CONFÉRENCE EUROPÉENNE DES MINISTRES DES TRANSPORTS
EUROPEAN CONFERENCE OF MINISTERS OF TRANSPORT

PRINCIPAL ACTIONS OF ECMT IN THE
FIELD OF ROAD SAFETY

1994 EDITION ECMT / CEMT, 2003

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword...........................................................................................................................................4
1986
Ways of Influencing Human Behaviour with a View to Improving Road Safety ..................6
Resolution n° 48.......................................................................................................................7
Report on Ways of Influencing Human Behaviour with a View to
Improving Road Safety............................................................................................................91987
Road Safety of Children...............................................................................................................63
Resolution n° 50.....................................................................................................................64
Report on Road Safety of Children .......................................................................................65
1988
Fitting and Wearing of Seat-Belts on the Rear Seats of Cars and Safer
Transport of Children and Adults..............................................................................................70
Resolution n° 54.....................................................................................................................71
Report Concerning the Fitting and Wearing of Seat-Belts on the Rear
Seats of Cars and Safer Transport of Children and Adults...................................................73
1989
Road Safety....................................................................................................................................74
Resolution n° 55.....................................................................................................................75
Advertising that Conflicts with Road Safety Aims...................................................................76
Resolution n° 56.....................................................................................................................76
Report on Advertising that Conflicts with Road Safety Aims .............................................78
1991
Improvement of Road Safety for the Elderly............................................................................85
Resolution n° 91/3..................................................................................................................86
Report on the Improvement of Road Safety for the Elderly.................................................88
1992
Development of Road Safety Policies .......................................................................................108
Resolution n° 92/3................................................................................................................109
Cover Note on Development of Road Safety Policies........................................................111
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1993
Lorries and Road Traffic Safety...............................................................................................127
Resolution n° 93/4 ........................................................................................................................130
Report on Lorries and Road Traffic Safety .................................................................................133
Drink as a factor in Road Accidents ........................................................................................162
Resolution n° 93/5 ........................................................................................................................162
Report on Drink as a factor in Road Accidents ...........................................................................164

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FOREWORD

In celebrating its 40th anniversary in 1993 the European Conference of Ministers of Transport canlook back on the past four decades as a period in which it has been continually called upon to reappraise
its activities in the light of radical changes, changes that have influenced the transport sector and, more
recently, have assumed very special importance with the opening of the frontiers between Eastern andWestern Europe, a process that is directly reflected in the Conference’s membership in that it now
comprises thirty countries instead of the earlier nineteen.
From the very beginning the ECMT applied itself assiduously to the task of resolving the existingroad safety problems. However, it initially experienced quite considerable difficulties since, in a Europe
where individual situations differed appreciably as regards rates of car ownership, levels of economic
development, traditional approaches and mental outlooks, weather conditions and a great many otherfactors, the various countries did not all attach the same importance to the joint measures to promoteroad safety. There remained moreover a great deal to be learned by all concerned.
Notwithstanding the differences in approach and methods, the process of exchanging informationand experience gradually began, providing the impetus for applied research and leading step by step tothe formulation of a number of specific measures that were jointly defined and progressively
implemented in the various ECMT Member countries.
It should be pointed out in this respect that the Conference is not a supranational organisation andso has no decision-making machinery to ensure the immediate and direct application of the provisions
adopted. When the Ministers of Transport of the Conference meet in Council and approve a draft
Resolution, they enter into a political commitment to implement the proposed measures in theirrespective countries. Given the institutional procedures specific to each country, the path to be followed
may be shorter or longer, obstacles may be encountered, or there may even be a need to use a variant of
the initial proposal. Experience has clearly shown however that, as a general rule, once a Resolution isadopted in ECMT, the appropriate steps are certainly taken by the national authorities, even if delays are
sometimes unavoidable. Moreover, if a country should be unable to subscribe to a joint measure at
European level, it may enter a reservation on the provision in question, although this is seldom done
where road safety measures are concerned. In cases where a reservation is entered on these measures, it
is primarily for reasons associated with the pattern of delegated responsibilities within the particularcountry.
While the ECMT Resolutions on road safety were originally policy-oriented and tended to set an
objective rather than lay down the corresponding means of action, they have gradually come to focus not
only on specific measures but on those which have proved particularly effective in practice. A turning
point in this connection occurred sometime around the winter of 1972-73 which -- perhaps bycoincidence? -- was also the time of the first oil shock and, accordingly, the period in which both
policymakers and the public in general became aware of all the issues associated with road traffic.

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It was then that the major legislative measures were therefore first laid down with a view to
reducing the number of road casualties (compulsory wearing of seat belts, the introduction of general
speed limits on roads and motorways, penalties for drinking and driving). These measures made asignificant contribution towards reversing the general trend in accidents and casualties and, during an
initial phase, the ECMT’s specialists concentrated on strengthening and refining them, focusing inparticular on the more vulnerable groups of road users. However, it soon became apparent that, if thenational legislative measures were to be fully effective, they would first have to do more to make theuser aware of his own responsibility -- since human error has been found to be by far the main
contributory factor in road accidents -- and, secondly, they had to be gradually integrated with othermatters of concern in the sphere of road transport (personal mobility/traffic fluidity/environment
protection). This new approach was accompanied by a process of increasing decentralisation of
responsibility for the measures at every administrative level from the central to local authorities and by
the mobilisation of their partners in the private sector (medical profession, enterprises, road users’
associations, etc.), a pattern of collaboration that fostered the implementation of co-ordinated road safety
programmes which are recognised by all.
It can therefore be seen that there has been a transition from a national and legislative policy
towards a more diversified and decentralised policy which is co-ordinated among all the partners, eachaccording to the individual matters of concern and levels of responsibility.
This new approach to road safety policies has provided the means of developing one-off types ofaction which, though highly localised in scope, could never have been planned or implemented atnational level but which offer very significant overall advantages when carried out in many different
localities. The approach has fostered the development of new ideas, since the initiatives and proposals
are not channelled simply from central government level down to the local level but also from the local
level up.
It would be true to say that the work carried out within ECMT on a co-operative basis atinternational level -- the results of which have been broadly reflected in the measures adopted in thevarious countries -- has been conducive to the establishment of a whole range of provisions, primarily ofa regulatory nature, which can together be considered to be the sum of what the Organisation has so far
achieved in the sphere of road safety.
This publication sets out precisely that part of this work which the Conference has completed overthe past ten years. It serves both to mark the ECMT’s "anniversary" in the sphere of road safety
policymaking at continental level in Europe and as a sequel to an initial publication issued in 1986 on
the occasion of the European Communities’ Road Safety Year. It is hoped that it will give some idea ofthe road already travelled and of the scope for further investigation.

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WAYS OF INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR WITH
A VIEW TO IMPROVING ROAD SAFETY1986

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RESOLUTION No.48 ON WAYS OF INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
WITH A VIEW TO IMPROVING ROAD SAFETY[CM(86)16]

The Council of Ministers of Transport, meeting in Paris on 20th and 21st November 1986:
HAVING REGARD TO the Report on Ways of Influencing Human Behaviour with a view to
Improving Road Safety [document CM(86)15];
CONSIDERING that, despite the progress that has been recorded in recent years, Governments mustsustain their efforts to make further progress towards improving road safety;
CONVINCED that road safety policies can not have any substantial lasting effects except as part ofoverall preventive strategies based on the simultaneous improvement of the behaviour of road
users, the design and maintenance of vehicles and the quality of infrastructures and on themodernisation of emergency services for road casualties;
NOTING, however, that human factors are the source of the vast majority or road accidents andaccordingly that particular priority in the future needs to be given to influencing the human factors
causing road accidents;
INVITES MEMBER COUNTRIES:
1.

To improve their systems for collecting and processing accident data, to conduct more detailed
studies, surveys and research so as to have a reliable basis for assessing the extent to which humanfactors are involved in road accidents and, on this basis, to devise suitable preventive anddissuasive measures and penalties as means of influencing the behaviour of road users.

2.

To ascertain more clearly in this way the importance of the main human causes of accidents such as
excessive speed, drinking and driving, dangerous manoeuvres and non-compliance with traffic
lights and road signs.

3.

To implement, in their entirety, its previous Recommendations as regards speed limits, penalties fordrinking and driving, the use of seat belts and the wearing of protective helmets, so as to establish aset of compulsory requirements that are clear, coherent and, if possible, harmonised at international
level.

4.

To maintain an adequate level of traffic supervision in order to secure proper compliance with roadtraffic regulations by making sure that there are always enough members of the traffic surveillanceservices on the roads, including during off-peak periods and on secondary roads.

5.

To arrange, as far as possible, for the surveillance services to be equipped with automatic
equipment for recording offences, particularly those of exceeding the speed limit or going througha red light, as well as reliable apparatus for ascertaining whether drivers have been drinking.

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6.

To ensure that the appropriate penalty is imposed as soon as possible once the offence has been
established and that flexible procedures for penalising offenders are introduced so as to relieve thecourts of the burden of having to deal with a vast number of minor offences.

7.

To make wide use of the possibilities offered under national law to apply the more dissuasive typesof penalty in cases directly involving the safety of others, such as the suspension or withdrawal ofthe driving licence, the temporary withholding of the vehicle registration document or the
temporary immobilisation of the vehicle.

8.

To give extensive publicity to operations designed to monitor and penalise dangerous behaviourand so serve as a deterrent.

9.

To improve the systems of road safety education so as to provide ongoing road safety training fromthe earliest years and continuing after the driving licence is obtained.

10. To encourage meaningful instruction in schools on basic road safety rules and behaviour, including
a minimum of practical training.
11. To improve the quality of instruction in driving schools and the standard of driving instructors andexaminers.
12. To study the possibility of introducing graduated systems of driving instruction --particularly for
progression to the more powerful types of motor-cycle -- and of making arrangements foradministrative and training institute follow-up for the learner or novice driver.
13. To support schemes aimed at providing refresher courses and further training for drivers,
particularly those who have been found guilty of a series of offences.
14. To mount information campaigns for road users on the major risks and main causes of accidents
and promote the wide circulation of information, particularly to local authorities, road safety
organisations, educational establishments, the medical profession and insurance companies;
further, to take steps to ensure that the entry into force of new regulations is systematically backed
up by a widespread information campaign aimed at road users.
15. To encourage contributions of all kinds from private road safety organisations so as to increase theeffectiveness of the action taken by the authorities and, where appropriate, to help them increase
the number of safety measures undertaken within their own sphere of competence.
INSTRUCTS the Committee of Deputies to keep track of developments in this particularly importantarea concerning the role of human behaviour in road accidents and to report back, in due course, inthe light of the experience acquired in the various Member countries.

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REPORT ON WAYS OF INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
WITH A VIEW TO IMPROVING ROAD SAFETY[CM(86)15]

SUMMARIES OF CHAPTERS

Chapter I.

The problem in General Terms and an Analysis of
the Main Causes of Accidents

Road safety measures fall into three main categories: improving road user behaviour (by means ofeducation, information, regulation, monitoring and supervision, and penalties), improving vehicle safety,
and developing safer road infrastructures. All contribute in their own way to reducing accidents andcasualties. The extent to which they do so depends on the key factors in accident causation. Chapter I
gives an overview of the means available to determine the main characteristics of road accidents in eachcountry and describes the factors to be taken into account when remedial measures are being planned.
Analysis of national accident statistics allows the main problem areas to be investigated: where
and when accidents occur, whom they involve, what the circumstances are. But international
comparisons are complicated by differences in the type of record, definitions of injured and killed, andin complementary date -- vehicle mileage for example. Within a given country, accident rates provide
more insight than aggregate totals, particularly injury accidents per kilometre of travel or per head of the
population. Time trends may also allow the effects of specific measures, such as seat-belt legislation, tobe evaluated. But such data cannot at present be assembled on an exactly equivalent basis across all
ECMT countries, and it is necessary to construct an outline picture from what is available for individual
countries. A common feature that persistently emerges is the problem of vulnerable road users -pedestrians and cyclists.
A United Kingdom study in the 1970’s and early 80s provided useful insight into the main factors
contributing to accidents. The results showed human factors contributed to about 95 per cent ofaccidents, road factors to about 20-30 per cent, and vehicle factors to 5-10 per cent. Results for France,
Germany and Switzerland have a number of common characteristics in this respect. Contributory
factors such as these should be interpreted with caution however. There are many interactions: forexample, human behaviour is itself much influenced by the road layout and environment.
Moreover, measures aimed at improvement must take account of how susceptible a particularfactor may be to influence and change. In general, changes in road layout -- "safety engineering" -have a more immediate and quantifiable effect on accidents than attempts to change behaviour by
publicity. Similarly, training can never equip a driver for every circumstance he may encounter, nor
provide him with the skill to escape a difficult situation; it may be easier to engineer the road so that thesituation cannot occur. Equally, past achievements in national terms limit future gains: if seat-beltwearing rates are already high in a country, further measures will provide diminishing returns. The
potential long-term gains from changes in behaviour may be considerable, however.
One of the main problems ascertained from the statistics of most countries is driving under the
influence of alcohol. Alcohol is closely bound up with consumer habits in almost every society, and the ECMT / CEMT, 2003

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extent to which measures aimed at reducing drink-related accidents are likely to be successful will
depend on how effectively they take account of that. Enforcement of the law in practice can reinforce
acceptable patterns of behaviour but is unlikely to be sufficient in itself to create such patterns. Two
approaches may be adopted: to discourage from driving any person under the influence of alcohol, andto prevent or discourage drivers from drinking beforehand. The efficiency of the enforcement policies
can also be enhanced by increasing the perceived risk of being caught by means of publicity campaigns,
by changing the type of monitoring and by modernising the policing and judicial systems byadministrative means and by the use of technology: breath analysis with reliable electronic devices
instead of blood tests, for example.

Chapter II. Traffic Safety Education
The greatest road safety problems in Europe are to be found amongst children, young people andyoung car-drivers. Traffic safety education is one of many steps that must be taken to improve roadsafety amongst these groups.
Chapter II. demonstrates the need for measures to deal with the road safety problems faced byyoung people. Experience gathered from many countries shows that traffic safety education can be aneffective approach. Such measures, however, can only be effective if they are focused on the mostimportant problems in road safety.
An ambitious education programme should be developed at central or local level for the purposeof motivating parents, pre-school staff and schoolteachers to do road safety work with children andyoung people.
Driver training must be reformed to improve the attitude and behaviour of young motorcyclists andcar drivers with regard to important road safety questions.
A certain amount of traffic safety education is provided today both in the home and the school.
Educational materials with programme proposals are already available. The area most in need of
improvement is the information and education provided to parents and teachers by the various
authorities and organisations. Such measures must to a much greater extent be directed towards
motivating those who are responsible for educating children and young people.
Chapter II details two models for the education of children and young people in road safety
matters.
The first model, previously presented at the conference organised jointly by the ECMT and theCouncil of Europe on road safety education for children and teenagers, is concerned with improving
child behaviour in traffic through training.
The second model shows how an integrated traffic safety education programme can affect thedesign of the traffic environment, the regulation of traffic and children’s field of movement as well as
improving their behaviour and their use of protective gear.
There is a need for improved driver training both as regards influencing attitudes and influencing
driver behaviour.

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The attitudes of prospective motorcyclists and car drivers can be changed to the better if all of them
are required to undergo training in order to get a licence. Required goals for training programmes are an
improved attitude towards drinking and driving, observing speed limits and respecting unprotected roadusers.
The behaviour of new drivers in traffic must be improved. Training must be more safetyorientated, which for many countries means some practice in driving at night and on icy surfaces.
One measure that may improve road safety amongst new drivers is to impose certain restrictions onthem for a limited period. This is being tested in many countries.
There is a strong case for informing drivers who have newly acquired their licences about vitalroad safety matters. They should be kept informed continuously between the ages of 18 and 24 by theauthorities and organisations concerned.
Several countries have some form of additional voluntary or even regulated training for new
drivers, which can be a way of improving road safety still further for this age group.

Chapter III. Informing the Public
Increasing public awareness by means of information campaigns is an essential aspect of roadsafety policy in all countries. The forms of organisation and methods of implementing thesecampaigns are, however, adapted to the specific needs of each country. It would seem to be recognised
everywhere that it is necessary to have a central organisation with country-wide responsibility for the
long-term strategies for increasing public awareness, whereas the actual information activities tend to be
decentralised. Responsibility must also be assumed for financing these activities and, in this connection,
it is important to ensure that steps are taken to integrate private and commercial interests.
Public information in connection with road safety is in most cases addressed to users of means oftransport. Brochures and posters addressed to specific target groups are the main media used. It would
seem necessary to improve the overall use of scientific knowledge for the purposes of public
information.
The data sent in by the various countries shows a certain degree of consistency from the standpointof the campaign topics: seat-belts, visibility, drinking and driving are in many countries the main
points on which public information activities are focused. However, it is apparently often very difficult
to assess the results of such campaigns, so it would seem highly desirable to develop international
exchanges in this connection.

Chapter IV. Monitoring and Penalties
The maintenance of a reasonable level of traffic monitoring and supervision is essential to roadsafety.
The traffic monitoring services, aside from their law enforcement task, have a major preventive
role to play.

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The effectiveness of the monitoring services depends on their available resources and the way
they are organised, which varies from country to country depending on its administrative structures.
Penalties (fines, imprisonment, suspension or withdrawal of the person’s driving licence, etc.) are
effective only if they are imposed soon after the actual offence. They must also be proportional to theseriousness of the offence.
Accordingly, several countries are using new techniques such as removing the need for lessserious offences to go before the courts, creating a central computer file of offenders or introducing apoints-based driving licence.

Chapter V. The Rule of Non-Government Entities
In many countries the main road safety measures too often depend on action by governments aloneor, especially in countries organised on a federal basis, on action by local authorities, in other words on
the public authorities in any case. It is becoming quite clear, however, that in most cases the central
government has every interest in increasing the overall efficiency of the community’s road safetymeasures by enlisting the help of all the private entities which serve as relay units and provide backup
to ensure that the public is better informed in connection with road safety.
Such entities are primarily the mass media, vehicle manufacturers and importers, insurancecompanies, user associations, the medical profession, enterprises, and joint advisory bodies.
These entities can provide valuable support in improving the behaviour of road users, moreparticularly as regards information and publicity, safety education, the collection of data, and research.
By and large, it can be said that the part played by all these private or semi-public entities could beappreciably increased in many European countries provided that governments are prepared to help
towards this end.
In a number of countries, moreover, the trend does seem to have been moving along these lines fora number of years. In any event, efforts to improve behaviour must clearly be made as close as possible
to the users themselves and so through all of these organisations which are often both psychologicallyand geographically closer to the actual public.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................15

Chapter I

THE PROBLEM IN GENERAL TERMS AND AN ANALYSISOF THE MAIN CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS .................................................. 17

1.

Possible methods of improving road safety .........................................................................17

2.

Statistical analysis of road accidents ....................................................................................17
2.1 Classification of accidents.............................................................................................17
2.2 Trends ............................................................................................................................18
2.3 Main causes of accidents...............................................................................................18

3.

Difficulties relating to remedial measures............................................................................19
3.1 The search for ways of influencing behaviour .............................................................19
3.2 Drinking and driving: a particularly worrying problem..............................................20
3.3 Medicines and drugs......................................................................................................20

4.

Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................20

Chapter II.

TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION .......................................................................28

1.

Introduction ...........................................................................................................................28
1.1 Definition of the term traffic safety education .............................................................28
1.2 Resolutions and recommendations of the ECMT and OECD studies .........................28

2.

Description of the problem ...................................................................................................29
2.1 General...........................................................................................................................29
2.2 Children aged 0-14 ........................................................................................................30
2.3 Young people aged 15-17..............................................................................................31
2.4 Young motorists aged 18-24 .........................................................................................31

3.

Traffic safety education in the home, pre-school and school ...............................................32
3.1 Present situation in Europe............................................................................................32
3.2 Resources .......................................................................................................................32
3.3 Strategy ..........................................................................................................................33
3.4 Objectives and means of achieving them .....................................................................34
3.5 Direction of traffic safety education .............................................................................35

4.

Driver training and preparation for the driving test ..............................................................35
4.1 Present situation in Europe............................................................................................35
4.2 Measures ........................................................................................................................37

5.

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................38

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Chapter III. INFORMING THE PUBLIC...................................................................................39
1.
2.
3.
4.

Organisation of public information activities .......................................................................39
Strategies and methods for informing the public..................................................................39
Main themes of information campaigns................................................................................40
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................45

Chapter IV. MONITORING AND PENALTIES .........................................................................47
1.
2.
3.

Monitoring and supervision...................................................................................................47
Penalties..................................................................................................................................48
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................48

Chapter V.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

THE ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENT ENTITIES ................................................50

General role of non-government entities...............................................................................51
Contribution by the mass media ............................................................................................52
Contribution by manufacturers and importers ......................................................................53
Contribution by the car insurance sector...............................................................................53
Contribution by user and road safety associations................................................................54
Contribution by the medical profession ................................................................................55
Contribution by enterprises....................................................................................................56
Experiments with mixed advisory committees .....................................................................56
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................57

Annex...............................................................................................................................................59

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INTRODUCTION

From the outset, the ECMT, in its work on promoting road safety, has studied numerous aspects ofroad-user behaviour in all its various forms. Thus, within the framework of the Conference, theMinisters of Transport have already adopted a good number of Resolutions aimed at helping Member
countries in the complex task of persuading road-users to behave more responsibly. In the course of thiswork, particular stress has been laid on the training of children and young people, which is considered ofvital importance in this field.
An analysis of the various causes of road accidents clearly demonstrates the preponderant role
played by the human factor. This aspect thus constitutes a fundamental component of danger on theroads and has become even more important in relative terms due to the significant progress achieved inrecent years in the other relevant spheres of action which are -- traditionally -- the improvement of theroad network (including traffic management) and of the active and passive safety of vehicles.
It is true that behaviour patterns can be influenced indirectly, as for example by physical changes toroads or their environment. However, although this approach can achieve highly favourable results, itwould seem sufficient in only a very few instances. It is therefore vital to improve directly the behaviourof the road user himself, whatever measures are undertaken in other fields.
This being so, the Road Safety Committee thought it advisable to prepare a comprehensive reportcovering the various aspects of the human factor in road accidents. Given the importance of the topic, it
wanted, in this way, to give the ECMT the opportunity of making a contribution to Road Safety Year, as
1986 was designated by the European Communities.
This report was drafted on the basis of contributions made by various delegations.
Chapter I, prepared by the United Kingdom Delegation, gives a general description of the subject
before continuing with an analysis of the main causes of accidents. It also deals with the particularly
worrying problem of drinking and driving, information on which was provided by the Netherlands
Delegation.
Chapter II, prepared by the Swedish Delegation, covers the vast field of traffic safety education.
Chapter III, entitled "Informing the public", was drafted by the German Delegation.
Chapter IV, dealing with monitoring and penalties, is based on a contribution by the Belgian
Delegation.
Lastly, Chapter V, analysing the role of non-government entities, was prepared by the French
Delegation.
A small Drafting Group was given the task of coordinating and harmonising the presentation of thedifferent contributions which were, in most cases, based on information gathered by the various member
countries.

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Lastly, a summary of the main conclusions from a practical standpoint is set out in the form of adraft Resolution submitted for the approval of the Council of Ministers.

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Chapter I
THE PROBLEM IN GENERAL TERMS AND AN ANALYSIS OF THE
MAIN CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS

1.

Possible methods of improving road safety
There are many aspects to improving road safety. They fall into three main categories:--

improving road user behaviour:
sanctions;through education, information, regulations, controls and--improving vehicle safety: through design, maintenance and testing requirements;--

developing safer road infrastructures: in particular by taking safety considerations into accountwhen designing, modernising and maintaining road networks.
These approaches all contribute in their different ways to reducing accidents and casualties.

2.

Statistical analysis of road accidents

2.1 Classification of accidents
An analysis of national statistics on road traffic accidents enables us to examine the main problems
and ascertain who is involved (the type and age of road user), where (urban or rural area, road layout),
when (day or night), under what circumstances. The extent to which factors involved in accidents canbe identified from national statistics varies from country to country. There are differences in theaccident recording systems, the definitions of "injured" and "killed", and the availability ofcomplementary data -- vehicle mileage data for example. Detailed disaggregation is therefore notpossible across all member countries taken together.
However, the general situation regarding road accidents in ECMT member countries can besummed up as follows:--

while there are fewer accidents outside built-up areas, they are on average more dangerous than
accidents that occur inside built-up areas;--

main roads, and in particular motorways, are much safer, per kilometre travelled, than minor ones;--

accidents occurring at night are much more serious;--

the categories of user most at risk are essentially pedestrians, cyclists and moped and motorcycle
riders;--young novice drivers are over-represented in road accident statistics.

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Broad statistics can give only a rough guide as to the problems. The risk of accident may bequantified by relating numbers of occurrences to some indicator of exposure to risk: vehicle distancetravelled, length of network, population, built-up area or not. As an example, deaths per head of
population for different countries and classes of road user are given in Table 1. This table also
demonstrates the extent to which vulnerable road users emerge as a problem in each national context.
Table 2 gives some examples of casualties per kilometre travelled for several ECMT countries. So
although the raw accident totals indicate the national scale of the problem, it is the rates which indicate
the real seriousness of the situation.

2.2 Trends
Both casualty numbers and rates change with time according to the various trends in travel patterns
and accident risk. The monitoring of trends can allow the effects of specific measures to be determined.
For example:----

the introduction of legislation on drinking and driving;seat-belt wearing in cars;
crash helmet wearing for drivers of motorised two-wheelers.

Long-term trends in vehicle usage also change the pattern of accidents -- for example, theincreasing popularity of cycling and motorcycling in some countries in recent years has led to increased
numbers of casualties, but not rates per kilometre.

2.3 Main causes of accidents
By way of example, the relative contribution of road deficiencies, vehicle defect and humanfailings were estimated in a major United Kingdom study by the Transport and Road ResearchLaboratory in the early 1970’s. The general findings are still relevant, although a more recent study in
1978-81 has indicated some differences in detail.
The main contributory factors in accidents in these studies are summarised in Table 3a. Swiss,
French and German accident statistics allow factors to be separated into the same categories, andequivalent figures are shown in Tables 3a and 3b. For the United Kingdom the total human factors
contributed to 84 per cent of all accidents, road factors connected with the road and its environment to13 per cent and vehicle factors to 3 per cent. The Swiss figures show a similar pattern, with 96, 3, and 1
per cent, respectively. The individual human errors are grouped in descending order of frequency in thetable. The manner of executing the driving task heads the list, the majority of the errors being
deficiencies in actions and only a very small per cent of the total being ascribed to deliberate
aggressiveness and irresponsible behaviour. The next most important group relates to perceptual errors,
and the physical state of the driver comes third. There is far less evidence of how to deal with the first
two than with the third. Moreover, it is much more difficult to influence human behaviour in generalthan to correct deficiencies in roads or vehicles. Furthermore, the interactions between these different
factors are important. An example of such interaction is given, for the United Kingdom, in Table 4.
The human factor thus remains by far the most important element in road accidents, and moreparticularly: ECMT / CEMT, 200318

-------

speed inappropriate to traffic conditions;failing to give way to other road users having priority;
improperly overtaking or following too close;
a variety of perceptual errors or misjudgment;
drinking and driving;lack of road craft or skills.

Both road deficiencies and vehicle defects identified as contributory factors are less numerous
proportionately; notably there were fewer deficiencies related to road design, or inadequate signs,
lighting and markings; and fewer brake defects associated with accident occurrence.
Such analysis is not possible across all countries taken together. But it seems reasonable tosuppose that there will be some features in common. Table 4b shows a similar type of analysis for
accidents in France and Germany.
But without further qualification, the figures for contributory factors can mislead. It is too easy toconclude that all efforts should be applied to influencing human behaviour directly, without taking into
account the detailed circumstances, the multiplicity of factors which lead to accident occurrence, and thechances of success of measures applied.

3.

Difficulties relating to remedial measures

3.1 The search for ways of influencing behaviour
When considering remedial measures to reduce accidents it must be borne in mind that the mosteffective remedy is not necessarily related directly to the main "cause" of the accident and may even lie
in different categories of road, vehicle or road user. This is particularly true of accidents in which theroad user fails to correctly analyse all the factors in the road environment; in many accidents theprimary cause may be said to be the driver’s lack of skill or ability, but engineering remedies to improve
the road or to make it safer are often cheaper, easier to effect and have a proven track record. Training
the driver to the necessary degree of skill for all circumstances is extremely difficult. Further, even incircumstances in which human error or the physical state of the driver has been judged to be the solecontributor, it may be possible to influence human behaviour more readily by engineering means than byeducation or enforcement of legislation.
This is not to say that attempts to influence human behaviour within a given infrastructure should
not be pursued. Although it is the most difficult area to effect safety measures, when achieved the result
can be most dramatic. The extent to which accident statistics are susceptible to measures aimed at
modifying behaviour in this way will vary according to country. If seat-belt wearing rates are low,
effective measures to increase the wearing rate are likely to reduce deaths and serious injuries
considerably; but if the rate is already very high, there will be little scope for further reductions indeaths and serious injuries from such measures.
The scope for reducing casualty rates thus depends to a large extent on what has already been done.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

19

3.2 Drinking and driving: a particularly worrying problem
Drinking and driving is a particularly worrying problem in all member countries, and is thus amatter of general concern which the ECMT has already taken up on a number of occasions1.
Driving under the influence of alcohol is closely related with social patterns of alcohol
consumption.
In terms of policies, two broad approaches can be taken:---

to discourage from driving anyone under the influence of alcohol; orto prevent or discourage a driver from drinking excessively before taking the road.

Examples of the first are: to provide alternative transport -- low price public transport, or special
taxi arrangements for example; and to encourage the fitting of "alcohol ignition interlock" systems.
Examples of the second are: legislation controlling permissible blood alcohol levels; public information
campaigns anti-drink drive instruction in education programmes in schools, colleges and driving
schools; and, the encouragement of more stringent contracts for vehicle insurance.
There can be scope for improving the efficiency of implementation of existing policies. Patterns ofpolice enforcement of existing legislation can be adjusted to increase the actual risk of being caught.
The perceived risk can be further enhanced by suitable publicity in conjunction with periodic changes inenforcement patterns. It may also be possible to reduce recidivism amongst offenders by means offollow-up schemes of education and information.
Blood analysis of alcohol levels is complex, expensive, and time consuming; its replacement, as
legal evidence, by breath analysis using reliable electric equipment is much quicker and may
considerably improve existing enforcement. Australia, Canada, Spain, Northern Ireland, and USA haveused this type of equipment for some years; in the United Kingdom legislation was introduced in 1983
and in Austria in 1986; France has had enabling legislation for some time. Legislation is planned in the
Netherlands for 1987.
Information about the risk to pedestrians who have been drinking may also help reinforce generalpublicity of the dangers of mixing alcohol and road use.
3.3 Medicines and drugs
A further problem related in many ways to drinking and driving is that of drug taking -- for both
medicines and narcotic drugs. The extent of the connection of drugs (sometimes taken in conjunction
with alcohol) and road accidents is largely unknown at present, and research is needed to quantify the
problem and to establish what levels of consumption and combinations of drugs significantly increase
accident risk. This would provide some basis for legislative action or advice to road users.

4.

Conclusions

In sum, an analysis of the various accident factors demonstrates that human factors are highly
preponderant, even though a good number of accidents result from a complex of causes. However, ECMT / CEMT, 2003

20

uniform or unilateral measures do not always lead to decisive solutions to the problems encountered. As
far as possible, therefore, there is a need to:--define global strategies covering education, the technical improvement of the road environment,
information, regulations, controls and sanctions;--aim the measures selected at the relevant targets, i.e. the different categories of user;--

take better account of regional and local accident realities in order to formulate more effective
prevention programmes.

Note
1.

More particularly, see Resolution No.41 on drink as a factor in road accidents [CM(80)12].

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

21

Table 1. Percentage breakdown of numbers killed by road-user category

1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1983
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
1983
1984

1983
1984
1984
1984

A
B
CH
D
DK
E
F
UK
GR
I
IRL
L
N
NL
P
S
SF
TR
YU

USA
CDN
AUS
JAP

Pedestrians%

On bicycles%

On mopeds%

On motorcycles%

AUSTRIABELGIUM
SWITZERLANDGERMANY
DENMARKSPAINFRANCEUNITED KINGDOMGREECEITALYIRELANDLUXEMBOURGNORWAYNETHERLANDSPORTUGALSWEDENFINLAND
TURKEYYUGOSLAVIA

19.60
17.60
19.60
22.20
19.20
21.20
15.30
33.40
25.20
18.10
33.50
18.60
25.80
13.10

5.20
10.80
6.70
9.60
14.70
2.10
4.00
6.20
1.60
7.50
8.60
4.30
4.70
22.30

10.50
5.80
9.00
3.40
8.00
6.80
7.50
1.10
9.90
10.70

8.80
7.10
14.90
11.80
6.90
4.40
7.10
15.50
11.50
11.40
12.70
5.70
7.40
6.00

19.00
27.40
38.10
31.50

13.90
15.90
1.80
7.90

4.00
5.20
2.90

9.40
3.50
2.50
3.20

18 ECMT countries

23.30

6.40

5.50

8.40

UNITED STATESCANADA
AUSTRALIA
JAPAN
4 Associated countries

16.00
14.40
19.20
27.80
18.40

1.90
3.00
3.20
10.20
3.70

1.40
2.90
7.90

9.60
10.20
13.80
25.10

Drivers %34.10
37.9031.10
33.1032.00
29.50
39.1022.20
16.10
27.80
23.40
50.00
31.00
31.70
32.20
26.10
7.60
20.10
28.10
34.60
45.60
36.70
36.60

22

Total Killed%

Passengers %
16.90
16.90
15.50
17.20
17.60
25.90
22.60
16.90
15.80
17.30
16.80
20.00
21.10
16.20

4.90
4.00
3.20
2.70
1.50
10.00
4.40
4.80
19.90
7.40
4.90
0.00
7.10
2.70

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

1 758
1 893
1 097
10 199665
6 275
12 562
5 788
1 908
8 223
465
70
407
1 615

19.20
16.80
11.90
18.50

2.40
5.20
38.10
15.90

100
100
100
100

801
541
7 021
4 501

18.50

9.80

100

65 7892

17.90
24.30
26.80

20.00
2.50
0.30
0.30
14.10

100
100
100
100
100

42 5004 120
2 822
12 041
61 483-51.00-12.90Figures not converted to standard definition (death within 30 days).
1.
Others: in commercial vehicles, buses and coaches, home riders, etc.
2.
Death within 30 days.
Source: Taken from "Statistical Report on Road Accidents in 1984" ECMT.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

Others1 + Unrecorded%

In cars

Table 2. Examples of casualties per 100 000 000 km travelled
for several ECMT countries
NB. Definitions of casualty differ between countries

Built up areas
Non built up areas
Bundesautobahen

Urban milieu
Towns with over 5 000
inhabitants
Open country + towns with 5 000 inhabitants• Major roads• Other roads• All roads

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY (1982)
Fatal
Serious
SlightTotal
287.76210.07
73.63
4.06
73.67
44.63
25.90
3.15
27.22
19.53
6.75
0.93
FRANCE (1984)
Physical
Fatalities
NumberCasualties
accidents
Seriously Slightly
injuredinjured
111

3.0

27.6

122

149

31
30
30

5.1
3.0
3.6

22.0
18.0
19.0

34
29
30

62
50
53

10

1.0

3.5

13

17

Motorways

Built up areas
Non built up areas

SWEDEN (1982)
Serious
Slight17
41
7
12
UNITED KINGDOM (1982)
Serious
Slight

Fatal
1.5
1.5
Fatal

Built up areas
Major roads
Other roads (except
motorways)
All roads (except motorways)
Non built up areas
Major roads
Other roads (except
motorways)
All roads (except motorways)
Motorways

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

Total
60
21
Total

2.5

35

136

174

1.7
2.1

35
35

120
127

156
164

2.5

21

46

69

1.8
2.2
0.70

24
22

50
48
5.5

76
72
1 723

23

Table 3a. Factors contributing to accidents:
Great Britain 1978-81 and 1970-74 studies; Switzerland 1978-81
Great Britain

Switzerland

1978-81

1970-74

1978-81

16.6
2.1
2.5
5.4
1.0
12.1

9.6
5.4
4.7
4.7
2.5
--

16.37

39.8

26.9

51.03

0.7

2.0

7.7
6.4
4.0
1.5

10.9
8.3
5.2
--

21.07
0.18
---

19.6

24.4

21.25

6.8
2.6
0
1.8
1.0
0.1

10.0
1.4
1.2
1.0
---

5.83
0.99
0.12
0.08
--

12.2

13.2

0.42
7.02

2.5
5.8

4.6
3.5

2.40
--

8.3

9.8

2.40

Other
Pedestrian action

0.9
2.3

---

10.63
3.09

Total human factors

83.8

76.7

95.84

3.8

6.7

0.22

A. Human factors
Manner of executiona) Deficiency in actions
Too fast
Failed to look
Wrong path or position
Improperly overtaking, following too close
aulty signalling or use of lights
ailed to give wayb) Deficiency in behaviour
Aggressive, or frustrated
Perceptual errors
istraction, inattention
ooked failed to see
isjudgement of speed, distanceiew obscured

Physical state of driver
Alcohol
Fatigue
Drugs
Illness, emotional distress
DazzledGlasses not worn
Other

Lack of skill
Inexperience
Lack of road craft

1.69
10.35
4.85
17.77

B. Road environment factors
Adverse road design
Unsuitable layout -- junction design, curvaturepoor visibility due to layout
 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

24

Table 3a. Factors contributing to accidents:
Great Britain 1978-81 and 1970-74 studies; Switzerland 1978-81
Adverse environment
Slippery road
Lack of maintenance
Weather conditions

5.9

6.0

0.21

Inadequate furniture or markings
Road signs, markings
Road lighting

0.4

3.3

0.01

Obstructions
Road works
Parked vehicle, animal, other

3.1

2.8

0.02
2.66

Total road environment factors

13.3

18.8

3.13

1.3
0.4
1.3

1.4
1.4
1.4
0.2

0.34
0.30
0.24

C. Vehicle factors
Defects
Tyres
BrakesOther defects due to poor maintenance
Unsuitable Design
Other

0.18
3.0

Total vehicle factors

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

25

4.4

1.06

Table 3b. Factors contributing to accidents -- FRANCE (Réagir Survey)
1984
A. Human factors
1.
Factors related to the user’s condition and fitness
Physical problems Including :Illness
Effects of taking medicines
Faintness
Handicap
Poor eyesight
Fatigue
Alcohol
Fitness to drive Including:Unfamiliar vehicle
Recent driving experience
Limited driving experience

280
31
42
120
19
49
465
762
398
159
175
55

4.05
0.45
0.61
1.74
0.28
0.71
6.73
11.03
5.76
2.30
2.53
0.80

343
85
40
30
39
9
22
394
10
94
32
112
336
198
76
65

4.96
1.23
0.58
0.43
0.56
0.13
0.32
5.70
0.14
1.36
0.46
1.62
4.86
2.86
1.10
0.94

B. Factors related to the road environmentState of carriageway
Alignment design
Problem with vertical road signs
Problem with horizontal road signs
Problem with traffic signals
Problem with lighting
Roadworks
Problem related to weather conditions Including:slipperiness of carriageway
Poor visibility

95
489
188
240
24
132
20
414
273
172

1.37
7.08
2.72
3.47
0.35
1.91
0.29
5.99
3.95
2.49

C. Vehicle-related factors
Fault
Tyres
BrakesLack of maintenanceLights

247
44
49
83

3.57
0.64
0.71
1.20
--------99.98

2.

