rainfall and Predicted Rainfall after 100 years in Japan

20

Concerning the relationship between heavy precipitation and global warming, IPCC AR4 reported that“the frequency of heavy precipitation events has increased over most land areas, consistent withwarming and observed increases of atmospheric water vapor.” (observation) based on the evaluation
using daily precipitation observations. It then offered the view that “It is very likely that hot extremes,
heat waves and heavy precipitation events will continue to become more frequent.”(projection). An
increasing long-term trend of daily precipitation amounts in Japan is consistent with this view of IPCC
and it is likely to have occurred under the influence of global warming.
2.2.3 Increasing of Tropical Cyclones
Japan, being one of the countries exposed to tropical cyclones in the Pacific, has experienced severe
physical damage and other, indirect economic consequences of these weather systems. In Japan, thetyphoon season is typically from around July to September, and hence most of the downtime usually 2
occurs during these months.
Globally, the major factor affecting tropical cyclone frequency and tracks on an interannual (e.g., 2-7year) time scale is the ENSO phenomenon. This has been shown to affect the genesis regions and thesubsequent motion in all tropical cyclone basins (Nicholls, 1979, 1984; Chan, 1985, 2000; Gray andSheaffer, 1991; Landsea et al., 1999; Irwin and Davis, 1999; Chia and Ropelewski, 2002; Wang andChan 2002; Chu, 2005; Ho et al., 2006). On the interannual time-scale, there is no established insitu
positive relationship between sea surface temperature and tropical cyclone frequency (Nicholls, 1984;
Raper, 1992; Chan and Liu, 2004) The exception to this is the North Atlantic, where it is wellestablished that sea surface temperature (SST) is one of the factors impacting on the number andseverity of cyclones (Shapiro, 1982, Raper 1992, Shapiro and Goldenberg, 1998, Landsea et al., 1998).
No such in-situ relationship has been established for the other cyclone basins.
Fig.2.2.3(a) below shown the total numbers of Tropical Storm (TS), Severe Tropical Storm (STS) andTyphoon (TY) formations, their approaches to Japan (including the Ogasawara Islands and the Nansei
Islands), and their landfalls on Japan during the period from 1951 to 2008. The thin solid lines show thenumber of Tropical Cyclones formation (blue), those of approaches to Japan (including the Ogasawara
Islands and the Nansei Islands) (green), and those of landfalls on Japan (red). The heavy solid lines
give the five-year running means. The thin dashed lines show the normal values (average from 1971 to2000).

Source: JMA, 2009

Fig. 2.2.3 (a) Number of tropical cyclones formations, their approaches, and landfalls on Japan21

Through the work of many researchers (Emanuel 1999, Emanuel et al. 2004, Free et al. 2004, Holland
1987, Holland 1997, Tonkin et al. 2000, Persing and Montgomery 2003, Montgomery et al. 2006) there
is developing theory governing maximum tropical cyclone intensity. The key concept is that for a given
ocean temperature and atmospheric thermodynamic environment there is an upper bound on theintensity a tropical cyclone may achieve. This upper bound is referred to as the Maximum Potential
Intensity (or MPI). Emanuel (1987) and Tonkin et al (1997) presented evidence that CO2 induced
climate change would bring about a substantial increase in the MPI of tropical cyclones around theglobe. Thus, climate models (global and regional) remain an important tool for investigating tropical
cyclone variability and change. It is likely that some increase in tropical cyclone peak wind-speed andrainfall will occur if the climate continues to warm. Model studies and theory project a 3-5% increase inwind-speed per degree Celsius increase of tropical sea surface temperatures as summarized in theStatement on Tropical Cyclones and Climate Change - WMO International Workshop on Tropical
Cyclones, IWTC-6, San Jose, Costa Rica, on November 2006.
2.2.4 Changes in Sea Level
There are three major processes by which human-induced climate change directly affects sea levelsuch, temperature rises, melting of glaciers and ice caps and loss of ice mass from Greenland andAntarctica. First, like air and other fluids, water expands as its temperature increases (i.e., its density
goes down as temperature rises). As climate change increases ocean temperatures, initially at thesurface and over centuries at depth, the water will expand, contributing to sea level rise due to thermal
expansion. Thermal expansion is likely to have contributed to about 2.5 cm of sea level rise during thesecond half of the 20th century, with the rate of rise due to this term having increased to about 3 times
this rate during the early 21st century. Over the 21st century, the IPCC’s Fourth Assessment projectedthat thermal expansion will lead to sea level rise of about 17-28 cm (plus or minus about 50%).
In contrast to such rise in global mean sea level, no clear increasing trend is found in the mean sea
level around the Japanese coasts over the past 100 years. As we can see in the Fig. 2.2.4, the sea
level near the Japanese coasts reached the highest around 1950 and is characterized by marked
changes with near 20-year cycle. The amplitude of annual mean sea level variation from 1906 to 2008
was about 0.12 m, which is equivalent to about two-thirds of the rise of the global mean sea level. This
periodic variation predominant in the sea level around Japanese coasts is considered to be primarily
due to the intensity variation and north-south shift of North Pacific westerly winds.

Source: JMA, 2009
The data from 1906 to 1959 shows the annual average of anomaly taken at four tide gauge stations: Oshoro, Wajima, Hamada, andHososhima. The data after 1960 is the annual mean of anomaly taken at four sea areas having similar variation patterns: Coastal areas in
Hokkaido and Tohoku region, in Kanto and Tokai region, in the Pacific side of Kinki to Kyushu region, and in Hokuriku to the East China
Sea side of Kyushu region. The normal is the mean from 1971 to 2000. The blue solid line shows the five-year running mean of annual
mean anomaly of the data taken at the four tide gauge stations. The red solid line gives the five-year running mean of annual mean22

anomaly of the data taken at the four sea areas. The pink line shows the five-year running mean of annual mean anomaly of the datataken at the four tide gauge stations for the period after 1960, which is presented for reference.

Fig. 2.2.4: Changes in annual mean sea level in Japan (1906 to 2008)

2.2.5 Ocean Acidification
Each year, the oceans absorb the equivalent of about a third of human emissions of carbon dioxide(CO2), transferring most of it to the deep ocean. Over the past 200 years, the increasing CO2 emissions
from fossil fuel combustion have led to an exponential increase in the net amount of CO2 being
dissolved in the ocean. Dissolved CO2 creates carbonic acid, which reduces the ocean pH level,
making it more acidic
In the ocean areas to the south of Japan, the CO2 concentration is increasing over time in the zone
between the sea surface and its intermediate layer, and ocean acidification is advancing noticeably.

Source: JMA, 2009

Fig. 2.2.5: Long-term changes in CO2 concentrations in surface seawater and the atmosphere in winter in theocean area along 137°E (mean in the range of 7 to 33° N)

As shown in Fig. 2.2.5, in the ocean area along 137°E (7°N to 33°N) to the south of the Kii Peninsula
where oceanographic observations have been continued for years, the CO2 concentration in thesurface seawater in winter has been increasing since 1984 when the observations started. The total
concentration of carbonic acid substances (total carbon concentration) within the ocean has also been
showing an increasing trend since 1994. For example, in the ocean area around 30°N immediately
south of the Kuroshio Current, the total carbon concentration is increasing at a rate of +1.0±0.2μmol/kg/year25 near the sea surface.
As CO2 emissions and climate change continue, risks to the health of the ocean will become a more
prominent concern. With accelerated melting back of glaciers and ice sheets and the subsequent rise in
sea level, with further decreases in oceanic pH, and with deceleration of the thermohaline circulation,
there are many ways in which the delicate balance of ocean dynamics and ecosystems are being put at
risk. These factors, combined with the uncertainty in predicting exactly how these impacts will interact,
are causing changes in the ocean: an increasingly problematic issue for future generations.
23

3.0 Climate Change Plan, Practices and Initiative with Comprehensive Disaster Management
Measures in JapanThe scientific evidence of a likely link between climate change and human activity provides a major
challenge to policy-making. Mitigation and adaptation will affect the environment and societies in many
ways. The scale and complexity of the interactions between society and the environment represent anunprecedented challenge especially for research institutions. Major progress in understanding thecomplex interplay of the processes of global change, mitigation and adaptation measures and theirimpacts can only be made through well coordinated joint research across national and disciplinary
borders.
3.1 Legal Policy and Framework of Climate Change in Japan
In order to get more clear understanding, the adaptation strategies of Japan itself to climate change
due to global warming will be studied. In this Chapter 3, we will discuss on how the National Level
implements their countermeasures and practices until to the Community Level in a way to adapt theclimate change impact in Japan.
3.1.1 Background and Significance of the Revised Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement PlanFirst and foremost, Japan has promoted countermeasures against global warming due to climatechange impact in various ways, such as the establishment of the Action Program to Arrest Global
Warming (1990), Basic Policy on Measures to Tackle Global Warming (1999), and the Outline for
Promotion of Efforts to Prevent Global Warming (1998, 2002).
In response, the Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan was drafted in April 2005 following theestablishment of the Outline for Promotion of Efforts to Prevent Global Warming, Action Program to
Arrest Global Warming, and Basic Policy on Measures to Tackle Global Warming. Based on the Act on
Promotion of Global Warming Countermeasures, the plan was drafted in order to stipulate themeasures necessary for reliably achieving the Kyoto Protocol’s commitment of 6% emission cuts, andas a result of the 2004 evaluation and revision of the Outline for Promotion of Efforts to Prevent Global
Warming. In 2007, the revised Act on Promotion of Global Warming Countermeasures provided that the
study shall be conducted concerning the targets and programs prescribed in the Kyoto Protocol Target
Achievement Plan and that any changes to the Plan will promptly enacted if found necessary based on
the results of the study. Therefore, the plan was completely revised in March 2008 where the Global
Warming Prevention Headquarters, which is composed of all Cabinet members, completed a proposal
for the plan’s revision and amendments to the Kyoto Protocol Target Achievement Plan were adopted
by the Cabinet.
3.2 Japan’s Global Warming Countermeasures by National Level to Community Peoples
National Government has the role of comprehensively promoting global warming countermeasures andtaking the initiative in implementing such countermeasures. An achievement of the reduction
commitments of developed countries stipulated in the Kyoto Protocol is a significant milestone towardachieving the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC: Stabilization of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations in the
Atmosphere. Perhaps, the greenhouse gas emissions are closely related to economic activities andcitizens’ lives. Therefore, the Government of Japan is implementing the ‘Global WarmingCountermeasures’, founded on the basic philosophy of “Compatibility between the Environment and theEconomy.” Consequently, Japan is proposing as a long-term global common goal “to cut greenhousegas emissions by half from the current level by 2050” in the “Cool Earth 50” which it announced in May
2007 (Fig. 3.2).

