Creating Clean Energy for
Future Transportation
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Can
Use Hydrogen to Maximize Vehicle Range,
Efficiency, and Sustainability

Executive Summary
Fuel cells offer a more sustainable way toAmong fuel cells available today, proton

generate electricity for a variety of applications.

exchange membranes (PEMs) have become an

They also deliver better fuel efficiency,

effective choice in energy generation, especiallyoperating range, durability, and reliability thanwhen used for transportation and material

other power sources, such as combustion

handling applications. In the future, fuel cells

engines and batteries.

may be the main choice to power vehicles.

Creating Clean Energy for Future Transportation

2

An Environmentally Sustainable Power Source
Fuel cells convert a fuel source into electricity.

Some industries have already started toWhen that fuel source is carbon-free, like

apply them. In transportation, fuel cells

hydrogen, their only by-products are heat andare being deployed in vehicles and ships inwater. Because they have no mechanical parts,

combination with batteries. These can operatethey do not wear down and will operate reliablyas hybrid systems, where the fuel cell andas long as a fuel source is available. This kindbattery generate a comparable amount ofof clean and reliable power generation ispower, or a system where the fuel cell does

appealing for many industries, from utilities tomost of the work.

backup power systems to transportation.

Creating Clean Energy for Future Transportation3

Advantages of Fuel Cells Over Batteries and Gas Engines
More industries are adopting fuel cells because

Efficiency

Sustainability

they can use different fuel sources and have

To double the capacity of a battery, the size ofBecause fuel cells running on hydrogenthe battery itself must be doubled. However,

emit only water and heat, the air around theira fuel cell only needs extra fuel to double its

environment is clean and safe to breathe.

capacity. Therefore, for applications where

Alternatives like combustion engines emit

payload is important (such as long-haulpollution—such as toxins, particles, andtrucking), fuel cells are more efficient in terms ofgreenhouse gases (GHGs)—from burning

Unlike batteries, fuel cells don’t need separate

payload weight per mile traveled. Furthermore,hydrocarbon fuels.

charging steps that can take hours and put afuel cells convert the chemical energy ofvehicle out of commission when refueling. Fuelfuel directly into useful electrical energy. By

Versatility

cells can refuel almost as quickly as traditional

contrast, internal combustion engines must

Fuel cells can also be modified to suit thegas engines, taking less than five minutes.2

first liberate that energy as heat and transmit

desired application. This includes adjustingOnce filled to capacity, a vehicle powered byit mechanically incurring efficiency losses in

the amount of power they deliver, depending

a fuel cell can drive over 300 miles before thethe process. Overall, fuel cells operate two toon whether they’re supporting single vehicles,

next refuel.3

three times more efficiently than diesel and gas

bus fleets, or utility grids powering entire

internal combustion engines.

neighborhoods. Stationary fuel cell systems

operational advantages1 over conventional
power sources, such as batteries andcombustion engines. These advantages include:

Range and Ease of Refueling4can even help balance the energy gridby providing supplementary power whenintermittent power sources—like renewables—
can’t match energy demand.6
1Source: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/early-adoption-fuel-cell-technologies
2Source: https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/fuel_cell.html
3Source: https://www.energy.gov/eere/videos/energy-numbers-fuel-cell-electric-vehicles
4Source: https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f9/thomas_fcev_vs_battery_evs.pdf
5Source: https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/11/f27/fcto_fuel_cells_fact_sheet.pdf
6Source: http://www.fchea.org/stationary

Creating Clean Energy for Future Transportation4

Different Types of Fuel Cells
Since Charles Langer and Ludwig Mond first•

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) werecoined the term “fuel cell” in 1889, a wide range

among the earliest commercially developedof fuel cells have entered the market. Different

fuel cells and use a liquid phosphoric acidtypes of fuel cells include:

electrolyte contained in a silicon carbide

7•matrix. This type of fuel cell is often used inAlkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) operate on

stationary power generators in the 100 tocompressed hydrogen and pure oxygen

400kW range.

with a liquid electrolyte. They were used
to provide electricity and drinking water••ceramic compound of metal oxides andMolten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)

typically operate at a very high temperatureappeared on the market in the 1960s(>500°C [932°F]).

and ran on fossil fuels. They use hightemperature, salt carbonate compounds

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) havetheir electrolyte composed of a solidin Apollo spacecraft.

8•Proton Exchange Membranes (PEMs)—

as the electrolyte. MCFCs are largely

also called Polymer Electrolyte

used in fuel cell power plants at

Membranes—use a solid polymer

mega-watt capacity.

membrane as the electrolyte that conducts
protons. This type of fuel cell is often usedin transportation and some stationary
applications. They’re particularly suitablefor use in passenger vehicles, such ascars and buses.

7Source: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/types-fuel-cells
8Source: https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/fuel-cell-apollo-4

Creating Clean Energy for Future Transportation5

How Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Work
The most common type of PEM fuel cell operates on pure hydrogengas, typically generated from steam methane reforming or electrolysisof water. Other than hydrogen, they need only oxygen (from the air) andwater to work.

