African Technology Policy Studies Network

WORKING PAPER SERIES | No. 55
Emerging Technologies for Building
Resilience to Climate Change Effect:
A Case Study in Dangbe East Districtof the Republic of Ghana
Mahu Seth Agbeve
Atsu Titiati
Wilhemina Quaye

Emerging Technologies for Building Resilienceto Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in
Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

Mahu Seth Agbeve
TMT Energy Consult Ltd
Osu-Accra

Atsu Titiati
TMT Energy Consult Ltd
Osu-Accra

Wilhemina Quaye
Food Research InstituteAccra

The African Technology Policy Studies Network (ATPS) is a multidisciplinary network of researchers, private sector actors andpolicy makers promoting the generation, dissemination, use andmastery of science, technology and innovation (ST&I) for African
development, environmental sustainability and global inclusion.
ATPS intends to achieve its mandate through research, capacity
building and training, science communication/dissemination andsensitization, participatory multi-stakeholder dialogue,knowledge brokerage, and policy advocacy.
Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network
P O Box 10081, 00100 GPO Nairobi Kenya
2011

Published by the African Technology Policy Studies Network

ISBN: 978-9966-1552-4-5

Table of contents
Acknowledgement

4

Abstract

5

1.

Introduction

6

2.

Objectives

8

3.

Literature Review

94.

Methodology

10

5.

Field Data and Analysis

13

6.

Conclusions & Recommendations

23

References

24

Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 3

Acknowledgement
This paper was produced as part of the implementation of the African Technology Policy Studies Network(ATPS) Phase VI Strategic Plan, 2008 – 2012 funded by ATPS Donors including the Ministerie van
Buitenlandse Zaken (DGIS) the Netherlands, Rockefeller Foundation, amongst others. The authors hereby
thank the ATPS for the financial and technical support during the implementation of the program. The
Authors particularly thank the ATPS Climate Sense Program Director, Dr. Kevin Urama (ATPS); and theProgram Coordinators including Prof. Francis Mutua (ATPS Kenya); Dr. George Owusu Essegbey (Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ghana), Prof. Eric Eboh (ATPS Nigeria), Dr. Nicholas Ozor
(ATPS), and Ms. Wairimu Mwangi (ATPS) for their technical support during the research process.
Contributions from staff of Energy Commission, Ministry of Energy, MoEn, SWERA, and Dangbe East
District Agriculture Development Unit of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture are very much appreciated.

4 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

Abstract
The conversion of the kinetic energy in wind into electrical energy offers unique solution to the overall energy
supply where resource exists as well as partial solution to the world’s over dependence on exhaustible
primary energy sources such as fossil fuel and their consequences which include climate change,
extinction of aquatic life during spillages and so on. The coastlines of Ghana present significant windpotential which when properly harnessed could provide alternative livelihood opportunities and speed up
climate change adaptation processes in those communities hard-hit by climate change effects. To
establish the technical and economic potential of wind resource for energy production and productive
application, there is the need to investigate the baseline frameworks and use optimized wind energy tools togenerate results for effective wind energy planning. Ground wind data search and analysis, overall energy
situation and energy policy environment formed the core of establishing the technical potentials andeconomic opportunities of wind energy in the Dangbe East District. A wind data analysis was done toestablish the wind energy potential and a survey identifies innovative mechanisms adopted for building
resilience and tracks changes in behavioural practices to adapt to climate change effect. A total of 360
small-scale farmers were interviewed. Phenomenal changes in weather conditions and climate events
observed by respondents include erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns with poor distributions, hightemperatures with hot sunshine conditions, drought and heavy precipitations/floods. Key innovativetechnologies employed to adapt to climate change effects include soil management practices that reduce
fertilizer use and increase crop diversification; promotion of legumes in crop rotations; use of quality seeds
and integrated crop/livestock systems; avoidance of bush burning as well as burning crop residues;
introduction of drought, flood and saline-tolerant crops and using improved, high yielding and drought
resistant varieties. Less than 30% of the farmers interviewed had relocated close to water bodies (River
Volta), especially for minor season farming while 42% had diversified into other alternative livelihood options.
Farmers strongly considered provision of irrigation services by government and non-governmentalorganisation, credit and availability of improved agro-technologies as well as education key in building
resilience to climate change effects.

Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 5

1. Introduction
Climate change is the single most pressing issue facing the world today (IPCC, 2007). The poor are
becoming increasingly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and their livelihoods are gradually being
eroded. Millions of people are likely to be plunged into poverty and millions more will die of its effects.
Ghana has just tasted its share of climate change related catastrophes: the 2007 energy crisis and therepeated patterns of droughts and floods in recent years are evidence. Over the past five years, climatechange and its effects have increasingly taken centre-stage in the Ghanaian development agenda. Various
stakeholders have been working to address the effects of climate change. Adaptation strategies are
localized in context and are gradually being developed to enable communities and individuals build
resilience to the effects of the change. Undoubtedly, agriculture is rainfall dependent. A drop in the annual
precipitation rates therefore negatively affects agriculture production. Small holder and subsistence farmers
in rural areas including those of Dangbe East District are mostly affected often resulting in high poverty
levels.
One classical adaptation strategy that this project sought to explore is the use of renewable energy sources
to push the drive for climate change adaptation in vulnerable rural communities especially those along thecoast of Ghana. Wind energy can play a significant role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, fostering
sustainable economic development, enhancing energy security and accelerating adaptation to climatechange where sustainable energy requirement is key. Wind resource in these rural communities could be
harnessed to accelerate the adaptation process particularly in the use of new agricultural technologies forpre-production, production and post production practices. This resource could be used to develop
irrigation potentials of the area. Ghana has an appreciable wind resource for power generation and thegovernment is actively working to realize this potential. Energy is a primary requirement to drive every sectorof the economy including agriculture which is currently rain-fed. The Government of Ghana, through its
Strategic National Energy Plan (SNEP), has set a goal to increase non-hydro renewable energy generation
to 10% (380MW) of the national generation capacity by 2020. To this end, the Government has launchedinitiatives to develop an appropriate regulatory and policy environment. Specifically, the Ministry of Energy(MoEn) is currently preparing a renewable energy policy and regulatory framework and drafting a
Renewable Energy Bill to facilitate commercial-scale application of renewable energy technologies.
Preliminary wind resource assessments results give annual average wind speeds of ca 5.6 ms-1 at 12m inlocations spread along the coastal areas. It is estimated that gross wind electric potential is ca 5.6GW
according to the SWERA Project (Table 1). About 2.6GW can be tapped and developed for energy
production.
6 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

Table 1: Wind Resource in Ghana at 50 m

Wind
Resource
Designation

Wind
Class

Wind PowerWind Speed
at 50 m W/m2 at 50 mm/s*

Total
Area
km2

Percent
Windy
Land

Total Capacity
Installed MW

Moderate

3

300 – 400

6.4 – 7.0

715

0.3

3,575

Good

4

400 – 500

7.0 – 7.5

268

0.1

1,340

Very Good5

500 600–

7.5 8.0
–

82

<0.1

410

Excellent

6

600 – 800

8.0 – 8.8

63

<0.1

315

1,128

0.5

5,640

Total

Source: SWERA_UNEP Project Report 2002. Assumptions: Installed capacity per km2 = 5 MW; total land area of
Ghana = 230,940 km2

Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 7

2. Objectives
The specific objectives of this working paper are to:(i) Conduct Resource Data Search and Analysis for the selected community based on best industrial
practice to obtain data of good quality to stimulate and boost further exploration of wind energy potential
in the area;(ii) Identify and document effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovations for climatechange adaptation in the study area;(iii) Make policy recommendations for building climate change resilience

8 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

3. Literature Review
Ghana has regions of proven moderate to excellent wind resource. The country records average windspeeds of ca 5.6m/s at 12m in locations spread near and along the coastal areas. Studies have shown that
regions of excellent wind climates are the mountainous areas spread widely in the Volta, Northern andEastern regions. Estimated 2.6GW of electrical energy can be derived from wind1. The interest in windenergy exploration for energy purposes in Ghana started in 1999 through the solar wind energy resource
assessment (SWERA 1999-2002) project. The relatively high investment cost in wind and other renewable
technologies coupled with energy storage difficulties accounts for the low uptake in many sub-SaharanAfrica countries. In the coastal areas of Ghana where agriculture is predominantly the mainstream
economic activity, wind energy development offers energy production and water storage for irrigation
opportunities.
The global annual installed wind capacity continues to register record highs. In 2009, a total of 37,466 MW
new capacities were installed and the world cumulative installed capacity is 157,899MW. Ironically, Africa
continues to be the region with the lowest wind energy penetration-most of its share come from the North
and Middle East regions.
By the end of 2009, total installed capacity of wind power on the continent and the Middle East was nearly
900 MW mainly in North Africa and the Middle East. Sub-Saharan Africa SSA has not experienced any
significant growth in wind power development. Africa's share represents less than a percent of the total
global installed capacity. Regarding wind data availability, precise information about wind potential barely
exists.