24

Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

Fig. 3.2: “Cool Earth 50” Promotion Program in Japan

In order to achieve its commitment under the Kyoto Protocol, Japan will promote the measuresnecessary to reduce its total greenhouse gas emissions by 6% from the base year level in the firstcommitment period (2008-2012). Currently, Japan is a world leader in the development of new climatefriendly technologies such as Honda and Tokyo Hybrid Electric vehicles were named to have thehighest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions. The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to theadvanced technology in hybrid systems, biofuels, use of lighter weight material and better engineering.
Aiming to be a world-leading environmental nation, Japan will also promote the innovative technology
development and creation of a low-carbon society, encourage the participation and collaboration ofnational and local governments, business operators and citizens, and try to ensure transparency andshare information in order to achieve it. The Government of Japan had actively provide and shareknowledge about the increasingly serious global warming issue and information about the specificactions demanding enormous efforts to achieve the 6% reduction commitment and about what eachindividual must do. They will carry out public relations and dissemination activities in a way to improve
the awareness of households and enterprises and rouse them to take the action.
In order to constantly assess the effectiveness of this plan and make it reliable, each year after
formulation of the plan, the Government of Japan will rigorously inspect the progress of the policies foreach countermeasure using countermeasure evaluation indices and others, and will expeditiously
revise the Plan to add or strengthen measures and policies as necessary. To promptly take effective
additional measures and policies in and after FY2010 (the middle year of the first commitment period)to achieve the target, in FY2009 the Government will comprehensively evaluate the progresses ofmeasures and policies in this Plan and the state of emissions, based on the projection of Japan’s
greenhouse gas emissions during the whole first commitment period (5 years).

25

3.2.1 Low Carbon Society in Japan
Moreover, the carbon dioxide - CO2 emissions are projected to rapidly increase as a result of the future
population growth and economic development on a global scale. Therefore, Japan, which has superior
technological capabilities and accumulated experience in environmental conservation, will take aleading role in the world’s efforts to combat global warming through international cooperation. From theviewpoints of responding to the global warming issue and freeing ourselves from fossil fuel resource
constraints, it is necessary to create a “Low Carbon Society,” in which citizens can feel the affluence intheir life and at the same time the atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations are stabilized at a levelthat has no negative impact on the climate, by substantially reducing greenhouse gas emissions fromfossil fuel consumption to the level equivalent to the capacity of natural sinks. Furthermore, all national
government agencies are to promote the countermeasures by sufficiently collaborating in line with thisoverall framework and mobilizing diverse policy instruments including voluntary, regulatory, economic
and informational ones, environmental impact assessment, and social capital development.
Therefore, the Government will work toward building a “Low-Carbon Society” by commencing thetransformation of urban/regional structures and socioeconomic systems from a mid- and long-term
perspective at the earliest possible time. In particular, the Government of Japan will reconstruct urban
structures into low-carbon since urban structures can have a big impact on global warming, taking into
account the aims of the Improvement Plan for Cities and Urban Lives. Furthermore, the Government
will formulate and improve policies based on regional voices through the invitation of proposals
concerning the special zones for structural reform and the regional revival.
Therefore, they are many efforts had ongoing by the Government of Japan due to development of ‘Low
– Carbon Society’ in Japan such as;
1. Realization of Compact, Low-carbon Urban Structures--

The Government was encourage low-carbon urban/regional development by realizing cities
with minimal environmental loads, or “Compact Cities,” where urban functions are allocatedwithin walking distance.
The Government will promote the creation of environmental model cities out of around 10 cities
selected from all over Japan, which will take on pioneering efforts by setting challenging goals
for drastic greenhouse gas reductions.

2. Measures at the Block and District Levels-

Through, introduction of area-wide measures at the block and district levels, for example,
bringing in pioneering measures to an entire district or complex buildings, which are anticipatedto lead to drastic reductions in CO2 emissions by the efforts through public-private partnership.

3. Promotion of Area-wide Energy Usage-

The Government will intensively introduce multiple renewable energy-utilizing equipment toblocks, districts or buildings, and will actively introduce and disseminate environmentally
outstanding district heating and cooling, keeping in mind the characteristics of each area, thepromoting actor, the feasibility of each measure, and the Government will also continue to
implement policies including the utilization of city planning systems. Thus in local areas, large
CO2-saving benefits can be expected from efficient area-wide energy usage including efficientenergy supply to multiple facilities and buildings, mutual energy accommodation among
facilities and buildings, and utilization of untapped energy.

26

4. Efforts Transcending the Individual Boundaries Between Actors-

In order to promote CO2 saving in an entire building or facility such as multi-tenant building or
housing complex, the Government will activate efforts transcending the individual boundaries
between actors like building owners, tenants and energy suppliers. For this reason, theGovernment will utilize information technology to promote efforts such as energy management
and control for an entire area, collective energy management for multiple buildings and facilitywide energy management.

5. Decarbonization of Urban Areas Through Improving the Thermal Environment by Urban
Greening and Other Heat Island Countermeasures-

The Government will do measures to improve area-wide land coverage such as, keeping green
areas through the creation of urban parks; greening public spaces and government and otherpublic facilities; greening the premises of buildings through utilization of the greening region
system; carrying out facility greening such as rooftop and wall surface greening; using springwater or reclaimed wastewater; utilizing road paving materials that can control the rise in roadsurface temperatures; introducing integrally such technologies as water-retentive building
materials and highly reflective coatings; and preserving privately-owned green areas andpromoting the formation of water and greenery networks through collaboration among projects
on parks, roads, rivers, sabo (erosion and sediment control), ports or sewage systems; andbuilding cities with small environmental burdens.

6. Measures for Extending the Useful Life of Housing-

Toward the realization of a sustainable society, the Government will also promote measures for“200-year Housing,” which is designed to have long useful life, in order to contribute to CO2
saving and other environmental burden reduction through long-term use of housing in goodcondition. These measures include the encouragement of construction and appropriate
maintenance of housing with superior performances in durability, ease of maintenance andenergy efficiency.

7. Construction of Low-Carbon Transport Systems-

In order to increase the efficiency of transport systems, the Government, coupled withrealization of a compact urban structure, will implement comprehensive measures including thefollowing: traffic jam alleviation; traffic demand management; development of traffic safety
facilities such as traffic signals; and promotion of the use of public transport systems.

8. Formation of Low-Carbon Logistics Systems-

To promote the greening of the overall logistics system, the Government will strengthen andexpand the efforts under the cooperation among shippers and logistics operators, while
promoting ‘modal shifts’, 4 improvements of the truck transport efficiency or other measures.

9. Promotion and Campaign such a ‘Cool Earth Day’-

July 7 every year has been designated as, ‘Cool Earth Day’ in Japan, when the steps toward
the low-carbon society are shared among the Japanese people. Every year various activities
and events like the Tanabata (Star Festival) Light Down, which was held in fiscal 2008, will beheld to encourage a shift in the awareness of the Japanese people toward the low-carbon
society. Thus, it will encourage the understanding of children toward global warming through27

-activities to spread information in schools, and the promotion of initiatives to make people think
about local production for local consumption.
Initiatives toward things such as car sharing, which involves a shift in consciousness fromownership to utilization of functions, and the 3 Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) will be promoted.