Factors related to user behaviour
Offences Including:
Failure to give way
Failure to stop at a STOP sign
Crossing a continuous line
Non-compliance with traffic signals
Driving the wrong way up a one-way street
Obstructive parking
Dangerous conduct Including:Agression
Dangerous overtaking
Travelling too close to vehicle in front
Poor evaluation of situation
Inappropriate behaviour in an emergency Including:
Vehicle out of control
Failure to make emergency manoeuvre
Wrong avoiding action

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

26

Table 3b. (Contd.) Factors contributing to accidents
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY
1982

1970

Accident causes with respect to drivers
Under the influence of alcohol
Too fast
Following too close and sudden braking of vehicle in front
Overtaking and passing
Priority
Turning left or right, U-turn, reversing, entering the traffic
stream, accelerating circulation, accélération
False behaviour with respect to pedestrians
Technical deficiencies, lack of maintenanceAccident causes with respect to pedestrians
Road conditions
Weather conditions
Obstructions and other accident causes

83.4
7.5
18.2
5.6
4.3
12.4

77.8
8.6
18.6
5.9
6.6
11.4

11.7
4.3
1.3
7.5
6.0
0.8
1.0

9.4
4.4
1.6
12.2
6.5
1.2
0.7

Accident causes total

100.0

100.0

Factors contributing to accidents with personal injuries

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

27

Chapter II
TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION

1.

Introduction

1.1 Definition of the term traffic safety education
Traffic safety education has always been regarded as a way of influencing the behaviour of road
users. Traditional education programmes have mainly been directed at children, young people andprospective holders of driving licences.
More recently, traffic safety education has acquired a wider perspective and it is now viewed as anintegrated whole.
Traffic safety education used to be limited to the training of children and young people. Nowadays
it is also seen as a way of indirectly influencing traffic conditions and teaching children and young
people to protect themselves, both as active road-users and as car passengers. Consequently, education
programmes can have a bearing on many different road safety problems and measures affecting children,
young people and new drivers.
Traffic safety education should be both theoretical and practical. Practical training is a very
important form of road safety education. In its broadest sense, traffic safety education also includes
information measures (dealt with in the following chapter) and further education measures (retraining
and refresher courses) following basic training.

1.2 Resolutions and recommendations of the ECMT and OECD studies
The joint ECMT and Council of Europe Conference in Strasbourg, in 1980, on "Road safety forchildren and teenagers", adopted a number of recommendations to member countries. They concerned:i) the general situation for children and young people;ii) how schools can help to improve the situation;iii) how those outside the school can help to improve the situation.
The present chapter is based on these recommendations.
In Brussels in 1978, the ECMT formulated Resolution 37 on Driver Training. The following
recommendations were made concerning the training of prospective drivers:i) that greater safety should be the primary purpose of the instruction given to learner drivers;ii) that driver instruction be reviewed accordingly;iii) that theoretical and practical instruction should concentrate, first, on how to avoid risks and,second, on how to overcome them if they arise;iv) that the practical instruction given to learners ensures that they can cope with busy roads, driving atnight and driving in poor visibility;
 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

28v) that the driving test be designed to cater for the above road safety considerations;vi) that existing methods of instruction be improved as well as the driver’s basic skills and ability toestimate risks;vii) that new methods of instruction embracing modern teaching procedures and equipment be tested
and developed.
Important studies on the topic dealt with in this chapter have been carried out under the OECD
Road Research Programme, particularly in its 1976 and 1981 reports on driver instruction.
The section on driver training in the present report is based on these recommendations and studies
and points to a number of other questions which might help in the development of training programmes.

2.

Description of the problem

2.1 General
To be of any use, traffic safety education must effectively meet the particular needs of thoseroad-users at which it is aimed. To do this, and given that young people are involved, it must takeaccount of the dominant roles played by the various age groups in traffic and the risk factors very closely
linked with these age groups.
In general, children and young people are exposed to considerable accident risks in motor traffic.
The risk of being killed and injured on the roads increases continuously from a child’s earliest age as apassive little road-user up until the time he or she becomes an active new driver. Specific road safety
problems however, vary between the different age groups.
The age groups concerned have different and multiple roles as road users. In most cases eachgroup has 2-3 dominant road-user roles as regards exposure to risk and accident risks.

Age
Group

Dominant road-user roles
Pedestrian

Cyclist

x
x
-

x
x
-

0-4
5-9
10-14
15-17
18-20

Moped
rider
x
-

Motorcyclist
X
X

Car
driverx

Car
passenger
x
x
x
x
x

The older children get, the more active they become as vehicle-users. The accident risk grows inpace. Children make their debut as cyclists at different ages. Young people tend to start riding mopeds
and motorcycles and driving cars as soon as they are of legal age. All age groups are represented moreor less equally as car passengers.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

29

2.2 Children aged 0-14
Road safety work in many countries has focused on the safety of children. As a result of these
efforts the number of road victims among children has declined continuously in many countries,
especially over the past ten years despite a considerable increase in the number of cars. Over a 30-year
period in Sweden, for instance, the volume of cars has increased threefold while the number of accidents
involving children has been reduced threefold. That figure, however, relates only to unprotectedchildren.
The main cause of the decline in the number of child road victims is of course the gradualimprovement in the traffic environment.
The greatest safety problems for children and young people are still those that arise when they areout on the roads unprotected. The chief cause of these accidents is the mingling of children and cars intraffic. The quantity of cars and their speed are of prime importance in this connection.
Another road safety problem is cycling accidents not involving motor traffic. In most cases they
involve children falling off their bicycles and hurting their heads. Such accidents occur as early as theage of four.
So the three main problem areas for the 0-14 age group are:i) pedestrians and child cyclists being run into by cars;ii) children falling off bicycles when no traffic is involved and sustaining head injuries;iii) injuries to child passengers in cars.
The following model shows the decisive safety factors for children and young people in their roles
as unprotected road-users.
Traffic safety problems of unprotected children

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

30

The risk of accident arises when the children’s field of movement is extended to the motor traffic
environment. As children grow older their exposure to traffic intensifies and the accident risk along withit, i.e. the left-hand circle increasingly overlaps the right-hand circle.

2.3 Young people aged 15-17
Young road users in the 15-17 age group are often moped riders or motorcyclists. Unlike children
they ride motor vehicles which expose them to a very high risk of accident and injury, and they
constitute one of the groups of road-users at highest risk.
The basic problem for moped riders and motorcyclists is the instability of their machines. They are
two-wheeled vehicles, which means problems with balance and a high degree of lateral mobility. And
riders are unprotected in the event of a collision. Another problem is that such vehicles are not as easy
to detect as others.
A major difference between motorcycle and moped riders is that in most countries the latter lackformal training. The two categories do however share one problem -- the risk of colliding with cars.
Another problem they have in common is that they are often injured when they come off their machines.
The extent of their injuries is often determined by whether they wear crash-helmets and protective
clothing.
One of the best ways to solve the road safety problems of moped riders is to separate them from car
traffic. Such a solution can not be applied to motorcyclists, however, which means that for theforeseeable future they will be exposed to substantially greater risks of accident than other road users.
The road safety problems for the 15-17 age group can be summarised as follows:i)ii)

moped riders and motorcyclists are injured when they collide with cars;
they are poorly protected when accidents occur.

2.4 Young motorists aged 18-24
Car drivers aged 18-19 are one large risk group in traffic in most countries. The risk of accident forthis group can, in some countries, be 7-10 times as high as for older drivers. Young people aged 20-24
are also a high-risk group.
Surveys in Sweden and experience in other countries suggest that driver training of 18-19 year olds
is effective in that it improves the knowledge and proficiency of new licence-holders, and also to someextent their attitudes. Their behaviour in traffic, on the other hand, can not be considered satisfactory as
drivers in this group are often involved in road accidents.
Swedish studies also show that the attitudes of men aged 20-24 to questions of central importancefor road safety are significantly worse than those of 18-19 year olds and older drivers. In contrast to theyounger group, though, the 20-24 year olds have acquired a lot of good experience and greater skills as
drivers. However, they still tend to over-estimate their driving ability.

 ECMT / CEMT, 200331

A major problem, then, is the attitude of young drivers to important road safety issues. Drivers
aged 18-24, especially men, have a worse attitude than other groups to such things as drinking anddriving, speed limits, the use of seat-belts, and unprotected road users. Driver training in its present
form can not easily come to grips with this problem.
The problems of the 18-24 age group can be summarised as follows:
Road safety problem
Accident risks
Attitudes
3.

Age group
18-19
Very highUnrealistic

20-24
High
Very unrealistic

Traffic safety education in the home, pre-school and school

3.1 Present situation in Europe
In most countries, the responsibility for ensuring that traffic safety education exists nationwide andis available at school rests with the central government. Regional and local authorities are also
responsible for safety education.
In most countries, traffic safety education at school is considered compulsory. Usually it is theteachers who are responsible for it. Police often take part.
The traffic safety education given at school often consists of instruction on road signs andregulations. Traffic environment studies or analyses are few and far between, and without them, one canhardly expect children and teenagers to understand how traffic may affect them. There is seldom any
traffic safety education out on the roads.
The amount of time devoted to safety education at school is difficult to estimate but is thought to bevery little.

3.2 Resources
There are a large number of resources than can be utilised in the education field. The following
are the main ones:--------

parents;
teachers;
friends;other adults;
authorities;
voluntary organisations;mass media.

Indeed, one of the main sources of education for children is their parents. They have for many
years daily contact with their children. Therefore they must be able to teach the children the risks intraffic and how to cope with them. The parents can also train the children so they behave correctly in ECMT / CEMT, 200332

traffic. However parental influence over the children declines as the children grow. Also otherproblems than traffic safety occur for instance when the children are teenagers.
Properly used, this parental resource can provide an extensive amount of traffic safety education.
However, efforts must be made to make parents more interested and motivated to supply such education.
Greater awareness among parents of the traffic risks involved would probably increase their motivation.
In pre-schools and schools, teachers have an important task to perform in the traffic safety field.
As with the parents, it is important to interest and motivate them to work with traffic questions at school.
In many countries, children and young people are taught safety on the roads by older friends. It canbe assumed that friends wield a strong influence on one another and have a powerful effect on one
another’s attitudes. Therefore it is important to focus on the attitudes of youth groups towards roadsafety matters.
Other adults can influence children and young people more directly by talking to them about their
behaviour in various traffic situations. By setting a good example on the roads, adults can influence theyoung in a positive way.
Locally, there are many authorities able to affect the safety of children in various ways. Their
participation in safety education programmes is of great value. The schools can use these authorities asa resource in their safety activities.
Many countries have voluntary organisations that play an active part in traffic safety education, at
both central and local level. They can provide a valuable complement to the efforts of parents and theschool. However, their contribution can only be a limited one as their activities are not usuallyconducted on a nationwide basis and they cannot of course reach all children and young people.
These outside parties should by all means be allowed to take part in the safety work but in that casethe initiative should come from the school.
The mass media, especially TV, influence the knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of children andyoung people. They can have both a positive and a negative effect on road safety for the young. The
media can be used too, to influence those responsible for traffic safety education, be they parents orteachers.
The advantage of information in the media is that it can reach whole target groups. However, thething to remember about this channel of information is that the message must be simple if it is to makean impact.

3.3 Strategy
It seems clear that traffic safety education can best make an impact and thereby have a real
influence on road safety by concentrating on a small number of important fields.
The basic points required for an effective traffic safety education programme can be summarised asfollows:

 ECMT / CEMT, 200333

i) start from the children’s own needs and experience of their local environment;ii) start from their dominant roles as road users;iii) attack the most important road safety problems;iv) use a simple and effective message;v) motivate teachers and parents;vi) give priority to measures affecting large target groups;vii) concentrate and programme the introduction of measures.
The needs of children and young people for traffic safety education vary, depending partly on
prevailing traffic conditions and partly on their role as road user. The need for safety education isprobably greatest in the following instances:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

when children and young people extend their field of movement;
when they change from one traffic environment to another;when this environment changes character;when they take on a new road-user role;
when they resume an old road-user role.

Thus, whenever there is a change in the traffic environment or road-user role of children and young
people, a road safety effort is warranted.

3.4 Objectives and means of achieving them
The general objective of traffic safety education is of course to reduce the number of dead andinjured children and young people.
To achieve this objective, there is a need, in particular:--

to keep children and cars apart as far as possible so as to minimise the risks associated with motor
traffic;--

to increase the use of protective gear by children and young people (equipment to restrain children
in cars, use of crash helmets by users of two-wheelers).

Furthermore, children and young people must have an understanding of how traffic works if they
are to be able to deal with it. The best way to achieve this is to get them to investigate their own traffic
environment. Therefore, the goals of parents’ and schools’ safety education should be:----

to develop children’s insight into the road safety problems created by motor traffic;
to develop children’s awareness of how their own behaviour affects their safety;
to develop children’s willingness to take responsibility for their own safety on the roads.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

34

3.5 Direction of traffic safety education
Traffic safety education in the home, pre-school and school can either confine itself to traditional
forms or adopt the integrated view increasingly used in many countries.
More exactly, the objective of education for children and young people should be to instil lasting
habits of safe behaviour. To achieve this, it should be incorporated in a coherent programme of
instruction about vehicles, road environment, traffic regulations and information.
Furthermore, traffic safety education should be given continuously from tender childhood till theobtaining of a driving licence, and even beyond.
It is also important that instruction be practical quite as much as theoretical since several studies
have shown that traffic safety education of a theoretical nature for children has only a limited effect on
their behaviour and on road safety. What is more, care must be taken to see that theoretical instruction isbased on analyses of concrete situations.
It would also seem essential to provide children with the right educational material so that they set
a clearer understanding of road safety requirements.

4.

Driver training and preparation for the driving test

4.1 Present situation in Europe
Young people aged 18-20 make up one of the most important target groups for road safety work in
all countries. The education given is of vital importance for road safety, in both the short and long term.
An important analysis carried out by OECD Road Research indicates that driver training should ingeneral be more safety-orientated. Training methods should be developed that improve a driver’s ability
to avoid risks or cope with them should they arise. This demands an analysis of "risk-evading
behaviour". The study also suggests that training should be designed to strengthen the motivation toacquire a safety-first style of driving. The driver who has just passed his test must be made to realisethat even if he did so with flying colours this is no guarantee of life-long safe driving.
The information gathered indicates that most countries feel that driver training should be improved
with regard to drinking and driving, observing speed limits and consideration for unprotected road users.
As regards driving instruction and the granting of licences, the following points may be mentioned:i)

Nature and forms of instruction

In six out of the ten countries for which detailed information is available, learner drivers are
required to attend driving school.
In three out of the ten, non-qualified people like parents are not allowed to instruct learner drivers.
In Northern Europe, it is generally considered that night driving and driving on icy surfaces should
be an important part of driver training.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

35

In the Federal Republic of Germany, learner drivers must attend courses in driving theory, follow
special theoretical and practical instruction and instruction on driving at night (minimum 90 minutes), on
motorways (minimum 135 minutes) and on country roads (minimum 225 minutes).
ii)

Minimum age for acquiring a licenceIn all ECMT member countries, the minimum age for acquiring a licence to drive cars is eighteen
except in the United Kingdom and Ireland where it is seventeen.
In 1984, France introduced an experimental system of early driver training whereby sixteen year
olds are allowed to drive if supervised by a qualified adult, the age for acquiring a licence remaining,
however, at eighteen.
iii) Length of the practical driving test
The practical part of the driving test lasts, depending on the country, between 20 and 60 minutes.
iv)

Special systems for new drivers

In 1986, the Federal Republic of Germany introduced a new system of provisional licences for
newly-qualified drivers:----

provisional driving licence (two years);
compulsory post-test training for holder of such licences following offences or accidents;
motorcyclists are not allowed, during the two years following the passing of their test, to drivemachines exceeding a certain horsepower (maximum 20 kW and minimum 7 kg/kW).
Several other countries impose administrative restrictions on new drivers:

Spain
---

L-plate (one year)
Maximum speed 90 km/h (one year)

Finland--

Maximum speed 80 km/h (removable plate) -- one year

France--90 km/h plate

Greece--N-plateLuxembourg--

Trainee driver for two years after obtaining the licence ECMT / CEMT, 2003

36

---

L-plateMaximum speed 75 km/h (90 km/h on motorways)

Norway---Provisional driving licence (two years)
Compulsory post-test training, phase 2, within two years

Portugal--

90 km/h plate

Japan
--

Plate with beginner symbol
These restrictions have been introduced to increase road safety for new drivers.

v)

Further training and remedial training

In nearly all countries, drivers may, if they wish, follow further training courses, often provided bydriving schools or specialised bodies.
The Federal Republic of Germany and Switzerland also provide further training for people
convicted of drunken driving.

4.2 Measures
In most countries, influencing attitudes and improving behaviour are a part of driver training. Their
impact, however, should be greater. To this end, a more individual approach is required in driver
training programmes. It is generally felt that this is best achieved by driving schools. If theoreticaltraining were made compulsory, the large number of drivers now receiving private instruction would
also be able to acquire better attitudes to important road safety questions.
The following measures are envisaged in several countries:i) greater focus on safety in driver training;ii) compulsory instruction in driving at night as well as on icy roads as part of training programmes;iii) temporary restrictions on new drivers;iv) greater influencing of attitudes in training;v) compulsory theoretical instruction;vi) higher standards for driving instructors;vii) improved training for future motorcyclists;viii) frequent supply of information to all new drivers during the first few years after they have passed
the driving test in order to reinforce this group’s attitudes and behaviour;ix) promotion of various types of further training for this group.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

37

5.

Conclusions
With regard to traffic safety education, it would seem desirable:--

to adopt a system of training starting in early childhood and continuing till some years after thedriving licence has been obtained;--

to improve the content and method of teaching road safety in schools and to develop, in thisrespect, the essential role played by parents and teachers;--

to improve the instruction given in driving schools so as to promote the learning of safe behaviour
patterns;--

to introduce systems for the follow-up and further training of new drivers.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

38

Chapter III
INFORMING THE PUBLIC

1.

Organisation of public information activities

In all countries, activities aimed at increasing public awareness by means of information campaigns
are an essential part of the work to promote road safety. However, the forms of organisation developed
to bring the information to the public differ widely. Such differences range from the assignment of thisfunction to the competent Ministries themselves to the establishment and financing of independentagencies. The same diversity is found in the more or less independent status of the agencies and in thefunding methods, since the funds may be provided wholly by the public sector or to a considerable
extent by the private sector. It seems however that in most cases the competent Ministries have a moreor less direct influence on the independent agencies and their public information activities. In somecountries, these activities are carried out simultaneously by a number of different agencies. Institutions
under public law are working in parallel with private associations whose spheres of action overlap.
The bodies concerned with road safety information for the public in the various ECMT member
countries are set out briefly in Annex.
The different organisational structures set up for the public information activities in the various
countries show that there is no single optimal form since the structures in place are adapted to specificconditions in each country.
In order to ensure the required efficiency of the activities in this connection, however, the following
are desirable:a)Action by at least one central agency with country-wide responsibility for planning andcoordinating individual activities;b)

Close co-operation with the various competent public authorities; Public information activities
must be incorporated into the long-term objectives of traffic safety policy. In the medium-term it
must be ensured that the work forms a coherent whole;c)

Public funds must be made available: in the medium and long-term this will ensure effective
educational work;d)

Non-governmental organisations and institutions must be associated with public information
measures as far as possible. This will enable them to co-operate on a responsible basis andparticipate in financing campaigns. In addition, they play an important role in stepping up thedissemination of information.

2.

Strategies and methods for informing the public
The strategies, as carried out by the above-mentioned institutions, vary considerably.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

39

Brochures and booklets are the most common medium used to communicate information. In
addition, the regular dissemination of information to the press and the organisation of information
campaigns form part of the standard repertoire of road safety information activities.
More complex approaches, such as coordinated and harmonized utilisation of different media bydifferent initiators at different levels within the framework of specific programmes, tend to be an
exception. The same applies to the distribution of scientific findings in the form of documentation or
evaluations.
It appears that specific target groups are addressed more often than all road users in general.
Information directed exclusively towards the press forms the exception rather than the rule. With
regard to co-operation with the press, two strategies are possible, namely dissemination of information to
the media as a whole or to specific channels of communication.
Only Austria and the Netherlands report that they do not wish to address specific media. In
contrast, the Federal Republic of Germany, Denmark, Switzerland and the United Kingdom avoid thegeneral dissemination of information and favour the method of specifically addressing individual media.
The main media target groups selected are television, radio, and daily newspapers. Magazines andconsumer publications also play a certain role here.
School magazines are used only in the Federal Republic of Germany, Denmark and Spain. In theFederal Republic of Germany, company and works magazines are addressed specifically.
In addition to the method of addressing the media directly, all countries report holding seminars
and symposiums.
These events are often held in collaboration with representatives of road safety organisations. A
large number of events are also held in co-operation with various trades, professions and associations.
Seminars and symposiums organised exclusively for the press are held in the Federal Republic of
Germany, France, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
Road safety days, organised at national, regional or local level, are reported from Belgium, France,
Spain and Switzerland.
If one summarises the factors collated in this section, it emerges that specific measures in the fieldof public information work connected with road safety are organised in all countries. There is aconsiderable degree of similarity in the choice of themes dealt with and methods used for getting these
themes across to the public, methods which, nevertheless, take account of the features peculiar to eachcountry. In some countries, local communities are free to choose which methods to use, with thenational authorities or associations responsible for road safety playing a coordinating role only.

3.

Main themes of information campaigns

Road safety in general is rarely the subject of information campaigns since, as a rule, almost all
countries use specific themes for their campaigns, some of the more common ones being the wearing ofseat-belts, drinking and driving, speed, children, pedestrians, drivers of two-wheeled vehicles, lighting
and visibility of vehicles, etc.
 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

40

A few examples of information campaigns conducted in the various Member countries in recent
years and the relevant themes are:Federal Republic of Germany:
The main themes adopted are:------

first aid;
wearing of safety belts;
children in traffic;
young drivers;
drinking and driving.

The campaigns are not designed solely to obtain changes in behaviour but also to influence
attitudes. They can be considered successful in that they have made the measures taken more readily
acceptable to the public.
Austria:-----

see and be seen (1985);
safety of pedestrians, with particular reference to the behaviour of drivers and pedestrians where
pedestrian crossings are concerned (1985);"dear safety belt, dear crash helmet" operations (1986);
safety on the way to school (1986).

Belgium:
The main themes in recent years have been:------

alcohol;
children;safety belts;
speed;
two-wheelers.
The means used for the campaigns included, in particular, roadside posters, television and radio.

Denmark:
The Danish Road Traffic Council carries out two large-scale national information campaigns eachyear. In recent years the themes of the campaigns have been as follows:-------

single accidents;
tyres;
drinking and driving;motorcycles;
cyclists;pedestrians; ECMT / CEMT, 200341

--------

see and be seen;
child safety;
turning left;seat-belts;
youth in traffic;
speed limits in built-up areas;
heavy vehicles.

All the campaigns are considered to have had a positive effect, but no thorough investigations of
the results of the campaigns have been made.
Aside from these large campaigns, the Council carries out four to six minor ones each year.
Spain:
Four major campaigns are carried out each year, the main themes being the problem of drinking
and driving (diminishing slightly), seat-belts, (the rate of use has risen from 50 to 80 per cent) and speed(a problem which seems to be getting worse despite the efforts made in a number of respects including
monitoring).
Other themes dealt with recently include: two-wheelers, pedestrians (very successful), weekend
and holiday driving, travelling through small towns, vehicle maintenance, etc.
Special mention should be made of the campaigns which are carried out every year for theparticular attention of Portuguese and Moroccan workers travelling through Spain (campaigns providing
information and particulars concerning rest areas and assistance, etc.).
Finland:
Among the main themes of campaigns organised in recent years have been:---

drinking and driving;see and be seen (more particularly as regards the visibility of cyclists and pedestrians).

A new approach has been to carry out regional campaigns which are organised with the support andparticipation of central government authorities and the national road safety organisations.
France:Information campaigns carried out at national level in recent years covered the following themes inparticular:-----

drinking and driving;
compliance with speed limits in towns;
stopping at red lights;
wearing of seat-belts.

It should also be noted that these campaigns are given wide publicity at local level. Local
authorities, in the framework of decentralised road safety programmes (REAGIR, "objectif moins 10%
 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

42"), are increasingly conducting independent information campaigns geared to local accident
characteristics, using regional television, local radio and regional and local newspapers.
Television is by far the main medium for large-scale information campaigns.
Luxembourg:
The main themes of information campaigns:------

ecological driving = safe driving (1982);"keep your distance!" (1983);
aqua-planing (1984);
young drivers (1985);
watch out for children (1986).

Also developed in 1986 were the five themes selected by the European Communities for Road
Safety Year in Europe.
The Netherlands:
In Autumn 1984 a campaign was organised on the wearing of seat-belts, the aim being firstly toincrease the rate of seat-belt wearing and, secondly, to ascertain the various possibilities for influencing
this rate.
The campaign was organised nationally, but in one specially selected region (Friesland) it was
backed up by regional radio broadcasts and newspaper articles. There were also crash demonstrations.
During the campaign the police monitored the wearing of seat-belts. The effect of the campaign wasassessed by counting the number of people wearing seat-belts and by questionnaires.
Nationally (excluding Friesland) the campaign resulted in an increase of 3 to 5 per cent in thenumber of seat-belts worn. In Friesland, the rate of increase lay between 25 and 30 per cent.
Two important conclusions can be drawn from the results:i)regional campaigns can be more efficient than national ones since they can more easily be
combined with other measures (multi-factor approach);ii)

campaigns without additional measures (i.e. single factor approach) appear to have minor effects,
whereas combination with other measures (e.g. enforcement, surveillance, demonstrations, etc.)
appears to be considerably more effective (integrated multi-factor approach).
By and large, four national campaigns are organised each year and the main themes dealt with are:------

drinking and driving;safety belts;
30 km/h zones;
bicycles: visibility, lighting, side reflectors;
the elderly in traffic.

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43

United Kingdom:
In 1985 the United Kingdom changed from a policy of individual campaigns aimed at, for example,
the problem of drinking and driving at Christmas time, to a "rolling" programme on road safety
publicity. This was based on a comprehensive statistical analysis of accidents by road user type, time ofyear, and vehicle manoeuvre. The programme is continuous, emphasizing themes common to many
accident types, for example, "see and be seen" but with peaks in intensity of publicity aimed at particularroad user groups: cyclists in summer, drinking and driving at Christmas and in late spring and summer
and so on. Whilst the publicity material, posters etc., is researched on samples of the target user groups
before and during use, it is difficult to establish direct links with casualty reduction, and the cumulative
longer term effects that are seen as a potential advantage of the programme may not be easy to test. The
programme is currently being developed in conjunction with specific efforts to increase public
consciousness of road safety issues via community groups and the news media.
Sweden:The main information activities in recent years have covered the use of child restraint
systems/safety belts in the rear seats of cars and also the high accident risks for users of motorised twowheelers and bicycles.
The campaigns have been at national, regional and local levels, often with co-operation among the
public authorities, independent organisations and enterprises. All kinds of media have been used. Freedriving lessons on a voluntary basis have also been organised for motorcyclists.
An assessment of the results show that, over the three-year period under consideration, the use ofchild restraint systems/safety belts in the rear seats increased by 20 to 40 per cent for children and 10 to25 per cent for adults. Some 8 to 10 per cent of motorcyclists took part in the retraining courses eachyear.
Switzerland:
The aim of the national campaigns over the past three years has been to improve the climate in roadtraffic by getting all road users to consider themselves to be partners, to avoid stress and agitation and toact courteously. This safety message was essentially disseminated by means of posters, films, leaflets,
slides, and so on and by the following slogans:----politeness = safety (1983);
hurry = danger (1984);
courteousness has priority (1985).

Considerable differences are found in the degree of effectiveness of the various information
campaigns, and the desired changes in behaviour have not always been achieved. It is difficult to give
precise reasons. However, such campaigns are an essential part of the road safety efforts because they
are means of publicising knowledge and modifying attitudes, so they are an advantage in the long run
from the standpoint of road safety. It would however be desirable to make more thorough analyses ofthe effectiveness of all the elements involved and the results actually achieved.
A comparative review of the themes dealt with shows that the main themes selected by the various
countries are quite similar: seat-belts and crash helmets, see and be seen, speed not adjusted to ECMT / CEMT, 2003

44

circumstances, alcohol. In view of this similarity, it is surprising that only on rare occasions areactivities and aims taken up at international level. Only one positive example is to be found in thisconnection: the prize-winning 1971 poster by the Dutchman C. Van Rij has also been used in other
ECMT countries such as Belgium, Germany, Spain and Switzerland.
In a number of countries road safety publicity is tending to be organised on a regional or even local
basis, a particular example being the Netherlands where a national seat-belt campaign was backed up byintensive action in a particular region. There were tangible results which enabled the Netherlands toconclude that:---

regional campaigns can be more effective than national ones;
the combination of campaigns with other measures can again considerably increase theeffectiveness.

Another trend is also to be welcomed, namely the move towards a better understanding ofinternational road safety problems where transfrontier traffic is concerned, since there is an increasing
number of information campaigns on safety matters relevant to holidaymakers and travellers in transit,
examples being the campaigns in Spain for the benefit of Portuguese and North African nationals, orsimilar activities in Germany and Austria for travellers from South-East Europe. An increasing numberof countries provide information for tourists in their mother tongue by means of brochures on the rulesof behaviour to ensure safety on the roads, the Scandinavian countries and the United Kingdom are wellknown examples.

4.

Conclusions

In conclusion, increasing public awareness by means of information campaigns is an essential
aspect of road safety policy in all countries. The forms of organisation and methods of implementing
these campaigns are, however, adapted to the specific needs of each country. It would seem to berecognised everywhere that it is necessary to have a central organisation with country-wide
responsibility for the long-term strategies for increasing public awareness, whereas the actual
information activities tend to be decentralised.
The effectiveness of information campaigns can be significantly increased by using additional
measures which are then planned as an integral part of a multi-factor approach (enforcement,
surveillance, regional and local activities, demonstrations, etc.).
With a view to improving the activities aimed at informing the public of road safety problems, itwould seem desirable:--

to undertake international exchanges of experience on the campaigns and activities conducted, withparticular reference to the media used;--

to strengthen co-operation and the exchange of information with regard to the assessment ofeffectiveness;--to establish national objectives while also promoting regional and local variants;

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

45

--

to provide information for tourists, in their own languages, on national or regional matters ofimportance from the standpoint of road safety;--

to make available adequate resources for the long-term planning of activities in connection withpublic information.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

46

Chapter IV
MONITORING AND PENALTIES

1.

Monitoring and supervision

In addition to the endeavours made in all countries by the public authorities and many privateorganisations in connection with the various ways of influencing the behaviour of road users, safety on
the roads calls for a degree of traffic monitoring and supervision.
This monitoring and supervision is primarily to ensure that the regulatory measures adopted bygovernments are actually enforced. There is little point in drawing up new legislation if one does nothave adequate means of supervising the application to ensure that it is complied with to a reasonable
extent, otherwise the regulations can have only a very slight influence on road safety.
Such monitoring and supervision should also make it possible to identify drivers whose behaviour
is dangerous or irresponsible and therefore liable to cause accidents.
Depending on the political and administrative structures of the various countries, the organisationof road traffic monitoring and supervision may fall to the central government, regional governments, oreven the local authorities.
The effectiveness of the monitoring services largely depends on the personnel and equipment
available -- especially apparatus for the automatic detection of offences -- which, in turn, largely
depends on the budgetary resources that can be obtained.
As a general rule, the action of the services concerned does not solely involve enforcement andthe penalisation of offences but also serves an educational or preventive purpose.
It should be pointed out that the authorities responsible for general road safety policy do not usually
have direct authority over the services responsible for traffic monitoring and supervision and for themost part they have no say in the financing of these services either.
Accordingly, those responsible for road safety are usually not authorised to play a direct role in theorganisation and operation of police forces. Since the latter have responsibilities in areas other thantraffic in most cases, the decision as to priorities is often difficult and does not necessarily always meet
the wishes of the road safety authorities.
Furthermore, owing to the financial difficulties which are largely attributable to the economiccrisis, some governments have found it necessary to cut down the resources available for monitoring andsupervision, in particular the number of traffic police and the technical equipment used to detect certain
offences.
Notwithstanding the difficulties, the road safety authorities must do all they can to maintain themeans of monitoring and supervision at an adequate and reasonable level so as to be able to make anefficient contribution towards the improvement of road safety while also making their efforts more cost

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

47

effective. In this regard, it is useful to develop qualitative and selective tests, concentrating on serious
infringements (alcohol, speeding, etc.) or on certain periods (week-ends, nights, etc.).