1

EC/SWERA 2002
Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 9

4. Methodology
4.1
Review of EC / SWERA DataWind data was collected using NRG Wind Explorer logger and NRG 40 anemometer and 200P wind vane(one each). The instruments were mounted on booms attached either to tilt-up tubular towers (same orsimilar to NRG “Tall Towers”) or to existing telecommunication lattice towers. Prior to the installation, data for
the Dangbe East was reviewed and analyzed to determine basic wind parameters including annual averagewind speeds, directional wind roses, shearing to hub height of 80m, determination of energy yield, etc.
Details are presented in the subsequent sections. All accessible data from the above measurement
campaign was obtained by TMT Energy from the EC, reviewed for completeness and quality. It is important
to note that this appraisal of the wind regime is for “prospecting” purposes only; the data set described inthis report is far from being “bankable”. It is important to understand and keep in mind the limitations of theexisting data set for the study area.
These include:> Minimal instrumentation (i.e. no redundant sensors to confirm measurements, no sensors at multiple
heights to determine wind shear) and Low tower heights;> No temperature sensor (thus not possible to calculate pressure and density adjustments for energy
yield estimates);> Very rudimentary “NRG Wind Explorer” data logger (many of the detailed wind parameters that arecaptured as part of standard 'bankable' WRAs cannot be recorded) and Lost or corrupted data;> Missing or insufficient documentation trail and metadata for existing data.
4.2
Site Description
The Dangme East District is located in the Eastern part of the Greater Accra Region within latitudes 5°45
south and 6°00 north and from Longitude 0°20 west to 0°35 East. Dangbe East district shares common
boundaries with Central Tongu, South Tongu and Dangme West Districts at the north, east and west
respectively. At the south is the Gulf of Guinea, which stretches over 45 kilometers (27.9 miles). The District
covers a total land area of about 909 sq km (350 sq miles); about 28% of the total area of the Greater Accra
Region. By vegetation, the district is coastal savannah. A few stands of the mangrove tree can also be foundaround the Songor lagoon and the tributaries of the Volta River where the soil is waterlogged and salty(Dickson & Benneh, 1980). Dangbe East district consists of both farming and fishing communities andforms part of the eastern coastal plains of Ghana. Heavy rainfall occurs between March and September withan average distribution of 750mm but also have extreme dry spells during the harmattan. Humidity is about
10 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

60% due to proximity to the sea, Volta River and other water bodies. Figures 1 and 2 present photographs ofthe towers and sites, where available. Tables 2 and 3 present descriptions of the Dangbe East District which
include the site coordinates and topography, access, extent and nature of habitation and/or cultivation.

Fig. 1 and 2 - Ada Foah
Table 2: WRA Site Descriptions
Nature ofhabitation/cultivation

Coordinates
No.

1

Site
Name

Ada FoahLat

05° 79NLong

00° 55E

Anemometer Measurement
height [m] Period [date] Topography

12Flat, low
vegetative
growthJun 99-Sept 00

AccessGood access roadand about 1 hour
drive from Accra

Concentrated
settlements
fishing, crop farming

NB: The coordinates in Table 2 are those obtained from the Energy Commission. It is important to note that the EC
mast location/coordinate is today in or close to settlements or very near the sea. Hence, the exact position istherefore generally not suitable for further investigation and development.

Table 3: Summary of Sites Description
No. Name of Altitude above Anemo-meter Data periodSite
sea level [m] Height [m] (months)1

Ada Faoh

N/A

12

16

Annual mean
wind speed[ms-1]

Wind speed@ 80m*
[m/s]

5.3

7.6

Type of Recovery Overall
Tower Rate (%)
Data
Quality

Guyed
Tower

90.9

Good

Remarks

16 months ofrecorded data, Aug
99 data missing,tubular guyed tower.

