Improving Safety
for Motorcycle, Scooterand Moped Riders

Research ReportImproving Safety
for Motorcycle, Scooterand Moped Riders

Research ReportThis work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The
opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official
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Please cite this publication as:
OECD/ITF (2015), Improving Safety for Motorcycle, Scooter and Moped Riders, OECD Publishing, Paris.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789282107942-en

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Table of contents
Executive summary...................................................................................................................................9
Chapter 1. Opportunities and challenges of powered two-wheelers ..................................................13
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................14
An excessive risk...................................................................................................................................16
A systemic approach to powered two-wheeler safety ...........................................................................19
Background of the Working Group .......................................................................................................21
Content of the report .............................................................................................................................23
References .............................................................................................................................................24
Chapter 2. Powered two-wheeler fleet and usage ................................................................................27
The fleet of powered two-wheelers .......................................................................................................28
Characteristics of and changes in users of powered two-wheelers .......................................................35
Transport and mobility policies for powered two-wheelers ..................................................................45
Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................................49
References .............................................................................................................................................50
Chapter 3.Powered two-wheeler crash characteristics .......................................................................51
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................52
Data issues .............................................................................................................................................52
Relative crash risk for motorcyclists .....................................................................................................54
Characteristics of PTW fatal crashes.....................................................................................................57
Serious injuries among motorcyclists....................................................................................................63
Crash scenarios......................................................................................................................................65
Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................................67
References .............................................................................................................................................69
Chapter 4. Factors contributing to powered two-wheeler crashes and their severity ......................73
PTW rider-related crash factors ............................................................................................................74
Perception and awareness......................................................................................................................79
The road environment ...........................................................................................................................81
The vehicle ............................................................................................................................................85
Association of risk factors .....................................................................................................................86
Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................................86
References .............................................................................................................................................88
Chapter 5. Countermeasures addressing road user behaviour ..........................................................93
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................94
Licensing, training and education .........................................................................................................94
Enforcement ........................................................................................................................................102
Communication campaigns .................................................................................................................106

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Conclusions .........................................................................................................................................108
References ...........................................................................................................................................109
Chapter 6. Countermeasures promoting the use of personal protective equipment .....................111
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................112
Helmets ...............................................................................................................................................112
Protective clothing...............................................................................................................................113
Airbag “jackets ..................................................................................................................................116
High visibility clothing........................................................................................................................117
Neck braces .........................................................................................................................................118
Conclusions .........................................................................................................................................118
References ...........................................................................................................................................119
Chapter 7. Countermeasures targeting vehicles ................................................................................121
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................122
Vehicle maintenance and inspection ...................................................................................................122
Classification of vehicle technologies .................................................................................................123
Enhancing the longitudinal and lateral stability of PTWs ...................................................................124
Vehicle technologies to enhance conspicuity of PTWs ......................................................................130
Advanced lighting technologies to enhance the visibility of the riders...............................................131
Warning devices ..................................................................................................................................131
Improving rider protection ..................................................................................................................133
Supporting rider behaviour..................................................................................................................133
Real time information, hazard localisation and prevention .................................................................133
Safety devices on other vehicles impacting PTW safety.....................................................................134
Considering ITS technologies as motorcycle safety countermeasures................................................135
Creating demand for vehicle safety equipment ...................................................................................137
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................137
References ...........................................................................................................................................138
Chapter 8. Countermeasures targeting infrastructure and traffic management ...........................141
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................142
General principles for safe infrastructure ............................................................................................142
Road infrastructure design and management ......................................................................................143
Traffic calming measures. ...................................................................................................................147
Other traffic management measures ....................................................................................................147
Conclusions .........................................................................................................................................151
References............................................................................................................................................152
Chapter 9. Specific powered two-wheeler issues in low- and middle-income countries ................155
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................156
Road safety in low- and middle-income countries: general trends .....................................................156
The UN Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020 ......................................................................157
Role of PTWs in mobility in low- and middle-income countries .......................................................157
The fleet of PTWs in low- and middle-income countries ...................................................................159
Safety of PTWs ...................................................................................................................................159
Specific challenges of PTW safety in LMICs .....................................................................................160
Countermeasures .................................................................................................................................160
Developing a strategy for powered two-wheelers in low- and middle-income countries ...................168
Conclusions .........................................................................................................................................171

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References ...........................................................................................................................................172
Chapter 10. Developing and implementing an integrated road safety strategy for
powered two-wheelers ..........................................................................................................................175
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................176
Planning a strategy ..............................................................................................................................177
Developing a strategy ..........................................................................................................................179
Implementing a strategy ......................................................................................................................194
Monitoring and evaluation ..................................................................................................................194
Conclusions and recommendations .....................................................................................................195
References ...........................................................................................................................................196
Chapter 11. Conclusions and recommendations ...............................................................................197
The role of powered two-wheelers in mobility ...................................................................................197
Safety issues for powered two-wheelers .............................................................................................198
PTW safety in the context of a Safe System .......................................................................................200
Countermeasures .................................................................................................................................201
Need for further research.....................................................................................................................203
Working group members .....................................................................................................................205

Figures
1.1.
1.2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
6.1.
8.1.
8.2.
9.1.

Changes in fatalities among PTW and other road users ............................................................. 17
World road traffic deaths by road user type ............................................................................... 17
Diversity of powered two-wheelers............................................................................................ 29
Geographical distribution of the fleet in 2008 ............................................................................ 31
Circulating PTW fleet in Europe* .............................................................................................. 32
Growth in the motor vehicle fleet in India ................................................................................. 34
Underreporting coefficients for PTW riders and car occupants per injury severity
in five European countries .......................................................................................................... 53
Share of PTW fatalities in total fatalities ................................................................................... 56
Trends in PTW fatalities, other road user fatalities and PTW fleet in the three main
OECD regions ............................................................................................................................ 58
Index of motorcycle and moped fatalities compared with pedestrians and car passengers ........ 59
Motorcycles rider fatalities by age in 2001 and 2010 ................................................................ 60
Distribution of injuries among injured motorcyclists ................................................................. 64
Motorcycle injury distribution and risk of permanent medical impairment ............................... 64
Power Model representing the relationship between change in mean speed and changes
in crashes .................................................................................................................................... 74
Reparameterisation of the Power................................................................................................ 75
Drivers blood alcohol concentrations and the relative risk of police-reported
crash involvement....................................................................................................................... 76
Infrastructure hazards related to road design and maintenance .................................................. 84
Protective clothing zones.......................................................................................................... 115
Motorcycle SRS equations ....................................................................................................... 146
Advanced stop line in Madrid .................................................................................................. 150
Population, road traffic deaths and registered motorised vehicles in high-, middle- andlow-income countries ............................................................................................................... 156

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9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
9.5.
9.6.
9.7.
10.1.

PTW use in Vietnam ................................................................................................................ 157
Relative marginal costs of a 9 km journey by different transport means in selected
Latin American cities, 2007 ..................................................................................................... 158
Road traffic deaths by user type ............................................................................................... 159
LMICs with highest percentage of PTW users killed in 2010 ................................................. 160
Trends in registered PTWs and fatalities 2006 – 2010 ............................................................. 161
Trends in the numbers of PTW and other road users killed in Brazil ...................................... 163
Processes in planning and developing a strategy...................................................................... 179

Tables
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
4.1.
4.2.
7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
10.1.
10.2.

Emissions of pollutants by various motorised transport means in cities
per km and per passenger ..........................................................................................................30
Growth (%) in the PTW and passenger car fleets for a selection ofOECD countries ........................................................................................................................31
PTW fleet in Latin America in 2011 .........................................................................................35
Riding licence in Europe ...........................................................................................................39
PTW Licence Categories ...........................................................................................................42
Percentages of PTWs in the motorised fleet and in total fatalities ............................................55
Deaths per billion vehicle-kilometres in 2011...........................................................................57
Distribution of crashes in the MAIDS project by engine displacement ....................................62
Motorcycle driver deaths per 10 000 registered vehicles by motorcycle type ..........................62
Types of crashes involving PTWs .............................................................................................65
Share (%) of alcohol-related crashes for PTW and car drivers .................................................77
Prevalence of drug consumption among different road users ...................................................78
Classification of functions based on vehicle technologies ......................................................124
Recent evolution in the penetration rate of ABS on PTWs in Europe ....................................125
Share of ABS costs on end-users price in Europe ...................................................................127
E-SUM Action Plan recommended strategy development process .........................................179
Potential of safety interventions – Results of modelling in Sweden .......................................184

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

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Executive summary

Background
The powered two-wheeler (PTW) population - which includes motorcycles, scooters and mopeds has been constantly increasing. In most OECD countries, the motorcycle fleet increased much faster thanthe passenger car fleet from 2001 to 2010. As such, PTWs are becoming an important component of thetransport system. However, they represent an important challenge for road safety.
The International Transport Forum set up a Working Group on the Safety of Powered TwoWheelers in 2010 to review trends in powered two-wheeler crashes and examine the factors contributing
to these crashes and their severity. This report is the result of that effort. It describes a set ofcountermeasures targeting user behaviours, the use of protective equipment, the vehicles and theinfrastructure and discusses motorcycle safety strategies in the context of a Safe System approach.
Main findings
The number of powered two-wheelers on the roads is growing and PTWs play a significant role inmobility in many countries, particularly in many of the world’s large cities. Some riders use PTWs as
their primary form of transport, others for recreation. For many it is the only affordable or practicalmeans of individual motorised mobility.
Powered two-wheeler riders are at far more risk than car drivers per kilometre ridden in terms offatalities and severe injuries entailing long-term disability. Moreover, they have not benefited at the samepace as car occupants from safety improvements over the recent decades. In OECD countries, PTW
riders represent 17% of total fatalities on average, while PTWs account for about 8% of the motorised
vehicle fleet. PTW fatalities often comprise a much higher proportion of total fatalities in low- or middleincome countries. In addition to the human casualties, the economic costs associated with PTW crashes
are significant. Investing in PTW safety can therefore bring important societal and economic benefits.
Powered two-wheeler crashes are frequently linked to failures of perception and control. The mostfrequent PTW fatal crashes are collisions at intersections, commonly involving problems of perception
and appraisal by both the driver and the rider and single-vehicle crashes, due to the PTWs’ higher
sensitivity to external perturbations caused for instance by road surfaces or weather conditions. Speeding
and consumption of alcohol or drugs are critical factors in the occurrence and severity of PTW crashes,
just as for other road users.
Recommendations
Implement a Safe System approach that caters for the safety needs of powered two-wheelers
Growing PTW traffic makes it imperative to adopt safety interventions targeting this mode oftransport, while integrating it into a Safe System approach. The Safe System approach recognises thatroad users can make mistakes or take inappropriate decisions. The role of the system is both to minimise
the production of these errors and to protect road users from death and serious injuries when errors occur.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

While a Safe System approach concerns all countries, a tailored approach is required which considers
local specificities with regard to the safety of powered two-wheelers.
Involve all stakeholders in sharing responsibility for the safety of powered two-wheelers
Improving the safety of PTWs is a shared responsibility. All relevant stakeholders, including civilsociety organisations, need to be actively involved in the process of drawing up and implementing ashared road safety strategy which includes safer behaviour of all road users, safer infrastructure andvehicles with enhanced safety features. PTW safety is not only the responsibility of governments,
administrations, and manufacturers, but also PTW associations, insurance companies, the media, etc.
Make the needs of powered two-wheelers an explicit part of transport policy
Powered two-wheelers are becoming an important component of the transport system which inmany countries has given priority to four-wheel vehicles. In some cities in OECD member countries they
represent up to 30% of the motor vehicle fleet. Yet only a few countries have a national transport strategy
for PTWs in place. PTWs need to be properly integrated into mobility plans.
Create a toolbox of measures to improve the safety of powered two-wheelers riders
A toolbox of measures is required to improve the safety of PTW riders within the traffic system.
These measures must take into account the specific challenges associated with PTW mobility and also
consider the variety of PTW users, insofar as some segments may be addressed with specific measures.
A strategic approach should consider the most effective combination of measures according to theparticular needs of individual jurisdictions.
Promote appropriate behaviour of powered two-wheeler riders and road users generally
Licensing, training and education are essential tools for improving riding safety. Access to PTWs
should be gradual, with a comprehensive training and licensing system. Training should be designed topromote safe behaviours and address issues such as hazard perception and defensive riding. Other road
users should also be made aware of the specific risks associated with the vulnerability and crash patternsof PTWs. Traffic rules must be enforced among powered two-wheelers as well as among other road
users.
Make the use of helmets compulsory for all riders of powered two-wheelers
A helmet is the most important protection against severe injuries and deaths. It dramatically reduces
the risk of being killed or severely injured and should be worn by all riders and passengers of
motorcycles and mopeds All countries should have and enforce a helmet law that makes wearing ahelmet obligatory for riders of all powered two-wheelers. A 100% wearing rate is the only acceptableobjective. In addition, the wearing of protective clothing with adequate safety standards – adapted toregional conditions - is essential to reducing the severity of injuries and should be promoted.
Enhance safety features in vehicles
The car and motorcycle industries are continuously developing safety devices to both avoid crashes
and mitigate their consequences. The prevention of crashes (“active safety”) is crucial for the safety of
motorcyclists. Enhanced safety features should be adopted in powered two-wheelers; notably advanced
braking systems should be introduced generally. Crash avoidance systems on board other vehicles may
also contribute to reducing collisions with PTWs.
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Reduce crash risk for powered two-wheelers by introducing self-explaining and forgiving roads
Infrastructure should be improved with the development of self-explaining roads which guidedrivers and riders to adopt appropriate speed behaviour along with traffic calming measures and PTWfriendly infrastructure (“forgiving” roads). Engineers, road designers and providers, local authorities,
road safety auditors and inspectors should be trained to consider PTWs in the design, construction,
maintenance and operation of roads, and be provided with the necessary risk assessment tools to makethe right decisions.
Do more research to extend understanding of powered two-wheeler mobility and crashmechanisms
There is a great need to develop and apply relevant methods, tools and indicators to measure PTWs
in traffic flows and analyse their mobility and behaviour. In particular, exposure data are needed to better
understand the specific crash characteristics of PTWs. Operational research and development is neededto achieve a traffic system which better integrates and protects PTWs in a cost efficient manner.
Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) require more research and development on their capacity to preventand mitigate PTW crashes. Further investigation is required regarding the content and effectiveness of
training, including post-licence training.

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Chapter 1. Opportunities and challenges of powered two-wheelers

This chapter provides an overview to the purpose and background of this report. It reviews in brief
the diversity of powered two-wheelers (PTWs) and their role within the transport system. It also
outlines the risks facing users of PTWs and the various challenges for traffic safety.

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1. OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF POWERED TWO-WHEELERS

Introduction
Gone are the days when powered two-wheelers (PTWs) were a marginal mode of travel reserved fora few fans of speed and adventure. PTW use has grown significantly during the last decades in most partsof the world (Haworth, 2012), resulting in the PTW gradually becoming a true mobility tool, attracting
an increasingly vast and varied user population. It has now become an integral part of the traffic system,
offering certain benefits over other modes of transport: what would big cities such as Rome or Paris belike now, for example, if all PTW riders were driving a car instead?
It is estimated that there are more than 300 million powered two-wheelers in the world, with arelatively uneven distribution across regions: around three quarters are found in Asia, 16% in North
America and Europe, 5% in Latin America, 1% in Africa and 1% in the Middle East (Rogers, 2008).
This disparity is also characterised by the uses made of this mode. Primarily recreational in North
America and Australia, the two-wheeler has a much more mixed function in Europe, where it isincreasingly used to escape the problems of urban traffic congestion. In other regions of the world it may
serve a mainly utilitarian function.
The growing use of powered two-wheelers raises a number of road safety issues. The present reportfocuses on the safe integration of powered two-wheelers in the traffic system, primarily in OECD
countries. However, the specific nature of motorisation in developing countries cannot be ignored. This
question is raised within the different issues addressed throughout the report, and there is a chapter
specifically dedicated to low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
The issues and challenges related to the integration of PTWs within the traffic system are complex
and varied. Safety and mobility issues require a comprehensive analysis to identify the means for
effective action. These include taking into consideration the current risk exposures for riders when on theroad network, which lead to them, being classed as “vulnerable road users , along with pedestrians andcyclists. But it is also necessary to further analyse this risk through the different facets that characterise
it: the various populations involved, the types of travel concerned, the different crash-generating
situations, the factors involved, etc., always keeping in mind the aim of improving the system as a wholerather than blaming a particular component. These issues were borne in mind for the establishment of theWorking Group, and they constitute the spirit of this report.
The diversity of powered two-wheelers and riders
There is great diversity among PTWs and their riders and the identification of relevant issues andsolutions must acknowledge this diversity.
The term PTW encompasses mopeds, scooters and motorcycles. Tricycles are also often included inthis category. This report is mainly focused on the most typical PTWs found on the road, i.e.:•

Motorcycles, with an engine displacement above 50 cc;•

Mopeds, with an engine displacement equal to or below 50 cc;•

Scooters (including three-wheeler MP3s) corresponding to a shape classification (“step-throughdesign ) and an engine with automatic transmission. They can be either the “motorcycle or“moped type, based on engine displacement.

Electric bicycles, quads, trikes, etc., are not addressed in this report insofar as their usage iscurrently limited and each has its own particular characteristics. In some countries, recreational off-roadriding contributes a significant proportion of the crash trauma associated with PTWs. While this report
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may indirectly assist in the improvement of safety for these riders, the particular issues facing off-roadriders have not been addressed separately.
The PTW environment has changed greatly in the last decades, not only in size but also in diversity.
Today, the domain of the PTW covers a wide diversity of riders, motorcycles and purposes. For example,
mopeds and scooters are more widely used in urban areas at moderate speeds; and motorcycles are morecommonly used on roads and highways for longer journeys where higher driving speeds are common.
Such diversity of vehicle types, uses and users complicates the problem of integrating PTWs within the
traffic and transport system. All of this variety must be considered in order to better understand thedifferent facets of the problem and to put forward targeted solutions.
The role of powered two-wheelers within transport systems
The use of PTWs continues to grow each year with multiple economic and social factors
contributing to their expansion worldwide, such as increased traffic congestion and inner-city parking
problems, increases in gasoline prices, the development of leisure, changes in lifestyle, etc. (Shinar,2012). The result is that, in spite of a remarkable improvement in traffic safety for all road users(including motorcyclists) in OECD countries, motorcyclist exposure to road risk has increased to thepoint that in some countries the number of motorcyclists who died in road crashes actually increased
over the past two or three decades (Shinar, 2012), while the mortality of other road users declined
significantly.
Moreover, as mentioned above, the types of PTWs and the reasons for their use differ according togeographical areas and economic, social and societal factors. PTWs play a significant role in thetransport or leisure of their users in different parts of the world, with diverse consequences for safety andpotential countermeasures and solutions. While for some, a PTW is a direct substitute for a car, for others
it fulfils quite different roles. Its compactness and manoeuvrability allows for flexible travel in congested
traffic: thus, it is increasingly used to gain time. Moreover, the sensory experience linked with riding a
PTW makes it an object of pleasure for a certain category of people. In the large cities of developed
countries (particularly in Europe) PTWs are primarily used for travel and commuting. In other developed
countries, like the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, the PTW is often synonymouswith “touring” or “riding for recreation”. In emerging and developing economies such as Indonesia, thePhilippines and Thailand, the PTW is often a commercial vehicle used for business travel or the transportof goods. Moreover, as pointed out by Haworth (2012), in developed countries PTWs often have a highcylinder capacity and only one passenger, while in the LMICs, engine displacements are smaller and
PTWs often have several passengers.
The PTW rider population differs from that of car users in the significant disparity between the useof PTWs by men and by women. However, this disparity varies according to the part of the world, and iscurrently changing in some countries. This is notably the case in countries with high urbanisation, wherea significant increase in the proportion of female PTW riders (from a low base) can be observed. The
motivation to ride to avoid traffic congestion is expected to reinforce this trend.
Another change has been noted since the late 1990s: the increasing number of riders (for recreation
or transport) in the 40+ generation in certain areas of the world such as Europe, Australia and the UnitedStates. This population is partly formed of “returning riders”, who are coming back to motorcycling aftera relatively long period of car use, mainly for practical reasons (transport of children, etc.), and partly
composed of new riders. There is no clear evidence of higher risks for the returning riders than forexperienced riders of a similar age, but a trend towards increasing trauma among this age group is

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1. OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF POWERED TWO-WHEELERS

observed. For the new riders, research evidence has demonstrated an increased risk in the first year ofriding.
PTWs also have a special utility and social relevance. As an example, young workers not yet old
enough to hold a driving licence (depending on the OECD countries considered), may find the PTW is
the only possible means of transport, particularly in rural areas.
In summary, PTWs play a major role in transport for various reasons in different locations. They
represent an opportunity to improve mobility, in conjunction with public transport, in many cities
suffering from significant congestion and parking challenges. They constitute an integral part of thetraffic system, potentially able to meet important future needs in society. In recent years some countries
have experienced a rapid growth in the variety, sales, registrations and activity of powered two-wheelers.
It must be considered that this growth is likely to accelerate as the world population increases and more
people recognise the potential economic, mobility and environmental benefits of PTWs. However, such adevelopment must not be accompanied by a growth in crashes, injuries and fatalities involving PTWs.
The reality is that the potential benefits of PTWs in terms of mobility are currently heavily mixed with anoverly high societal cost in terms of safety. It is essential to study these safety issues both in terms of
their aetiology and in terms of solutions as part of promoting powered two-wheelers as a viable transport
alternative to traffic congestion.
An excessive risk
Half of the world’s road traffic deaths concern “vulnerable” road users (WHO, 2013), defined asincluding pedestrians, cyclists and users of PTWs. This proportion is generally higher in low- andmiddle-income than in high-income countries. On average, PTWs represent 17% of road deaths for only
8% of the vehicle fleet in OECD countries. This proportion can reach higher levels depending on the
country, notably as a secondary impact of the progress in safety for other modes.
Regardless of the countries concerned, however, PTW users are confronted with an excessive riskon the road, which has been qualified as “unfair” by Elvik (2009), insofar as for the same number ofkilometres driven they have a much higher risk of being killed or severely injured than car occupants.
PTW users are clearly overrepresented among road traffic casualty figures, even when they are notoverrepresented in crash occurrences. When involved in a crash, PTW riders are significantly more
exposed to a higher risk of severe or fatal injury, as are cyclists and pedestrians. Conversely, when
involved in a crash with another road user, PTWs are less prone than a car or a truck to provoke severe
injuries to others, due to their smaller mass. This is the reason why they can be considered as “vulnerable
road users”. While the focus is often on the risk of death, the risk of being severely injured, often
handicapped for life, is also much higher for PTW users. The number of years of life lost or spent in painand disability is considerable, with the younger population often being the most affected. This shows thenecessity of basing analyses on both fatality and injury data and of integrating the different facets ofsafety problems.
Whereas there has been substantial progress in most OECD countries in improving road safety andreducing road mortality, PTW riders have not benefited at the same pace as car occupants from safety
improvements over the last decade (see Figure 1.1). However, Figure 1.1 does not reflect the increased
exposure of PTWs, due to the marked increase of the fleet and its mileage during the past decades.

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Figure 1.1. Changes in fatalities among PTW and other road users
OECD countries, 2001-2011

PTW

Other road users

80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
-60%
-80%

Source: IRTAD (2001-2010 data for Canada).

As we will see in Chapter 3, the risk is unequally shared by different segments of the PTW user
population. There are segments of the population with very low risk but, at the opposite, young males are
particularly vulnerable.
The situation in developing countries is drastically worse. While they account for only half of theworld's registered vehicles, 90% of global traffic deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries.
Powered two-wheelers are involved in a very high share of those casualties (see Figure 1.2). For thisreason, improving the safety of vulnerable road users, including PTW riders, is among the key priorities
identified by the United Nations in the framework of the UN Decade of Action for Road Safety.
Figure 1.2. World road traffic deaths by road user type2010

Others19%
Car occupants
31%
Pedestrians
22%
PTW
23%
Cyclists
5%
Source: World Health Organisation (2013).

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1. OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF POWERED TWO-WHEELERS

Why is it riskier to ride a powered two-wheeler?
The level of risk is influenced by many factors. A first, general factor is the intrinsic difficulty ofriding a PTW, due to the necessity to balance the vehicle, its lower friction capacity and its greater
sensitivity to environmental perturbations (wind, gravel, any change in road surface, etc.) which may
destabilise the vehicle. Another influential risk is the domination of cars and larger vehicles in traffic
for which the traffic system has been mainly designed. As a consequence, the traffic system now requires
modification to integrate the growing volume of powered two-wheelers.
Elvik (2004) has defined some basic factors which influence the level of risk of road crashes.
Among these risk factors, some are considered to affect PTWs more specifically such as low friction(as mentioned above), but also lack of visibility, failure of road-user “rationality” (such as risk-taking or
human error), road-user vulnerability and system forgiveness. All these basic factors will be further
discussed within the following chapters.
PTW riders have a higher risk of injury due to their greater vulnerability, resulting from a lack ofprotection compared to passenger cars, which can lead to very severe consequences in the event ofcollisions above a certain speed. Safety measures that are already well-recognised, such as helmets,
protective clothes, etc., have diminished this vulnerability up to a certain point, but further progress stillneeds to be made.
Atypical behaviour
By its very nature, driving a PTW may induce a specific behaviour pattern on the road which isdifferent from the drivers of four-wheeled vehicles. Such behaviour is not necessarily “deviant”
according to the law, but may surprise other road users.
Even normal” behaviour (i.e. behaviour common to PTW riders) may be atypical for other vehicle
operators. For example, overtaking within a small space, overtaking on the incorrect side, filtering,
positioning on one side of the lane, intense acceleration, etc., may be feasible for PTWs but arepotentially startling for car drivers, disturbing their normally efficient information-seeking routines. Car
drivers and PTW riders need to be aware of and trained concerning the specific driving behaviour anddifficulties in perception experienced by both groups.
Atypical behaviour also refers to “deviant” conduct, including stunts, wheelies, etc. Such behaviour
is not necessarily frequent, but may contribute to a negative opinion of the PTW community.
A crucial challenge for traffic safety
Road traffic injuries are among the three leading causes of death for people between 5 and 44 yearsof age. Unless immediate and effective action is taken, road traffic injuries are predicted to become thefifth leading cause of death in the world. May 2011 saw the launch of the worldwide UN Decade of
Action for Road Safety, which includes the ambitious target to stabilise and then halve the forecasted
level of road fatalities by 2020. To reflect the Decade of Action, several countries have developed
strategic plans for the period 2011-2020, including the adoption of safety targets. As an example, theEuropean Union has adopted the target of reducing the number of fatalities by 50% by the year 2020 anda longer term vision to move “close to zero fatalities” by 2050 (European Commission, 2011). The new
ISO 39001 standard on road safety management within companies is also an important and ambitious
initiative towards this end.

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These ambitious targets will only be achievable if serious efforts are made to improve the safety of
PTWs. Several countries have developed motorcycling safety strategies and integrated them into theiroverall safety action plans.
Improving the safety of PTWs must consider all the actors and elements at play. It is not enough to
pay attention to PTW riders, one must also monitor their interactions with all other road users, theenvironment, the vehicles and the social, cultural and political dimensions that shape and supervise theiruse. Moreover, action should not be restricted to the most obvious parameters but must also take into
account the background behind the problems. By acting in a coherent and integrated way on the various
axes concerned, safety may be improved through progress on issues as diverse as defensive safety
training, development and acceptability of appropriate protective clothing, and raising awareness amongroad users of the presence of PTWs and the difficulties in their interactions that each may encounter. It isnecessary to integrate the specific characteristics of PTWs and their handling difficulties into the designof appropriate and tolerant (“forgiving ) infrastructure. Significant progress can now be expected
towards the development of devices for active and passive safety, both for PTWs and other vehicles.
But in a longer-term perspective, improving safety also implies improving knowledge of PTWs, byinvesting in research and in the collection of crash data (not confined to fatalities but also analysing
injury crashes and even property damage crashes) and of exposure (traffic) data on which this research
work can be based.
A systemic approach to powered two-wheeler safety
Road safety is a complex issue that cannot be solved by focusing only on the behaviour of theoperators involved at the sharp end of the process: the road users. As stated in the 2008 OECD report, afocus on enforcement has been the dominant paradigm of traditional road safety policies over the past
30 years. These policies have provided the necessary legislative framework and control with respect to
key variables such as speeds, driving under the influence of alcohol, failure to wear a seat-belt or helmet
and, more generally, non-compliance with the basic safety rules. Road user compliance with the law andwith regulations is a vital element in the delivery of a safe road transport system (Carsten, 2012) andthese approaches have contributed to significant improvements in road fatality levels in OECD countries,
complementing the improvements made in vehicles and infrastructure, notably in terms of protective
devices.
However, even if police enforcement can be considered an inherent part of a sustainable safety
approach (Wegman & Aarts, 2006), the focus on the road user is an insufficient paradigm today. To
further improve road safety, it is necessary to broaden the spectrum of analysis and intervention. An
increasing number of countries tend to think more in terms of the “Safe System approach . This is not
opposed to the more classical approach to road safety; it simply provides a wider understanding of therisk factors and the spectrum of interventions which may address them efficiently.
The Safe System approach in traffic
The traffic system was designed and developed by humans but is dangerous to humans, asevidenced by the number of injuries and deaths on the roads. This raises an ethical issue for society, andmotivated the Swedish “Vision Zero”, directed by the credo that a road safety policy must aim to avoid
fatalities and serious casualties.
Beyond ethics, the application of the systemic approach to road safety means considering crashes asanomalies to be suppressed by applying a pattern of measures, which address not only the road users but
all the people involved in the traffic system, be it in its conception, equipment, maintenance, legislation,
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1. OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF POWERED TWO-WHEELERS

etc. This relies on the notion of shared responsibility, which implies that everyone must act in favour ofroad safety instead of blaming each other. Action by all stakeholders is needed: public authorities,
governments and local authorities, private companies, the car industry, transport companies, road
operators and road users. The application of the systemic approach to road safety under the Safe Systemapproach leads us to review the standards that tend to attribute full responsibility for driving difficulties
to the road users only. “This new thinking means a shift and a sharing for overall road safety, requiring ahigh level of political, social and community commitment, with government, other groups and individuals
all having important roles to play in improving road safety (OECD, 2008).”
A Safe System approach is based on avoiding the most severe traffic crashes by acting on the
different components of the road system to 1) promote safe behaviour on the part of the road users;
2) offer the capacity to correct their eventual errors; 3) protect them when these errors cannot becorrected.
A complex problem cannot be solved by a simple intervention without wider consideration of thecontext. In a system, every action has consequences, and actions that are insufficiently studied from awhole perspective may result in only shifting the problem. The most effective action does not necessarily
rely on where the cause (or the guilt) is the most obvious. For example, infrastructure modifications areoften the most sustainable way to avoid speeding. Another important point to consider is that several
forms of action are often more effective than a single action. This is what is meant by the concept of
integrated safety.
The notion of integrated road safety
The notion of integrated road safety implies promoting safety by acting simultaneously on different
levers, keeping in mind that each component is an important factor for the potential improvement ofsafety, even if it is not always identifiable as a direct contributor to crashes. The key is indeed to find, notthe element to blame, but the effective and sustainable solutions using the most effective lever.
Road users
Road users directly influence traffic safety in general and therefore PTW safety. All the potential
ways to promote safer riding behaviours should be developed in a coherent way with the measures
addressed to infrastructure and the vehicles. Firstly, education should aim to influence the attitudes andbehaviours toward other road users. Training follows, first for PTW riders, so that they obtain a goodunderstanding of the difficulties they may encounter on the roads and the appropriate behaviours to adopt(including the use of protective equipment); secondly, for other drivers to make them aware of thepotential problems in their interactions with PTWs and the right strategies to use (e.g. informationseeking strategies) to prevent these problems. Specific training is also to be promoted for road designers
to sensitise them to the particular difficulties induced by riding a PTW and by being confronted withthem. More broadly, the use of information campaigns (for PTWs and for other modes) is useful to makea larger audience aware of the potential problems. Finally, as a last step, enforcement is necessary tovalidate the other measures. No one action is complete in itself, and all have their limitations; which
explains the need to integrate safety measures.
Vehicles – rider interaction
Vehicles can be seen as tools to perform the mobility task of the road users efficiently and safely.
As tools, they must fit the capacity of each user and the objectives of their task. The vehicle’s
characteristics have a fairly direct influence on its operator’s driving behaviour and they should be
carefully considered to avoid potential misuse. A high acceleration capacity and a high maximum speed
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may influence the drivers’ behaviour depending on their objectives and personality. Dealing with PTW
safety, much is to be gained from technical improvements at various levels (preventive safety, active
safety, passive safety and post-crash safety), not only for the PTW itself but also the other vehicles they
may interact with.
Road infrastructure
It is sometimes more effective to act indirectly on the road infrastructure than directly on the road
users. Human behaviour is partly the product of the environment in which humans operate. The roadlayout will thus have a decisive influence on their activity, whether behavioural or cognitive(psychological). For road users, the road environment is both the physical guide to behaviour and theframework of the events that can occur. As a consequence, the design, construction, operation andmaintenance of the road environment can influence the mechanisms of safety in diverse ways: first,
through maladaptive behaviour (for example, unintentionally encouraging over-high speeds, hasty
manoeuvres, etc.) which will make drivers more prone to error; and second, through erroneous analysisof the situation encountered (e.g. inadequate visibility, over-complicated or inconsistent layout, etc.).
Finally, gaps in protection may exist that will not allow recovery from these errors (e.g. lack of astabilised shoulder) or that may aggravate their consequences (e.g. aggressiveness of roadside objects).
Background of the Working Group
This Working Group on motorcycling safety and mobility has built on the work at Lillehammer inJune 2008 (OECD/ITF, 2008b), where an international workshop brought together researchers,
policymakers, industry and motorcyclists’ associations. This workshop established a number of areas for
improving the safety of motorcycles, which deserve further investigation. The main recommendations
from the Lillehammer Workshop are described below:
Box 1.1. Main recommendations of the Lillehammer Workshop: June 2008
The following general principles and priority measures illustrate the key conclusions and recommendations of
the Lillehammer Workshop.
General principles•

Co-operation between the various stakeholders. Improving safety for motorcyclists requires theestablishment of a continuing dialogue and co-operation between the various stakeholders, including
the motorcyclists themselves, policymakers, researchers and motorcycle manufacturers.

•

Transport and infrastructure policy. A fundamental motorcycle safety requirement is thatmotorcycles should have a place in overall transport policy and infrastructure policy/management.

•

Research and evaluation: Countermeasures need to be founded on evidence-based scientificresearch into driver and rider behaviour, and before-and-after evaluations should be conducted.