3.2.2. Nippon Keidanren Voluntary Action Plan for Industrial Community
In order for Japan to achieve its reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol, it is extremely
important for the industrial community to advance efforts to control emissions, including theimprovement of energy consumption intensity or CO2 emissions intensity, so that the targets of thesevoluntary action plans will be achieved. For this reason, the targets and content of voluntary actionplans will be determined by the industrial community itself.
Some of the following efforts are encouraged from the viewpoint of meeting social demands:1. Formulating a new plan for a business which has no plan;
2. Quantifying targets (i.e. setting quantitative targets) for a business which has qualitative targets only;
3. Undergoing strict assessments and verifications for the plan by the Government; and4. Raising targets in the case where targets are already overachieved.
In order to advance the effective and efficient reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, reduce the costburden on the entire nation as much as possible with fairness taken into account, and achieve themultiple policy objectives of environmental conservation and economic development at the same time,
the Government of Japan will utilize a ‘Policy Mix Approach’ of fully mobilizing all policy instruments,
including voluntary, regulatory, economic and informational ones, taking advantage of their respective
characteristics and organically combining them. The Government of Japan will promptly conduct acomprehensive study of the most appropriate form for this approach while monitoring the progress ofthe measures and policies of the plan.
3.2.3 Initiatives by the National Government of Japan
With the first commitment period of FY2008-FY2012, the Government of Japan will make leading efforts
concerning its own administration and undertakings such as the purchase and utilization of goods andservices, and the construction and management of buildings, based on the National Government Action
Plan under the Act on Promotion of Global Warming Countermeasures and each ministry’s
implementation plan under this Plan.
In particular, the initiatives are include:
1. They will intensively promote greening of National Government buildings across the country bymeans of photovoltaic power generation, building planting, ESCO 9 and others.
2. They will conclude environment-conscious contracts mainly in four areas: electrical power,
automobiles, ESCO and buildings, based on the Act Concerning the Promotion of Contracts
Considering Reduction of Greenhouse Gases and Other Emissions by the State and Other Entities(Act No.56 of 2007; hereinafter referred to as the “Green Contract Act”). The Basic Policies also will
be revised if necessary.
3. With regards to national government buildings, they will continue to promote Green Government
Building construction, Green Assessment and Green Renovation and thorough appropriate
operation and management.
4. They will utilize the Life Cycle Energy Management (LCEM), method of air-conditioning system andintroducing fuel-efficient vehicles such as clean diesel, clean energy and idling stop vehicles.
5. They will work to form a “CO2 -Saving Government Office Area” around Kasumigaseki District
28

through pioneering introduction of new technology and systems and organic collaboration among
ministries and agencies such using the solar
6. They introduce the sophistication of common-use bicycle systems; and further promotion ofplanting.
7. They will further strengthen the roles of the Japan Center for Climate Change Action, prefecturaland major municipal Promotion Centers for Climate Change Action, Climate Change Action Officers,
Regional Councils on Global Warming Countermeasures and other organizations which promote
the activities of controlling greenhouse gas emissions.
8. They will encourage individual citizens to take voluntary actions for preventing global warming bystrongly appealing to the awareness of citizens through the appropriate provision of information
using diverse methods, including the proactive utilization of various mass media such as television,
newspapers and the Internet, on the “I declare CO2 reduction of 1 kg 1 day 1 person” movement,
Cool Biz (business style to wear light clothing with the air conditioning set at 28 in summer), Warm
Biz (business style to wear warm clothing with the air conditioning set at 20 in winter), and otherefforts in the Team Minus 6% campaign.
9. They will take such measures as introduction of fluorocarbon-free insulation materials, renovations
contributing to global warming countermeasures including local wood use and introduction ofrenewable energy devices, while utilizing the Internet or other media to promote support for global
warming countermeasures in households.
10. The Government of Japan will disseminate examples of energy-saving ideas through its ‘National
Energy-saving Campaign’, and will develop a ‘Nationwide Eco-Action-Point scheme’, under whichpeople can acquire points through the purchase of energy-efficient appliances or other products orservices that contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Thus, the Government of Japan estimated that if these countermeasures are implemented as planned,
an annual average removal volume of about 0.06% relative to the base year total emissions (0.74
million t- CO2 ) will be acquired in the first commitment period.
Moreover, At the United Nations Summit on Climate Change on September 22, 2009, Prime Minister
Yukio Hatoyama announced that Japan would aim to reduce its emissions by 25% by 2020, if
compared to the 1990 level, premised on the formulation of a fair and effective international frameworkby all major economies and agreement on their ambitious targets. The Prime Minister was resolved toexercise the political will required to deliver on this promise by mobilizing all available policy tools.
These will include the introduction of a domestic emission trading mechanism and a feed in tariff forrenewable energy, as well as the consideration of a global warming tax.

3.2.4 Initiatives by NGOs and Community Levels in Japan
In order to succeed such policies, action plans and practices by the National Government Level due toclimate change adaptation - fully involvement, collaboration and good cooperation between
Government and the Community Level is very important. Therefore, the Government of Japan will
collaborate with a variety of different actors, such as NGOs, community groups, citizens, companies,
and the administration, with the aim of established and spreading across the country activities that arerooted in the community, such as region-wide citizens’ movements, thus creating a society in which
individuals act starting from what is closest at hand.
To achieve this, the Government will support the initiatives of organizations of different types, such as
the Centers for Climate Change Actions and regional committees, and the initiatives of climate change
action officers. It will also support environmental conservation initiatives carried out through29

partnerships of regional NGOs, NPOs, companies, regional public bodies, etc. Moreover, theGovernment will support community funds that give financial and non-financial support to the initiativesof organizations, NGOs, etc., that have close links to the community and demonstrate leadership; it will
support businesses consulting on the emission reduction initiatives of companies and individuals; and it
will facilitate such initiatives. The government will also support, through regional industry-universitygovernment collaboration, the development of new products and services that contribute to bringing
about a low-carbon society, and the expansion of markets for these products and services, bypromoting Industrial Cluster Project.
3.3 Recent Adaptation Measures by Ministry of Environment of Japan (MOEJ)
The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
pointed out that even the most stringent mitigation efforts (i.e., reduction of greenhouse gases (GHGs))
cannot avoid further impacts of climate change in the next few decades. It is therefore essential to carryout not only initiatives for the long-term mitigation of climate change, but also initiatives to adapt toclimate change. Thus, Japan has already pursued energy conservation for many decades, and has
been progressive in its climate change mitigation efforts. In parallel with those efforts, Japan has
recognized the significance of the impacts of global warming and climate change, and has been
engaged in extensive research, studies and policy discussions since 1990s.
In 2008, MOEJ released “Wise Adaptation to Climate Change” (Fig. 3.3(a)) report that summarized thescientific knowledge available to date on the impacts of, and adaptation to, climate change in Japanand Asian developing countries, and to present concepts of “wise” (effective and efficient) adaptation.
Together, various MOEJ reports provide the latest information on the impacts of an adaptation toclimate change, and propose further research necessary, taking into account the need to contribute todecision making.

Source: Wise Adaptation to Climate Change (MOEJ, 2008)

Fig. 3.3(a): Wise Adaptation to Climate Change

30

Source: Ministry of Environment of Japan (MOEJ)

Fig. 3.3(b): Overview of design & implementation of adaptation measures

Adaptation planning should be carried out based on an understanding of the necessity and priority rankof adaptation strategies. Rather than starting completely from zero, it is often better to start by
integrating the concepts and approaches of adaptation into existing plans and measures. Adaptation
strategies will be more effective and efficient if an effort is made to utilize existing structures andframeworks to the greatest extent possible. As we can see in the Fig. 3.3(b) is shown the overview ofdesign & implementation of adaptation measures in Japan itself.
Fig. 3.3(c) below shows the essential foundations for the implementation of Adaptation Measures –performance of roles and collaboration between National Governments, Local Governments, Citizens
and Business in Japan.

31Source: Ministry of Environment of Japan (MOEJ)

Fig. 3.3(c): Foundations for the Implementation of Adaptation Measures in Japan

3.4 Recent Adaptation Measures by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism(MLIT)
Impacts of climate change such as increases in the intensity and frequency of floods that had been
occurring in worldwide and Japan itself, although the degree of impacts are varies by region or
countries. It has been pointed out that global climate change is likely to cause rising sea level andenlarged fluctuations of precipitation including more frequent heavy rainfall, more intensified tropical
cyclones and severe droughts.
To cope with these possible future changes, the River Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism (MLIT), Japan, is currently looking into how Japan should implement adaptation
measures to climate change especially in the field of water-related disasters, such as floods, sedimentrelated disasters, storm surges and droughts. The flowchart (Fig. 3.4 (a)) shows the process fordeveloping adaptation measures by MLIT.

32

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan (MLIT)

Fig. 3.4 (a): Flowchart of Adaptation Measures proposed by MLIT, Japan

Adaptation measures formulated based on the methods that need to be flexible in order to adapt
adequately to changes, and can be developed by reviewing the results of climate changes andincreases in projection accuracy through the PDCA cycle as shown in Fig. 3.4 (b). The PDCA cycle
described includes checks (Check: C) according to the results of monitoring climate changes, as well as
checks (C) based on the implementation of adaptation measures (Do: D). When using the PDCA cycle,
it is important to fully understand the latest knowledge on climate change, social conditions such as
population and changes in land use, development of flood control facilities, and subsequent investment
capability. In order to develop and implement adaptation measures to cope with the impacts for the
moment, it is effective to consider adaptation measure to be taken over a period of 20 to 30 years.
Besides, it is necessary to understand in advance the uncertainties of future projection that will be exist,
when trying to identify risks and decide on adaptation measure.

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan (MLIT)

Fig. 3.4 (b): PDCA Concept of treatment of uncertainty

33

In addition, the uncertainties associated with climate change projection include, such as;-

uncertainty inherent in the global warming scenarios themselves; a number of cases are assumed
in connection with the global warming scenarios.
projections made by use of global climate models (GCM) that have differences in projection results
among different global climate models.
uncertainty relates to downscaling needed for the reproduction and projection of river basin scale
rainfall distributions based on projection results made by global climate models (GCM).
uncertainty exists in the prediction of future changes in floodplain vulnerability (e.g., population,
property).

Part of this, flood management is needed to be developed with a long-term perspective in Japan. Under
MLIT, the International Center for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM) has developed theIntegrated Flood Analysis System (IFAS) as shown in Fig. 3.4 (c). IFAS uses satellite based
precipitation data to perform integral analyses, including runoff analysis and calculations of flood
propagation in river channels. IFAS distributed by ICHARM is a flood analysis system that utilizes
satellite precipitation data and a geographic information system. IFAS makes it possible to perform
runoff analyses and flooding analyses of areas where there are few or no ground-based observation
stations and precipitation and other basic data are lacking. IFAS, therefore, is thought to be particularly
useful in developing countries that do not have adequate ground-based hydrologic observation systems.