2.

Penalties

All countries penalise persons infringing road traffic rules by various means: fines, imprisonment,
suspension or annulment of driving licence, immobilisation or impounding of vehicle, etc. In somecountries the fines are proportional to income. Prison sentences are occasionally replaced bypunishments which serve the general interest or by public works. Suspension of the driving licence is byand large considered to be the measure that has the greatest influence on drivers.
Owing to the considerable differences between the penal systems in the various countries, no validinternational comparison can be made of the penalties laid down for traffic offences.
The object of penalties is to get the offender to comply with traffic regulations and, accordingly,
modify his behaviour. In order to achieve this end it is necessary for the penalty to be imposed as soon
as possible after the offence because if a long time elapses it is very unlikely that the penalty will still
have an influence on the offender’s future behaviour.
In many countries, however, it is found that the extremely large and ever-increasing volume of roadtraffic offences is overloading the courts, so many cases are only dealt with after a considerable delay
and often cannot even be examined within the period specified by law.
Such a system is clearly inefficient and cannot reasonably be expected to prompt changes inbehaviour. On the contrary, it gives virtual impunity to many road users and encourages others to pay
little attention to the regulations.
This situation also often discourages the police, traffic wardens, etc. whose job it is to spot
offences, so some of them may relax their efforts in the medium term.
Accordingly, the psychological effect here is doubly harmful.
Some countries are applying or examining new techniques to offset the above drawbacks, forexample:--Removing the need for less serious offences to go before the courts, e.g., by replacing fines byadministrative penalties. This method provides for penalties that are imposed quickly and are
therefore more effective in terms of road safety and also relieves the courts of a large number ofminor cases.

--

The same result can be achieved by providing for direct and immediate payment of fines to theauthorities responsible for traffic supervision.

--

Creating a central computer file on offences so that habitual offenders can be identified andappropriate measures be taken.

--

Introducing the "points-based" driving licence whereby, for example, on the basis of a central
register, the licences of drivers who commit a number of offences can be systematically suspended.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

48

Moreover, the penalty must clearly be proportional to the seriousness of the offence and possible
consequences, so a number of countries have provided for a scale of penalties for the various
infringements of the highway code whereby the danger caused is the main consideration when deciding
how high the penalty is to be.
In addition to the penalties, it has also been found effective to introduce re-educational measures
such as the retraining of drivers who continue to commit offences, since information and discussion on
the causes and consequences of incorrect behaviour often helps to reduce the rate of recidivism. In thisconnection, it is advisable to differentiate between drink-related driving offences and otherinfringements. On the basis of experience already acquired, it has been established that such reeducational measures for correcting future behaviour achieve tangible results, especially where theproblem is one of drinking and driving.
Lastly, very wide publicity should be given to monitoring and law enforcement operations so as toensure that they remain dissuasive.

3.

Conclusions

The above very broad outline of monitoring and penalties in the European countries is consistent
with the conclusions drawn by various international studies in this sphere. There are in fact three"golden rules" which it would seem are to be applied to all the countries under consideration:--

the frequency of the monitoring procedures is a decisive factor in achieving a dissuasive effect;--

the certainty that an offender will be penalised (a penalty must not be simply imposed but must also
be effectively applied);--the swiftness with which the punishment is carried out which convinces the public that a quickly
applied penalty is a vital factor in the operation of the supervisory and law enforcement machinery.
Lastly, stress should be laid on:--

the value of re-educational measures such as the retraining of drivers who are habitual offenders,since this serves to back up the effect of the penalties and, more particularly, leads to better
behaviour in the future;--

the publicity to be given by the administrative and legal authorities to the supervisory and law
enforcement operations so as to give greater effect to the dissuasiveness of monitoring andpenalties.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

49

Chapter V
THE ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENT ENTITIESIt should be pointed out that most road safety policies pursued in the 1970s in western countries
involved a great deal of action by the authorities, primarily at national or federal level. Owing to theserious situation caused by the continuous increase in the number of road accidents, government action
mainly took the form of simple and consistent regulations (general speed limits, compulsory wearing ofseat-belts and helmets, measures to control drunken driving, etc.) which would promptly produce clearcut results and be backed up by more or less severe enforcement and penalty provisions.
At the same time, the educational programmes (instruction in road safety in schools, improved
facilities for learning to drive and higher driving licence standards) and information programmes (publiccampaigns on road traffic risks and safety regulations) were intended to bring about radical changes inuser behaviour in the long term, while research made it possible to identify more clearly the main causesof accidents attributable to human factors and work out action strategies for the authorities.
However, once again the capacity to take action remained generally in the hands of the central and,to a lesser extent, local government authorities, while the non-government sector acted mostly only atthe behest or on behalf of the government: this applied to education, which is very largely provided orcontrolled by the authorities; to information, which is mainly sent out by the authorities through major
radio and television campaigns; and obviously to the organisation of enforcement and penalty systems
that are the prerogative of the authorities.
But from time to time it seems that the scope of the central government’s responsibilities in roadaccident control is not sufficient to bring home the importance of road safety goals to the public. The
authorities must be able to count on all the natural relay units for preventive action in order to obtain the
public’s full support for road safety objectives. A number of entities with back-up potential, whose
ability to communicate and stimulate is important and sometimes decisive, can be used to win overpublic opinion and influence behaviour. Some of these entities, whose action varies in both quantitativeand qualitative terms, have long existed. Others provide as many possibilities or resources that are verylargely unexploited and have scarcely started to mark their concern with road safety. The following may
be listed as the main entities:-------

the mass media;
the manufacturers;
insurance companies;
user associations;the medical profession;enterprises.

The question arises as to how far these efforts converge and how far these entities are capable ofpooling forces in order to extend and supplement action by the authorities and, as partners of the users,
express and promote concern with road safety as a social matter.
There is thus a need to examine the general role played by non-government entities in the roadsafety system, the contribution made by the six specific categories listed above and the experiments on

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

50

setting up mixed semi-public, semi-private bodies to work in an advisory capacity with national (orfederal) road safety departments, and that in line with the following plan1:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

General role of non-government entities
Contribution by the mass media
Contribution by manufacturers and importers
Contribution by the car insurance sector
Contribution by user and road safety associations
Contribution by the medical profession
Contribution by enterprises
Experiments with mixed advisory bodies

1.

General role of non-government entities

In most countries, non-government entities have a long-standing role in the road safety system.
This situation is based on historical fact, for generally speaking -- apart from some notable exceptions
such as Scandinavia and the United States -- the authorities did not make their own mark on road safety
management until after the Second World War and sometimes not until the 1960s. On this point it need
simply be recalled that general speed limitations, compulsory wearing of seat-belts and action against
drunken driving2 are steps that were mainly taken in the 1970s. However, long before driving accidents
became a real social problem, the increase in car traffic led to the creation of bodies intended to promoteand facilitate the use of the car, i.e. automobile and touring clubs, and -- when traffic started causing a
growing number of accidents -- private bodies such as road safety organisations. Until twenty or thirty
years ago, it was therefore logical for most safety activities to be carried out by private bodies that had,sometimes since the start of the century, been involved with promoting the use of the car.
However, this assessment should be qualified depending on the types of bodies. It was easy for
those traditionally in charge of protecting car drivers’ interests to assume -- not without some ambiguity
as we shall see subsequently -- certain responsibilities for road safety, sometimes even before the central
government did so, whereas action by other bodies such as insurance firms, consumer associations orenterprises is a much more recent development. For instance, in France, a real intention to takeresponsibility for road safety has emerged only very recently, mainly since 1982, in some sectors ofactivity (insurance companies, accident victim associations, enterprises, etc.).
This mostly long-standing role played by non-government entities is considered nonethelessrelatively limited on the whole in a good number of countries. It seems, however, to have a very big
impact in the Federal Republic of Germany, Finland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom,
showing clear evidence of a north-south split in this domain. However, the general trend is towards its
increase in most countries. It is to be noted that this role has developed greatly in France in the last three
years. In any case, no country has referred to its decline.
All the countries say they welcome this role and hope it will be developed further, as if they feelthat the authorities playing the policeman has done as much, or almost as much, as could be
expected,and that private organisations, natural partners and relays, are a vital instrument for extending
and improving government action.
This view has been asserted very strongly in France since 1982 and led in April 1985 to insurancecompanies, training bodies, those engaged in the manufacture, repair and inspection of cars, accident
 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

51

victim and safety associations, doctors and the mass media being invited to a round table meeting on
new initiatives to promote road safety.
In this wider role to be played by non-government entities, it generally seems that the accent is on
information and publicity and on road safety education (teaching of road safety in schools, basic training
for young drivers, refresher and advanced courses for experienced drivers). For the time being this willin fact be seen as the main contribution by the private sector, as the other activities are considered to be
more the prerogative of the authorities. However, some countries believe that no restrictions should be
imposed from the outset.

2.

Contribution by the mass media

The aim is not to study the activity of institutional means of communication (television, radio,
general or specialised press) as vital relays in central or local government campaigns to reduce accidents,
as this activity is simply a medium for the communication programme prepared by the authorities. The
idea is rather to look into the spontaneous interest by the mass media in road accidents and the action
taken independently by them to inform the public and bring home the problem, as a voluntary
contribution towards making the roads safer.
It seems useful to try to assess the importance attached by the various countries to road accidents
and road safety, in terms of the volume of information on cars and driving as compared with the total
volume of information. Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland consider that
this importance is relatively high compared with the total volume of information, although it is stressedthat the approach to accidents and safety is often more emotional than scientific. In Finland, France,
Germany, Sweden, and the United Kingdom, it is considered relatively limited on both counts, as
information on cars and driving has more to do with the smoothness of the traffic flow and driver andpassenger comfort, or even the performance of new types of cars, than with safety aspects. Perhaps thisshould be seen as a danger sign that the public is beginning to consider driving accidents as normal,
unavoidable events that are accepted as a penalty to be paid for technical progress. This statement
requires qualification, however, and the recent, and laudable, increase in information given on actualroad safety -- particularly in 1986, European Road Safety Year -- is to be welcomed.
On the whole, it does not seem that there is any significant quantitative differences between the
media -- television, radio or the press -- although the information on road safety covered by the latter isgenerally more detailed than in radio or television broadcasts.
As regards television, the role of private stations, which exist only in certain countries, isconsidered important only in Australia and the United Kingdom. The main onus in bringing home theproblem is therefore on the public television network. The effort is made rather at regional or local levelin Australia and Belgium, more at national level in Finland and Portugal, and either at national orregional level in the other countries. It takes a variety of forms that coexist in most of the countries:
specific information on accidents, advice on safety, interviews with specialists and special broadcasts
such as panel meetings are the most common. Except in the United Kingdom, detailed accident reports
or surveys among users seem to be few and far between.
The contribution of radio is made rather by public stations in six countries, or by either public or
private stations in the other five States. The contribution is made especially by national stations inFinland, Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland, rather by regional or local stations in Australia and ECMT / CEMT, 2003

52

Germany (Lander), and by national, regional or local stations in Belgium, Denmark, Spain, France andthe United Kingdom. The types of broadcasts are roughly the same as those on television.
The contribution to road safety by the general press is made by the national, regional or local press
in most countries. It is made more by the regional press in Australia, Germany and Switzerland, where
decentralisation is obviously extensive due to federal structures. The form used is not a distinguishing
factor, although the most common is the ad hoc report on a serious accident and brief advice on safety.
Apparently, only the Swedish and British press give detailed accounts of accidents with in-depth
supporting analyses. It should be noted that the latter trend is now being seen in France in the local presswith the development of the "Réagir" programme for thorough multi-disciplinary investigations into
serious accidents.
The amount of space devoted to road safety in the automobile press is regarded as limited or
relatively limited in almost all the countries. It is considered extensive only in Australia andSwitzerland. This is an important point: the automobile press is generally more concerned with thepleasure of driving or speed than with road safety, and is used more to express views by the
manufacturers of powerful cars or fast motorcycles than by road safety bodies.

3.

Contribution by manufacturers and importers

Of the eleven reference countries, only five have a real car industry, as the other five have nonational manufacturers. However that may be, and except of course in the area of vehicle design, theeffort by manufacturers and importers to promote road safety seems on the whole limited. It mainly
appears to take the form of advice on safety, particularly in Australia. Denmark refers to their action involuntary technical check-ups on vehicles.
On the other hand, the negative impact produced by certain car advertisements highlighting top
speeds or aggressive behaviour by drivers is criticised by the majority of countries, except Australia
where importers seem to play the game and avoid advertisements that are obviously inconsistent withroad safety. The situation concerning this point is particularly disturbing in Spain and France. The
reaction of the authorities differs with the country: Belgium, Denmark, Switzerland and the United
Kingdom have no regulatory or contractual machinery to limit this type of advertisement. Australia
intends to adopt such machinery following an enquiry by the House of Representatives which criticisedthese practices in 1983. In Spain the Government has some right to supervise television advertisements.
In Germany, a gentleman’s agreement has been reached on the subject. Only France has signed a draft
agreement (1983) with the manufacturers and importers who are committed to taking a moderate line.
The irregularities in its observance since 1983 have resulted in several warnings from the authorities,
and developments are now being closely monitored.

4.

Contribution by the car insurance sector

For the time being, the contribution of insurance companies in most countries (except Sweden)
seems to be limited to collecting and processing accident statistics (essential for claim management andthe calculation of premiums) and the dissemination of safety messages. Their safety role is therefore
still extremely modest, particularly in driver training and car inspection activity, and their job is still
essentially considered as an obligation to provide risk coverage. There is great scope here for roadsafety action within a partnership system associated with a general reappraisal of the car insurance ECMT / CEMT, 2003

53

function. However, reference should be made to the case of Switzerland, where a financial contribution
fixed as a percentage of insurance premiums is legally allocated to safety operations managed by the
Swiss Road Accident Prevention Fund. Also to be noted is the very positive role played in Switzerlandby the "Bureau de prévention des accidents" (BPA), a federal foundation governed by private law which
carries out a variety of what is considered extremely important action and, under an original kind of
arrangement, can call on voluntary road safety staff responsible for taking steps locally to obtain
practical improvements at all levels. More generally, the insurance field’s most significant contribution
seems to be its participation in some countries in a road safety association.
In all countries the risk rating is based more or less on the individual’s driving record, mostly withthe use of a "bonus-penalty" system whereby high-risk drivers pay more and those with a clean record
sheet pay less. This graduated system is determined by the government in Belgium and in France, by aprofessional body or the insurance companies themselves but subject to government supervision in
Spain, Germany and Switzerland, and quite freely by the insurance companies in Denmark, Sweden andthe United Kingdom.
Whether based on liability for fault or on a "no fault" system, the type of car insurance does notseem to affect the scope of preventive action.

5.

Contribution by user and road safety associations

Most countries have a road safety body, generally in the form of an association governed by private
law and often financed to a large extent by the insurance companies. These associations frequently
contribute to the provision of information (advice to users) and education (road safety teaching inschools, refresher and advanced driving lessons, defensive driving courses, training and refresher
courses for driving instructors), and sometimes put proposals to the authorities, whether they belong to
an official advisory council (like "Via Secura", the Belgian road safety organisation) or whether they act
independently. In some countries there are associations specifically responsible for preventing accidents
among the agricultural population (e.g. "Prévention Rurale" in France, or "Kuratorium fürVerkehrssicherheit" in Austria.
In the accident prevention field, the role of automobile clubs, motorcycle associations and otherroad-user groups is also to provide information on training. In Portugal this function has completely
disappeared and has now been taken over by the national road safety organisation. In Australia, theassociation known as the "Australian Motorcycle Council" has shouldered responsibility for safety
problems. In 1983, the leading French motorcyclist club opened constructive talks on safety with theauthorities and accepted a contractual objective of reducing the number of accidents by 20 per cent in
two years. Such groups also play a very active role in Switzerland.
Associations for accident victims or their families do not exist in Denmark, Spain, Portugal or
Switzerland. Where they do exist, they seem to play a minor role for the time being. Reference should
be made to an original development in Sweden where young people disabled through accidents speak inschools about what has happened to them personally, to the extensive development in recent years inFrance of associations for accident victims or their families (particularly of the "League against violenceon the roads"), to which the tragic accident at Beaune on 31st July 1983 (53 fatalities including 46
children) has contributed, and to the co-operation by the authorities with these associations.

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54

On the whole action by parents’ associations to promote road safety does not seem to be greatly
developed and is limited to local contacts with the municipal authorities or schools.
The same applies to consumer associations which still play a very modest role, sometimes bymaking recommendations on the safety of vehicles and their equipment. This is a far cry from theinfluence once achieved in the United States by the Ralph Nader movement.
The environmentalists also play a very marginal role, but the situation might soon change
depending on the importance attached to atmospheric pollution caused by exhaust emissions,particularly in connection with speed limitations (France, Germany, Switzerland and the United
Kingdom).
All in all, the involvement of user groups seems to remain surprisingly limited in accident
prevention, perhaps because of the patchiness of their efforts in some cases and their disparity in others.
The "Réagir" (react) programme developed in France since 1982 has enabled these organisations to takea more active part in joint action on road safety, a trend which is greatly encouraged by the authorities.

6.

Contribution by the medical profession

Apart from the traditional action by the public health sector which is more concerned with theprovision of emergency assistance3, traumatology and re-education, the contribution to the road safetysystem by private doctors should obviously be an important factor in accident prevention.
But the survey shows that there are very few countries where this contribution has a wide impact.
Quite the contrary, most of them consider it to be very or relatively limited. Of the eleven countries inquestion, it seems that Australia is the only country where the involvement of doctors in preventive
action is both long established and on a wide scale. It should be remembered that doctors in this country
were largely responsible for the definition of a number of safety regulations, and particularly for thecompulsory wearing of seat-belts in 1971 in the State of Victoria. It should also be noted that the
medical profession is very active in road safety questions in Sweden, as in the other Nordic countries.
Where it exists, the contribution by private doctors to the road safety effort seems to be made moreby doctors’ professional associations, while few if any direct contacts between doctors and their patientsconcern road safety.
When it does exist, the contribution by doctors mainly takes the form of advice, recommendations
or warnings about the risk of driving under the influence of drink, certain medicines or drugs, or
opinions on the incompatibility between certain handicaps or illnesses and driving. Some countries notethe contribution by the medical profession to in-depth surveys on road accidents, although the forms
taken by this contribution are not stated. In many countries, particularly in Australia, doctors haveplayed an important role in influencing the authorities and persuading them to develop safety rules.
In the case of the medical press, almost all the answers show that quite limited or very limited
importance is attached to road accident and safety questions.

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55

7.

Contribution by enterprises

Most countries consider that action on road safety by employers (whatever their status here -government departments, public enterprises, or private firms) is on the whole limited. Once again it
seems that Australia sets a very positive example, particularly in the transport, mining and construction
sectors.
Accident prevention activity by firms is mostly limited to information and publicity campaigns onroad safety questions and sometimes includes basic, refresher and advanced courses for drivers. Somecountries refer to the role played occasionally by enterprises in sponsoring road safety information
campaigns for the public.
Some enterprises, more particularly in the chemicals and oil sectors, have conducted exemplary
accident prevention activities for their employees and even for the general public in some cases.

8.

Experiments with mixed advisory committees

A systematic review of participation in the road safety system by various categories of professionalor private associations or bodies leads to the question of possibly combining these dispersed efforts
within a single entity acting as an advisory committee in dealings with the authorities. In this respect it
is useful to review the experiments by some countries which have advisory councils or committees
whose members include representatives of the authorities and from all sections of the private sector inany way concerned with the prevention of road accidents.
A body of this type known as the Australian Road Safety Council existed in Australia from 1947 to1970. It consisted of the representatives of the States, Territories and local government and also
included different kinds of specialists. Subsequently, from 1970 to 1975, this experiment was resumed
with a group known as the Expert Group on Road Safety (EGORS) which also included various kinds ofspecialists whose job was to advise the Federal Ministry of Transport on road safety. Since 1947, there
has been an Australian Transport Advisory Council (ATAC) which consists of the representatives of theStates, Territories and local government as well as various practitioners and economic agents concernedwith road safety. This advisory council has set up special committees to discuss various road safety
questions.
In Belgium, the National Road Safety Council was set up by a Royal Order of 11th May 1965. Itsrole is to conduct any surveys or research capable of improving the road safety system, establish
ongoing communication between the government departments concerned with road safety and theprivate sector, and express its views on all draft bills and orders concerning road safety. Its powers arein principle very wide since its mandate is to take all the necessary steps to ensure that anything likely to
improve road safety is brought to the knowledge of those concerned, in particular road users, using all
appropriate information, educational and advisory techniques. This body, which comes under the
Minister of Communications and is chaired by him, consists of 73 members who represent nine
government departments, automobile and touring clubs, "Via Secura" (Belgian road safety department),
the Red Cross, the Foundation for Road Safety Studies, car experts, insurance firms, etc. Its contribution
over the past 20 years in improving road safety in Belgium is considered important.
A similar body has existed in Denmark since 1966. It consists of representatives of the politicalparties in Parliament, government departments and a number of private organisations, expresses views
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and recommendations on road safety policy and proposes changes to existing legislation. Here again its
role is seen as extremely positive.
Spain has set up a National Road Safety Committee, which is chaired by the Ministry of theInterior and includes representatives from the other ministries concerned with road safety and from anumber of public or private bodies involved in accident prevention. This national task force has set up a
standing committee and groups of experts responsible for monitoring specific questions. Its permanent
secretariat is provided by the Ministry of the Interior’s Traffic Directorate. This task force works out
national road safety plans which are then submitted to the government for approval. Its reorganisation is
now being studied.
In 1983 Portugal decided to set up under the Ministry of Transport and Communications Traffic
Directorate an advisory committee chaired by the Director General of Traffic. Apart from therepresentatives of several other government departments, its members include delegates from certain
private bodies (automobile clubs, road safety groups) as well as the representatives of the Lisbon andPorto town councils. This advisory committee has not yet taken office.
A Federal Road Safety Council known as the "Deutsche Verkehrssicherheitsrat" (DVR) exists inGermany. This council consists of representatives of the Federal Government, the Länder and various
professions or private organisations concerned with road safety (manufacturers, insurance firms,
accident prevention associations, etc.).
In the United Kingdom, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (ROSPA), created in theearly twenties, has several specialised committees which act in both the public and private spheres, andplays an important role in informing the public and educating users.
In Sweden an advisory council was set up in 1985 and has representatives from nine authorities andprivate organisations. It is chaired by the Director-General of the Swedish Road Safety Office. The
Council's main task is to co-ordinate the traffic safety work done by its members and to submit to theGovernment a long-term plan for such work.
In Finland, a multi-disciplinary advisory body has been in existence since 1973.
The question of setting up a body of this type has been frequently raised in recent years in France.
Such an initiative was requested not long ago by some members of parliament who in 1984 formed a
multi-party group on road safety. The desirability of setting up such a body is now being studied.

9.

Conclusions

In conclusion, it should be pointed out that, since the efforts made by Governments have gone as
far as they can in some respects, preventive activities should in future be conducted more by the private
sector concerned with road accidents, especially through user groups and private associations for theprevention of accidents which can play a decisive role in this connection. It is moreover encouraging tonote that there seems to be a growing awareness in this respect and that there has been an appreciable
increase in such involvement in recent years.

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NOTES

1.

References are to the following eleven countries: Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France,
the Federal Republic of Germany, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

2.

With the exception of the Scandinavian countries.

3.

In this connection, reference may be made to the ECMT report on "Measures to Improve
Emergency Assistance in Road Traffic" [see CM(83)17 revised and CM(83)20].

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Annex
BODIES RESPONSIBLE FOR PROVIDING THE PUBLIC WITH
ROAD SAFETY INFORMATION

Federal Republic of Germany
Bundesministerium für Verkehr(Federal Ministry of Transport)
Public information work and its organisation comes under the Federal Ministry of Transport, moreparticularly as regards relations with the press and the preparation of brochures. Programmes andactivities relevant to road safety education and information for specific target groups, together withadvertising campaigns are organised by the Deutsche Verkehrssicherheitsrat (DVR) (German Road
Safety Council), a central coordinating body. Two-thirds of its finances come from public funds.
The Bundesanstalt für Strasenwesen (BAST) (Federal Highway Research Institute), a scientificinstitution of the Federal Ministry of Transport is responsible for preparing and evaluating research andfor keeping researchers informed.

Austria
Bundesministerium für offentliche Wirtschaft und Verkehr(Federal Ministry for the Public Economy and Transport), plus the public institutions:-----

Federal Ministry of the Interior
The Central Austrian Statistical OfficeAccident Insurance Company
Austrian Broadcasting Company
In sectors subordinate to the Ministry, by the:--Police and Gendarmerie
Through entirely independent organisations such as:---

The Road Safety Board
Automobile clubs such as ÖAMTC and ARBÖ

Belgium
Ministère des Communications
Conseil Supérieur de la Sécurité Routière
The following ministries are represented in the ’Conseil"---

Ministry of Communications
Ministry of Public Works ECMT / CEMT, 200359

--------

Ministry of Finance
Ministry of Justice
Ministry of Health
Ministry of the Interior
Ministry of Education
Ministry of Defence
Ministry of the Economy and Energy
plus representatives from a further 41 organisations.

Denmark
Radet for storre Faerdselssikkerhed(Danish Road Safety Council)------

Independent, self-governed organisation
Under the control of the Ministry of Justice
Looked upon as a semi-public institution
Composed of 30 representatives from ministries, authorities and organisations
50 per cent of its finances come from public funds (the remaining 50 per cent coming from private
institutions, firms and membership fees from the children’s traffic club)

Spain-- Directorate General for Traffic
Organisation assigned to the Ministry of the Interior--

National Commission for Road Safety
Interministerial organisation in which 15 ministries and various social groups are represented, e.g.
automobile clubs, the Red Cross, vehicle manufacturers, etc.

Finland
Liikenneturva(Central Organisation for Traffic Safety in Finland)---

Association of public law under the control of the Ministry of Communications -Responsible for
information and road safety education
Financed by the insurance companies according to the provisions of a law

FranceComité interministériel de la Sécurité Routière, chaired by the Prime Minister and including all
Ministries concerned with the prevention of road accidents;
Ministére de I'Equipement, du Logement, de I'Aménagement du Territoire et des Transports(Safety and Road Traffic Directorate);
Other Ministries: (Health, Education, Interior, etc.) on a much more ad hoc basis;
 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

60

Various associations, such as: Prévention Routière, Prévention rurale(agricultural mutual insurances)Centre de Documentation et d'Information de l'Assurance, automobile clubs, Association pour laSécurité sur les Autoroutes, Secours Routier Français, etc.

Luxemburg-- Ministry of Transport-- The State Traffic Commission-- Ministry of Education-- Police and Gendarmerie-- The Road Safety Association-- The Association of Insurance Companies-- The Automobile Club.

The Netherlands
Veilig Verkeer Nederland(Safe Traffic, Netherlands)
Works in close cooperation with the Ministry of Transport which provides 70 per cent of thebudget for "Veilig Verkeer Nederland".

United Kingdom
Department of Transport in cooperation with different organisations such as:----

Automobile Association;
Royal Automobile Club;Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (official road safety organisation, supported by theGovernment and by local sponsors, non-profit-making).10

Sweden-- National föreningen för Trafikstäkerhetens Främjande (NTF)(National Society for Road Safety)
Responsible for organising campaigns, road safety education, road safety literature and materials,
and a children’s traffic club;
Financed by the government, insurance companies, membership fees and the sale of road safetymaterials.
--

The Swedish Road Safety Office

Comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Transport.
Responsible for giving information on new traffic regulations.

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61

Switzerland-- Schweizerische Beratungsstelle für Unfallverhütung (bfu)(Swiss Advisory Board for Accident Prevention)
Private law foundation;
Task: the promotion of accident prevention in all areas outside the work environment;
Finances: structural contribution from the Swiss Fund for the Prevention of Road Traffic Accidents plus
some financing from non-industrial accident insurance premiums.
-- Schweizerische Konferenz für Sicherheit im Strassenverkehr (SKS)(Swiss Conference for Safety in Road Traffic)
Legal status: association;
Tasks: the activities of this Conference concern essentially the preparation, implementation andorganisation of the road safety education campaigns conducted annually on a national scale;
Members: representatives of the authorities at the confederate, canton and commune levels, ofprivate associations and institutions, of insurance companies and individual firms;--

Swiss Fund for the Prevention of Road Accidents: public law body whose task is to co--ordinate
and promote measures aimed at preventing road accidents;--

Road-users Associations.

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ROAD SAFETY OF CHILDREN
1987

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RESOLUTION NO. 50 ON ROAD SAFETY OF CHILDREN[CM(87)13]

The Council of Ministers of Transport, meeting in Madrid, on 26 and 27 May 1987:
HAVING REGARD to the report of the Committee of Deputies on the safety of children;
CONSIDERING:--

that the premature death of young road users must be regarded as particularly unacceptable,
precisely because they are children;--that traffic accidents represent the most common cause of accidental death among children under
15 years old;--that it has adopted several Resolutions since 1975 with a view to reducing the mortality of children
in road accidents, and that the indepth study by the OECD Scientific Expert Group on Traffic
Safety of Children presents valuable analyses which supplement the statistics on children’s deaths
and injuries in road traffic.

RECOMMENDS the Member countries of ECMT:--

to pay due regard to the safety aspects in the planning of the traffic environment, especially inresidential areas, considering the child’s inherent need for living range, and to organise throughtraffic in residential areas by physical and regulatory means;--

to pay special attention, outside residential areas, to the design and location of crossing facilities
used by children, especially near the schools and in places where children move a lot in the traffic;--

to inform drivers about children’s difficulties in traffic and to instruct them to be aware of thechildren’s specific capabilities and limitations;--to provide children at different ages with training designed to call attention to the risks in theenvironment where the child plays and exists;--

to emphasize the roles of parents as instructors of their children, especially before school age, andas an example to children and young people in traffic;--

to inform parents about the risks due to the fact that children are entering traffic at an increasingly
early age as cyclists, or indeed as drivers of mopeds;--

to encourage the development and use of a light protective helmet suitable for cycling;--

to urge parents to transport those children who cannot use seat belts in appropriate child seats.

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REPORT ON ROAD SAFETY OF CHILDREN[CM(87)13]

I. GENERAL BACKGROUND

The general situation in road safety and the problems involved have been outlined on a number ofoccasions in previous reports. It is however worthwhile recalling the main facts. The findings set out inthis report have been analysed in detail in the study by the OECD Scientific Expert Group on Traffic
Safety of Children (OECD, April 1983).
By way of introduction, reference may also be made to a report published by the World HealthOrganisation (WHO) in 1981 which states:"Any attempt to generalise is prone to error, but one can say, generally speaking, that accidents
cause between a quarter and half the deaths in Europe in the 1-14 age group: traffic accidents
represent between one-third and half of this total and are the most common cause of accidental
death".
Throughout the twentieth century remarkable progress has been made in reducing overall mortality
and improving the general health among children, but no such improvement has been achieved in
reducing child mortality from traffic accidents. Consequently, the relative importance of traffic
accidents as a cause of impairment, disability and death of children continues to increase.
When analysing accident statistics, even those for ECMT member countries, it has to be borne inmind that, although formally comparable, the national data vary considerably as regards their coverage
and reliability. Methods of compiling statistics differ significantly from one country to another. Also,
the definitions used for certain accident terms and the methods of recording the data are often different.
Therefore the crude figures given and the corresponding percentages cannot in themselves explain theunderlying reasons for the occurrence of accidents; nevertheless the trends can be informative.
The term "child" in this text is defined to be those from 0-14 years of age. This group is often
divided into three subgroups: 0-4, 5-9 and 10-14 years old.
In 1986, the OECD published a report by a Group of Experts entitled: "Effectiveness of Road
Safety Education Programmes". This report made a detailed assessment of the value of road safety
education as an accident prevention measure. In spite of the well-known fact that the most powerful
effect on the safety of unprotected road-users (particularly children, juveniles and the elderly) derives
from measures related to the way in which the traffic environment, interpreted in both its broad andnarrow senses, is designed and structured, the report describes in depth different methods to evaluate
road safety education approaches. The OECD Expert Group decided to confine its attention to studies
on the road safety education provision for unprotected young road users up to the age of 16. The reportcontains important methodological recommendations for those active in both developmental andevaluational research. It also states that there is little of value to add to the recommendations publishedin the OECD report (1983) on the traffic safety of children.
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II. CHILD ACCIDENT STATISTICS

The statistics below highlight trends from 1970 to 1979 as set out in the OECD study published in
1983. More recently, a limited updating of the data was carried out on the initiative of the ECMT Road
Safety Committee. The results, which are given in the text in brackets (), are based on the data for 1985
supplied by eleven countries and, in particular, seven ECMT members.

General assessment
Children in the 0-14 age group constituted in 1979 on average 23.2 per cent of the population in thegroup of countries under review (N= 16) (1985, 19.1 per cent, ten countries) and accounted on averagefor 8.4 per cent (1985, 7.1 per cent, ten countries) of the total number of road accident fatalities.
The breakdown of child road deaths as a percentage of the total number of road deaths shows thatthe 0-4 age group is the least affected (1985, the same). The respective breakdown for child injuries issubstantially the same. The most affected age group in child road injuries is the 10-14 year olds (1985,
the same, eight countries).
A comparison of the death rate figures for children in different age groups with those for the total
number of deaths of those in the same age groups, reveals that for the age group 5-14 one death in four
results from a road accident. These data concern results from nine countries.
As regards the breakdown by sex, the OECD analysis in 1983 found that the ratio of girls to boys
killed in road accidents is roughly 1 to 3, for cyclists nearly 1 to 4. The above updated data for 1985
supplied by eleven ECMT countries show that the ratios have changed: the ratio of girls to boys killed
in road accidents is 1 to 1.5. In the case of cyclists the ratio is 1 to 2.1.

Child pedestrian casualties
Of all pedestrian deaths 18 per cent (15 per cent in 1985, eleven countries) fall into the group 0-14.
The age group 5-9 is relatively the most affected in child pedestrian deaths. The same age group is themost vulnerable to injuries.

Child cyclist casualties
Child cyclist fatalities account for, on average, 24 per cent (18 per cent, eleven countries, 1985) of
all cyclist fatalities. In 1985, injuries to child cyclists accounted for nearly 27 per cent of the total
number of injuries to cyclists in eleven ECMT countries. As might be expected, the 10-14 age group
was the most vulnerable cyclist group amongst children both during the seventies in the OECD countries
and in 1985 in eleven ECMT member countries. The breakdown for injuries is the same as for deaths.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

66

Child casualties as car passengers
Child car users can clearly not be the instigators but only the victims of road accidents. Road
deaths and injuries to children as passengers in cars account on average for 35 per cent and 49.3 per cent,respectively, of all child road deaths and injuries (in 1985, 28.2 per cent and 28.4 per cent respectively inten countries).
The incidence of deaths and injuries is roughly the same for all three age groups. According to thereport drawn up by OECD in 1983, it would seem evident that traffic accidents are leading to a definitely
too high incidence of long-term incapacity amongst children, particularly physical handicaps.

Trends in child road casualties between 1976 and 1985
In accordance with the above updating (see following table), it can be said that the relative safety ofchildren improved more quickly than that of adults during the period 1976-1985.
The safety trend for pedestrians is more favourable than that for cyclists and also more favourable
for pedestrians injured than pedestrians killed. As regards cyclists, the number injured has fallen much
more rapidly than the number killed. Overall, however, the number of children killed or injured is still
totally unacceptable.
Children (0-14 years) who are road accident casualties(killed and injured) (as a percentage of total accident casualties)(Data for 11 ECMT Member countries covering the period 1976-1985)
Year 1976* 1977* 1978 1979* 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984
Category
Killed979877Injured
13
13
12
12
12
12
Killed as
18
18
17
16
15
15
Pedestrians
Injured as
40
40
41
37
36
36
Pedestrians
Cyclists killed
23
24
22
22
21
19
Cyclists injured
38
38
36
37
33
32
*The percentage for this year relates to only 10 member countries.