Priority Measures
Priority measures were classified into the following categories: human factors; social and cultural factors;
vehicles; and infrastructure. The priority measures listed below are not exhaustive and the classification
should not be seen as a rigid framework.
Human factors
Training programmes for motorcyclists. Countries have different training needs, based on their vehicle fleet
and riding environment. Motorcycle training should therefore build on existing standards, focus on risk
awareness and risk avoidance, and develop an understanding of rider/motorcycle capacities and limitations.

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1. OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF POWERED TWO-WHEELERS

Box 1.1. Main recommendations of the Lillehammer Workshop: June 2008 (cont.)•

Improved training for general drivers: A component on awareness and acceptance of motorcyclists
should be included in the general training for all drivers, with a particular emphasis on the need forappropriate traffic scanning strategies.

•

Targeted integrated awareness campaigns. There should be regular, targeted, campaigns addressing
both motorcyclists and other road users, supported where necessary by other actions, e.g. enforcement,
focused on mutual respect, protective equipment, speed, alcohol and drug issues.

•Protective equipment for riders. Where standards for protective equipment exist, these should bepromoted; and where they do not, they should be developed, taking into account their safety performance,
rider comfort, the ergonomics of their use, costs and the climates and regions where they will be used.

Social / cultural factors•

Get safety messages to the riders and portrayal of responsible riding: Safety messages to riders should
be developed in partnership with rider groups, in order to use the effectiveness of peer advice incommunicating key issues to riders on issues that will impact their communities.

•

Develop awareness of motorcyclists and mutual respect between road users, education activities andcampaigns should be set up from childhood, to emphasise that “road safety means road sharing .

Road environment and infrastructure•

Guidelines for the development of road infrastructure and training for road designers. Each level ofgovernment should include in their infrastructure guidelines measures for accommodating motorcycles,developed with input from relevant stakeholders. The guidelines should be relevant to the needs of thejurisdiction concerned and co-ordinated with other jurisdictions and levels of government. The needs ofmotorcycles should be included in the basic training for road designers and highway and traffic engineers.

Vehicles•Braking systems. Manufacturers should continue to introduce advanced (better) braking systems, such as
combined brake systems and anti-lock-brake systems.

•

Motorcycles in ITS. Enhanced awareness of motorcycles should be incorporated into the development of
all ITS vehicle projects.

•

Headlamps in daytime. To improve rider/motorcycle PTW conspicuity, for new motorcycles, headlamps
should come on automatically when the engine is started; for other motorcycles, riders should switch on
their headlamps before they start their journey.

The objectives of the Working Group have been defined as follows:•

To further document areas that were identified in the Lillehammer Workshop as requiring more
research.

•

To review and synthesise the most recent knowledge dealing with PTW safety.

•

Improve the understanding of PTW crash configurations and mechanisms.

•

To progress toward the Safe System approach by going further than blaming weaknesses of acomponent of the traffic system and thinking more in terms of potential sustainably efficientsolutions.

•

To provide recommendations to policymakers on measures that can be implemented in the
short term to improve the safety of motorcyclists.
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Content of the report
This report presents state-of-the-art research conclusions and best practices dealing with the safetyof PTWs within the traffic system. It is divided into eleven chapters:•

Chapter 1, “Opportunities and challenges of powered two-wheelers”, gives an overview of the
purpose, background and spirit of the report.

•

Chapter 2, “Powered two-wheeler fleet and usage”, presents the mobility patterns of PTWs as
essential elements to be considered in order to thoroughly understand the different aspects ofthe problems in hand, as well as to assess risk exposure.

•

Chapter 3, “Powered two-wheeler crash characteristics”, introduces PTW crash patterns in a
descriptive way with the purpose of defining the basis of the problems.

•

Chapter 4, “Factors contributing to PTW crash characteristics and their severity , examines themost typical crash scenarios and their contributing factors, both at primary (i.e. crash factors)
and secondary (i.e. factors related to injury severity) safety levels.

•

Chapter 5, “Countermeasures addressing road user behaviour”, describes measures targeting
the road users through education, training and licensing, enforcement and communication
campaigns.

•

Chapter 6, “Countermeasures promoting the use of personal protective equipment” presents thesafety value of protective equipment, including helmets, protective clothing, airbag jackets,
high visibility clothing and neck braces.

•

Chapter 7, “Countermeasures targeting vehicles”, presents the current developments in vehicle
technologies to improve safety of riders. Intelligent transport systems are also examined in thissection.

•

Chapter 8, “Countermeasures targeting infrastructure and traffic management”, addresses theissues related to speed and traffic management, along with the necessity for infrastructure
design and maintenance to take PTWs into account.

•

Chapter 9, “Specific powered two-wheeler issues in emerging countries”, presents someparticular issues to acknowledge when dealing with the question of PTWs in motorisingcountries.

•

Chapter 10, “Developing and implementing an integrated road safety strategy for
motorcyclists”, outlines the need for a strategic approach to PTW safety to integrate effort andguide the allocation of resources toward initiatives that have proven benefits.

•

Chapter 11, “Conclusions and Recommendations” provides a summary of the main findings ofthis report and recommendations for the implementation of a toolbox of countermeasures areprovided.

The report does not provide a priority list or best practice list of countermeasures that each country
should apply. The PTW culture and safety issues differ in each country; therefore, no countermeasure fits
the needs of every country. In addition, it is not always possible to evaluate the impact of different
countermeasures in the same way. For some countermeasures (e.g. helmet-wearing and ABS) there isstronger scientific evidence than for others (e.g. education and communication campaigns).
Countermeasures presenting less marked scientific evidence of effectiveness are nevertheless presented
in this report. In this case, it is the Working Group’s expert opinion that a countermeasure can beeffective even if strong scientific evidence has not yet been established. It can notably be the case that
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1. OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF POWERED TWO-WHEELERS

one measure (e.g. communication) will become fully efficient only when associated with another (e.g.
enforcement). No single measure alone will be able to resolve the road safety problems for PTW users.
Finally, the countermeasures differ in costs and time span. While some recommendations may be far into
the future, others may provide more immediate results.

References
Amoros, E., J.-L. Martin, S. Laffont and B. Laumon (2008), “Actual incidences of road casualties andtheir injury severity modelled from police and hospital data , European Journal of Public Health,pp. 1-6.
Carsten, O. (2012), “Is intelligent speed adaptation ready for deployment? Accident Analysis &Prevention, 48, 1-3.
Elvik, R. (2004), “To what extent can theory account for the findings of road safety? Accident Analysis &Prevention, 36, 841-849.
Elvik, R. (2009), “Benefits and fairness: are the high risks faced by motorcyclists fair? In:
P. van Elslande (ed.), Les deux-roues motorisés : nouvelles connaissances et besoins de recherche,
Bron: Les collections de l’INRETS.
ETSC (2008), Vulnerable riders: Safety implications of motorcycling in the European Union, Brussels:
European Transport Safety Council.
European Commission (2011), Towards a European road safety area, Policy orientations on road safety,
2011-2020, European Commission, Brussels.
Haworth, N. (2012), “Powered two-wheelers in a changing world: challenges and opportunities , Accident
Analysis & Prevention, 44(1), 12-18.
NHTSA (2012), “Traffic safety facts: 2010 data – Motorcycles , DOT HS 811 639, Washington, D.C:
NHTSA's National Center for Statistics and Analysis.
OECD/ITF (2008), Towards Zero – Ambitious Road Safety Targets and the Safe System Approach, Paris:
OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789282101964-en.
OECD/ITF (2008b), Workshop on Motorcycling Safety, held in Lillehammer (Norway) on 10-11 June.
Final report,
http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/jtrc/safety/Lillehammer2008/Lillehammer08FinalReport.pdf.
ONISR (2009), La sécurité routière en France: bilan de l'année 2008, La documentation française.

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25

Rogers, N. (2008), “Trends in motorcycle fleets worldwide , presentation to Joint OECD/ITF Workshop
on Motorcycling safety,
http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/jtrc/safety/Lillehammer2008/Lillehammer08Rogers.pdf.
Rosch, E. (1978), “Cognition and categorization , in E. Rosch, B.B. Lloyd (eds.), Cognition andcategorization, Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
SafetyNet (2009), Powered Two-Wheelers,
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/specialist/knowledge/pdf/powered_two_wheelers.pdf,
retrieved 30 July 2015.
Shinar, D. (2012), “Safety and mobility of vulnerable road users: pedestrians, bicyclists, andmotorcyclists , Accident Analysis & Prevention, 44(1), 1-2.
Wegman, F.C.M. and L.T. Aarts (eds.) (2006), Advancing sustainable safety: national road safety outlookfor 2005-2020, Leidschendam, The Netherlands: SWOV Institute for Road Safety Research.
WHO (2013), Global Status Report on Road Safety, 2013: supporting a decade of action, World HealthOrganization.

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27

Chapter 2. Powered two-wheeler fleet and usage

This chapter analyses the recent evolution in the use of powered two-wheelers (PTWs) and theirrole in mobility. It highlights the distinction between different types of powered two-wheelers(mopeds, scooters and motorcycles) and describes the main characteristics of riders’ journeys invarious countries, taking into account geographical differences. It also reviews the policies in placethat have a direct or indirect effect on the use of powered two-wheelers.

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2. POWERED TWO-WHEELER FLEET AND USAGE

The fleet of powered two-wheelers
Categories of powered two-wheelers
In this report, the term powered two-wheelers (PTWs) includes all power-driven two- or threewheeled vehicles but does not include power-assisted or electric bicycles. Classifications of powered
two-wheelers were developed by the UNECE in its 1958 Agreement, and by the United Nations in the1968 Vienna Convention. In this report, for the sake of simplification, we identify two administrative
categories of PTWs:•

Mopeds.

•Motorcycles sometimes with a distinction between light motorcycles and others.

Scooters can belong to either of these categories, depending on their displacement. Electric PTWs
are being developed and can belong to either the moped or the motorcycle category.
Mopeds
Mopeds are lower-powered, two- or three-wheelers. In most jurisdictions, their engine displacement
is less or equal to 50 cm3. Top speed restrictions often apply and may vary between jurisdictions, but are
typically 45 km/h or 50 km/h. Electric mopeds have a power less, or equal to, 4 kW and a maximum
speed less or equal to 45 km/h.
Motorcycles
The term “motorcycles refers to a wide range of vehicles. Some jurisdictions define two categories
of motorcycle:•

Light motorcycles, with a displacement less or equal to 125 cm3;•

Motorcycles, with a displacement above 125 cm3. This category includes a wide range ofmotorcycles designed for varying uses. The terms used for particular types of motorcycles
differ across the world. Figure 2.1 illustrates a French categorisation developed by Ruscher(2003). In contrast, the US National Agenda for Motorcycle Safety (NAMS, NHTSA/MSF,
2001) categorises motorcycles as traditional, cruiser, sportbike, touring, sport-touring, dualpurpose, scooters, mopeds and nopeds (mopeds without pedals), sidecars and trikes.

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Figure 2.1. Diversity of powered two-wheelers

Source: Adapted from C. Ruscher, (2003).

Mopeds and motorcycles can be powered by thermal or electric engines. Electric powered twowheelers are starting to penetrate the market and present a number of advantages in terms of both
reduced air pollutant emissions and noise.
Attractiveness of mopeds and motorcycles
The use of PTWs presents a number of advantages for individual users:•

In urban areas, PTWs offer the advantages of individual transport modes with the potential to travel
relatively quickly and to have reliable travel times. This is made possible by the capacity to overtake
vehicles, allowing riders to get through most traffic jams. In addition, PTW users save time whensearching for a parking place, by parking legally or not very close to their destination.

•

In rural areas, they offer mobility options for users who do not have access to a car and where
public transport is sometimes non-existent.

•

PTWs are an individual transport mode, offering freedom and flexibility, with almost no
constraints on the departure and destination locations.

•Finally, PTWs are a cheaper way to travel than a private car: the purchase cost is lower,
maintenance is cheaper, fuel consumption is lower, and tolls and parking are often free or reduced.

At a societal level, PTWs also provide a number of benefits, as they respond to several concerns ofgovernments:•

Providing citizens with efficient transport modes;•

Optimising usage of road space and sharing of limited public space, so the maximum numberof people can use it;•

PTWs can bring benefits from an environmental perspective, especially in comparison withpassenger cars: less fuel consumption, less CO2 and NOX emissions than a private car, butmuch higher emission levels of HC. The emergence of electric PTWs, which are much cheaper
than electric cars, may bring additional environmental benefits (see Table 2.1).

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2. POWERED TWO-WHEELER FLEET AND USAGE

Table 2.1. Emissions of pollutants by various motorised transport means in cities
per km and per passenger
Car(1.2 passenger/vehicle)

Urban bus
(average occupation)

Motorcycle (urban)

Electric scooter*

CO2 (g/pax.km)

206

130

129

40.5

SO2 (g/pax.km)

0.04

0.01

0.04

PM (g/pax.km)

0.04

0.05

n.a.

HC (g/pax.km)

0.56

0.3

6.82

NOx (g/pax.km)

0.65

1.3

0.14

* On the basis of an average European electricity mix. With a French mix, CO2 emissions are: 5.3 g / pax.km
Source: ADEME, France.

However, PTWs also have a number of drawbacks:•

They are a more risky travel mode (about 20 times riskier than a car).

•

They are not emission free. PTWs emit local and global pollutants and are a significant sourceof noise.

•

They do not provide the same level of comfort and service as private cars (e.g., carrying morethan one passenger and cargo).

Key figures about the fleet
There is no consolidated data on the global fleet of powered two-wheelers and, in some emerging
economies, there is a lack of data. Nevertheless, in 2008, it was estimated that there were 313 million
powered two-wheelers in operation in the world, with more than three quarters of the PTW fleet in Asia
(see Figure 2.2). Worldwide, the current production of PTWs is around 50 million units per annum, to becompared with around 65 million units for passenger cars.

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Figure 2.2. Geographical distribution of the fleet in 2008
Middle East
1%

Africa1%

North America
2%Latin America
5%Europe
14%

Asia
77%

Source: Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (2008)

In most OECD countries, the motorcycle fleet grew much more rapidly than the passenger car fleet
in the decade 2001 to 2010 (see Table 2.2).
Table 2.2. Growth (%) in the PTW and passenger car fleets for a selection of OECD countries
2001-2010
Passenger
cars

MopedsMotorcycles

Australia

25%

Czech Republic

29%

10%

35%

France

11%

-22%

48%

Great Britain

13%

-27%

28%

Greece

52%

-14%

76%

Japan

11%

-20%

14%

Mexico

86%

Spain

22%

27%

82%

Sweden

8%

84%

91%

United States (excl. SUVs)

5%

Source: IRTAD; IMT for Mexico.

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88%

311%

67%

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2. POWERED TWO-WHEELER FLEET AND USAGE

European Union
There were 37 million PTWs in Europe1 in 2011, of which about 70% were motorcycles and 30%
were mopeds (ACEM, 2013). Within the motorcycle fleet, the smallest displacements (between 50
and 125 cm3) composed more than 60% of the total. The 125 cm3 class doubled in volume in five years(2003-08). In 2011-12, as a reflection of the overall economic downturn, the growth in sales of newvehicles halted (see Figure 2.3). Mopeds represent between 9% (in the UK) and 60% (in Luxembourg)of the PTW fleet, and their share is declining in most countries.
In large cities, the growing proportion of PTWs in the motorised fleet is marked. In Barcelona forexample, PTWs represented 24.7% of the fleet in 2002 (15.3% for motorcycles and 9.4% for mopeds)
but rose to 30.2% in 2011 (21.5% for motorcycles and 8.7% for mopeds).
Figure 2.3. Circulating PTW fleet in Europe*
2001-2011
38000 000
37 228 329 37 285 490

37000 000

36 768 274
36 368 363

36000 000

35 719 415

35000 000
34000 000

33 937 777

33000 000

32 690 538

32000 000

31 685 956
31 255 866

31000 000
30000 000

30182 765 30 350 983

29000 000

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

* European Union + Norway + Switzerland
Source: ACEM.

RussiaIn 2011, there were about 2.6 million powered two-wheelers, i.e. 6% of the motor vehicle fleet in
the Russian Federation. The large majority (94%) of the fleet is composed of motorcycles; however, themoped fleet is increasing significantly.
United States
In the United States, the number of registered motorcycles rose at the end of the 1970s and early
1980s followed by a sustained decline through the late 1990s. Motorcycle registrations have been on asteady increase since that time. In the United States, a large share of the PTW fleet is made up of
powerful motorcycles, with 75% above 749 cm3 (Motorcycle Industry Council, 2010).
Mopeds are nearly absent from the market, representing less than 4% of the PTW fleet.

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Australia
Overall, PTWs compose only a small proportion of the fleet, but their numbers are growing at afaster rate than for other vehicles. PTWs represented 4.1% of the motor vehicle fleet in 2011, an increase
from 3.2% in 2006, as PTW numbers grew in this period by 47% (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2011).
Many motorcycles are larger than 750 cm3 with a survey of riders in Victoria indicating thatapproximately 50% had a motorcycle of this size as their main vehicle. In contrast, fewer than 3% of riders
reported using a PTW of less than 125 cm3 as their main vehicle. Scooters represent a small proportion of the
PTW fleet, with less than 5% of riders reporting using them as their main choice (VicRoads, 2008).
In Australia, the proportion of mopeds is very low and, in many States, moped data is not separately
collected as a full motorcycle licence is required to ride a moped. In the State of Queensland, mopeds may beridden on a car licence and mopeds constituted 6.9% of registered PTWs in 2003-2008 (Blackman andHaworth, 2013). Given that a car or motorcycle licence is required, access to mopeds is not available toyounger riders in Australia (in contrast to Europe), thus reducing demand for these vehicles.
New Zealand
The PTW fleet grew rapidly from 2004 to 2008 and was static in the three following years. The
growth categories are concentrated at the extreme of the fleet – the under 60 cm3, under 250 cm3 andover 1 000 cm3 groupings grew the most. The average engine capacity is close to 600 cm3 and growing(Ministry of Transport, 2013). In 2011, there were 112 000 PTWs, comprising 3% of the motorised fleet.
Asia
PTWs are the principal mode of motorised transport in many Asian countries. PTWs account for up
to 85% of the motorised vehicle fleet and the PTW fleet is continually increasing. In many countries,
mopeds constitute the biggest market share (see also Chapter 9).
Japan
In Japan, the moped fleet reached a peak in the late 1980s and was at that time twice the size of the
motorcycle fleet. It has fallen considerably since, but still represented more than 60% of the PTW fleet in2010. The relatively high proportion of mopeds in Japan can be explained by the ease in obtaining alicence (car licence holders do not need to take a test), relatively low costs and the fact that automobile
insurance covers mopeds for free.
Korea
The number of motorcycles is steadily increasing in Korea and reached 1.8 million units in 2011
(with 13.6 million passenger cars). Official statistics are not yet available for mopeds, as registration only
became compulsory in 2012 (to increase safety, and also to fight against theft).
India
In 2011, there were 100 million motorised two-wheelers in India, representing 70% of the motorised
vehicle fleet. Between 1997 and 2011, the size of the PTW fleet multiplied by four. The significant increase in
the PTW fleet across the country is due to the increasing necessity for travel, easy availability, increasingpurchasing power, poor public transport and inability to afford personal cars (see Figure 2.4). Mopeds
represent 65% of the registered PTW fleet.
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2. POWERED TWO-WHEELER FLEET AND USAGE

Figure 2.4. Growth in the motor vehicle fleet in India
1996-2011
othersBuses

Cars, taxi, jeeps

PTW

Motor vehicles (x 1 000)

160 000
140 000
120 000
100 000
80 00060 00040 000
20 00001996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Source: Ministry of Roads, Transports and Highways.

China
Based on data from the Traffic Management Bureau of the Ministry of Public Security, the numberof motorcycles in China increased by more than 70% between 2003 and 2011 from 60 million to
103 million units.
Central and Latin America
In many Latin American countries, the mass sales and use of PTWs has been rather recent, and has
considerably increased in the past 10 years. The PTW fleet is growing every year by about 10%, slightly
faster than the fleet of passenger vehicles. In those Latin American countries for which data are available(see Table 2.3), PTWs make up between 3% (Chile) and 52% (Uruguay) of the motorised vehicle fleet.
In Mexico, PTWs represented only 4% of the fleet in 2011, but the fleet is growing rapidly and has
almost doubled in 5 years.

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Table 2.3. PTW fleet in Latin America in 2011
Estimation of the PTW fleet% of the motor vehicle
fleet

Argentina

3 823 000

21%

Brazil

15 688,000

22%

Chile

113,000

3%

Colombia

3 794 800

50%

Costa Rica

130 500

14%

Equator329 000

22%

El Salvador

75 00010%

Guatemala657 000

30%

Mexico

1 310 000

4%Nicaragua

134 00030%

271 900

27%Peru

1 568 366

44%

Dominic Republic

1 481 20051%

Uruguay

824 000

52%

Venezuela

985 000

19%

Paraguay

Source: Ibero American Road Safety Observatory (OISEVI).

AfricaThere are no consolidated data on the PTW fleet for the African continent. Information gatheredfrom a few countries shows that the use of PTWs as commercial vehicles has substantially increased overthe past decade in the big African cities. In particular, the number of moto-taxis has exploded in thesecities, as a consequence of the lack of public transport services (Kumar, 2011).
Characteristics of and changes in users of powered two-wheelers
PTW usage and users
It is difficult to analyse the role of PTWs in traffic because there is sparse data on PTW mileage. In
most countries, mileage is estimated based on the numbers of registered vehicles; but there is a large
difference between owning a vehicle and using it. The most reliable information on PTW usage comesfrom household surveys. These surveys show that PTW usage has been growing significantly from pastlevels. Haworth (2012) studied the main reasons for the growth in the use of powered two-wheelers andsummarised these as follows:•

Ease of use.

•

Efficiency and economy of this mode of transport.

•

Their use in businesses.

•

Growth in individual leisure.

Mopeds are used mainly in Europe by young people, as there are few access restrictions for thistype of motorised vehicle (see next section). Most motorcycle use is for everyday travel, but in mature
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markets (e.g., Europe, United States) larger motorcycles are used for leisure riding. In Europe, PTWs arecommonly used for commuting, but this is much rarer in the United States, Canada or Australia, where
PTWs are largely used for recreational riding.
In many OECD countries, there is an increasing number of “returning riders typically males in
the 40-50 year age group who stopped riding a PTW for a period of more than 5 years, and usually return
to riding on powerful motorcycles.
The PTW rider population is composed mostly of males; but the trend is evolving, with increasing
numbers of females now riding.
Box 2.1. Mobility patterns in Greece
Results of Greek study, based on national transport survey(Yannis, 2007)•

Mopeds are mainly ridden by the 16-17 age-group.

•

8-20 years-olds use PTWs as much as private cars.

•

Most PTWs riders are male.

•

There are more females riding mopeds than motorcycles.

•

Average yearly distance travelled increases with the power of PTW: 4 172 km / year for a moped;
11 993 km / year for a PTW > 730 cm3.

Other results from this study show that, contrary to what is often assumed, PTWs are not primarily used for
leisure. The average distance travelled (on a yearly basis) by moped or motorcycle on a week day is twice asmuch as during the weekend. This is not the case for cars, for which the average distance during a week day is
only 10% higher than during the weekend. In Greece, PTWs are therefore used mainly to go to school or work,
while cars are the preferred travel mode for leisure during the week end.
Mopeds are used in predominantly urban areas (87% of their use, compared to 47% for private cars). Thisis because young people use them to go to school or to visit their friends, which correspond to trips inside urban
areas.
Motorcycles are also used mainly in urban areas (83.5% of the distance travelled) but, given their higher
performance, they are more suited than mopeds to drive outside urban areas.

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Box 2.2. Mobility patterns in the United Kingdom
Results of a British study
A TRL study (Christmas et al., 2009) developed a categorisation of riders on the basis of about 1 000 rider
interviews. The classification clearly shows that there are groups among riders who have a focus either on leisureand fun riding, or riding for transport. However, none of the groups does exclusively one or the other.
The typical use of PTW in the United Kingdom:•

53% of riders ride less than 4 000 miles (6 400 km) per annum (47% ride more);•

34% only ride in summer;•

14% ride only for commuting;•

12% ride as part of the job;•

72% do all year round leisure riding;•

71% do all year round fun riding;•

21% ride only on rural roads, 15% only urban and 64% do both;•

82% of the riders hold a car licence, 72% use a car on a regular basis at an average of 10 000 miles(16 000 km) per annum., which is at least not much less than an average car user.

Box 2.3. Mobility patterns in France
Results of a French survey of national households(CERTU, 2010)
On average, French people undertake 1.5% of their trips by PTW, using their mopeds or motorcycles for
two-thirds of their travel. They rarely travel by car or by foot.
Mopeds are used mainly for commuting or going to school/university, with the second travel purpose being
to visit friends or for study-related trips. Motorcycles trips are mainly work-related.
Mopeds users: include many children and young people below 25 years, and rarely more than 34 years
old. They include an important proportion of the labour force, but mainly workers or employees, and few people
with high educational backgrounds. Both non-motorised households (for whom the moped replaces the car) andover-motorised households (well-off households, who can purchase one or more mopeds for their children) areover-represented among moped users.
Motorcycles users: often include mature people (35-49 year age group) as well as 25-34 and 50-64 year
olds. A high proportion is at the higher educational level, with most working usually as senior staff orprofessionals. Their households are less likely to be over-motorised (i.e. the motorcycle usually replaces one
car).

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Box 2.4. Mobility patterns in New Zealand
Results based on New Zealand Household Travel Survey 2003-2009(Study from the Ministry of Transport)

Highlights:•

Motorcycling makes up approximately 0.5% of total travel time and 0.5% of trips.

•

About 120 000 people each year ride more than 100 km (82% male, 18% female).

•30-44 year olds as well as 45+ years made up the greatest proportion of these riders (at 38% each);while those aged 15-29 made up 25%.

•

65% of motorcycling trips are for commuting: to work or to study. (For car trips, it is 30%.)•

32% of the distance ridden every year is on urban roads, and 68% on open roads.

Access and training
The training and access policies related to this travel mode influence the choice and use of PTWs.
This is typically the case for mopeds which represent, in many countries, the only motorised
individual travel mode accessible for 14-18 year olds. This is less the case in the United States, where it
is legal to drive a car from age 16 in many states, and does not apply in most states of Australia wheremoped riders require a car or motorcycle licence.
Box 2.5. Influence of PTW access policy on the use and choice of PTW in France
In France, from 1996 to 2007, anyone who had held a car licence for more than two years was authorised toride a PTW up to 125 cm3 without an additional test or training. There was an increase in the number of 125cm3
PTWs in the fleet after 1996.
Since 2011, those holding a car-driving licence for longer than two years must now also undertake
seven hours of training to be authorised to ride a 125cm3 PTW (this training did not apply to people who could
demonstrate having held PTW insurance for more than two years). This measure was immediately followed by adecrease in the sales of 125cm3 and a light increase in the sales of 50cm3 PTWs.

There are different categories of licences for motorcycles, usually based on the power of the engine,
aiming to ensure an adequate degree of maturity, experience and education to ride a powered twowheeler. Licence categories might also be put in place to encourage or ensure a graduated access to
PTWs (this is further discussed in Chapter 5). For mopeds, access in most countries is very simple; theage of the rider is often the only criterion, although some countries now also require a test on traffic
rules.
European Union
Member states of the European Union have a harmonised licensing system, which still offers
various options to the Member states. The 3rd Driving Licence Directive (2006/126/EC) came into force
in January 2013. Within this Directive, mopeds were included in the licensing system for the first timeand a strict graduated approach was mandated for access to heavier machines.

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However, the subsidiarity principle applies and countries can adapt the Directive. As an example,
the minimum age to ride an A-class motorcycle in most countries is about 20 or 22 years not 24 years
as prescribed in the Directive (see Tables 2.4 and 2.5). France and Italy are the only EU countries
allowing teenagers to ride a moped from 14 years. In France, there is only seven hours of compulsory
training, while in Italy children must pass a practical test to ride a moped. In France, the underlying
reason is twofold: first, to give young apprentices living in rural areas access to individual motorised
transport. Second, to offer a means of individual motorised transport that is not subject to a licence.
Table 2.4. Riding licence in Europe
Age and engine power restrictions within the 3rd Driving Licence Directive(effective as of January 2013)

3rd directive(2006/126 EC)

Item
Vehicle restrictions
Category AM (moped)
Maximum speed (km/h)

45

Minimum age

16 (subsidiary 14 to 18)

Category A1
Maximum engine power (kW)11

Maximum power weight (kW/kg)

0,1 max

Maximum. capacity (cm³)

125

Minimum age

16 to 18 (subsidiary)

Category A2
Maximum engine power (kW)35

Maximum. power weight (kW/kg)

0,20

Minimum age

18, but A1 min age + 2 years

Category A
Minimum age for direct access

24

Great Britain
In Great Britain, a system of Compulsory Basic Training (CBT) for new riders was introduced in1991. Reform of the CBT system is currently being considered. Riders of PTWs of all types must firstundertake CBT before being allowed to ride on the road on a provisional licence. The CBT course
includes classroom-based theory elements, off-road practice and a road ride, accompanied by a trainer, ofat least two hours. Riders must show they are competent before they are issued a certificate.
Riders who have completed CBT are authorised to ride a moped or a motorcycle up to 125 cm3
unaccompanied, provided they display “L plates, do not carry pillion passengers, and do not ride on
motorways. The CBT certificate is valid for two years, by which time the riders must have passed a testor retake CBT if they wish to continue riding. Riders of larger motorcycles, once they have completed
CBT, can only ride on the roads, using L-plates, if they are accompanied by an instructor, in radio
contact, for the purpose of training for the test.

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Those who passed their car driving test prior to 1 February 2001 have full moped entitlement andare not required to take a CBT course to ride a moped. Those who passed their car driving test after thisdate need to complete a CBT course to validate their moped entitlement. On completion of CBT they areentitled to ride a moped without L-plates and carry pillion passengers.
United States
In the United States, the licensing rules vary from state-to-stat; ranging from highly regulated
systems to no specific licences for PTWs.
CanadaIn Canada, the licensing system is defined by each province. Some Provinces have a mandatory
rider training requirement while others use a licensing incentive for rider training.
In Ontario, the applicants must be at least 16 years of age and parental consent is not required, while
in most other jurisdictions parental consent of age is required until 18 years of age. New drivers applying
for a first licence to ride a motorcycle need to enter Ontario's graduated licensing system, described
below.
•••Class M1: After candidates pass a motorcycle knowledge test, they receive a Class M1 licence andan information package for new riders. New motorcycle riders with an M1 licence learn to ride under
the following four conditions:oblood alcohol level must be zero;oride only during daylight hours (1/2 hour before sunrise to 1/2 hour after sunset);ono riding on highways with speed limits of more than 80 km/h (with some exceptions);ono passengers.

Class M2: Riders must pass an M1 road test or complete an approved motorcycle safety course
before receiving a Class M2 licence. They must hold a Class M1 licence for a minimum of
22 months. If they complete an approved motorcycle safety course, they may reduce this timerequirement by four months. With an M2 licence, they gain more privileges they may ride at night
and on any road. However, at this level:otheir blood alcohol level must be zero;othey will be eligible to take a Class M road test after they have completed the required timewith an M2 licence;othey must pass the on-road test to obtain a full Class M licence.

Class M: Full licence, with no restriction.
MexicoIn Mexico, a car or motorcycle licence is required to ride a PTW. The licensing system is defined byeach state; but the main requirements (in terms of medical condition, theoretical and practical tests) aresimilar throughout the country (see Table 2.5). In most states, the applicants for the restricted licencemust be at least 16 years of age (15 in Mexico City) and parental consent and responsibility until
18 years of age is required. For this category, training is usually not compulsory and vehicle insurance is
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in most cases not required. Applicants for the full licence must be at least 18 years of age and havepassed a theoretical and practical test. Training is compulsory only in a few states.
Australia
The licensing system for PTWs is defined by each State. Some States require a motorcycle licenceto ride a moped; others allow a moped to be ridden on a car licence. Western Australia has a specificmoped licence. In all States, a motorcycle licence is required to ride a scooter that has an engine capacity
exceeding 50 cm3. The minimum age for operating a PTW ranges between 16 and 18 years, and inseveral States there is a requirement to hold a car licence before learning to ride a PTW. The underlying
principle is to avoid a system that would encourage younger people – who are the most at risk – fromusing a riskier means of transport. Each State has learner, provisional or restricted, and open licencephases, but riders who have completed the graduated licensing scheme for car licences may skip theprovisional or restricted phases in some jurisdictions. Novice riders are subject to restrictions on carrying
passengers and blood alcohol concentration. Each jurisdiction has a Learner Approved Motorcycle(LAM) Scheme which restricts novice riders to motorcycles with a power-to-weight ratio that does notexceed 150 kW/ton, and an engine capacity that does not exceed 660 cm3. In Queensland, additional
testing is required to remove this requirement after at least one year.
New Zealand
A car or motorcycle licence is required to ride a moped. All other PTWs require a motorcycle
licence. There are three stages:•

Stage 1: learner licence: candidates must be at least 16 years old and have passed a road rules
theory test. While on a learner licence, riders are not allowed to ride a motorcycle of more than
250 cm3, carry passengers, or ride between 10 pm and 5 am. The motorcycle must display alearner (L) rear-plate.

•Stage 2: restricted licence: candidates must be at least 16½ years old, have held their learner
licence for at least six months and have passed a practical test of their driving skills. While on a
restricted licence, riders are not allowed to ride a motorcycle of more than 250 cm3, carrypassengers, or ride between 10 pm and 5 am.

•

Stage 3: full licence: candidates must be at least 18 years of age, or 17½, if they havecompleted an approved advanced driving skills course. Candidates under 25 years of age canapply after having held a restricted licence for at least 18 months (or at least 12 months for
those having completed an approved advanced driving skills course). Candidates above 25 canapply after having held a restricted licence for at least six months (or at least three months for
those having completed an approved advanced driving skill course).

Table 2.5 summarises the licensing schemes in OECD countries, based on the European
categorisation of powered two-wheelers (see Table 2.4)

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Only W. Australia
has moped licence.
Theory test.
Sth Australia
and Queensland
allow moped riding
on car licence. Other
states require PTW
licence.

15.5
(WA)

15

Australia

Austria

16

14

14

Belgium

CanadaFranceTheoretical test at
school (ASSR)
compulsory for all
children + 7 hours
practical training(BSR)

Most jurisdictions
require 16 years ofage for any driver
licence types.

Alberta and Quebec
allow 14-year olds tooperate mopeds ande-bikes.

Exams:
theory test + private
groundTraining:
min. 4 lessons,
including specificsafety for mopeds
and 50% on-road.

Terms

AM
(moped)Min ageCountry

16

16

18

16

A1 (engine
power 11kw)
Min age

Or: car licence (from 18yrs) + 7 hours training

Exams: theory test +private ground + publicway (identical to A2 andA licence)

Training:
15 hours minimum

Mandatory rider training
may be required incertain jurisdictions.

