10. Continents: structure and history
We saw in chapter 3 that the Earth’s outer shell －or lithosphere－ is broken into plates moving
relative to one another (plate tectonic). The lithosphere comprises the crust and the uppermost
part of the upper mantle. The crust is subdivided into an oceanic and a continental crust. The
former is heavier, thinner, and lies beneath the ocean floor which represents 2/3 of the Earth’s
surface. The latter is lighter, thicker, and makes up the continents. The oceanic lithosphere isproduced at mid-ocean ridges and destroyed along subduction zones. Therefore, the oldest
oceanic lithosphere present beneath the ocean floor is only 200,000,000 years old, which
represents a relatively small fraction of Earth’s 4.6-billion years history. On the other hand,continental rocks can be much older because they are too light to be subducted. Hence, only
continental rocks can be used to study the evolution of our planets in the distant past (billions ofyears ago).
The edge of a continent facing a subduction zone is called an active margin. A good example isthe west coast of South America. The edge of a continent that does not coincide with a convergent
plate boundary is called a passive margin. The Atlantic Ocean is bordered by passive continental
margins.

10.1. Structure of continents
The surface of continents can be subdivided into several broad regions which were formed atdifferent times and by different tectonic processes. These broad regions are referred to as
tectonic provinces:
Shields lie at the heart of continents and are their oldest components. Shields are composed ofPrecambrian crystalline rocks (metamorphic and igneous rocks). These rocks may have beendeformed during the Precambrian but remained undeformed during the Phanerozoic. Examples ofshields are the Canadian Shield, the African Shield, and the Australian Shield.
Platforms consist of sedimentary layers overlying the Precambrian basement and displaying
relatively minor deformations (e.g. North American Platform, Siberian Platform). Shields andplatforms consist of the most stable parts of continents called cratons. Cratons have not beensignificantly affected by mountain building episodes (orogenies) during the Phanerozoic. However,they may have experienced slow vertical movements due to mantle convection beneath thelithosphere or to the growth and retreat of ice sheets (see epeirogeny, section 10.3). Large areas
can be uplifted due to heating by mantle upwelling beneath the lithosphere. More locally,magmatic intrusions migrating upward can warp the overlying rock layers. Circular regions of thelithosphere which have been uplifted are called structural domes (e.g. Cincinnati Arch, USA;
Richat Dome, Mauritania). Rock layers in a structural dome dip away from its center. On the otherhand, regions of the lithosphere which cools and contracts are affected by subsidence and are

Note that vigorous upwelling may cause crustal extension which in turn may lead to rifting and the formation of a sedimentarybasin. An ocean may even form if ocean-floor spreading is initiated and maintained (see the Wilson cycle, section 10.2.3).

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called thermal subsidence basins where abundant sediments can accumulate (e.g. Michigan
Basin, USA; Amadeus Basin, Australia). Unlike domes, rock layers in a thermal subsidence basin
dip toward its center. Intracratonic basins are economically important because they contain largereservoirs of coal, oil, and natural gas.
Phanerozoic orogens are mountain chains situated along the margins of cratons and producedby continental collision or ocean-continent subduction. The Appalachian mountains (eastern USA)and the Ardennes (central Europe) are examples of past orogens related to mountain building
episodes that are no longer active. On the other hand, the Alpine-Himalayan orogen and the Andes
are examples of ongoing mountain building episodes (see slides for more details).
Regions of extended crust are regions where the last episode of tectonic deformation is anextension. Passive margins are regions of extended crust because they are formed after rifting andthe subsequent opening of an ocean basin (e.g. the passive continental margins bordering theAtlantic Ocean).

10.2. Growth of continents
Two main processes contribute to the growth of continents: one that involves vertical transport ofmatter (magmatic addition) and one that involves horizontal transport of matter (accretion).
10.2.1. Magmatic addition
Abundant magma is produced at subduction zones through water-induced melting of thesubducting oceanic plate and the mantle directly above it (see chapter 6). After being produced,
the magma rises toward the surface and either crystallizes in a magmatic chamber or is spewed
out during volcanic eruptions. In Japan, the occurrence of many granitic intrusions and active
volcanoes attests of the importance of magmatic addition for the formation of the JapaneseArchipelago.
10.2.2. Accretion
A continent can also grow larger when a portion of the neighboring plate merges with the continent.
Accreted blocks of tens to hundreds of kilometers in size are called terrains (or terranes). The
geology and age of these accreted terrains may be very different from those of the adjacentcontinental rocks. Japan is formed of a juxtaposition of accreted terrains parallel to the subduction
zone and bounded by major faults. The age of terrains decreases toward the trench. They arecomposed of portions of the oceanic crust as well as volcanic and sedimentary rocks carried by thesubducting plate. An example of accreted material observed in Japan is the siliceous sedimentaryrock called chert (see chapter 7). It is a layered rock composed of tiny shells made of silica whichhave accumulated on the deep ocean floor. Another example of accreted material in Japan is reeflimestone. A prominent example is the Akiyoshi Terrain in Yamaguchi Prefecture which isNote the analogy with the thermal subsidence experienced by passive margins and permitting the thick accumulation of
sediments on continental shelves.