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan (MLIT)

Fig. 3.4 (c): Discharge analysis technology using satellite data

The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) implements a variety of flood control
projects to protect life and property from floods. To drain flood waters safely and efficiently, the MLIT
improves river channels and constructs floodways and retarding basins. In urban areas, comprehensive
MLIT flood protection measures improve the water-retaining and retarding functions of river basins.
MLIT projects also improve and construct river channels, regulating basins, underground rivers andalso use the dams for flood mitigation. Besides, MLIT assistance covers project finding and formation,
promotion of development and transfer of technology, promotion of international exchanges, anddispatching of advisory attaches. For example in Malaysia, technical assistance between Malaysia andJapan by MLIT with Malaysian Government - Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), had been
undergoing collaborate in the project of, “National Estuary Management Flood Control PlanningComprehensive Muda River Basin Administration Planning”.

34

3.5 Recent Activities/Project Related to Adaptation Measures by JMA, JICA and JAMSTEC
Based on this report, three (3) agencies in Japan; Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology(JAMSTEC) had been selected in order to study their recent activities; research project or plan as theadaptation countermeasures of climate change impact, due to reducing the disaster risk in Japan.
3.5.1 Meteorological Operation by Japan Meteorological Department (JMA)
Recent years have seen growing concern over world environmental issues such as global warming,ozone layer depletion and acid rain as well as extreme weather events associated with climate change.
To address the related issues, Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) contributes to the development of
mitigation and adaptation measures related to climate change in various sectors through the provisionof scientific information and expertise on climate change.
For this purpose, JMA monitors and analyzes climatic conditions in Japan and around the world as wellas greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations and global average surface temperatures. The Agency
publishes the results of numerical projections for future climate conditions obtained using a coupledatmosphere-ocean general circulation model and a regional climate model developed by its
Meteorological Research Institute (MRI) to assess the effects of global warming (Fig. 3.5.1(a)).
In addition, the Global Environment and Marine Department as one of JMA’s departments wasestablished in July 2005 in order to serves the public through the climate data, marine observation
report and environment’s information as dissemination of GHG due to climate change. JMA contributes
to international collaboration for the purpose of assessing climate change, particularly through theactivities of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), by preparing assessment reports.

Source: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

Fig. 3.5.1(a): Unified Approach for Global Environmental Issues by JMA

In the context of climate condition and extreme weather, JMA monitors global climate data through
WMO's Global Telecommunication System (GTS). It assembles quality-checked data on temperatureand precipitation to assess extreme climate events, and publishes Monitoring Reports on suchphenomena with brief descriptions of the resulting disastrous conditions (Fig. 3.5.1(b)). The Agency
also monitors the present state of the global climate system (Fig. 3.5.1(c)). These monitoring results areuseful in understanding the present climate, including extreme events and long-term trends, and incarrying out long-range forecasts and scientific research such in (Fig.3.5.1 (d) (e) (f)) had been shownin this report.

35

Source: Climate Change Observation Report JMA, 2006

Fig. 3.5.1(b): Extreme High and Low Temperature in Japan

Source: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

Fig. 3.5.1(c): Regional Climate Model by JMA

Source: Extreme Weather Report JMA, 2005

Fig. 3.5.1(d): Prediction of Change in Average Temperature in Japan and Surrounding Areas36

As shown in Fig. 3.5.1(d), the Climate Model Prediction by JMA Extreme Weather Report based on A2
Scenario relatively high emission of CO2 in Japan. The report described the increasing of 2 - 3ºC
temperature (4ºC in a part of Hokkaido) and remarkable increase in winter on January compare tosummer on July.

Source: Extreme Weather Report JMA, 2005

Fig. 3.5.1(e): Prediction of Change of Numbers of Tropical Day and Extremely Hot Day

Besides in Fig. 3.5.1(e) show the prediction of number of day changes in two situation based in Tokyo,
Japan; 23.1 days in tropical night (~days with the minimum temperature over 25ºC) and 45.6 days intropical day (~days with the maximum temperature over 30ºC) between years of 1971 till 2000. Thiscan be caused by the global warming as an impact of climate change.

Source: Extreme Weather Report JMA, 2005

Fig. 3.5.1(f): Prediction of Change of Yearly Precipitation in Japan

Whereas in Fig. 3.5.1(f) shows the prediction of change of yearly precipitation occur basically all around
Japan. It can be summarized from JMA’s report that the precipitation will be increase almost all areas
especially in Western Japan about 20% increase related to changing of climate.
37

In addition, JMA had reported based on their forecast of tropical low pressure in Japan, the strong low
pressure will be increasing whereas the number of generation will be decreasing. This study is thecomparison between the early 21st century and late 21st century, as shown in Fig. 3.5.1(g).

Source: Extreme Weather Report JMA, 2005

Fig. 3.5.1(g): Forecast of Tropical Low Pressure

3.5.2 Capacity Building by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)
The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), was established in 1974 is the semi - Japanese
Governmental Agency that provides strategic and effective ODA through integrated and comprehensive
implementation of Technical Cooperation, Loan Aid and Grant Aid as one of the largest ODA executing
agency in the world (Fig. 3.5.2). JICA undertakes many climate change related projects and programsin developing countries through this three schemes.

Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

Fig. 3.5.2: JICA and Japan’s ODA

38

3.5.2(i) Low Carbon and Climate Resilient Development Cooperation
JICA has been continuously tackling climate change including both mitigation and adaptation measuresin developing countries as a critical part of development issues, based on the “Direction of JICA
Operation Addressing Climate Change” announced on October 1, 2008. The approach is basically
based upon the following principles as stated in Fig. 3.5.2(i)(a) below.

Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

Fig. 3.5.2 (i) (a): Overall action plans by JICA’s approach to achieving Low Carbon and Climate Resilient
SocietyThus, some of the important key-points to be highlight related to this JICA’s approach are;
1. Promoting Integrated Cooperation Addressing Climate Change Measures in Development
Cooperation


JICA is promoting integrated cooperation from cross-cutting perspective based on theexperience and good practice in previous development cooperation in order to reducegreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and achieve economic growth in a compatible manner.

2. Aligning Climate Change and Development based on Co-Benefits and Climate Risk-based
Approach

Development cooperation, including financial and technical support is crucial to planningand implementing measures addressing climate change and sustainable development indeveloping countries. JICA is conducting its development cooperation operations basedon Co-Benefits and Climate Risk-based Approach to achieving Low Carbon and Climate
Resilient Society

3. Realizing Tangible Development Projects from the Perspective of Climate Change
Mitigation and Adaptation
 JICA is conducting development cooperation to address both climate change measuresand development by effectively utilizing Japan’s cutting- edges technologies including
those of the private sector. These activities are focused on development needs of therespective developing countries.
In addition, example of JICA’s project that focused on the adaptation measures were such as, Bali
Beach Conservation Project (Indonesia, 2009), Project for Construction of Multipurpose Cyclone
39

Shelters Emergency Disaster Damage Rehabilitation Project (India, The Study on Glacial Lakes
Outburst Floods (GLOF) in the Bhutan Himalayas (Bhutan), The Project for Strengthening of Malaria
Control in Solomon Islands (Solomon Island), Programmes for Emergency Water Supply (Senegal,
Mozambique, Niger and Ethiopia) and Participatory Land and Forest Management Project for Reducing
Deforestation (Laos, 2004).
Fig. 3.5.2(i) (b) shows, the JICA’s projects on the developing countries such in Indonesia, Vietnam,
India and etc. related to Low Carbon and Climate Resilient Society

Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

Fig. 3.5.2(i) (b): Various of JICA’s Project related to Climate Change

3.5.2(ii) JICA’s Technical Cooperation, Loan Aid and Grant Aid
Besides that, in a way to introduce and transferring the Japan’s technologies to other developing
countries, JICA had a technical cooperation by its training program provided among Asia countries andAfrica through their Basic Training for Introduction of Solar Power (Pacific Resource Exchange Center –PREX) on 2011 and also the Technical Cooperation (Dispatch of Experts) Science and Technology
Research Partnership for Sustainable Development (SATREPS) to support international joint researchcooperation between Japan and developing countries for resolving global issue such as natural disasterprevention. (Fig.3.5.2 (ii)).

Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

Fig.3.5.2 (ii): International Joint Research Cooperation between Japan and Developing Countries

40

Whereas, there are many kinds of loan aid in such area like CDM, energy efficiency, renewal energy
promotion and others that had been offered by JICA itself. Perhaps, the grant aid by JICA also includes
the Grant Aid (Program Grant Aid for Environment & Climate Change) for Samoa (2010 – 2013):
Program for Improving the Weather Forecasting System and Meteorological Warning Facilities in orderto enhance the weather forecasting ability and reducing vulnerability to natural disaster throughimprovement of system and facilities. In Kenya, JICA provided the grant aid through the Program forCommunity‐based Flood Disaster Management to Adapt to Climate Change in the Nyando River
Basin (2009 – 2011). The grant aid provides structural (evacuation facilities) and non‐structural(training) measures to adapt to negative impacts of climate change.
3.5.2(iii) Policy Based Assistance for Climate Change Policy in Developing Countries
Climate Change Program Loan (CCPL) under JICA is an innovative scheme to facilitate theimplementation of climate change policies through financial and technical assistance for developing
countries in alignment with their national development policies and strategies. In Indonesia, JICA had
signed a CCPL Agreement on September 2008 as its first case. Through the year 2008, JICA
conducted monitoring and also provided advisory services to Indonesia to achieve the secure
implementation of their National Action Plan addressing Climate Change. Furthermore, JICA andIndonesia signed their 2nd and 3rd agreements to finance CCPL after modification of the policy matrix toimprove effective, feasible and tangible policy actions based on year-round monitoring. Even, JICA also
signed the same type of program loan agreement with Vietnam in June 2010. The example of Policy
Matrix that had been proposed by JICA’s CCPL scheme as shown in Fig. 3.5.2(iii).

Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

Fig. 3.5.2(iii): Policy Matrix Example proposed by JICA

41

3.5.3 Research Development by Japan Agency for Marine – Earth Science and Technology(JAMSTEC)
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) was inaugurated on April 1, 2004
as one of the independent administrative institutions upon re-organized from its former organization,
Japan Marine Science and Technology Center. In context of global climate and related toenvironmental aspect, JAMSTEC has a wide range of research activities and projects at theinternational levels around the world. One of their research institutes – “Research Institute of Global
Change (RIGC)” that promote international earth observation programs, such as the Global Earth
Observation System of Systems (GEOSS), as well as actively participate in the United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is one of the important measures to contributedecision-making on climate change solutions and the enhancement of the earth’s sustainability on a
global and human scale, while securing Japan’s presence in the arena of environmental change.
On April1, 2009, the research areas mainly including Institute of Observational Research for Global
Change (IORGC) and Frontier Research Center for Global Change (FRCGC) were reorganized as the
Research Institute for Global Change (RIGC), and the following seven (7) research programs were
established, such;Ocean Climate Change Research Program

Tropical Climate Variability Research ProgramNorthern Hemisphere Cryosphere Program

Environmental Biogeochemical Cycle Research Program

Global Change Projection Research Program

Climate Variation Predictability and Applicability Research Program

Advanced Atmosphere-Ocean-Land Modeling Program

In particular, the El Nino, the Indian Ocean dipole mode phenomenon, monsoons, and the MaddenJulian Oscillation (MJO) as the major tropical ocean/atmosphere variations - are all mutually interrelated,and have great impact on global weather and short term climate change, hence affect human life andeconomic activities. Moreover, in the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean, including the Indonesian andIndochina regions, which one of the RIGC’s Program: Tropical Climate Variability Research Program
has aims to construct high-precision observation networks of the ocean, atmosphere and land, and toreveal the water cycling mechanism related to the monsoons, from diurnal to annual variability, as wellas the mechanism of the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) and its effects.
3.5.3 (i) Promotion at MCCOE by a Japan-Indonesia Collaboration Project
In order to clarify the multi-periodic phenomena induced by the land-ocean coexistence, observation
networks have been installed both over land and ocean of Indonesian Maritime Continent (IMC) (Fig.
3.5.3(i)(a)) during the two decades under collaborations by Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science andTechnology (JAMSTEC) and Kyoto University in the Japanese side and the Agency for the Assessment
and Application of Technology (BPPT), the Indonesian Institute for Space and Aeronautics (LAPAN)
and the Meteorological, Climatological and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) in the Indonesian side. This
project is coordinated by Professor Manabu D. Yamanaka (JAMSTEC) and his research teams(Yamanaka et al., 2008).

42

Source: Yamanaka et al., 2008
Fig. 3.5.3(i)(a) : Atmospheric and oceanic phenomena generated around Indonesian Maritime Continent (IMC) and affecting
global climate. Left panel shows passage of super-could clusters associated with intraseasonal variations (ISV) through IMC.
Right panel shows cloud distribution variability dependent on El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian-Ocean Dipole
Mode (IOD).

On land of IMC, based on several foregoing campaign observations, continuous operations of a radarprofiler network called ‘Hydrometeorological Array for Interaseasonal Variation-Monsoon
Automonitoring(HARIMAU)’ have been started (Yamanaka et al., 2008). Over the Indonesian exclusive economic zone
(EEZ) surrounding IMC, collaborations of installation and maintenance of buoys, as well as research
vessel observations, have been continued as a part of the Global Network of Tropical Ocean Climate
Study (TOCS) (Ando et al., 2010).

Source: Yamanaka et al., 2008

Fig. 3.5.3(i)(b): Concept of the Maritime Continent Center of Excellence (MCCOE)

43

Thus, the International Center of Tropical Climatology, Meteorology and Oceanography, called"Maritime Continent Center of Excellence" (MCCOE) (Fig. 3.5.3 (i) (b)) is being started to install in
Jakarta, Indonesia by a project under the Science and Technology Research Partnership for
Sustainable Development (SATREPS) of Japanese funding agencies (JICA and JST) in year 2010 andwill be supported fully by the Indonesian Government after completion in 2014. Besides, the MCCOE
has three (3) functions, including the observation center maintaining/operating radar (HARIMAU) andbuoy (TOCS) networks, a data center collaborating with BPPT's data integration facility (NEONET), anda research center promoting advanced studies concerning the climatological sciences of IMC together
with international visitors.
In Advanced Atmosphere-Ocean-Land Modeling Program, JAMSTEC contribute to the prediction of
global climate change over the middle and long term. To achieve their aims, they develop extremely
precise numerical models which will be able to run on future computers that will emerge over the next
five (5) to ten (10) years. The accurate simulation of important processes found in the atmosphere,
ocean, and on land had been focused in a way to consider uncertainty that still exists in weather
forecasting and the prediction of climate change.
In addition, JAMSTEC has set "Leading Project" aside from usual research sections, to focus on
research development tasks which the government takes its initiative, e.g., development of real-timemonitoring system for massive ocean-trench earthquake, active contribution to the IPCC Fifth
Assessment Report (AR5), and research for submarine resources and recyclable energies with
upgrading of exploration technologies. Focusing in the Global Warming Projection Research Project forContribution to AR5 of IPCC,
the project is to perform a part of below researches:Contract Research requested by MEXT: "Innovative Program of Climate Change Projection forthe 21st Century" (Fig. 3.5.3(i)(c)).
Contract Research requested by Environment Ministry: "Policy-support to Global Warming andtotal research which relates to the climate change scenario in order to prevalence andenlightenment"

Source: http://www.jamstec.go.jp/kakushin21

Fig. 3.5.3(i) (c): Official Website of "Innovative Program of Climate Change Projection for the 21st Century"

By using the super computer "Earth Simulator" (Fig. 3.5.3(i)(d)), the researches of sophisticated global
warming prediction model, cutting down of prediction uncertainty, and impact assessment of natural
disaster are driven forward and are contributed to the IPCC 5th Evaluation Report. Moreover, the Earth
Simulator, which was developed, as a National Project of Government of Japan, by the three (3)governmental agencies such as, National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA), the Japan
Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI), and Japan Marine Science and Technology Center(JAMSTEC).
44

Source: Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)

Fig. 3.5.3(i) (d): Earth Simulator (ES) - National Project of Japan’s Government

45

Chapter 4 : Malaysia as Developing Country faced the Climate Change
4.1. Malaysia’s Climate
Malaysia’s climate is a tropical climate with uniform temperature (maximum = 33C, minimum = 23C)
in high humidity where situated in equatorial doldrums area. It is divided into two (2) seasons which are
Southwest Monsoon, Northeast Monsoon and two (2) shorter periods of Inter-monsoon seasons.
Malaysia (as shown in Fig. 4.1) is geographically located just outside the “Pacific Rim of Fire” and isgenerally free from severe natural disasters such as earthquake, volcanic eruption and typhoon.
Although Malaysia is spared from the threats of severe natural disasters and calamities, Malaysia is
nonetheless not spared from other disasters such as flood, man-made disaster, landslide and severe
haze.

Fig. 4.1: Map of Malaysia

The climate of Malaysia is tropical and humid. It is very much influenced by the mountainous
topography and complex land-sea interactions. Intraseasonal and interdecadal fluctuations such as the
ENSO, IOD and MJO are known to significantly influence the interannual climate variability of Malaysia.
Increase in tropical storms in the South China Sea have contributed to more extreme events of rainfall
and gusting in both East and West Malaysia. Annual trend analysis of both temperature and rainfall has
been carried out by analyzing both the temperature and rainfall data for Malaysia over the last 40 years(1968-2007).
4.1.1 Temperature Analysis by Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)
Adaptive from METMalaysia’s Research on Climate Change Scenarios for Malaysia (2001 – 2099), Fig.
4.1.1 (a) shows the annual mean temperature of four meteorological stations all around Malaysia;
Kuching, Kota Kinabalu, Kuantan and Petaling Jaya Meteorological Stations that were collected by
METMalaysia to represent Sarawak, Sabah, East Peninsular Malaysia and West Peninsular Malaysia
respectively. The temperature trends for the stations which also represent the four different
geographical locations that were plotted. The climatic data was being able to capture more than 80% of
the climate variation for a given region. As a result, all the four stations indicated an increasing
temperature trend where most of the stations recorded new surface temperature maximum in 1972,1982 and 1997. Nevertheless, it indicates consistent significant temporal variation in annual mean
temperatures for all the regions. From 1970 to 2004, strong El Niño events were recorded in 1972,
1982, 1987, 1991 and 1997. Thus, Western Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah show higher recorded
temperatures than Eastern Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak.
46

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)

Fig. 4.1.1(a): Annual Mean Temperature of Meteorological Stations in Malaysia, 2007

In recent years, the Fig. 4.1.1 (b),(c),(d) shown the latest data of Temperature Trend for Peninsular
Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak that had been collected by METMalaysia. 31 out of 36 of Meteorological
Stations were recorded the highest maximum temperature during 1990s and after. In per half century,
the maximum temperature was increased between 0.7 – 1.1oC, mean temperature increased between
0.6 – 1.2 o C whereas minimum temperature was increased between 1.1 – 2.0 o C.