Exams: theory test +private ground + publicroad (in principle of
GDE)

Direct access:Training: 9 stages(evaluate on 9 hours;
min 50% on road) in
driving school + choice:
1° Temporary Drive
Licence and/or
2° 3 stages in driving
schoolNo distinction A1, A2, A– all require same PTW
licence

Terms

18

16

20

18

A2
(engine power
35 kw)
Min age
Terms

Exams: theory test +Private ground +Public way

Training:
20 hours minimum(or A1 +15 hours)

From: 18 to 24 years

Progressive engine
size applies in somejurisdictions.
Licensing test is taken
on small engine size
motorcycles, scootersor moped.

Direct access:(see A1) or
Progressive access:2yrs experience of A1+ progressive training(specific andindividual training of
4 stages)
Exams: Private ground+ Public way

No distinction A1, A2,
A – all require same
PTW licence

Table 2.5. PTW Licence Categories

24

16

22

20

16-18
depends on stateA(no restriction)
Min ageOr:
hold A2 during 2 years andtraining 7 hours (accessible
from 20 years old)

Training:
minimum : 20 hours

Progressive engine size
applies in somejurisdiction. Licensing test
is taken on small engine
size motorcycles, scootersor moped.

Direct access: see A1Progressive access: see A2

Learner Approved
Motorcycles are <660 cm3and <150 kW/tonne

Some states minimum
durations, or mandatory
training.

Learner, provisional/
restricted, and full licences.

Terms

42 – 2. POWERED TWO-WHEELER FLEET AND USAGE

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Min. 15 lessons.
No Pillion allowed until
18

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16

Theory test + practical(on road) test

14 lessons obligatory
training

16

16

Netherlands

Norway9 lessons obligatory
training

Theory test + practical
test (closed area) +practical test (on the
road)

18

20

16

13 lessons obligatory
training

Without A1: Theory
test + practical test
(closed area) +practical test (on theroad)With A1: Practical test
(on the road)

No Categories. Minimum age to ride any PTW: 16; Conditional permit and parent consent until the age of 18

20

24

22

18

PTW =< 400 cm3:
Theoretical, aptitude
and skill test. 3 hoursof riding lessons. 3hours of theoreticalsession.

MexicoCar licence holders
can ride a moped.

3 hours of training
Theory and aptitude
test

16

21

21

24

A
(no restriction)
Min age

Passing from A1 to A2
is not automatic. Thereis always a need for apractical exam

Japan

18

holding at least for
2 years the A1 licence+ new riding tests
Min. 15 lessons.
Min. 8 lessons forA1 holders.

14

16

16

or

20

Minimum:
10 motorcycle theory
lessons of 45 min,14 riding lessons of
45 min theory anddriving tests

Since 19/01/2013

Minimum:
10 motorcycle theory
lessons of 45 min,14 riding lessons of 45
min
Theory and driving tests

Terms

A2
(engine power
35 kw)
Min age

Terms

Italy

Since 2005 people
that don’t have alicence need to obtaina certificate (so-called“mini- licence“)No such vehicles

18

Exams: theory test +closed area practical
test

IsraelA1(engine power
11kw)
Min age

Terms

16

AM
(moped)Min age

GreeceCountry

Table 2.5. PTW Licence Categories (cont.)

7 lessons obligatory
training. Minimum 2 yearwith A2 licence

Without A2: Theory test +practical test (closed area) +practical test (on the road)

With A2: Practical test (onthe road)

PTW > 400 cm3.
Theoretical, aptitude andskill test.
3 hours of theoreticalsessions and 3 hours of
riding lessons.

Those already having theA2, after 2 years
automatically obtain the A
without limitations

Must hold A2 for 1 year.
Min. 8 lessons.

holding at least for 2 years
the A2 licenceorMinimum:
10 motorcycle theory
lessons of 4 mn, 14 riding
lessons of 45 min, theory
and driving tests.

Terms

2. POWERED TWO-WHEELER FLEET AND USAGE

43

Theory test + practical
test (closed area) +practical test (on theroad)

Theory test + practical
test (on the road).
Successful completionof category B test
(minimum age 17) will
also give AM
entitlement, whichmust be validated bycompleting a CBTcourse.
17

Theory test + practical
test (closed area) +practical test (on theroad)

At least 3 hours
theoretical risk
education and at least
4 hours practical risk
education.

Theory test (no driving
test)

16

Mandatory risk
education formotorcyclists.

Learners permit
including a healthdeclaration.

19

18

18

18

If under 18 years old,parents’ consent
required (also applies
to AM category)

Theory + closed areapractical+ “real“
driving in traffic

A2(engine power
35 kw)
Min age

Terms

Direct access:
Theory test + practical
test (closed area) +practical test (on theroad).

If held A1 licence for 2
years, practical test
(closed area) + practical
test (on the road).

Theory test + practical
test (closed area) +practical test (on theroad) No theory test,
only if the candidate
already has category A1

Learners permit
including a healthdeclaration. Mandatory
risk education formotorcyclists if sucheducation is notcompleted for category
A1.

Staged access (for thosedrivers holding A1 forover 2 years): the theory
test does not apply

Theory + closed areapractical + “real driving
in traffic.

Min. 16+4 lessons

Terms* Spain: 18 to carry passengers.

24
(21)

24 (20)

20

21

A(no restriction)
Min age

No federal licensing requirements. Each State in the US develops and enforces independent licensing laws for ages and types of PTWs.

16

UnitedKingdom

UnitedStates

15

15*

Spain

Sweden16

Theory + closed areapractical tests (fornon-holders of anotherlicence)

Learners permit
including a healthdeclaration.
Compulsory
education; theoreticaland practical exercises
including driving in
traffic (Minimum
time:12 hours included
4 hours of practicaltraining).

16

A1(engine power
11kw)
Min age

17 hours of training
mandatory

Terms

14

AM
(moped)Min age

PortugalCountry

Table 2.5. PTW Licence Categories (cont.)

Direct access: age 24,
theory test + practical test
(closed area) + practical
test (on the road)If held A2 licence for 2
years, access at age 21
practical test (closed area)+ practical test (on theroad).

Learners permit including ahealth declaration.
Mandatory risk education
for motorcyclists if sucheducation is not completed
for a lower category.
Theory test + practical test
(closed area) + practical
test (on the road) 24 years
for direct access tocategory A, but 20 years if
two years of experience of
A2. No theoretical test if
the candidate already has
category A1 or A2.

Minimum 2 year with A2
licence.
9 hours training (4 closed
area + 2 “real“ driving in
traffic + 3 theory andawareness)

21 years old, or must holdA2 for 2 years.

Terms

44 – 2. POWERED TWO-WHEELER FLEET AND USAGE

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Transport and mobility policies for powered two-wheelers
National transport policy which has an impact on PTW mobility
European Union: Green paper “Towards a new culture for urban mobility
The Green Paper of the European Commission integrates the benefits of PTWs in urban traffic. It
states that:“Rethinking urban mobility involves optimising the use of all the various modes of transport andorganising “co-modality between the different modes of collective transport (train, tram, metro,bus, taxi) and the different modes of individual transport (car, motorcycle, cycle, walking).
... Experiences from stakeholders show that there is no single solution to reduce congestion.
However, alternatives to private car use, such as walking, cycling, collective transport or the use of
the motorbike and scooter, should be made attractive and safe.
Nevertheless, in 2011, few European cities (e.g. Rome, Paris, London, and Barcelona) had adedicated policy to integrate PTWs in their travel plans (European Commission, 2011).
Often, the development of PTW usage is not managed and in some cases comes as a response to
strategies restricting car use (parking policy for example), associated with a certain tolerance for PTWs
without any formal position regarding PTWs (PTW parking or filtering may be tolerated).
SwedenThe overall objective of the Swedish transport policy is to ensure the provision of transport forpeople and businesses throughout the country in a manner that is economically efficient and sustainable
in the long term. The overall objective is supported by two main objectives: a functional objective thatconcerns the accessibility of the journey or transport, and an impact objective that concerns safety, theenvironment and health. The objectives comprise all modes of traffic, which means that they also
concern transport and journeys made by motorcycle and moped.
The moped or motorcycle is needed by many for running necessary daily errands or for improved
quality of life during leisure hours.
To respond to the doubling of PTW travel in the past ten years, a full strategy to improve the safetyof PTWs was developed and a revised version was released in 2012. The strategy is an integrated part of
the work to achieve the interim goals for road safety in the year 2020. The goals were decided by the
Swedish Parliament in May 2009.
Australia
Most of the responsibility for transport and transport policy in Australia rests with state
governments. The Federal Government seeks to coordinate transport policy through the Transport
Infrastructure Council (which includes representatives of all states and the federal government) and the
National Transport Commission (www.ntc.gov.au) is charged with “developing national regulatory andoperational reform and implementations strategies for road, rail and intermodal transport”. A National
Transport Plan was agreed to in 2008, but the document does not mention motorcycles although they
are mentioned in some of the underpinning documents, including the National Road Safety Strategy.
Various state governments have their own transport strategies (not all of which mention PTWs) and somestates have PTW strategies or PTW road safety strategies.

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United States
The U.S. Department of Transportation has a policy initiative regarding transportation and liveable
communities. Former DOT Secretary Ray LaHood stated:“Liveability means being able to take your kids to school, go to work, see a doctor, drop by thegrocery or Post Office, go out to dinner and a movie, and play with your kids at the park – allwithout having to get in your car.
This effort involves planning and development of communities with transportation as an importantconsideration. More compact, connected communities could impact the use and infrastructure
considerations for PTWs.
Examples of local strategies influencing PTW usage
Policies encouraging the use of PTWs•

Stringent parking policy for cars and tolerance and free parking for PTWs

The cities of Paris, Stockholm, Copenhagen and Amsterdam have stringent parking policies for cars
(e.g. diminution of available space, paid parking), while at the same time no parking restriction for
PTWs. The result has been a sharp increase in the number of motorised two-wheelers in operation, seen
initially as a better alternative to private car use.
•

Use of bus lanes by PTWs

In London, PTWs are allowed to drive in most bus lanes. Vienna has launched a pilot test (seedescription below).
•High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lanes

High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes, or carpool lanes, are reserved for vehicles with a specified
minimum number of occupants (usually two or three). U.S. Federal law requires that HOV lanes “mustallow motorcycles and bicycles to use the HOV facility, unless either or both create a safety hazard. In
some states, certain single-occupant vehicles such as hybrid vehicles or those using alternative fuels may
be driven on HOV facilities as well.
•

Advanced stop lines

Advanced stop lines provide space for PTWs to stop in front of other vehicles at traffic signals (seemore in Chapter 8).
•

Filtering

In Belgium, filtering has been authorised since July 2011. PTW riders are allowed to move between
two lanes at a maximum speed of 50 km/h and with a speed difference of less than 20 km/h compared tothe traffic in the adjacent lanes. On motorways/highways, this manoeuvre is only allowed between the
two left lanes. There has not yet been assessment in terms of traffic or crashes.
In the ACT – Australian Capital Territory2 a lane filtering trial will be conducted for a period of two
years commencing 1 February 2015
In France, this issue is on the political agenda and experimentation on filtering could start in 2015.

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Policies restricting the use of PTWs
In China, mainly for environmental reasons, gasoline motorcycles are banned from downtown
Guangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Hangzhou; and restricted in Beijing and Shanghai.
Electric two-wheelers – ranging from electric bicycles to electric motorcycles are however, promoted.
Electric bike sales began modestly in the 1990s and started to take off in 2004, when 40 000 were sold.
Since then over 100 million have been purchased, with more than 20 million sold each year.

Box 2.6. City of London - Impact of traffic policy on the use of PTWs
London has recently adopted a number of urban and traffic measures to reduce the place of cars in the city
centre. These measures also affected the use of PTWs.
London Parking charges: Parking charges are the responsibility of the 33 London boroughs and each has
its own approach. It is only the City of Westminster (which covers much of central London) which has
introduced parking charges for motorcycles, alongside the longstanding parking charges for cars. PTW parking
remains free in other parts of central, inner and outer London, though often only in designated parking bays.
Short-term car parking is allowed for either two, or four hours, depending on the area. Parking for cars is paid by
the minute (20 pence per minute, four pounds per hour). PTW parking is much cheaper, i.e. one pound per day inpublic areas; there are discounts if longer periods are paid in one go (up to GBP 100 per year).
The London congestion charge is a fee charged for some categories of motor vehicle to travel at certain
times within the Congestion Charge Zone (CCZ), a traffic area in central London. It is run by Transport for
London (TfL), the regional authority, not by the boroughs. The charge aims to reduce congestion, and raise
investment funds for London's transport system. Though not the first scheme of its kind in the United Kingdom,
it was the largest when introduced, and it remains one of the largest in the world. The western extension of thecharging zone, introduced by the previous mayor, is being removed by the current mayor. PTWs are exempt
from the central London congestion charge, recognising that they do not contribute to the congestion problem incentral London. There has been an increase in PTW use in London since the charge was introduced.
Use of bus lanes by PTW
Since January 2012, PTWs are allowed to use most bus lanes in London, with the main objective to smoothtraffic, cut CO2 across London and improve journey time reliability for motorcyclists on the network.
Source: Transport for London.

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Box 2.7. PTWs within traffic policy in Barcelona
Barcelona has a fleet of 300 000 motorcycles (30% of the vehicle fleet), which is the second largest in
Europe behind Rome. From the end of 2004 a new law was passed that allowed car drivers who had held alicence for 3 or more years to drive light motorcycles without any other special requirement. This contributed toa sharp increase in PTW crashes in the period 2005-2010. Despite frequent enforcement, problems of noise andair pollution remained. The practice of uncontrolled parking is to the detriment of pedestrian space. The city ofBarcelona has seen the increase in PTW use as an opportunity to address traffic congestion and has implemented
a number of measures to better regulate the use of these vehicles.
Advanced zones at traffic lights
The advanced zones at traffic lights allow the users of PTWs to position themselves in front of the car
traffic on the traffic intersection. Parking policy
PTWs may be parked on footpaths with a width of more than 5 metres.
The municipality of Barcelona has implemented a taxation system for parking to reduce commuting traffic
and to facilitate, prioritise and encourage bicycle traffic. The city is distributed into different areas with varying
parking charges. There are parking areas, for parking of the resident's cars and others. Residential car owners
receive parking privileges in terms of fees and reserved parking areas. Parking fees are 100% invested into
improvement of infrastructure, which means both traffic calming measures such as rebuilding 30 km zones,
pedestrian areas and other comparable measures and extending the public bicycle-sharing programme. Parking
space for these bikes, other bikes and motorcycles is built up using these funds.
Electric powered two-wheelers
The city of Barcelona is now undertaking an ambitious programme focusing on promoting electric PTWs.

Box 2.8. Traffic policy and PTW in Vienna (Austria)
Parking policy, parking fees, bus lane use, sidewalk parking, filtering
Mopeds may be parked on footpaths with a width of more than 2.5 metres.
An area around the city centre of Vienna for short term parking was recently extended. The restrictions arevalid Monday to Friday from 9:00 to 22:00, with some exceptions in particular on shopping roads. Cars arecharged EUR 2 per hour. Parking is limited to a maximum of two hours. Neither the maximum parking duration
nor the charges apply to PTWs.
Filtering and advanced stop lines
PTW are allowed to filter between queues of cars, which have come to a complete stop. However, theymust not impede drivers wanting to change direction. This does not apply to motorways and PTWs must nottravel on the hard shoulder or within the emergency corridor.
There is an increasing number of “advanced stop lines . Primarily introduced for the sake of bicyclist
safety, PTW riders are in favour of these as well.
Bus lanes
In 2005, a pilot has been launched to allow PTW riders to use bus lanes. PTWs are not allowed on bicycle
paths.

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Conclusions
The powered two-wheeler fleet (which includes motorcycles, scooters and mopeds) has been
constantly increasing and plays a significant role in mobility in many countries, particularly in many of
the world’s large cities. Some riders use PTWs as their only form of transportation (for example in many
emerging countries) for commuting (mainly in European cities), for recreation (for example, in North
America, the United States, Canada), or for both commuting and recreational riding.
Access to PTW riding usually depends on their engine displacement and the age of the riders. It
requires obtaining a specific licence, subject to minimum training, and a practical test at least for engine
capacities above 50 cm3. There is an effort towards regional harmonisation (e.g. in Europe) of thelicensing systems for PTWs, but there is still diversity within Federal environments among theirjurisdictions, in particular regarding the minimum age to ride a PTW.
PTWs are becoming an important component of the transport system and in some cities represent up
to 30% of the motor vehicle fleet. They present both assets for mobility, and also challenges in terms of
traffic management and safety. However, only a few countries have in place a national transport strategy
for PTWs; though several measures have been taken at local level.
There would be many benefits in terms of mobility and traffic management as well as traffic
safety in a better integration of PTWs into mobility plans and in the development of national and local
transport strategies.

Notes

1.

EU + Norway +Switzerland2.

http://www.justice.act.gov.au/page/view/3733/title/act-lane-filtering-trial

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References
ACEM (2013), “The motorcycle industry in Europe: Statistical overview , version 18/4/2013, The
Motorcycle Industry in Europe, Brussels.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2011), Motor Vehicle Census 2011, Series 9309.0, Canberra, 2011, ISSN
0728–2923.
Blackman, R. and N. Haworth (2013), “Comparison of moped, scooter and motorcycle crash risk andseverity , Accident Analysis & Prevention, No. 57, pp. 1-9.
CERTU (2010), “Analyse de la mobilité des deux roues motorisés , Working Document.
Christmas, S., D. Young, R. Cookson and R. Cuerden (2009), Passion, performance, practicality:
motorcyclists motivations and attitudes to safety – Motorcycle safety research project, Published
Report PPR442, TRL, Crowthorne.
European Commission (2011), eSUM Action Pack for developing a Powered Two-Wheelers Road Safety
Programme.
Haworth, N. (2012), “Powered two-wheelers in a changing world: challenges and opportunities ,Accident Analysis & Prevention, No. 44, 12-18.
Kumar, A. (2011), “Comprendre l’importance croissante de la motocyclette dans les villes africaines ,World Bank, Programme de politiques de transport pour l’Afrique Subsaharienne.
Ministry of Transport (2013), The New Zealand Vehicle Fleet, Annual Fleet Statistics 2012;ISSN 2324-2116.
Motorcycle Industry Council (2010), Statistical Annual Report, Irvine, USA.
NHTSA/MSF (2001), National Agenda for Motorcycle Safety, National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration and Motorcycle Safety Foundation.
Ruscher, C. (2003), “Qu’est-ce qu’un Deux-roues motorisé? Réflexion sur la définition de ce mode dedéplacement, son image et ses usages , Transport/Environnement/Circulation, (175), 27-33.
VicRoads (2008), Motorcyclist Exposure on Victorian Roads (RSD 457), Report for VicRoads, Ultra
Feedback, May.
Yannis, G., J. Golias, I. Spyropoulou and E. Papadimitriou (2007), “Mobility patterns of moped andmotorcycle riders in Greece , Transportation Research Record, No. 2031, December, pp. 69-75.

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51

Chapter 3. Powered two-wheeler crash characteristics

This chapter reviews the safety issues of powered two-wheelers (PTWs). It highlights the relative
crash risk for motorcyclists and describes PTW crash characteristics in terms of recent crash
trends, typical injuries, and crash scenarios.

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Introduction
The rapid growth in the variety, sales, registrations, and activity of powered two-wheelers (PTWs) motorcycles, scooters, mopeds - observed in recent years in most countries has been accompanied by
growth in crashes, injuries, and fatalities involving them. Such growth is likely to accelerate as world
populations grow and more people recognise the potential economic, mobility, and environmental
sustainability benefits of powered two-wheelers. This chapter analyses the safety issues associated withpowered two-wheelers.
Data issues
Crash data
Crash data presented in this chapter are mainly based on fatality data from the following sources:•

The IRTAD database, which presents aggregated data for 32 countries;•

The CARE database, which gathers disaggregated data for most EU countries;•

National databases, such as FARS for the United States.

Analysing serious injuries is also essential to understand safety issues of motorcyclists, because
motorcyclists are more exposed to very serious injuries with long-term handicap, due to their lower massand occupant protection, which are significantly different from injuries of other road users. In addition,
recent work (ITF/OECD, 2011) has shown that reducing the number of seriously injured may require adifferent approach than reducing the number of fatal crashes.
However, one must be aware of the challenge of analysing injury data because:•

There is no universal definition of serious injuries among countries, despite the recent
recommendations from IRTAD and the European Commission to define serious injuries on thebasis of the Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale.

•

Data on injuries are largely underreported and biased in the source of information describedabove. Only a very limited number of countries have systematic exchange of information
between police and health data to allow a more complete picture of the situation.1

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Box 3.1. The issue of underreporting
Results of a pilot European study

Within the SafetyNet Integrated European project, a pilot study was carried out in eight European
countries, aiming to estimate road accident injury under-reporting coefficients on the basis of linking Policeand Hospital data for different road user types, and to propose a common definition of injury severity inEurope (Broughton et al., 2010).
In this study, underreporting coefficients were defined as the ratio of the estimated actual number of
injuries of a given severity, to the number of related injuries recorded by the Police.
Figure 3.1. Underreporting coefficients for PTW riders and car occupants
per injury severity in five European countries
PTW - serious injuries

PTW - slight injuries

car occupant - serious injuries

car occupant - slight injuries

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

CZ

FR

GR

NL

UK

Source: Broughton et al., 2010.

Underreporting coefficients for PTW riders (namely motorcyclists) and car occupants were estimated infive European countries (see Figure 3.1). The extent of the injury underreporting problem for motorcyclists isequal (CZ), slightly higher (FR, NL, UK) or significantly higher (GR) than for car occupants. Serious
motorcyclist injuries appear to be less underreported by the Police than slight ones in Greece, France and theCzech Republic, while the opposite is the case for the Netherlands and the UK. The underreporting of
motorcyclists’ injury is strikingly high in Greece, and the difference compared to car occupants is also more
pronounced in that country, a country where motorcyclists’ casualties are over-represented in the total roadaccident casualties.
Despite some limitations of the above European pilot study (e.g. few countries, different sample study
area sizes), the results can be considered to be indicative of the overall extent of the injury underreporting
problem in the examined countries and in Europe as a whole. The findings from this study confirm thatmotorcyclists’ injuries are more often underreported (Amoros and Laumon, 2006).

Exposure data
To understand PTW crashes, crash data must be analysed and compared with exposure data.
Without detailed PTW exposure information, it is difficult to determine risk trends from the available
fatality and injury data.

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There are various indicators to measure exposure to assess the risks of transport modes:•

Vehicle –kilometres•

Passenger-kilometres•

The number of circulating motorised vehicles•

Total travel time

Using the number of vehicle kilometres travelled by PTWs gives a good proxy of their actual
exposure to assess the level of risk. However, very few countries collect this type of data on a regularbasis.
More complex information is ideally required such as quantitative and qualitative variations in theactivity of particular registered vehicles and drivers, activity of unregistered drivers, changes in theprevalence of driving or riding, types of travel and relevant vehicle characteristics (such as power toweight ratio) in a given population or subpopulation, etc.
Relative crash risk for motorcyclists
As already mentioned in Chapter 1, there is a worldwide pattern that PTW riders experience agreater risk of being severely injured, but contribute less risk for other road users due to the lesser“aggressivity of PTW vehicles as compared to cars and trucks.
In 2011, there were more than 12 000 PTW fatalities in OECD countries (excluding Chile, Estonia,
Slovak Republic, Mexico, Turkey), representing between 8% and 30% of total fatalities. This percentage
has to be compared with the percentage of travel by PTWs or the proportion of motorised vehicles thatare PTWs. For example, in 2011, in France, PTWs represented 2% of the traffic, 6% of the motor vehicle
fleet but 25% of total fatalities.

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Table 3.1. Percentages of PTWs in the motorised fleet and in total fatalities
2001 and 2011
Country

Fatalities
PTW

Fatalitiesall% PTW infatalities

% PTW
fleet

Fatalities
PTW

Fatalitiesall

2001% PTW infatalities

% PTW
fleet

2011

Australia

216

1 737

12%

3%

202

1 277

16%

4%

Austria

144

958

15%

11%

85

523

16%

12%

Belgium

210

1 486

14%

5%

147

858

17%

6%

Canada

155

2 756

6%

2%

190

2 227

9%

Czech
Republic

95

1 334

7%

16%

84

773

11%

Denmark

55

431

13%

3%

37

220

17%

5%

Finland

23

433

5%

7%

38

292

13%

13%

France

1 519

8 160

19%

7%

980

3 963

25%

6%

Germany

1 102

6 977

16%

9%

778

4 009

19%

11%

Greece

505

1 880

27%

35%

339

1 141

30%

31%

Hungary

101

1 239

8%

3%

83

638

13%

4%

15%

Iceland

1

24

4%

1%

1

12

8%

4%

Ireland

50

411

12%

2%

18

186

10%

2%

Israel

31

531

6%

42

341

12%

4%

-

Italy

1 426

7 096

20%

18%

1 088

3 860

28%

17%

Japan

1 854

10 071

18%

16%

997

5 507

18%

14%

Korea

1 284

8 097

16%

12%

1 050

5 229

20%

9%

Luxemburg

6

70

9%

3%

3

33

9%

4%

Netherlands

154

993

16%

11%

77

546

14%

12%

New Zealand

35

455

8%

2%

33

284

12%

3%

Norway

33

275

12%

3%

17

168

10%

4%

Poland

232

5 534

4%

5%

379

4 189

9%

Portugal

456

1 847

25%

13%

188

891

21%

Slovenia

50

278

18%

1%

30

141

21%

Spain

833

5 517

15%

13%

422

2 060

20%

Sweden

48

554

9%

5%

57

319

18%

8%

Switzerland

116

544

21%

15%

73

320

23%

15%

UnitedKingdom

594

3598

17%

3%

369

1 960

19%

4%

3 197

42 196

8%

2%

4 612

32 367

14%

3%

United States3%

Source: IRTAD.

Table 3.1 and Figure 3.2 show the trends in the percentages of total fatalities that were PTW riders
for the period 2001-2011. For all countries for which data are available, with the exception of Portugal,
the Netherlands, Norway and Ireland, the percentages increased. This may reflect increases in PTW
fatalities, decreases in other motor vehicle fatalities, or both.

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Figure 3.2. Share of PTW fatalities in total fatalities
2001 and 2011

2001

2011

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

Source: IRTAD

There are several different ways of expressing the risk of travelling by a particular mode (e.g. car or
motorcycle) and the relative level of risk of different modes depends on which way of expressing risk ischosen. While the number of people killed or injured is generally known to a reasonable level ofcertainty, the distance travelled value is commonly less precise. Very often, countries do not have gooddata on the occupancy of vehicles, and so can only use the distance travelled by that type of vehicle.
Thus, they are unable to compare the risk of one person travelling a given distance by motorcycle versus
the risk of one person travelling the same distance by car. Their data can show fatality (or injury risk) per
vehicle-kilometre, but not per person-kilometre.
When related to the number of kilometres travelled, a motorcyclist is, depending on the country,
between 9 to 30 times more likely to be killed in a traffic crash than a car driver (see Table 3.2). The
relative risk for a PTW rider of being seriously injured is even higher (Martin et al., 2011). Given that a
car commonly has more occupants than a motorcycle, the difference in risk per passenger-kilometre
between PTW riders and car occupants is probably even greater.

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Table 3.2. Deaths per billion vehicle-kilometres in 2011
Motorcyclists and car occupants
Car Occupant

Motorcyclists

Mopeds(when distinction ismade in statistics)

Relative risk ofmotorcyclists vs. car
occupants
14
13 for motorcyclists
12 for mopeds
13
13
24
12
15 for motorcyclists
13 for mopeds
18 for motorcyclists
4 for moped
24
9 for motorcyclists
5 for mopeds
21
26
20
17 for motorcyclists
12 for mopeds

Australia

5.2

71.8

Austria (2010)

4.7

59.7

Belgium (2010)
Canada (2010)
Czech Republic (2010)
Denmark

5.9
4.9
10.5
4.2

76.9
62.9
252.6
49.5

France

4.9

72.4

64.7

Germany

3.3

59.5

14.6

Ireland2.5

60.8

Israel (2010)

5.1

45.7

26.8

Netherlands (2004-08)
Slovenia
Sweden (2010)

3.0
4.3
2.2

64
112.5
43.9

63

Switzerland

2.3

39.2

29.6

2.1

72

34

5.0

155.0

31

United Kingdom(Great Britain) (2012)
United States

56.1

Source: IRTAD.

Characteristics of PTW fatal crashes
Recent trends in fatal crashes
The following sections are based on fatality data; which are the most reliable information for the
purpose of comparisons. Descriptive information on PTW injuries is also provided.
Figure 3.3 compares the recent trends in the number of motorcyclists killed and other road users
killed in the three main regions of the OECD. A sharp increase in the number of motorcyclists killed isobserved in North America and a moderate decrease in the other regions. While on average, OECD
countries have seen a reduction of about 36% in the number of persons killed in traffic crashes in 20002010, the number of motorcyclists killed decreased only by 13% in total. The discrepancy is particularly
obvious in North America.
In the United States, the number of motorcyclists killed increased by 83% between 2000 and 2008,
while the number of passenger car occupants decreased by 29% (NHTSA, 2009). The relative
deterioration of motorcyclist’s safety in North America has to be seen in the context of a significant
increase in the PTW fleet during the same period, which has almost doubled (Paulozzi, 2005) and therepeal of the helmet laws in some states. In 2009, motorcycle fatalities dropped sharply (16% decrease),but only for that one year. Fatalities resumed the increase from that point on; however, the rate ofincrease is smaller. From 2009 to 2011, motorcycle fatalities increased by 3%.

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3. POWERED TWO-WHEELER CRASH CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 3.3. Trends in PTW fatalities, other road user fatalities and PTW fleet
in the three main OECD regions
2000-2011, Index 100 = 2000
OECD Europe

OECD Asia Pacific
Other road users
PTW fleet

Other road users fatalities
PTW fleet

PTW fatalities

PTW fatalities

140

120

120

100

100

80
80

60

60

40

40

20

20

0

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 20112000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

US+ Canada
Other road users fatalities
PTW fleet

PTW fatalities

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Note: OECD Asia Pacific includes: Australia, Japan, Korea and New Zealand

Source: IRTAD
Trends in PTW crashes compared to other modes
In order to better understand PTW road crashes, it is necessary to analyse crash data for motorcycles
and mopeds separately in the context of their exposure. As seen in Chapter 2, mopeds are becoming lesspopular in many countries, while the number of motorcycles and scooters (125cm3 and more) is
increasing very quickly. We will see in Chapter 9 that the situation is however quite different in low- or
middle-income countries.
Motorcycle and moped fatalities, together referred to as powered two-wheelers (PTWs), accounted
for 16.5% of the total number of road crash fatalities in 2010 in the 29 OECD countries for which data
are available, but only 8 % of the fleet.
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Figure 3.4 shows the increasing trend for motorcycle user fatalities compared to trends for othermodes of transport, such as mopeds, passenger cars and pedestrians, in 14 European countries,2 in the
United States, in Australia, in Canada, in Japan and in New Zealand. The increase is sharper in Europe,
the United States, Australia and Canada, and less pronounced – yet still visible – in Japan and New
Zealand.
In the United States, there were increasing trends in motorcyclist fatalities and injuries from 2000 to2009. The vast majority of PTW fatalities (97.2%) involved motorcycles above 50 cc. Moped fatalities,
and to some extent estimated injuries, increased disproportionately in 2008 and 2009, perhaps due toincreased moped activity in response to increased fuel prices and severe economic conditions during thisperiod (NHTSA, 2012).
Figure 3.4. Index of motorcycle and moped fatalities compared withpedestrians and car passengers
Europe (EU-20), 2001-2010 (Index 2001=100)
Source: CARE database, October 2012
Car

Motorcycle

Pedestrian

United States, 1999-2011 (Index 1999=100)
Source: IRTAD Database
Car

Moped

250

250

200

200

150

150

100

100

50

50

0

0

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

1999

Australia, 1999-2011 (Index 1999=100)
Source: IRTAD Database
Car

Motorcycle

200

200

150

150

100

100

50

50
0

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Japan, 1999-2011 (Index 1999=100)
Source: IRTAD Database
Moped

Motorcycle

Pedestrian

200

200

150

150

100

100

50

50
0

2001

2002 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

1999

2000

2001

Car
250

1999 2000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Motorcycle

2002

2003

2004

2005

Pedestrian

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

New Zealand, 1999-2012 (Index 1999=100)
Source: IRTAD Database

250

0

2002

Car

Pedestrian
250

Car

2001

Pedestrian

Canada, 1999-2011 (Index 1999=100)
Source: IRTAD Database

250

0

2000

Motorcycle

2009

2010

2011

Motorcycle

Pedestrian1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

PTW-Rider crash characteristics by gender
In most countries, the proportions of males and females among the riders killed follow the
proportions of males and females in the motorcyclist population. As PTWs become more popular among
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females, one can also observe an increasing trend in the percentage of females killed and injured in PTW
crashes.
Results of epidemiologic studies do not reach consistent conclusions. Some studies have reported ahigher crash risk for men than for women (Lardelli-Claret et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2003b) while one study
found the opposite (Chang et al., 2007). Two studies, where the design adjusted for distance travelled,
did not observe any valid statistical relationship between gender and crash risk (Harrison et al., 2005;
Mullin et al., 2000).
Given the heterogeneity of the male and female populations among the riders, it is difficult to draw
firm conclusions on their respective level of risk. As a matter of fact, several factors may explain risk
variation between men and women: type of travel, risk taking, natural fragility, choice of vehicle, travel
purposes, etc.
Effect of rider age on crash characteristics
In most countries, the number of fatalities among the 40-60 year old riders increased significantly
during the last decade. There has been a shift in fatalities from the youngest age groups to middle-aged
riders. This is linked to the increasing popularity of PTWs among this age group.
In Europe, 30% of motorcyclists killed are less than 25 years old. However, the average age ofmotorcyclists killed has increased, from 30 years in 1995 to 38 in 2007. The number of rider fatalities
decreased between 2001 and 2010 only for those under the age of 40 (Figure 3.5). During the decade, thenumber of fatalities among the 40-60 year old riders doubled.
The same patterns are observed in the United States, Canada and Australia. Data from the UnitedStates (NHTSA, 2012) shows a 78% increase in fatality of motorcyclists (including 3-wheelers) in the
40+ age group over a ten-year period.
Figure 3.5. Motorcycles rider fatalities by age in 2001 and 2010
Both EU-20
Motorcycle 2001

Motorcycle 2010

Motorcycle fatalities
250

200

150

100

50

0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Age

Date of query: October 2012

Source: CARE Database / EC

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Most epidemiological studies show a higher crash risk for the youngest age groups (Chang et al.
2006; Evans 2004; Harrison et al., 2005; Lardelli-Claret et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2003; Mullin et al., 2000;
Reeder, 1995 and Yannis et al., 2005).
Monthly, weekday, and hourly periodic characteristics
PTW rider crashes, injuries and fatalities are strongly correlated with periodic factors such as
seasons, months, day of week, and time of day. These periodicities reflect both environmental and sociocultural factors.
PTW crashes reflect the motorcycling activity associated with season and weather. In mostcountries, there are relatively few fatalities in the winter, and relatively many in the summer, reflecting
the seasonal pattern of use of mopeds and motorcycles. The impact of season is however less marked formopeds.
As with other crashes, the number of PTW crashes increases during the weekend. While there aremany crashes every day of the week, these numbers increase on weekends. However, in an Australianstudy, Blackman and Haworth (2013) found that this trend occurred for motorcycle crashes, but not
moped and scooter crashes, presumably reflecting the greater use of mopeds and scooters for commuting.
Road typeIn most OECD countries, the majority of PTW fatalities occur outside urban areas, and particularlyon the non-motorway rural roads. The existence of medians, separating opposite traffic flows, the qualityof the road surface and the absence of sharp bends explain the lower fatality rate on motorways.
However, in several Southern European countries (Greece, Italy, Portugal, Slovenia and Romania), morethan 50% of PTW fatalities occur inside urban areas, most probably due to increased PTW mobility
inside urban areas compared to the other countries.
Almost one third of all PTW rider fatalities occur at a junction, whereas for car occupant fatalities,
only 14% occur at junctions. Nearly 50% of the total number of PTW rider fatalities recorded at ajunction occurred at crossroads.
Impact of engine displacement and type of vehicle
Engine displacement, expressed in cubic centimetres (cm3), is an indicator of the power of avehicle.3 Several epidemiological studies focused on the relation between engine displacement and crashoccurrence and severity. Some studies suggest that users of PTW with higher displacement have a higher
risk of crash (Nairn et al., 1993) and a higher risk of being seriously injured (Pang et al., 2000; Quddus etal., 2002). Other studies have not found any association (Chang et al., 2006; Langley et al., 2000;
Zambon et al., 2006).
According to the MAIDS project (which analysed both fatal and non-fatal crashes), there was no
significant difference between the crash data and the exposure data except for the over 1001 cm3
category, which was found to be under-represented (i.e. had less risk) (see Table 3.3) (ACEM, 2006).