1985

7
12
15

7
12
15

7
11
14

7
11
15

35

35

35

34

20
32

20
32

21
29

18
27

III. REFERENCES TO EARLIER ECMT RESOLUTIONS ON ROAD SAFETY

The ECMT Council of Ministers has approved several Resolutions with the aim to reduce themortality of children in road accidents.
Resolution No. 33, adopted in June 1975
Subject:
The problem of young children carried in front seats of motor vehicles.
 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

67

Main provisions:-- Obligation - unless there is good reason for not doing so - for children to be
carried at the rear of motor vehicles;-- Establishment of common standards for the design and type approval of
special safety devices for children carried in motor vehicles;-- Withdrawal from the market of seats and other safety devices for children
which are plainly ineffective or even dangerous.

Resolution No. 37, adopted in June 1978
Subject:
Driver training.
Main provisions:-- Introduction of a comprehensive and coherent system of driver instruction,
the main purpose being to ensure that behaviour is in conformity with roadsafety requirements;-- Promotion of road safety education in schools as recommended by the
ECMT/Council of Europe Joint Conferences.
Resolution No. 38, adopted in June 1978
Subject:
Seat belts.
Main provisions:-- Fitting of seat belts in new vehicles, preferably with three-point anchorage,
both for front and rear-seats;-- Compulsory, wearing of seat belts, both inside and outside built-up areas, for
car occupants whose age, body measurements and physical condition allowit.
Resolution No. 39, approved in 1979
Subject:
Main provisions:

The road safety of children and young people.
-- Environmental adjustments with due regard to the psychological andbiological development of children.
-- The role of parents in promoting the safety of children.
-- Publicity campaigns as a safety device.

Resolution No. 44, adopted in May, 1983
Subject:
Making cycling safer.
Main provisions:-- segregation of types of traffic and of bicycles and motor vehicles, primarily
by means of the construction of cycle paths.
-- national information campaigns to make motorists and cyclists aware of thelatter’s vulnerability and advise them of the road behaviour required inconsequence.
-- adoption of technical standards for bicycles so as to ensure that they are assafe as possible.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

68

-- compulsory fitting of a standard set of reflecting devices on bicycles.
Resolution No. 51, adopted in November 1984
Subject:
School transport.
Main provisions:-- Planning, organisation and financing of school transport services;-- Development of road safety education in schools including information onschool transport safety;-- Checks on the qualifications and retraining for drivers of vehicles used forschool transport;-- Improved safety arrangements at bus stops and at their vicinity-- Provision of adequate supervision at bus stops near schools, and the presenceof supervision in the vehicle;-- Development of the statistics on accidents involving children in schooltransport.
A new Resolution, designed to improve road safety for children and which takes account of thepresent situation is attached to this report, for approval of the Council of Ministers.

 ECMT / CEMT, 2003

69

FITTING AND WEARING OF SEAT BELTS
ON THE REAR SEATS OF CARS AND
SAFER TRANSPORT OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS
1988

70

RESOLUTION No. 54
CONCERNING THE FITTING AND WEARING OF SEAT BELTS
ON THE REAR SEATS OF CARS AND
SAFER TRANSPORT OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS[CM(88)29]

The Council of Ministers of Transport, meeting in Paris, on 29 November 1988:
HAVING REGARD TO:--

Resolution No. 28 of 14 June 1973 concerning seat belts;--

Resolution No. 33 of 18 and 19 June 1975 concerning the problem of young children carried in
front seats of motor vehicles;--

Resolution No. 38 of 31 May and 1 June 1978 concerning the wearing of seat belts;

CONSIDERING:--

that the effectiveness of seat belts can not be contested and has been established by many scientificstudies;--that the studies made show that the wearing of seat belts, compared with the situation of nonwearing, reduce, by at least 50 per cent the risk of being killed or injured in a car accident;--

that this significant reduction of the risk not only concerns the occupants of the front seats ofpassenger cars but also the occupants of rear seats;--that passengers in rear seats who do not wear seat belts are not only running a risk of being injured
themselves but also endanger persons in front who are using seat belts particularly, for example, ifthey are thrown forward;--that restraining devices are not effective solely for adults since similar results can be obtained in thecase of children if the devices used are adapted to their age, size and weight;

NOTING:--

that it has not as yet been made compulsory in all countries to fit seat belts in the rear seats of new
cars;

--

that despite the progress recently made in this connection, only a few countries have made it
compulsory to use restraining devices for passengers in rear seats;--that only a few Member or Associate countries of the ECMT have made it compulsory to use
restraining devices for children irrespective of their age or the seat in which they are travelling;That restraining devices for children are not used sufficiently because the public too often

71considers, incorrectly, that it is only dangerous for children to travel in the front seats and that they
are safe enough in rear seats;--that despite the fact that restraining devices are acknowledged to have a high degree ofeffectiveness, there are still too many cases in which their use is not compulsory;

RECOMMENDS the Member countries of the ECMT:
1.

to make it compulsory for the rear seats of passenger cars to be fitted with seat belts;2.

to introduce as soon as possible provisions stating clearly that all occupants of rear seats ofpassenger cars, adults and children, should be protected by an adequate restraining system;3.

to make it also compulsory, for children travelling in front seats, to be protected by restraining
devices adapted to their size, weight and age;4.

to limit as far as possible the number of categories of person exempt from wearing seat belts.

72

REPORT CONCERNING THE FITTING AND WEARING
OF SEAT BELTS ON THE REAR SEATS OF CARS AND SAFER TRANSPORTOF CHILDREN AND ADULTS[CM(88)29]

In 1973, the Council of Ministers of Transport of the ECMT in its Resolution No. 28, called upon
the Conference Member countries to do everything in their power to promote the use of safety belts. In
1978, the Ministers of Transport took the subject up again in their Resolution No. 38 recommending
strongly legal provisions concerning the fitting and the use of safety belts as well as accompanying
measures of information. Both Resolutions made it clear that the positive effects of safety belts are
undisputed. The Committee of Deputies was requested to watch the realisation in practice of therecommendations and to investigate the effects.
The Programme of Cooperation on Road and Road Transport Research of the OECD kept an eye
on the development. In 1984-1985, a group of experts of this Programme (under the chairmanship of theUnited States) submitted the summary report "Effectiveness of safety belt usage programmes", which
corroborated the high effectiveness of safety belts. But it was also noted that not all possibilities ofimproving safety belt usage had been utilised everywhere. Therefore, the following is recommended:"Safety belt use is an area where the important recommendations are straightforward. First, theenactment of a safety belt use law must be one of the highest priorities of every traffic safety
professional. Second, it is not unreasonable to establish belt use goals in excess of 90 per cent. Thislevel of belt use has been achieved in enough jurisdictions to make its accomplishment realistic.
It is further recommended that belt use laws should incorporate a meaningful sanction, that laws
should be enforced and that the enforcement must be accompanied by public education."
This situation gave reason to the Road Safety Committee of the ECMT again to work out
recommendations for an improvement of the belt use behaviour. It is exactly inadequate and incomplete
regulations that can be considered to be a danger for the lasting positive attitude of road users towards
the safety belt. This might lead to a decrease in the safety belt wear rate, which again would jeopardize
the great success that has widely been achieved to date, and would make the realisation of further
improvements considerably more difficult. The Resolution is submitted to the Council of Ministers for
its approval.

73

ROAD SAFETY
1989

74

RESOLUTION No. 55 ON ROAD SAFETY[CM(89)17]
The Council of Ministers of Transport, meeting in Edinburgh on 23rd and 24th May 1989:
EXTREMELY CONCERNED by the unacceptable number of lives lost in road accidents and by the
injuries caused -- which are often very severe and irremediably handicap a large number ofpeople -- as well as by the heavy toll in terms of human suffering and effects detrimental to theeconomy arising from a lack of safety on the roads;
PARTICULARLY DISTURBED by the trends recently recorded in most Member countries which showthat the situation has deteriorated markedly after having improved over a period;
CONVINCED that the road safety policies pursued in the various countries need to be given fresh
impetus, which will simultaneously call for determined efforts by Governments, a contribution
from the agencies active in this connection in society, and greater awareness on the part of all rail
road users;
REAFFIRMS its political will to give clear-cut priority to measures designed to reduce road casualties
significantly and on a lasting basis;
CONSIDERS, accordingly, that it is advisable to strengthen international co-operation in this connection
within ECMT, not only by means of an ongoing exchange of information to enable member
countries to make the most of their respective experience but also, depending on the nature of thematters concerned, with a view to reaching joint decisions at the level of the Council of Ministers;
INSTRUCTS the Committee of Deputies to propose specific measures to it for the purpose of improving
road safety in Europe.

75

RESOLUTION No. 56 ON ADVERTISING THAT CONFLICTS
WITH ROAD SAFETY AIMS
[CM(89)37]

The Council of Ministers of Transport, meeting in Paris on 22 November 1989:
HAVING REGARD TO the report on advertising that conflicts with road safety aims;
NOTING that a total of over 65 000 people are killed each year in road accidents in ECMT member
countries;
NOTING that the analysis of factors contributing to road accidents clearly show the predominant role
played by human behaviour;
NOTING that such behaviour is bound up with the public image of the car and may be strongly
influenced by advertising;
CONVINCED that it is necessary to continue to make even greater endeavours to change the behaviourof road users on a lasting basis;
CONSIDERING that any improvement in human behaviour first calls for better quality advertisingwhich does not prompt drivers to adopt behaviour that is aggressive, violent or to the detriment ofother road users but which, on the contrary, attaches greater importance to forms of behaviour
conducive to safety on the roads;
RECOMMENDS THE GOVERNMENTS OF ECMT MEMBER COUNTRIES:
1.

to draw the attention of manufacturers and importers of motor vehicles and equipment, producers of
motor fuels and oils, advertising agencies and journalists to the dangers that may be associated withadvertising which does not take account of road safety requirements;2.

to ask them to introduce or develop conventions or other agreements with a view to monitoring thecontent of advertising messages themselves so as to ensure that they comply with the rules of acode of practice laid down beforehand and compatible with road safety requirements and, moreparticularly, to urge them to regard as inappropriate any advertising whose content:--

extols performance or power and treats driving as a sport;--

shows scenes evoking motor racing, lightning acceleration and top speeds;--

evokes needs incompatible with safety or suggests exaggerated personal values such as dominance,
impetuosity, or power;--

instils in the driver a false sense of safety by suggesting that particular technical characteristics (ofthe vehicle or its accessories) will enable him to master every dangerous situation;

76

--

represents or evokes by means of imperceptible devices particular facts or situations that cannot
exist in reality;--

prompts the driver to break the law and infringe the basic rules governing careful driving.

3.

To ask manufacturers and importers of motor vehicles and equipment, producers of motor fuels andoils and those responsible for the media to replace the detrimental content of advertising messages
by:--objective information which helps the safety-conscious purchaser to make a rational choice;--neutral texts and images associated with the concept of safety (for example, interpret the roadholding qualities of a vehicle as a safety factor);--

information about the vehicle’s reliability, fuel consumption and comfort, and about the need toprotect the environment;--

messages that help to develop a sense of responsibility, tolerance, and compliance with regulations;--messages that show the convivial aspects of driving and the pleasure of a good rapport with theenvironment;--

information that convinces the purchaser that the image created by his choice is that of a well-informed person who is aware of his responsibilities and who is both helping to make the roads
safer and protecting the environment.

4.

In the light of the circumstances specific to each country, to promote advertising that is conducive
to safety on the roads.

5.

To consider the possibility of creating an international prize to be awarded for the car advertising
campaign that shows the most concern about road safety.

INSTRUCTS the Committee of Deputies to monitor the implementation of the measures recommended
in this Resolution.

77

REPORT ON ADVERTISING THAT CONFLICTS
WITH ROAD SAFETY AIMS
[CM(89)37]

1.

Introduction

In 1987, the Road Safety Committee decided to include in its pluriannual programme of work thequestion of "advertising that conflicts with the aims of road safety" and it requested the French
Delegation to draw up a preliminary note on this matter. The first report was to be discussed at theCommittee’s session on 8 and 9 March 1988 and set out the initial considerations based on theinformation that the member countries of the Conference had provided at that time. This version has
now been prepared in the light of the comments subsequently made by the delegations of those countries.

2.

Scope of the report

It should first be pointed out that the question of advertising that conflicts with the aims of roadsafety has not previously been the subject of any scientific research at international level carried out oncomparative bases and with advertising material produced over a sufficiently long period of time for any
changes in the content to be noted. At most, a certain amount of research is available for individual
countries, more particularly Germany, Sweden, Switzerland and France. What this amounts to, is that asmatters now stand in the majority of countries, any measures that might have been taken to restrict themore widespread development of advertising that conflicts with the aims of road safety, have been
mainly initiated on the basis of factual data and raw material without first carrying out precise studies of
the content and surveys of public images and impact.
Secondly, it is advisable to state precisely what the subject of this report is by identifying the typesof advertising message that are incompatible with road safety requirements. "Advertising that conflicts
with the aims of road safety" is here taken to mean any message:--

produced by manufacturers (or by advertising agencies on behalf of manufacturers) to promote a
product, but not articles written on a given product in the press or other publications;--concerning products in direct or indirect relation to cars, motor vehicle traffic and road safety;--

designed to extol the "a priori" qualities of a product, laying particular stress on characteristics thatconflict with the requirements of safety on the roads, i.e. prudent thoughtful driving with care forthe safety of others and compliance with safety regulations.

The potential field of enquiry is therefore extremely wide and, unfortunately, little explored up to
the present. This study will deliberately be confined to the advertising of motor manufacturers and,incidently, motorcycle manufacturers.
Lastly, it should be noted that this report relates primarily to advertising slogans of a written(posters and advertising through the press) or spoken nature (radio or television) and government
measures taken to restrict or ban such advertising, as studied by the countries on which sufficient78

literature was available, namely France, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden, Switzerland and the United
Kingdom and, to a lesser extent, Belgium and Spain.
There is a considerable risk of seeing an emphasis on vehicle performance in the advertising of
manufacturers to promote cars and motorcycles, more particularly on the top speed, acceleration
capability and the sensations that these performances may prompt in the way the use of the vehicle isperceived and, accordingly, in the way the roads are used.
It might seem reasonable to assume that other types of performance could be described andpromoted in such advertising, especially the performance in connection with the pleasant and convivial
aspects of driving, safety, solidity, long lifespan, comfort, quietness, fuel savings and the need to protect
the environment, but on the contrary it is found that:1.

many if not all of these advertisements either directly or indirectly justify the performances that will
here be described as negative;2.

the slogans conflicting with the aims of road safety have been tending to increase over the past few
years;

3.

such advertisements probably have a negative effect on behaviour which should be analysed with
precision;4.

the response of the public authorities and/or professional bodies to this irregularity would seem tobe particularly timid;

5.

very little has been done along the opposite lines to encourage advertising to promote road safety;

6.

concerted international action is called for in this connection to back up the measures taken at
national level and so have real and lasting effects.

3.

Some specific cases

There are a number of examples of advertising deliberately seeking to highlight certain
performances that clearly conflict with the aims of road safety, more particularly the top speed which, inthe case of existing luxury models and "over-powered" cars of the "turbo" type, reach or even easily
exceed 200 km/h.
In France when the 1984 International Motor Show was being held in Paris, a French manufacturer
had put up thousands of posters all over France to promote a new turbo model solely with the slogan"200 km/h". A survey carried out in recent years in the United Kingdom also provided a particularly
eloquent anthology concerning domestic or imported models: a Japanese manufacturer, for example,
vaunted "a decidedly illegal top speed", while an Italian manufacturer referred to a new model as avehicle "complete with everything you need to enjoy driving at 112 mph", and a German manufacturer
promised that another model "will whisk you from zero to 60 in 9.2 seconds, then on to a top speed of
115 mph"; a French manufacturer refers to its new model capable of doing 200 km/h as "the 125 mph
turbo", while a United Kingdom manufacturer claims for one of its new products that "it’ll hit 60 mph in
6.8 seconds flat and show its extra muscle in a eager dash to 100 mph in 18.2 seconds on its way to aneffortless 135 mph top speed".

79

It should be noted however that the most common advertising at present is more discreet, either
because manufacturers are keeping within certain bounds dictated by a fundamental respect for the
regulations or because particular agreements obliged them to adopt a minimum of self-discipline. Theirarguments then become more subtle. There is no longer a direct reference to speed but to lightning
acceleration whereby the other car can be overtaken as if it were a toy, irrespective of whether or not thiscapability is dressed in the false trappings of safety (such acceleration enabling fast overtaking istherefore a potential guarantee of safety). More generally, preference is made to driving the cars as toobjects that provide pleasure, enjoyment, and freedom. For example, a German manufacturer described
one of its recent models as simply "a pure joy" ("pure Freude"). Some go as far as calling on the impulse
to dominate: in its advertising in Germany a French manufacturer describes its product as the world’s
race and rally champion ("zum Weltmeister") and a Japanese manufacturer speaks of "powerplay". The
fact is that one is a champion or one is powerful only in relation to others whom one succeeds in (orrisks?) crushing (symbolically). The "claws" that a French manufacturer shows evoke the image of
pursuit, prey and threat. And what is to be made of the word "wild" ("sauvage") when a French
manufacturer speaks of his famous "wild chevrons" ("chevrons sauvages"), a term that is certainly(consciously?) qualified by the play on words between "chevrons" (the manufacturer’s emblem) and"chevaux" by showing on the poster the horses of Camargue galloping in complete freedom? This
impulse towards freedom (or liberation, but liberation from what and which prison?), impetuosity,
superiority, reference to wild beasts (a special study should be carried out in this connection), sexuality(always experienced in the submission/ domination relationship) and conquest of the other isfundamentally in contradiction with the real social and cultural values inherent in road safety
requirements, values that may be listed as moderation, courtesy, solidarity, respect for others, integrity,and so on. What such advertising negates is the right of the other -- which is equal by definition and notless valid -- to live in peace on the road, because driving is not an individual matter but a social act (wedo not take the road, we use it or share it). This social act cannot be seen as a trial of strength (even if
the relationship is -- to put it more subtly? -- expressed through money, the means of oppression indeed:an advertisement in the United Kingdom by a Swedish manufacturer points out that you pay for the rightto drive fast: "the more money you pay, the faster your money goes", as if one could buy the right tocontravene the social norm, in other words pay for the right to kill). The Advertising Standards
Authority in the United Kingdom has remarked how frequently advertising associates cars with revolvers
or bullets.
As pointed out by a remarkable German study by 1. Pfafferott ("Fahrzegwerbung undVerkehrssicherheit", Bundesanstalt für Strassenwesen: 1984), an analysis of the content of recent
advertising by manufacturers and importers in Germany would seem to indicate that this trend has
become more marked over the past few years for both cars and motorcycles, particularly the latter. This
also applies in France especially since the arrival on the market of small over-powered cars of the turbo
type some ten years ago. After some moderation during the 1970s, it would seem that car advertising in
the decade now drawing to a close has seen a certain return to slogans relating to speed and, moregenerally, the performances of cars and motorcycles. There are a number of possible explanations for
this:
1.

Following the 1970-1980 period involving large-scale road safety policies based on regulations,monitoring and penalties, assisted by the oil crises and energy conservations policies, the road user
has been going through a period of relapse and again responding to the sirens' song extolling speed
at the precise moment that road safety policies seem to be seeking a fresh approach.

2.

The steep fall in the price of the barrel of oil convinced the public that the energy conservation80

policy is now out of date and -- in accordance with the principle of the pendulum swinging to theother extreme -- that more petrol can therefore be consumed, which means driving faster and moreaggressively, especially since some people had a feeling of frustration.
3.

Car races and rallies are now extremely popular (Paris-Dakar, Monte-Carlo rally, the Le Mans 24hours race, etc.) and the main cultural models offered here for consumption by the public areclearly not those promoting safety and moderation but rather performance and driving as a sport,
even if practised by specialists in a secluded world.

4.

The clear-cut return to more hedonistic and individualistic values emphasizes the seductive powersof the slogans concerning pleasure, enjoyment, and the egoism of fast "sporting" driving.

Given this situation, there are of course attempts at justification by manufacturers and regulation on
the part of the public authorities or professional bodies, or even both at the same time.
The manufacturers and advertising agencies and the graphic artists working for them maintain thatwhat is regarded as negative in terms of safety in some of their advertisements is:
1.

Dictated by trends in public taste: but here we have the image of the car which must be changed in
the public’s eye.

2.

Necessary in a market without frontiers in order to cope with the advertising of competitors on
equal terms. However, a contrary view is illustrated by a company like Volvo which has
systematically based its advertising campaigns for some years on robustness, quality and safety.

3.

Not their problem: it is for the manufacturers to make their cars, even fast ones, for the publicauthorities to "make" road safety, and for road users to learn to drive well: is the sale of knives
prohibited because they may cut fingers? The response here is that there are probably limits thatmust not be exceeded and, in any event, there is a profound contradiction, which is not really
logically acceptable between an official road safety policy and a marketing strategy based on values
that are far removed from those advocated by that policy.

4.

The public authorities’ response

The response by the public authorities has been somewhat late, timid and of doubtful effectiveness.
Other than in the case of Germany, where an initial attempt to restrict questionable advertising was
made in 1972 on the basis of a self-disciplining agreement by the profession, it was not before the 1980s
that concern began to increase and some reaction became evident.
In 1984 the German authorities updated and strengthened the agreement concluded with
manufacturers in 1972. It was moreover a gentlemen’s agreement entered into freely at the request of the
public authorities and involving no penalties. It may be considered that this 1984 agreement in fact
helped to reduce somewhat the amount and aggressiveness of some questionable advertising (see C.
Vierboom and W. Wagner, "Psychologisches Forschungsinstitut", Cologne, 1987). This was also thecase for motorcycles where the absurd race for power and speed over the past ten years resulted in 1984
in the adoption by a German manufacturer and importers (1 American and 4 Japanese) of an agreement
on restraint ("Vereinbarung über die Gestaltung der Motorradwerbung").

81

A second example is provided in France where the increase in aggressive advertising resulted in1984 in an agreement to restrict such advertising which was signed by the road safety authorities and the
motor manufacturers association (but not the importers who account for more than a third of theregistrations in France). The implementation of this agreement by French manufacturers was madesubject to the Government taking steps to ensure that the same principles applied to imported vehicles.
Unfortunately, where both French and foreign vehicles were concerned, neither the spirit nor the letter ofthis agreement have really been respected, since some advertising is seen by the public authorities as indefiance of the commitments entered into, while the Government has no doubt not given itself the means
to enforce compliance with the text signed.
The Advertising Standards Authority in the United Kingdom has been receiving many complaints
for some years and has gradually established precedents whereby manufacturers have the right to boastof the speed and performance of their vehicles but not to the extent that this might seem to prompt
drivers to break the law. For example, there would be criticism of a slogan such as: "It’s easy to forget
speed limits ... Breaking the law at 100 mph feels like cruising at 50 mph". The ASA acts solely byaddressing warnings to manufacturers and importers who are asked to revise their advertising. It cannot
be said just how effective this approach is, other than to point out that a number of manufacturers havecomplied with the demands of the ASA which bases its action on the Advertising Standards whereby"advertisements should neither condone nor incite to violence or anti-social behaviour", "show or
advocate dangerous behaviour or unsafe practice" and "contain nothing which is likely to bring the law
into disrepute". lt should also be noted that the Independent Broadcasting Authority reviews all
advertising before it is screened in order to ensure that it is in conformity with these standards and that,
where the other media are concerned, the ASA ensures compliance of motor vehicle advertising with the
British Code of Advertising Practice.
Mention should also be made of the steps recently taken in Luxembourg where an agreement was
signed in 1986 between the Minister of Transport and FEGARLUX (the garage owners association in
Luxembourg), which is similar to the agreement concluded in France but also specifies that theGovernment and FEGARLUX have agreed to make a regular assessment of its application.
In the Netherlands, the Government and representatives of the car industry have just begun
discussions on the preparation of a code of good practice.
In Belgium, manufacturers and importers have concluded an agreement within their tradeassociation with a view to avoiding advertising that conflicts with the aims of road safety.
In the other countries there seem to be no such agreements, either self-disciplinary (among
manufacturers) or jointly supervised (manufacturers and public authorities).
Danish legislation has a number of provisions on advertising which concern road safety. Any
slogan broadcast by radio or television must be compatible with ensuring safety on the roads and must
not encourage dangerous or irresponsible behaviour. A fine may be imposed for any infringement ofthese rules. The Danish law on marketing lays down general criteria for advertising which also covernewspaper advertising.
In 1986, Spain included an article in its highway code with a view to ensuring that information
supplied to users of motor vehicles would not prompt them to drive too fast or recklessly or be conducive
to dangerous or any other form of behaviour that would infringe the code. In addition, the 1988 general82law on advertising specifies that advertising liable to give rise to behaviour which might compromise
personal safety may be subject to special rules or prior authorisation by the authorities.
In Portugal, advertising that conflicts with the aims of road safety is covered by the general code ofadvertising practice.
In Switzerland, as a result of a 1985 study, the BPA (Swiss Accident Prevention Bureau)
recommends that importers, advertisers and the media should replace the detrimental content ofadvertising by messages that promote safety on the roads.
To sum up, it is interesting to note that the formal agreements now existing:1.

are by and large not very effectively applied by the professional bodies concerned;2.

do not very often give rise to energetic action by the public authorities in cases where they are notcomplied with;3.

have not really prevented the maintenance, or even the exacerbation, of certain questionableslogans.

One of the major problems to be resolved is no doubt how to raise this matter to an international
level, negotiate an agreement on restraint in the European context and subsequently require Americanand Japanese manufacturers to comply with it, since the development of cable networks and private
television services singularly limits the effectiveness of government intervention. However, the position
adopted by the Ministers of Transport of the Twelve in November 1985 with respect to the European
Road Safety Year was to invite the Commission to establish the necessary contacts with the
manufacturers and importers of motor vehicles and motor-powered two-wheelers in order to get them toabandon any form of advertising that conflicted with the aims of road safety and also to invite themember States to lend their support to the Commission for the purpose of such contacts.

5.

Conclusions

It may be objected that there is no proof that this type of advertising has a negative effect on roadsafety, even though such advertisements might appear frequently (a Swedish study in 1987 -- "Argumenti Bilannonser", by S. Dahlstedt of the "Firma Humanteknologi" of Sturefors -- points out that 49.4 percent of the advertisements provide justification for the performances, and this is the third commercial
argument put forward.) It is true that the above-mentioned study by the Swiss Accident Prevention
Bureau suggests that these advertisements primarily seem to have an effect on young male drivers whoalready like to drive fast, so they tend to reinforce attitudes already acquired. However that may be, themeans are there to promote cultural and social values entirely in conflict with the requirements of roadsafety.
It would be wrong to conclude this paper without pointing out that there are fortunately a number ofmanufacturers who have tried and are still trying to create an image based on concepts of safety andreliability. Nevertheless, the problem of questionable advertising remains and seems to be getting worse,
thus calling for an appropriate response.

83However, it would be interesting to follow the example of some countries and not restrict the actionof the public authorities to the prevention of certain practices but conversely, to make such action morepositive by encouraging advertising that promotes road safety. This approach has been adopted in
Luxembourg where an annual prize is awarded for the best advertisement concerning road safety, andalso in Switzerland where there has been a competition and a prize to promote such advertising since
1986.

84

IMPROVEMENT OF ROAD SAFETYFOR THE ELDERLY
1991

85

RESOLUTION No. 91/3 ON THE
IMPROVEMENT OF ROAD SAFETY FOR THE ELDERLY[CEMT/CM(91)15]

The Council of Ministers of Transport of the ECMT, meeting in Antalya, on 22 and 23 May, 1991:
HAVING REGARD to the report on road safety for the elderly;
REFERRING to Resolution No. 54 (1985), Resolution No. 63 (1987), Resolution No. 68 (1989)
concerning transport for people with mobility handicaps, as well as to Resolution No. 71 (1990)
concerning access for people with mobility handicaps to buses, trains and coaches;
CONSIDERING:--

that elderly people constitute a large proportion of today’s population and that the proportion willcontinue to increase in the coming decades;--that the proportion of total accidents involving elderly people is greater than the proportion ofelderly people in the total population;--that safety when travelling, irrespective of the means of transport used, is a prerequisite for
ensuring the mobility of the elderly and a priority objective of any comprehensive transport policy;

RECOGNISING--

that the participation of the elderly in traffic is to be considered both for its security aspect and its
social dimension related to mobility needs;--

that decision-makers and traffic planners do not always have sufficient information on the travel
requirements of the elderly, the kind of difficulties experienced by them, and the implications fromthe standpoint of safety;--

that the measures taken to facilitate travel for the elderly and improve safety also benefit othercategories of user;

RECOMMENDS MEMBER COUNTRIES:
Regarding information, education and control of capabilities
1.

To encourage information campaigns aimed at drawing the attention of the elderly to traffic
problems and risks by means of straightforward, factual and unambiguous messages.

2.

To inform all road users of the difficulties experienced by the elderly in traffic and to remind themof their obligations towards such persons.

3.

To make medical and health service personnel aware of their obligation to inform the elderly of the86consequences of the physical and physiological changes that occur in the ageing process and may
affect their behaviour in traffic.
4.

To define principles and methods for testing the capabilities of elderly drivers and to encouragethem to take further training courses to improve their theoretical and practical ability.
Regarding infrastructure

5.

To give special consideration to the elderly when designing or improving road infrastructures, inparticular to plan the routes taken by pedestrians with a view to providing safe conditions by
ensuring that traffic lights at pedestrian crossings have sufficiently long phases; to simplify
complicated intersections, for example by separating two-way traffic by means of central islands
that are easily reached; to plan safe and easy means of access to bus stops.
In the construction and design of vehicles

6.

To use technical means to improve the safety of persons boarding and alighting from buses, as wellas within the vehicles themselves.

7.

To encourage manufacturers to improve and further develop driving aids (power steering,
automatic transmission, electrically-controlled windows, etc.) and to design the front sections ofvehicles in such a way as to limit the severity of injuries in the event of a collision.

8.

To invite bicycles manufacturer to improve the brakes, lighting and reflectors.
In the field of research9.

To further study the means of:--determining more precisely the circumstances and risks of accidents among the elderly;--

better evaluating the relation between the reduction of physical and physiological capabilities andthe performances and behaviour of road users;--

evaluating the role of medical control in the improvement of road safety for the elderly.

INSTRUCTS the Committee of Deputies to monitor the application of this Resolution and report back to
it in due course.

87

REPORT ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF ROAD SAFETYFOR THE ELDERLY[CEMT/CM(91)15]

Background
During the past decade much attention has been given to the traffic safety of the elderly. An OECD
report published in 1985, "Traffic Safety of Elderly Road Users", states:"In just a few decades the developed nations have become almost completely dependent on theexistence of effective road transport systems. At the same time lower birth rates and increased
longevity in these countries has increased the proportion of elderly people. At present, existingtransport systems are not well suited to the needs of the elderly, and their share of traffic accidents
is disproportionately large."
Briefly, the situation can be described as follows:--elderly people constitute a relatively large proportion of today’s population, and that proportion willcontinue to increase over the next several decades;--

the proportion of elderly people involved in fatal accidents is greater than the proportion of elderly
people in the total population;--

the accident risk factor increases with age;--

the accident risk factor varies by mode of transport;--

diminished physical and psychological capability is a natural aspect of ageing which tends toincrease the accident risk factor;--

access to transport is more difficult for the elderly than for other age groups in society, and accessdecreases as people grow older;

The involvement and behaviour of elderly people in traffic changes gradually as a result of ageing.
The ageing process itself involves successive impairment of physiological and psychologicalcapabilities. Yet, our intensive and complex traffic environment places greater demands on an
individual’s physical and psychological capacities. It is becoming increasingly difficult for the elderly to
manage the demands of traffic.
Greater life expectancy in conjunction with a falling birthrate is leading to appreciable growth in
the percentage of elderly persons in society. At the same time, the changes and improvements in living
standards (health, well-being, economic security) suggest that, despite some reduction in physical andphysiological capabilities as a result of ageing, a greater proportion of the elderly will remain physically,socially and economically active so there will be greater demand for mobility among these persons.
Differences in access to transport, and progressively impaired physiological and psychological88capabilities, influence behaviour and traffic accident risk factors among elderly citizens. As people growolder they depend more on the transport alternatives offered by society, or on their own abilities as apedestrian. We can establish that those who have the least ability to manage our complicated traffic
environment must often deal with that environment as unprotected pedestrians trying to reach public
services and activities, or public transport.
Deficiencies in the present traffic/transport system can impact extensively on the individual.
Problems and deficiencies can be perceived to be so great that one dares not interact with traffic, thus
seriously limiting ones mobility. Deficient transport systems thereby increase isolation in society, which
in turn increases the elderly’s dependency on social services at home or special transport.
There is also another social aspect related to this problem area. Older people are generally morefrail and thus tend to be injured more seriously in accidents. A simple accident, e.g. if an older
pedestrian is injured in a fall caused by deficient sidewalk maintenance, might very well change theentire life situation for the individual. What appears to be a simple accident might have more serious
consequences and result in more severe, even permanent, disabilities which mean that the person cannot
move about on his own and needs hospital care.
The opportunity to maintain a mobile and active life as one becomes older is important to healthand well-being. Daily walks, a social life rich in contact with friends, and participation in different
activities has a positive influence on a person’s state of health. Accordingly, it is important that theelderly should be able to move about safely and in good conditions and that the means of transportshould be adapted to their requirements.
The above-mentioned OECD report sets out the main arguments for paying special attention to thetraffic safety problems of the elderly and cautions against the tendency to use restrictions as an easysolution to these problems.
The same OECD report highlights the need for future traffic planning to address those populationgroups who have the most difficulty in dealing with today’s complex traffic situation.
"Any new environmental measure, whether to improve safety, traffic fluidity, habitat or community
amenities, must be designed with the needs of the elderly in mind. At the very least it should nothave the effect of aggravating their traffic safety problems; at best it should serve to reduce themand whenever possible promote the mobility of this population group."
Lastly, the OECD report clearly states that "the road accidents of the elderly should be considered
as indicators of deficiencies in the existing road traffic system to which the elderly are particularly
vulnerable, but which may constitute some degree of risk to any road user. It follows that the provisionof safety improvements for the elderly will benefit other age groups as well".