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)

Fig. 4.1.1(b): Annual Temperature Trend for Peninsular Malaysia, 200947

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)

Fig. 4.1.1(c): Annual Temperature Trend for Sabah – East Malaysia, 2009

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)

Fig. 4.1.1 (d): Annual Temperature Trend for Sarawak – East Malaysia, 2009

4.1.2 Rainfall Analysis by Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)
The rainfall analysis had been studies that were based on meteorological stations data from 1951 to2005 as shown in the Fig. 4.1.2 (a) and Fig.4.1.2 (b) the standardized rainfall anomaly for Peninsular
Malaysia and East Malaysia respectively. This standardized anomaly was obtained by normalizing theannual rainfall anomaly with the standard deviation of the total period considered. The El Niño and La
Niña occurrences during this period are also indicated to better understand the impact of these eventson the rainfall patterns of Malaysia.
48

In Peninsular Malaysia, reduction in rainfall is recorded for the second half of the period considered
above. Dry years observed from 1975 to 2005 are more frequent and intense as compared to those of1951 to 1975 (Fig. 4.1.2 (a)). Most 13 of the El Niño events as of 1970 have resulted in severely dry
years for Peninsular Malaysia. The three driest years for Peninsular Malaysia (1963, 1997 and 2002)
have been recorded during El Niño events. Nevertheless, the El Niño phenomenon alone cannot be
responsible for dry spells over Peninsular Malaysia, as quite a number of equally relatively dry years
have been recorded during the absence of the El Niño. However, most La Nina events have resulted inwet years for Peninsular Malaysia with the exception of 1998 and 1955.

Source: Climate Change Scenarios for Malaysia (2001 – 2099), METMalaysia

Fig. 4.1.2(a) : Long Term Standardized Rainfall Anomaly for Peninsular Malaysia

Neither an increasing nor decreasing trend for rainfall was found for East Malaysia during the observed
50 years period (Fig. 4.1.2(b)). Nevertheless the intensity and frequency of the dry years as of 1970
have increased when compared to those of the earlier period. Though the dry years are more frequent
than the wet years, the intensity of rainfall increase during the wet years is comparable to those of thedecrease in rainfall during the dry years. The La Nina phenomenon is responsible for the three wettest
years recorded (1984, 1988 and 1999) for East Malaysia. Most of the relatively severe dry spells in East
Malaysia were recorded during the El Niño events except 1978, 1990 and 1992. The El Niño events
have greater influence in rainfall reduction in East Malaysia as compared to Peninsular Malaysia.

Source: Climate Change Scenarios for Malaysia (2001 – 2099), METMalaysia

Fig. 4.1.2(b): Long Term Standardized Rainfall Anomaly for East Malaysia

49

Whereas, the latest data of annual rainfall trend from years of 1951 till year 2010 were collected asshown in Fig. 4.1.2 (c),(d),(e) below for each regions in Malaysia. In conclusion, no overall clear trend of
rainfall for the country unless high variability of rainfall probably due to tropical climate.

Peninsular Malaysia Annual Rainfall Trend(1951 - 2010)
4500
4000
3500
)
3000
m
m
(
2500
ll
2000
fa
in
1500
a
R
1000
500
0

1
5
9
1

3
5
9
1

5 7 9 1 3
5 5 5 6 69 9 9 9 9
1
1 1

5
6
9
1

7 9
3 5
6 6 7 7 7
9 9 9 9 9
1
1

7 9 1
7 7 8
9 9 9
1 1 1
Year

Annual Rainfall

3
8
9
1

5
8
9
1

7
8
9
1

9
8
9
1

1
9
9
1

3
9
9
1

5
9
9
1

7
9
9
1

9
9
9
1

1
0
0
2

3
0
0
2

5
0
0
2

7
0
0
2

9
0
0
2

1
1
0
2

Linear (Annual Rainfall)

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)

Fig. 4.1.2 (c): Annual Rainfall Trend for Peninsular Malaysia, 2010

Sabah Annual Rainfall Trend(1951 - 2010)
4500
4000
3500
)
3000
m
m
(l2500
2000
la
f1500
n
i
a
1000
R
500
0

1 3 5 7 9
3 5
5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
1 1
1 1
1 9
1

7 9
3 5
6 6 7 7 7
9
9
9
9
1 1
1 9
1

7 9 1
7 7 8
9
1 9
1 9
1

3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7
8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9
9
1 9
1 9 9
1 9
1 9
1 9
1 9
1

9 1
9 0
9
1 0
2

3 5 7
0 0 0
0
2 0
2 0
2

9 1
0 1
0
2 0
2

Year
Annual Rainfall

Linear (Annual Rainfall)

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)

Fig. 4.1.2 (d): Annual Rainfall Trend for Sabah – East Malaysia, 201050

Sarawak Annual Rainfall Trend(1951 - 2010)
4500
4000
3500
)
3000
m
2500
(m
ll
2000
a
f
1500
n
i
a
1000
R
500
0

3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9
3 5 7 9 1
5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1
Year

3
8
9
1

5 7
8 8
9 9
1 1

9 1
8 9
9 9
1 1

3 5
9 9
9 9
1 1

7 9
9 9
9 9
1 1

1 3
0 0
0 0
2 2

5 7
0 0
0 0
2 2

9 1
0 1
0 0
2 2

Annual Rainfall
Linear (Annual Rainfall)

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)

Fig. 4.1.2.(e) : Annual Rainfall Trend for Sabah – East Malaysia, 2010

4.2. Changing Climate of Malaysia and the Vulnerability
Since independence, Malaysia has generally registered continuous economic growth and thisdevelopment has brought about numerous benefits including improved social amenities and a trend
toward greater urbanization of the population. Economic development in Malaysia has contributed toenvironmental degradation and uncontrolled physical development, especially in the urban areas. Fig.
4.2 (a) shows the example of vulnerability occurs specially urban area in capital city of Kuala Lumpur
due to ‘urban heat Island’ effect that also change the climate. In urban areas with tall buildings(concrete & little vegetation), an atmospheric condition in which heat and pollutants create a haze domethat prevents warm air from rising and being cooled at a normal rate, especially in the absence ofstrong winds. It shows that, natural climate variability & global warming (together) has changed
local/regional to global.

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)

Fig. 4.2. (a) : Spatial Distribution of Mean Temperature Trend in Peninsular Malaysia (1969 – 2009)51

Protection of the environment has become a necessity rather than a luxury in order to maintain publichealth and well-being as well as to sustain the economic growth. As in most developing countries, there
are many challenges facing the country, especially in urban areas. One major challenge is theincreasing occurrence of geological and flood-related disasters, causing property damage and high costof maintenance as well as loss of lives, in extreme cases like such disasters.
In the recent years, the occurrence of extreme weather events in Malaysia has been increased. The
winter monsoon of 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 brought in heavy rainfall and caused severe floods in
Malaysia. The heavy rainfall during the winter monsoon of 2006/2007 was the worst ever recorded oversouthern Peninsular Malaysia. Other extreme events such as flash floods, strong winds andwaterspouts have become more frequent over the recent years. The socio-economic impacts of these
extreme events have been a cause for concern for the country.
Thus, the climate change is real and the impacts are being felt in Malaysia e.g. floods, haze whichcauses losses in revenue and productivity and health risk to the people. As we know that, climatechange is due to the increase in GHG emission especially in CO2. CH4, N2O etc which causes changes
in ambient temperature, extreme weather events, rise in sea water level; rapid long term changes inweather patterns induced by human activities.
Fig. 4.2(b) shows the extreme events that had occurred in various areas in Peninsular Malaysia –severe flood in Johor (2011), haze in Kuala Lumpur (2004), drought in Kelantan (2010) and severe
flood in Kedah (2010). At East Malaysia – the water spout had occurred at Kudat (2006) and drought inSarawak (2009).

Source:Malaysian(METMalaysia)

Fig.4.2 (b): Extreme Weather Occurred in Malaysia

52

Meteorological

Department

Besides that, Table 4.2 shows the future climate change projections in Peninsular Malaysia based on
the study undertaken by National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM). The data
represent the maximum monthly values of two climate factors, i.e., temperature and precipitation/rainfall.
They reveal that in the future, there is substantial increase in temperature and rainfall over the
Northeast region compared to other regions of Peninsular Malaysia. As a result, in the second tableshows the most vulnerable states in Malaysia in terms of hardcore poverty and projected temperatureand rainfall changes. Thus, it shows that the most vulnerable peoples due to climate change are thepoor who relatively larger of household member.
Table 4.2: Future Climate Projections in Peninsular Malaysia

Source: NAHRIM (2006) and Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006)

4.3 Malaysian Approach of Climate Change Adaptation in Reducing the Risk of Impact
Malaysia is experiencing a warming trend for the past few decades. In the southern part of Peninsular
Malaysia, the frequency of long dry periods tended to be higher with a significant increase in the mean
and variability of the length of dry spells whereas, all the indices of wet spells in these areas show adecreasing trend (Deni et. al 2008). Thus, increasing temperatures would result in more extreme
weather and climate variability. These can lead to impacts on water resources, food supply, coastal
zone, public health and others and necessitate national and international responses to face climatechange.
To address climate change issues, Government of Malaysia has taken many initiatives including
promoting utilization of renewable energy, energy efficiency in industry, building and transport sector,
restructuring the public transport system, cleaner fuel, stringent efficient standards and alternative
industrial processes technique. In 2008, the Cabinet Committee on Climate Change has been instituted
which chaired by the Prime Minister of Malaysia. Establishment of this committee exhibits Malaysia’s
higher commitment in addressing climate change and is important to integrate the issue of national
development planning.
4.3.1 Policy Framework and Research Publications by Government of Malaysia
Regarding to support and strengthen the adaptation initiative by the Government of Malaysia for longterm climate change in Malaysia, as shown in the Fig. 4.3.1 (a) the National Policy on Climate Changeof Malaysia (2010), Second National Communication (NC2) to the UNFCC (2010) and scientificresearch reports on, Climate Change Scenarios for Malaysia (2001 – 2099) as initiative by Malaysian53

Meteorological Department (METMalaysia) were published. This is to ensure climate-resilient
development that fulfils the national aspirations for sustainability. The Government recognizes that the
impacts of climate change transcend all levels, sectors, stakeholders and major groups. Therefore,
institutional capacity for implementation can only be made effective through collaborative participation,
based on indigenous and scientific knowledge.