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3. POWERED TWO-WHEELER CRASH CHARACTERISTICS

Table 3.3. Distribution of crashes in the MAIDS project by engine displacement
Engine displacement(cm3)

Crash data

Exposure data

Frequency

Percent

Frequency

Percent

Up to 50
51 to 125
126 to 250
251 to 500
501 to 750
751 to 1000
1001 or more
Unknown

394
89
37
56
206
80
58
1

42.7
9.7
4.0
6.1
22.4
8.7
6.3
0.1

367
86
32
50
193
107
88
0

39.8
9.3
3.5
5.4
20.9
11.6
9.5
0.0

Total

921

100.0

923

100.0

Source: MAIDS (ACEM, 2006).

A recent study in Greece showed the highest severity is observed for motorcyclists aged less than
21 years riding mopeds (Yannis et al., 2005). This result may be attributed to more risk-taking behaviour
and inexperience of young drivers, together with the poor driving performance of mopeds in demanding
conditions.
In the United States, a study (Teoh, 2010) found large variations in driver death rates (per 10 000
registered vehicles) when examined by motorcycle type, and the biggest risk was found for the supersport category (see Table 3.4). However, its results cannot be generalised, as the study was undertaken in
the United States, where the motorcycle fleet composition may not be representative of those of othercountries, and neither the distance travelled nor the age or experience of the rider were taken into
account.
Table 3.4. Motorcycle driver deaths per 10 000 registered vehicles by motorcycle type2000-2008, United States
Motorcycle type
Cruiser / Standard

Drivers Deaths(2000 -2008)

Relative risk compared to
cruiser/ standard motorcycle

5.1

1.0

Touring

6.0

1.17Sport Touring

4.3

0.85

Sport / unclad sport

11.6

2.28

Supersport

22.3

4.36

Source: Teoh (2010).

Studies of the influence of engine displacement on safety should take into account that riders ofhigh displacement PTWs ride further every year than those riding small PTWs (Broughton, 1988; Carreet al., 1994; ONISR 2005; Yannis et al., 2007). One study estimated that riders of PTWs with an engine
capacity of greater than 500 cm3 on average travel four times as far as those driving PTWs of 50 cm3(Broughton 1988). The choice to replace a low displacement PTW with a more powerful bike is often
due to the desire to travel more (Broughton 1988; Yannis et al., 2007). Therefore, statistically, riders ofthe most powerful motorcycles may be over-represented but, in terms of km-ridden, their fatality rate
may not be significantly higher.

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To summarise, power may not constitute by itself a direct cause of crashes; but it can be associatedwith purchase motivation by different age groups of riders and their usage of their PTWs.
Serious injuries among motorcyclists
The challenge of serious injuries
As seen earlier in this chapter, most of the information above is based on fatal crash data, because
they are easily available in most countries. However, understanding the nature and extent of serious
injuries among motorcyclists is essential in the perspective of a Safe System approach. It is also very
important from an economic and health perspective, given the high costs associated with the most severe
injuries.
Compared to other road users, motorcyclists sustain much more severe injuries and the risk ofsustaining a major handicap is higher than the risk of dying. As an example, in France in 2006,
motorcyclists represented 24% of fatalities and 30% of injured road users with a long-term handicap(Amoros et al., 2008; ONISR 2007). In 2004, there were as many motorcyclists severely injured as car
occupants. In 2012, in Great Britain, motorcyclists were 35 times more likely to be killed in a road crashthan a car occupant and 50 times more likely to be seriously injured (Department for Transport, 2013).
Motorcyclists are more likely, not only to be killed, but also very seriously injured in a road crashthan other motorised road users. As the large majority of motorcyclists is younger than other motorised
road users, this translates into many years lost or with reduced capacities.
Characteristics of motorcyclist injuries
Motorcyclist injuries most commonly occur to the extremities lower limbs in particular and thenhead injuries. Spinal injuries are less frequent, but can have severe long-term consequences. Spine, head
and limb injuries are the main causes of long-term handicap (Moskal et al., 2008).
The percentage of severe head injuries remains high, despite the use of helmets. Head and trunk
injuries are the main causes of death (Dischinger et al., 2006).
In France, in 1996-2004, 24% of head injuries, 44% of spine injuries and 38% of leg injuries
leading to severe handicap were sustained by motorcyclists (Amoros et al., 2008).
Figure 3.6 presents the distribution of injuries among motorcyclists in the United States in 2009. It
shows that half of all injuries were to the head/face/neck or shoulder/trunk regions, while almost three inten were to the leg/knee/ankle/foot region.

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3. POWERED TWO-WHEELER CRASH CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 3.6. Distribution of injuries among injured motorcyclists
United States, 2009

Other/Unknown
4%

Head/Face/Neck
22%

Leg/Knee/Ankle/Foot
29%

Shoulder/Trunk28%

Hand/Wrist/Arm
17%
Source: NHTSA.

Figure 3.7 illustrates some Swedish findings and how the severity of motorcyclist injuries comparesacross parts of the body. For the broadest spectrum of injury, where the risk of permanent medical
impairment is 1% or greater, lower extremity and pelvis, and upper extremity injuries predominate,
together accounting for more than 60% of injuries. Head and lower extremity and pelvis each comprise aquarter of the most severe injuries, where the risk of permanent medical impairment is 10% or greater.
Thoracic spine injuries are also more strongly represented among the most severe injuries.
The very severe injuries with long term impairment suffered by motorcyclists translate into very
high social and medical costs. Reducing not only the number of deaths but also the number of serious
injuries among motorcyclists is a top priority in the context of a Safe System.
Figure 3.7. Motorcycle injury distribution and risk of permanent medical impairment
RPMI 1 %RPMI 5 %RPMI 10 %

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

Head

Cervical Spine

Face

Upper
Extremity

Lower
Extremity and
PelvisThoraxThoracic Spine

Abdomen

Lumber Spine External (Skin)and Thermal
Injuries* RPMI: Risk of Permanent Medical Impairment.

Source: Swedish Transport Administration.
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Crash scenarios
Table 3.5 summarises the various types of crashes which are detailed in the sections below. The
exact prevalence varies greatly among the different countries, depending in particular on thecharacteristics of their road network and traffic. Sometimes loss-of control crashes are classified in thepolice reports as multi-vehicle crashes, although the crash with the other vehicle is only the result of theloss of control. On the other hand, a single vehicle crash may originate from a problem of interaction
with another road user.
Table 3.5. Types of crashes involving PTWs
Single vehicle crashes(20 to 45% of fatal crashes)

Multi vehicle crashes(30-50% of fatal crashes)

Loss of control
Other
At junction
Not At junction with vehicle in the same direction
Not at junction with vehicle in the opposite direction
Other

Crash with a pedestrian(less than 10 % of fatal crashes)

Single vehicle crashes
Single-vehicle crashes are estimated to comprise between 20% and 45% of PTW crashes, dependingon the jurisdiction. The Department for Transport reports 24% of motorcycle fatalities and 28% of
casualties are attributable to single vehicle crashes in Great Britain (Department for Transport, 2013). In
France (ONISR, 2010) in 2009, 36% of motorcycle fatalities and 34% of moped fatalities were due tosingle-vehicle crashes, these crashes comprising 19% of motorcycle injury crashes and 18% of moped
injury crashes. Results from the 2BESAFE project suggest that single-vehicle crashes make up 25% of
all PTW crashes in Italy, 38% in Greece and 44% in Finland and Sweden (2BESAFE, 2010). In 2011,
46% of motorcyclists killed in the United States were involved in single-vehicle crashes (NHTSA, 2013).
Single-vehicle crashes are often underreported in official statistics, particularly those of relatively low
severity. Thus, official statistics may underestimate the true number of single-vehicle PTW crashes andover-estimate their severity compared to multi-vehicle crashes.
Loss of control
A loss-of-control crash is considered as such – for research purposes – when only one vehicle is at
the origin of the crash situation, independently of the number of vehicles finally hit. A difficulty with
police reports in some countries is that they are based on the number of vehicles hit, while the concept of“loss of control is sometimes absent from police reports.
Loss of control is due mainly to the following causes:•

poor road design in curves (lack of visibility, changes in the curve radius, etc.) and/or an
excessive speed (exceeding speed limits or inappropriate speed);•lack of riding technique and competence in analysing the situation of the rider;•

the influence of alcohol;•

poor control of the trajectory (e.g. over-braking);•mechanical problems;•

bad road conditions.

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Other “single vehicle” crashes
This second category of single-vehicle crashes does not, strictly speaking, refer to a loss of control
initiating the problem but a sudden encounter with an unexpected obstacle (which is not a road user) on
the carriageway. In practice, these situations only account for a small proportion of PTW crashes. The
following configurations can be distinguished:• PTW is confronted by an animal suddenly crossing the carriageway.
• PTW hits an obstacle on the carriageway (stone fallen down from a hill, or any object fallen froma truck, etc.).
• Other.
Multi-vehicle crashes (excl. pedestrians)
At junction
Crashes at junctions cover a large proportion of crashes involving a PTW and another vehicle(principally a passenger car). According to the MAIDS project (ACEM, 2006), 50% of PTW crashes
occur at junctions; however, this proportion varies largely between countries or settings. The SafetyNet
project (SafetyNet, 2009)) identified four typical scenarios:• Turning left (or right)4 by the other vehicle, with the PTW arriving in the opposite direction;• Turning left or Turning right or U-turn by the other vehicle, with the PTW in the same direction;• Other vehicle crossing the path of the PTW, which has the right of way;
• PTW crossing the path of the other vehicle which has the right of way.
Not at junction with vehicles in the same way and same direction
Typical crash scenarios include:• Other vehicle changing lane or overtaking,• PTW changing lane or overtaking,• Rear-end collision (by a PTW / by the other vehicle).
Not at junction with vehicles on the same road at opposite direction
Typical crash scenarios:• PTW is overtaking or has crossed the centreline onto the opposite carriageway;• Other vehicle is overtaking or has crossed the centreline onto the opposite carriageway.

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Other types of multi-vehicle crashes
Typical crash scenarios include:• Aberrant manoeuvre by the PTW (wheelies, going the wrong way along a street, going the wrong
way in a roundabout, sudden acceleration, etc.
• Aberrant manoeuvre by the other vehicle (U-turn, door opening, etc.).
Crashes with pedestrians
Crashes between PTWs and pedestrians represent a growing issue as part of overall pedestriancrashes (Martin et al., 2011), notably due to the increasing proportions of PTWs in cities (Kopp, 2011).
Paulozzi (2005) showed that the risk of PTW drivers fatally injuring a pedestrian was twice that than forautomobile drivers. A recent study (Clabaux et al., 2014) shows that two-wheeler drivers run a risk ofhitting and injuring a pedestrian in towns that is nearly three times higher than for four-wheeled vehicle
drivers, notably linked with filtering manoeuvres.
Conclusions
Crash characteristics and scenarios
On average, in OECD countries, PTWs riders and passengers comprise 17% of all road fatalities,
while only representing 8% of the fleet. PTWs are clearly overrepresented in road traffic casualties.
Depending on the country, they are between 9 and 30 times more at risk in traffic than a car occupant.
This is largely due to their greater vulnerability and lack of protection in the event of collision. Wheninvolved in a crash, PTW riders are exposed to a significantly higher risk of severe injuries, entailinglong-term disabilities.
The safety situation of motorcyclists has deteriorated in the past decade compared with thesignificant progress for other road users. PTW trends are not following the overall decrease in fatalities
in the OECD countries; this may be explained by the large increase in PTW numbers and respective
mobility, as PTWs have been steadily gaining in popularity in recent years. PTW is the only mode oftransport for which the number of fatalities has increased over the last decade significantly in somecountries which stresses the importance of taking immediate appropriate countermeasures.
Many countries face similar patterns. In Europe, the number of motorcyclists killed in the 40-60
year age group has doubled in 10 years. The fatality rates for moped riders aged 15-19 and motorcycle
riders aged 20-30 are notably high. It appears that being young, male and lacking experience isassociated with increased PTW fatality risk.
A significant proportion of crashes are single-vehicles crashes occurring on rural roads. Almost one
third of all PTW fatalities occur at junctions – a proportion notably higher than for other road users. This
stresses the importance of taking specific measures to improve junction safety for PTWs.
Most of the data presented in this chapter and in other research publications are based on fatality
data because these data are easily available and usually reliable. It is, however, essential to gain more
information on serious injuries, because they represent a major challenge in improving road safety and,perhaps more for motorcyclists, measures and equipment can help to reduce the severity of serious
injuries.

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Figures dealing with non-fatal crashes generally tend to be more or less underestimated, notably due
to under-reporting to police and subsequent under-reporting in police crash databases. However, somecountries now have experience in linking police and health database in order to have a more complete
picture of the consequences of crashes.

Notes

1.

In Sweden, the STRADA (Swedish Traffic Accident Data Acquisition) information system gathers crashinformation from the police (when, how and where the crash took place) which is linked with informationfrom health care on the nature of the injuries.

2.

These include: Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Austria,
Portugal, Finland, Sweden and United Kingdom

3.

Power-to-weight ratio more directly indicates acceleration and top speed performance capacity. Weight canvary markedly for the same power

4.

Turning left in countries where one drives on the right; Turning right in countries where one drives on the left.

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Chapter 4. Factors contributing to powered two-wheeler crashes
and their severity

This chapter discusses the most frequent factors contributing to powered two-wheeler (PTW)
crashes. They are described following the traditional interaction between the three basic
components of the traffic system: PTW riders and other road users, road environment and vehicle
factors.

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4. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POWERED TWO-WHEELER CRASHES AND THEIR SEVERITYPTW rider-related crash factors
Some factors involve the riders themselves and notably relate to the various parameterscharacterising the states and conditions of the powered two-wheeler (PTW) riders: their motivations,
physical states, experience and awareness, etc. Research literature has shown that factors such as
speeding, impaired riding, non-respect of traffic rules and lack of experience, notably the experience ofthe vehicle driven, are the main human-related contributing factors in PTW crashes.
The increased flexibility and performance (engine power/vehicle mass) of motorcycles may
influence their riders and facilitate inappropriate or dangerous manoeuvres, especially in regard to
overtaking, negotiating bends, crossing intersections and filtering. These manoeuvres may be the mostcharacteristic types of motorcyclist violations.
The likelihood that motorcyclists will respect traffic rules is strongly correlated with othercharacteristics such as age, experience, engine power and social influence. A recent study (Wu etal., 2012) shows that the probability of a rider running through a red light is higher for young andmiddle-aged riders, when the rider is alone, when there are fewer riders waiting, and when there are otherriders already ignoring the red light.
Excessive and inappropriate speed
It is well known that excessive and inappropriate speed features in a large number of crashes. As
shown by the Nilsson model (Nilsson, 1994), the risk of being killed in a crash varies exponentially withchange in speed. While there is discussion on the exact value of the exponent when taking account inparticular the initial speed (Elvik, 2013), the overall shape of the curve is not debated among researchers(see Figures 4.1 and 4.2).
While there is no modelling specific to PTWs, as the average speed of PTWs is generally higher
than for passenger cars, there is no doubt that the model at least applies.
Figure 4.1. Power model representing the relationship between change in mean speed
and changes in crashes
Original Power Model
Fatal crashes

Fatal and serious injury crashes

All injury crashes

-20

-10

10

80

Change in crashes (%)

60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60

-15

-5
0
5
Change in mean speed (%)

15

Source: Nilsson.
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Figure 4.2. Reparameterisation of the Power

Source: Elvik.

Speed is a complex factor which can influence the crash process at the different stages of its
production:•

At the driving phase, an excessive speed can put the driver of a vehicle in a non-optimal driving
condition by limiting the time available for information processing and/or by limiting the
dynamic capacity for adequate regulation. Thus, by favouring the production of some errors
and mistakes, speed can act as a crash-producing factor.

•

At the emergency phase, an inappropriate speed can prevent the driver from efficiently
regulating the vehicle direction and deceleration in such a way as to compensate for a delicate
situation. Thus speed can also act as a factor that impedes vehicle control.

•

At the collision phase, speed will systematically constitute an aggravating factor, drasticallyincreasing the crash severity due to the kinetic energy dissipated during the crash.

Speeding mainly concerns riders of motorcycles and is less common among moped riders(Blackman, 2012; Langley et al., 2000). Excessive (i.e. over the speed limit) and inappropriate (e.g. notadapted to the circumstances, even if within the legal limits) speed is responsible for about 2/3 of single
vehicle fatal crashes (Lardelli-Claret et al., 2005; Shankar et al., 1992). The speed risk is more importantfor young riders (Lardelli-Claret et al., 2005; Mullin et al., 2000; Wells et al., 2004).
Riding a PTW with an excessive or inappropriate speed is a common type of unsafe riding
behaviour. Because of their small size and their acceleration capacity, PTWs allow overtaking others andapproaching bends at high speed and quickly inserting into traffic compared to four-wheel motorised
vehicles.

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4. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POWERED TWO-WHEELER CRASHES AND THEIR SEVERITY

Speeding is a bigger problem for PTW crashes, compared to other modes. On average,
motorcyclists ride at higher speeds than cars and PTW crashes usually occur at higher speeds than car
crashes (Horswill et al., 2005). Speed differences between motorcyclists and car drivers are higher onrural roads, as are speed violations (Guyot, 2008). Walton et al., 2012) report that motorcycles andscooters travel through T-junctions about 10% faster than other traffic and are 3.4 times more likely to be
exceeding the speed limit than cars.
In 2004 in France, nearly half of the PTW casualties occurred while the riders were driving above
the legal limit (ONISR 2006a). In the United States, in 2011, 35% of all motorcycle riders involved in a
fatal crash were speeding, compared to 22% for passenger car drivers (NHTSA 2013). However, there
are regions in the world where efforts have led to less speed differences between PTW and othermotorised vehicles.
Impaired riding: alcohol, drugs and fatigue
Alcohol
The impact of alcohol consumption on driving performance is well demonstrated (Borkenstein etal., 1974; Compton et al., 2002; Moskowitz et al., 2002) as illustrated in Figure 4.3 for car drivers.
Similarly, the consumption of alcohol is associated with increased risk of fatal crashes among PTWs
(Evans 2004; Kasantikul et al., 2005; Luna et al., 1984; Shibata et al., 1994, Rag et al., 2012). Given thecomplexity of riding a powered two-wheeler, the risk for PTW riders is expected to be larger, although
few studies have clearly examined this (Creaser et al., 2009). There is some evidence that ability to safely
ride a motorcycle is impaired at lower alcohol concentrations than is the ability to safely drive a car. Inan early Texas study, the BACs of motorcycle riders and car/truck drivers who were arrested for driving
while under the influence were compared (Watson and Garriott, 1992). While both groups were clearly
impaired, this was evident at lower BACs for the motorcycle riders than the car/truck drivers.
Figure 4.3. Drivers blood alcohol concentrations and the relative riskof police-reported crash involvement

Source: Borkenstein et al. (1974), Compton et al. (2002), Moskowitz et al. (2002), Allsop (1966), in WHO (2004).

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In addition, several international studies show that riders with a BAC above the limit have a higher
probability of speeding and not wearing a helmet than a rider who has not been drinking (SARTRE4,
2012. Peek-Asa et al., 1996; Soderstrom et al., 1993).
Except for Sweden and Australia, data regarding the prevalence of alcohol in fatal crashes among
different road users show a higher share of alcohol-related crashes among killed riders compared to car
drivers (Table 4.1). In addition, alcohol-related crashes are usually more severe (i.e. lead to a fatality) for
PTW, which implies that for the same BAC, the severity of the crashes is higher for the PTW than for theother road users (McLellan et al., 1993; Soderstrom et al., 1993; Soderstrom et al., 1995; Williams et al.,1985).
•In Sweden, on the other hand, the percentage of alcohol-related crashes is the same for PTW
and car drivers, i.e. about 24%.

•

In France, the percentage or riders having drunk alcohol is higher among moped thanmotorcyclist for both injury and fatal crashes (Guyot, 2008). In France, in 2012, 8.4% of moped
riders and 5.2 % of motorcycle riders involved in an injury crashes had a BAC above the limit(6.6% for car drivers). For fatal crashes, these percentages are 36% for moped riders, 21% formotorcyclists and 21% for car drivers (ONISR 2013).

•

In the United States, in 2011, a higher percentage of motorcycle riders had a BAC above thelegal limit of 0.8 g/l than any other type of motor vehicle operator. The percentages of alcohol
impaired drivers involved in a fatal crash were 29% for motorcycles, 24% for passenger cars,
21% for light trucks and 1% for heavy trucks. 30% of all fatally injured motorcycle riders had a
BAC above the legal limit of 0.8 g/l and 42% of motorcycle riders who died in single vehicles
crashes had a BAC above the limit (NHTSA, 2013) (see Table 4.1).
Table 4.1. Share (%) of alcohol-related crashes for PTW and car drivers(i.e. BAC above the limit)

Country

Fatal crashes

Injury crashes

PTW

Car drivers

PTW

Car drivers

Sweden (2005-08)

24%

23%

n-a

n-a

United States (2011)

29%

24%

France (2012)

21% for motorcycle
36% for mopeds

21%

5.2% for motorcycle
8.4% for mopeds

6.6%

Australia (1999-2003)

26%*

26%

n-a

n-a

Source: survey of the Working Group.
* Includes alcohol and other drugs.

Studies have shown that alcohol was present in 29 to 75% of PTW rider fatalities (Drummer et al.
2003; Holubowycz et al., 1994; Hurt et al., 1981; Larsen et al., 1987; Preusser et al., 1995) and between
13% and 60% of PTW riders injured (Holubowycz et al., 1994; Kasantikul et al., 2005; Luna et al., 1984;
McLellan et al., 1993; Sun et al., 1998). On average, PTW riders involved in fatal crashes have a higher
BAC than those involved in injury crashes (Holubowycz et al., 1994).
Similarly for car drivers, PTW alcohol-related crashes may involve more often young men(Holubowycz et al., 1994; McLellan et al., 1993; Williams 1979). Studies also show an
overrepresentation of alcohol related crashes at night time (Kasantikul et al., 2005; Peek-Asa et al., 1996;

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4. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POWERED TWO-WHEELER CRASHES AND THEIR SEVERITY

Williams et al., 1985), during the week-end (Holubowycz et al., 1994; Kasantikul et al., 2005), and athigh speed (Colburn et al., 1993; Peek-Asa et al., 1996; Soderstrom et al., 1993).
Drugs
As for alcohol, the effect of drugs can be amplified for PTWs as riding a PTW requires morebalance, co-ordination and accuracy than driving a car (Van Elslande et al., 2003). The consumption ofdrugs, in addition to the consumption of alcohol, mainly by young people, during the weekend nights
should not be ignored (Assailly et al., 2002).
Very few studies focus on the relationship between drug consumption and crash risk for PTWs;
most focus on the prevalence of different types of drugs among injured riders (Drummer et al., 2003;
Longo 2000; Soderstrom et al., 1993; Soderstrom et al., 1995; Mclellan et al., 1993; Sun et al., 1998;
Williams et al., 1985). In these studies, the proportion of vehicle controllers consuming drugs is higher
among PTW riders compared to car drivers (Drummer et al., 2003; Longo et al., 2000; Soderstrom et al.,
1995; Sun et al., 1998; Williams et al., 1985) and the proportion of drivers or riders positive both toalcohol and drugs cannot be neglected (Drummer et al., 2003; Williams et al., 1985).
Results from the French case study1 in the European DRUID project, suggest that among drivers
involved in fatal crashes, drivers of motorised two-wheel vehicles, especially moped drivers, have ahigher prevalence of alcohol and cannabis than other road users.
Table 4.2. Prevalence of drug consumption among different road users
Road user typen

Alcohol

Cannabis

Amphet.

Cocaine

Opiates

Bicyclist

131

22.1%

3.8%

0.0%

0.0%

0.0%

Moped driver

217

55.8%

14.3%

1.4%

1.4%

0.9%

Motorcycle
driver

1 018

32.9%

9.0%

0.4%

0.4%

0.9%

Car driver

7 455

28.5%

7.5%

0.8%

0.5%

1.0%

Van driver

340

13.2%

5.0%

0.9%

0.3%

0.3%

Truck driver

1 092

3.8%

1.9%

0.2%

0.5%

0.3%

266

9.8%

0.4%

0.0%

0.0%

0.4%

Other

Positivity (blood dosage):
Alcohol 0.1 g/l, THC 1 mg/ml, Amphet
Source: DRUID, French Case study.

20 mg/ml, Cocaine

10 mg/ml, Opiates

10 mg/ml.

A US study (NHTSA, 2007) based on roadside surveys of alcohol and drug use by drivers showedthat compared to other road users, motorcyclists had the greatest percentage of drug positive results,
mainly at night-time. In addition, the study showed that drug prevalence was higher for riders who were
not using a helmet.
Age and experience
Age
The relationship between age and risk is complex. While younger riders may exhibit riskier
behaviours leading to an increased crash risk, older riders may have a higher risk of severe injuries in acrash due to their greater physical fragility.
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Young people, in general, have a higher crash risk. As for the other modes, the higher risk of young
motorcyclists can be explained by the combination of a lack of experience and a propensity to adopt
risky behaviours (speeding; consumption of alcohol or drugs; riding for fun, etc.) (Chesham et al., 1993;
Ryan et al., 1998).
Several studies show that crash risk decreases with age, which is mainly explained by a decrease in
the distance ridden every year (Chang et al., 2006; Harrison et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2003; Mullin et al.,2000). On the other hand, studies also show an increased risk for riders over 60 years of age (LardelliClaret et al., 2005). This can be explained by a decrease in their ability and riding performance anddifficulty in managing complex riding situations (Ryan et al., 1998).
The population aged 40-60 is increasingly represented in motorcycle crashes, mainly due to asignificant increase in the number of PTW riders of this age group (SafetyNet, 2010).
Lack of experience
Studies show the importance of experience in traffic not only as a PTW rider, but also as a car
driver. Experience with riding a PTW also decreases the crash risk: the more distance travelled on a
motorcycle, the lower the risk per kilometre (Mullin et al., 2000). The experience of driving a carcontributes to a decrease in crash risk as a PTW rider among young people: those with more practice as a
car driver have a lower crash risk when riding a motorcycle (Reeder et al., 1995), reflecting a positivetransfer of experience.
A recent study (Bellet et al., 2012) investigates four populations of motorcyclists in terms ofexperience: professional riders (e.g. policemen), experienced riders, young and novice riders. The results
show that cognitive abilities in both hazard detection and situational criticality assessment depend on
riding experience: professional and experienced riders obtained better results than novice and young
riders for hazard perception (i.e. shortest reaction time), and the latter also underestimate the situationalrisk and seem overconfident in their abilities to manage the situational risk.
More than for passenger cars, the experience of the vehicle ridden itself seems to be important. In
the motorcycle fleet, there is a higher diversity of vehicle types, which may require a period of adaptation
to a new vehicle. As an indicator of this, the number of kilometres driven with the same vehicle(familiarity with the PTW) has been proved to be strongly associated with a decrease in fatal or severecrashes, even more so than with other aspects of rider experience (Mullin et al., 2000). For example,
people who borrow a motorcycle have a higher crash risk than people who own their motorcycles(Haworth et al., 1994; Mullin et al., 2000; Reeder et al., 1995).
Finally, increased crash risk is often found among those not holding a valid licence (Haworth et al.,
1994; Hurt et al., 1981; Lardelli-Claret et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2003; Magazzu et al., 2006; Reeder et al.,
1999; Rutter et al., 1996; Wells et al., 2004).
Perception and awarenessAs seen in Chapter 3, the three most common crash scenarios for motorised two-wheeled vehicles(motorcycles and mopeds) are as follows:•

The motorcyclist/moped rider has a single vehicle crash while riding along a road and losing
control (e.g. at a curve).

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4. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POWERED TWO-WHEELER CRASHES AND THEIR SEVERITY•

The motorcyclist/moped rider approaches a junction and hits, or is hit by, a car driver who fails
to see the two-wheeler in time.

•

A car driver turns left (or right in countries where driving is on the left) and fails to yield theright-of-way to a motorcyclist/moped rider coming in the opposite direction.

Except for single vehicle crashes, these scenarios show that an important element of crashes
involving motorcyclists is car drivers failing to give right-of-way to motorcyclists. According to a large
body of research, this is mainly because the car driver fails to see the motorcyclist. For example, theMAIDS project (ACEM, 2009) examined over 900 crashes in five countries (France, Germany, Italy,
Spain and the Netherlands) involving a motorised two-wheeled vehicle (motorcycle/moped). The study
concluded that in over 36% of the cases, the driver of the other vehicle did not see the two-wheeler;
while in 12% of the cases, the rider of the two-wheeler failed to see the other vehicle.
Perception issues vis-à-vis PTW
In situations where a car driver fails to give way to a PTW rider, the car driver often admits having
looked in the direction of the motorcyclist prior to manoeuvring, but not having seen the rider who wastheoretically visible (Wulf et al., 1989). These crashes are called “looked-but-failed-to-see crashes(Clarke et al., 2007; Koustanaï et al., 2008) or “motorcycle conspicuity-related crashes“ (Radin-Umar etal., 1996; Wulf et al., 1989); and are often characterised by a high level of severity (Pai, 2009).
“Fail to look” and “look but fail to see are the two main categories of perceptual errors that
contribute to crashes (Staughton and Storie, 1977). The first one can be explained by inadequate visual
screening: failing to look at the correct location at the correct moment (e.g. the blind spot). The second isdue more to the weakness of our perceptual system, which under certain conditions (time constraints, too
many sources of information) can fail to see what is however in our visual field. This is one of thereasons explaining why car drivers have difficulties in detecting PTWs.
Perception and awareness of PTWs by other road users have been recognised as part of the criticalpoints characterising the problems of interaction of these vehicles within the traffic system. It notably
deals with the intrinsic difficulty of a motorcyclist to be seen by other road users concept referred in theliterature as its low detectability or conspicuity (e.g.(Hurt et al., 1981; Preusser et al., 1995; Yuan, 2000).
Weaknesses of the human visual perceptual system
The traffic environment is very demanding on human perceptual capacities, due to high speed andcomplex situations sometimes pushing these capacities to their limits. This can lead to failing to perceive
unexpected, unusual pieces of information, as is sometimes the case with PTWs because they present a
different shape, a different behaviour, and they are more difficult to detect due to their smaller frontal
size.
Detection is not the only challenge for the perceptual system: detection alone does not ensure thecorrect processing of visual information. It is common for PTWs to be detected on the road, but theirdistance and approach speed are not assessed properly by the observer (Pai, 2011). Poor PTW perception
can have an impact on each stage of the information-processing chain, from detection to decision
making.

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The complex causes of perceptual problems
Numerous parameters may contribute to detection and evaluation challenges for car drivers in thepresence of a PTW. These parameters can relate to the human visual system s capabilities, characteristicsof the environment, and characteristics of the PTW as a perceptual object.
•

Small size of PTW: The smaller frontal dimensions of PTWs on the road are the most commonly
mentioned explanatory element of the specific difficulty to perceive them (e.g. (Hurt et al., 1981;
Wulf et al., 1989). Physical characteristics of PTWs often push the capacity of the humansensory system to its limits, explaining the difficulty to detect it and evaluate its approach.

•

Obstructed visibility: By its size, a PTW is more easily hidden by an object or vegetation than alarger vehicle.

•

PTW rider behaviour: PTW riders’ behaviour can also indirectly contribute to the fact that they
are not easily perceivable. PTWs can surprise other road users by deviating from behaviouralstandards with their manoeuvres, for example by their positioning (e.g. riding in the blind spotsof cars), speeds and acceleration capacity and confound the perceptual strategies of car drivers(Ragot et al., 2012; van Elslande, 2009).

•

The low familiarity of PTW for most car drivers due to their relative rarity in traffic poses
cognitive challenges for car drivers: The low level of expectation that automobile drivers haveconcerning motorcyclists is the main reason why they do not perceive them (Rogé et al., 2012;
Gershon et al., 2012).