* Wind speeds at 80m based on assumed shear exponent of 0.16

4.3
Field Survey
A total sample size of 360 farmers (82% males; 18% females with an average household size of 7) wasinterviewed in the Dangbe East district. This covered 12 community agricultural operational areas (Table 4).
Thirty (30) farmers were randomly selected for interview in each of the selected agricultural operational
Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 11

areas. A structured questionnaire was used for one-on-one interview. This was supplemented withinformation gathered through informal interviews with key informants in the farming communities.
Secondary data was sourced mainly from the internet and in-house literature depot. Data collected wascleaned, validated and later analysed with SPSS version 16 and excel.
Table 4: Operational Areas Surveyed

Operational
Area

Communities Surveyed

AKJ

Hwakpo, Addokope, Ebeneza, Luhour & Nuhaley

AB

Faithkope, Manaikpo & Dogo,

DTA

Agbedrafoh, Adjumanikope, Toflokpo, Bornikope, Sege, Kpotsum & Koluedor

FA

Talebanya, Cesarkope, Tugakope, Agbenyegakope & Adodogdjikope

GA

Mangoase-Kenya, Dorgobom, English Kenya, Mangoase-Kenya & CeasarKope & Panya

IKB

Koluedov & Matsekope

ML

Asigbekope, Fantevikope, Atiadenyigba, Tojeh, Aditcherekope & Zuenor

MEO

Kadja Dornya, Tamatoku, Amanikope, Kadja Sega, Kadja Juam

MA

Tsrikopey, Gorm, Mensahkope, Obane, Attortorkorpey, Kenonya & MacCarthykope

PD

Songutsokpa, Ocansekope, Anyakpor, Adedetsekope & Totimekope

RW

Gbanave, Aborsikope, Amlakpo & Kopehem

SJJ

Korleykope, Kasseh, Bedeku & Kunyenya

12 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

5. Field Data and Analysis
This section presents the results of the wind data search and analysis for the Dangbe East District. It covers
basically the wind resource assessment done by the Energy Commission as well as market potentials forwind energy investment.
5.1
Wind Distribution and Direction
Wind distribution and directions are shown in figures 3 and 4 respectively.

Fig. 3: Wind Distribution

Fig. 4: Wind Directions

Table 5: Monthly Data Recovery Rate

Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 13

Table 6: Simulation Results on Projected Annual Energy Output

Capacity per turbine

MW

No. of turbines

Hub Height 50 m

Hub Height 80 m

GE xleV82

GE xle

V82

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

1

1

1

1

Site capacity

MW

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

Ideal energy production

GWh/yr

4.0

4.0

5.1

5.2

Topographic efficiency1

%

101.9

102

101.5

101.6

Array efficiency1

%

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Estimated gross annual energy output (AEO)

GWh/yr

4.1

4.1

5.2

5.3

89.6%

89.6%

89.6%

89.6%

3.6

3.7

4.7

4.8

27.7%

28.0%

35.5%

36.2%

Other Adjustments2
Estimated net AEO

GWh/yrEstimated capacity factor (net)

Taken into account 10% wind farm, aerodynamic, electrical, operational and power curve losses and wind
shear of 0.16 at hub height (50m) and (80m) respectively.
Figures 5 and 6 show monthly average wind speeds distribution and recovery rate.
Reco very Rate %120 .0%R ecovery rate % Ann ual Recovery Rate/Mean Speed @ 12m , Ada Fo ah

Monthly Recover y Rat e/Mean Wind Speed @ 12 m_ Ada Foah

100 .0%
80.0%

14.0

92.00%

12.0

90.00%

10.0

88.00%

8.0

86.00%

6.0

84.00%

4.0

82.00%

2.0

80.00%

0.0

78.00%

60.0%
40.0%
20.0%

Month ly RR
Month ly Mean Speed

0 .0%Jun- Jul-99Aug- Sep- Oct- No v- Dec- Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr- May- Jun- Jul-00Aug- Sep99
99 99 99 9 9 99 00 00 00 00 00 00
00 00