89

Statistics from ECMT Member countries
The ECMT member countries were asked to respond to a questionnaire for the purpose ofdetermining the current status of involvement in accidents (based on police-reported data) and travel
habits of the elderly, methods used to gather accident data, and current or planned actions to increase
traffic safety for the elderly or improve their transport situation. This section sets out the findings of thesurvey. Fifteen countries replied: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Great Britain, Greece,
the Netherlands, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Federal Republic of
Germany. Luxembourg returned the questionnaire without answering to the questions.
a)

Demographics

The size of the population in the countries responding differs considerably, ranging from about 60
million in the Federal Republic of Germany (1987) to 4 million in Norway (Table 1). The percentage of
people 65 years and older (Table 2) varied between 11 per cent (Australia) and 18 per cent (Sweden).
The differences were more pronounced when comparing the age group 75 years and older, which was
4 per cent in Australia and 8 per cent in Sweden.
Most countries submitted population projections for the years 2000 and 2010 (Table 1). Many
countries expect marginal increases up until the year 2000, and some even project decreases by
year 2010, as compared with 1987. Australia, however, expects increases of about 20 per cent and35 per cent respectively, compared with 1987. Spain and Sweden, among others, project an increase of
5 per cent prior to year 2000 followed by slower population growth prior to year 2010. Netherlands’s
projected increase falls in between that of Australia, Spain and Sweden.
According to projections for years 2000 and 2010, most countries expect an increase among the agegroups 65 years and older, and 75 years and older (Table 2). However, the increase is generally only one
or two percentage points. The countries which reported a high percentage of elderly in 1987 will, in
relative figures, still be among the leaders some years into the 2000s. One exception is Italy, which
projects a rapid increase among both age groups (5 and 3 percentage points respectively). Italy,
according to this information, will have one of the highest percentages of elderly of all countries by year
2010 (20 per cent of the population will be over 65 years and 9 per cent over 75 years). Germany reports
the highest share of people 65 and older (21 per cent)b)

Licensed Drivers

About three quarters of the responding countries submitted information concerning licensed drivers
in the population in 1987 (Table 3). The Federal Republic of Germany and Great Britain reported themost licensed drivers, 32 and 27 million respectively, while Greece reported only 1.5 million. Only
Belgium and Sweden ventured prognoses for the future. Belgium expects the number of elderly licensed
drivers to increase by 3 per cent during the next decade, while Sweden expects a 50 per cent increase.
Sweden indicated the highest percentage of licensed drivers among the population, nearly 60 per
cent. Most countries which submitted information reported that about half of their populations
possessed a driver’s license. However, in southern Europe a lower percentage of the population werelicensed drivers, e.g., 33 per cent in Spain and only 15 per cent in Greece.
Most countries also provided information on licensed drivers in the older age groups (Table 4).
Great Britain reported the highest percentage of elderly licensed drivers in the population (17 per cent)90

while Spain, Greece, and Switzerland the lowest percentage (4 per cent). Consistently, all countries
except Great Britain reported that the percentage of elderly licensed drivers was lower than thepercentage of elderly people in the population, and, particularly, much lower than for the population as awhole.
Among the Nordic countries, Finland reported the fewest licensed drivers among the elderly (18 percent among those 65 years and older, and 7 per cent among those 75 years and older). Likewise, we
found the fewest elderly licensed drivers in Spain (10 per cent and 3 per cent respectively) andGreece (4 per cent and 2 per cent respectively). However, these countries, unlike Finland, have a low
overall percentage of licensed drivers. A relatively large percentage of the elderly in Sweden and
Denmark have a driver’s license. In Sweden, 45 per cent of those 65 years and older are licensed drivers,
while the corresponding figure in Denmark is 37 per cent. Of those 75 years and older, 31 per cent arelicensed drivers in Sweden and 21 per cent in Denmark.
c)Mode of Transport

Knowledge about the distribution of transport among various types of road users seems to belimited. Half of the countries submitted information, and only half of these submitted information for
1987. Information was generally not comparable since it seldom addressed the same age groups. No
respondents reported on their forecasts regarding further developments over the coming decades.
According to the above-mentioned OECD report, it was found in particular that car journeys,
whether as driver or passenger, are less frequent as people grow older, although they account for thelargest proportion of the kilometres covered each year. The elderly are making greater use of public
transport and also walking more. Journeys on two-wheeled vehicles are made relatively infrequently.
d)Casualties in road accidents and risk in traffic

Many countries provided information on road accident casualties, and these data are set out below
and in Tables 5 to 10. It should be borne in mind however that, as with any statistical comparison, thefigures given in these tables take no account of some major external factors such as traffic density,
distances travelled, degrees of urban development and car ownership ratios. Italy and Greece provided
figures on accidents in general. The material from Greece shows that the elderly are involved in 8 percent of all accidents. Italy reports that those aged 65 and over are involved in 20 per cent of all fatal
accidents and in 7 per cent of traffic accidents causing injuries.
Among the countries reporting on the number of persons involved in accidents (Table 5), Denmark,Sweden and Finland reported the highest percentage of injured aged 65 and over (10 per cent) followed
by France (9 per cent), Switzerland, Norway and the Netherlands (8 per cent in each case), while Spain
indicated the lowest (5 per cent). Three countries (Denmark, France and Sweden) reported that people
aged 75 and over accounted for 4 per cent of all persons injured in traffic.
Finland, Switzerland, and Sweden indicated the greatest percentage elderly killed in traffic
accidents (29 per cent) (Table 6). Spain and Portugal reported the lowest percentage of elderly killed inroad traffic accidents (14 per cent). Switzerland also reported the highest percentage of persons 75 years
and older killed in traffic accidents (18 per cent), while Belgium and France reported the lowest
figure (10 per cent).

91

Tables 6-10 show the five most common categories of injury. The tables do not show, however, thetotal number of traffic fatalities during 1987. (All categories are not included in the tables).
If we look at different groups of road users (Table 8), elderly drivers comprise a comparatively
large percentage of those killed in road traffic accidents in Sweden and Denmark (19 per cent and 18 percent respectively) and a relatively low percentage in Spain (4 per cent). Here, concerning the 75 years
and older age group, Finland reported the lowest percentage (3 per cent), while Denmark and GreatBritain reported the highest (7 per cent).
The largest shares of fatalities accounted for by pedestrians aged over 65 are reported in
Switzerland and Sweden (59 per cent and 54 per cent respectively). Portugal reported the lowest
percentage (32 per cent). Concerning pedestrian deaths, persons 75 years and older constitute aparticularly vulnerable group, especially in Switzerland, Sweden and Germany where they account for
44 per cent, 38 per cent and 36 per cent respectively of all pedestrian fatalities.
The percentage of elderly who are injured in traffic (Table 10) is consistently lower than thepercentage killed. The elderly account for the largest share of injured pedestrians. In Denmark, thispercentage is 30 per cent, in Switzerland it is 26 per cent and in Sweden 25 per cent. The same countries
also report the greatest share of injured among the most elderly, 18 per cent, 17 per cent, and 14 per centrespectively. Great Britain reported the lowest percentage (14 per cent for persons 65 years and older, as
well as for persons 75 years and older (7 per cent).
Eight countries submitted information on different risk measures (Table 11), including either therisk of being involved in an accident, or the risk of being injured in traffic. However, different measuresof risk were used in reporting, e.g. kilometres travelled, number of passenger-or person-kilometres per
year, and even the number of inhabitants. Consequently, it was impossible to compare levels of risk
among the reporting countries.
The above description of the accident situation in different countries is based on police-reported
accidents. Seven countries have access to other types of information concerning road traffic accidents.
The most common is hospital-reported traffic accident information. This material is generally collectedby a few hospitals for a limited time. In Australia, official material from preliminary investigations isused, and in the Federal Republic of Germany, an investigation is conducted at the scene of the accident
to add further information regarding the circumstances of the accident.
The various figures show just how important the problem of the safety of the elderly in traffic is in
every country. Whether they are pedestrians, car drivers or users of public transport, the elderly havesafety problems with every mode of transport, although no particular mode can be singled out concern,so the remedial action must be taken in all sectors.

Measures taken or proposed
Measures that may improve the safety of the elderly in road traffic are to be found in connection
with the following in particular:----

regulations relating to driving licences;education and information;road infrastructure;

92

---

vehicle design;social environment.

Regulations
Owing to the continuous process of ageing in which the psychological and physiologicalcapabilities are gradually impaired, especially the sensory capabilities considered essential for driving(sight, reaction time, hearing), ECMT Member countries have, as a general rule, introduced legislative
measures and controls in connection with the issue, renewal or withdrawal of driving licences according
to category and the driver’s age. In a number of countries drivers have to have periodical medical checkups after reaching the age of 60 or 70 in order to retain a valid driving licences. In other countries thisperiodical medical check-up is required independently of age, while some countries insist on the checkup only if the authorities have previously recorded a lapse on the part of the driver. A national
commission has been set up in Sweden to review driver instruction. Among other things it is responsiblefor determining whether drivers above a certain age should be required to have some king of further
training or take a driving test.
In some countries, moreover, drivers are required by law to show extra care vis-à-vis the elderly.

Measures relating to the provision of education, information and training
In contrast with measures concerning the road environment and vehicle design, these measures canbe used to bring direct influence to bear on human behaviour, although special attention must be paid to
the way in which messages are presented and to the various means of disseminating them. While the useof traditional means of communication -- mass media, advertising panels, brochures and otherpublications -- are one way of providing advice and trying to change behaviour, the so-called groupmethods tried out in some countries have proved particularly effective. In the latter case, seminars anddiscussions, backed-up by film or slide projections, are organised for the elderly in clubs, retirement
homes, etc.
Whatever the approach adopted, the messages addressed to the elderly must be straightforward,
specific and unambiguous. Although it will sometimes be necessary to draw the attention of elderly
drivers or pedestrians to the mistakes they make, the messages addressed to them must be positive and so
be taken as a useful and practical suggestion that can be directly put into practice.
Safety campaigns should not moreover be addressed solely to the elderly but also to other groups ofroad users, since it is important that they should be aware of the difficulties experienced by the elderly intraffic and, in particular, that they should adopt respectful and careful behaviour towards them.
It would also be desirable to channel the information towards all those looking after the elderly(social workers, members of health care units, etc.) so that they in turn can offer individual advice andinformation to the elderly on ways in which changes in their physical and mental condition may affecttheir behaviour in road traffic.
Lastly, steps should be taken to draw up and introduce further training programmes designed moreparticularly for the elderly.

93Measures relating to road infrastructure
Studies of accidents involving the elderly have shown that it is necessary to take better account of
their needs and capabilities when designing or improving the road and urban environment so as to reduce
the problems that they experience in road traffic and promote their mobility. Briefly, the principles
adopted or recommended in some countries to improve the safety of elderly road users are as follows:--

the reduction of speed limits in residential areas and shopping streets used frequently by the elderly
and also in places in which complicated manoeuvres are called for, thus giving elderly drivers
enough time to obtain information and take decisions;--the elimination of situations that become complex in dense or fast traffic by introducing one-way
systems, separating traffic flows, etc.;--

the establishment of information systems (signs and signals, road markings) that arestraightforward, coherent and easily visible;--

the creation of roadside or off-road bicycle paths;--

the provision of better lighting in built-up areas and at sensitive locations on major roads;--

the design of infrastructure in such a way as to take greater account of the reduced mobility of theelderly (different levels, traffic light phases, lengths of carriageway to cross);--the provision of safe and easy means of access to bus stops, etc.

It should be pointed out that many measures are at the same time conducive to the safety of bothpedestrians and drivers. The above principles are, moreover, to the advantage of all road users.
However, the criteria for implementing the measures may differ in some cases if particular attention is
being focused on the elderly.

Measures relating to vehicle design
From both the ergonomic and passive safety standpoints, vehicle design should by and large bebased on the characteristics and limitations of potential drivers.
The task of elderly or disabled drivers can be facilitated by a number of driving aids (automatictransmission, power steering, electrically-controlled windows, etc.) that are usually available on higherpriced cars, so it would clearly be an advantage if they were also available on cars in the medium enginecapacity range at a reasonable price.
Further research should also be carried out with a view to designing cars with less aggressive front
sections so as to reduce the severity of injuries if pedestrians are knocked down. Improvements should
likewise be made in the safety of persons boarding and alighting from buses (a limit on the height of thebus floor above the level of the waiting area, prevention of premature closing of doors, etc.), as well as
within the vehicles themselves. Lastly, standards should be adopted for bicycles to ensure that they are94

safe to use when marketed (the standards should cover braking systems, lighting and reflecting
equipment, and make provision for the elimination of any dangerous fittings).
Here, too, most of the measures mentioned, while of specific use to the elderly, are largely
conducive to the safety of other users.

Measures relating to the social environment
To sum up and give a more complete picture of the situation, it should also be pointed out that it
would be desirable to increase the frequency and accessibility of public transport services; as and whenrequired, so that the elderly might dispense with the use of their cars, when necessary, without reducing
their mobility and, accordingly, the extent to which they participate in social life. Similarly, theestablishment of a network of special transport services for all groups in the population which cannot use
ordinary public transport vehicles would be of very considerable value.

Reference to previous ECMT recommendations
No previous ECMT documents which directly discuss the traffic safety of the elderly are available.
However, the questions at hand have been discussed in other contexts, notably by the ad-hoc Group on
Transport for People with Mobility Handicaps.
Since this Group began its work in 1985, four Resolutions have been adopted by the Council of
Ministers: Resolutions No. 54 (1985), No. 63 (1987), No. 68 (1989) and No. 71 (1990). Several ECMT
publications are also available on international practice and policy in this area. These publications notethat a significant proportion of mobility handicapped people are elderly and also that a growing number
and proportion of elderly people have mobility handicaps. The ECMT Resolutions emphasise theimportance of improving access to the entire transport chain for people with mobility handicaps.
Throughout the work, it has been seen that improvements made for people with mobility handicaps often
benefit all travellers, a point also made in the present report.

Conclusions
Notably, it is to be hoped that the involvement of the elderly in road accidents can be reduced bytaking measures in the different spheres mentioned in Chapter 3. All such measures are based on thefundamental fact that the most effective means of reducing the risks to which the elderly are exposed
when travelling is not to restrict their participation in traffic by excluding them from particular sectors
but, on the contrary, to improve the safety aspects of each mode of transport used.
As shown by the survey of ECMT Member countries, it is true that most of them have already taken
steps to improve the situation of the elderly in traffic in general. However, since we are moving towards
a society in which the elderly should account for a larger proportion of the total population, there is anurgent need for Member countries to continue to make even greater endeavours and adapt them to thechanging situation so as to ensure that the elderly are safer on the roads, thus at the same time also
helping to achieve an overall improvement in safety conditions in most cases.

95AnnexFINDINGS OF THE SURVEY BASED ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE SENTTO ECMT MEMBER COUNTRIES ON ROAD SAFETY FOR THE ELDERLY

Tables 1 to 1196

Table 1. Population 1987, ECMT Countries(in millions)
COUNTRY

1987

Australia
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGreat-Britain
GreeceNetherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
GermanyAge group>75
0.666
0.552a0.639b
0.337
0.277
3.683
3.699
0.593
0.755
3.239c
0.280
0.476
1.975
0.653b
0.433
4.328

a:
b:
c:
d:
e:
f:
g:

>65
1.742
1.113a1.530b
0.786
0.650
7.572
8.624
1.357
1.805
7.664c
0.668
1.217
4.812
1.493b
0.947
9.273

Forecast forAll
16.2637.576
9.876b
5.125
4.939
55.75055.3559.989
14.61557.290c
4.174
9.744
38.8328.414b
6.567
61.141>65
2.393
1.327a
1.690
0.797
0.742
10.367fg
1.599
2.118
10.512d
0.678
6.143
1.506
1.079
10.494

only age group 65 resp. 75
1987-12-31
1987-01-01
2003
2008
2001
includes women aged 60-64 years

97

2000
Age group>75
1.087
0.414a
0.728
0.387
0.322
4.296fg
0.547
0.929
4.595d
0.350
2.495
0.492
-

All
19.699
7.676
9.893
5.176
5.017
57.275fg
10.16315.71857.455d
4.373
11.14140.7478.786
6.830
60.484

>65
2.929
.427a
1.732
0.848
0.833
2.359
11.201e
0.701
6.260
1.643
1.224
12.101

2010
Age group>75
1.285
0.429a
0.858
0.370
0.359
1.012
5.139e
0.319
2.948
0.549
-

All
21.802
7.583
9.713
5.056
5.979
16.10356.809e
4.437
41.1948.910
6.914
57.803

Table 2. Ratio of elderly in the population 1987, ECMT countries(in millions)
COUNTRY

Australia
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGreat Britain
GreeceNetherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
Germany

a:
b:
c:
d:
e:

1987

2000

2010

Age groupAge groupAge group

>65
10.7
16.0a
15.5
15.3
13.2
13.5
15.6
13.6
12.3
13.4
16.0
12.5
12.4
17.7
14.4
15.2

>75
4.1
7.5a
6.5
6.6
5.6
6.6
6.7
5.9
5.2
5.7
6.7
4.9
5.1
7.8
6.6
7.1

>65
12.1
17.3a
17.1
15.4
14.8
18.1bc
15.7
13.5
18.3d
15.5
15.1
17.1
15.8
17.4

Calculated from figures given in other context
Includes women aged 60-64 years
2001
2003
2008

98

>75
5.5
5.4a
7.4
7.5
6.4
7.5c
5.4
5.9
8.0d
8.0
6.1
7.2
-

>65
13.4
18.6a
17.8
16.8
16.7
14.6
19.7e
15.8
15.2
18.4
17.7
20.9

>75
5.9
5.6a
8.8
7.3
7.2
6.3
9.0e
7.2
7.2
7.9
-

Table 3. Number of licensed drivers 1987, ECMT countries(in millions)
COUNTRY
Australia
Austria (1983)
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGreat-Britain
GreeceNetherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
Germany (1985)

a:
b:
c:
d:
e:
f:
g:
h:
i:

Age group>65
0.188
0.292a0.118
3.049b
0.059d
0.575e0.218f0.460
0.674
0.150ga
3.841hi>750.072a0.020
1.398c0.013d
0.051
0.205
-

Based on estimated figures
61-70 years old>71 years old
Calculated from figures given in other context
Only for motorcars
Number of driving licenses>70 years old
Number of driving licenses class 2 or 3
>60 years old

99

All
2.893
5.003
2.704a2.500
26.6381.480
7.665e2.253f12.7914.923
3.500a31.576hTable 4. Ratio of licenced elderly drivers 1987, ECMT countries
COUNTRY

Australia
Austria (1983)
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGreat Britain
GreeceNetherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
Germany (1985)
a:
b:
c:
d:
e:

of alloperators’

Within theirown age groupAge group
>65
>75
6.5
a
10.8
2.7a
4.7
0.8
16.7b
5.2c
4.0d
0.8d
7.5
9.7
3.6
0.4
13.74
4.2
4.3ae
12.2b
-

Age group

Based on estimated figures
61 years old
71 years old
Calculated from figures given in other context
70 years old

100

>65
20.2
37.2a
18.2
4.3
31.9
32.6d
9.6
45.1
23.0ae
31.2b

>75
21.3a
7.1
2.1
2.6
31.4
-

Table 5. Injured in traffic accidents 1987, ECMT countries
COUNTRY

Injured in traffic
accidents

Ratio of elderly intraffic accidents (%)

Australia
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGreat Britain
GreeceNetherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
GermanyAge group
>75
1 898
1 885
819
424
7 993
10 189
1 598
341
2 765
830
1 087
12 307

Age group
>65
>75
7.6
3.2
6.2
2.2
9.9
4.0
9.8
3.9
9.1
4.1
7.7
3.3
8.2
3.2
8.2
3.0
6.7
5.1
1.8
10.3
4.0
8.5
3.7
6.4
2.7

>65
4 457
5 200
2 043
1 065
17 69623 945
4 057
915
3 674
7 786
2 122
2 492
28 871101

All
58 66483 85620 61610 808193 072311 473
49 18911 14454 517153 387
20 53229 339424 622

Table 6. Killed in traffic accidents in 1987 (car drivers and passengers, bicycle/moped users,
pedestrians and public transportation users)
ECMT countries
Killed in traffic
accidents

COUNTRY

Australia
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGreat Britain
GreeceNetherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
Germany

>65
203
360
168
154
1 747
1 162
342
77a
414c
688
207
223b
1 570

Age group
>75
187
82
81
959
676
169
41a
107
137b
962

Percentage ratio of elderly intraffic accidents

All
1 138
1 844
602
525
10 028
5 262
1 381
344a
3 029
5 051
722
763b
6 875

a: Taxi passengers are included
b: Taxi drivers and taxipassengers are included
c: > 64 years old
d: 65 years and over102

Age group
>65
17.8
19.5
27.9
29.3
17.4
27.3
24.8
22.4a
13.7c
13.6
28.7
29.2b
22.8

>75
10.1
13.6
15.4
9.6
15.9
12.2
11.9a
14.8
18.0b
14.0

Table 7. Killed in traffic accidents by mode of transportation 1987, ECMT countries
COUNTRY

Australia
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGreat-Britain
GreeceNetherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
Germany

Car drivers
>65
34
104
41
20
509
208
85
23
99d
74
65
33c
239

>75
44
16
5
225
94
34
7
20
15c
102

All
497
751
230
161
4 134
1 327
518
154
1 155
1 847
334
292c
2 862

Car passengers
>65
27
38
30
18
362
136
54
11a
44d
152
26b
17c
170

>75
18
13
9
191
77
21
6a
9b
8c
86

All
247
344
107
117
2 303
879
251
89a
496
1 556
162b
121c
1 388

Bicycle/moped user
>65
40
75
34
56
258
56
133
11
67d
62
38
44c
310

a: Bus passengers and taxi passengers are included
b: Bus passengers are included
c: Taxi drivers and taxi passengers are included
d: >64 years old

103

>75
37
15
32
130
23
74
7
24
20c
172

All
173
417
120
111
1 980
338
439
31
733
493
82
134c
940

Pedestrians
>65
102
142
62
60
618
757
70
32
204d
378
78
129c
851

>75
88
37
35
413
478
40
21
54
94c
602

All
220
327
141
136
1 592
1 703
172
70
645
1 080
144
216c
1 685

Public Transportation
users
>65
1
1
5
22
-

>75
1
4
-

All
1
5
4
1
19
15
1
75
-

Table 8. Ratio of elderly killed in traffic accidents by mode of transportation 1987, ECMT countries
COUNTRY

Car drivers

Car passengers

Bicycle/moped
users

Pedestrians

Public transport
users

Australia
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGreat Britain
GreeceNetherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
Germany

>65
6.8
13.8
17.8
12.4
12.3
15.7
16.4
14.9
8.6ab
4.0
19.5
11.3
8.4

>65
10.9
11.0
28.0
15.3
13.7
15.5
21.5
12.4
8.9ab
9.8
16.0
14.0
12.2

>65
23.1
18.0
28.3
50.4
13.0
16.6
30.3
35.5
9.1ab
12.6
46.3
17.5
33.0

>65
46.4
43.4
44.0
44.1
38.8
44.4

>65
20.0
25.0
0
33.3
29.3
-

>75
5.9
7.0
3.1
5.4
7.1
6.6
4.5
6.0
5.1
3.6

>75
12.1
7.7
8.3
8.8
8.4
6.7
5.6
6.6
6.2

a: Calculated from figures given in other context.
b: > 64 years old.

104

>75
8.9
12.5
28.8
6.5
6.8
16.9
22.6
29.3
7.4
18.3

40.7
45.7
31.6ab
35.0
54.2
58.8
50.5

>75
26.9
26.2
25.7
25.9
28.1
23.3
30.0
37.5
43.5
35.7

>75
0
25.0
0
26.7
-

Table 9. Injured in traffic accidents by mode of transportation 1987, ECMT countries
COUNTRY

Australia
Austria
Belgium
Denmark

Car drivers

y
z
y
z

FranceGreat Britain yzFinland
GreeceNetherlands yz
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
Swedenyz
Switzerland
Germany
y
z

>65
689
351
1214
197
129
5155
1114
4203
159
320
504
269
1040+
1157
196
599
482*
1552
4111

>75
100
319
63
50
1864
375
1349
52
103
150
87
67
177
137*
475
1105

Car passengers
All
19294
6457
26203
1935
1485
86205
15840
74843
3247
3535
7726
4291
27219
44344
1962
7174
8436*
35439
128249

>65
847
274
927
119
103
2806
1008
4288
171
269
408
241x
803+
2250
151°
363
484*
1555
4350

>75
107
313
48
36
4731
387
1572
58
86
142
74x
60°
125
184*
623
1488

x: bus passengers and taxi passengers are included*: taxidrivers and taxi passengers respectively are included°: bus passengers are included

All
12188
3555
16285
1220
959
18135
11040
55539
2559
2055
4995
3257x
17136
47715
1328°
3780
5039*
19797
73133

Bicycle/moped users
>65
895
332
646
220
88
1923
309
768
323
777
1001
96
649+
526
136
208
504
2517
3330

y: severely injured
z: slightly injured+: >64 years old

105

>75
129
214
72
33
758
117
255
127
320
390
32
55
84
173
1012
1139

All
12961
4813
15069
2092
1313
57616
7044
27987
2165
5821
17343
1456
18959
18203
860
2077
6674
19919
51419

Pedestrians
>65
1419
416
574
343
69
5667
2942
4812
352
355
320
291
1831+
3337
214
237
842
4289
3760

>75
209
276
205
44
3333
1592
2451
167
199
168
143
126
131
535
2649
1996

Public transportation
users
All
5963
1883
3999
1052
332
29760
15957
39793
1459
1543
2488
1270
10162
18139
701
1111
3221
17165
24386

>65
77
5
35
25
9
173
313
2267
18
10
64
249
-

>75
2
14
14
6
86
147
914
4
4
24
_
-

All
171
37
500
38
32
1356
811
8262
137
22
168
1509
-

Table 10. Ratio of elderly injured in traffic accidents by mode of transportation 1987, ECMT countries

COUNTRY
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGreat Britain
GreeceNetherlands
Italy
Luxembourg
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
Germany

Car drivers

Car passengers

Bicycle/moped
users

>65
3.6
4.8
9.5
4.9
5.9
5.9
7.3
6.3
3.8ab
2.6
8.6
5.7
3.5

>65
6.9
6.1
10.2
6.7
15.4
8.0
9.6
7.4
4.7ab
4.7
10.1
9.6
6.4

>65
6.9
4.9
9.0
14.9
3.3
3.1
7.7
6.6
3.4ab
2.9
11.7
5.3
8.2

>75
1.3
3.3
1.6
2.1
1.9
2.2
2.0
2.7
1.6
1.0

>75
2.1
3.9
2.2
2.6
2.9
3.2
2.3
3.6
3.7
2.3

a: Calculated from figures given in other context
b: > 64 years old

106

>75
1.7
3.1
5.9
1.3
1.1
3.1
2.2
4.7
1.7
3.0

Pedestrians
>65
23.8
16.8
29.8
24.1
19.0
13.9
16.7
22.9
18.0ab
18.4
24.9
26.1
19.4

>75
8.2
18.0
11.4
11.2
7.3
9.1
11.3
14.2
16.6
11.2

Public transport
users
>65
45.0
7.4
48.6
13.1
12.7
28.4
38.9
16.5
-

>75
3.0
28.6
2.9
6.3
11.7
14.7
-

Table 11. Different measures of traffic accident risk 1987, ECMT countries
Australia

FinlandNetherlands/107 km travelled/105 inhabitants/109
passengers/km

Italy

Norway (1985)

Sweden/106 persons/km/106 km

Switzerland

Germany/104 persons/an a) /104 inhabitantsb) /106 km

>65

>75

Tous

>65

>75

Tous

>65

>75

Tous

65

65-74

55-74

13-74

65-74

75-84

Tous

65-74

>75

Tous

>65

>75

Tous

Risk to be killed

-

-

-

24.6

29.6

11.8

23

-

9

19%

-

-

0.011

0.12

0.39

0.15

1.8

3.4

1.4

a)
1.73

a)
2.27

a)
1.3

Risk to be injured

-

-

-

163

152

218

270

-

309

6%

-

-

0.27

1.06

3.07

2.77

27.6

26.4

47.8

a)
29.4

a)
26.17

a)
69.45

Car drivers

≈0.2

≈0.5

0.13

-

-

-

21

-

8

9%

0.011

-

0.007

0.011

0.077

0.016

0.53

0.56

0.66

b)
0.15

-

b)
0.010

Car passengers

≈0.5

≈0.8

0.12

-

-

-

11

-

5

13%

-

0.010

0.008

0.006

0.016

0.006

-

-

-

0.022

-

0.011

Bicycle/moped users

4.95
1.47

-

0.56
0.27

-

-

-

111

-

35

24%

-

0.162

0.038

0.13

0.65

0.09

0.61

0.51

0.11

*b)
0.571

-

*b)
0.072

Pedestrians

3.23y
2.80y

11.83z
4.86z

2.36
1.26

-

-

-

108

-

53

46%

-

0.059

0.028

0.07

0.20

0.05

0.65

2.3

0.3

b)
0.276

-

b)
0.086

-

-

-

-

-

-

0

-

0

2%

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Car drivers

-

-

-

-

-

-

203

-

164

4%

0.187

-

0.224

0.21

0.91

0.44

12.7

7.8

22.5

b)
0.224

-

b)
0.418

Car passengers

-

-

-

-

-

-

144

-

146

5%

-

0.321

0.310

0.13

0.15

0.16

-

-

-

b)
0.518

-

b)
0.522

Bicycle/moped users

-

-

-

-

-

-

1481

-

1824

6%

-

1.843*

1.434

1.11

4.11

1.37

7.7

4.6

4.5

*b)
6.443

-

*b)
3.815

Pedestrians

-

-

-

-

-

-

1038

-

775

21%

-

0.920

0.634

0.57

1.66

0.65

6.1

13.0

5.5

b)
2.097

-

b)
1.66

Public Transport Users

-

-

-

-

-

-

20

-

10

19%

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Risk to be killed:

Public transport users
Risk of injury:

107

DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD SAFETY POLICIES
1992

108

RESOLUTION No.92/3 ON DECENTRALISED ROAD SAFETY POLICIES[CEMT/CM(92)4 REV]The Council of Ministers of Transport of ECMT, meeting in Athens on 11 and 12 June 1992,
Having regard to the report on trends in road safety policies,

BEARING IN MIND all the Resolutions adopted by ECMT in connection with the orientation of roadsafety policies, more particularly Resolution No. 48 (1986) on ways of influencing humanbehaviour with a view to improving road safety and Resolution No. 55 (1989) on road safety.

BELIEVING that the number of road accident casualties in ECMT Member countries is unacceptable,

NOTING:--

that the policies pursued in most of the member countries since the early 1970s have led to adowntrend in numbers of both road accidents and casualties;--

that these policies, which had previously focused primarily and individually on regulatory
measures, road infrastructure and vehicle safety, had subsequently begun to integrate all these
aspects;--

that the structures set up and the degree of central government involvement in shaping andconducting these policies differs from one country to another and that no single model can berecommended as valid for all;CONSIDERING:--

that it is a prerequisite for an effective policy to mobilise all concerned -- especially those closest
to the public as road users;--

for the purpose of conducting a diversified and co-ordinated programme of action;--that the policies currently adopted in many countries do satisfy this requirement by means geared to
the relevant administrative structures and have shown their effectiveness in the light of the results
achieved;

109

RECOMMENDS the Member countries to pursue and step up their efforts to prevent road accidents, andin particular:--

to set an attainable but ambitious objective in quantitative or qualitative terms on which the relevantmeasures can be focused;--

to take any legislative measures that may still be called for;--to make the concern with road safety an issue of national importance and a part of general transport
policy;--to promote a range of measures to change user behaviour by means of education, training andinformation but also by means of an effective policy of enforcement and penalties, while at thesame time continuing to improve both infrastructure and vehicles, due account being taken of any
interaction between these diverse measures;--to identify all the various partners from national down to local level, including elected
representatives, administrations and the private sector, who may participate in these efforts toprevent road accidents;--

to enable these bodies to work together, each at its own level and with respect to its own
responsibilities and areas of concern, in order to draw up and implement a diversified andco-ordinated action programme;--to establish the structures whereby all concerned can be mobilised and experience may beexchanged;--

to develop instruments for monitoring and assessing these policies.

110

COVER NOTE ON DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD SAFETY POLICIESCEMT/CM(92)4/REV

Following an international seminar on decentralised road safety policies which was held in
Aix-en-Provence in October 1986 in the context of the EEC’s Road Safety Year, the Road Safety
Committee decided at its 78th Session to put on its agenda the question of the devolution of
responsibility for road safety work to the regions.
Since the early 1980s many countries, more particularly those with the greatest propensity tocentralise, have been developing road safety policies which have involved all the various levels ofadministration, including local authorities, the essential aim being to step up efficiency by facilitating themobilisation of all political and administrative authorities to combat the lack of safety on the roads andto develop forms of action as close as possible to the general public, the actual road users.
The Aix-en-Provence Seminar highlighted both the diversity of the approaches adopted in thevarious countries -- mainly owing to differences in governmental and administrative structures, and thepositive results achieved with decentralisation.
Instead of simply describing the different cases, it would seem useful to examine the way in whichroad safety policies almost everywhere have been moving from the national to the local level over the
past two decades and to consider the instruments that have accordingly been developed along with thesepolicies.

1.

Pattern of development of policies over the past two decades

As pointed out in the OECD publication "Integrated road safety programmes"1, there is anastonishing similarity in the patterns of development of the road safety situation in OECD countries (asin all countries with high levels of car ownership) and, with a certain time-lag, in those countries inwhich car ownership is developing.
The spectacular increase in the number of motor vehicles after the Second World War was
unfortunately accompanied by an equally spectacular and disastrous increase in the number of accidents
and, accordingly, in the number of casualties. What had been a sporadic and relatively mild
phenomenon, comparable to the accidents involving horse-drawn carriages in earlier decades, became an
endemic disease which on its own claims as many lives as some of today’s most dreaded diseases,
especially among the younger members of our populations, thus cancelling out much of the progress
made in the fight against infantile diseases.
Towards the end of the 1960s the scale of the problem was such that the public could no longer
accept it, and all the governments of countries with high levels of car ownership then developed
comprehensive preventive policies and set up administrative structures whereby road safety issues could
be dealt with more effectively.

111

In the early 1970s national governments introduced legislation with respect to the four factors that
seemed to be most decisive in terms of the number and severity of accidents, namely, alcohol, speed, andthe wearing of seat-belts and helmets. The measures taken were designed to limit the perverse effects inthe case of alcohol and speed and promote the benefits in the case of seat-belts and helmets, thus
effectively curbing or even reversing the steadily rising trend in the number of casualties recorded in thepreceding years.
The first laws were accordingly laid down to make the wearing of belts in front seats and of helmets
compulsory, to penalise drinking and driving (establishment of a legal limit for the blood/alcohol level)
and to set speed limits on all networks.
At the same time, research was stepped up with a view to getting a better understanding ofaccidents and of driver behaviour. Similarly, major programmes were developed for the improvement ofroad infrastructure, the construction of the motorway network being one of the most spectacular features.
Meanwhile, the motor manufacturers were bringing out increasingly reliable and collision-proof
vehicles, although these were also capable of increasingly high speeds.
Significant results were achieved immediately and, once these nationwide legislative measures had
been taken, all countries recorded a sharp fall in the number of accidents and casualties, while thenumber of vehicles and volume of traffic on the roads continued to increase rapidly.
This general realisation that the lack of safety on the roads was unacceptable -- which has made thisproblem one of the most crucial of present-day society -- has also been one of the factors conducive tothe downtrend in the accident rate since, convinced of the advisability and soundness of the constraints
imposed, many people were well disposed to comply with the new regulations.
In addition, enforcement measures were stepped up, penalties were brought into line and national
information campaigns were developed at this time to keep the problems in the public eye and bringthem to the attention of those who still needed to be convinced of their gravity.
Since that time, while the road safety policy pursued may be qualified as national andlegislative, it has been found that if the policy is to be effective it must be integrated with other mattersof concern in the sphere of road transport such as personal mobility, the smooth flow of traffic andenvironmental protection -- as clearly demonstrated in the OECD report2 -- and be diversified to include
all the fields identified as being able to make a direct or indirect contribution to the improvement of roadsafety in the short or longer term.

Example of integration
The attempt to improve the fluidity of traffic provides an example of the integration of concern forsafety with other aspects of general transport policy.
Consideration has since been given to the construction of new roads and motorways, theimprovement of the existing network and specific operational measures developed to cater for theincrease in traffic, cope with its irregularities and manage peak periods more efficiently (daily, weekly orseasonal), with a view to increasing the capacity of roads and ensuring the smooth flow of traffic, while112

at the same time increasing the comfort of users and maintaining, or preferably raising, the standard ofsafety.

An example of diversification
Road safety improvements are to be found not only in relation to the road itself, since the threemain spheres in which action is to be taken to establish an effective policy relate to road, vehicle anddriver.
For the sake of simplicity, and to avoid making a tiresome list which might not be exhaustive in any
event, a few examples will show the very broad range covered by diversification:--in the road sector, the construction of new and safer infrastructures and of alternative routes, theequipment of roads with safety devices, the elimination of "black spots", the provision of bothvertical and horizontal road signs, signals and markings;--

as regards vehicles, -- to consider only the car -- greater resistance in collisions, the fitting of safety
devices, vehicle maintenance, driving aids;--

as regards the driver and road user in general, improved driver training, better education andinformation, a more efficient policy of enforcement and penalties to ensure better compliance withregulations, the development of preventive measures together with more appropriate regulations.