The road environment
Road environment factors can have an important influence on the crash severity, even if they are
rarely the primary cause of crashes. For example, according to the MAIDS study, the road and its
environment were a primary cause in 8% of all PTW crashes. Nevertheless, powered two-wheeler riders
are more sensitive to road design and maintenance than car drivers. An environmental perturbation canbe easily managed by car driver but be a challenge for a PTW rider.
Road design, condition and maintenanceThe design of roadway elements influences how a road user interacts with the roadway. Theseelements include bends, junctions, the road surface and the roadside.
Curves
The radius of a horizontal curve has a strong impact on the ability to control the trajectory of thevehicle and is a factor for higher crash risk. About 30% of all PTW crashes occur in or after a curve,
compared to 21% of crashes of other vehicles. Curves with small radii are more difficult to handle andpoor road conditions in a curve significantly increase the crash risk for motorcyclists (ACEM, 2006).
Junctions
About one third of fatal PTW crashes occur at a junction (intersection or roundabout), compared toonly 14% for cars. The severity of a PTW crash at an intersection is higher than for other road users(CERTU 2010). Road signs or other objects installed near intersections can significantly reduce visibility
and make it more difficult to detect road users coming from other directions.

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4. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POWERED TWO-WHEELER CRASHES AND THEIR SEVERITYA series of Belgian studies (Daniels et al., 2010; De Brabander and Vereeck, 2007) supported thecommon finding that roundabouts reduce injury crashes overall, but identified that roundabouts are not as
beneficial for vulnerable road users (pedestrians, cyclists and PTW users). Daniels et al. (2010)
demonstrated that mopeds, bicycles and motorcycles were involved in more single-vehicle crashes thanwas expected given the mode share of each vehicle. There were fewer moped crashes at more recently
constructed roundabouts (roundabouts that are more likely to be “turbo roundabouts ), and crashes
involving mopeds were more likely to occur on three-legged roundabouts. While the overall safety
benefits of roundabouts result from their geometry forcing conflicting traffic to slow down, the greater
manoeuvrability of PTWs may mean that PTWs do not slow down and so are more liable to singlevehicle crashes. Improving sufficient skid resistance on roundabouts is therefore crucial for PTWs.
Roundabouts that are not sufficiently visible (particularly at night) can present obstacles themselves.
Road surface quality
PTWs are more sensitive to roadway surface conditions than other motorised vehicles. Several
factors can cause unsafe conditions for motorcyclists by reducing the amount of friction (skid resistance)or creating an uneven travel surface, including: surface rutting, corrugation, potholes, pavement swelling,etc. (IBSR, 2005; MOW, 2008). Longitudinal joints between lanes present a small zone with different
skid resistance or a small irregularity in the road surface. Steel expansion joints, sometimes used on
bridges, can destabilise a PTW (SETRA, 2002; CROW, 2003).
Elements of the road surface (gully tops, drainage grates, manhole covers, tram rails, etc.) can also
be a risk factor for PTWs (IHIE, 2010; MOW, 2008; ERF, 2009; CROW, 2003), because of theirdifferent surface characteristics (skid resistance) than the surrounding pavement. Additionally, theseelements can induce irregularities in the road surface level (see Figure 4.4).The difference in skid
resistance between a road marking and the surrounding road surface can be problematic leading to loss ofstability (ACEM, 2006; ERF, 2009; IHIE, 2010). When poorly designed or executed, there is a risk ofwater pooling on the surface of the road marking. Wear caused by traffic deteriorates the characteristicsof the road markings rapidly. Renewal of a marking without removal of the old layer can negatively leadto an “elevated layer and may cause loss of stability. (ACEM, 2006; CROW, 2003).
Traffic calming devices used to reduce vehicle speeds can induce a loss of grip to the road surface
and destabilise the PTW (ACEM, 2006; ERF, 2009; MOW, 2008). In some countries, kerbs anddelineation posts are sometimes used to separate lanes or to delineate the side of the road. However,when crossed by a PTW, even at moderate speed, there is a high risk for loss of stability (IBSR, 2005).
Debris, pollution and fallen loads on the road surface
Debris, pollution and fallen loads on the road can create unsafe conditions for motorcyclists.
Overhanging trees and other vegetation can create unsafe conditions on the road surface: falling leaves(from overhanging trees and other vegetation), gravel, earth, mud and liquids can cause local slipperyspots or hide local road surface defects (IBSR, 2005). Gravel, earth, mud and liquids influence the skid
resistance of the surface. Discharged fuel can be slippery, difficult to detect by the motorcyclist, anddifficult to remove (IBSR, 2005). This is more dangerous in curves and on roundabouts where asufficient grip is particularly important for PTWs.
Aquaplaning/Hydroplaning
Water on the road surface can have different origins (e.g. insufficient or blocked drainage, extreme
weather, road surface evenness problems, etc.) and reduces the skid resistance, which is even more of aproblem for PTWs than other road users.
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RoadsideObstacles (vegetation, construction, road equipment, etc.) in the inner curve or at intersections cancompromise visibility by either obscuring or limiting sight distance. Road users travelling from different
directions will have more difficulties detecting each other (MOW, 2008). Although they contribute only
to a minor portion of PTW crashes, obstacles are responsible for a relatively high number of fatalities(IBSR, 2005). Obstacles considered as safe or not aggressive for car users can be very aggressive for
PTWs, resulting in fatalities or severe injuries (CROW, 2003).
Road restraint systems / barriersRoad restraint systems are beneficial for passenger cars, but can be very aggressive for PTW riders
in the event of a collision with them. Crashes with road-restraint systems or barriers contribute to
between 2% and 4% of all PTW fatalities. Impacts to non-protected posts particularly the exposed
sharp parts of guard rails can be critical (CIDAUT, 2006 and 2-BE-SAFE, 2009).
Generally speaking, any unprotected post is a real danger for motorcyclists. According to theEuropean Smart Road Restraint System (SMARTRSS), wire rope safety barriers are considered asamong the most aggressive forms of road restraint systems for PTW riders (Universita degli Studi diFirenze, 2013). However, according to Rizzi et al. (2012) no significant differences are found between
wire-rope and other types of discontinuous guard rails. Nevertheless they found that the position of the
motorcyclist when impacting the guard rail is the most important influence on the overall outcome of thecollision.
Road maintenance works
Local spot repairs or surface treatments (surface dressing) that are not properly executed create arisk so that these repaired sections are a (temporary) hazard for PTWs. Insufficient adherence, too muchloose chippings or an insufficient amount of gravel or antiskid aggregates (e.g. for local repairs with coldasphalt) can locally reduce the skid resistance (CROW, 2003; IHIE, 2010). During resurfacing, theexposed scarified pavement that is left open to traffic before the new surface is laid can represent anadditional hazard for motorcyclists (CROW, 2003).

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Figure 4.4. Infrastructure hazards related to road design and maintenance
Natural stone paving elements and castiron gully tops; slippery when wet

Intersection - road sign hides
traffic coming from the left

Road delineation elements
represent an obstacle for PTW

Different paving material in the innerborder creates a zone with different
skid resistance

JointsTraffic calming – speed humps

Level difference between gully top androad surface

Road markings can reduce theskid resistanceTram rails

Rutting

Collapsed side

Source: AWV, BRRC, http://www.motorcyclenews.com/.

Weather conditions
Weather is rarely a primary factor in PTW crashes. Studies in Europe, Australia and the UnitedStates based on in-depth crash investigations, suggest that adverse weather conditions are a contributory
factor in less than 10% of PTW road crashes (Hurt et al., 1981; ACEM 2003; Johnston et al., 2008).
These results are partly explained by the fact that weather conditions have an important impact on PTW
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mobility: as daily users are more likely to shift to other modes of transport, and occasional users (e.g.
recreation users) may postpone their trip.
Adverse weather conditions for PTWs may also refer to high temperatures, which may equallyaffect riding comfort and safety; however, further research is needed to understand their impact on riding
behaviour.
The vehicle
The contribution of technical defects to PTW crashes ranges according to studies from 5.1%
(MAIDS, 2009) to 8% (European Commission, 2012). A study from Victoria, Australia found thatvehicle defects were relatively common in crashed motorcycles and contributed to about 12% of
motorcycle crashes, compared with 3% of car crashes (Rechnitzer, Haworth & Kowadlo, 2001. Tyre andbrake defects are the most frequent problems. Tyre failure may create a risk of serious personal injury or
death. To reduce the risk of tyre failure, it is strongly recommended to follow all safety information
regarding tyre inflation, tyre loading, tyre damage, tyre size selection, etc.
While both crash involvement and the prevalence of defects increased with vehicle age for cars, thiswas not the case for motorcycles because motorcycle crashes often involved inexperienced riders withnewer motorcycles (with fewer defects) than more experienced riders.
Some vehicle defects clearly contribute to the occurrence of crashes. However, challenges exist in
identifying systems that can adequately identify and reduce the occurrence of such defects. Even when
periodic inspection programs exist, a significant percentage of vehicles still have defects, rendering thevehicles ‘unroadworthy’. Yet only some of these defects appear to contribute to crashes. This would
suggest that only in certain circumstance are defects contributing factors in crashes. This conclusion is
not at all surprising as crashes can result from a large number of factors and a chain of events, withvehicle defects being just one of these factors.
Vehicle characteristics (or their absence) can contribute to PTW crashes and their severity in several
ways: they can make the vehicle more difficult to control, they can encourage or facilitate dangerous
behaviours by the rider, they can be defective or malfunction and thus contribute to crash causation or
they can fail to provide protection in a crash.
As mentioned in Chapter 3, the existing studies are inconclusive regarding the effect of engine
displacement on motorcycle crash risk. Two literature reviews were conducted (Mayhew et al., 1989; van
Honk et al., 1997) and highlight the lack of evidence linking engine displacement and the occurrence orgravity or a crash. An analysis combining the results of 13 studies found that the association between thevehicle displacement and the occurrence of a crash is lower when adjusted with age, gender andkilometres driven, than when the results do not adjust with these factors (Elvik et al., 2009).
The power of the PTW engine does not by itself explain a higher crash rate. There are a number ofassociated factors such as the type of vehicles (sport, tourism, trail), exposure conditions (day or nightdriving, length of the trip), age of the riders which influence riding behaviours. For example, Bjornskau
et al. (2012) reported that sport bikes (i.e. racing replica bikes) showed significantly increased crash riskin Norway. As seen in Chapter 3, in the United States, a study (Teoh, 2010) showed an increased crashrisk for certain types of motorcycles. It also shows that this increase in risk is often associated with risky
behaviours such as speeding and drink driving (see Table 4.3). There is need for further research toestablish the association between the PTW displacement and the occurrence or severity of a crash.

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Table 4.3. Relative prevalence of driver and crash characteristics
United States, data for 2000 and 2003 to 2008

Source: Teoh (2010).

Association of risk factors
Risk factors are often correlated and sometimes interdependent. Risky behaviour, such as riding a
PTW at a high speed, under the influence of alcohol, without a helmet, without a valid licence, orwithout daytime running light, has been identified as a possible explanation of the higher risk for young
men in addition to their lack of experience (Lin et al., 2003; McLellan et al., 1993; Rutter et al., 1996;
Chesham et al., 1993).
Research has shown the following association of risks:•Compared to a driver with a valid licence, those without a valid licence have a higher
probability to not wear a helmet, to drive above the speed limit, to drive under the influence ofalcohol and without daytime running lights (Peek-Asa et al., 1996; Reeder et al., 1996).

•

Riders not wearing a helmet are more likely to ride above the speed limit (Shankar et al., 1992).
Moreover, individuals who are impaired are more likely not to wear protective equipment(NHTSA, 2007).

•

Riding under the influence of alcohol is associated with riding above the speed limit, notwearing a helmet and not having a valid licence (Hundley et al., 2004; Luna et al., 1984;
Nelson et al., 1992; Peek-Asa et al., 1996; Soderstrom et al., 1993).

Conclusions
Most crashes are the result of a combination of factors intervening differently at different steps ofthe crash process (pre-crash, crash, post-crash). Some of these factors (e.g. alcohol, speed, etc.) act more
directly and preventing them appears to be an obvious way to reduce road trauma. Driver and riderrelated behaviour factors are often considered more prevalent in PTW crashes, compared to vehicle androad environment factors. However, while acting more indirectly, other factors and elements (i.e. lack ofexperience, road infrastructure, etc.) should not be forgotten as a potential complementary and efficient
ways to promote traffic safety.
As found for other road users, speeding and consumption of alcohol and/or drugs are critical in theoccurrence and severity of crashes. Operating a PTW requires more co-ordination and balance thanoperating a car, which explains why impaired riding is even more problematic for PTW riders.
A large number of crashes involve problems of perception or appraisal by the other vehicle
operator. The over-representation of inappropriate perception in PTW crashes suggests a specificproblem of detectability (conspicuity) of PTWs. The problem of perception is complex and cannot be
reduced to the simple fact that PTWs are physically less visible than other vehicles. There are many
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causes behind the poor detectability of PTWs and these are often connected to each other and with thegeneral parameters of the driving context. Indeed, this problem can be explained by the visualcharacteristics of PTWs, by the sensory capabilities of the human perceptual system, by the atypicalbehaviour of PTWs and by the expectations that road users develop.
Road environment factors have an important influence on crash severity (e.g. roadside obstacles andbarriers, speed reduction installations) rather than on crash occurrence. A more frequent combination ofroad crash contributory factors is found in PTW crashes, compared to other road users crashes, which
results in the multiplication of the relative risk. In addition, road design and maintenance can also be an
essential means to promote the “right” behaviour in terms of speeds and manoeuvres undertaken, and interms of understanding and expectancy of traffic situations. This is true for all road users, but it applies
specifically to PTWs who are, by their nature, more sensitive than other road users to any roadway
irregularities (road surface, weather conditions, etc.).
While it has been shown that vehicle technical failures are only minor contributors to PTW roadcrashes, vehicle improvements have potential to affect rider behaviour and improve rider safety (seeChapter 7).
Even if human behaviour and characteristics are often considered the most frequently represented
contributing factors in crashes; this does not mean that a solution to improve safety conditions for PTWs
must only focus on behaviours. A Safe System approach is required to change behaviour by acting on a
range of levers, including the infrastructure, the vehicle and the system as a whole.

Note

1.

The DRUID deliverables distinguished age, gender, time of day and substance type; but only the French casestudy distinguished different road users.

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Chapter 5. Countermeasures addressing road user behaviour

Road user behaviours are an essential lever to improve road safety. This chapter reviews education,
training and licensing; enforcement and communication measures that can influence both riders’and other drivers’ behaviours.

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Introduction
Road safety research has indicated that human behaviour contributes to the majority of road crashes
and powered two-wheeler (PTW) crashes in particular (see Chapter 4). This chapter presents somecountermeasures addressing (rider and driver) behaviour, including training, education and licensing;enforcement and communication campaigns.
Licensing, training and education
Licensing systems
A licensing system is a national (or provincial/state) system consisting of different requirements
such as age, medical status, theoretical knowledge and practical skills that must be fulfilled to obtain adriving licence. The requirements differ between various jurisdictions and also depending on the kind ofvehicle to which the licence applies. The systems also consist of specific rules for withdrawal andrenewing of licences. Systems also include having a register of all licences and licence holders in thejurisdiction.
In the European Union, the driving licence requirements are regulated by a Driving Licence
directive (2006/126/EF) which sets minimum standards for the member states. In the EU there is an ongoing push for harmonisation. Since January 2013, the licence categories are the same for all countries inthe EU. In this way, a driving licence from one country can easily be recognised in another. Theoreticaland practical tests will be progressively harmonised in all EU countries and planned EU legislation will
also introduce minimum standards for the training of examiners.
In other regions, there has been less effort in harmonising the licensing systems. In the United Statesand Australia, for example, the licensing system is regulated by each individual state.
PTW power and engine size restrictions for novice riders have been a cornerstone of licensing
systems in many countries for many years. In many countries, the licensing system based on power andengine size has been extended to also include criteria such as the age and experience of the riders, which
is known as the “Graduated Licensing System”.
In some countries, it is possible to ride a moped without a licence, or a light motorcycle with a car
driving licence. A study conducted in Spain (Perez et al., 2009) assessed the crash risk for motorcyclists
when the law changed in 2004 to allow car driving licence holders to ride a light motorcycle (< 125 cm3)
without a specific PTW licence. The results of this study suggested that the number of road traffic
injuries increases as a result of greater exposure to motorcycles when no special licensing requirement
for motorcycle drivers is in place.
Graduated driver licensing systems
Graduated driver licensing systems are designed to provide new drivers with driving experience andskills that can be developed gradually over time in low-risk environments. The driver passes through anumber of stages: restricted, provisional or probationary, and full licence. By testing the driver`sknowledge and ability during the process, the restrictions are gradually removed and the process ends
with the driver gaining a full licence. Graduated licensing systems (GDLS) for motorcyclists can befound in several OECD countries. Licence restrictions normally consist of different conditions that mustbe fulfilled if the rider wants to obtain the licence. The restrictions typically consists of age, engine size,
passenger riding, night riding, limitations on the kind of roads the rider can use and Blood Alcohol
Concentration (BAC) limits for novice and young riders below a certain age.
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The research on GDLS for car drivers shows that countries that have implemented graduated driver
licensing systems report significant drops in fatal crashes but there are only few evaluations of GDLS formotorcyclists. The system introduced in 1987 in New Zealand was evaluated in terms of the generaleffect on motorcycle traffic (Reeder et al., 1999). Injury crash data were obtained from the New Zealand
Health Information Service s national public hospital inpatient data for the years 1978-1994. The
introduction of the graduated licensing system was found to be closely followed by a significant
reduction (22%) in motorcycle crash hospitalisations for the 15-19 year age group. An examination ofvehicle registration and driver licensing data suggests that the reduction in injury crashes may be largely
attributable to an overall reduction in exposure to motorcycle riding.
It is important to note that some countries, for example the United Kingdom, do not make the priorassumption that graduated licensing is beneficial. The aim in the United Kingdom is to reform thetraining and testing system so that all riders are equipped to ride on the road under all circumstances by
the time they pass their test and gain a full licence. A major problem, according to the United Kingdom,is that graduated licence restrictions can be difficult to enforce, encourage people to ride outside the law,and place restrictions on all young riders that may only be needed to address the problems of a minority.
Implementation issues and recommendations
Graduated licensing is an approach which has now been adopted in several jurisdictions, and has
proven to be effective for car drivers. There is less research on the effects of graduated licensing systems
for motorcyclists than for car drivers. The experiences from and research done on graduated licensing
systems for car drivers indicates, however, that it might be a type of licensing system that can be more
successful for motorcyclists than licensing systems based upon power and engine size. Research on thelatter type of system indicates that it is hard to find any scientific evidence for a relationship between
engine size and crash risk, when controlled for personal differences.
Graduated licensing systems help in better managing the impulsive behaviour of younger people byonly allowing progressive access to the more powerful motorcycles as they gain more experience andmaturity.
The main objectives of licensing systems are to evaluate riders’ competence, to ensure a minimum
qualification to ride safely and to ensure that riders are capable of assuming their own responsibility. In
this respect, the main recommendations are the following:•

National (provincial/state) authorities should consider that riding a PTW requires a certain levelof personal maturity, as for all road users.

•

Access to PTWs should be gradual, with a licensing system aiming at managing young andnovice riders’ risk as they are gaining more experience.

•

The purpose of the licensing system should be that riders, irrespective of age, possess the skills,
knowledge and correct attitude to ride as safely as possible without unduly restricting mobility.

Ultimately, implementation of training and licensing of PTW riders will need support from riders,the public and politicians. PTW riders in many countries represent a small proportion of the motoring
public. A tendency by policy makers to introduce similar licensing requirements for PTWs and cars often
leads to inadequate solutions (Haworth and Rowden, 2012). It is, however, worth noticing that a very
restrictive and complicated motorcycle licensing system might result in delinquency by some riders
while unnecessarily complicating the process.

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Pre-licensing training and education
Pre-licensing training and education are important parts of a licensing system. The training and theeducation can be divided into three different types: Voluntary initial training, mandatory initial training,
and a mixture of voluntary and mandatory elements in the curriculum.
Examples of pre-licensing and training from OECD countries
CanadaIn Canada, rider training is still mostly voluntary with a few exceptions. The strategy is to enhance
PTW rider awareness and education regarding the inherent risk of motorcycling. Novice on-street rider
training has developed in Canada, where province-wide government insurance programmes are in place.
On-street training for more experienced riders using their own personal motorcycles and insurance hasdeveloped in response to demand by riders and rider groups, or as approved by government for anunrestricted licence or as a final licensing test.
While the majority of the time is spent on a motorcycle, part of the course is delivered in aclassroom environment. Students learn defensive riding strategies and risk awareness skills they can use
in conjunction with their on-bike skills. At the end of the course participants are tested to determine how
well they have learned. More importantly, though, the final test gives participants an idea of where their
weaknesses are and how to improve on them. In many jurisdictions such rider training will move theriders into the next step along the graduated licensing process but not the final licence.
United States
In the United States rider training is still mostly voluntary with a few exceptions. Historically, theUS Motorcycle Safety Foundation has provided a national standardised curriculum for novice rider
training. The US DOT developed model national standards for entry-level rider training which werereleased in 2011. It is anticipated that in many States PTW rider training programmes will be based onthese standards.
A second level of traffic rider training on-street training has been difficult to develop. The costof a proper fleet of motorcycles for on-street training including maintenance, insurance and proper plates
or tags has often been prohibitive. The likelihood of public liabilities resulting from an on-street collision
due to a multitude of uncontrollable variables has led insurers to withdraw from such projects.
EuropeIn most European countries, pre-licensing training includes both theoretical and practical training
courses. Many European countries have to a large extent based their approaches to driver education on
the GDE-matrix. The matrix is the result of an EU project, GADGET, (Hatakka et al., 1999). GADGET
is an acronym for Guarding Automobile Drivers through Guidance, Education and Technology. The
GDE-matrix is widely recognised within the European traffic research as a fruitful theoretical basis forthe development of driver training (Peräaho et al., 2003). The model separates what the driver must learn
into the following four hierarchical levels listed from the lowest to the highest level:•

Operational level (manoeuvring the vehicle)•

Tactical level (acting in accordance with traffic conditions)•

Strategic level (selecting journeys/trips and factors related to journeys/trips)•

General level (personal characteristics, ambitions and competencies)
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Driver and rider training traditionally cover the two first levels, “manoeuvring and tactical level ,rather well. The “strategic and “highest levels are often not emphasised in curricula for driver and rider
training. The GDE project concluded that including the two highest levels in driver and rider training wasvery important to improve traffic safety.
Another ambitious project on pre-licensing training is the Initial Rider Training programme (IRT),
that was developed in 2007 by the Federation of European Motorcyclists’ Associations (FEMA), the
Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM), the Motorcycle Industry in Europe (ACEM) and theSwedish Road Administration, with the support of the European commission. The focus of the
programme was to consider and deliver conclusions and recommendations on:•

The essential elements of a model European initial rider training programme.

•

How a model European initial rider training programme could be utilised in different social andeconomic circumstances.

•

The potential of e-Coaching (e-Learning) to support initial rider training and how virtual
training approaches could be developed.

•

The development of the essential elements into a comprehensive, cohesive and cost-effective
European initial rider training initiative.

The programme includes a modular approach to initial rider training, the essential elements andaspects for initial rider training, a method and approach to support initial rider training, and acomprehensive manual for use in a range of situations. The manual is now available to a wider audiencein Europe and around the world, with a translation in 11 languages provided by the European
Commission (European Commission, 2011).
It is essential to raise the awareness of all road users about interacting with vulnerable road users.
Several European countries have implemented this in their curricula, requiring knowledge of different
road user groups and special needs. Interaction with motorcyclists is an integral part of this tutorial.
Competencies for safe driving, such as attitudes and motivations, are not easy to evaluate by atheoretical or a practical test. With these limitations in mind, some European countries have introduced
mandatory driver training modules on safe driving. There are variations between the countries on thecontent and scope of these specific modules.
Instructor education
The instructor’s competence and attitude towards road safety are critical. There should be minimum
competence requirements for instructors according to the training they provide. The requirements could
be on the instructors’ own riding competence, and their pedagogical competence, e.g. competence incoaching. It is important that the driving instructors’ education is developed so that they can fulfil theintention of the curriculum. In education, the curriculum is of vital significance, but without a high levelof instructor competence even a good curriculum might lose its effect. Norway and Sweden are examplesof addressing both driver training and instructor education.
Implementation issues and recommendations
Even more than for driving a car, riding a PTW requires technical skills. Good pre-licence rider
training is an important element in striving for improved road safety for motorcyclists. Results of meta-

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analyses show that compulsory training and testing before obtaining a licence contribute to reductions incrash risks (Ulleberg, 2003).
The implementation of pre-licence rider training systems depends on political support and anunderstanding from society that good rider training is an important element in working towards better
traffic safety. It is essential to create good foundational documents to be used in communicating with
politicians, stakeholders etc. Training content should be developed taking into account that crash risk is
influenced by many factors, including ability to master the motorcycle, but also attitude and motivation
regarding riding and safety.
The recommendations of the Working Group concerning pre-licence training are that:•

Training should not only focus on basic manoeuvring skills and mastering traffic situations, butalso address attitudes towards general issues of mobility as well as safety;•

Training should put a special emphasis on defensive riding. Defensive riding is both an attitude
and ability. As an attitude, defensive riding enables the rider to systematically foresee what theriskiest scenario may be at any given moment. As ability, defensive riding makes the
motorcyclist ready to cope with that riskiest situation, should it occur.

•

The curricula for training and education of drivers in all other vehicle categories should also
focus on risk awareness when dealing with PTWs, their vulnerability, and crash patterns.

Testing and assessment
A licensing system is a national (or provincial/state) system consisting of different requirements
such as age, medical status, theoretical knowledge and practical skills to obtain a driving licence. To
ensure that the requirements for theoretical knowledge and practical skills are met, it is necessary toassess the applicants. A driving test is a procedure designed to assess a person's ability to drive a motor
vehicle. It exists in various forms worldwide, and is a requirement to pass in order to obtain a driver's
licence. A driving test generally consists of one or two parts: the practical test, called an on-road test,
used to assess a person’s driving ability under normal operating conditions, and/or a written or oral test
(theoretical test) to confirm a person's knowledge of relevant rules and laws.
Types of assessment
Different types of assessment can identify various aspects of a learner rider’s competence (i.e.
knowledge, skills and attitudes). Before selecting the type of assessment, it is necessary to clarify its
purpose.
There are roughly two types of individual assessment; formative and summative assessment.
Formative assessment, also called process evaluation, takes place during the training process and isoften of an informal character. The focus is on the learner rider’s learning process. The result is often
used as a guide for adjusting the training content.
Summative assessment, also called product evaluation, takes place at the end of the training process.
This assessment step is more formal. It is the product of the student’s learning that is made subject toassessment, and the purpose is to assess the learner rider’s level after completed the training.
During rider training and testing it is desirable that all learner riders are treated equally. This meansthat assessment should be as objective as possible. In the evaluation of theoretical knowledge this is to a
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large extent achieved through standardized theory tests. The assessment of driving skills takes place
under such varied conditions that a certain subjective judgment cannot be avoided, even thoughnationwide assessment criteria are used combined with coordination of the examiners. This should not
result in the discrimination of certain groups of users (e.g. smaller women).
Special competencies for motorcycle riders
Motorcycle characteristics require specific competencies compared to other vehicles. Mastery oftechnical skills is all the more important when driving vehicles with only two wheels. Technical riding
skills should be seen as a “tool to carry out wise tactical and operational choices when riding in traffic.
Testing these skills on a closed track is not sufficient to assess the ability to safely ride in traffic.
Testing should also aim to assess whether riders have acquired the necessary on-road skills,
including hazard perception and the understanding of riders’ inherent vulnerability. Due to the size of the
motorcycle, an important competence is the ability to gain best visibility by positioning, speed andpredictable (non-surprising) riding behaviours. The inherent vulnerability also requires knowledge about
helmets and appropriate protective clothing. To evaluate these special competencies, the examiner musthave both good knowledge and experience as a motorcyclist.
Examples of testing and assessment
United States
Rider licensing is typically obtained after an off-road test. Many jurisdictions in the United States
have adopted the test developed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF) for the US Government,
known as MOST II. It is believed to be both credible and highly objective, eliminating complaints ofsubjectivity by licensing examiners. This well-documented and objective skill test has allowed
governments to entrust the written examination portion of licence testing to approved motorcycle training
agencies in many jurisdictions.
European Union
Most European countries are subject to the EU Driving Licence Directive, and will follow therequirements for licensing and testing according to Directive 2006/126/EC, which was implemented in
2013. The Directive has detailed requirements relating to the theoretical test, special manoeuvres test andthe on-road testing.
Recommendations•

Defining the objectives of the training and licensing process is a prerequisite of an effective
system. The content of the training should reflect these objectives and be validated by relevant
competence and performance testing.

•

There should be minimum requirements for the examiners’ competence. To make a goodtest/assessment, the examiner must have both good assessment and rider competencies.

•

The practical test should be divided into an assessment of the technical driving skills off-road,and an assessment of traffic skills on-road (in-traffic test).

•

The motorcycle used for testing should be in accordance with the motorcycle that applicants
will be authorised to ride.

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Post-licence education and training
Post-licence education and training seeks to further develop the basic competencies that the initialrider training has provided the rider. It can also aim to refresh riding skills, for example, after not having
ridden a motorcycle over a long period (e.g. the winter) or when purchasing a new model. These courses
are not compulsory. Returning riders are a target group for post-licence education and training. Their
numbers have been growing rapidly in several western countries in recent years. It is therefore very
important to adapt the content of post-licence training to the targeted group.
ExamplesUnited Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the Driving Standards Agency has devised a post-test rider training scheme
called the Enhanced Rider Scheme, which is based on evidence of what makes an effective training
scheme which delivers safer riders. This is one of a number of post-test training and development
schemes that are available, including Bikesafe, IAM and ROSPA advanced training, and various local
schemes.
Norway and Sweden
Following winter, efforts are made to motivate PTW riders to take post-licence courses, both ontrack and on-road training. In Sweden, for example, the Swedish Motorcyclist Association (SMC)
organises post-licence courses during the summer. The courses are designed for various types of riders
and bikes, for example, women, new riders, and riders of sports bikes. In Norway, the users’ organisation
Norwegian Motorcycle Union (NMCU) promotes a schedule of courses, and ensures that these aredesigned for developing good competence in terms of traffic safety, and are not turned into racecourses.
The Netherlands
Recently, the ‘Risk’ advanced training course of the Royal Dutch Motor cyclists Association(KNMV) was evaluated (Boele and de Craen, 2014). This one-day course teaches motorcyclists torecognise, analyse, and anticipate potential traffic hazards. Results from the two-year evaluation indicatethat ‘Risk’ training has a positive effect on the safe riding behaviour and hazard perception of
motorcyclists in the short term (the first few months after training). Even in the long term (one year toeighteen months after training) ‘Risk’ trained motorcyclists showed safer traffic behaviour than a control
group without this training.
Evidence of effectiveness
While many motorcycling organisations promote post-licence training, it is difficult to assess theeffectiveness of these programmes in reducing the risk or severity of crashes. Participation in the courses
is voluntary, meaning that evaluation studies are faced with relatively few participants who may not be
representative of the rider population (and for which no natural control group exists). The research on
post-licence training courses indicates that these types of courses might lead to an increased risk forcrashes if not clearly directed to road safety. A literature review and meta-analysis conducted by
Ulleberg (2003) showed that riders could feel more competent and overconfident after completing thecourse, without actually having significantly improved their skills or having improved riding skills thatare not focused on crash prevention.

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While there is little scientific evidence, it is likely that well-designed post-licence training courses,
focused on refreshing basic manoeuvring skills and risk awareness, can be useful to some riders (forexample the “returning riders). For example, the Dutch advanced training showed positive effects on
riding behaviour, with no indication that the training caused overconfidence in skills.
It is therefore essential, when planning and implementing post-licence training, to ensure that themain focus is safe-riding knowledge and that the courses are not orientated towards the promotion of
specific skills resulting in over-confident riders taking risks that they cannot handle in real traffic
conditions. More research is needed on the safety impact of post license training and the underlying
conditions for an optimised effectiveness, including ways of maximising voluntary participation in
effective courses.
Monitoring and feedback
Monitoring and feedback are potential contributors to driver education and licensing which havereceived relatively little attention. In some graduated licensing systems, learner drivers are required tokeep logbooks that record their trips in terms of time, distance and location. The logbooks provide
documentation for requirements of a minimum number of hours of supervised driving before therestricted licence can be obtained. However, more detailed logbooks could also be used to ensure thatsufficient driving experience under different conditions (time of day, traffic density, high speed roads,etc.) is obtained. A challenge, though, is to ensure the reliability of information filled in by the learner
driver. Recent research has examined the safety benefits of electronic driver monitoring systems foryoung drivers. Simons-Morton et al. (2013) found that feedback to teen drivers and their parents on theteens’ risky driving events led to a reduction in these events, but that feedback to the teen drivers only
did not result in a reduction. Therefore it appears that monitoring systems can be beneficial, but that
feedback to “authorities may be needed for this effect to occur.
Another way of facilitating learning is by rider coaching. These programmes provide feedback toriders on their on-road riding skills and techniques. This approach has been incorporated in the BikeSafe
UK programme and an evaluation is being undertaken of an assisted ride programme in Victoria,
Australia. The Victorian study focused on riders who had obtained their licence within the last year andridden at least 500 kilometres (Sakashita et al., 2013). While no evaluation of the safety effects of the
programme is currently available, one of the important learnings was the general lack of interest in
participation among the newly-licensed riders. This presents a real challenge to any voluntary postlicence educational programme.
Effectiveness of training and expectations vis-à-vis riding safety
The effectiveness of training activities within the area of road safety remains a controversial subject.
Training is seen as an important road safety measure by some safety stakeholders, while others consider
it a measure which does not yield any demonstrable positive road safety effects.
In his policy recommendations for educational work in the road safety area, McKenna (2010) statedthat education interventions should be evidenced-based, with an underlying formal body of knowledge
and be evaluable through well-defined and objective criteria.
Ideally, the effectiveness of training should be assessed based on the reduction in the number ofkilled and injured. In practice, it is very difficult to establish a direct link between training and safety
performance. The Cochrane Collaboration (Kardamanidis et al., 2010) reported that due to the poor
methodological quality of the existing studies, it was difficult to draw any conclusions about theeffectiveness of rider training and therefore to recommend best practices in rider training. In addition,
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some poorly planned and executed training programmes may have had a negative impact on road safety,
therefore biasing the overall assessment of training on road safety. Alternatively, if the assessment isbased on criteria focused on effects like improved knowledge, changed attitudes etc. the outcome might
be positive.
Implementation issues and recommendations
Driver training is a long-term measure to improve road safety. It might have positive short term
effects, no effect or even negative effects if the driver/rider training is unorganised and on a low level.
The latter is probably one of several explanations as to why it has been so difficult to find a direct
correlation with crashes.
The value of the training as a road safety measure requires careful analyses, based on facts about theconditions under which training is conducted, before its road safety value can be assessed. More or lessuninformed analyses may impact assessments which can be overly positive or overly negative. The
points below and the policy recommendations should be seen as an attempt to, in an overall way, sum up
what is important to consider when training is evaluated as a road safety measure.
•

The internal and external framework for the training activities is crucial for what effect a
training activity in the road safety area can be expected to provide.