Month

Fig. 5: Monthly average wind speeds
distribution

5.4

5.3

Annual RR

5.2

Annual Mean Spe ed

76.00%
74.00%

5.1
Jun 99-May 00 July 99-Jun 00 Aug -99
Jul 00 Sept -99
Aug 00 Oct -99
Sept 0 0

Fig. 6: Monthly average wind recovery
rate

14 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

Suggested potential wind project site
Based on the quality of available wind data, terrain and other parameters such as grid networks, roadinfrastructure, etc., there are several spots stretching from Sege to Ada Foah that merit further investigation.
Table 7 shows a summary of the average wind speeds of Ada Foah above 7 m/s at 80m hub heights whiletable 8 presents the site that is suggested for further investigation as potential utility-scale wind project sites.
Table 7: Source of Wind Data for Potential Sites

Site Name

Measurement
PeriodRecovery
Rate(%)

Annual
Turbulencemean wind intensity (%)
speed @
80m*

Remarks

Ada FoahSep 99-Aug 00

90.9

7.6

Good access roads,
11/33 kV grid
extension exist, fairly
good topography, not
far from mainindustrial hub

7.6*Based on assumed shear exponent of 0.16

Table 8: Suggested Potential Project Site
Name of Site

Coordinates*(NAD 83)

Note

Flat, exposed topography and excellent available land area for project
development
Site is 6km away from low/mediu m voltage distribution network andabout 25km away from high voltage transmission and sub-station at
Sogakofe

Tamino05° 47´ 27 N
00° 33´ 14 E

(closest wind data:
Ada Foah)

The community is willing to lease small parcel for WRA and any sizefor future project development
Conspicuous tree deformation by persistent wind
Main obstacle to nearest high voltage transmission line is the Volta
River, but a road bridge exists close to the SS at Sogakofe.
The soil condition for anchor selection is sand+clay
Site is about 1km away from the coast
Main use of land is farming* The coordinates shown are within a prospective project boundaries and represent preliminary suggested location where
standard meteorological mast could be installed to confirm the wind resource and, if necessary, to provide 'bankable' data.
Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 15

Some of the potential wind spots are shown in figure 7. The yellow are the potential sites investigated under
the SWERA initiative and the purple colour show Meteorological sites for long term wind data.

Fig. 7: Potential wind spots
5.2

Effective indigenous and emerging technologies and innovation forclimate change adaptation
Climate change affects agricultural productivity and at the same time agriculture and land-use changes(deforestation) contribute significantly to climate change effects. Agriculture including crop production,
pasture and livestock contributes to 13% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC 2007).
The IPCC reports that climate change will affect agricultural systems especially those in developing
countries which have less adaptive capacities. The IPCC regional assessment of climate change impact inAfrica revealed that by 2020, yields from rain-fed crops with particular reference to maize production in
Ghana, will reduce by halve. Other negative impacts of climate change include land degradation, soil
erosion, and changes in water availability, heavy precipitation, severe drought, biodiversity loss andoutbreaks of pest and disease. Despite the heavily debated climate change threats to agricultural
production systems at different scales, levels and frames there are indeed some opportunities. Thissection gives a situational analysis of climate change impacts on agriculture, adaptation measures, theopportunities and challenges (constraints), institutional support systems and suggestions by affected
small scale farmers whose main economic sustenance is tied to the agriculture sector.
Climate Change Effects as perceived by respondents include erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns
with poor distributions, high temperatures with hot sunshine conditions, severe drought and heavy
precipitations/floods. These phenomenal changes in weather conditions and climate events had been
observed by over 80% of the sample interviewed over the past 10 years. Respondents had also
experienced acid rainfall and strong wind (gust) conditions although very limited in occurrence. Table 9
presents details of percentage response to climate change effects by operational areas while Table 10shows climate change effects on agriculture.

16 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

Table 9: Response to climate change effects% Responding to Climate Change Effects
Erratic andpoor rainfall
distribution

High
Temp.