53composed of atoll reefs ranging in age from Early Carboniferous to Middle Permian.
Continental growth by accretion does not only happen in subduction zone. Probably the mostobvious example of continental growth by accretion is when two continental landmasses merge
during continental collision (e.g. collision between India and Eurasia forming the Himalayan
mountain chain). Less obvious but nonetheless of fundamental importance is the accretion ofblocks moving along a transform fault. This process has shaped the west coast of North America.
For example, the terrain named Wrangelia now forming part of Alaska and western Canada
originated from the southern hemisphere and has travelled 5000 km north to finally merge withNorth America.
10.2.3. The Wilson cycle
The margins of cratons have experienced several episodes of mountain building throughout
Earth’s history. Meanwhile ocean basins have opened and closed repeatedly. Since the surface
area of the Earth is constant, plate divergence must be compensated by convergence. Divergenceis linked to the opening of ocean basins whereas convergence leads to the closure of ocean basinsand continental collision. An idealized picture of the evolution of continents and ocean basins isgiven by the Wilson cycle. Once during the Phanerozoic all the continents merged into a single
supercontinent called Pangaea about 250 million years ago. Pangaea was not the firstsupercontinent and will not be the last. The Wilson cycle begins with the break up of asupercontinent through rifting and the opening of an ocean basin followed by a subduction leading
to continental collision and ultimately to the assembly of a new supercontinent. Rifting of the newsupercontinent marks the beginning of the next cycle. It takes several 100s of millions of years to
break-up and then reassemble a supercontinent.

10.3. Vertical movements of the continental lithosphere
Continental collision results in a great deal of crustal deformation (faults and folds), metamorphism,and crustal thickening leading to the formation of magma at the root of mountain chains. But thecontinental lithosphere can also be affected by vertical movements with little or no deformation.
These vertical movements of the continental lithosphere are referred to as epeirogeny. There are
two main causes of epeirogenic movements: (1) glacial rebound and (2) the heating/cooling of thelithosphere.
10.3.1. Glacial rebound
The weight of large glaciers can bend the continental lithosphere. When these glaciers melt, thelithosphere rises progressively. High-latitude regions of the northern hemisphere like Scandinavia
are now being uplifted following the melting of the thick ice sheet that covered these regions during
the last ice age (110,000-12,000 years ago).

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10.3.2. Heating/cooling of the lithosphere
Upwelling of mantle rock beneath the continental lithosphere causes uplift. When heated, thelithosphere expands and its density decreases which makes it “float” higher on the asthenosphere.
Moreover, the pressure of the rising mantle rock may also push the lithosphere upward. Uplift ofthe lithosphere may lead to the formation of structural domes, already mentioned in section 10.1.
The Basin and Range Province in western USA is a result of the heating of the lithosphere bymantle upwelling inducing uplift and crustal extension accompanied by faulting.
Conversely, cooling of the continental lithosphere causes subsidence. This process leads to theformation of thermal subsidence basins where abundant sediments can accumulate (e.g. Michigan
Basin, passive margins of continents).
Thermal subsidence and uplift are processes occurring over millions of years. Conversely, glacial
rebound is faster and occurs over thousands of years.

10.4. Origin of the resistance of cratons
Cratons are composed of very old crustal rocks. Evidence for continental crust 4 billion years old
has been found in Canada. Cratons are very stable. Cratons may contain rocks which haveremained undeformed since the Archean era (3.9-2.5 billion years ago). On the other hand, themargins of these stable cratons have been affected by multiple orogenic episodes. How can weexplain the extraordinary resistance and stability of the cratons?
The continental lithosphere is light and cannot be subducted. On the contrary, rocks of the oceanic
crust are constantly being recycled in the mantle. Hence, the rocks beneath the ocean floor areless than 200 million years old whereas those of the continental crust can be billions of years old.
But how have cratonic rocks resisted tectonic deformation for so long? The answer probably lies in
the nature of the lithosphere beneath the cratons. Cratons are characterized by a particularly thicklithosphere with a rigid lithospheric mantle that acts like a bumper and prevent cratons from being
crushed during collisions. The thick and rigid lithospheric mantle beneath cratons is referred to as
the cratonic keel. There is much speculation concerning its structure and composition. The low
geothermal gradient beneath cratons suggests that cratonic keels are colder than the surrounding
mantle rocks. If their composition was the same as the mantle material around, they would tend tosink because of their lower temperature, hence their greater density. One hypothesis suggests thatcratonic keels are composed of a material that is less dense than the mantle around. Evidence
supporting this hypothesis comes from a rock called kimberlite. This rock is formed during a violent
volcanic eruption which brings material lying deep in the lithosphere up to the surface. Thesekimberlites are found within cratons and contain fragments of the cratonic keel (together withdiamonds). The composition of these fragments is that of a peridotite. The rock is similar to“standard” mantle peridotite except it contains less iron and less garnet and consequently has arelatively lower density.

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