The downtrend in numbers of accidents and casualties, which was then recorded over a number ofyears, was followed in almost all countries by some levelling-off in the results, so some fresh impetus
was then called for. The major legislative measures of the early 1970s had borne fruit. Even thoughendeavours had to be maintained or even stepped up to ensure better compliance with these regulations,and although the measures taken in the various above-mentioned fields had not as yet taken full effectsince their impact could only be felt in the medium to long term, the various actors needed to be
re-motivated, the policies renewed and the machinery modified.
Though to varying degrees, everybody seemed to agree at the time that, while infrastructures should
continue to be developed and roads and vehicles be improved, attention had to be focused primarily on
the behaviour of the driver with a view to changing the behaviour of all road users.
Given these factors, road safety policies in most countries then began to develop along three otherlines.
IFirst, towards greater diversification of measures taken by central government which, whilepursuing its programme of improvements to its own road network, -- often with a dual aim of
fluidity and safety and the establishment of standards for more reliable vehicles in collaboration
with manufacturers -- and continuing to implement legislation on road traffic and behaviour,developed the action it was taking with respect to education, training, information andcommunications, as well as carrying out its responsibilities as regards the enforcement ofregulations and the imposition of penalties.

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The essential target of the various measures was the road user, the aim being to change his
behaviour which all agreed played an important and usually major role in accidents.
In this phase, however, as pointed out in the ECMT "Report on ways of influencing humanbehaviour with a view to improving road safety", all these measures were essentially carried out, or insome cases called for, by the public authorities at national level, with little being asked from the otherpartners who did not have an integral role in this policy.
It must not be concluded that there were no other partners or that the partners took no action.
However, such action was very often only sporadic, focused on very limited targets or subjects on an
individual basis with no formal consultation among the partners.
This problem has to be qualified, however, since the situation described is characteristic of highly
centralised countries, such as France at that time, whereas the participation of regional and local
authorities and associations was already considerably advanced in varying degrees according to thecountry in the light of their individual responsibilities. For example, the responsibility for enforcement
policy of the German Länder and Swiss cantons or responsibility for education. In decentralised
countries, while the main lines of approach were laid down by central government, often in the form of
regulations, regional or local authorities were responsible for implementing the measures and took
considerable initiative in defining the action to be taken.
II

This diversification of measures was accompanied by an increase in the number of actors andgreater decentralisation of the action taken.

The second fundamental stage in the evolution of road safety policies involved the participation andmobilisation of local authorities representing central government at the various levels of theadministrative structure which were closer to the public, the road users, and directly responsible at theirown level for taking such action as law enforcement and the imposition of penalties.
Such participation was often prompted by or delegated by the national authorities. It proved
effective in varying degrees according to the government department concerned and the sphere of action
and according to the resources employed to promote it.
These resources took various forms:--

manuals prepared for local authorities and giving a list of possible measures, such as "TheImprovement of Traffic Safety in Built-up Areas" published in 1980 by the central government, or"Measures to Ensure the Safety of the Elderly" in Finland, or "The Road Safety Code of Good
Practice" drawn up by the co-ordinated associations for the regional offices of the Department ofTransport in the United Kingdom.

--

funds allocated under contracts between the central government and local partners: the "10 per centreduction aim" contacts with local authorities, towns or departments in France, or the "30 km zone"
experiment and the "25 per cent reduction" contract in the Netherlands.

--

the establishment of road safety organisations, commissions or boards at local or intermediatelevel, such as the agencies set up in each county in Denmark or the regional road safety

114

organisations in each province in the Netherlands.
In other countries this decentralisation of action and the relevant incentive measures were based on
existing administrative units: municipal authorities in Portugal, municipal or departmental authorities inFrance, regional authorities in the United Kingdom.
III The third stage in the development of decentralised policies involves the participation of all the
public and private sector partners in a concerted action programme.
In many of the most decentralised countries, action by associations has always been better
recognised and integrated than in the more centralised countries where central government seemed tohave the main role. The decentralisation of road safety measures also provided the opportunity to
involve all the partners in carrying through a programme that had been jointly established and recognisedby all, thus promoting the development of combined efforts calculated to improve the overall efficiencyof the action.
Associations of both users and enterprises with local elected representatives and central
government representatives at local level in all the spheres relating to road safety: road engineers andtechnicians, doctors, police, magistrates, teachers, etc. were able to draw up a programme together anddevelop measures to which they all assigned priority with a view to improving road safety in their own
particular spheres and so participate in the achievement of the national objective.
This collaboration was developed on two levels:--

Either on a specific subject whereby all the partners worked together to prepare a particular action
for which the procedures were jointly determined. Germany offers one example relating to thesafety of children on the journey to and from school: a list of possible measures was drawn up witha view to providing practical information for those responsible;--

Or by drawing up an action programme, usually on an annual basis, for
an authority or
administrative unit and integrating the whole range of diverse fields relating to road safety:
infrastructure, education, enforcement, etc. which was funded jointly and monitored by eachpartner according to specific responsibilities. An example of this formal comprehensive
collaboration is to be found in the departmental road safety action programmes developed in France
since 1988.

It was clearly seen at that time that road safety was not the exclusive responsibility of central
government but that, in order to reach the general public of road users, the information and measuresprovided by central government had to be passed on to and developed by all the partners, especiallylocally elected representatives and the associations closest to the general public, each in accordance with
his individual characteristics, spirit and objectives, but in a joint action to ensure greater clarity andeffectiveness.
In providing for the participation of all concerned, this third stage -- which can be considered tomark the starting point of current decentralised policies -- makes it possible to increase each person’s
awareness of his share in the responsibility for the endeavours to prevent road accidents and also to
broaden the range of measures to cover every field, even those that seemed to play a secondary or minor

115role in terms of lives saved.

2.

Brief assessment of decentralised policies

This decentralisation of action in the sphere of road safety, accompanied by diversification andcollaboration among the various partners, provided the necessary fresh impetus whose initial results areclearly encouraging in the light of the pattern of development in the ECMT countries over the past ten
years, since the fall in the number of accidents and casualities, while not as spectacular as that in the
1970s, is nonetheless substantial.
However, the value of these policies does not lie exclusively in the favourable results achieved,
even if such results are of course the major objective.
The ways in which these policies have been put into practice have given rise to procedures which
not only provide benefits today but will do so in future.
The development of the individual action of very limited local scope, which could not have been
conceived of or carried out at national level, is facilitated by this system, while the increasing number
and diversity of such measures offers a by no means negligible advantage overall in that new ideas are
generated. Initiatives and proposals no longer move solely from national level down to local level since
it is also easier for the results of experience to be conveyed upwards from the local level and be
disseminated more widely. The fact that ongoing exchanges of ideas have been established at all levels
will certainly help to improve the road safety results during the coming years.
The collaboration among the various partners, coming to work together from very different spheres
and areas of concern, has developed reciprocal training by means of a better mutual understanding of
motivations and technical know-how, thus decompartmentalising the ideas and enabling eachpartner to acquire a broader knowledge of all aspects of road safety. This process of self-training,combined with exchanges of views which are conducive to a more fruitful and constructive
dialogue, helps to generate new ideas, making it possible to establish priorities and plan major measures
which are better geared to requirements and therefore more effective.
It should also be noted that the development of these decentralised policies provided theopportunity to carry out specific training programmes for a large number of people who were
subsequently able to assume responsibility for road safety problems in a particular area and pass on theirknowledge to others.
Accordingly, the motivation of all concerned is often increased, as is necessary for the continuityof any action that is to be productive in the years to come.
This exchange of experience is organised around networks consisting of specialists or those incharge in a particular field, thus facilitating the transfer of information from national to local level, butalso in the opposite direction, as well as between the various local levels, so as to ensure the consistencyof action that is essential if a policy is to be effective.
In short, as pointed out in a German report, these policies have made it possible to:

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--

establish co-operation among the various government departments and also between elected
representatives and the private sector;--

approach problems from different angles;--

prevent a short-sighted approach to one’s own organisation;--

reduce the risk of poor decisions;--adopt an objective approach to the arguments.

All these attainments should be of even greater value in the years to come, thus leading to evenmore effective action and greater safety on the roads.
To conclude this brief review of the trend of road safety policies over the past twenty years, it may
be said that, after adopting what was essentially a national and legislative policy during the 1970s, allcountries are now pursuing diversified, decentralised and concerted action policies which involve all thepartners concerned at every level.
On the basis of the above examples it would seem that, while the prime objective of all current
policies -- qualified local or decentralised according to the country -- is certainly to mobilise all agents inthe field of road safety at national or local levels, from government departments to private enterprises-- by integrating elected representatives and associations, each according to its responsibilities, area ofcompetence and type of contact with and nearness to the public, the actors in the field of road safety -that objective cannot be achieved by means of a universal plan. Both the administrative organisation andthe position of the associations determine the structure that must give shape to the decentralised policies.
It follows that an efficient system that has proved successful in one country cannot be transferred toanother country with a different structure. Accordingly, it would seem to be difficult to promote a single
plan within ECMT, and the aim should be rather to set out the means or instruments needed to mobilise
each actor with due regard to his position in the structure.

3.

Established instruments

Among the instruments, consideration will be given in turn to the specification of objectives as afactor in the process of mobilisation, the establishment of appropriate bodies and provision of financial
incentives, although it is not claimed that every aspect is covered here in full.
3.1. Specification of objectives
Any action of whatever kind is carried out with a view to attaining an objective, clear-cut orotherwise. Road safety measures are of course no exception, their ultimate aim being to reduce thenumber of traffic accidents and especially the number of casualties, thus contributing to the achievementof the essential task of central government which is to ensure mobility and traffic safety.
3.1.1

Specification of objectives at national level

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The various policies followed over the past 25 years have often involved the establishment ofprecise objectives, thus reflecting the resolve of policymakers to take active steps to make the roads
safer.
Two types of objective were adopted, qualitative and quantitative, each for different reasons with aview to gaining maximum acceptance by the public for which the policies were designed.
3.1.1.1

Quantitative objectives

The quantitative objectives may be either in absolute terms (x fewer deaths per year), relative terms(x per cent fewer deaths) or yet again be expressed in terms of a reduction of risk, e.g. a lower fatality
rate (deaths per kilometre up to a given value).

Establishment of a maximum for the number of casualties--

In France, the gravity of the lack of safety on the roads had become quite unacceptable with a totalof 16 000 killed per year, so a maximum figure of 15 000 deaths was taken as the first objective forthe period 1970-1975.

--

In Finland, a parliamentary Committee recently set as objective to reduce by 50 per cent ascompared with 1989 the number of killed by the year 2000.

--

In Spain, a maximum of 6 200 deaths was established in the context of the first national road safety
plan in 1980.

Estimation of a rate of reduction in the number of casualties
In the early 1970s Canada decided to reduce the rate of fatalities by 15 per cent over the period
1974-1978 and, in 1978, revised the rate to 17 per cent over the period 1979-1983.
In 1973, Norway presented a list of priority safety measures to be implemented and, in 1980,
replaced these by a quantitative objective designed to reduce the risk during the 1980s to the level
existing in the preceding decade by implementing the measures announced in 1973. An additional
individual objective for Oslo was to reduce the number of accidents by 30 per cent by 1990.
A number of governments have more recently established very ambitious specific objectives.
In 1986, the Netherlands announced that it was to reduce the number of casualties by 25 per cent by
the year 2000.
In 1987, the United Kingdom announced that it wished to reduce casualties by one-third by theyear 2000.
In 1989, Denmark set an even more ambitious objective of reducing the number of road casualties
by 40 per cent.

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Sweden set the objective of reducing the number of killed to 600 by the year 2000.
In 1981 France had also adopted such an approach and, in backing up all the measures decided byan interministerial commission on road safety, was aiming to reduce road traffic risks by one-third over
five years.
As the results of the first two years did not come up to expectations, this objective was abandoned
after two years and replaced at the end of the 1980s by the aim to bring the number of deaths below thefateful figure of 10 000.
These quantitative objectives are accompanied by a list of specific measures which are themselves
qualitative objectives.
3.1.1.2 Qualitative objectives
For reasons that will be given below, a number of countries (more particularly Belgium, andSwitzerland) did not want to adopt quantitative objectives but referred directly to "qualitative"
objectives, specifying the content of the proposed policies, the aim being to reduce the risks byappropriate means as long as the problems exist.
The scale of these objectives and the lines of approach adopted differ from one country to anotheraccording to the types of problem or in the light of the main accident parameters (user group, place andcharacteristics, types of accident, etc.). The aim may be to improve the safety of particular road user
categories (pedestrians, the elderly, riders of two-wheelers), or else the focus may be on highly specificareas (speed, alcohol, seatbelts, night-time traffic, improvements to the road network, etc.), examples
being:--

in Ireland, compliance by young drivers with the laws on drink/driving and the wearing of seatbelts;--

in Belgium, compliance with regulations on speed limits, the wearing of seatbelts and helmets anddrink/driving;--in Sweden, earlier objectives have been to reduce the risk in very particular conditions, such asnight-time driving, travelling at high speeds, or drink/driving.
These qualitative objectives can also be quantified as follows, for example:--

the endeavours to combat drink/driving can be expressed in terms of a number of checks to be
carried out or a specific reduction in the percentage of checks found to be positive;--

greater compliance with speed limits by a reduction in the percentage of drivers exceeding the limit;--

the wearing of seatbelts by trying to get a given percentage of drivers to wear belts.

3.1.2

A choice between qualitative and quantitative objectives

119A quantitative objective is usually established in order to show that the political will exists tocombat road accidents. Such an objective serves as a reference and for the purpose of communication,
but is also a tool for the management and assessment of road safety programmes.
As an instrument of communication, a quantitative objective must be ambitious, since it would
hardly be credible to try to reduce the number of road casualties by 3 per cent or even 10 per cent.
The establishment of a figure implies that the present results are recognised to be unacceptable but
also suggest that the proposed figure to be attained is itself acceptable, either at an initial stage or once
and for all. It is therefore a way of recognising that the freedom to travel on the roads is accompanied bya risk that cannot be reduced to zero, just as this is accepted for other means of transport (air, sea or rail)or for sports and recreational activities.
The objective might be to lower the level of risk on the roads to that existing for other modes oftransport, which is not to say that the level attained for rail or air travel is acceptable and that nothing has
to be done to reduce it still further.
The fact that users accept the existence of a minimum risk, which takes the form of a number ofcasualties which cannot be reduced although this number cannot be evaluated precisely, is of educational
value. That might seem shocking but can also lead to an awareness by the user and even according tosome specialists, promote a better acceptance of the measures taken to reduce the level of risk.
The establishment of a quantitative objective may also have several drawbacks. If it is not achievedor, on the contrary, is substantially exceeded, the programme manager must explain the error ofassessment, which is seen as particularly serious since human lives are involved.
For example, the 15 per cent reduction in the rate of fatalities established in Canada for the period
1974 to 1978 was improved upon to the extent of 33 per cent, although not all the improvement could be
attributed to the road safety programme implemented. A good part of this improvement may perhaps be
explained by other factors such as the way in which the 1973 crisis affected traffic.
The achievement of the 17 per cent reduction planned in the subsequent programme -- based on an
80 per cent rate for the wearing of seatbelts whereas the rate was in fact 45 per cent -- was also difficult
to explain and did not make the task of determining further objectives any easier for the authorities.
In France, however, the objective established in 1981 whereby road accidents were to be cut by
one-third had to be abandoned because the results of the following two years made it impossible toachieve. The abandonment of the reference objective is by no means to say that the programme isabandoned, since it is then either revised or continued.
The difficulty of establishing a quantitative objective is largely attributable to the difficulty ofassessing the impact of measures taken, especially those relating to education or information. Present
methods of assessment do not allow for any certainty but only an estimate of the foreseeable benefits.

120

Moreover, the closely interrelated nature of the measures in existing road safety programmes meansthat effects are difficult to measure accurately, while the system is further disrupted by unforeseeable orimponderable external events.
It is largely for these reasons that a number of countries do not quantify their objectives but use the"qualitative" method, an approach that clearly shows the difficulty of accurately assessing a programme’s
effectiveness in advance, although it also takes account of the need to work unceasingly to improve roadsafety.
3.1.3

The establishment of objectives at local level or partial objectives

In the context of decentralised, integrated and concerted action programmes, the action taken byeach partner contributes to the attainment of the overall objective.
Each can therefore set himself an objective in relation to the type of action he takes, an objectivethat will likewise be quantitative or qualitative.
This partial objective may be the same as that determined at national level but relate to a given
geographical area, or it may be quite different.
Different quantitative or qualitative solutions are possible:
A quantitative objective may be established with reference to a specific action relating to aparticular category of user (pedestrians, cyclists, the elderly or children, etc.) or a certain type of
improvement designed to avoid particular types of accident (accidents at intersections, crashes against
trees, etc.) or infrastructure characteristics (motorways, built-up areas).
Other partial objectives may be designed to modify certain types of deviant or dangerous behaviour
by means of appropriate measures and to improve the results in terms of offences recorded with respect
to speeding, seatbelt wearing, drink/driving, etc.
The diversity of these partial objectives can enable each actor to identify his action, calculate its
efficiency and feel fully involved in the attainment of the overall objective insofar as he focuses on theachievement of one objective that is more readily within his grasp.
In the last analysis, it is up to each country to select the approach best suited to it. In any event, it
would seem that the specification of objectives, whether quantified or not, makes it possible to develop a
coherent set of safety measures and serves as a catalyst by gathering together at the planning stage all theactors to be responsible for implementing the measures. Moreover, the establishment of a programme
based on objectives provides for the rational and co-ordinated management of road safety work at alllevels of responsibility. Lastly, it is important to be able to disaggregate a set of objectives so as toensure the decentralisation of the different types of action to be taken by the partners concerned.

121

As pointed out in the above-mentioned OECD report "... there is no magic formula to apply indetermining safety goals and safety programmes". However, various factors have to be taken into
account, such as the involvement of the various partners of different origin, the use of decision-making
criteria and, lastly, sound judgement whereby one can determine the most important objectives and themost appropriate resources and means for achieving them.
3.1.4

Specification of an objective for ECMTEven if it is not given formal expression, a specific objective is clearly established by any actor in
the field of road safety when he determines the action to be taken. To set the objective out clearly often
amounts to a commitment, a kind of moral contract between the actor and the community which gives
value to the action that he proposes to take.
As already pointed out, this approach is more a reflection of his concern to show his commitment toprevent road accidents than it is the outcome of a reliable mathematical calculation of the foreseeable
benefits from carrying out the action planned.
What is already difficult for any individual country is even more so for a number of countries.
Would it be possible, for example, to establish a quantitative objective for the reduction of accidents or
casualties for all ECMT countries by the year 2000?
The response may be positive if the aim is simply to publicise the ECMT’s resolve to combat thelack of safety on the roads and thus lend weight to the recommendations that it has been drawing up for anumber of years and, of course, those to be drafted today and in the future.
Owing to the differences in the situations of the various ECMT Member countries, two difficulties
arise which can be set out in the form of questions:--what figure or what percentage reduction is to be selected?

--

does each individual country have to adopt for itself the objective set by ECMT?
Account has to be taken of a number of factors in order to answer these questions.

In contrast with those countries in which car ownership is growing and road infrastructure has notas yet developed to the full, countries that have for many years been unsparing in their efforts in thisconnection no longer have the resources needed to take major regulatory measures or even to construct
the infrastructure that would enable them to improve their results to any appreciable degree.
A number of countries can hope to reduce the number of casualties by 20 per cent within a shortperiod, while for others it would seem impossible to achieve this objective and it will already be very
difficult to progress by a few percentage points.
In order to be effective and develop policies geared to a country’s situation, it would seemreasonable for each country to determine its own attainable objective since, as indicated above, failure
here is difficult to handle.

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Countries which have had effective policies at an earlier stage and whose considerable efforts haveenabled them to establish road risk levels well below those in other countries, and therefore moredifficult to reduce still further, will find themselves penalised insofar as they might set an unduly highobjective that will not be attained or set a low one which might seem fairly unambitious.
However, countries that can expect to reduce the risk considerably by taking measures that havealready proved successful elsewhere -- provided they are suitable for local conditions -- and byconstructing infrastructure, for example, are experiencing funding problems which do not allow them tomake rapid progress.
Accordingly, the results achieved by any of these countries are not necessarily commensurate withthe efforts made. Any rapid comparison of the results based on the figures might well be unfair and havedisastrous effects from the standpoint of the impact on the public.
In short, it would seem difficult to establish a common objective for all ECMT Member countries,
and it would also be somewhat problematical to set an individual objective for each country as acontribution towards the attainment of the overall objective.
The establishment of an overall objective for ECMT, while perhaps introducing an additional
motivation for each country and enhancing the ECMT’s action in this field, may have harmful effects on
the public in these countries which would be of far greater importance than any benefits to be expected.
These considerations prompted the ECMT Secretary-General to set a qualitative rather thanquantitative objective, that is to say to pursue, develop and step up the endeavours to combat the lack ofsafety on the roads by very broadly promoting international co-operation, the harmonisation oflegislation and exchanges of information and experience, as well as by recommending that the various
Member countries take specific measures on a co-ordinated basis.
It should be noted that in a report to the Commission of the European Communities, a group of
experts chaired by Mr. Gérondeau proposes that the Community should establish an objective of
reducing the number of road accidents throughout the Community by 25 to 30 per cent over the next ten
years, and it sets out a list of measures to be taken jointly.

3.2. The establishment of appropriate bodies
Once the problems of road safety became a matter of concern in the early 1970s, the shaping ofpolicy was accompanied by the establishment of a suitable administrative structure to carry out thatpolicy effectively. Such a structure was of particular importance in that the diversified policy involved anumber of ministries with responsibilities and functions as different as those of the Ministries of
Education and Justice.
It was found that co-ordination of the action taken by each was essential to the administration andsuccess of the policy.
This co-ordination was in many cases ensured by bodies set up for this purpose, such as:123

3.2.1

At national level--

In Portugal in 1989, a commission consisting of the Ministries for Justice, Interior, Health, Public
Works, Transport and Communications.

--

In France, an Interministerial Road Safety Delegation attached to the Prime Minister’s office.

--In Spain, a Higher Council for Traffic and Road Safety set up in 1976 under the Minister for theInterior to draw up integrated road safety programmes. Under the Road Safety Act of 1990 thus
became the Higher Council for Traffic and the Safety of Road Traffic with extended
responsibilities, including the preparation of policy, counselling and the co-ordination andpromotion of road safety measures.

--

In Sweden, the Swedish Road Safety Office within which a Road Safety Board brings together
several bodies concerned with road safety, such as the Federation of county councils and theassociation of local authorities, which is also responsible for submitting proposals to thegovernment. Since 1986 the Board has also been responsible for laying down the main lines of
local policy and developing and co-ordinating local measures.

--

In the Netherlands, a Higher Council for Road Safety.

--

In Belgium, establishment of the Belgian Institute for Road Safety.

The Swiss Road Safety Board is another example of this type of body and is an association set up
under private law in which the Confederation, Cantons, Communes, private associations and institutions
and enterprises are represented. The Board is responsible for promoting and strengthening all measuresdesigned to improve road safety. More particularly, it draws up and conducts the information campaigns
conducted at national level each year.
In Federal countries, road safety policies are primarily co-ordinated by means of existing
administrative structures and the institutional procedures for consultation between national and regional
authorities and all concerned with road safety.
3.2.2

At local level

During the process of developing decentralised policies a number of countries also decided to set
up a regional body -- as the Netherlands has done in each province -- with its own budget to develop andco-ordinate the various types of action at local level, initially confined to road infrastructure but
extended to all road safety spheres since 1989: information, training, enforcement.
Another example is to be found in Switzerland where, with a view to ensuring a fairly consistent
approach and uniform application of the law (which comes within the competence of the cantons), thecantonal authorities consult within intercantonal associations such as the "Association des Services desautomobiles, the Commission intercantonale de la circulation routière, and the Conférence des Officiersde Police.
Less formally, the departmental programmes for action in the field of road safety, introduced in124France in 1988, can be regarded as an instrument or even a structure for co-ordination geared to theapproach adopted in the context of decentralised policies.
The above are but a few examples since a full list cannot be given, but they do show the need to set
up appropriate structures or bodies so as to monitor the policies being implemented.

3.3. Financial incentives
As shown in the report, the source of decentralised road safety measures is often at central level orin a central body in the form of contracts which include financial incentives.
Measures such as the improvement of infrastructure, elimination of black spots or multiple accident
areas and the creation of reduced speed areas (such as the 30 km/h zones) in the Netherlands in 1975
were covered by the first types of contract between the central government department responsible forroad safety and the local authorities in those countries with a centralised system.
As from the early 1980s, however, many countries developed other types of contract with regional
and local bodies for other forms of action than that related to infrastructure. Programmes such as
REAGIR, launched in France in 1983, and those in the Netherlands in 1989 included measures thatcovered areas such as information, education, enforcement and communications campaigns.
This financial participation by central government was sometimes in the form of a budget entirely
at the disposal of local authorities, part funding of a highly specific measure (joint action with themunicipal authorities in Finland), or an incentive to take action by the provision of a sum proportional to
the number of inhabitants (25 per cent reduction programme in the Netherlands or the - 10 per centcontract in France) or, more rarely, the award of a bonus for success by payment of a sum proportional to
the number of lives saved (10 per cent reduction contract in France).
These funds are allocated by central government in all cases.
Another example is the Fonds Suisse de Sécurité Routière (FSR), an institution set up under publiclaw and under the supervision of the Federal Council, which primarily funds research, education courses
and means for road safety training, information campaigns and other forms of action carried out by
various bodies or road-user associations. The FSR obtains its capital from an annual contribution paidby each vehicle owner which amounts to 0.75 per cent of the net premium for third-party insurance.
These financial contributions provide a means of developing action in the field of road safety by all
the partners concerned, but they also serve to initiate such action, confer the right of inspection and acounselling role, and strengthen the collaboration among the various partners.

125

Conclusion
The decentralised policies now conducted in the various countries should be pursued in the futureand be further refined so as to ensure the even broader mobilisation of all those who have some
contribution to make -- however limited in scope -- to the endeavours to combat the lack of safety on theroads, and also to ensure closer collaboration among all concerned.
Nation-wide legislative measures still need to be taken, even if the stringent application of each ofthem does not in itself reduce the number or gravity of road accidents to any great extent, since the
combination of a number of minor measures can no doubt produce significant results. The experienceacquired at local level should also lead to new proposals.
The results obtained are sufficiently representative to establish the efficiency of these diverse
policies and, accordingly, provide a basis for recommendations.
These recommendations are set out in the draft Resolution annexed hereto.

Notes

1.

Integrated Road Safety Programmes, OECD, Paris, 1984.

2.

Report on Integrated Road Safety Policies.

126

LORRIES AND ROAD TRAFFIC SAFETY

1993

127

LORRIES AND ROAD TRAFFIC SAFETY
SUMMARY AND RESOLUTION No.93/4
CEMT/CM(93)4/FINALSUMMARY

The creation of a free market for road haulage in the EEC, coupled with the opening of borders inEastern Europe, raises the spectre of complex road safety, pollution and congestion problems in thevarious ECMT Member countries, since the increasing numbers of lorries on the roads as a result of thisgrowth in economic activity will inevitably be accompanied by more disamenities and higher accident
risks which will not always be offset by technical advances that improve safety and environmental
protection. Lorries by their very nature pose a special risk, one that has grown with their share in thevolume of traffic over the past few years, a trend that is forecast to continue. Steps must therefore be
taken to reduce the risks associated with lorry traffic.
This being the case, measures should be found that will reduce the dangers associated with thisspecific form of traffic. In this connection, the various chapters of the report CM(93)3 on lorries androad traffic safety can be summarised as follows:

Chapter I
Analysis of traffic accident statistics has shown that lorries are involved in fewer than 10 per centof accidents, but that these accidents are the most severe, especially for the occupants of the othervehicles. In the statistics on lorry accidents, moreover, long-distance transport gets a disproportionately
large mention.
Such accidents can frequently be attributed to a failure to comply with regulations (traffic
regulations, driving periods).
If action is to be taken to improve road safety, it is first necessary to improve both driver behaviour-- and driver training -- and the technical specifications for vehicles or road infrastructure.
For safety reasons, steps should also be taken to ensure that greater focus is placed on the transportpotential offered by the rail and inland waterways systems.
Chapter II
Although lorry driver training has improved significantly over the past few years in many countries,
there is still room for further progress, more particularly from the standpoint of the profession itself. It
would therefore seem advisable to promote the development of occupational training -- by whatevermeans -- and ensure that the practice of further and continuing training becomes more common, it being
especially important to involve the haulage firms themselves.

128

Chapter III
The vehicle’s technical specifications -- weight, dimensions, safety equipment -- are covered bydetailed national and European regulations. However, the widespread use of devices such as speed
governors and tachographs to improve safety should be encouraged, as should research into even more
effective devices.

Chapter IV
Safety also requires that the roads used by lorries be suited to their requirements and specifications.
The design of new road infrastructure and improvements to existing infrastructure should therefore takeaccount of the present and foreseeable levels of traffic by means of highly reliable methods. Ancillary
infrastructure is important too; when well designed and appropriate, it can reduce accident risks.

Chapter V
Even more than other vehicles, lorries are governed by specific traffic regulations. Their drivers are
subject to rules of behaviour and social regulations whose main goals include ensuring smooth traffic
flow and preventing accidents. The aim should not be to draw up new regulations but to harmonize theexisting ones, thus making them easier to understand and comply with throughout Europe.

Chapter VI
Some degree of traffic monitoring and control is also necessary, however, and calls for theestablishment of appropriate and effective penalties, the development of mutual assistance in legal
matters and co-operation among countries in order to recognise and enforce suspensions internationally.

Chapter VII
Safety can also be promoted by means of information campaigns and, more generally,
communication, by promoting accident-prevention awareness, particularly within haulage firms andhauliers’ organisations and federations.

129

RESOLUTION No.93/4 ON LORRIES AND ROAD TRAFFIC SAFETY[CEMT/CM(93)4/FINAL]

The Council of Ministers of ECMT, meeting in Noordwijk, on 26 and 27 May 1993:
HAVING REGARD to the Report CM(93)3 on "lorries and road traffic safety";
CONSIDERING that the improvement of road safety is a key factor in any Europe-wide transport policy;
ACKNOWLEDGING the growth of international goods transport and the major share accounted for byroad haulage;
NOTING that only an integrated and diversified road safety policy incorporating all components-- driver,vehicle, infrastructure, training, regulations, monitoring, penalties, communication -- can ensurethat traffic flows under optimum conditions of fluidity and safety;
RECOMMENDS THAT MEMBER COUNTRIES:

Statistics
1.

improve the compilation of statistics on the composition, volume and classification of lorry trafficwith a view to establishing what concrete measures should be taken;

2.

harmonize accident statistics for the purpose of international comparison;

Driver training
3.

ensure that the drivers of the largest lorries are persons of a certain maturity. This requirement
could be met through the fixing of a minimum age (of 21 years, for example), or throughprofessional know-how or gained during the relevant training (apprenticeships);4.

introduce, or continue to require, a thorough medical examination before granting a driving permit
and also promote regular checkups during the period of validity of the permit;

5.

harmonize the conditions of access to the profession with regard to prior training and the issuing ofdriving permits;

6.

develop suitable occupational training and ensure that the practice of further and continuing
training becomes more common by involving haulage firms and hauliers’ federations and unions;130

Vehicle technical equipment
7.

promote greater use of safety devices such as speed limitors and those that improve the driver’s
field of vision and vehicle visibility;

8.

promote research in this sphere and with respect to in-vehicle communication between drivers andthe traffic management authorities;

Infrastructure
9.

develop road infrastructure for use by lorries in the light of their requirements and specifications, aswell as equipment and materials (guard-rails, porous surfacings, etc.) which will reduce problems
arising from the co-existence of car and lorry traffic;

10. develop ancillary infrastructure (rest and parking areas) to improve the physical comfort of lorry
drivers and thereby create safer conditions;11. consider, for safety reasons, the opportunity to use the freight transport capacities provided by theexisting rail and inland waterways infrastructures in a more efficient way;

Regulations
12. harmonize the criteria for restrictions on lorry traffic and limit exemptions;13.i consider the harmonization of all rules of behaviour, as well as driving and rest periods on the basisof common definitions of the terms "driving" and "rest".

Monitoring and penalties
14. provide the necessary material and human resources to ensure optimum effectiveness of monitoringand diversify checks on the road or on hauliers’ premises, notably with regard to compliance withsocial regulations;15. extend liability to persons issuing instructions when infringements occur;
16. develop mutual assistance in legal matters and increase co-operation among countries in order torecognise and enforce suspensions internationally;131

Communication and information
17. promote exchanges of information between countries on traffic conditions and safety andemergency equipment and systems which lorry drivers may find when driving internationally;
18. promote a climate of road safety within haulage firms with the participation of hauliers’organisations and federations;19. promote any preventive measures or information campaigns which specifically address mattersrelating to lorries.

INSTRUCTS THE COMMITTEE OF DEPUTIES to follow up the implementation of this Resolution
and report back in due course.

Note
1.

Germany and the United Kingdom entered a reservation on this item, pointing out that it infringed
the principle of subsidiarity as defined in the European Communities.

132

REPORT ON LORRIES AND ROAD TRAFFIC SAFETY[CEMT/CM(93)3]

When the Road Safety Committee’s programme of work was under consideration, attention was
drawn to the fact that the question of lorries and traffic accidents had never been on the Conference’s
agenda, despite its evident and growing importance in the context of the creation of a free market forroad haulage in the EEC and the opening of borders in Eastern Europe. Given the implications of thismatter in terms of both road safety and policy making, the Committee decided that a comprehensive
report should be drawn up in this connection.
A questionnaire was therefore drafted and sent to all ECMT Member countries in mid-1991. The
large number of replies showed how important the various countries consider this subject to be. The
following delegations helped draft the report on the basis of the replies:--

The Delegations for Austria and Germany: Chapter I, "Introduction and statistics".

--

The Delegation for Luxembourg: Chapters II and VII, "Driver training and terms of employment"and "Road Safety campaigns concerning lorries".

--

The Delegation for France: Chapters III and V, "The vehicle’s technical systems" and "Regulation";--

The Delegation for Switzerland: Chapters IV and VI, "Road infrastructure and safety" and"Monitoring and penalties".

The Delegations subsequently met to co-ordinate the plans for the various chapters and prepare a
draft Resolution that was approved by the Committee at its March 1993 meeting.

133

Chapter I
INTRODUCTION AND STATISTICS

1.

Introduction

The lorry has taken an extremely important place in domestic and international goods transport.
The reasons for this are, for example, its optimum adaptability to the purpose of the journey, thepossibilities of door-to-door transport and the relatively low transport costs for the user. ECMT statistics
show that road haulage accounts for about 60 to 65 per cent of the total goods tonnage carried in mostcountries; rail’s share is usually less than 10 per cent. However, the average length of hauls by rail ismuch greater than by road. Where they exist, waterways can be a less expensive and moreenvironmentally friendly alternative for specific goods. Further marked increases in road haulage can,however, be expected as a result of new developments in international goods traffic with the creation of
the European Economic Area and the opening-up of Eastern Europe.
According to OECD data, about 16 million lorries are in service in Europe. Lorries account for
about 8 to 10 per cent of the road vehicle population and for about 15 per cent of road vehicle-kms. In
the last 10 years, the volume of traffic has risen on average by 40 to 60 per cent, but the growth rates
have been even much higher on certain routes.
Any assessment of risks associated with lorry traffic has to differentiate between risks connectedwith drivers, risks involving the vehicle fleet (technical condition) and risks concerning traffic
conditions, such as the type of infrastructure. To date, efforts at the national and international level havefocused almost exclusively on driver training and improving vehicle technology. Since only a few
co-ordinated measures have been taken so far to influence traffic conditions, there is still much room for
improvement. The measures to be taken in this area require increased international co-operation. Underno circumstances can the risks associated with lorries be seen independently of the economic context,that is to say the increase in traffic generated by economic activity. Risks also vary with the type of
goods carried and can sometimes be quite high.
Measures to improve safety for drivers can be implemented only if basic labour regulations areobserved at the same time. The increasing pressure of competition and the race against the clock intransport activities lead to difficult working conditions for drivers that can result in excessive driving
times and fatigue. Drivers may break speed limits in order to meet delivery lead times.
Lorry weights range from 3.5 to over 40 tonnes. The weights of the heaviest vehicles are still risingsince they are connected with higher payloads. The mix of various kinds of vehicles is the general
problem affecting a safe flow of traffic. Bicycles, private cars, lorries and buses have to share the sameroad space. Compared with private cars, lorry weights may be at least 40 times higher. Some authors ofscientific reports have compared lorries and other vehicles in terms of the road wear resulting fromweight and shape. Differences in speed compared with car traffic, which on many kinds of roads canreach 50 km/hour or more, create further risks. This results in serious problems concerning the passive
safety of lorries. With regard to their active safety, great progress has been made with suspension andbraking systems (pneumatic suspension, ABS, disk brakes). Major problems still exist with load134

securing -- essentially owing to the very high and unstable position of the centre of gravity -- especiallywhen lorries are travelling at high speeds.
When road dimensions are planned, the largest vehicles, i.e. lorries, are used as a basis for the
choice of road widths, curve radii and the design of gradients with special dimensions. The data
available for lorry traffic are, however, inadequate, as is also noted by OECD in international
comparisons. Data are provided by quite different types of organisations and are not homogeneous.
Since the resources for new road infrastructure in highly developed countries are extremely limited, thepossibilities for an internationally successful traffic management system lie in the control of existing
traffic on the present road network. For this purpose, current data and the appropriate information
technology are required to enable countries to exchange data. This is especially important in view of the
expected growth in road traffic after the creation of the European Economic Area. For safety reasons,the use of rail network and existing waterway capacity in goods transport is also to be encouraged, sincerail and waterways are clearly much safer than road transport. A co-operative strategy like the one being
developed in several countries, particularly the Alpine region -- as in the German transport plan for the
1990s or the integrated traffic concept of Austria and Switzerland -- can bring about improvements overthe longer term.