•

It is important to have realistic goals for the training activities and to evaluate against the goals
and assessment criteria that have been set.

•

Rider training must be seen as only one of several measures that together affect the overall roadsafety level.

•

Training can only be regarded as an indirect measure that creates opportunities which, in turn,can influence the riders’ individual requirements (practical and theoretical knowledge,
attitudes, norms, behaviour) for being in the road system.

Enforcement
General principles
The necessity and effectiveness of police enforcement to improve the compliance of all road users
with traffic rules and increase safety levels have been studied and are well-established (Elvik & Vaa,
2004). A mix of traditional, visible, enforcement (with on-the-spot roadside checks by police) andautomated enforcement for offences such as speeding or red light has the biggest deterrence effect.
Randomness of enforcement also increases the deterrent effect. Moreover, enforcement has to be wellconducted in order to be efficient (Jou & Wang, 2011).
PTW operators, as other operators of motorised vehicles, must comply with traffic rules, and typicalenforcement activities to control speeding, drink-driving and non-respect of traffic rules apply equally to
all motorised vehicle operators.
Both traditional and automated enforcement are more complex for PTWs. Their manoeuvrability
and speed means that they are difficult to catch and stop when an offence is detected by traditional
enforcement. In addition, they are less easily detectable by photographic enforcement because they do
not have front registration plates and the identity of the rider is hard to establish in jurisdictions where
this is required. Enforcement activities are more effective if police officers are well trained to detect

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dangerous manoeuvres and equipped to intercept the riders quickly and safely. This often means that thetraffic police should be riding a PTW.
While most of the focus in this section is on enforcement directed at PTW riders, it must be
acknowledged that enforcement of traffic rules for other drivers is an important measure to improve
PTW safety. To the extent to which this enforcement is able to reduce speeds at intersections, reduce
drink-driving and prevent other dangerous behaviours, then motorcycles are less likely to be thecounterpart in these collisions or the severity of their injuries will be reduced.
For motorcyclists, as for other road users, enforcement alone has a limited effect. Communication
campaigns and publicity are important complementary measures to ensure the long term impact ofenforcement. Motorcyclist associations also have a key role to play in informing riders about the rules
and promoting respect for them. A study conducted in France (Eyssartier, 2011) showed that, while mostriders do recognise the danger of extreme behaviours, they consider it the norm to drive 10 km/h above
the limit. This section focuses on specific challenges of PTW enforcement and specific enforcement
activities towards all motorised vehicle operators to increase safety of PTWs, including:•

Speeding•

Helmet wearing•

Extreme behaviours of PTW riders•

Vehicle maintenance and inspection

Speeding
As seen in Chapter 4, inappropriate and excessive speed is a major contributor in PTW crashes. In
addition, PTW riders are over-represented in speeding offences in most countries. Reducing the speed of
PTW riders is a priority in all countries, on urban as well as non-urban roads.
In addition to traditional enforcement activities targeting all road users as well as traffic
management measures, education and campaigns, two main enforcement measures can contribute in
reducing speeding offences of PTW operators:•

Greater use of automated speed cameras with rear cameras, as PTW registration plates are fixed
on the rear of the vehicle. This supposes that sanctions can be based on the “owner liability”
principle. In many countries, it is legally necessary to have a picture of the operator of thevehicle in order to proceed with the sanction. This also supposes that registration plates arevisible and can be read by automated speed cameras and that misplacement of the plates can bepunished. In 2012, in France, 100% of speeding PTWs were not caught by automatic devices
with front cameras, and it is estimated that only 15% of PTW speeding were caught by devices
with rear cameras, because their plates could not be read (CNSR, 2013). Technical inspection is
one option to contribute to ensuring the conformity of the registration plate. Australian researchhas examined the feasibility of several alternative approaches to motorcycle frontal
identification, including front number plates, adhesive stickers and radio frequency
identification tags. None of these systems has yet been implemented.

•

Progressive implementation of point-to-point enforcement, also known as section control,
which measures the average speed of vehicles on a section of road, thus contributing to a“fairer” enforcement and greater acceptability. It also avoids the “sudden braking” of road users
when approaching a speed camera.

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A study by Christie et al., (2003), demonstrated a 63% decrease in injury crashes involving
motorcyclists after setting up a network of 101 mobile speed cameras (mostly on roads where the speed
limit is 30 mph) in the South Wales region of the United Kingdom.
Other specific speeding issues which can occur with PTWs concern moped riders on cycle lanes,
where there are usually no cameras.
Drink driving
As seen in Chapter 4, drink-driving is not necessarily more prevalent among motorcyclists, but thisgroup is over-represented in comparison to other drivers in fatal and non-fatal crashes because of theirgreater vulnerability, and particularly after having consumed alcohol.
There are usually no specific programmes to target drink-driving among PTW riders. The mosteffective measures to combat drink-driving is the enforcement of legal limits of blood alcohol content(BAC) and should target all operators of motor vehicles. In some countries, a lower maximum blood
alcohol content may be in force for young drivers and riders. In some countries (such as Austria) moped
riders (who usually are teenagers) are subject to lower BAC.
Widespread and unpredictable random breath testing (RBT) is very effective in reducing theprevalence of drink-driving by car drivers. PTW riders can be breath tested in the same way as car
drivers. However, most RBT tests are conducted at the times of day when the prevalence of drinkdriving in car crashes is highest: at night, particularly on weekends. Given that most PTW use occurs indaytime hours (more so than for car use), then PTW riders are less likely to be tested for alcohol and so
may be less deterred from its use.
As for passenger cars or buses, an alcohol ignition interlock can be installed on PTWs. This is a
device, like a breath-analyser, installed on the dashboard of a motor vehicle. Before the motor can bestarted, the driver must first exhale into the device. If the resultant breath-alcohol concentration analysis
is greater than the programmed blood alcohol concentration, the device prevents the engine from being
started. In the state of Victoria, Australia, work is in progress to extend current interlock programmes torequire any driver or rider who is convicted of drink- driving to fit an alcohol interlock for a period oftime as a condition of their licence reinstatement (VicRoads, undated). Regardless of whether the offence
was committed while driving a car or riding a PTW, the PTW must be fitted with an interlock if the rider
wishes to be allowed legally to ride it during this period. A similar programme exists in Sweden. In bothprogrammes, the number of interlocks fitted to PTWs has been very small and no PTW-specificevaluations have been possible to determine how effective this has been in preventing initial drink-riding,or subsequent re-offending.
Helmet wearing
The proper use of a quality helmet is certainly the most effective protection to prevent head injuries
and reduce the consequences of motorcycles injuries (Rutledge and Stutts, 1993; Lin et al., 2001).
Government administrations and motorcycling stakeholders should recommend and strongly
promote the correct fitment and wearing of certified helmets. All countries should aim at a 100% wearing
rate of helmets, which implies strict enforcement.
The enforcement of helmet wearing first requires the existence of a helmet law. This is not the casein all OECD countries, however: in the United States, for example, only 19 out of 50 States have auniversal helmet law. In the other States wearing a helmet is either not compulsory or compulsory for
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specific segments of the population only. According to NHTSA (2012), 65% of motorcyclists killed in2010 were not wearing helmets in States without universal helmet laws, as compared to 9% in Stateswith universal helmet laws (these figures include riders on 3-wheeled motorcycles). It is estimated that
703 lives (37% out of the 4 502 killed) could have been saved, with a 100% wearing rate.
In Italy, the mandatory helmet law for riders of all ages entered into force in 2000. The “Casco 2000
study (Giustini et al., 2000) dealt with emergency room access in many cities in Italy. A sample of
1 548 cases was analysed, 659 of them after the law was passed. The incidence of head injury diminishednotably after the helmet law entered into force: 37% of cases before the law versus 17% of cases after thelaw.
The helmet law must be enforced on a continuous basis by roadside checking. Enforcement needs tobe conducted in a continuous and random basis and target all riders and their passengers. The Box below
illustrates the situation in Vietnam, which could inspire other countries.
Box 5.1. The development and implementation of mandatory motorcycle
helmet legislation in Vietnam
Motorcycles represent 95% of Vietnam’s 27 million registered vehicles. On 29 June 2007, Vietnam
introduced the first universal mandatory helmet law. Taking effect on 15 December 2007, this legislation
covered all riders and passengers on all roads. Penalties were increased tenfold and cohorts of the police were
mobilised for enforcement. Despite past barriers to enforcement, prioritisation within traffic police resulted in
680 000 infringements being issued, in 2008, for non-wearing of a helmet. In selected provinces, helmet wearing
increased significantly in the first 6 months of the helmet law. In Danang, for example, helmet use increased
from 27% to 99%. Through political leadership, advance public education and stringent enforcement from the
day the legislation took effect, reductions in head injuries and deaths are evident.
Source: Passmore J and N. Nguyen Phuong (2010), World Health Organization.

While the use of helmets is relatively easy to enforce, the proper use of standard helmets is more
complex. Police officers should be trained to notice inappropriate wearing of helmets, and non-standard
helmets. In developing countries in particular, the sale of fake helmets should be actively discouraged
and punished.
As for other enforcement activities, it is important to complement these with targetedcommunication campaigns, adapted to local conditions, highlighting the benefits of using proper helmets.
Extreme (or deviant) behaviours
Some riders exhibit extreme and dangerous behaviours, deliberately taking risks which are a threat
both to themselves and other road users. These include high acceleration, very high speeds, zig-zagging,competing, and aggressive behaviour.
It is not easy to enforce these behaviours, because the offences are not well defined, concern only asmall portion of the riders, and it is difficult for police officers to catch the offenders. Nevertheless, theiractions must be stringently sanctioned as they are a threat to road safety and present a negative image ofthe overall motorcyclist population.
In Sweden, reducing extreme behaviours of motorcyclists is a priority in the new strategy for PTW
safety. Extreme behaviours are defined in a very large sense, as they encompass riders who clearly
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violate speed limits, ride without a driving licence, drive aggressively, or with alcohol or other drugs intheir system. It is intended to disseminate information to police and prosecutors regarding the possibilityof confiscating motorcycles (Swedish Transport Administration, 2012).
In Norway, the most important step in dealing with extreme behaviour in traffic is to work in close
connection with the police, as they will be the first to detect that kind of behaviour in other areas suchas drug abuse, robbery etc. In an investigation in Norway, results showed that about 80% of traffic
offenders (based upon extreme behaviour in traffic) were already registered by the police for other illegal
behaviours (Norwegian Public Roads Administration, 2010).
Finally, extreme behaviours from all road users should be strictly identified and enforced, as thesafety of motorcyclists are also put at risk.
Communication campaigns
Although there is little research evidence on the effectiveness of communication campaigns, themedia can certainly positively influence attitudes and behaviours, provide information and increase theacceptability of enforcement. Regarding the safety of PTWs, periodic and thematic campaigns targeting
both motorcyclists and other road users typically focus on:•

Vulnerability of PTWs and the most common crash scenarios and risks factors.

•

PTW risky behaviours.

These communication campaigns aim to promote harmonious car-PTW co-existence and safe
behaviours by all road users.
Development of a communication campaign
There are various media avenues for such campaigns, including TV, radio, press (general-interest
newspapers or specialised press), Internet (online-press, blogs, social media...), variable message signs,
etc. It is possible to communicate effectively with even a modest budget, as long as the messages andtarget groups are well defined.
Successful communications campaigns are developed in consultation with relevant stakeholders
depending on the topic of the campaign (e.g. PTW associations, manufacturers, professional riders, etc.).
The role of PTW associations in disseminating the communication is particularly important. During
specific events where motorcyclist exposure is increased (motorcycling races, motorcycling rallies), it isessential to deploy more resources to ensure their safety (see box below).
Where the strategy focuses on specific risky behaviours, best results will be achieved when these
are combined with enforcement campaigns (Henkens & Hijkoop, 2008).

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Box 5.2. UK, “Think!
THINK! provides road safety information for road users.
The specific focus for PTWs can be summarised in the following communication campaign: “Motorcycling:
Motorcyclists fatalities are out of proportion to their presence on our roads. Think bike, think biker .
The campaign is divided in three main points:•

Facts: motorcyclists are just under 1% of total road traffic, but account for 19% of all road user deaths;
they are 50 times more likely to be killed or seriously injured in crashes than car drivers. In 2012,
328 motorcyclists died and 5 000 were seriously injured in road collisions in Great Britain. In 2012,around two thirds of motorcycle fatalities occurred on rural roads.

•

Advice for Riders: choosing the right helmet could help save your life, wear the right gear, riding
defensively makes you less vulnerable, consider further skills-training to improve your performance andsafety on the road, etc.

•

Advice for Drivers: keep your distance, check for bikes when changing lanes, check for bikes whenturning, motorcyclists might pass you on either side, check for motorcycles at junctions and park safely.

Source: UK Government.

Box 5.3. Safety and enforcement during motorcycling event
Jerez, Spain, 2011
In Spain, during one of the most important sport events (“FIM MotoGP 2011 World Championship , in Jerez)
the traffic agency carried out specific measures to avoid incidents as much as possible:
Deployment of resources (eighteen helicopters) and police forces (600 people) belonging to Traffic Police
Departments (at National and Local level). These resources were located especially at locations where intensive
surveillance was thought to be needed (based on previous events). More than 150 speed cameras were installed in
the surroundings of the circuit. More than 20 police units were equipped with “alcohol detection systems andcarried out alcohol testing during the race weekend.
Campaigns (especially on radio) were carried out three days before the event, and targeted messages weredisplayed on electronic information boards on roads (e.g. “Driver, think about the motorcycles or Road is not a
circuit ).

Awareness communication campaigns
Awareness communication campaigns typically aim at combating risky practices or achieving
harmonious coexistence between PTW and other road users.
Risky practices of PTW riders addressed by awareness campaigns include common traffic
violations, such as speeding, drink driving or impaired driving in general, not wearing a helmet use or
wearing it poorly fastened, and disobeying traffic lights in urban areas. Countries now have considerable
experience with campaigns specifically targeting these risky behaviours.

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The road is a common space that must be shared by different users (car, PTW, truck drivers, etc.) tofulfil the mobility needs of everybody. Messages should be sent to two and four wheel users to obtain acommon goal.
Car drivers need to be aware of systematically using turning lights and make an effort to look for
PTW drivers through their mirrors. While riders can do much to reduce the risks, there are also simple
actions that drivers can take, including: indicating their intention to turn or change lanes well in advance;
using mirrors and doing a head check to make sure blind spots are clear; making eye contact or
acknowledging riders, etc.
Box 5.4. VAL OP, LET OP(Netherlands, 2007)“Motor platform is a working group of PTW groups supported by the Dutch Government. In 2007, theylaunched a campaign aimed at motorcyclists and drivers, encouraging greater awareness and the understanding
between “parties“.
The campaign has two strands: VAL OP provides advice and survival strategies for motorcyclists, stressing
the need to be visible to other road users; LET OP gives guidance to car and truck drivers on watching blind-spots
and keeping a permanent eye looking out for PTWs.
The project provided leaflets and posters, which were available as downloads from the Motor platform
website.
These messages are thought to be given to PTW users as well as to the other road users (passenger cars,vans...).
Source: Motorplatform Netherlands.

Conclusions
Road user behaviours are an essential lever to improve road safety. To improve the safety of
motorcyclists, it is possible to influence both riders’ and other drivers’ behaviours through education,
training and licensing; enforcement and communication.
Licensing, training and education are essential tools for improving riding safety. Access to PTWs
should be gradual, with a licensing system aiming at managing novice rider risks while riders are gaining
experience and maturity. Novice riders of every kind of PTW should be trained. Training should not only
focus on basic manoeuvring skills and mastering traffic situations, but also address attitudes towards
safety, placing special emphasis on hazard perception and defensive riding. Other road users should also
be made aware of the specific risks associated with PTWs vulnerability and crash patterns.
Traffic rules apply equally to operators of two- and four-wheeled vehicles and thus should beequally enforced. As for other motorised vehicle users, enforcement is needed to improve compliancewith key safety rules such as speed, drinking and driving, helmet use, proper licences and vehicle safety
standards. High-visibility enforcement accompanied by other measures, such as communication andpublicity, has proven to have a strong deterrent effect. Speed enforcement is essential in reducing
speeding and associated crash risk. Automated speed enforcement has proven its effectiveness for cars,
but further adjustments are needed to make it as effective for PTWs.

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Communication campaigns are potentially a good means to promote safety in general, in association
with other measures. They are most effective when targeted at key groups of drivers and riders. The
combination of enforcement-communication campaigns (on speeding, riding without a helmet and otherrisky behaviour) has proven its effectiveness in many countries.
The success of an enforcement and communication strategy depends on the involvement ofmotorcyclists themselves, and motorcyclists associations have an important role to play in disseminating
communication messages, informing riders about the rules and making enforcement acceptable.
All these measures directly address drivers and riders behaviours. However it must be kept in mind
that is also efficient to act indirectly on the behaviour by measures concerning infrastructure and vehicles(see Chapters 7 and 8).

References
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Report V2, ACEM, Brussels.
Boele, M.J. and S. De Craen (2014), Evaluation advanced training course for motorcyclists,
R-2014-22E, The Hague, The Netherlands: SWOV Institute for Road Safety Research.
DGT (2012), Resultados de la campaña de vigilancia de motos, Dirección General de Tráfico, Madrid,
Spain.
Dittmar, D., et al. (2003), “Anti-Tampering Devices Relating to Two or Three Wheeled Motor
Vehicles , TÜV, Hanover.
Elvik, R. and T. Vaa (2004), The Handbook of Road Safety Measures, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam.
European Commission (2011), “The IRT model, the European Initial Rider Training Programme ,Directorate General for Mobility and Transport, Brussels.
Eyssartier, C. (2011), “Facteurs prédictifs du dépassement de la limitation de vitesse sur route limitée à
90 km/h chez les motards , CETE de l'Ouest, mars.
Giustini, M., F. Taggi et al. (2000), “The project “Casco 2000”: further evidence of the efficacy of thelaw 472/99" [in Italian], Proceedings of the 57th Conference on Traffic Injuries, Riva del Garda,
15-20 October 2001: 152-7.
Hatakka, M., E. Keskinen, N.P. Gregersen and A. Glad (1999), “Theorien und Zielsetzungen vonFahrerausbildungsmassnahmen , GADGET Project, Work Package 3, BFU Report, Issue 40.
Haworth, N. and P. Rowden (2012), “Applicability of learner driver research to learner motorcyclists ,in: M. Sullman and L. Dorn (eds.), Advances in Traffic Psychology, Ashgate Publishing: Farnham,
England, pp. 105-112.
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Henkens, N.C. and S. Hijkoop (2008), Monitoring Bromfietshelmen 2008, In opdracht van Bureau
Verkeershandhaving Openbaar Ministerie. Grontmij Verkeer en Infrastructuur, De Bilt.
Jou, R.-C. and P.-L. Wang (2011), “The intention and willingness to pay moving violation invitations
among Taiwan motorcyclists , Accident Analysis & Prevention. Available online 14 July 2011.
Kardamanidis, K., A. Martiniuk, R. Ivers, M. Stevenson and K. Thistlethwaite (2010), “Motorcycle rider
training for the prevention of road traffic crashes: Review , Cochrane Injuries Group.
Lin, M.R., H.F. Hwang and N.W. Kuo (2001), “Crash severity, injury patterns, and helmet use inadolescent motorcycle riders , Journal of Trauma, 50, 24-30.
McKenna, F. (2010), Education in road safety: are we getting it right? RAC Foundation for Motoring
Ltd, Report 10/113, London.
NHTSA (2012), Traffic safety facts. Motorcycles. DOT HS 811 639.
Norwegian Public Roads Administration (2010), “Special analysis – fatal motorcycle accidents 20052009 , Oslo.
Passmore, J. and N. Nguyen Phuong (2010), The Development and Implementation of Mandatory
Motorcycle Helmet Legislation in Vietnam, World Health Organization.
Peräaho, M., E. Keskinen and M. Hatakka (2003), “Driver competence in a hierarchical perspective:
implications for driver education , Report for Swedish Road Administration, University of Turku,
Traffic Research.
Pérez, C., M. Marí-Dell’Olmo, C. Borrell, M. Nebot, J. Villalbí, E. Santamariña and A. Tobias (2009),
Road injuries and relaxed licensing requirements for driving light motorcycles in Spain: a timeseries analysis, Bull World Health Organization, 87:497-504.
Reeder, A.L, J.C. Alsop, J.D. Langley, A.C. Wagenaar (1999), “An evaluation of the general effect of the
New Zealand graduated driver licensing system on motorcycle traffic crash hospitalisations ,Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 31, Issue 6.
Rutledge, R. and J. Stutts (1993), “The association of helmet use with the outcome of motorcycle crashinjury when controlling for crash/injury severity , Accident Analysis & Prevention, 25, 347-353.
Sakashita, C., T. Senserrick, S. Lo, S. Boufous, L. de Rome and R. Ivers (2014), “The Motorcycle Rider
Behavior Questionnaire: Psychometric properties and application amongst novice riders inAustralia , Transportation Research Part F, 22, 126-139.
Simons-Morton, B.G., C.R. Bingham, M.-C. Ouimet, A.K. Pradhan, R. Chen, A. Barretto and J.T. Shope(2013), “The Effect on Teenage Risky Driving of Feedback From a Safety Monitoring System:
A Randomized Controlled Trial , Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, 21-26.
Swedish Transport Administration (2012), Increased safety for motorcycle and moped riders, Joint
Strategy, version 2.0 for the years 2012-2020.
Ulleberg, P. (2003), Motorcykelsäkerhet – en litteraturstudie och meta-analys, TOI Report 681/2003,
Oslo, ISSN 0802-0175.
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Chapter 6. Countermeasures promoting the use of
personal protective equipment

Head injuries are the most critical injuries affecting powered two-wheeler (PTW) riders. This
chapter presents the safety value of the helmet which is the primary equipment to protect the rider.
It also describes other protective equipment, including protective clothing, airbag jackets, highvisibility clothing and neck braces.

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Introduction
The proper use of helmets has strongly proved its efficiency to reduce injuries. A helmet is therefore
the primary equipment to protect the rider. Other recommended protective equipment includes protective
clothing (such as protective gloves, boots jackets and pants, often equipped with limb protectors), airbag
jackets and neck braces.
Helmets
A helmet prevents or reduces head injury. The SWOV factsheet on helmets (SWOV, 2010)
describes the four basic components of a helmet: outer shell, inner shell, protective padding, and chinstrap. Furthermore, most types of helmet also have a visor. The task of the hard outer shell, usually madeof fibre reinforced composites or thermoplastic, is to prevent objects from penetrating, and to spreadenergy. The task of the soft inner shell, usually made of polystyrene foam in various densities, is toabsorb the collision energy slowly and to spread it over a large area of the head. The protective padding,often made of polyurethane, ensures comfort of wear. The chin strap ensures that the helmet remains on
the head no matter what happens. The helmet wearer s vision is guaranteed by the hinged visor. The
shape of the helmet reduces wind noise to acceptable proportions, although turbulence can still raise thesound level.
There is a wide diversity of standard helmets, including Open-Faced, Full-face and modular
helmets. These offer differing levels of protection, albeit there is no requirement for a specific type ofhelmet for specific use.
Helmet standards
Motorcycle helmets sold in the United States are required to meet the federal standards set forth by
the Department of Transportation (FMVSS 218). In addition to these federal required standards, the Snell
Memorial Foundation has set up a series of voluntary standards for motorcycle helmets as well. The tests
in the two sets of standards are different in both design and specifications for the results of the testing.
Riders should choose a helmet that is DOT certified and many riders also choose to wear a helmet thathas the additional Snell certification. A helmet that meets multiple safety standards provides more safety
benefit to the rider. The Economic Community of Europe (ECE) is currently the most commonly usedmotorcycle helmet safety standard internationally, as compliance with ECE 22.05 is required by over
50 countries worldwide. One of the advantages is the requirement for mandatory batch testing of helmets
before they are released to the public. This means that the quality of the helmet in meeting the ECE 22.05
standard is assured by the compulsory sample testing of every production of helmets before they leave
the factory.
The Safety Helmet Assessment and Rating Programme (SHARP) was established by the UK
Department for Transport in 2007, as part of the Government’s commitment to reduce motorcycling
casualties. SHARP’s objectives are twofold:•

To provide clear advice on how to select a helmet that fits correctly and is comfortable.

•

To provide consumers with clear, impartial and objective information about the relative safetyof motorcycle helmets through a 1 to 5 star safety rating.

Each model of helmet rated is subjected to 32 impact tests and, to date, 304 helmet ratings havebeen published.

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Certainly, the protective effects of the helmet can still be improved. Perhaps this requires adapting
the test procedure requirements so that advanced materials and constructions can contribute optimally.
Of course it is important to aim for the highest quality and protective effect of helmets. In any case, users
should be aware of the technical performance of their helmets and quality should be assured.
Affordability is sometimes claimed as an excuse not to wear a helmet, however this cannot be an
acceptable argument, at least in high-income countries, where the cost of a standard helmet is only a verysmall proportion of the purchase price of a motorcycle, and tiny in comparison with the health expenses
and the consequences of a head injury. In lower income countries, the situation might be different, and asolution must be found to offer well protecting helmets at a reasonable price (see also Chapter 9).
Helmets standards should be developed taking into account the various climates in the world: it
might be challenging to wear the same helmet in tropical conditions and during the winter in a country
with very cold temperatures.
Evidence of effectivenessWearing a helmet considerably reduces the risk of head injury in a crash. An international reviewof 61 studies on the use of a helmet shows that the risk of severe head injury decreases by about 69%
when wearing one (Liu et al., 2007). The risk of being killed in a motorcycle crash decreases by about
42%.
Studies have compared the effectiveness of the various helmet types, particularly the integral helmet
and the jet helmet. It is clear that an integral helmet with a fixed jaw guard considerably reduces the riskof chin and facial injury. Studies carried out in Taiwan and Australia found no difference between the
integral and the jet helmet in causing spinal cord injuries (Lin et al., 2004; O Connor, 2005).
In a recent study in 70 countries, factors such as helmet non-usage percentage and motorcycle perperson ratio were positively associated with motorcycle-related death rates. A simple linear regression
model between helmet usage and road traffic death rate has shown that for each 10% increase in helmet
usage, one life per million inhabitants can be saved per year (Abbas et al., 2012).
Measures to increase wearing rates
Given the proven effectiveness of a helmet, motorcycle safety could benefit considerably from anearly 100% wearing rate. This first requires that helmet wearing is mandatory. As mentioned
previously, not all OECD countries have a helmet law. Only after such a law is installed can helmet
wearing be enforced (see also section on enforcement). In order to increase the acceptability of thehelmet law, the enforcement strategies should be complemented with communication campaigns andpublicity.
In aiming to increase wearing rates there are a couple of issues to consider. First, not only should
wearing be enforced, also proper wearing of a helmet should be enforced. When a helmet is worn
without a fastened chin strap, the effectiveness of protection in a crash is considerably limited. Therefore
it is important to keep the chin strap well fastened, allowing no slack. Especially among moped riders
there is a tendency not to wear the helmet correctly.
Protective clothing
The term “protective clothing refers to garments (i.e. boots, gloves, pants and jackets) that aim toprevent, or reduce, the severity of injuries when a crash occurs. Protective clothing essentially reduces
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the risk of abrasion in case of friction with the road surface. It also prevents some piercing injuries andincreases the threshold for fractures.
Research has indicated significant benefits from wearing protective equipment. A study undertaken
by de Rome et al. (2011) showed significant reductions in injury risk if riders were wearing a range ofprotective clothing. Riders were significantly less likely (20% to 60%) to be hospitalised if they were
wearing jackets, pants or gloves and less likely to incur injury if garments included fitted body armour
with greatest reductions for injuries to extremities. Even non-motorcycle boots showed a halving of risk
compared with shoes.
The study also showed that 25% to 30% of gloves, jackets and pants designed for motorcyclists
failed due to material damage in the crash. While this may indicate the need for improved standards, it
may also indicate that the practical limit of the protection available from clothing can frequently be
exceeded in a crash. Consistent results were obtained from ACEM (2009) (see Table 6.1).
Table 6.1. Percentage of crashes in which protective equipment contributed to reduced,
or prevented, injury
Protective clothingworn

Percentage (%) of crashes in which coverage was present andcontributed to reduced or prevented injury
Rider

Passenger

Upper torso

65

49

Lower torso

61

46

Footwear

49

29

Gloves44

25

Source: ACEM (2009).

There are benefits from the introduction of harmonised standards to support the global productproduction and distribution. On the other hand, there is a trade-off, if a minimum standard is imposedthat results in a price on equipment that exceeds the riders willingness, or ability, to pay. In particular,
the need to increase equipment wearing rates in developing countries may not be supported by a global
standard based on the needs of more affluent riders in OECD member states. The European Committee
for Standardisation (CEN) has published standards for protective equipment for motorcyclists' protective
clothing against mechanical impact.

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Figure 6.1. Protective clothing zones

Source: Transport Accident Commission, Victoria.

While the introduction of mandatory requirements imposes a cost on riders, and may therefore be
subject to significant community opposition, any increase in the use of protective clothing throughpromotion to increase rider awareness has the potential to provide significant benefits. Elvik and Vaa(2004) have analysed several studies of the impact of protective clothing. Respective injuries are
expected to decline between 33% and 50% by use of protective equipment. The benefit-cost ratio wasestimated to be 5.3, which makes protective equipment a highly efficient way of reducing the number
and severity of injuries.
The publication and distribution of brochures on protective clothing promotion by licensing
agencies or at point of sale, supplemented by mass media advertising, form an important part of
motorcycle safety strategies.
While research into the benefits of protective clothing is unequivocal, there remain a number of
impediments to increased or, eventually, universal use. The first is inconvenience. The most effective
protection involves a significant amount of bulky clothing and the time and effort required to use thisevery time may be a deterrent for riders, particularly in short trips perceived to be of low risk. For
example, research by the Victorian Transport Accident Commission (TAC, 2011) indicated that whileboots were almost universally worn by recreational riders, they were only worn by 60% of commuters.

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This bulk and weight leads to two other factors acting against universal use: heat and comfort. Finally,
costs may also be an issue.
Another impediment to promotion and increased use of protective clothing is lack of good consumer
information provided to riders about the protective value of the particular item that is being sold. While
standards for motorcycle protective clothing were issued in Europe in the late 1990s, few European
manufacturers submit their products for testing, circumventing the need for compliance by avoiding any
reference to safety or protection in product descriptions.
Further research and development into clothing and equipment with lower weight and improved
ventilation should be encouraged. Promotion of the benefits of protective clothing and resulting
consumer awareness and demand is likely to be one of the key drivers of this.
Airbag “jackets
Airbags built into a rider’s jacket, or suit, are a recent development in motorcycle safety. Thesesystems involve the same principles as vehicle-mounted airbags where, upon detection of a crashsituation, the airbag is automatically deployed to minimise injury to the rider.
Two different mechanisms of airbag jackets exist. The first mechanism of airbags jackets come into
effect once the motorcyclist has been thrown from the vehicle. The jacket is connected to the vehicle
through a cable, and when this connection is severed (the force of the rider being thrown from the
motorcycle uncouples a pin or key in the jacket) the airbag inflates. The second one is based on radio
communication between the front wheel and the jacket. When sensors placed in the motorcycle(accelerometers fixed in the front wheel for example) detect a crash (because it reaches a high level ofacceleration for example) a signal is sent to the jacket which inflates immediately. The first one will only
inflate in the case of a separation between the rider and its engine, thus preventing undesired (andpotentially dangerous) inflation; but it will not inflate in case of a crash when the rider and the vehicle
are split late in the crash process. The electronic one will prevent the latter case, but must rely oncomplex (and expensive) technological devices.
The riders will still hit the obstacle with the same force, but they will be protected with a cushion of
air surrounding their upper body. Airbag jackets are inflated by a carbon dioxide cylinder built into thejacket, which is less flammable than the gases used to inflate vehicle-mounted airbags.
Airbags jackets, like vehicle-mounted airbags, are passive systems which serve to reduce injury
severity. In addition to front-impact crashes, airbag jackets could be effective in a range of loss of control
or multiple vehicle crashes where the rider is thrown from the vehicle.
In order to evaluate the rider protection performances of various airbag jacket models, the Japan
Automobile Research Institute (2011) has conducted an impact test and an inflation time test. Analysis of
the measurements of shear and tension force in the neck have showed that the probability of a crash
impact generating a serious injury to the neck is low if the rider wears an airbag jacket. The results of thechest impact test indicated that the probability of a crash impact generating an Abbreviated Injury Scoreof 3 (serious injury) to the chest region can be reduced by as much as 14% if the rider wears both aprotector and an airbag jacket, as compared to wearing no protective gear . The time required to fully
inflate an airbag jacket measured 90 ms for the fastest model and 180 ms for the slowest one.
There are a number of commercially available airbag jackets. However, there is no existing
independent evaluation of their effectiveness. The European Technical Committee CEN/TC 162“Protective clothing including hand and arm protection and lifejackets has been working on a European
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Standard which covers requirements and test methods for mechanically activated inflatable protectors formotorcycle riders. As of January 2014, this standard was not yet published.
High visibility clothing
As mentioned in Chapter 4, conspicuity is a crucial issue in the crash production and high visibility
clothing has the potential in addition to the PTW equipment (projectors, indicators) to mitigate theproblem of perception met by other road users as regards to PTWs. There are many types of motorcycle
clothing available aimed to improve conspicuity. Some motorcycle protective clothing incorporates
fluorescent and/or reflective sections. There are also many variants of a separate vest that can be wornover standard clothing. In addition there are fluorescent or reflective helmets, top panniers, backpacks,
gloves etc. available. In general, all high visible clothing can be separated in two categories:•

fluorescent or bright clothing, vest, helmet, etc. to improve conspicuity during daytime;•reflective parts incorporated in the jacket or vest to improve conspicuity during night time.