National Policy
on Climate Change(2010)

Second National
Communication (NC2) to the
UNFCC (2010)

Modeling on Climate Change
Scenarios for Malaysia(2001 – 2099)

Climate Change on Hydrologic
Regime & Water Resource ofPeninsular Malaysia(2006)

Fig. 4.3.1 (a): Adaptation initiatives by Government of Malaysia

Over the years, Malaysia had adopted “precautionary principle” policies with actions to mitigate or adapt
to climate change. Therefore, the National Policy on Climate Change was approved by the Cabinet on
November 20, 2009 under Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia (NRE) to promote
54the implementation of both adaptation and mitigation in an integrated and balanced manner. The
National Policy serves as the framework to mobilize and guide government agencies, industry,
community as well as other stakeholders and major groups in addressing the challenges of climatechange in a concerted and holistic manner. This policy is a product of the Policy Study on Climate
Change funded under the Ninth Malaysia Plan jointly implemented by the Conservation andEnvironmental Management Division (CEMD) and Institute for Environment and Development(LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). The formulation process encompassed fivephases of stakeholder consultation involving about 1000 individuals from institutions in Peninsular
Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. Fig.4.3.1 (b) shows the summarization some of key-points in the
National Policy on Climate Change of Malaysia.

Objectives and Principles of
National Policy Climate
Change in Malaysia

Fig.4.3.1 (b): Overall Framework of National Climate Change Policy in Malaysia

In Second National Communication (NC2) to the UNFCC (2010) report in reducing the natural disaster
risk, it stated that amendment to government policy and research and development activities are two
possible options and paths to be adopted as adaptation measures for coastal and marine sector due toclimate change, in particular sea level rise, intensity, duration, & frequency of storms and sea
temperature. Besides that, flood is always an issue in water resources sector in Malaysia. Better flood
mitigation measures and drainage systems would be one of the adaptation measures. Floodmanagement and design will also be reviewed, thus, the facilities will be able to withstand the climatechange especially during extreme weather. Moreover, the structural safety and integrity will also be
55

reviewed. Improved flood forecasting and warning system should be strengthening where the flood
warning enables action to be taken in time especially during extreme rainfall.
There are programs and projects which have already begun and can be considered as strategic actions
by the Malaysian Government towards promoting awareness, capacity building and encouraging theorganizations and the public to take affirmative action to evaluate and respond to climate change.
There are also programs implemented by the Government to improve public services and infrastructurein the normal course of development planning for the nation, such as; Integrated River BasinManagement (IRBM) approach to land and water resources by the NRE and DID, promoting theIntegrated Flood Management (IFM) by NRE and DID, Development of a Downscaled Hydroclimate
Model for Sabah and Sarawak by NAHRIM and other national projects.
4.3.2 Research Activities Related to Natural Disaster Impact: Malaysian Meteorological
Department(METMalaysia)
Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia) under Ministry Science, Technology andInnovation (MOSTI) is committed to provide effective meteorological and seismological services toimprove protection of life; property and the environment; increase safety on land; sea and in the air;enhance quality of life and sustainable economic growth. In the context of climate change itself, thecontinuous monitoring of climate change and its impacts form the basis for scientific research for better
understanding of the climate system had been conducted by METMalaysia.
Based on climate records, a few analyses to detect climate change have been carried out by the
Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia). The general findings were that temperaturerecords indicated warming trends (Fig. 4.3.2(a)), while rainfall data did not show any consistent andsignificant variations (Fig.4.3.2 (b)).
Thus, the impact of global warming on the monsoons over the Malaysian region (Fig. 4.3.2(c)) is
studied by using Twelve Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs). The
Global Climate Model (GCM) is typically used for projection. The GCM includes three (3) models,Atmospheric General Circulation Model (AGCM), Ocean General Circulation Model (OGCM) andAtmospheric Ocean General Circulation Model (AOGCM). Simulations of climate change projections
are typically based on AOGCM because oceans considerably impact climate changes. Besides,
primary tools to simulate climate change based upon the various climate change scenarios are Coupled
Atmospheric Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs). General Circulation Models (GCMs) arephysical representations of the climate system that simulate weather variables and their interactions
which are the main factors driving the climate variability.

56

Source: Climate Change Scenarios for Malaysia (2001 – 2099), METMalaysia

Fig. 4.3.2(a): Annual Mean Temperature Anomaly Relative to 1990 - 1999

Source: Climate Change Scenarios for Malaysia (2001 – 2099), METMalaysia

Fig. 4.3.2 (b): Annual Mean Rainfall Anomaly Relative to 1990 – 1999

Source: Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia)

Fig. 4.3.2 (c): Results of the climate projection - research studies by METMalaysia

57

The regional climate modeling simulations are done using the Providing Regional Climates for Impacts
Studies (PRECIS) RCM where PRECIS RCM, which is developed by the Hadley Centre, United
Kingdom Meteorological Office. The HadCM3 AOGCM is based upon the A1B scenario, where A1B
scenario describes the direction of technological change in the energy system as being a balance
between fossil intensive and non-fossil energy sources. The AOGCMs used in the study are from thecontribution of the Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project (CMIP) to the IPCC 4th Assessment Report.
As an important role in context of education and awareness related to climate change, METMalaysia
was hosted several seminars and international conferences such as; InterRegional Workshop on Policy
Aspects of Climate Change, that was held from 19 to 21 April 2010, in Petaling Jaya, Malaysia. The
participants included Representatives of Malaysian and International Partner Organizations, Permanent
Representatives with WMO, National Meteorological Services (NMSs), and the WMO Secretariat. On
October 04, 2011 Malaysian Meteorological Department (METMalaysia) was also organized the
National Climate Forum - Winter Monsoon 2011/2012 at the METMalaysia headquarters, Petaling Jaya.
4.3.3 Research Plan Related to Water-Resource Impact: National Hydraulic Research Institute of
Malaysia (NAHRIM)
The National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia or NAHRIM was setup in September, 1995 under
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) with capabilities in both physical and numericalsimulations of hydrodynamic, morphological and ecological processes and their interactions with humanactivities.

Source: www.nahrim.gov.myFig. 4.3.3: Logo and National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM)

NAHRIM has a team of experienced researchers in coastal and river engineering hydraulics, water
resources and water environment to meet the challenges that lie ahead. In climate change aspect, they
conducted climate change projection for Malaysia using Regional Hydro-Climate. Their researchstudied on climate change related to water resource, such as; Study of the Impact of Climate Change on the Hydrologic Regime & Water Resources ofPeninsular Malaysia (2006)
 Study of the Impact of Climate Change on the Hydrologic Regime & Water Resources of Sabah
and Sarawak (2007-2010)
The case study on MUDA and Barat Laut Selangor was focus on impact assessment of climate change
on irrigation and water supply scenario using the regional hydrologic-atmospheric model (RegHCM-PM)of Peninsular Malaysia. NAHRIM also has proposed to implement the affirmative climate change
programs for duration of 5 years. They also conducted many research paper publications such
Technical Research Publication No. 1(TRP No. 1): Derivation of Probable Maximum Precipitation(PMP) for Design Flood in Malaysia, Sg. Selangor Flood Simulation Project (on-going in process),
58Bunds Breach Analysis for Kerian River Flood, Coastal Zone Stabilization, Restoration andEnhancement through Mangrove Forest Establishment, Drought in Malaysia: A Look at Its
Characteristics, Impacts, Related Policies, and Management Strategies and others.
Furthermore, NAHRIM offers specialist consultancy services in project planning and impact assessment
in all facets of hydraulic engineering encompassing river and coastal engineering, water resources andthe water environment. Its main clients involved both the public and private sectors in the water-relatedindustry.
Thus, NAHRIM was highlighted on the urgent need to develop a vulnerability and adaptation process
and procedures as well as to conduct further research and data collection for a quantified and qualified
development of options and decision-making.
4.3.4 Flood Mitigation Projects by Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), Malaysia
The responsibility for water resources planning and development in Malaysia is shared by various
government agencies, such Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE), Ministry of Health(MOH), Public Works Department (PWD), Ministry of Housing and Local Government and other watersupply companies or privatized.
In hydrological context, the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) under Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment (NRE), is responsible for the planning, implementing and operation ofirrigation, drainage and flood control projects throughout the country. Besides, DID were taken new andexpanded task of River Basin Management and Coastal Zone, Water Resources Management andHydrology, Special Projects, Flood Management and Eco-friendly Drainage.
Related to that, Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) has installed and operated 525 telemetricstations in 38 river basins. Additionally, 670 manual river gauges, 1013 stick gauges and 182 flood
warning boards have been set up in flood prone areas to provide crucial information during the flood
season. Operations of 395 automatic flood-warning sirens are an integral part of the local flood warning
system being operated.
An Integrated Flood Forecasting and River Monitoring System (IFFRM) for the Klang Valley inclusive of aflood modelling system is nearing completion. Included in the infrastructure networks which have been
completed are 88 new telemetric systems. An Integrated Flood Forecasting and Warning System for the
Muda River Basin in Northern Peninsular Malaysia is also being developed simultaneously. This includes
developing a radar rainfall analyzer and integrator for Malaysia (RAIM), which feeds information to a realtime flood forecasting system which is already in place in 13 river basins throughout the country. Uponcompletion, this project will be extended to the Kelantan, Pahang and Johor river basin. On another note,flood forecasting models in the Johor, Muar and Batu Pahat river basins are being upgraded to the realtime computerized HEC-HMS model.
4.3.4 (i) Atmospheric Model-Based Rainfall & Flood Forecasting System (AMRFF)
To improve the efficiency of flood forecasting in Malaysia, DID has embarked on the Atmospheric
Model-Based Rainfall & Flood Forecasting System (AMRFF) project. This project is to be completed by
November 2010. Until January 2011, the progress of the project is 60% had been reported.
Furthermore, there are two (2) objectives to implement it, such: To develop real-time flood forecasting based on Atmospheric Model-based Rainfall and Flood
Forecasting (AMRFF) System for providing a real-time flood warning and emergency responses ina convenient lead-time to the Pahang, Kelantan and Johor River Basins.
 To develop radar rainfall analyzer and integrator for Malaysia (RAIM) to estimate rainfall
distribution and the rainfall magnitude forecast in the Pahang, Kelantan and Johor River Basins.
59