2.

Lorry accident statistics

The main problem in international statistical comparisons, whatever form they may take, is that thebasic data are not homogeneous -- starting with the definition of lorries, which in some cases also
includes vehicles of under 3.5 tonnes. The definitions for vehicle categories such as tractor vehicles,
buses and special vehicles also differ. Homogeneity is also lacking in the reporting of casualties. Somecountries refer only to the casualties among lorry occupants, although the other casualties in an accident(mostly private car occupants) are much higher.
The accident statistics are based on ECMT questionnaires and OECD data. Detailed accident
analyses for goods traffic have been provided by France, Germany, Switzerland and Austria.
The comparable data given in the following tables derives from an analysis of eight countries andreveals that on average lorries are involved in 8.1 per cent of road accidents. The values range between
5.5 per cent and 10 per cent depending on the country. Accident probabilities are usually lower than for
private cars, depending on the type of road, although the seriousness of accidents owing to the previously
mentioned difference in weights between the two kinds of vehicles is particularly striking. The risk ofbeing seriously injured or killed is four times higher for the car occupants than for the lorry occupants in
car/lorry accidents. On average, accidents involving lorries account for 15.3 per cent of total fatalities.
French, German and Austrian data show that the risk of accidents causing casualties is particularlyhigh outside urban areas or on motorways. In France, 23 fatalities per 100 lorry accidents are recorded
in non-urban areas. On Austrian motorways, lorries are involved in 27 per cent of accidents withfatalities and seriously injured persons. Lorries are involved roughly twice as often in fatal accidents asprivate cars for the same number of kilometres covered on German motorways. The very serious natureof the accidents is attributable to the weight and speed differences between private cars and lorries and to
the weight/speed ratio.

135

The number of lorry accidents has remained steady or has risen over the years in most countries.
One exception is Denmark, with a 25 per cent decrease between 1985 and 1989; nonetheless, theseriousness of accidents increased over this period.
The classification of lorry accidents shows that fewer are caused by driver error and drink-driving
offences than in the case of private cars. Accidents due to over-tiredness or rear-end collisions are morecommon. Two or more drivers are usually involved in lorry accidents, the other vehicles concerned
being mostly private cars. According to French data, fewer lorries are involved in accidents atintersections. In Germany, a particularly high proportion of lorry accidents occurs at night on
motorways. The seriousness of multi-vehicle accidents involving lorries is also particularly high on
German motorways. Although lorries are involved in about a third of these pile-ups they account for
about two-thirds of fatalities and half the seriously injured. According to police reports, goods lorry
drivers are responsible to a very large extent for rear-end collisions on German motorways. This factmust be related to the limited braking power of lorries compared with private cars. Fatality rates(probability of being killed in a traffic accident) for private car/lorry collisions and car/car collisions areprovided by another German data source. When lorries are involved, the fatality rates for head-on
collisions are six times higher, 15 times higher for lateral collisions and even 80 times higher forrear-end collisions.
One type of lorry accident is particularly common in built-up areas. When turning right, lorry
drivers, unable to see two-wheelers to the right of their vehicles, run over them. Such accidents arenearly always fatal. Lorries parked in built-up areas and not properly lit, often because their reflectors
are dirty or the street lighting is poor, are also a serious hazard.
Accidents involving lorries carrying hazardous goods are in a special category since they have aparticularly high damage potential, i.e. their consequences are even more serious than in the case ofordinary goods lorries. Since transport operations of this kind are proportionally small, it is impossible
to be precise about the actual risk. In addition to the theoretical definition of potential damage, the needis arising in this area for an international exchange of data on transport activity and on the circumstancesand consequences of accidents. Accurate knowledge of current transport operations (which transport
operation is taking place on which road section) is required if the impact of such accidents is to be
reduced. The aim should be to set up an international data exchange network on the safety andemergency equipment and systems which lorry drivers may find when driving internationally.

136

Replies to the questionnaire ECMT -- Lorry accidents (1989 figures)
General data
Country

Accident(causing
injury)Special data: accidents involving lorries and injured persons

Injured persons
involved

Accidents(causing
injury)Injured persons involved

In freight vehicle
fatal

serious

In private cars

Moto two wheelers

On bicycles

pedestrians

serious slightfatal serious slight

224
3 268
96
617
56
253
429
404

13
197
12
106
22
16
56
38

121
1 826
33
727
75
22
129
219

fatal seriou slight
s
37
203
255
292 1 782 4 254
11
41
27
122
582
740
18
21
12
111
160
122
150
226
324
181
474
876

14

78

2
86

4
346

Slightfatal serious slightA
46 565 1 402 20 699
39 924
4 723
33
491
B(1)
62 982 1 993 18 308
68 368
4 765
61
444
CH
31 084925 11 939
18 220
4 255
7
43
D(1)
343 604 7 995 107 848 341 549
30 457 137 1 842
DK
9 922
670
7 266
4 379
753
9
50
E(2)
109 804 7 188 52 418 116 993
6 539 199
680
F
170 590 10 528 55 086 180 913
10 840 180
678GB
253 969 5 230 61 803 266 142
14 775
73
719
(1)
IRL
6 075
460
8 170
990
21
233
(1)
N
8 494
381
1 661
9 829
672
4
20
NL
44 061 1 456 13 660
36 6386 164
52368
1. Data on heavy vehicles for 1988, 2. [<3.5 tonnes] + [>3.5 tonnes]

fatal

serious slight

fatal

997
145 1 144 2 223
34
2 145 1 187 10 090 44 147
212
117
41
191
351
19
6 255
483 3 501 18 690 9 897
38
71
252
162
18
1 551
758 1 957 3 377
99
2 024 1 152 2 596 6 457
156
2 878
460 2 443 8 348
89
394

31

135
1 074

49
127

137

803
67
601

13
483
1 215

4
50

315
9 952
81
990
11
262
730
673

82
10
332

29
832

184
6 130
29
1 492
27
39
200
517

15
702

--

--

--

11
31

19
105

32
171

Chapter II
DRIVER TRAINING AND TERMS OF EMPLOYMENT

1.

Introduction

Training is to be taken to mean the preparation for the profession of driver of goods vehicles. Suchtraining comprises preparation for the category C driving permit and any sub-categories with or without
trailers, for the certificate required to drive dangerous goods vehicles (ADR), continuous and retraining
and any compulsory or elective training to improve the capacities, skills and knowledge of lorry drivers.
This chapter examines ways of improving lorry traffic safety by means of better driver training andalso by taking account of drivers’ terms of employment: the latter’s impact on safety is considerable,
warranting examination alongside other aspects more directly related to safety.

2.

Driver training

Driver training plays a decisive role in safety, perhaps even more so than road infrastructure,vehicle technical regulations and regulations governing drivers and the entire road haulage sector.
Lorry driver training, one of whose mandatory components is the obtaining of a category C driver’s
permit or one appropriate to the type of vehicle, is available in all ECMT countries in one of three ways.
Special schoolingTraining is provided for students aged 14 or 15 at schools in partnership with hauliers over a periodof three to four years, or at vocational training centres.
A diploma is awarded upon completion of the training, which covers actual driving along withother areas related to the profession: social regulations, mechanical skills, etc.
In Switzerland, for example, 10 per cent of drivers have attended such centres. In 1989, the Federal
Republic of Germany had 420 000 lorry drivers; according to the "Berufbildungszentrum für den
Strassenverkehr e. V." (road transport training centre), only 35 000 had had professional training.
Through the army
Conscripts fulfilling national service obligations can take lorry driver training courses and acquire
practical experience. Military permits, granted in accordance with procedures comparable to those
applicable to civilian driver's permits can subsequently be converted into civilian permits by a simple
administrative formality or after an additional theory exam.
Through direct preparation for the Category C driver’s permit
Such training is usually dispensed by driving schools or specialised training schools.

138

The preparation and examination procedures for Category C permits are governed by specific rules
as to age, fitness, and course and examination content.

3.

Conditions for obtaining a category C permita) The minimum age restriction for Category C permits in ECMT countries ranges between 18 and21 years. Category C permits are normally needed for professional reasons and are sometimes obtainedby persons aged 18 -- the minimum age -- whereas safety considerations would militate in favour of agreater degree of maturity, and therefore a higher age.
b)

Prior possession of a Category B permit

Most countries allow direct access to Category C permits without the need first to possess a normal
driver’s permit and therefore without any need for previous driving experience. This does not seem verysatisfactory, since driving lorries is more difficult and calls for at least some prior driving experience.
This anachronistic rule should be repealed in the years to come with the new EEC Directive on driving
licences (91/439 of 29 July 1991), which provides that Category C licences may only be issued to drivers
already entitled to drive Category B vehicles. Nothing, however, is said as to how long the Category B
licence has to have been held.
c)Medical examination

The results of the survey showed that a great majority of ECMT countries require candidates for
Category C permits to undergo a prior medical examination to detect any physical or psychologicalshortcomings incompatible with driving lorries which could be a reason for not granting a permit. This
examination is carried out by a doctor or a specialised institute, not by auxiliary medical staff.
However, minimum fitness requirements -- good vision, possession of all four limbs, no history of
epilepsy, etc. -- are not yet sufficiently standard. All countries should require thorough medical
examinations at regular intervals, either when the permit is being renewed or at other times specified innational regulations.
Many countries have introduced periodic medical checkups whose procedures and frequencies
differ.
The adjectives used to describe medical examinations -- "routine" and "thorough" -- have not been
precisely defined. Regardless, initial medical examinations must be more thorough, and examinations
should be required at set intervals to ensure that drivers always meet the minimum fitness requirements,
with permit renewal contingent upon a satisfactory checkup.
d) Another question dealt with in the survey is the duration of the permit’s validity, and thus theneed for renewal or extension.
Even if a permit with no expiry date facilitates administrative procedures, it is necessary to take into
account changes that occur with advancing years as the physical and psychological fitness in evidence
when the licence was obtained diminish. After a certain age, which of course varies from individual toindividual, sharpness of vision and hearing as well as reflexes leave much to be desired without being
fully compensated by long experience at the wheel.

139

Most countries use a system of limited validity -- either periodic renewal, a subsequent medical
checkup or a combination thereof -- although there are large differences in respect of expiry dates.
e)

Age limit

Some countries have also set an age limit after which Category C permits are no longer issued andthe right to drive lorries is suspended. Other countries consider there is no need for an age limit; three
countries are of the opinion that permits should not be renewed once the holder has reached the age of65, 70 and 75 years respectively, taking into account the fact that as of a certain age the permit holder
has normally retired and therefore, except for personal reasons and in very rare cases, no longer needs
his special C permit.

4.

Examinations

The purpose of the examination is to test the theory and practical knowledge and skills needed todrive a lorry safely and to become a professional lorry driver under the best possible conditions.
In particular, drivers must have a general idea of the role of road transport, its organisation and thespecific rules applicable, of basic vehicle safety rules and of what to do in the event of an accident. They
must also have some basic mechanical knowledge.
The examination is usually divided into two parts, theory and practice; the latter is often broken
down into off-road and on-road driving.
Permit categories
A Category C permit is needed in all countries to drive a heavy goods vehicle with a maximum
permissible weight of over 3 500 kg (7 700 pounds) in accordance with the provisions of the Vienna
Convention on road traffic.
Some countries require a Category E permit to drive articulated lorries, whose total permissible
weight is usually high. This permit is also defined in the Vienna Convention.
Training course and driving test content
National provisions in many countries specify the minimum knowledge and skills to be provided
during training and tested during the examination. The areas usually covered include:--

the vehicle: drivers must be familiar with regulations and the location, operating principles and,possibly, maintenance of key vehicle components and equipment; they must also be able to identify
the most common causes of breakdowns;--

road transport: drivers must understand the meaning of the various regulatory documents required
to drive a lorry and be familiar with the conditions under which they are issued, how they are valid
for and how they are used;

140

--

driver: drivers must recognise factors affecting their physical fitness and the risks associated withlack of experience;--

users: applicants for Category C permits must be familiar with the specific characteristics of otherusers (pedestrians, riders of two-wheelers, motorists, etc.) and assess the resultant risks; they must
know what to do in the event of an accident or incident;--

driving: drivers must be able to control their vehicles whatever the driving situation: preparing theroute, getting behind the wheel, positioning the vehicle on the road, adjusting speed to normal andspecial traffic conditions.

Permit test procedures
Quite a few countries set the minimum technical specifications (dimensions, total permissible
weight) for examination vehicles used for practical tests for Category C permits to ensure that thesevehicles are as representative as possible.
The test duration is set by each country in national regulations, but must be long enough to ensurethat the applicant has the requisite knowledge and skills.
There are also considerable differences in the duration of theory exams and practical tests, withmost countries according greater importance to the former. The average length of the theory part is 30
minutes, though it may be as long as one hour. An academic discussion on this point would not settle
very much, since the national approach in each case depends on the administrative practices andtraditions which have evolved in the country in question. It would, however, be helpful to consider
whether the practical part of the test should not be given more importance than the theory part.

5.

Further training, retraining and terms of employment

In addition to basic training, which culminates in the award of a permit, professional drivers arealso able, or even obliged, to undertake further training or retraining, since they have to be able to adapt
quickly to the ever-increasing range of transport conditions, increasingly restrictive competition between
modes of transport and between haulage firms, changing regulations and an evolving economic climate.
The recent dramatic conflicts in France between the public authorities and professional drivers has
highlighted the problems of the profession and drawn attention to the need to find appropriate solutions.
The disputes also reaffirmed the social and economic importance of transport in general, and roadtransport in particular, to national and international economic activities. Lorry drivers demonstrated
their determination to obtain changes to their terms of employment. Training was a key demand.
It should be noted that the special training certificate for the transport of dangerous goods (A.D.R.)
is in use almost everywhere, something which without doubt represents progress for this type oftransport.
To encourage and reward drivers who undergo further training, some companies offer security of
employment. In most countries, drivers benefit from a collectively negotiated contract for a set length oftime. Job security can have very beneficial effects for drivers and their families and for their social andprofessional life, enabling them to do their job safely.

141

6.

Conclusions

Although training for lorry drivers has recently improved significantly in many countries, someshortcomings and deficiencies still need to be remedied. This calls for special attention on the part ofgovernments.
Measures that could further improve training include:--

ensuring that the drivers of the largest lorries are persons of a certain maturity. This requirement
could be met through a fixing of a minimum age (of 21 years, for example), or through professional
know-how or gained during the relevant training (apprenticeships);--

continuing to require or introducing a thorough medical examination before granting a driving
permit and also requiring regular checkups during the period of validity of the permit;--

requiring applicants to possess a Category B permit for a set period of time prior to taking the tests
for the Category C permit;--

developing suitable professional training in line with the practice in all other trades and professions;--introducing generally further training and retraining;--

involving and associating haulage firms and hauliers’ federations and unions in such training;--

promoting a social aim to training in the framework of and rewarded by a social programme such asa collective agreement, bonuses, holidays, early retirement, etc.

142

Chapter III
THE VEHICLE’S TECHNICAL SYSTEMS

1.

Introduction

Lorries, as vehicles, are essentially covered by international regulations. The technicalrequirements that have to be met for them to be allowed to participate in international traffic are laid
down in the Vienna Convention on road traffic.
The provisions are supplemented by the technical rules laid down by the UN. The Community
regulations that will lead to the establishment of a Community system of approval in the next few years
will of course have to be in conformity with the terms of the Vienna Convention.
In addition to these technical rules applicable during the manufacture of vehicles, the regulations
are designed to establish standards for the weights and dimensions of vehicles and rules for technicalinspections.
This chapter will not deal with all these technical rules, even though they are certainly concernedwith safety, but will be confined to consideration of the supplementary equipment which has a direct
impact on safety.
The questionnaire drawn up to ascertain the regulations in force in the various ECMT Member
countries contains a list of supplementary equipment which is not claimed to be exhaustive, especially as
it may in future have to include new technological developments which are particularly promising in thisfield. However, the list does provide a fairly precise picture of what can reasonably be expected in thenear future. This list provides the basis for this chapter.
The supplementary technical equipment can be broken down into three categories:--

ancillary equipment or fittings designed to prevent accidents or reduce their effects by improving
the technical performance of vehicles, facilitating the task of drivers, or making the vehicle more
readily visible to other road users;--

equipment facilitating compliance with regulations concerning heavy vehicles and their drivers;--

equipment designed to keep vehicles roadworthy.

2.

Systems designed to reduce the risk and severity of accidentsa)Improved technical specifications of vehicles
Many countries have adopted national provisions with a view to:

Improving the stability of the vehicle and so reducing the risk of overturning:

143

--

by more efficient securing of loads;--

in the case of tankers, by establishing compartmentalisation standards in such a way as to reducethe movement of liquids within the tanker which can lead to overturning;--by fixing a maximum height in proportion to the overall size of the vehicle;

Increasing braking reliability:--

by making ABS systems a compulsory requirement, in compliance with Community regulations,which make them mandatory for vehicles weighing 12 or more tonnes, together with anti-skid
systems to a lesser extent;--

by laying down specifications for tyres;--by compulsory requirement of a retarder, which is particularly effective on steep slopes;--by automatic control of trailer braking power so as to prevent jack-knifing;

Reducing the effects of collisions:-•••by fitting:at the front, more elastic bumpers and an underrun guard, so as to prevent lower vehicles -- cars andtwo-wheelers -- from going under the lorry;at the rear, underrun guards, which are to be found on all lorries in most countries;
special side guards, also to prevent other vehicles from running under the lorry;
Work still has to be done with a view to improving structural resistance in the event of collisions.

b)

Systems to facilitate driving and reduce the risk of accidents
These primarily relate to:--Increasing the driver’s field of vision by requiring two or even three outside rear-view mirrors
whose specifications and dimensions increase the field of vision and reduce or eliminate the blindangle.

Not many countries have introduced further provisions with a view to completely eliminating theblind angle, which can cause fatal accidents (see Chapter I). Neither Community provisions nor the
UN/ECE regulations require this, nor do they define the technical specifications precisely. Studies are in
hand and the findings are awaited with particular interest as this matter is of considerable concern.
A camera fitted at the rear of the vehicle with a screen on the dashboard to enable the driver to see
directly what is happening behind the vehicle, particularly when backing up, is often claimed to be afacility that should be introduced more generally, but so far no country has made it compulsory. Only a
few vehicles here and there are equipped with such a system.

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--

Installation of an audible device to warn other road users that the driver is reversing and/or an
ultrasound device informing the driver of any obstacle immediately behind his vehicle.

---

Improving the ergonomics of driving is a major preoccupation and precise regulations are laid
down for such matters as the layout and visibility of dashboard instruments and even cab fittingsand layout as regards, for example, minimum dimensions, not only for comfortable driving but also
for the provision of an appropriate bunk for rest during stops, easy access to the cab, etc. All
countries are very concerned about everything to do with improving the comfort of the driver, butmuch remains to be done.

It should be noted that all lorries are now fitted with power steering, another means of making
driving easier.
c)

Improving vehicle visibility

Many steps have been taken at national level, in most cases in conformity with Community andinternational provisions, in order to improve both the night vision of drivers by means of satisfactory
lights and also to make the lorries themselves visible at night or when visibility is reduced owing to poor
weather conditions.
The purpose of the standards laid down for the power and quality of lights is not simply to increase
the visibility of lorries and draw attention to their presence and movement, but also to give other road
users a better idea of their outline and dimensions, and this is also the case for rear plate lighting,retro-reflectors, reversing lights, mandatory rear fog lights, and signing by means of reflecting materials
on the sides of the vehicle at the rear.
Finally, the system of marking the sides of lorries with reflecting materials to make them more
visible at intersections or when turning should be introduced on a general basis, in particular for very
long vehicles.
d) Although not intended to improve vehicle visibility, another useful safety device is anti-spray flaps,
which reduce risks related to a loss of visibility for vehicles following or overtaking lorries.

3.

Systems to help drivers to comply with regulations

For some years now, vehicles have been fitted with technical devices used to ensure compliancewith regulations and facilitate monitoring.

a)

Speed governors

A number of countries have made it compulsory for lorries of a certain tonnage to be fitted withspeed governors set at a given ceiling.
The European Community has adopted the system for vehicles of over 12 tonnes and set a speed
limit of 90 km/h which lorries cannot exceed.
It would be advisable to ensure the general introduction of speed governors on the heaviest vehicles

145

in compliance with Resolution No. 91/5 adopted by the ECMT Ministers in 1991 .

b)TachographIn almost all countries, every lorry is fitted with a tachograph which continuously records driving
and rest periods as well as travelling speeds. These tachographs comply with Community or national
standards which validate the data recorded and reduce or even eliminate the possibility of cheating. The
requirement that these devices be fitted and used on a general basis is included in ECMTResolution No. 90/1.

c)

Laser or electronic systems

The automotive industry is currently developing radar laser devices that automatically ensure that aminimum safety distance is maintained between vehicles.
These new technologies are of special interest for lorries, frequently involved in rear-end collisions,especially in fog (see Chapter I).

4.

Provisions designed to keep vehicles roadworthy

While vehicle design as a whole and the various types of equipment seek to ensure the security ofthe driver, load and other road users, it is necessary to ensure over time that the essential parts of thevehicle are in sufficiently good condition for it to be roadworthy.
For some years now, Community or national regulations have required that lorries undergo periodic
technical inspections to check their roadworthiness. Such inspections are more frequent for lorries thanfor lighter vehicles.

5.

Conclusion

Most of the technical regulations set out above should be in general application since they arecovered by Community or even international provisions. Changes will be required in the light oftechnological developments (such as those taking place in the DRIVE, PROMETHEUS, etc.
programmes). It will likewise be necessary to introduce new equipment or further improvements in due
course in order to adapt to new traffic conditions and improve the flow of traffic, while at the same time
maintaining and increasing the safety and comfort of the driver, since such comfort will in future be
essential to safety if nothing else.

146Chapter IV
ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE AND SAFETY

1.

Introduction

In this chapter, the term "road infrastructure" is not to be taken to mean simply matters relating toroad construction as such, i.e. surfacing, the geometry and features of alignment, etc., but also all
ancillary infrastructure such as service and rest areas, parking areas, freight terminals, and monitoring
installations. The use of existing infrastructure and means of managing traffic such as restrictions orbans, co-ordinated traffic light systems and route determination systems will be discussed in Chapter V,"Regulation".

2.

Road design, construction and equipment

Specific physical and technical requirements have to be met by roads in order to ensure that lorry
traffic flows safely. It is beyond the scope of this report to provide a detailed analysis of the construction
specifications and standards for roads used by lorries, and attention will simply be drawn to certain
principles and recommendations in the light of the findings of national and international scientificresearch.
a)Design--One of the main problems with regard to road infrastructure is that technical specifications for
carriageways differ according to whether they are designed to carry cars or lorries. Factors such as
dimensions, weight, behaviour during acceleration or braking, the driver’s sight line, road holding
characteristics and kinetic energy affect road construction. Planners are well aware of these
problems. However, the road requirements of the different categories of vehicle are not only
simply not the same, but in some cases are even incompatible, so it is necessary to find an optimum
solution after weighing up these requirements. Such an assessment calls for full information on the
different flows of lorry traffic and their specific requirements from the outset of planning. That is
the only way that account can be taken of the characteristics of lorries which have the greatest
effect on road design and geometry, in particular braking, the rollover threshold, vehicle width and-- at intersections and interchanges -- the tendency to sway and swerve. Even in this case, however,
optimal infrastructure cannot be ensured once and for all insofar as traffic volumes and flows canbe modified by control measures or new road infrastructure which may give rise to appreciable
increases -- higher than initial estimates -- in lorry traffic on particular road sections, lead topremature degradation of the surface of the carriageway -- creation of ruts for example -- and cause
accidents. Moreover, it is quite clear that the increase in freight traffic has been underestimated inrecent years in most Western European countries. The determination of more reliable methods and,accordingly, greater precision in traffic forecasts would therefore do a great deal to prevent roadaccidents.

147

b)

Construction and surfacing of carriageways--

A typical problem arising from the coexistence of light and heavy vehicles is the spraying of waterby heavy vehicles, which considerably reduces the field of vision of car drivers. The problem canbe alleviated by fitting anti-spray flaps on the vehicle (see Chapter III, "The vehicle’s technicalsystems") and by developing porous pavements (open mixes) to allow surface water to run off
quickly. Improved drainage cuts down on spraying, splashing, hydroplaning and dazzle in wet
weather, thereby reducing the risk of accidents. Several scientific studies have shown that open
mixes should preferably be applied on heavily travelled motorways (more than 35 000 vehicles perday), on sections of road where water poses special problems (viaducts, etc.), and on roads where
noise is a particular disamenity, since they reduce and muffle noise whatever the weather.
However, such mixes have their drawbacks (shorter pavement life, higher cost, slightly lower skid
resistance in dry weather).

c)Equipment--

The coexistence of heavy and light vehicles also give rise to accidents in which vehicles run off theroad. Lorries that cross the central reserve are often involved in serious accidents. Guard-rails are
not always equally effective for lorries and cars. Strong guard-rails that check lorries can bouncecars back onto the carriageway, while more flexible guard-rails do not stop lorries. Research
involving full-scale tests has been conducted in order to develop guard-rails suitable for both typesof vehicle; their use is becoming more widespread. Technical solutions are also being sought toprotect lorry drivers from collisions on dangerous corners, engineering structures and slopingbanks.

--

It is not unusual for lorries to experience problems on steep slopes (greater than 3 or 4 per cent),
often because the driver does not brake soon enough or owing to a technical defect a braking
system under strain. Drivers trying to stop their headlong rush have only a limited number of
options available (braking against a rock wall, leaving the road on an auxiliary lane, preferably withan upwards grade). One solution consists of providing "emergency stopping lanes" on steep
sections so that runaway vehicles can be stopped in a bed of gravel. The approaches to these lanes
must be clearly indicated, and drivers should be informed and trained on how to use them.

--

Although fires are infrequent in tunnels, their consequences are very serious, particularly whenlorries are involved. Preventive measures must be taken, in particular the installation of fire control
and surveillance facilities.
Lastly, the critical points and sections of the network used by large numbers of lorries should be thesubject of periodic on-the-spot analyses in order to identify measures to improve the safety and easethe flow of lorry traffic.

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3.

Ancillary infrastructure

The safety and efficiency of lorry transport are determined not only by physical and technicalspecifications and road construction standards but also by appropriate ancillary infrastructure. Thissection briefly reviews the main ancillary facilities that are important to transport i.e. service and rest
areas, parking facilities for lorries and freight terminals.

a)Service and rest areas

Motorway networks in all ECMT Member countries have service areas with petrol stations,restaurants, retail outlets, toilets/washing facilities, telephones and separate parking facilities for lorries,
coaches and cars. Rest areas alternate with service areas, and their layout is similar, but without
restaurants or petrol stations. The location of service and rest areas is determined by a variety of factors
such as the need to fill up at regular intervals, the comfort and safety of road users, and the availability
and cost of land. The distance between areas varies from 10 to 60 km depending on the country. In
Germany and Belgium for example, stations are located roughly every 25 km, while in the United
Kingdom they are located every 50 km, reduced to 20 km on heavily travelled roads. During the designand development of service and rest areas, particular attention should be paid to the safety of vehicle
entrances and exits, the security of parked vehicles and the provision of an adequate number of parking
spaces, in particular for goods lorries and coaches.

b)Parking places for heavy vehicles

In many countries, special parking places have been reserved in town centres for heavy vehicles,
especially at night or at weekends. However, the restrictions on parking of such vehicles would seem todiffer considerably from those on private cars, and conditions vary according to the time of day. In thecase of lorries, it would seem desirable for reasons of safety and driver comfort to locate the parking
places near to the trunk roads being used but a little way from them. The parking places should beserved by public transport systems and have payphones and fire extinguishers. They should also beprotected against theft.

c)Freight terminals

Freight terminals are special sites reserved for receiving, dispatching, re-directing, storing andtransferring of freight. Since such terminals are often designed, built and operated by private enterprises,
little data is available on such matters as access, environment, pollution, etc. In any event, safety
considerations require that these terminals have adequate access and appropriate geometricalcharacteristics and surface area bearing capacity, and also be compatible with the environment andexisting urban structures.

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4.

Conclusions

For safety reasons, roads used by lorries must take account of their requirements and specifications
such as dimensions, weight, rollover threshold and braking distances. Planners must be thoroughlyfamiliar with the various traffic flows and volumes and develop reliable traffic forecasting methods forthis purpose.
In addition, measures implemented during road construction and with regard to road equipment
reduce the risk of accidents attributable to the coexistence of lorry and car traffic. Such measures
include: the use of porous surfaces to reduce risks associated with water spray; widespread installationof guard-rails suitable for both lorries and cars; construction of emergency stopping lanes, etc. Finally,
well-designed and suitable ancillary infrastructure also raises levels of safety and efficiency of goods
transport.

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Chapter V
REGULATION

1.

Introduction

The use of the road and the public highway in general is governed by legislation and regulations
establishing:--

the conditions for allowing vehicles and persons onto the roads;--

rules of behaviour with which drivers must comply and regulations on traffic management and theterms of employment of lorry drivers.

Freight transport vehicles, which for convenience we shall call "lorries" in the remainder of thischapter, are subject to the same rules as all other vehicles and drivers, such as the requirement to obey
traffic lights, to give just one example.
These common rules are complemented or, in some cases, modified by special regulations to adapt
them to the specific characteristics of lorries or the particular conditions in which they operate and theirdrivers have to work, namely their economic function, the existence of contracts, the professional statusof the driver.
A distinction has been made between measures implemented unilaterally by the Member countries
and those resulting either from Community provisions or international regulations existing in thisconnection.
The purpose of this chapter is not to present an exhaustive list of all the rules that apply to lorries,
but to indicate only those that have an important impact on road safety in order to identify the measuresthat remain to be taken, harmonized or extended to all ECMT Member countries.
The conditions for allowing vehicles and persons onto the roads are as a rule related to the technicalspecifications for vehicles, registration regulations, and the conditions under which permits are issued or
those on becoming a professional lorry driver, which are discussed in other chapters of this report andare not therefore considered here.

2.

Traffic regulations

The regulations in force in Member countries may be broken down into rules of behaviour, traffic
management measures and social regulations governing the professional activities of lorry drivers.

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a)

Rules of behaviour

In general, the rules of behaviour are of course consistent with the provisions laid down in theinternational conventions on traffic rules, called the Vienna Conventions.

Speed limits
In all countries, lorries are subject to upper speed limits, which differ according to the type of road
network and the maximum permissible weight of vehicles. They are generally lower than those forprivate vehicles.
However, differences are found in the limits for the same type of road and the same class of vehicle
in the various countries; for example, the limit varies from 70 km/h to 100 km/h on motorways, with the
majority of countries having opted for maximum speeds of 80 or 90 km/h.
In built-up areas, the speed limit is the same for all classes of vehicle without exception, i.e.
50 km/h. In some countries, however, a lower limit of 40 km/h is imposed on vehicles carrying
hazardous goods.
Although the disparity in speed limits between countries can be explained in some cases bydifferences in topography and infrastructure, it is complicated by the introduction of weight-related
limits. However, it should be noted that the regulations are incorporated in each country into a set ofrules applicable to goods transport that have been in force for a long time, drawn up at a time whenharmonisation of rules, with the exception of that stemming from the application of international
conventions, was not a priority.
While no one questions the benefits of speed limits or their positive impact on safety in the case oflorries, complex regulations and the differences in speed limits do not facilitate compliance withregulations, still less their monitoring, particularly with the current expansion of international goods
transport.
If speed limits were harmonized with reference to vehicle specifications and road categories that areclearly identified and recognised by all -- and if the regulations were simplified at the same time -- there
would be greater compliance with the limits and, accordingly, more safety on the roads.
A few countries -- in fact only the former Czechoslovakia and France -- have also introduced
requirement for lorries to be fitted with speed governors that physically prevent them from exceeding acertain speed.
This requirements, together with technical specifications for the speed governors set out inDirective 92/6 CEE of 10 February 1992, will apply to all vehicles of more than 12 tonnes registered in
EC Member states on or after 1 January 1995. Other ECMT Member countries, such as Austria, willbring in identical national provisions.
This extension to all ECMT Member countries, based on identical weight and speed limit criteria,
would improve safety by bringing speeds down, be a further step toward the harmonization of speed
limits, and encourage the technological development of tamper-proof devices built-in at the vehicle
design stage.

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Blood/alcohol levels
In many countries, drink driving is a less important -- since less frequent -- problem for lorry drivers
than for other drivers. The professionalism of lorry drivers, the time spent on the road and the risks
inherent in the weight of the vehicle in the event of an accident nonetheless militate in favour of effective
regulation.
All ECMT countries, except Morocco, have established a maximum blood/alcohol level above
which it is illegal to drive a motor vehicle. The limit, which applies to all drivers irrespective of the typeof vehicle, ranges from zero in Poland to a maximum of 0.8‰ii, with levels of 0.2‰ in Sweden and0.5‰ in a number of other countries.
Few countries have introduced a different limit for lorry drivers; in Spain the limit is 0.5‰ for lorry
drivers and 0.3‰ for those transporting hazardous goods, whereas the general limit is 0.8‰.
The lack of uniformity in the legal limit does not facilitate compliance, even though it can bejustified partly on the grounds of sociological differences regarding the consumption of alcohol in
different countries.
Everyone today recognises the harmful effects of alcohol on drivers and, as a result, the legitimacyof regulation.
Distance between vehicles
Apart from applying the general rule included in all national road codes whereby driving must be
appropriate to traffic conditions, in particular by maintaining a safe distance from other vehicles, few
countries set a minimum distance to be maintained between vehicles following one another.
Where a figure has been set, it generally applies to all vehicles and is given in metres or seconds.
Even fewer countries have introduced a specific value for lorries.
However, the problem of distance between vehicles is of increasing concern, since vehicles
increasingly follow too closely. More in-depth examination could be undertaken in the near future toassess the need to set precise rules and determine appropriate values.
Safety belts
Some countries already introduced compulsory fitting and wearing of safety belts on lorries, or plan
to do so. This might have a good effect on drivers' safety.

b)

Traffic management measures

The various measures in force in this sphere are aimed at ensuring smooth traffic flow, notably oflorry traffic, in order to reduce unnecessary delays and ensure optimal safety for all traffic. The
measures most often implemented include:

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--

recommended or mandatory routes for lorries that bypass town centres or specific areas whose
physical characteristics are unsuitable for lorries (narrow passages, bridges, etc.); these routes areopen and signposted permanently or temporarily to deal with occasional traffic congestion;--

mandatory routes for specific categories of vehicle in accordance with the type of goods
transported, especially hazardous goods;--

various local measures linked to the road infrastructure or equipment; they are intended to facilitate
traffic, notably in built-up areas, and they are also of benefit to lorries: parking regulations, traffic
signal cycles, variable signs, etc.