More recent developments in high visibility clothing are LED lighting in jackets or on backpacks.
Still under development is a “glow in the dark helmet, which charges light during daytime and thenlights up when it is dark.
There are several studies on high visibility clothing of motorcyclists. However, the literature showsdifferent results, depending on time and location, concerning their effects on safety.
Wells et al. (2004), conducted a large-scale case-control study on the effect of conspicuity on crashrisk for New Zealand motorcycle riders. Fluorescent or reflective clothing, wearing a white or lighthelmet were associated with a reduced risk of motorcycle crashes. Olson et al. (1981) conducted a gapacceptance experiment in which they varied, among others, the clothing of the motorcyclists. They foundthat during daytime car drivers accept smaller gaps when the motorcyclist is not wearing fluorescentclothing. While driving in the dark, the same applied to reflective clothing. Acceptance of a small gap
was interpreted as the driver being unaware of a dangerous situation.
In contrast, studies based on reaction time or detection rate measures do not show a general trend
towards a better or quicker detection of motorcyclists when the motorcyclist was wearing bright clothing.
These studies concluded that it is the contrast with the environment that is important (Hole et al., 1996;
Rogé et al., 2010; Gershon et al., 2012). For instance, Hole and colleagues found that in urban
environments observers responded quicker to motorcyclists with bright coloured or fluorescent clothing
than to motorcyclists with dark clothing. This effect was reversed in rural settings, the observers
responded quicker to motorcyclists wearing dark clothing. They concluded that this was due to thebrightness of the environment: the environment in the rural setting was clear blue sky. As summarised byde Craen et al. (2011), the most important aspect of PTW conspicuity is contrast with the environment.
Some conspicuity-related crashes can be prevented with high visibility clothing, but certainly notall. Schematically, when riding through highly dense traffic, a rider should wear bright clothing. Whenriding mostly in open-space (cruising) a rider is better off wearing darker clothing. At night, reflective
clothing could be more effective. This implies that it is not always that simple to let motorcycles ‘standout’ more in traffic, and makes it difficult to give a single message to motorcyclists that applies in all
traffic situations.

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Neck braces
Neck braces are designed to bring the head to a gentle stop in the event of a crash which will
minimise the possibilities of the injuries caused by extreme (forward/ rearward/ sideways) movements of
the head. Neck braces are most commonly used by off-road motorcycle riders.
As of today, for road riders, neck braces may have more drawbacks than benefits, as the reductionin head mobility (in particular the ability to look over the shoulder and clear blind spots) creates a greaterrisk of crash, than the possible benefit the product could bring in the unlikely risk of a neck fracture.
Conclusions
The use of helmets with adequate safety standards should be promoted and regulated. The helmet isthe most important source of protection against severe injuries and death for both motorcyclists andmoped riders. A helmet reduces dramatically the risk of being killed or severely injured. Helmet can
prevent damages to the brain, which may entail very severe physical and psychological handicaps.
All countries should have and enforce a helmet law. A 100% wearing rate is the only acceptableobjective. Still, not all OECD countries have a national helmet law. Enforcement should not only focus
on wearing but also on proper wearing of a helmet (i.e. with fastened chin strap).
Airbag jackets appear to be a promising technology to minimise injury to the rider in case of acrash. Further research is needed to evaluate their effectiveness.
Research shows different results regarding the effectiveness of high visibility clothing in reducing
conspicuity related crashes, depending on time and location, concerning their effects on safety. In short,when riding through highly dense traffic, a rider should wear bright clothing. When riding mostly inopen-space (cruising) a rider is better off wearing darker clothing. At night reflective clothing could be
more effective.
While research into the benefits of protective clothing is unequivocal, there are some issues withmandatory requirements for protective clothing. Clearly there are benefits from the introduction ofharmonised standards to support the global product production and distribution. On the other hand, there
is a trade-off, if a minimum standard is imposed that results in a price on equipment that exceeds therider’s willingness, or ability, to pay. While the introduction of mandatory requirements imposes a coston riders, and may therefore be subject to significant community opposition, any increase in the use ofprotective clothing through promotion to increase rider awareness has the potential to provide significant
benefits.
Further research and development into clothing and equipment with lower weight and improved
ventilation should be encouraged. Promotion of the benefits of protective clothing and consequently
consumer awareness is likely to be one of the key levers of this.

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References
Abbas, A.K., A.F. Hefny and F. Abu-Zidan (2012),“Does wearing helmets reduce motorcycle-related
death? A global evaluation , Accident Analysis & Prevention.
ACEM (2009), Motorcycle Accident In-Depth Study MAIDS: In-depth investigations of accidents
involving powered two-wheelers: Final Report 2.0. ACEM Association des Constructeurs
Européens de Motocycles (The Motorcycle Industry in Europe), Brussels.
de Craen, S., M. Doumen, N. Bos and Y. van Norden (2011), “The roles of motorcyclists and car drivers
in conspicuity-related motorcycle crashes , SWOV.
de Rome, L., R. Ivers, M. Fitzharris, Wei Du, N. Haworth, S. Heritier and D. Richardson (2011),“Motorcycle protective clothing: Protection from injury or just the weather? Accident Analysis &Prevention , Vol. 43, No. 6, pp. 1893-1900.
Hole, G., L. Tyrrel and M. Langham (1996), “Some factors affecting motorcyclists’s conspicuity ,Ergonomics, Vol. 39, Issue 7, Taylor & Francis.
Japan Automobile Research Institute (2011), Airbag Jacket Evaluation Test, Japan, March.
Lin, M.R., J.Y. Tsauo, H.F. Hwang, C.Y. Chen, L.W. Tsai and W.T. Chiu (2004), “Relation between
motorcycle helmet use and cervical spinal cord injury , in: Neuroepidemiology, Vol. 23,
pp. 269-274.
Liu, B.C., R. Ivers, R. Norton, S. Boufous, S. Blows and S.K. Lo (2007), “Helmets for preventing injury
in motorcycle riders , in: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, No. 4.
O’Connor, P.J. (2005), “Motorcycle helmets and spinal cord injury: helmet usage and type , in: Traffic
Injury Prevention, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 60-66.
Olson, P.L., R. Halstead and M. Sivak (1981), “Effects of motorcycle and motorcyclist's conspicuity on
driver behaviour , Transportation Research Board, United States.
Rogé, J., J. Ferreti and G. Devreux (2010), “Sensory conspicuity of powered two wheelers during
filtering manoeuvres, according to the age of the car driver , Le Travail Humain, pp. 7-30.
SWOV (2010), “Fact sheet: Motorcycle and moped helmets , Leidschendam, The Netherlands: Institutefor Road Safety Research (SWOV).
TAC (2011), Submission to the Parliamentary Road Safety Committee Inquiry into Motorcycle Safety,
Victorian Transport Accident Commission, Melbourne.

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Wells, S., B. Mullin, R. Norton, J. Langley, J. Connor, R. Jackson and R. Lay-Yee (2004), “Motorcycle
rider conspicuity and crash-related injury: case control study , British Medical Journal (BMJ),
Vol. 328, No. 7444, pp. 857-0.

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Chapter 7. Countermeasures targeting vehicles

The vehicle is an essential component of traffic safety and its quality of functioning is part of thebasic measures to promote. This chapter highlights the importance of adequate maintenance. It thendescribes the current developments in vehicle technologies to improve the safety of riders. It focusesin particular on the potential of advanced braking systems, measures to enhance the conspicuity of
powered two-wheelers (PTWs) and the visibility of the riders, measures to support rider behaviours
and discusses the challenges regarding the development of intelligent transport systems.

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7. COUNTERMEASURES TARGETING VEHICLESIntroduction
The vehicle is an essential component of traffic safety and its quality of functioning is part of thebasic measures to promote. Two aspects are developed in this chapter, the first dealing with maintenance,
the second dealing with vehicle technologies.
Developments in safety systems have led to significant improvements in survivability for car
occupants; these improvements have however been more limited for motorcyclists, due notably to thelack of structure around the rider to protect from impact and to attenuate the forces. There has been
limited demand in the past for motorcycles with enhanced safety features; however, this trend ischanging nowadays with the introduction of safety equipment that can contribute to reducing the risk ofcrashes and their consequences. The sections below discuss vehicle safety systems, which are either
already in the market or future concepts.
The terms “active and “passive safety are important terms in the world of automotive safety.
“Active safety is used here to refer to technology assisting in the prevention of a crash and “passive
safety to components of the vehicle that help to protect occupants during a crash. Systems such as Antilock Braking System and Traction Control are categorised as active safety features as they are acting
when the vehicle is moving and step in whenever necessary to prevent a crash. A frontal airbag fitted on
the motorcycle is considered a passive safety feature, as well as wearable inflatable devices, limb
protectors, helmets and protective clothing.
The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic of 1968, establishing standard safety and traffic rules,
includes a number of technical requirements regarding all motor vehicles, including powered twowheelers (PTWs). For details on vehicle technical requirements, the Vienna Convention makes reference
to UN Instruments for harmonisation of Vehicle regulations, in particular the 1958 and 1998
Agreements, managed by WP.29, the World Forum for Vehicle Harmonisation.
Vehicle maintenance and inspection
Adequate vehicle maintenance undoubtedly contributes to safety and manufacturers recommend
service intervals for the optimal performance of the vehicle which are linked to the vehicle warranty.
This is an incentive for the vehicle owner to follow the recommended maintenance intervals. Periodical
technical inspection is a tool to make sure that vehicles on the road are in good technical condition andare safe for road use. But of course, countries developing an inspection regime should adapt regulations
to meet national characteristics and needs. For example, the very highest standards of Periodic TechnicalInspection (PTI) regimes may not be appropriate in territories where incomes and economies are achallenge.
Periodic inspection of PTWs has the potential to reduce the incidence of defects in the basic safetyrelated items, such as tyres, brakes, lights, etc. Even if some riders take care of the maintenance, others(e.g. urban commuters) may be less concerned with technical features. Periodic inspection is also an
opportunity to check the conformity of rear-light indicators and registration plates, which is aprerequisite to enforce speeding and deviant behaviours; moreover it is likely to discourage tampering of
PTWs (notably mopeds). In many countries, technical inspection of cars is compulsory to sell a secondhand vehicle. There could be interest in widening this measure to PTWs.
The current EU rules, which only set minimum standards for vehicle checks, date back to 1977,
with only minor updates. The new proposals, published on 13th July 2012, aim to widen its scope andinclude powered two-wheelers in particular. The Commission proposes mandatory tests for PTWs four
years after the date of registration, followed by a second roadworthiness assessment after two years, after
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which the test must be carried out every year. As of January 2014, this measure was not yet implemented
and a decision has been postponed to 2022.
In 2012, in the European Union, about 10 countries had in place a compulsory technical inspection
for motorised two-wheelers. Annual inspection is required in some Australian states, but not all. There is
not a federal requirement for safety inspections of PTWs in the United States; a limited number of Statesrequire safety inspection of motor vehicles and PTWs.
Moped anti-tampering measures
Tampering consists of unauthorised modifications of the vehicle (air filter, carburettor, intake pipe,etc.) which may prejudice safety, in particular by increasing the maximum design speed and the engine
power of the vehicle. Motivation includes: by-passing driver licensing restrictions; saving on road tax;
saving on insurance premium; interest in customising and modification (Dittmar et al., 2003). Tampering
may also have consequences on the environment (noise and increased emissions of air pollutants). In
addition, in the case of a crash, the insurance may refuse to cover the damages. Parents should be madewell aware of this fact and prevent their children from tampering with their mopeds.
This problem mainly concerns mopeds, and young people are particularly involved in these risky
modifications to their vehicles. In OECD countries, significant amounts of PTW tampering offences are
systematically reported. Tampering in order to increase performance was observed by visual inspectionin 17.8% of all moped cases in the MAIDS study (ACEM, 2009). On the other hand, the exposure study
showed tampering in 12.3% of controls.
No research is known about the effectiveness of anti-tampering efforts. However, tampering allows
riding at higher speeds, without the rider having followed the proper training to do it and without thevehicle having the required technical specifications (e.g. brake system, suspension units).
In Europe, light motorcycles (<125cc) and mopeds have to comply with the requirements of
Directive 97/24/EC relating to anti-tampering. Specific anti-tampering provisions have also been addedin the UNECE regulation, some of the amendments are very recent and are still to enter into force. Thereare currently no measures in place for larger motorcycles, tricycles or quadricycles. In Australia, a mopedthat has been tampered with is then defined as a motorcycle, not a moped. In Australian states wheremoped use is allowed on a car licence, then the rider of a tampered moped who does not have a
motorcycle licence would be legally an unlicensed rider and subject to sanctions.
Classification of vehicle technologies
There are several ways to classify the vehicle technologies aimed at improving the safety of
motorcyclists. This chapter describes the safety technologies based on their functions (Table 7.1). It does
not make a specific distinction between traditional technologies and intelligent transport systems as thefrontier between both is sometimes vague. There is a specific discussion on the development of ITS laterin this chapter.
Vehicle safety technologies can act on:•

Longitudinal and lateral dynamic control.

•

Visibility of the riders and other road users.

•

Warning of riders and other road users.

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7. COUNTERMEASURES TARGETING VEHICLES•

Protection of the riders.

•

Rider behaviour improvement.

•

Localisation and communication of hazards.

Some of these technologies are already available, have been assessed and proposed as an option
when purchasing the bike, while others are still at the development stage.
Table 7.1. Classification of functions based on vehicle technologies
Function

Longitudinal and lateraldynamic control of thepowered two wheeler

Conspicuity

Visibility

Technologies / Equipment

Development stage

Advanced braking system, including:
Antilock braking system (ABS)
Combined braking system (CBS)Amplified braking system
Rear wheel lift off protection

Introduced in many models
Introduced in many models
Introduced in few models
Introduced in few models

Electronic Traction control

Introduced in some models

Motorcycle stability control

New

Anti Hop clutch system

Introduced in many models

Automatic Headlamp(s) On (AHO)Introduced in many models

Daytime Running Lamps or Lights (DRLs)

Introduced in few models

Alternative Front Light Patterns

Introduced in few models

Amber Position Lights

Introduced in few models

Adaptive front lights

Introduced in few models

Advanced light source technologies

Introduced in few models

Speed alert

R&D phase

Curve warning

R&D phase

Frontal collision warning

R&D phase

Lane changing information

R&D phase

Blind spot monitoring

R&D phase

Tyre pressure monitoring

Introduced in few models

Airbags

Introduced in limited models

Supporting rider behaviour

Intersection safety assistanceR&D phaseReal time information hazard
localisation and prevention

e-CallR&D phase

Weather, traffic and black spot information

Introduced in few models

Hazard Warning

Rider Protection

Enhancing the longitudinal and lateral stability of PTWs
Advanced Braking Systems
Stability when braking is as important for motorcyclists as short stopping distance.
Advanced Braking Systems encompass several braking technologies including anti-lock braking
system, combined braking system and amplified braking systems which are described below. Thisvariety of “advanced braking systems” can make a positive contribution to motorcycle road safety. In theevent of emergency stops the primary objective is to ensure that the vehicle remains stable or, in the caseof combined braking system, to increase braking power in case of inadequate braking operation.
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Antilock Braking System (ABS)
Description
ABS allows safer, mainly straight-line, braking by optimising braking distance and helping riders
keep stability when braking hard (especially in wet conditions). It has therefore the potential to reduce
the occurrence of PTW crashes and to attenuate their consequences. The system prevents the wheels
from locking up by automatically modulating the brake pressure when the rider brakes hard. By
preventing the wheels from locking, the system aids riders to maintain steering control which may reduce
stopping distances in certain emergency conditions. ABS is technically suitable for most types ofmotorised two-wheelers, but in practice it is currently mainly available on the more powerful
motorcycles. Analysing the top 10 motorcycles sold in Spain in 2011, only one model was equipped with
ABS, while another one offered it as extra equipment. According to the Fédération Internationale del’Automobile and Bosch (2011), the penetration of ABS has accelerated recently for PTWs above 250
cm3 (see Table 7.2).
ABS cannot prevent or mitigate all crashes, and neither can one expect the same level of benefits
from ABS on crash risk for PTWs and passenger cars, especially when braking in a curve.
Table 7.2. Recent evolution in the penetration rate of ABS on PTWs in Europe
2007 and 2010
Engine displacement / Year3

Less than 250 cm

2007

2010

Less than 1%

3%

3

Above 250 cm

26%

36%

Total

9%

16%

Source: Fédération Internationale de l´Automobile and Bosch, 2011.

Anti-lock braking systems have been evaluated in many experimental studies by the industry,
research organisations and automobile associations. Some studies report a huge potential in reducing
crash occurrence and crash severity. If all the fleet was equipped with antilock braking systems, one
study estimated that about 25% of PTW fatalities could be avoided every year (see box 7.1).
It should be noted that all the studies on ABS were undertaken in industrialised countries, withmature traffic systems (in terms of traffic rules and regulations, infrastructure standards, licensing
system, etc.) and involving mostly large displacement motorcycles. ABS, as other advanced
technologies, may not be a priority measure to get obvious and immediate safety benefits in lessdeveloped countries.

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Box 7.1. Results of recent research on anti-lock braking systems
Sweden: Compilation of ABS studies (Trafikverket, 2010)• By fitting motorcycles with ABS brakes, the risk of fatality or serious injury in a crash is reduced by about
50%. At intersections alone, the risk is reduced by about 70%.
• The effect of anti-lock brake systems (ABS) is estimated to be a 40% reduction in all types of crashes that
result in injuries.
• The overall effectiveness of ABS in Sweden was 38% on all casualty crashes and 48% on severe and fatal
crashes. The minimum effectiveness ranged from 11% to 17%, respectively.
• The effectiveness on severe and fatal crashes in intersections was estimated to be at least 42%.
• Injury severity in crashes with ABS-equipped motorcycles is markedly lower than in similar one with non
ABS-equipped motorcycles.
• Head-on motorcycle collisions are not, or only slightly, affected by ABS.
Germany, ADAC German Automobile Association• Tests conducted by ADAC showed that the average brake distance was reduced by 25% when driving at
100 km/h (ADAC, 2000).
United States, NHTS (2006)• A research paper by NHTSA (Green, 2006 and NHTSA, 2006), studied the comparison of stopping distance
performance for motorcycles equipped with ABS, CBS and conventional hydraulic brake system. It showedthat motorcycles equipped with ABS provided all riders with the advantage of a high level of braking
performance at the time of need. On the wet surface, the overall average stopping performance with ABS
improved on the best non-ABS stopping distance by 5.0%. The stopping distance reduction with ABS was
more significant when both brakes were applied, with an overall improvement averaging 10.8% over the beststops without ABS. The greatest stopping distance reduction with the use of ABS was observed when the
motorcycle was loaded and both brakes were applied, averaging a 15.5% improvement over the best stops
without ABS.
United States, Teoh (2013)• Based on FARS data, Teoh (2013) found that the rate of fatal motorcycle crashes per 10 000 registered vehicle
years was 31% lower for ABS models than for their non-ABS versions. Results of this analysis are similar to
those of Teoh (2011) and indicate that ABS is proving to be effective as ABS begins to be offered on an
increasing number of make/models. However, it should be mentioned that ABS was studied as optional
equipment, so the cohort of motorcyclists who choose ABS may differ in some substantive way from those
who decline to purchase it. In particular, motorcyclists who choose ABS may be more concerned about safety
than those who decline, thus leading to lower fatal crash rates through other safer riding practices.
International study on the effectiveness of ABS on motorcycles in reducing crashes (Rizzi et al., 2013)• While most previous research focused on the impact of ABS on the largest motorcycles, this study used police
crash data from Spain, Italy and Sweden in an attempt to analyse a wide range of motorcycles and compare
countries with different motorcycling habits (leisure and commuting).
• The effectiveness of motorcycle ABS in reducing injury crashes ranged from 24% in Italy to 34% in Sweden.
The reduction of severe and fatal crashes was even greater.
• ABS on scooters with at least a 250 cm3 engine was found to reduce the involvement in severe and fatal
crashes by 31%.
•

The study recommends that manufacturers work toward a broad fitment of ABS on light scooters as wellbefore 2016 in Europe (when ABS will become mandatory for all PTW above 125 cm3) and other regions.

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Implementation issues
Costs
An antilock braking system represents a significant cost for the user (about EUR 500 according to
the European Association of Motorcycle Manufacturers, ACEM), especially for the smaller motorcycles(see Table 7.3). Currently it is proposed as an option on vehicles in the medium- to higher-engine
displacement category (usually above 300 cm3). The industry has a role to play in anticipating a large
penetration of this technology, in order to reduce the costs. In this respect, it is worth noting thecommitment of ACEM, following a voluntary agreement in 2005, to introduce, at least as an option,
advanced braking systems on more than 50% of street motorcycle models offered on the European
market. This commitment was renewed in 2010, to extend the coverage to 75% by 2015. Preliminary
results indicate that the manufacturers will be in a position to meet the commitment.
Table 7.3. Share of ABS costs on end-users price in Europe<= 125 cm3 (L3-A1)> 125 cm3 (L3-A2/3)

Average price of the vehicle (EUR)

2837

8994

Cost of ABS (EUR 500) as % of average price

17.6%

5.6%

Vehicle category

Source: London Economics, based on ACEM data in European Parliament (2012).

Light motorcycles and mopeds
ABS can also have a positive impact in the crash risk of the less powerful bikes. However, it will bechallenging, in the short term, for this technology to quickly penetrate this market, unless it becomesmandatory. For light motorcycles (< 125 cm3), CBS could be a useful alternative for a much lower cost(see below).
Need for training
Anti-lock braking systems need adequate training of the riders and complete information for optimaluse of its wheel-lock prevention potential. ABS in itself is no guarantee of successful braking in an
emergency. Braking in a curve produces forces on the steering system which must be corrected by therider. For this reason ABS cannot be used whilst steering. Riders therefore have to learn the conditions
under which ABS is effective, i.e. mainly when riding in a straight line.
Mandatory vs. optional
There is an open discussion on regulatory vs. non regulatory introduction of ABS in PTW vehicles.
It seems clear that ABS improves braking potential but its regulation raises questions:•Should ABS implementation be accompanied by mandatory training programmes?

•

What would be the real ABS price, should it be mass-produced as per regulatory requirements?

Regulation
In the European Union, new type-approval rules that will make mopeds and motorcycles safer andgreener by 2016 were approved by members of the European Parliament in November 2012. Under the
new legislation, anti-lock braking systems (ABS) are required to be fitted to all motorcycles
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7. COUNTERMEASURES TARGETING VEHICLES(over 125 cm3), while motorcycles 125 cm3 will have to be fitted with combined brake systems (CBS)(see description below). The legislation will take effect on 1st January 2016 for new type approvalvehicles and on 1st January 2017 for all new vehicles. By the end of 2019, the Commission shouldpresent a cost-effectiveness analysis with recommendations as to whether the rules should be revised tomake ABS mandatory for smaller motorcycles. A cost-benefit study commissioned by the European
Commission and released in early 2012 (European Parliament, 2012) estimated that several thousand
lives could be saved within 10 years by this regulation.
Creating demand
Demand and road user acceptance are central to the development of advanced braking systems on
PTWs, and largely depend on the appropriateness of the solutions offered, technically and in terms ofcost, to the specific PTW market segments and models. It is also important to educate customers on thebenefits and limitations of ABS and to recommend this safety equipment (via association, riding school,
media, etc.) in order to accelerate its quick adoption even before it becomes mandatory. Incentives topurchase ABS-equipped motorcycles, such as insurance discounts or scrapping programmes are also
efficient to influence the choice of the motorcyclists.
Combined Braking System (CBS)International and EU regulations require PTWs to be fitted with independent controls for the front
and rear brakes. For motorcycle, this is usually in the form of a foot pedal for the rear brake and a front
brake lever both on the right-hand side. Most automatic PTWs (which do not require a clutch control)
have the rear brake operated by a lever on the left-hand side of the handlebars. In a CBS system, theapplication of one brake control actuates both front and rear brakes.
CBS could be promoted as a less expensive braking technology (compared to ABS) for smaller
powered two-wheelers. It will become compulsory in the European Union in 2016 (for new typeapproval vehicles) and 2017 (for all new vehicles) on motorcycles below 125 cm3.
The cost-benefit analysis undertaken in the European Parliament’s impact assessment (European
Parliament, 2012) concluded that CBS is appropriate for lower powered vehicles. CBS helps riders tobrake more effectively and reduce their stopping distance by automatically braking on both wheels. It
automatically applies braking force to both the front and rear wheels, enabling the rider to stop up to 40%
quicker.
Other advanced braking systems
Other advanced braking systems are being researched and developed and include:•

Amplified braking system: This system amplifies the activation input made by the rider,resulting in a more rapid deceleration. It enables a stronger braking pressure from the start of thebraking procedure. This can be compared to the emergency brake assistance system in cars.

•

Rear wheel Lift-off Protection (RLP). Certain PTW architectures can benefit from RLP, which
detects if the rear wheel lifts during braking operation. This initiates a momentary reduction of
the pressure in the front braking circuit.

•

Brake by wire. The system consists of an electronically controlled combined brake by wire
system with an innovative stroke simulator. Direct motor control ensures precise operation of theABS, resulting in reduced pitching and smooth modulated ABS intervention.

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The advanced braking systems listed above offer a multitude of possible combinations, enabling
manufacturers to develop the offer of a wide variety of solutions taking into account the main purpose of
the products, their distinctive characteristics, e.g. balance, weight, dynamics, and general capacities, andthe cost-effectiveness of the technical solutions.
The benefits and limitations of the various Advanced Braking Systems vary significantly per type of
vehicle. The weight, weight distribution, the centre of gravity and the rider braking behaviour have an
influence on the braking capacity of the system.
The World Forum for harmonisation of vehicle regulations (WP29) has made significant
advancements in the creation and updating of global braking requirements, now defined in GTR No. 3
and UN Regulation 78. While the UN Regulation No. 78 and GTR No. 3 have been adopted by many
Contracting Parties (European Union, Russia, Japan, Australia, the United States; Canada, India, Russia,
and South Korea), there remain many countries that have yet to consider adopting these regulations aswell as harmonising their braking system to the latest standards.
Electronic Traction Control System
Electronic Traction Control is a technology now largely adopted for the passenger car market. A
Traction Control System (TCS) has the potential to prevent the rear wheel from spinning uncontrolled
when accelerating all-out and thus avoids any loss of side forces and stability which otherwise would
make the rear wheel swerve out of control. Lift-off detection and intervention serves furthermore toprevent the front wheel from moving up when accelerating under full power (Anti Wheelie Control).
In reality, the principles of the systems cannot be the same for 2-wheeled and 4-wheeled vehicles:
on a PTW, it acts more as an anti-skidding system; therefore one cannot expect the same benefits as from
Electronic Stability Control (ESC) installed on cars which uses the same technology but which has thepossibility to stabilise the vehicle by acting differentially on the left/right wheels on the same axle.
Nevertheless TCS provides useful assistance, particularly on powerful motorcycles and when riding
under conditions with slippery surfaces. TCS is a logical complement to ABS insofar as these twofunctions together enhance riding stability and control.
Electronic traction control system TCS can potentially reduce motorcycle crashes, notably single
PTW ones (Seiniger et al., 2012).
Box 7.2. Integral ABS, combining ABS and Electronic Traction Control System
BMW has developed a new system, “BMW Motorrad Integral ABS , which not only acts on the brakes but
also intervenes on the dynamic control of the bike. The Integral ABS provides additional dynamic riding control
systems with a reduction in technical requirements and features. The technology also opens up the option in the
future for further rider assistance functions.

Motorcycle stability control
In 2014, a new advanced technology was introduced on high-performance motorcycles named
motorcycle stability control. This highly advanced system is designed to allow a braking manoeuvre
while cornering. It works on the basis of a combination of ABS, electronic CBS, a lean angle dependent
traction control and lean angle dependent brake control. Motorcycle Stability Control detects criticalsituations, and instantly computes the best possible values for acceleration and braking.
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Anti-hop (slipper) clutch system
This system is designed to partially disengage or “slip when the rear wheel tries to drive the engine
faster than it would run under its own power. The engine braking forces in conventional clutches will
normally be transmitted back along the drive chain causing the rear wheel to hop, chatter or lose traction.
This is especially noted on larger displacement four-stroke engines, which have greater engine braking
than their two-stroke or smaller displacement counterparts. Slipper clutches eliminate this extra loadingon the rear suspension giving riders a more predictable ride and minimise the risk of over-revving theengine during downshifts. Slipper clutches can also prevent a rear wheel lockup in case of engine seizure.
Vehicle technologies to enhance conspicuity of PTWs
Headlamp on
The lack of conspicuity of PTWs is a major factor in crashes involving PTWs. Driving withheadlamp-on, including during daytime, has proven to be an effective measure to improve theconspicuity of PTWs and improve PTW safety (see summary by Wells et al., 2004, Umar et al., 1996;
Yuan, 2000 and Elvik et Vaa, 2004). The 1968 Vienna Convention recommends the 80 signatory
countries to implement the obligation for PTW riders to drive with the headlamp on during daytime.
Automatic Headlamp On for PTW (AHO)
To support riders to ensure that the headlamp is on, most PTWs are now equipped with Automatic
Headlamp On (AHO). This is a switch that ensures the (main or dipped beam) headlight (or the Daytime
Running Lamp if the vehicle is equipped with such lights) is always on when the engine is running.
AHO can be considered as a general practice in many parts of the world, though it is not applied
everywhere. The general practice mainly results from mandatory application e.g. in the United States,
and Japan, a voluntary introduction for all vehicles by ACEM, the European Manufacturers in 2003, andinclusion of headlamp-on provisions in 2005 in Regulation 53 for motorcycles and in 2009 inRegulation 74 for mopeds under the 1958 Agreement of UNECE WP.29. More recently in Europe, inNovember 2012 the European Parliament welcomed the same measure to improve the visibility of PTWs
and riders introducing automatic switching on of the lighting when the engine starts, to be applicablefrom 2014.
A review of daytime running lights and headlamp on practice on motorcycles in 16 countries by
Elvik et al. in 2003 concluded that laws and campaigns advocating their use had led to an average
reduction of 7% in multi-vehicle PTW collisions. However hardwiring of motorcycle headlights(headlamp on) requirement for motorcycles in Australia introduced in 1992 was revoked in 1997 due to alack of evidence of their effectiveness (which may have been an outcome of relatively small numbers ofcrashes making any effects difficult to detect).
The use of driving with Headlamps On during daytime by motorised two-wheelers has been shown
to reduce visibility-related crashes in several countries by between 10% and 15%. In a study of 14 statesin the United States with motorcycle headlight-use laws, a 13% reduction in fatal daytime crashes wasobserved (Zador, 1985). In Singapore, a study conducted 14 months after the introduction of legislation
requiring motorcyclists to switch on their headlamps found that fatal daytime crashes had reducedby 15 % (Yuan, 2000).

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Daytime Running Lights or Daytime Running Lamps (DRL)
Daytime running lights (DRL) are proposed as an option by some manufacturers. DRLs formotorcycles are bright white forward-facing lights designed to optimise the conspicuity of PTWs during
daytime, while reducing the energy consumption in comparison to the use of regular headlamps.
There is, today, little research on the relative effectiveness – in terms of safety or energy savingsof daytime running lights for motorcycle compared to riding with the dipped beam headlight on during
daytime.
There is an open debate on whether DRLs for all vehicles negatively affect PTW road safety. In
many countries, some PTW advocacy groups are concerned over the potential for reduced PTW
conspicuity with the introduction of headlamp-based DRLs on cars and other dual-track vehicles, since itmeans PTWs are no longer the only vehicles displaying headlamps during the day. Some studies claimthat lights on passenger cars, with variant shapes, create a competing light pattern to the detriment of
PTW identification within the traffic (Cavallo and Pinto, 2012). The question is still subject to debate. In
any case, motorcyclists are better seen with headlamps on than without.
Alternative Front Light Patterns
Alternative front light patterns aim to provide a unique visual signature (signal pattern) that clearly
differentiates them from other vehicles and may facilitate their perception by other road users. Suchvisual configurations as distinctive features can be implemented by varying the colour of the headlights(e.g. yellow) or by dedicated positioning and lay-out of PTWs’ frontal headlights (e.g. T-light
configuration, Long-Light-system by Honda, triangular configuration). The T-configuration uses verticallinear lights at the fork and horizontal ones at the rear of the mirrors. The headlight is positioned at theintersection of the two. Development and evaluation took place as part of the European 2BESAFE
project. The T-design (consisting of five dedicated daytime running lights) was found to be the easiest torecognise because the design reflects the silhouette as well as the size of the motorcycle. A study from
Pinto et al. (2014) suggests a better motorcycle-detection performance for such a configuration with ayellow headlight and the addition of a light on the helmet.
Advanced lighting technologies to enhance the visibility of the riders
Another recent technology is the adaptive front headlights which improve the illumination of the
motorcycles path on curves. They ensure that the illumination from the headlight is projected on theintended path of the motorcycle when cornering by adjusting it in accordance with the speed and positionof the PTW. Improving the illumination of the path of motorcycles improves the sight of motorcyclists
and can therefore lead to a reduction of PTW crashes.
Warning devices
Speed alert
A speed alert system refers to an informative Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA) system that uses
information on the position of the vehicle in a network in relation to the speed limit in force at thatparticular location to warn the rider (visibly and/or audibly) that the speed limit is being exceeded. The
rider then decides whether or not to slow down.
There is also research on active ISA that would automatically increase the required pressure on theaccelerator when the speed limit is exceeded (the active accelerator ). Apart from the technical
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challenges, the introduction of active ISA may not be well accepted by riders because intervention on
brakes/throttle during cornering or other manoeuvres can perturb the rider’s control.
Curve Warning
The Curve Warning function provides the rider with a warning signal when the motorcycle speed is
too high in relation to a curve ahead. The safe speed is estimated in real time by comparing the PTW
speed and acceleration to the road profile and map based information, such as the presence of criticallocations (e.g. intersections, pedestrian crossings, etc.).
The Curve Warning function provides continuous feedback about possible acceleration, i.e. thesystem intervenes when the rider accelerates in a way that makes it impossible to hold the optimal andsafest riding line. In order to work efficiently the system requires the rider’s acceptance and immediate
reaction that would lead to safe deceleration and curve negotiation.
Frontal Collision Warning
The Frontal Collision function aims to warn the rider when an obstacle has been detected in the
headway of the PTW and a collision is likely to occur. The Frontal Collision Warning function will not
only detect obstacles, but also evaluate the severity of the encounter.
This function is made of two functions: the Safe Distance and the Safe Relative Speed/Path. The
former warns the rider if the distance is too close compared to the calculated reaction time, while thelatter alerts when a prompt correction is suddenly needed but the rider seems not to react to an imminentcollision. By producing the alert, the riders’ attention is refocused on the headway and they have time toreact adequately by braking or an evasive manoeuvre.
Lane Change Support and blind spot monitoring
Lane Change Support (LCS) aims to alert the rider in case of an imminent lane change that may
cause a collision with another vehicle. PTWs have large blind spots due to their small mirrors and small
gap. Thus, dangerous situations are quite likely to occur when motorcyclists miss another vehicle whilechanging the lane. In blind spot monitoring systems, the rear/lateral surroundings of the motorcycle ismonitored by a radar sensor that provides information about the speed and position of oncoming
vehicles. This information is used to assess how critical could be the lane change. In the event that therider activates the indicator to perform a lane change, if another vehicle is approaching and it is in theblind spot, the rider is informed about the potential risks by an appropriate HMI (usually by different
colour lights on the top of the left mirror).
Tyre Pressure Monitoring Systems
Riding is a task which requires appropriate maintenance of the vehicle; poor maintenance of tyrepressures may impair the vehicle’s safety and therefore lead to unexpected vehicle dynamics. Many
PTWs are often unused for weeks and tyre pressure is likely to significantly decrease during this period.
While vehicle failure is rarely cited as a causal factor of motorcycle crashes, mechanisms that detect andalert the rider of potential problems will contribute to motorcycle safety. These systems will beespecially relevant to infrequent riders who may not regularly maintain their vehicle.
Tyre Pressure Monitors give indication and assurance to the driver that tyres will perform according
to manufacturer’s standards. There are a number of tyre pressure monitors on the market which provide
either a visual or an acoustic warning of falling tyre pressures. The least expensive ones (though less
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accurate and durable) are Flag Indicating Tyre Pressure Monitors, which are fitted on the tyre valve
externally by removing the existing valve dust-cap and screwing the indicator in place. Also available are
Digital Tyre Pressure Monitor Systems, which use internal wheel mounted pressure sensors.
Improving rider protection
PTW airbags
Airbags absorb the kinetic energy of the vehicle occupant during a crash, reducing injury severity.
Airbags inflate when triggered by impact sensors in the front wheel/s, and are relevant to all frontal
impact crashes. Airbags for motorcycles requires special design as they need to take into account that theposition of the rider is not always upright such that there may be smaller distances between the rider’sface and the airbag than that typical for car drivers, and that the presence of pillion passengers will affectthe forward force of the rider.
Computer modelling and simulated crashes conducted as part of the ROSA project suggest thatthese systems can help reduce consequences of the impacts of the rider in a majority of collisionconfigurations. Nevertheless, no data from real crashes have been monitored.
The resulting injuries will depend on “the speed of the PTW, the type of PTW, the seating positionof the rider, the angle and point of collision against the car and the type of car“. Only a limited number ofthese variables have been included in such tests. For this reason, it is difficult to decide how effective
devices such as airbags are in practice. It seems that a combination of such devices will be needed toprevent injuries in a number of types of collision but could also have adverse effects in others.
Apart from the Honda Gold Wing, airbag systems have not been adopted by any othermanufacturers, so its fleet penetration is very limited.
Supporting rider behaviour
Intersection Safety
Intersection safety (INS) assists the driver in avoiding common mistakes which may lead to typicalintersection crashes. It covers the following functions:•Traffic light assistance: preventing red light ignoring. The system emits an urgent acoustic
warning if the situation becomes critical.