Upon completion, this project will be able to provide a sufficient lead time for flood management in the
Pahang, Kelantan and Johor River Basins.
4.3.4. (ii) Flood Forecasting and Warning (Operation)
Flood forecasting operations were carried out during the flood seasons by the respective DID state
offices with technical assistance from the National Flood Forecasting Centre at DID Head Quarters. The
river basins which have been provided with forecasting models are summarized in Table 4.3.4 (ii).
Table 4.3.4 (ii) : The river basins with forecasting models.

Source: Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), Malaysia

Besides that, the Stormwater Management and Road Tunnel Project (SMART) in Kuala Lumpur which
was completed in July 2007 had successfully reduced flooding incidences in the Kuala Lumpur City
Centre. It had successfully managed to divert potential flood waters from the city centre during many
severe weather events.

60

4.3.5. Case Study of Iskandar Malaysia as Sustainable Eco Planning City: University Technologyof Malaysia, Johor
Malaysia will continue to experience a rapid increase of CO2 emissions. It is expected that emissions
will continue at a high rate with relatively high rates of population and economic growth. In order totackle the issue of CO2 emission, there is a need for global and national strategies for sustainability inurban environment in both existing and newly developments of the country. Thus, planning ofsustainable regions involves creation of Low Carbon Society (LCS) by promoting low carbon emission
is needed as had been created in Japan. The Low Carbon Society Project has been initiated by
Japan/UK collaboration to draw out comprehensive vision.
Case study of transforming the Iskandar Malaysia (IM) that situated at Johor state in Malaysia into
environmentally sustainable urban region as one the Low Carbon Society (LCS)’s concept had beenstudied by the researchers of Technology University of Malaysia (UTM), Skudai Johor (C.-S. Ho & WK.Fong et.,al). In the study, CO2 emissions from energy use in IM have been estimated based on an
integrated approach, using the System Dynamics Model (SDM). The Iskandar Malaysia (IM) hopefullyin future, could showcase a prototype of a green and sustainable urban region to achieve carbon
reduction. Iskandar Malaysia (IM) had been chosen because of the natural and green environment thatcovers a total of more than 150,000 ha of green spaces including forests, mangrove areas, parks andopen spaces as well as a agricultural areas. All the green spaces play an important role as a carbon
sink for this region. One of the key thrusts of IM is to create livable communities that encompass quality
green building and housing, adequate facilities, quality services and a healthy, safe and lively
environment as a new growth centre within the Special Economic Corridor (SEC) in Malaysia. They arethree (3) policies stated in the master plan for IM known as Comprehensive Development Plan forSouth Johor Economic Region (2006 – 2025) which have direct impact on low carbon scenario of the
IM development. These policies are energy efficient building, sustainable land use and transportation,
natural and green environment.

Fig. 4.3.5 : Iskandar Malaysia (IM) Project

Table 4.3.5 below shows as in term of CO2 emissions/per capita, the present level of emission rate isquite low in Iskandar Malaysia (IM) only about 4.9 metric tons per capita, which is well lower than the
major cities in the developed countries such as Tokyo (5.8 metric tons per capita) and Greater London(6.9 metric tons per capita).

61

Table 4.3.5: CO2 emissions from energy use in IM in comparison with Tokyo and Greater London, 2005

Source: TMG (2006)

Therefore as proactive measure, planning for low carbon city measures should be adopted in theplanning and implementation of Comprehensive Development Plan for South Johor Economic Region(2006 – 2025) to ensure a more sustainable urban conurbation in south Johor where the Iskandar
Economic Region located.

62

5.0 Recommendation and Future Plan
Adaptation of climate change in order to reduce the risk of disaster requires a realistic and competentplanning and policies that can be improves the response to the effects of a disaster such climatechange in long term period. The policy frameworks have to include the cooperation and network
between national level, local government, private sector and community participation in adapting theclimate change and disaster preparedness planning.
In a way to enhance and strengthen the adaptation, there are five (5) guiding principles that should beunderstand which consist of sustainable development, resilience, governance, knowledge andinformation sharing, and economics and financing. Effective adaptation measures should be proposedby investigating the impacts of climate change, conducting investigations from rational, efficient andeffective viewpoints, and aiming for minimizing damages, such as avoiding destructive damages. In
addition, adaptation measures related to natural disaster in the country should be designed,
considering issues and problems; for example of existing flood control structures, to improve flood
control measures in country for the safety of the society.
As in the report, we can observed that from the data and prediction results between Japan and
Malaysia have shown the trends of increasing temperatures and increased frequencies of heavy
precipitation events. Although the phenomena of climate had been changing are not or only partly
understood by the prediction of data and climate projection for the future, the National Government
must draw up appropriate adaptation measures by asking opinions of experts before it is too late since
it is a basic duty of the National Government to seek for the safety and security of the citizens. In someadvanced countries like in US, Europe countries, Japan and others, the National Governments havealready decided or started investigating adaptation measures.
Adaptation measures should be planned using a ‘flexible approach’ by which adaptation measures will
be revised based on future observation data and accumulated knowledge about impacts of climatechange on sea level, precipitation and river flow. Thorough consideration should also be paid on social
conditions, such as population decrease, aging of population, decline of birthrate, and changes in landuse, and circumstances related to water-control works, such as available funds, improvement levels of
structures, and water-control plans and works taken in the past.
As a developing country like Malaysia, we had to face the vulnerability of climate change day by day
rather than developed country as Japan. In Malaysia, the integration between disaster risk reduction
and climate change adaptation is making a significant progress. The National Policy on Climate Changeof Malaysia that was approved on 2009 in order to mainstream the climate resilient development into
different levels of Government.
In spite of the absence of cap on emission, Malaysian Government has been continuously promoting
environmental stewardship in all its development plans. Under 10th Malaysia Plan (2011- 2015) that had
been announced in Malaysia Budget Plan on October 07, 2011 by the Prime Minister, the Governmentof Malaysia will introduced a new tariff called, Feed – in Tariff (FiT) to support renewable energy efforts
due to climate change issue. As such, there will be an establishment of a Renewable Energy Fund fromthe FiT and to be administered by a special agency, the Sustainable Energy Development Authority
under the Energy, Green Technology and Water Ministry. The Renewable Energy Act is currently being
drafted by the Energy, Green Technology and Water Ministry and the bill is expected to be tabled in
Parliament of Malaysia. Moreover, the plan will also be focusing on two (2) main areas; efforts will bemade to develop a ’road map’ for climate resilient growth and enhancing conservation of the nation’s
ecological assets. A dual strategy in addressing climate change impacts will be adopted throughadaptation strategies to protect economic growth and development factors from the impact of climatechange and mitigation strategies to reduce emission of greenhouse gases. Thus, more concern study
63and research activities in the future could be work out on the adaptation itself in order to enhance thelesson as one of important part in disaster risk reduction and disaster management to the country.

646.0 Conclusions
In conclusions, adaptation to climate change should be taken into account in all development plans of
the country. Thus, there are an increasing number of programs and projects addressing climate change
adaptation for both countries such Japan as developed country and the developing country like
Malaysia. Notwithstanding this in identifying options for adaptation, uncertainties associated with theclimate change projection should not be discounted. Younger generation will be the driver in the green
agenda in the future. It is hope the in the next 5 to 10 years, society will have a better mindset on thisinitiatives. However, publicity, awareness and promotion cannot be lacking. Better and enhanced
understanding of the interlink ages between environment issues and disaster mitigation at various
levels of action, better and enhanced understanding of the need for multi-disciplinarily in disastermanagement as a whole. Even, the disaster risk management (DRM) and climate change adaptation
both need to address processes that define environmental and socioeconomic vulnerabilities in the
future. Numerous tools for assessing climate change vulnerabilities and adaptation measures exist thatcan be linked with/complement DRM methodologies.

65References
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