--

lorry parking restrictions in built-up areas have been introduced in some countries, with differing
criteria:• during specific periods: at night, on Sundays or at specific times of the day;• in specific areas: residential areas, around hospitals;• for specific vehicles, according to weight.

Here, too, there are differences among countries in terms of whether or not they lay down such
restrictions and, if so, in terms of the criteria adopted.
Bans are an important component of the regulations governing lorries, essentially owing to theireffect on economic activity.
Bans on lorries are applied on a fairly general basis, though a few countries such as Belgium,
Finland, Luxembourg and Sweden do not have any.
They are applicable to vehicles of a given weight, during set periods (usually weekends) and overlonger or shorter sections of the road network.
Exemptions exist, general for some categories of goods, but also on an individual basis granted by
local authorities.
Bans are warranted in order to ensure a smooth flow of traffic during periods when car traffic isheaviest, improve safety by avoiding the lorry/car mix, separating lorry and car traffic, protect theenvironment, and comply with social regulations.
Bans differ greatly in the various countries in terms of vehicle weight, road category and, above all,the periods when they are applicable. Although traffic bans are usually in force at weekends, the times
when the restriction period begins and ends differ from country to country. Goods traffic is disrupted in
the lead-up to the periods, with queues forming at borders which are prejudicial to the entire economy.
In addition, compliance with regulations on speed or driving and rest periods can be adversely affectedin an attempt to avoid the periods when traffic is banned. Exemptions are often called for on this basis,but a traffic ban becomes ineffective if too many are granted.
During discussions on road traffic management at the meeting of the ECMT Council of Ministers inParis in November 1992, the Ministers decided that bans should be harmonized, so it now remains forthem to agree on the criteria to which the bans are to be based and established procedures acceptable to
all.

154

c)

Social regulations

All the countries have regulations laying down maximum periods of uninterrupted driving per day,hours per week and month, and minimum rest periods. They may be national or comply with
Community or international provisions.
In general, the vehicles subject to such regulations are those of more than 3.5 tonnes, except inGermany, where vehicles of more than 2 tonnes are also affected.
In most countries, exemptions apply to public service, police and army vehicles and the vehicles of
medical or emergency services.
Driving and rest periods differ from one country to another, for example from three to five hours
for uninterrupted driving periods to 8 to 10 hours for cumulative driving times per day.
Similarly, the minimum daily rest period varies between 9 and 11 hours, and weekly rest between
32 and 45 hours.
In most countries, the employer has an obligation to ensure that his company’s drivers comply withthe regulations, subject to penalties and liability in the event of an accident.
For the sake of safety -- and also of competition -- driving and rest periods should be harmonised on
the basis of scientific analyses of diminishing levels of alertness. It would also be desirable to adopt acommon definition of the terms "driving" and "rest" and to decide in particular, which of these terms
covers loading and unloading, administrative formalities and all those tasks that are not properly
speaking driving but which are performed by lorry drivers during working hours.

3.

Conclusions

Although developed to a considerable degree in all countries, regulations governing lorries withregard to traffic, rules of behaviour and social matters are still deficient in some respects and have notbeen standardized. Steps need to be taken by ECMT countries to ensure better harmonization of theseregulations so that they will be better understood by lorry drivers and, accordingly, be complied withmore effectively.

Note

1.

In most ECMT Member countries, blood/alcohol is measured in g/l. Since results differ slightly
from one country to another, the ‰ measurement is used throughout this section.
There are widespread calls for a legal blood/alcohol level of 0.5‰, or even zero, to be enforced.
A draft Community Directive recommends harmonization at a level of 0.5‰ for all drivers,
whether of lorries or other vehicles.

155

However, it should be noted that measurement of blood/alcohol by breathtests and the setting of acorresponding legal limit expressed in grammes/litre of exhaled air is gradually replacing the bloodmeasurement. This will eventually enable more checks to be performed, with fewer physicalconstraints, thereby increasing the effectiveness of such provisions.

156

Chapter VI
MONITORING AND PENALTIES

1.

Introduction

The need to impose a minimum of traffic regulations became evident at a very early stage, in orderboth to ensure the safety of the various types of road user and to govern relations among them so as to
avoid accidents. All countries therefore established a code of rules for road traffic at the very beginningof the age of the automobile.
It must nevertheless be admitted that regulations handed down by governments are far from
sufficient in themselves, as experience has proved. Road traffic regulations are only as effective as themonitoring carried out to ensure that they are respected and when offenders face the risk of being
identified and punished.
A questionnaire was sent to all Member countries to ascertain the existing situation and determine
what methods, measures and resources were needed for purposes of enforcement and penalties with aview to ensuring satisfactory compliance with traffic regulations.

2.

Monitoring

A certain level of traffic monitoring and law enforcement is called for not only to identify
dangerous and irresponsible drivers but also to influence the behaviour of road users in general.
It is now recognised that enforcement authorities have to perform two tasks:--

the first is preventive and educational; the police must first and foremost prevent offences, help
road users and teach them the correct way to behave in traffic.

--

the second, however, is the punishment of offences; the police must ensure that offenders areprosecuted if an infringement is detected.

Responsibility for the organisation of monitoring may fall to central or regional government or evento local authorities, depending on the political and administrative structure of the country.
General checks (driving and vehicle licences, condition of the vehicle, tyres, headlights, direction
indicators), which therefore also apply to lorries, are carried out in all the countries that replied to thequestionnaire. Checks are performed at frequent intervals in two-thirds of them, but only occasionally inthe remaining one-third.
Three out of four countries conduct specific checks on lorries (driver and vehicle licences,condition of the vehicle, testing of blood/alcohol levels, length of driving and rest periods, operation of
the tachograph). Loads and vehicle weights and the carriage of dangerous goods are monitored in all of
the countries. The checks are occasional in three countries out of four and in one out of every two
countries the driver is entitled to continue his journey without having to unload excess goods;

157everywhere else he is obliged to unload the excess. Only three countries (Spain, France and the United
Kingdom) check the working of the speed governor.
Two-thirds of the countries in question considered the co-operation between bodies belonging to
the same or different administrative authorities to be satisfactory. Moreover, all the countries consulted
want to receive an official notification if the police of another country find that a vehicle registered intheir country has obvious technical defects. Almost everywhere there is a central body to which such
notification can be sent. In 75 per cent of the countries the vehicle licensing authorities are responsible
for checking that vehicle defects have been rectified; elsewhere the task is assigned to the police.
Finally, in around two-thirds of the countries in question the authorities (police, health and safety
inspectors) have the power to carry out spot checks within companies to verify whether drivers havecomplied with regulations on the length of driving and rest periods and, in some cases, speed limits.
They can consult the tachograph disks, consignment notes, invoices, etc. for this purpose.
The results of the survey among ECMT members show that practically all the countries carry out
specific checks on lorries, with the emphasis especially on observance of the regulations on the length ofdriving and rest periods (tachograph), loads, weights and the carriage of dangerous goods. Nevertheless,
it is known from experience that very often drivers with a CB transceiver in their cab keep each otherinformed and thus manage to evade police checks by reducing speed before the interception point, by
taking a different route or by parking their vehicle at a rest area.
The effectiveness of the monitoring services depends largely on the manpower of the various policebodies, the equipment at their disposal (vehicles, radar apparatus, weighbridges, etc.) and theprofessional training of the personnel employed to use the equipment and to carry out certain technicalchecks on vehicles. However, in view of the financial difficulties currently facing the public authorities
at all levels, the resources available to the police in terms of manpower and equipment are inevitably
being curtailed.
Despite the difficulties due to budget restrictions, it is essential that the road safety authorities do all
they can to maintain an optimum level of monitoring and enforcement by operating as cost effectively as
possible. Checks must therefore be qualitative and selective and effort must be concentrated on the mostdangerous infringements from the point of view of road safety: violations of regulations governing thelength of driving and rest periods and breaks, the carriage of dangerous goods, drink-driving andmaximum permitted speeds and weights. In addition, checks must be quick, safe, co-ordinated andefficient.

3.

Penalties

The object of penalties is to induce the offender to comply with the regulations and to modify his
behaviour accordingly. If this objective is to be achieved, however, the penalty must be imposed as soon
as possible after the offence has been committed. If the time lapse between offence and punishment is
too long, the penalty will have little effect on the offender’s future behaviour.
Some countries are applying or studying new techniques to speed up the handling of offences,modify penalties and relieve the pressure on the courts when offences do not involve a serious risk:--

replacing fines by administrative penalties; this provides for penalties that are imposed quickly and158

are therefore more effective in terms of road safety;--

the direct and immediate collection of fines by the traffic supervision authorities (in the case ofminor offences);--the creation of a central computerised file on offences so that habitual offenders can be identified
more easily.

In addition, penalties must be proportional to the seriousness of the offence and the resultant
danger. Thus, some countries have introduced penalties that vary with the infringement, primarily taking
account of the resultant danger. Moreover, monitoring and enforcement operations should be widely
publicised so that they continue to have a deterrent effect.
The replies received reveal great disparities regarding penal sanctions and administrative measures.
In the majority of countries, some offences (especially speeding or infringement of the rules on thelength of driving and rest periods) can be detected and punished by reading the tachograph disks; inaround two-thirds of them, this can be done not only on the road but also at the employers’ premises. If
several offences of the same kind are detected over a given period, the penalties are cumulative in close
to half the countries that replied to the questionnaire.
In around half the countries, an employer or superior who induces the driver to commit an offenceor does not prevent him from doing so is liable to the same punishment as the driver. In Germany, thepunishment is even more severe to take account of the financial advantage obtained by the employer.
In the great majority of countries that replied to the questionnaire (except Switzerland and, incertain cases, Belgium), professional drivers who are guilty of speeding or driving under the influence ofalcohol do not receive more severe penal sentences than other drivers committing the same offences.
The survey also revealed that international legal aid is still difficult to obtain in cases of offences
committed abroad. The same is true of the international consequences of the permit suspension. In only
half the countries do the authorities withdraw the permit of a driver who has committed an offence in aforeign country -- and who for that reason is banned from driving there -- and so act as though the facts
and circumstances leading to restriction of the right to drive abroad had occurred on their own territory.

4.

Conclusions

The European countries’ experience with specific checks on lorries, as summarised in this chapter
in the light of replies to the questionnaire, shows that the previous recommendations of the Council of
Ministers have generally been put into effect and that all the countries carry out regular checks of thiskind, as far as they are able.
Nevertheless, as the frequency of monitoring is a decisive factor in achieving a deterrent effect, it isessential that checks on lorries be stepped up and improved in each country in order to ensure asatisfactory level of compliance with road traffic regulations.
Accordingly, it would be advisable in particular:

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To carry out more frequent checks on the length of driving periods, daily rest periods and breaks,
not only on the road but also on the firm’s premises. This is the most effective way of ensuring that
regulations on working, driving and rest hours are properly observed. It would therefore improveroad safety and help protect the health of professional drivers themselves.

--

To make provision for the penalisation of employers or superiors who induce drivers to commit anoffence, or do not prevent them from doing so.

--

To step up the efficiency of checks by using a range of different procedures and types ofequipment.

--

To endeavour to impose penalties promptly and give wide publicity to operations to monitor andpunish offences that seriously jeopardise road safety.

--

To continue to carry out the technical inspections needed to ensure that the roads and national
territory are safe.

--

To develop mutual assistance in legal matters and increase co-operation among countries in order torecognise and enforce suspensions internationally.

--

To increase co-operation among countries with a view to achieving harmonization of themonitoring and penalties relevant to lorry drivers.

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Chapter VII
ROAD SAFETY CAMPAIGNS CONCERNING LORRIESOver the past decade, information and awareness campaigns have gradually come to be accepted asa means of improving road safety. There is a limit to what regulation, signs and signals, and evenpenalties can achieve, as has been revealed by reports on human behaviour and decentralised road safety
policies: other, complementary measures are required to back up and strengthen the role of the State.
All countries use information, education and awareness campaigns to help reduce road accidents of all
types, and especially those involving lorries. If safety rules are repeated often enough, it may be hopedthat they will finally be adopted by road users and become automatic reflexes. "Post-campaign" polls
conducted in some countries indicate that at least some good habits may have been adopted. While
progress is undoubtedly slow, it is nevertheless steady.
Awareness and information campaigns are as a general rule regarded as an essential supplementarymeans of promoting safety, a point that was discussed in great detail in the report on ways of influencing
human behaviour with a view to improving road safety [CEMT/CM(86)15].
More particularly, the greatest possible stress must be laid on the need to increase the awareness of
all concerned: governments, haulage firms, professional drivers and their federations, with a view todeveloping joint activities. Road safety must therefore be promoted within the haulage business itself,
both by drivers and for drivers, within their firms and together with their employers.
Awareness and information campaigns are by and large organised by government at national,
regional and local levels. Private initiatives by hauliers, unions and employers’ organisations are by nomeans negligible, however, and in some countries account for the main thrust in certain cases.
When campaigns more specifically target lorry drivers, the topics addressed and advice given relate
mainly to conditions of work, rest periods, loading and unloading of goods, especially those which areharmful or hazardous, and the risks to other road users, in particular pedestrians and two-wheelers.
In many countries, drivers who take the point being made and follow the advice given and who are
ready to change or adapt their driving to reduce accident risks may qualify for more favourable insurance
terms (bonus/surcharge), may be rewarded by their employers (with bonuses or extra days off) or receive
fringe benefits from the government (extra holidays, early retirement).
In practical terms, consideration may be given to rising the level of awareness by:--creating and promoting a climate of road safety within haulage firms with the participation of
hauliers’ organisations and federations;--ensuring that all concerned are committed to take practical steps to improve safety and inviting
them to sign charters to this effect;--

accentuating the role of social partners.

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--

alerting drivers to their professional responsibilities as drivers, providers of services and custodiansof material and social goods.

--

alerting them to the imperatives of accident prevention by holding competitions and encouraging
discussion between haulage firms and professional bodies.

--

providing rewards and incentives for salaried drivers.

--

promoting the role of user associations and professional federations.

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RESOLUTION No. 93/5 ON DRINK AS A FACTOR IN ROAD ACCIDENTS[CEMT/CM(93)5/FINALThe Council of Ministers, meeting in Noordwijk on 26 and 27 May 1993:
HAVING REGARD to the Report on "Drink as a factor in road accidents";
NOTING:--

that the majority of countries have stated that drink-driving is one of their priority for a road safety
policy;--that the consumption of alcohol, particularly among young people, is still high in most countries;--

that, in some countries, up to 40 per cent of fatal accidents are alcohol-related and although thestatistical systems are improving, they still give in general under-estimated figures on drink/driving
percentage breakdowns;--

that, in all countries, those involved in drink/driving accidents are predominantly males in theyounger age groups;--that the maximum permitted alcohol level varies from 0.2 g/l to 0.8 g/l for blood tests and from
0.1 mg/l to 0.45 mg/l for breathalyser tests;--

that, in 40 per cent of countries, blood tests are still the only form of legal evidence;--that drink-driving is mainly a structural and social problem;--

that, in spite of the detrimental effects of the consumption of some medicines and drugs (combinedor not with alcohol) on driving ability, no systematic survey on these effects has been performed ona large scale;--that, in certain Member countries, a warning symbol is systematically printed on the packaging of
medicines likely to impair driving, particularly if these are taken in conjunction with alcohol, andthat a Recommendation on this specific issue was unanimously agreed upon within the Economic
Commission for Europe in 1988;

RECOGNISING that at national level ministers who deal with social welfare, police affairs and healthalso have responsibility in campaign against alcohol;
RECOMMENDS THAT MEMBER COUNTRIES--

continuously fully apply the previous Resolutions (Nos. 12, 21 and 41) accepted in ECMT. These
account especially for:•the establishment of effective data-collecting systems;

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•

the continuous making of provisions for a wider range of penalties applicable to persons whodrive under the influence of drink;•

the imposing of rehabilitation programmes;•

the carrying out of public campaigns to discourage drink-driving, in co-operation with socialand medical welfare institutions;--

regularly evaluate the results of activities in this field;--

furthermore, Member countries should:•

adopt, if possible, a maximum blood-alcohol level of 0.5 g/l 1 and determine a similar
maximum level for breathalyser test;•

facilitate easier alcohol-level controls, if necessary by promoting the legislative changes tomake the breath-test permissible evidence, and ensure that controls may be carried out ordeveloped when there has been neither an accident, or a traffic offence, or any indication of
such;

•

ensure that drivers are better informed about the additional dangers involved in the taking ofcertain drugs and medicines, especially when these are taken in combination with alcohol;•

also encourage and develop further research in this field and ensure that new regulations andcontrol methods are based on field experiments;•

ensure co-ordinated and active accident-prevention measures are taken jointly by the ministries
concerned with the use and the combined influence of alcohol, medicines and drugs;•

encourage the use of systematic printing of a warning symbol on the packaging of medicines
likely to impair driving, particularly if taken in conjunction with alcohol;

INSTRUCTS THE COMMITTEE OF DEPUTIES--

to follow up the implementation of this Resolution and report back in due course;--

to continue its work on driving under the influence of medicines and drugs and later, produce areport on this subject.

Note
1.

The Delegations of Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy and the United Kingdom entered areservation on this level.
164

REPORT ON DRINK AS A FACTOR IN ROAD ACCIDENTS
CEMT/CM(93)5/FINAL

I. INTRODUCTION

In spite of the measures that have been introduced in every country to fight against drink anddriving, the problem remains a crucial one, and it has assumed a social dimension that is not reflected
accurately in the statistics. Accidents due to alcohol are the cause of large-scale economic losses, not tomention the suffering inflicted on victims and those close to them. This is why the Ad hoc Group on
Road Safety, which has been involved for the past thirty years in the campaign against drinking in thedriving community, has felt it necessary to focus its efforts on the issue once again and to draw up a
fresh report. Its aim in so doing is not only to underline the wisdom of the ECMT’s previous
Recommendations, but also, and more particularly, to establish new and specific lines of action thatshould be incorporated within a comprehensive and vigorous health programme in order to be effective
on a lasting basis.
At both national and international level, there is now a deeper understanding of the effects ofalcohol use on driving ability. The knowledge gained has brought effective measures to combat driving
under the influence of alcohol. In some cases, these measures have been brought into effect on aninternational scale. Our task in 1993 should be to assess our achievements in the field of minimising
alcohol use by drivers, and to use those assessments as the basis for planning action for the future.

II. REMINDER OF THE EFFECTS ON DRIVERS DERIVED FROM DRINKING

The consequences of drink and driving are closely bound up with the effects of alcohol on theorganism and on human behaviour in general, starting with a phase of excitement in which inhibitions
disappear and a feeling of mental competence develops, together with the release of somewhat
aggressive impulses, often involving the desire to drive competitively.
With high levels of consumption, the brain is affected to the extent that motor functions cease to beco-ordinated. Simple driving routines can still be carried out, but it is more difficult to ensure more
complex responses to unusual situations.
Alcohol not only interferes with motor functions, but also affects cognitive functions in a way
which is less obvious but which affects driving ability, and thus increases the danger of accidents.
When behaviour and essential functions are impaired in this way, there is a greater danger of
involvement in traffic accidents and, generally, of being the party responsible, a risk that increases more
and more rapidly as the blood/alcohol level rises.
Researchers have established through statistics that the risk for traffic accidents is three times
higher at 0.5 per thousand and 10 times at 0.8 per thousand.

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The disturbances are mainly visual:--the field of vision becomes narrower so there is a high risk when two vehicles cross each other;--perception of distance becomes confused, which has its effect when vehicles are overtaking;--a longer time is required for visual responses, and this affects braking;--sensitivity to being dazzled by lights is increased;--night vision is reduced.

--

vigilance is reduced, and so is resistance to fatigue;--

co-ordination of movement is impaired;--hearing is impaired and the sense of balance deteriorates.

Other, more complex functions are also affected by alcohol, such as decision-taking and risk
assessment, owing to the driver’s overestimation of himself and his abilities.

III. DEVELOPMENTS ON AN INTERNATIONAL SCALE

Over the past thirty years, international organisations have at various different levels been dealing
with many aspects of the problem of drinking and driving.

1.

The ECMTIn 1960, 1967 and 1980 the ECMT already adopted resolutions in this connection. These
resolutions reflect a trend towards developing a more specific mechanism for dealing with thedrink/driving problem.
The 1960 Resolution takes an overall perspective on tackling the problem, recommending measures
such as the following:--

severe penalties for drink/driving offences;--introduction of legal provisions to permit screening of drivers suspected of being under the
influence of alcohol;--

fixing the maximum permitted blood/alcohol level for drivers;--

improving means of educating and informing the public about the risks involved;

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The 1967 Resolution was more specific in that it recommended notably the following:--

improved statistical data;--

the perfecting and simplifying of detection of drivers under the influence of alcohol through quick
check tests;--

blood tests under specified circumstances;--the prescription of a legal blood/alcohol level of 0.8 g/l (which corresponds to 0.8 per thousand);--the application of sanctions even if there has been no traffic offence or accident;--

provision for the withdrawal of driving licences.

In 1980, the Council of Ministers adopted a resolution recommending notably that Member
countries takes steps to:--assess the role of alcohol in road accidents more clearly and, accordingly, ensure access to resultsof tests on blood/alcohol levels of injured persons suspected of having caused accidents;--

promote legislative changes to make possible the use of breath-testing apparatus by police and theestablishment of international standards for this apparatus;--

make legal provision for the withdrawal of licences and their restitution only subject to theoffender’s participation in rehabilitation programmes;--

provide better information, particularly among young people, on the risks involved in drinking anddriving;2.

Other international organisations

That we are dealing here with a problem of international dimension is illustrated by the fact that, atvarious points, international organisations other than ECMT have expended considerable effort on trying
to find remedies for the drink/driving problem.
The WHO and the OECD, for example, have published a number of papers on the subject ofdrinking and road accidents, such as:--

the WHO report Health For All by the Year 2000, in which many of the 38 stated targets relate toalcohol abuse in general, and alcohol-impaired driving in particular;--

the report published by the OECD’s S14 Road Research Group in 1979 on the role of alcohol anddrugs, and a series of legislative and regulatory measures to be backed up by information, education
and rehabilitation programmes.

Another important step to be mentioned in this context is the adoption in 1988 of Resolution 123 by
the Principal Working Party on Road Transport of the United Nations Economic Commission for

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Europe. This particular resolution urged that national authorities take many important measures toreduce the incidence of driving under the influence of alcohol.
Shortly after the United Nations commission’s resolution, the Commission of the European
Communities submitted to the Council of Ministers a proposal for an EC directive in 1988
[COM(88)707 Final Office Journal of the European Communities, 31 January 1989]. The principal
objective of the draft directive was to reduce blood/alcohol content to 0.5 g/l (which corresponds to
0.5 per thousand), with effect from 1 January 1993.
Due to differences of opinion over the competence of the Commission in this particular field, theproposal was not pursued at the time. The issue is consequently still open to discussion.
Among other initiatives taken in this field figure the International Conferences on Alcohol, Drugs
and Traffic Safety (ICADTS), taking place every three years. These conference provide a forum forexchanges of views and information between experts, policy-makers and practitioners. Above all, they
are ideal opportunities for evaluating progress to date and drawing up recommendations for future
programmes.
At one of these conferences -- T86, Amsterdam -- it was stated, for instance, that by examining
statistics and comparing figures from European countries, variations could be observed in driver
behaviour under the influence of alcohol that could not be attributed to different legal definitions alone.
It thus became clear that the epidemiological methods had to be studied in order to obtain comparable
results.
On 9 October 1992, the General Assembly of the International Automobile Federation (FIA)approved a recommendation on drink and driving. This recommendation stresses, once again, theurgency of pursuing the implementation of effective programmes to reduce the number of accidents
caused by excessive alcohol consumption.

IV. PRESENT SITUATIONOn the basis of a questionnaire issued in 1989, information concerning the present status on driving
under the influence was collected from ECMT Member countries. A summary of this information is
given below.
1.

General findingsa)In the majority of the countries, many traffic accidents are still alcohol-related. In one case, aMember country reports that 39 per cent of killed in road accidents were alcohol-related, as shownin Table 1.

b)Some figures are numbers provided through police forms, others come from studies made with arepresentative sample of population. The table hereafter is only an example of available data.

c)

In general, it must be stressed that there is a strong under-estimation of the exact number of alcoholrelated accidents, especially when it concerns the number of fatalities. Since the police is in most168

cases not able, or not even allowed, to take blood samples, the official data does not totally reflect
the real situation. Several studies indicate that, in reality, up to 40 per cent of the fatalities arealcohol-related.
d)Another factor which makes inter-country data comparison difficult, or even impossible, is the useof different standards. Only general observations will be made at this point.
Table 1. Fatalities and injuries estimates resulting from alcohol-related accidents
Country
Austria
Denmark
FinlandFranceNetherlands
SwedenSwitzerland
W. Germany
Great Britain
Portugal

1980
14.1
34
13
39
14.4
8.1
21
22
14

Fatalities %
1985
12.6
33
11
39
14
8.6
18
20
13
3.7

1988
12.7
30
16
9.4
6.6
19
18
10
3.6

1980
8.7
21
12
20
9.3
5.6
12
13
5.5
--

Persons injured %
1985
1988
8.1
6.8
21
19
12
13
20
20
8.7
6.5
4.4
5.5
12
12
11
10
5
4
4.7
4.7

In the majority of cases, casualties result from accidents involving a young male driver (20-30 yearsold). Apart from young people, the "problem drinkers" group figures large in this field.
As for the highest-risk period, it was generally observed that it was during summer weekends, moreparticularly in the evening and after dark.

2.

Regulations

Table 2 shows the legal maximum alcohol levels permitted for drivers. Blood tests, unlike breath
tests, are accepted as legal evidence in all Member countries. Breath tests are not accepted as legal
evidence in 30 per cent of the countries.
The following general remarks have to be made in relation to the table:--

in Nordic countries, the "Widmark" definition for "pro-mille" (per thousand) is used. It means one
milligram ethanol per gram blood (weight by weight);--

in other European countries, the definition for "pro-mille" (per thousand) is milligrams per millilitre
and gram per litre (weight by volume).
The result is that one per thousand in Germany equals 0.94 per thousand in Sweden.

Since the differences are not big, we will not go into further detail and we shall use only the valueof per thousand.
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Table 2. Maximum blood/alcohol and breath/alcohol levels
Country
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGermany
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden3)
Switzerland
United Kingdom3)

Blood alcohol
content per thousand
0.801)
0.80
0.80
0.50
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.50
0.50
0.801)
0.20
0.80
0.80

Breathlegal evidence: mg/l
0.4
0.35
pre-test
pre-test
pre-test 0.4
currently underdiscussion
0.40
0.22
0.45
0.82)
0.1
pre-test
0.35

1.

Because certain road-users are especially at risk, the legal level can be lower. For example, Austria
applies 0.1 per thousand for new drivers, Spain applies 0.5 per thousand for professional drivers oflorries of more than 3.5 tons and 0.3 for drivers of taxis, buses, ambulance, fire-brigade or police, orvehicles carrying dangerous goods or loads requiring special authorisation for special dimensions
and weight. In Germany, a law is in the process of reducing the blood/alcohol level to 0.50 per
thousand and making breath tests admissible as legal evidence.

2.

Some countries are considering the introduction of 0.5 per thousand, in accordance with the draft
EC directive.

3.

In the UK and Sweden, the urine test is also legally accepted.

3.

Control and enforcement

Most countries report testing of the alcohol levels only for drivers who are involved in roadaccidents resulting in serious bodily injury, or who are guilty of serious breaches of road safety
regulations, or when there is some indication of alcohol absorption.
Some countries provide for the carrying out of checks on the blood/alcohol levels of drivers,
independently of accidents or offences. The general tendency here is to ensure that the checks are
sufficiently frequent to have a deterrent effect. Checks are therefore carried out at the most critical times
and places, especially at night and during weekends.
To reduce the number of drink/driving
offences, all countries report that drivers are penalised if they exceed the maximum blood/alcohol level.
The penalties vary from one country to another and may be penal and/or administrative.

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By and large, most countries have established a legal alcohol level over which it will be apunishable offence to drive a car. For quick testing, they encourage on-the-spot checks using electronic
devices for measuring alcohol levels in the air expelled.
Some countries have authorised road surveillance services to take administrative measures against
offending drivers, on-the-spot and with immediate effect.
Although the actual prosecution and the severeness of possible penalties for people who exceed the
maximum blood/alcohol level differ from one country to another, penalties generally range from
imprisonment to heavy fines or the withdrawal of the driving licence.
As stated before, a few countries provide for disqualification from driving at the time of arrest andan on-the-spot fine, but in most countries a penalty can only be imposed after a test has been carried out,
at a police station for example.
In a small number of countries, more stringent rules are set for drivers with special responsibilities
such as the public transport of persons or dangerous goods.
In addition to the "conventional" penalties, some countries also make provision for other measures
such as revision courses for habitual offenders. Besides, other countries are attempting to establish
specific programmes for the rehabilitation of drivers guilty of repeated offences, by applying additionalor alternative sanctions, such as work for the victims of road traffic accidents. Convicted drivers may
also attend courses to improve driving performance, in which case their penalties may be reduced.
The picture is somewhat less clear-cut when it comes to more specific data concerning the practicalexecution of penalties, or enforcement. Some 50 per cent of the countries that responded have no recordof the amount of official data produced each year on drink/driving. The majority of countries, however,neither possess nor compile information on the percentage of driving-licence holders who arebreathalysed each year.
An interesting observation in this domain is that the technical basis used to detect drivers under the
influence of alcohol differs from country to country. The strategy of how to test is very important.
Generally speaking, the effort put into police control and enforcement regarding alcohol is dependent inparticular on the willingness of the police force. Some countries place the emphasis on deterrence,
rather than on detection of offences. These countries claim the highest degree of effectiveness, which
they establish using annual official data and the percentage of driving-licence holders whose breath isanalysed.
The success of deterrence, it is reported, depends on the degree of importance that drivers attach tofour perceptions: the perceived risk of being apprehended; the perceived risk of an accident; theperceived seriousness of any offence; and the perceived severity of penalties imposed.

4.

Information and education

By and large, the majority of countries provide counter-measures through education at school,
driving lessons and police training courses. Some countries offer special education programmes, whileothers organise only occasional discussions groups at schools, with police and health services
representatives taking part.

171

Every country organises nation-wide campaigns regularly. Information on the effects ofdrink/driving is disseminated via television, radio, the national press, magazines, etc.
In 70 per cent of countries, measures are taken to encourage drivers intending to drink to find analternative means of transport home (sometimes organised specially by the authorities, breweries or otherindependent bodies).
In addition to the above, a great deal of advertising is devoted to non- or low-alcohol drinks, thepromotion of which is in general an important feature in the campaign to combat drink/driving. Here,the authorities often hold regular meetings with brewers’ associations to promote these non- and lowalcohol drinks. The majority of countries report that the market for such drinks has grown in recent
years.
So far as reward schemes are concerned, only 30 per cent of the countries report that they reward
motorists who do not drive under the influence of alcohol. Some insurers increase the premiums ofpolicy-holders found guilty of drinking and driving, some companies do not pay compensation for injury
to the driver who drinks, or for damage to his vehicle, the aim being to reduce the level of premiums fordrivers who do not drink.

5.

Evaluation

The countries concerned see a structural problem in the fact that drinking/driving is mainly a social
problem, meaning that drivers who drink very often repeat offences.
Alcoholics find it difficult, moreover, to recognise that they have a problem, but it is felt that a firststep can be made in motivating them, for example by offering a cure for alcoholism, and by launching
information campaigns, etc. Social and medical workers, too, have a role to play here, more particularly
with preventive measures and rehabilitation programmes.
A few of the countries experience structural problems of cultural origin in this area, since theconsumption of alcohol is widely regarded as a normal habit.
While some countries consider that a behavioural problem such as driving under the influence ofalcohol is best dealt with at national government level, the majority of countries are convinced that
Europe-wide policies are to a certain degree the best way to facilitate domestic measures, through thesetting of common price and tax policies and low legal blood/alcohol limits, through high and sustained
enforcement performance, and through the sharing of research findings.

V. DRIVING UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF MEDICINES/DRUGS

Although this paper is originally focused on the alcohol problem, we cannot neglect the findings inrelation to driving under the influence of drugs/medicines. In general terms, these findings can besummarised into three major fields:

172

--

lack of consistent knowledge of the effect of all different drugs/medicines on driving traffic
behaviour;--

problems in relation to the effect of combined use of drugs-medicine and alcohol on driving/traffic
behaviour;--

problems related to the assessment of drugs/medicine use and the differences between assessmentsof alcohol use and drug/medicine use.

These anomalies may be aggravated by a number of factors. If drugs or medication are taken at thesame time, there may be changes in the metabolism, or a synergy may even occur, increasing the effects.
In practice, it is the interaction of alcohol with the most commonly used tranquilisers, i.e.
benzodiazepines, that is most dangerous.
Quite apart from illegal drugs - on which many studies are now in hand in a number of countries
and which might be dealt with as a separate issue - some industrial products such as solvents andinsecticides, but also carbon dioxide, can likewise interfere with vigilance and cognitive functions.
Certain physical conditions such as heat-strokes, dehydration, and more particularly fatigue, intensify theeffects of alcohol on vigilance, thus increasing the risk of accidents when driving.
In anticipation of solving the above problems, many countries prohibit or advise against driving
under the influence of some medicines or drugs which are incompatible with it. Governments do havepolicies that are designed to prevent accidents caused by drivers whose judgment is impaired by
medicines and/or drugs. In practice, this means that most countries have information programmes towarn motorists and machine operators of the dangers of driving or operating machines under the
influence of medicines and drugs, especially when these are combined with alcohol. In certain Member
states, the Netherlands for example, a labelling warning system exists. This system consists in thesystematic printing of a warning symbol on the packaging of medicines likely to impair driving or
machine-operating capacity, particularly if taken in conjunction with alcohol.
In order to collect more information on the effect of drugs and/or alcohol on driving and traffic
behaviour, a study is currently in progress at Limburg University in the Netherlands on the effects oftaking marijuana on car-driving ability. The final results are to be published during the coming months.
Initial findings would seem to be similar to those of other studies on the effects of illegal drugs carriedout in the United States and France. In particular, a comparison can be drawn between the effects on
driving of two marijuana cigarettes and those of an alcohol intake producing a level of 0.5 per thousand.

VI. CONCLUSIONS--In all ECMT countries, many of the serious traffic accidents are alcohol-related.

--

In all countries, authorities are aware of the seriousness of the problem and even of the way totackle it, but when it comes to the execution of the solutions, great difficulties are experienced.
Priority is given in most countries to the evaluation of the measures brought forward.

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--

In all Member countries, those involved in drink/driving accidents are predominantly males in theyounger age groups. In general, the authorities feel big (social) responsibility towards this group.
Since the group has a long future ahead, execution of preventive measures is very important here.

--

Although information-gathering systems are improving in many countries, some of the more
important statistics on drinking/driving percentage breakdowns, such as those between weekends
and weekdays, cannot be provided since the distinction is usually not made.

--The maximum permitted alcohol level is, in most cases, 0.5 or 0.8 per thousand. In some 60 per
cent of countries, breath tests are accepted as legal evidence.

--

Penalties for exceeding the maximum alcohol level also differ very much from one country to the
next.

--

In most countries, structures for assessing police enforcement are not available. The techniques
used to detect drivers under the influence of alcohol also differ. Those countries which place theemphasis on deterrents rather than detection claim to be the most effective.

--

By and large, the majority of countries provide all kinds of education and information programmes.

--

In only a few countries is the policy to use reward systems.

--

The majority of countries see a structural problem in the fact that drinking/driving is a social
problem, as drivers who drink very often repeat offences.

--

A few of the countries experience structural problems of cultural origin in dealing withdrinking/driving, since the consumption of alcohol is widely regarded as a normal habit.

--

The recent experiment of drink-driving in combination with drugs/medicine adds a very important
aspect to the drink-driving problem. In practice, the symptoms look alike, but have different
effects. A basic differentiation needs to be made between legal drugs and medicines and illegal
drugs use.

--

While driving under the influence of medicines and drugs is illegal in most of the ECMT countries
that responded (almost) none of them have structures for compiling statistics on this subject. The
findings of scientific research in this area are still fairly rudimentary in most countries.

174