Drought

Floods/Heavy
Precipitation

Hot
Sunshine

Acid
Rain
fall

Strong
Winds

AKJ

100

46.7

100

96.7

50

-

-

AB

100

50

86.7

83.3

10

-

-

DTA

100

93.1

100

13.3

65.5

-

-

FA

93.3

100

100

3.2

100

6.7

-

GA

100

100

90.0

73.3

-

-

-

IKB

100

100

83.3

70.0

3.3

-

-

ML

100

90

100

6.7

3.3

-

16.7

MEO

100

100

100

13.3

-

-

MA

100

96.7

100

100

100

-

3.3

PD

100

100

100

100

100

-

RW

100

83.3

-

-

50

-

SJJ

100

100

3.3

43.3

20

-

Overall

99.4

88.3

80.3

50.1

41.9

0.6

Operational
Area

83.3
8.6

Source: Survey compilation 2010. N=360; n =30/operational Area

Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 17

Table 10: Climate Change Effect on agriculture enumerated by respondents inthe surveyed area
Climate change effects Observed/experienced impacts on agriculture
Insufficient rainfall
Erratic and unpredictable
Long period of drought
followed by excessive
rainfallAffects crop development, decreased yields; increased insect pest outbreaks cause delayed planting
time in some communities. Insufficient rainfall when crops actually need water and too much water
when the crops do not need that much water.
Cassava root formation is negatively affected by climate change effectFishing activities are reduced drasticallyLivestock production is negatively affected by climatechange (lack of water and graze/feed)

High temperatures

There are heat waves associated with high temperatures.
High temperatures cause bushfires, low yield and sometimes complete crop failure. High temperature
disrupts activity of living organisms in the soil, low soil fertility which negatively affect crop development
Crops wilt and die off especially tomatoes.

Heavy precipitation/
FloodsDamage to crops; soil erosion; inability to cultivate land due to waterlogging of soils
A lot of pest and diseases emerged after heavy rains, heavy rains destroyed crops in the lowland areas
The swampy areas are no longer in use. Excess water render the swampy areas unproductive; Notmuch value for vegetable production
Heavy Precipitation caused rotting and dieback, root knots disease, flower abortion, cracks in water melon,
nematode diseases and fungal diseases

Strong winds

Strong winds that come along with heavy rains caused flowers and fruits to abort or drop. Dropping ofimmature flowers, vegetables and fruits.

Severe DroughtLand degradation and soil erosion; lower yields from crop damage and failure; increased livestock
deaths; increased risk of wildfire; loss of arable land

Sea levels increase

Salinization of irrigation water, estuaries and freshwater systems; loss of arable land and increase in alternative
livelihoods Most uplands and arable lands have become saline and no more suitable for crop production

Source: Survey compilation 2010.
5.2.1
Opportunities and Constraints
Although climate change effects and impacts present diverse challenges to small-scale farmers, thesefarmers also appreciate some opportunities that come along with climate change. Climate Change
opportunities listed by respondents can be categorised into improved farm maintenance and cultural
practices (timely planting, regular weeding, timely harvesting); improved soil management practices ( useof cover crops, mulching and application of organic manure,); varietal development (development ofdrought resistance varieties, high yielding varieties, disease resistant varieties); Additional livelihood options(cultivation of vegetables and fruits like okro and watermelon, fishing, petty trading etc, etc.) use of agrochemicals; use of “neem extract” to control pest and disease outbreaks and improved irrigation practices(Sinking tube wells for regular water supplies). Others are construction of drainage systems in the lowlands
and construction of fence against sea breeze to limit the flow of saline water on cultivable lands.
Despite the appreciable exposure level to the above listed innovative and improved technologicalpackages, there are challenges or constraints to their applications. As reported by Hazell and Wood (2008),
agricultural systems may have considerable capacity to adapt to climate change, but there are challenges.
The Constraints and or challenges (Figure 8) include high cost of production as a results of escalating input
prices, high prices of food crops as farmers switch from food crops production to cash crops which
contribute to market dependency for household food security (cultivation of vegetables and fruits overcereals and tubers), price threats from over-supply of certain crops, post harvest losses which aggravate
poverty and health risks associated with agro-chemical applications. Others are availability and accessibilityof organic manure on relatively large farms. As most farmers put it frankly animal droppings are not easily
18 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

available; its application is also constrained when farm size is large. Some of the technologies are actually
beyond the reach of resource poor farmers. Farmers lack the resources and money to enable them apply
corrective measures effectively and efficiently. Examples cited are high cost of irrigation facilities, highcause of double nursery establishment and cost of improved varieties.