LoadAnodic
Catalyst Layer

Cathodic
Catalyst Layer

ee-Fuel InA PEM fuel cell’s energy conversion is performed by two chemical reactions

e-separated by an electrolyte membrane.9 Each chemical reaction occurs atH+a specific electrode: one electrode is called the anode (positively charged),
and the other is the cathode (negatively charged). Hydrogen gas enters theH2

With the help of a platinum catalyst, hydrogen is broken down into protons
providing usable electricity, while the protons travel through the PEM.
Protons and electrons recombine with oxygen on a platinum catalyst at thecathode to make water. As previously stated, water and heat are the onlywastes emitted.

eO2

anode, and oxygen enters the cathode through air flow.

and electrons at the anode. The electrons travel through an external circuit

Air InH+H2O
Unused Air,Water and Heat

ExcessFuel OutAnode Plate

Proton ExchangeMembrane(PEM)

Cathode Plate

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)

9Source: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/parts-fuel-cell

Creating Clean Energy for Future Transportation

6

Forward Movement with Proton Exchange Membrane
Fuel Cells in Transportation
The adoption of hydrogen-powered PEM

they exceed the energy efficiency offuel cells has already begun. This is due incombustion engines and eliminate GHG

part to the operational efficiencies10 andemissions. According to the McKinsey report,11

sustainable qualities of PEMs, which makeby 2050, hydrogen could power a global fleet

them viable alternatives to traditional powerof 400 million cars, 15-20 million trucks,

sources in transportation industries. Theseand 5 million buses.

industries include:

Automotive and Light-Duty Vehicles

Though PEM cost and fueling station availability
is challenging for the privately owned
automotive market, many major automotive

The most immediately viable PEM fuel cellcompanies are deploying test fuel cell electric

applications for light-duty vehicles are return-vehicles (FCEVs). Deployments are mainly into-base fleets, such as buses, taxis, and otherCalifornia,12 where hydrogen fueling stations

company-owned vehicles. This is because

are currently available. As costs come down

fleets of vehicles can operate using centralized

and refueling becomes more available, adoptionhydrogen refueling stations, instead of stations

rates of privately owned vehicles and otherspread across many routes. Additionally, PEMs

light-duty applications will increase.

are a sustainable and cost-efficient investment
for fleets in public transportation because

10Source: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/early-adoption-fuel-cell-technologies
11Source: https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Hydrogen-scaling-up-Hydrogen-Council.pdf
12Source: https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/2019-07/AB8_report_2019_Final.pdf

Creating Clean Energy for Future Transportation

7

Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Buses, andLong-Haul Trucks

Marine Vessels

PEM fuel cells can easily support the long-range
driving of heavy-duty vehicles, like long-haultrucks and bus fleets, for two main reasons.
The first reason being larger vehicles can easily
accommodate the current space needed for
the PEM fuel cell and fuel. The second reason
is because manufacturing PEM fuel cells to
support a longer driving range doesn’t increase
their size or weight. In comparison, the size andweight of batteries must increase significantly
when supporting a longer driving range.

of all global emissions14 and is a well-known

Plans are underway to set up hydrogen fuelingstations13 along many major distribution routes
used by long-haul trucks and other heavy-duty
vehicles carrying shipments. These convenientstations will make long-distance travel morereliable when using fuel cell power. Enabling
more heavy-duty vehicles to adopt fuel cells
will reduce pollution from the roadways, as
diesel emissions from many heavy-duty
vehicles create smog that negatively impactsof 2019, a California-based company called

The marine shipping industry contributes 3%
source of GHG emissions. This is due in partto the low-grade fuel marine vessels use,which is responsible for particulate emissions.
Particulate emissions are a type of pollution that
affects climate change and increases healthrisks for populations living along coasts.15
But, in the past few decades, different typesof marine vessels have adopted fuel cell power
to eliminate these harmful emissions. As
Golden Gate Zero Emission Marine began
construction on a passenger ferry runningentirely on PEM fuel cells.16 The ferry will
tap the public transportation potential of
San Francisco waterways, easing the strainon legacy commuting systems and reducing
total emissions.

the environment.