Fig. 8: Constraints due to climate change effects
5.2.2
Mechanisms for building resilience/adaptation to climate change
Fussel (2007) defines adaptation to climate change, as measures which moderate the adverse effects ofclimate change through a wide range of actions that are targeted at the vulnerable system or population. A
variety of adaptation options contribute to mitigation. Among these measures are: soil management
practices that reduce fertilizer use and increase crop diversification; promotion of legumes in crop rotations;increasing biodiversity, the availability of quality seeds and integrated crop/livestock systems; promotion of
low energy production systems; improving the control of wildfires and avoiding burning of crop residues; aswell as promoting efficient energy use by commercial agriculture. Others are introducing drought, flood andsaline-tolerant crops, improving breeding and farming techniques, developing local food banks for people
and livestock, and improving local food preservation.
Climate change affected crop development and had caused decrease in productivity of both crops andlivestock. Crops badly affected included vegetables only (44%) and vegetables and others like maize(56%). Therefore small-scale farmers need to build resilience/adaptive capacity to adapt to climate change
impacts. Climate change effects are wide spread and interrelated. Climate change effects experienced by
farmers interviewed include Pest & Disease outbreaks, changes in water availability, severe drought, landdegradation, reduction in arable lands, soil erosion and floods/heavy precipitation in decreasing order ofimportance. In this report details of responses on the first four climate change effects are presented.
5.2.3
Pest and Disease outbreaks
From farmers interviewed in the Dangbe East district, pest and disease outbreaks are prevalent in severe
drought conditions and also heavy precipitations (examples are leaf curl and blight diseases in tomatoes).
In decreasing order of importance (Figure 9), the most commonly used innovations or technologies
adopted to reduce impact of pest and disease outbreaks include the use of agrochemicals (fungicides,
pesticides), use of “neem tree” extract, crop rotation and the use of disease free seeds for planting as wellas hygiene practices on farms. Some farmers also mentioned nursing of maize seed before transplanting
because rodents pick maize seeds sown directly. Maize seeds are nursed for 7-10days for the cotyledons
to establish before transplanting.

Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 19

Fig. 9: Response to innovations to check pest & disease outbreak
5.2.4
Severe Drought
Severe drought conditions as a result of climate change effects cause land degradation, soil erosion,increased risk of bush fires, loss of arable lands, crop damage and lower yields, sometimes complete crop
failure. Commonly adaptive innovations/technologies used by farmers interviewed include storage of water
for irrigation, mulching and application of organic manure to improve water holding capacity of soils,
cultivation of short maturity crops and varieties as well as drought resistant crops and varieties. Other
innovative adaptation strategies are the use of water satchel rubber under crops as a check against severe
drought. However most farmers considered drought as natural and seasonal occurrence and therefore are
not encouraged to apply adaptive measures. At the community level tree planting on farmlands is
encouraged to reduce severe drought impact.
5.2.5
Changes in Water availability
Innovations/technologies adopted by farmers to contain changes in water availability were largely irrigation,
construction of wells for water storage, mulching to improve water holding capacity of soils, planting of soil
covers crops, cultivation close to water bodies, cultural practices such as regular weed control, earlyploughing and planting (Figure 10).

Fig. 10: Response to innovations to check changes in water availability

20 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

5.2.6
Land Degradation
From literature, there are many and complex linkages between agriculture and land degradation. Farming inareas of fragile soils, poor management of crop, soil and water interaction, and unsustainable exploitation ofsoil nutrients are some of the major causes of land degradation (Lal 1997). According to Wood et al (2000)
only some 16% of croplands globally are inherently free of soil constraints, and that figure is as low as 6–7%
in Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. However this survey focused on the climate change effects onland degradation and not causes from agricultural practices although the two are highly interlinked.
Figure11 presents emerging innovations/technologies adopted by farmers interviewed to reduce landdegradation caused by climate change effects

Fig. 11: Response to corrective measures against land degradation
5.3
Changes in Behavioural Practices to Adapt to Climate Change
From literature, in many cases people will adapt to climate change simply by changing their behaviour. This
may involve relocation and/or changing occupation. Often farmers affected by climate change effects andimpacts will employ different forms of technologies such as new irrigation systems or drought-resistantseeds which are considered ‘hard technologies’, or ‘soft’ technologies, such crop rotation patterns. In mostsituations a combination of hard and as insurance schemes or soft technologies are employed. Farmers
interviewed in the Dangbe East district had either relocated their farms and/or diversified into alternative
livelihood options. None had changed occupation completely since they explained that farming is part oftheir culture. As some farmers put it “farming is the only occupation we have there is no other alternative”.
However changes in crop type cultivated were observed. Currently most farmers cultivate crops that do notneed much water for growth like water melon. Less than 30% of the farmers interviewed had relocated close
to water bodies (River Volta), especially for minor season farming. Farmers relocated to fertile lands and also
moved to Yeiji to fish in addition to farming (seasonal migrants). Farmers relocate when there is flood or
heavy precipitation but come back later (after a while; leave the land to fallow). Farmers relocate frommarshy areas to higher grounds
Majority (97.5%) indicated that their farmlands could not have supported crop development but for theapplication of improved agricultural practices. Corrective measures applied include organic manure (92%),
use of inorganic fertilizer (90%) and Crop rotation (28%). Diversified economic activities among farmers
interviewed include fishing, mushroom cultivation, livestock rearing, grasscutter rearing, salt mining andbee keeping. Others are petty trading, artisanal jobs, gari processing, hairdressing and soap making,basket weaving, bricks making. Some farmers migrate to urban centres in search for off-farm jobs.

Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 21

5.4
Organizational Innovation and Suggestions from Farmers
The most effective adaptation approaches in developing countries, as highlighted in UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) meetings, are those that address a combination ofenvironmental stresses and factors. Strategies, policies and programmes that are most likely to succeed
need to link with coordinated efforts aimed at alleviating poverty, enhancing food security and water
availability, combating land degradation and soil erosion, reducing loss of biological diversity andecosystem services. Indeed farmers interviewed had benefited from organisational support from various
government and non-governmental agencies/organisations. Such organisations currently operational in
the Dangbe East district includes Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) and Adventist Relief Agency(ADRA); both operational in almost all the communities surveyed and involved in technology dissemination.
Others are forestry department (into afforestation programmes), Wildlife (wildlife conservation), the media(Radio Ada) and other projects mostly involved in food security issues.
Farmers suggested provision of irrigation facilities and credit, availability of inputs, public education on
climate change, alternative livelihoods and extension of improved agricultural practices for effective
mitigation against climate change impacts.

22 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

6. Conclusions & Recommendations
The Dangbe East District has fairly flat topography, low vegetative growth, relatively good infrastructure andsufficient land mass for wind energy development and agriculture. At 80m, the area has sheared annual
wind speed of 7.6m/s (based on available rudimentary wind data). The predominant wind direction is southwest. Land mass around the site where data was collected has reduced in size as a result of persistent sea
erosion and new settlements. As a result, the development of utility scale wind energy project is technically
impossible within the measurement site. However, towards the South-Western part of the Dangbe East
(Pute,Alavanyo and Tamino) where agricultural and fishing are mainstay economic activities, there issufficient land area that can support utility scale wind energy project. Again, since wind resource is site
specific, it would be of immense help if areas with good wind resources are properly demarcated andprotected. This will help monitor and control the uncoordinated use of potential wind sites for other activities.
From the situational analysis of the climate change effects on agricultural practices in Dangbe East district ofGhana, most farmers are challenged by the high cost involved in adaptation of innovative technologies tobuild resilience. Linked to constraints posed by climate change effects are opportunities mostly in the formof improved agro-technologies and economic diversification. Some adaptation measures disrupt
traditional food production systems thereby compromising their community and household food security.
Farmers strongly recommended provision of irrigation services, availability of improved agro-technologies
and education as key in building resilience to climate change effects. To promote climate change
strategies, efficient agro-technological improvement need to be strengthened substantially in Ghana as
well as efficient interface between policy-makers, researchers and the farming community through regulardialogue and institutional support. Ghana’s wind potential and market opportunities, available local
expertise, good democratic structures and interest and facilities for renewable energy development makes
it imperative to develop adequately sustainable renewable energy path for climate change adaption in worst
affected areas where renewable energy resources exist.

Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana | 23

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24 | Emerging Technologies for Building Resilience to Climate Change Effect: A Case Study in Dangbe East District of the Republic of Ghana

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