13Source: https://energypost.eu/hydrogen-fuel-cell-trucks-can-decarbonise-heavy-transport
14Source: https://www.transportenvironment.org/press/shipping-emissions-17-global-co2-making-it-elephant-climatenegotiations-room
15Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920915001169
16Source: https://ggzeromarine.com

Creating Clean Energy for Future Transportation

8Many shipping fleet owners and engineers havebecome enthusiastic since the San Francisco
ferry project. Though some engineers haveworried about accommodating the larger-sized
fuel, as hydrogen is about four times larger thandiesel for each unit of energy. However, lessunits are needed because each unit of hydrogenproduces much more power than equivalent
units of diesel.17 Because less fuel is needed
and the combustion engines on board will be
removed, larger amounts of useful space will

Material Handling

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Aviation

As of 2018, over 20,000 fuel cell forklifts are

Because engineers in aviation must consider

operating in the U.S.

aerodynamics and properties of flight, PEM fuel19

These forklifts can work

a full eight-hour shift on one tank of hydrogen,cell’s low weight and energy efficiency makes

refuel in minutes, and operate in refrigerated

them an optimal clean energy solution. Because

warehouses, as lower temperatures don’t hinder

they’re lighter than batteries and more efficientfuel cell performance. Operating facilities

than engines, unmanned aerial vehicles andof some of the largest retailers—Walmart,drones can fly for longer with PEM fuel cells.

Amazon, and General Motors, to name a few—
now use hydrogen forklifts in their warehouses.

be available on marine vessels. Similar projects
are now underway in Norway and France.
Additionally, fuel cells have even found theirway into luxury super-yachts.18

Though commercial flight hasn’t yet been
made available with fuel cells, air taxis poweredby hydrogen could be produced by 2021.20
This future form of public transportation could
likely provide a greater range of travel forintercity commutes.

17Source: https://www.npr.org/2019/07/16/716693006/the-dawn-of-low-carbon-shipping
18Source: https://www.forbes.com/sites/billspringer/2019/10/01/367-foot-long-hydrogen-powered-superyacht-concept-makes-waves-at-the-monaco-yacht-show/#309a7791efcd
19

Source: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/fact-month-november-2018-there-are-now-more-20000-hydrogen-fuel-cell-forklifts-use

20

Source: https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/electric-air-taxis-powered-hydrogen-promise-greater-range-intercity-commutes-ncna1026981

Creating Clean Energy for Future Transportation

9A Future Driver for Transportation
In the future, fuel cells may be the main choice

Nafion™ is a leader in the market space, using

to power transportation, replacing fossil fuel-industry-leading technology to continue

powered vehicles with hydrogen-powered

developing leading solutions for fuel cells. Inbuses, trucks, cars, trains, airplanes, andfact, Nafion™ ion exchange membranes werefreight ships.

the first of their kind and are still the mostAs new uses and applications appear on themarket, companies will need an innovative
membrane partner to ensure that fuel cells
meet performance and reliability requirements
for their applications. Such innovative partners

widely distributed PEM material in the world.
Additionally, the history and manufacturing
scale of Nafion™ makes it the most dependable
brand to ensure the necessary scale atreasonable costs into the future.

already exist and are reinventing the market.

Creating Clean Energy for Future Transportation

10Reinventing the Energy Market with Nafion™ Membranes
With over 50 years of experience, the Nafion™ membranes anddispersions team has the knowledge to lead the energy industry on
the journey toward a safer, cleaner world. Nafion™ ion exchange
membranes have been the products of choice for chlor-alkali electrolysis,
providing unparalleled performance and durability. Today, Nafion™
membranes also offer leading-edge solutions for energy storage,
fuel cells, water electrolysis, ultrahigh purity chemical production,and other specialty applications.

Nafion™ membranes by Chemours deliver:
Superior chemical stability and proton conductivity
The structure of Nafion™ membranes consists of a flexible, hydrophobic
backbone that provides excellent mechanical and chemical stability,
while its pendent groups deliver high proton conductivity.

Adaptability for alternative electrolyte systems
Built from Chemours’ strong knowledge base and industry experience,
Nafion™ membrane properties—like ion conductivity and crossover—are tunable at various levels using monomer, polymer, and membraneprocessing techniques.

Proven performance from industry-leading field experience
Nafion™ ion exchange membranes have served as the benchmark
material across several industries.

It’s time to let the future in. Won’t you join us?

Visit Nafion.com or call one of our technical experts:
United States and Canada.......... +1 844 773 2436 or +1 302 773 1000
Asia Pacific – North........................................................+86 400 8056 528
Asia Pacific – South.........................................................+91 124 479 7400
Europe/Middle East/Africa................................................+41 22 719 1500
Brazil........................................................................................ 0800 110 728
Mexico................................... 1 800 737 5623 or +55 55 5125 4907(DF)More Benefits of Nafion™ Membranes for Electrolysis Applications•

Durable•Deliver high performance•

Operate in caustic and low voltage environments•

Retain their properties over time•

Well suited to applications where intermittent renewable energy is used

The information set forth herein is furnished free of charge and based on technical data that Chemours believes to be reliable. Chemours makes no warranties, express or implied, and assumes
no liability in connection with any use of this information. Nothing herein is to be taken as a license to operate under or a recommendation to infringe on any patents or trademarks.
© 2020 The Chemours Company FC, LLC. Nafion™ and any associated logos are trademarks or copyrights of The Chemours Company FC, LLC. Chemours™ and the Chemours logo aretrademarks of The Chemours Company.
C-11910 (4/20)