•

Right-of-way assistance: The right-of way assistance pays special attention to lateral traffic. The
system warns the driver if violating a right-of-way, but also if somebody else is expected not togive the right-of-way to the case vehicle.

•

Left-turn (right-turn) assistance: The left-turn (right-turn in left-hand-side countries) assistancewarns the drivers about potential collision with other vehicles with crossing path.

Real time information, hazard localisation and prevention
Warning system in case of a crash (e-Call)
When a road crash occurs, the rapidity with which rescue services are mobilised is of utmost
importance for saving lives or reducing the effects of injuries. In the event of an emergency situation,such as a crash, a warning system can considerably reduce the response time of the emergency services.
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The warning can either be generated manually by vehicle occupants or automatically via activation of invehicle sensors when a crash occurs. The in-vehicle system directly establishes a connection withemergency services and sends crucial information, such as time and location of the crash, as well as
information about the vehicles involved.
Within the European Union, a system by the name of e-Call is currently under development. Thissystem should become compulsory on all new cars sold in 2015. A Finnish study (Virtanen et al., 2006)
assessed the impacts of e-Call on crash occurrence and found that the system could prevent up to 10% ofroad deaths. It showed that e-Call is expected to have the biggest effect in rural roads, at night-time in
off-peak traffic. A version of e-Call could be proposed by the European Union for PTWs, but this would
most likely happen in a second stage.
Adapting e-Call to PTWs requires specific research and development in order to develop an “onvehicle system that is weatherproof, resistant to increasing vibration and with a triggering system thatjudges the dynamic of the vehicle so as to avoid false alarms.
Weather traffic & Black Spot information
The Weather, Traffic & Black Spot Warning module integrated in the Navigation System canprovide useful information to PTW riders about weather and traffic conditions. Navigation indications
provide a familiar and reliable reference for the rider as riding-related information. It is employed with adouble objective: it provides a tool to support the rider in planning the route as well as finding the bestalternative in case of change based on traffic or weather conditions.
Black Spot Warning can alert the rider and provide information about specific spots on the plannedroute where crashes are more likely to occur: relying on accurate understanding of crashes scenarios, thesystem could effectively inform the rider about a potential danger, i.e. if the rider approaches a junction
with high crash risk associated to it, a warning could appear.
Safety devices on other vehicles impacting PTW safety
Other vehicles are involved in about half of PTW serious casualty crashes (ACEM, 2009). Many of
the high risk traffic situations between other vehicles and PTWs could be prevented if the drivers
anticipated the presence of a PTW (when entering or crossing a road, when turning left and whenchanging lanes). There are a number of new technologies, such as forward collision warning, blind spot
information and vulnerable road user protection systems, which can prevent collisions, in generalincluding those with PTW riders, pedestrians and cyclists.
Blind Spot Information Systems (especially for heavy goods vehicles)
The BLIS detect vehicles and possible-colliding objects in the blind-spot area, on both right and left
side, by computer vision techniques. Once possible-collision objects enter the blind-spot area, the systemraises a pre-collision alert, which consists of an LED light and buzzer. The system has been adopted byboth car manufacturers and heavy vehicle industry.
Lane departure warning
Certain lane-changing crashes could be prevented if drivers are warned of vehicles in their blind
spots. As a number of crashes involving a car and a PTW involve a wrong decision by the driver on lanechanging manoeuvre, it is anticipated that this technology will also contribute to reducing PTW crashes.

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VRU Detection Systems
The sensor systems (often a combination of several sensor types) monitor the area in front of thevehicle, detect vulnerable road users and distinguish them from other obstacles. The systems use
different actuators which help avoid collisions or significantly mitigate their impact by reducing the
speed of the vehicle before the collision. The systems can combine visual and acoustic alerts and evenactively take actions by means of autonomous braking systems. They commonly use forward-looking
sensors to predict emergency situations. If this is a case, they inform the driver of the potential danger (ifthere is enough time for the required evasive action) and in case of limited time or no driver response, thesystems activate the brakes of the vehicle shortly before the predicted impact. In the case where the crashcannot be avoided, the reduction in the impact speed will mitigate the VRU injury severity.
Such a warning device was designed in the WATCH-OVER project, which is based on thecooperation of communication and sensor technologies. It provides users with an in-vehicle module towarn drivers of approaching vulnerable road users (VRUs) on the one hand and wearable modules thatcall the attention of VRUs to critical traffic situations on the other hand.
Another example of VRU detection is the Night Vision Warning (NVW) system. Its aim is toextend the visible range for a driver in darkness, including obstacle detection and warning. This isachieved by using an infra-red camera, looking forward, and displaying its view on a screen in thevehicle. The display shows the area in front of the vehicle with a longer range of visibility than with thenormal headlights beam. It detects and warns for obstacles and vulnerable road users if a critical driving
situation is identified.
Post-impact safety systems
If a collision cannot be avoided, protective structural actuators can be triggered which reduce thechance of serious injuries or even save the lives of vulnerable road users. The pop-up bonnet was
designed for pedestrians but this innovation in vehicle design could protect all VRUs who are hit by thefront of the vehicle. Pop-up bonnets are designed to rise in a crash involving VRUs to soften the crush,absorb the head impact energy, and reduce the severity of the injury. Several manufacturers aredeveloping these systems, which are often combined with external airbags.
Considering ITS technologies as motorcycle safety countermeasures
Some of the measures described above are considered as “Intelligent Transport Systems” (ITS). ITS
technologies have the potential to improve the safety, security and efficiency of surface transportsystems, in particular at high risk locations for PTWs such as intersections. To benefit from opportunities
offered by ITS, much care is needed in a number of interoperability issues to ensure that the various
systems are co-ordinated, as well as in managing the quantity of information that the road user operating
a vehicle can safely handle.
Safety research addressing the development and application of ITS technologies has focused
primarily on passenger vehicles and has not been vigorously developed or applied to motorcycles.
Nevertheless, existing and emerging ITS research results have the potential to be adapted to motorcycles.
The two research areas below have the potential to significantly contribute to such applications.
There are two main categories of ITS:•

Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) communication system consists in the dynamic wireless exchange ofdata between nearby vehicles that offers the opportunity for significant safety improvements.

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7. COUNTERMEASURES TARGETING VEHICLESThe vision for V2V is that eventually, each motor vehicle on the roadway (inclusive of
automobiles, trucks, buses, motor coaches, and motorcycles) will be able to communicate withother vehicles and that this rich set of data and communications will support a new generationof safety applications that will enable crashes on the roadway to be prevented.
•

Vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communications system is the wireless exchange of data
between vehicles and highway infrastructure, intended primarily to avoid or mitigate motor
vehicle crashes but also to enable a wide range of other mobility, and environmental benefits.
V2I communications apply to all vehicle types and all roads, and transform infrastructure
equipment into “smart infrastructure”. One particularly important advance is the ability for
traffic signal systems to communicate the signal phase and timing information to the vehicle insupport of delivering active safety advisories and warnings to drivers.

During the last decades, ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems) and IVIS (In-Vehicle
Information Systems) development have been some of the main research areas of the automotive
industry in order to increase safety and comfort of cars. As a consequence, these technologies havealready been explored for passenger cars, whereas the application of such devices on PTWs (so-called
ARAS Advanced Rider Assistance Systems, and OBIS On-Bike Information Systems) in order toincrease the safety and comfort of riders, is still at the early stages of development.
In Europe two major projects, funded by the European Commission, have focused on enhanced
vehicle equipment. The SAFERIDER project aimed at studying the potential of ADAS/IVIS integration
on motorcycles and at developing rider-friendly interfaces. The ROSA project developed a Handbook on
Good Practices in Safety for Motorcycles, with one volume dedicated to “Vehicles”. The information
contained in the sections below is partly based on deliverables from these two projects.
A number of specific challenges face the development of ITS for motorcycles:•

The human-machine interface (HMI) requirements of the motorcycle are hugely different frompassenger cars. The driving task requires more instantaneous attention and the possibilities toprovide visual or audio information in a safe manner are limited due to the position of thedashboard, the helmet and the background noise experienced by the motorcyclist. Compared to
car technologies, the specifications of the hardware need to be more resistant to vibration, havelower levels of electric consumption and be water resistant. In addition, the system must adapt
to much-reduced fitment space.

•

A system that removes or interferes with the longitudinal or lateral control of the vehicle, suchas automatic braking, could destabilise the rider and his machine, potentially causing, rather
than preventing, a crash.

•

The impact of systems that intervene in the riding task is quite different from passenger carsand requires specific R&D. Stability is critical on a motorcycle and imposes very different
constraints compared to four-wheeled vehicles. The process of deployment of Advanced orAutomatic Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) is extremely complicated, notably due to theleaning behaviour of motorcycles.

Some motorcyclist groups have expressed concern about the potential for ITS technologies toautomate aspects of the riding task or to compromise rider safety. It is essential that the view and needsof the motorcyclists be properly understood and researched and this knowledge be used to develop thedesign of ITS devices, which are acceptable to them (Bayli et al., 2006).

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Regional conditions are an important element to be considered in assessing the potential andsuccessful fitment of advanced technologies. For example, the traffic composition, the road environment,
the quality of the infrastructure, and the regional economy are important factors to be analysed.
It should be understood, before fitting vehicles with advanced technologies in regions where thebasic road safety provisions for PTWs are not widely applied (such as adequate infrastructure quality,
helmet wearing, headlight and rider training and policies), that the benefits of such systems are likely tobe limited.
Creating demand for vehicle safety equipment
The penetration of safety technologies on passenger vehicles has benefited from such projects as
new car assessment programmes in various countries which rate vehicles based on their passive roadsafety performance. Recently, active safety functions have also been included in these programmes.
A similar approach could be usefully applied to new motorcycles with a dedicated assessment
programme to provide information to consumers, although it should be remembered that improving thepassive safety of PTWs is extremely complex, as the rider becomes separated from the vehicle in manycrashes. Consumer assessment programmes of the safety performance of motorcycles on the market
could be a way to raise consumer awareness of the safety features of motorcycles and influence theirchoice when purchasing a new vehicle.
However, more research is needed on the development of appropriate and feasible crash test andsafety assessment of motorcycles, taking into consideration the existing standards, such as ISO 13232,
whilst being aware of the challenges in selecting crash tests which are truly representative of the realityand diversity of crashes.
Conclusion
Adequate vehicle maintenance undoubtedly contributes to safety, and manufacturers recommend
service intervals for the optimal performance of the vehicle which are linked to the vehicle warranty.
Periodic inspection of PTWs has the potential to reduce the incidence of safety-related defects of thetyres, the brakes and the lights.
There are a number of developments within the motorcycle industry for technologies to assist in theprevention of a crash (active safety) and to contribute to protecting occupants and riders during a crash(passive safety). Some are already available and proposed as an option when purchasing the bike, whileothers are still at the development stage.
Advanced Braking Systems, which include Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) and Combined
Braking Systems (CBS), are a well-proven technology which can contribute to reducing crash risk incertain situations when other, basic, road safety policies are in place. While ABS is currently offered as
an option on new high-end bikes of major PTW manufacturers (with a slow penetration rate in mostOECD countries) the Working Group considers that it can certainly benefit all PTWs and should becomea standard. Cost is, however, an issue, and industry and government should work together to facilitate aquicker penetration of these technologies, which will become mandatory in some regions in the coming
years (expected in EU for the year 2016). While this technology is mature for OECD countries market,
there might be other priorities in low- and middle-income countries especially for the light motorcycles,
such as basic braking regulation, or in other fields the generalised use of helmet, training of riders anddevelopment of adequate road infrastructure.

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7. COUNTERMEASURES TARGETING VEHICLESOther advanced braking systems, such as Brake by Wire, Combined Braking System, or Rear Wheel
Lift-off Protection, may also contribute to reducing injury risk, but the priority today is to continue
ensuring the penetration of ABS in the fleet.
There is a consensus that there has been little advancement of intelligent transportation systems(ITS) research dedicated to motorcycle safety. ITS, developed for motorcycle, offer opportunities toimprove the safety of the rider as well. There is, however, a number of obstacles specific to PTW thatneed to be carefully addressed, including the challenges posed by the Human Machine Interface
requirements, costs, and the required support from the motorcyclists community. In spite of theseobstacles, ITS definitely has a role to play in increasing motorcycle safety in the future. e-Call, blind spot
detection, curve and collision warning systems are suitable applications for the motorcycle – once
sufficiently developed for them. Successful implementation and wide deployment of ITS depends on
close cooperation between various key stakeholders.
Whatever the potential of vehicle technologies to improve safety, it remains critical that drivers andriders do not become over-reliant on safety technologies for warnings of potential dangers. Training andeducation, and the continued enforcement of traffic rules are also important factors for safer road use.
Promoting safety equipment of vehicles is also necessary. The development of an assessment
system for new motorcycles could be interesting to explore as a way to raise awareness of motorcyclistsof the safety performance of vehicles and creating demand for safety devices.

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Radin Umar, R.S., M.G. Mackay and B.L. Hills (1996), “Modelling of conspicuity-related motorcycle
accidents in Serembian and Shah Alam, Malaysia , Accident Analysis & Prevention, 28(3),325-332.
Zador, P.L. (1985), “Motorcycle headlight-use laws and fatal motorcycle crashes in the US, 1975-83 ,American Journal of Public Health, 75(5), 543-546.

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Chapter 8. Countermeasures targeting infrastructure
and traffic management

The quality of the road layout and adequate traffic management play an important role in powered
two-wheeler (PTW) safety. This chapter reviews the general principles for a safe infrastructure
which takes into account specific needs of PTWs. It describes good practices for road infrastructure
design and management. It highlights the potential of traffic calming and other traffic management
measures.

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Introduction
As shown in Chapter 4, powered two-wheelers (PTWs) are by their nature very sensitive toenvironmental influences including weather and infrastructure conditions. The same element of
perturbation which is easily mastered by a car driver can quickly become problematic for a PTW
operator.
The road environment has a significant influence on the risk of crashes involving PTWs.
Contributing factors include: road surface defects (such as unevenness, potholes or debris on the road);presence of slippery material (water, oil ) on the road; road markings with insufficient skid resistance or
use of raised pavement markers; poor road alignment; presence of obstacles, roadside hazards and safetybarriers, and interaction with other road users (including heavy vehicles, cars, cyclists, pedestrians andother PTWs).
As a consequence, the quality of the road layout and adequate traffic management play an importantrole in helping riders in mastering their vehicles, preventing loss of control, and influencing interactions
with the other road users. Infrastructure determines and organises the way road users interact. The roadlayout has an important impact on the harmony and efficiency of the interactions between road users,
specifically between cars and PTWs drivers. More particularly, it can condition the capacity of car
drivers to detect the PTW, and favour a driving speed conducive to safety, both elements recognised as
critical in crashes involving PTWs.
General principles for safe infrastructure
PTW-friendly road design, maintenance and infrastructure generally benefit all road users. The aim
is to ensure that the safety of PTW riders is considered in the design and maintenance of roads and theimplementation of traffic management plans.
When constructing new infrastructure, many elements can contribute to safer roads formotorcyclists. Special consideration also is required during periods of construction when temporary
construction materials are used. The road surface properties during the works can be hazardous formotorcyclists. The following sections describe general principles for the construction of new
infrastructure or the maintenance of existing ones. Several infrastructural measures are easy to implement
at a relatively low cost (e.g. removal of dangerous and unnecessary obstacles, installation of
motorcyclists protection systems on existing guard rails, road markings with increased skid resistance,etc.). These measures also have an immediate effect.
Self-explaining / Readable roads
A consistent road and road environment invite road users to adopt the appropriate behaviour. A selfexplaining road allows road users to anticipate changes in the local road context.
A road should be readable; road users should be able to identify the trajectory of the road and any
hazards eventually present. To allow appropriate anticipation and to avoid sudden manoeuvres,potentially dangerous situations should be easy to identify. Signing should be sufficiently visible and notcontradictory with other signs or with the road context (CERTU, 2011).
Visibility
Due to their smaller frontal size, PTW are more vulnerable than other motor vehicle to any kind ofvisibility obstructions, whether linked to the presence of vehicles, vegetation or traffic signs, etc.
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To allow road users to adapt their behaviour to others, sufficient visibility is crucial. Obstacles that
potentially obstruct the visibility should be avoided or removed. In particular in the vicinity ofintersections or in curves, it is important that road users are able to detect others, including PTWs
(CERTU, 2011).
Forgiving roads and roadsides
All road users make errors. A Safe System should compensate for human errors. This involves firstthe possibility for road users to correct their errors without further consequences and secondly to mitigate
their consequences when the crash cannot be avoided (see following section for more detail).
Road infrastructure design and management
Product and testing standards, which are referenced in the technical specifications for road works,
should also be relevant for PTWs. Commonly used standards in the domain of road construction usuallycontain characteristics that are relevant for this group of road users (visibility, skid resistance,
evenness, ...). Guidelines used by road engineers should correctly reference these standards and include
recommendations on correct use of these, while taking into consideration the local conditions.
In several countries, road administrations and other stakeholders have developed road design andmaintenance management guidelines to improve the safety of PTWs (e.g. ACEM 2006, MOW 2008,
IHIE 2010, CERTU 2011).These guidelines have many principles in common, which are described
below.
Road infrastructure and PTW interaction
The stability of a PTW is particularly influenced by the road geometry and road surface
characteristics. For example, curves with a small or variable radius (especially decreasing radii) require
more skills from the rider. When such situations are combined with insufficient grip (due to road surface
defects, road markings without appropriate skid resistance, debris on the road surface, pollution, etc.),
hazardous situations can arise. On straight sections also, PTW stability requires sufficient and consistentgrip to the road surface. A number of measures can be implemented to prevent hazardous situations
connected to the infrastructure such as good paving material, appropriate road markings, regular roadmaintenance, etc. (see examples in Box 8.1).
Box 8.1. Infrastructure related issues and possible solutions•

Skid resistanceSome paving materials offer better and more durable skid resistance then others. Specifically in wet
conditions, natural stone, wood or steel (for bridges) should be avoided when possible or clearly indicated (e.g.
tramway rail).
Large surface road markings (including markings at pedestrian crossings) with insufficient skid resistance canbe a problem. Road authorities are encouraged to develop guidelines for the required skid resistance; monitor thischaracteristic and take action when skid resistance drops below the acceptance level. Solutions that allow a rider toavoid the marked area (without dangerous manoeuvres) are also good.
The use of objective test methods to monitor the grip/skid resistance and the implementation of acceptancecriteria for sections where this characteristic plays an important role (bends), should be encouraged.
•

Road surface defects and hazards

Road surface defects (rutting, potholes…) have a negative influence on grip. Regular maintenance is essential
to prevent these defects. Immediate repair is desirable, otherwise warning signs should be posted.

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Box 8.1. Infrastructure related issues and possible solutions (cont.)
Elements of the road surface (such as gully tops, rails, etc.) can confront riders with a sudden grip change
because of their nature or because of inappropriate installation (level difference). Remedial actions or appropriate
warning are desirable.
Sudden changes in road surface characteristics are always a hazard but especially in zones with regularbraking and accelerating, and should be avoided.
Contamination of the road surface (oil spills, gravel, mud caused by road works, lost charges, etc.) reduces
local skid resistance and may lead to hazardous avoidance manoeuvres.
•Road geometry

Bad road design can contribute to a loss of control (change in the curve radius, lack of visibility) and/or
excessive speed.
The entry angle of a roundabout should not be too low (to ensure that the PTW is visible) nor too high (toavoid excessive speed).

Safe intersection design
As noted in an earlier chapter, PTW crashes are more likely than car crashes to occur at a junction(intersection or roundabout) and the severity of these crashes is higher than for other road users (CERTU
2010). Given that many of these crashes result from drivers failing to give way to PTWs, designs should
minimise the likelihood that PTWs are obscured by signs, vegetation or other objects. In addition,
vehicle detectors at traffic signals should be calibrated to allow reliable detection of PTWs (orspecialised equipment installed).
Roundabouts are not as beneficial for vulnerable road users as car occupants, particularly due to ahigh proportion of single vehicle crashes (Daniels et al., 2010; De Brabander and Vereeck, 2007).
Nevertheless recent injury data from Sweden revealed that the risk for PTW riders to sustain a severe
injury is reduced by half in roundabout when compared to conventional intersections in urban areas. To
maximise the performance of round-abouts in location where there are high numbers of PTWs, attention
should be paid to removing any obstacle on the roundabout, improving skid resistance and moderating
PTW entry speeds by ensuring that roundabouts are sufficiently visible (particularly at night).
Obstacles and clear zone
An impact with a roadside obstacle increases the severity of the crash. Different measures are
possible to reduce this impact severity, the best of which is to avoid potentially dangerous obstacles.
As already mentioned, all road users make errors. For different reasons a vehicle can leave the road.
A small recovery zone next to the outer lanes and without any obstacles, allows riders to correct minor
errors without further consequences. In case the road user is not able to correct his or her error he or she
will end up in the verge next to the road. The zone that needs treatment is often identified as the “clear
zone .
To avoid fatalities or severe injuries, aggressive obstacles (trees, posts, ditches, etc.) within a shortdistance of the roadside should be avoided. Such obstacles can be treated, removed or moved further
away from the road border in order to reduce the risk of an impact. For some types of road equipment(lighting, sign posts), the market offers alternatives that are less aggressive when impacted.
Unfortunately these alternatives have only been evaluated for car impacts. However, crash absorbing

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devices, designed to attenuate collision impact, remain an obstacle, which can be a threat to PTW riders
above a certain impact speed.
Countries are encouraged to develop guidelines for the recovery zone and the clear zone which also
take the safety of more vulnerable PTWs into account and to promote the implementation of theseprinciples.
Vehicle restraint systems
When potentially aggressive obstacles in the clear zone cannot be avoided, the last option is toisolate road users from these obstacles by the installation of a vehicle restraint system. Today thesesystems are tested according to standards such as the European Standard (EN 1317) and are usually very
effective in containing cars without too severe injuries for the occupants.
However, some of these installations can be extremely aggressive for PTW riders. Guard rails with
unprotected posts are a real danger for motorcyclists. Recent research, however, did not reveal significant
differences between wire-rope and other type of discontinuous guard rails (Rizzi et al., 2012). In general,the position of the motorcyclist when impacting the guard rail influences more the overall outcome of theincident.
The European research project 2BESAFE (2010) recommends using crash barriers that allow a
falling motorcyclist to slide along the surface of the barrier without hitting objects that concentrate thecollision energy. For guard rails several solutions exist to protect sliding motorcyclists from impacting
the exposed posts (or other obstacles behind the guard rail). Today, CEN/TS 1317-8 offers an objective
evaluation method for the sliding impact scenario. Future developments should also include other crash
scenarios. 2BESAFE further recommends that priority is given to improve barriers/guard rails that arelocated in sharp curves or on motorcycle crash black spots.
For road restraint systems to perform correctly it is important that they are properly installed. The
installation instructions from the manufacturer of the system need to be respected. Incorrect installation
or damaged systems that are not properly repaired will not function as expected and can be an additional
hazard.
Road safety audits and inspections
Regular audits are useful and are conducted in most countries. Although essential, a focus on PTWs
is not always included in these audits. More attention could, for instance, be given to the anti-skid
properties of the road (European Road Federation, 2009).
iRAP offers tools to assess road risk. iRAP Star Ratings are based on road inspection data andprovide a simple and objective measure of the level of safety which is ‘built-in’ to the road for vehicle
occupants, motorcyclists, bicyclists and pedestrians. Five-star roads are the safest while one-star roads
are the least safe.
The motorcyclist Star Rating is generated from the Star Rating Score (SRS), which in turn is basedon an assessment of the road infrastructure elements that influence the main types of crashes ofmotorcyclists (run-off the road, head-on collision, intersection and sideswipes). The motorcyclist Star
Rating Score is the sum of the score for the different crash types, which are in turn of function of
likelihood, severity, operating speed and external flow influence functions (see Figure 8.1).

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Figure 8.1. Motorcycle SRS equations

X - Factors (to the right) are multiplied+ - Factors (to the right) are added
Likelihood
Run-off score(driver and passenger
sides calculated
separately)x

Severityx

Operating speed
External flowx

Lane width
Curvature
Quality of curve
Delineation
Shoulder rumble strips
Road condition
Grade
Skid resistance / grip
Roadside object
Distance to roadside object
Paved shoulder width

Median traversibilty

Operating speed

Lane width
Curvature
Quality of curve
Delineation
Centreline rumble strips
Road condition
Grade
Skid resistance / grip

External flow

Median type

Likelihoodx

Severity
Head-on (loss-ofcontrol) scorex

Median traversibilty

Likelihood
Head-on overtaking
score

x

x

SeverityMedian typeOperating speed
External flow

Motorcyclist
Star Rating Score+
Likelihood
Intersection scorexx

Severity

LikelihoodxIntersection typeIntersection quality
Grade
Street lighting
Skid resistance / grip
Sight distance
Channelisation
Speed management / trafficcalming

Operating speed
Intersection type

External flow

Property access score

Number of lanes
Grade
Skid resistance / grip
Differential speeds

Severityx

Property access points
Service road
Property access points

Operating speed
External flow

Along scorex

Likelihood

Facilities for two-wheelers

Severity

Facilities for two-wheelers

Operating speed
External flow

Source: IRAP
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Traffic calming measures.
Excessive or inappropriate speed is one of the main risk factors for PTW crashes. Speed is both acontributing factor and an aggravating factor in crashes. Traffic calming measures are very effective in
reducing the number of crashes. They aim at lowering the speed of all motorised vehicles by intervention
on the road design or actions to influence traffic. These measures have proven their effectiveness toimprove safety, including the safety of PTWs (OECD, 2006); but require careful design to benefit PTWs.
Road design and equipment
Road design and equipment dedicated to moderating speeds are useful in reducing the speed of all
vehicles including PTWs. All traffic calming measures benefit all road users as long as they are properly
designed.
Special attention is required in the choice of location and materials and in the lighting andmaintenance of these devices. The consequences of poor design and maintenance can be harmful for
riders, defeating the purpose for which traffic calming is intended (IHIE, 2005). For example, measures
such as speed humps and small vertical obstacles used to moderate speed in urban areas can negatively
influence the grip of a motorcycle to the road surface and can also cause the destabilisation of the
motorcycle; they should therefore be preceded by a non-vertical speed reduction feature (e.g. horizontal
marking) and placed at a reasonable distance from junctions to allow riders to pass them perpendicularly.
One alternative is to introduce perceptual countermeasures to create cues, usually visual, toencourage riders to slow down by increasing the perception of speed or by increasing the apparent
curvature of bends. However further research may be warranted, particularly targeted at isolated
locations where there are risks due to overestimation of appropriate speeds, such as curves withtightening radii.
30 km/h zones
30 km/h zones are widely implemented in urban areas and have largely proven their effectiveness in
reducing speed and the number of crashes and improving the quality of life for residents. There is lessresearch on their specific impact on PTW speeds and crashes. Webster and Mackie (1996) observed that
implementing 72 traffic-calming schemes (20-mph zones) in Great Britain led to a reduction of
approximately 60% in the average annual crash frequency in these zones. This reduction was 73% forcrashes involving PTW users.
Vehicle –infrastructure interactionMore targeted interventions can include electronic signage to detect motorcycle approach speeds
and provide a visual warning to those travelling at higher speeds that they are approaching a hazard, suchas an intersection. Victoria, Australia is currently trialling a number of locations with such treatments.
However, evaluations have not yet been completed.
Other traffic management measures
Segregation of PTW traffic
Specific lanes for PTWs
Provision of separate lanes where there are large numbers of PTWs can reduce the potential for
conflicts with larger vehicles. Motorcycle lanes can be ‘inclusive or ‘exclusive . Inclusive lanes are
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installed on an existing road and are separated from the main road by painted lines or physical barriers.
Exclusive lanes are completely separated roads and minimise crash risk at intersections.
The world’s first exclusive motorcycle lane was constructed in the 1970s in Malaysia where theconcept has progressively expanded. In this country, PTWs make up more than 50% of the motorised
vehicle fleet and 60% of road fatalities. According to Radin Umar et al. (2012), the introduction of suchexclusive motorcycle lanes led to a reduction of 39% in PTW crashes. Depending on local circumstances,and in particular the proportion of vehicles that are PTWs, it can be considered a highly successful andcost-effective measure, because it eliminates conflicts with heavier vehicles and notably reduces speed
differentials (where they previously occurred). However, further research is needed to assess the economic
and technical feasibility of such exclusive lanes under different social and economic environments.
Use of bus lanes by PTWs
Allowing PTWs to travel in bus lanes is not necessarily a measure to improve safety, but rather toimprove traffic flow. It has safety implications, however. Several cities have allowed PTWs to use bus
lanes, including London, Oslo, Norway and Madrid. Other cities are opposed to such a measure.
The layout and operation of bus lanes varies markedly depending on road space, traffic volumes, layoutsof junctions, etc. Some bus lanes may be more suitable for use by PTWs than others. Indeed, several cities
have allowed PTWs to use some identified bus lanes, which are indicated by specific signage. Presently there
is no general consensus on the safety impact of this measure and the debate is still open. Few impact studies
have been conducted and there is no real convergence in the results of these studies.
Research conducted in Paris (Maestracci, 2012) has demonstrated that driving in a bus lane offers someadvantages for PTW riders, including better peripheral vision of surrounding traffic and a feeling of being
better protected, but it can lead to higher PTWs speed, which can endanger safety at intersections in particular.
On the other hand, a recent epidemiological study conducted in the city of Marseille in France concluded thatthe risk for powered two-wheeler riders driving in bus lanes of being involved in an injury crash is more than
3 times higher than the risk run by riders driving in general traffic lanes (Clabaux et al., 2014). This higher
risk is partly due to the risk of collisions between car (or truck) drivers turning right and powered twowheelers driving in the bus lane who continue straight ahead. Box 8.2 presents the results of a few experiences
and research in London, Barcelona and Vienna, which show some diverging results, with a negative safety
impact in Barcelona and no safety impact in London or Vienna.
As the safety impact of this measure seems to depend on PTW traffic volume, it is recommended thatpilot tests are run and the results carefully analysed before its deployment. Each specific case must be
carefully assessed. If this measure is to be adopted, careful attention needs to be paid at the junctions between
the bus lane and the regular lane in order to avoid unexpected conflicts by both car drivers and PTW riders.
Road safety gains can only be obtained if PTW users strictly respect speed limits in the bus lanes and if
all road users are well aware of the possibility to meet a PTW at a junction when crossing the bus lanes.

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Box 8.2. Use of bus lanes by PTW – safety impact:
Results from experiences and research
LondonFollowing the completion of two trials, in January 2012 motorcycles were given permanent access to bus
lanes on the majority of the Capital's red routes. The two trials have shown reduced journey times andenvironmental benefits with no significant safety issues ensuing for motorcyclists and other vulnerable road users
As part of the second trial, Transport for London (TfL) increased enforcement specifically at locations with a highcollision history involving motorcycles. In line with this increased enforcement, the average speed for motorcyclists
in bus lanes reduced by 6.5 per cent during the trial, with the proportion of motorcyclists exceeding the speed limit
decreasing by one fifth (51% in September 2010 down to 41% in September 2011).
The scheme run by TfL covers with-flow bus lanes on the strategic road network, but not those on mostborough roads. A few boroughs have also allowed PTWs in their bus lanes, but one, Ealing, has already ended
motorcycle access to bus lanes. Several other cities in England have also introduced motorcycle access to bus lanes.
Source: Transport for London, York et al. (2011)

Barcelona (RACC, 2010)
RACC (Automobile Association in Cataluña) presented Barcelona City Council its report about PTW users´utilisation of bus lanes. The most representative conclusions were :PTWs are a key factor for mobility in the city of Barcelona.
Allowing PTWs in bus lanes would lead to an increase in PTWs’ average speed; an increase in theoccurrence and severity of PTW crashes, a potential weak point in right turns between bus lanes and thesecond general traffic lane.
To summarise, the probability of collision with buses, cars or other PTW vehicles would raise significantly.
As of 2013, PTWs were not allowed to use bus lanes;
Vienna (Austria)
In 2005, a pilot was launched to allow PTW riders to use bus lanes. There are three test sites. The
administration carefully selected places where there are no pedestrian crossings, no oncoming left turn traffic andno induction loops under the road surfaces for prioritising public buses at traffic lights. On these test sites, there
were no severe (injury) crashes before starting the pilot and, as of June 2013, there has been no crash since
implementation. It is however not planned to extend the experiment.

Advanced Stop Line
Advanced stop lines permit PTWs to stop in front of other vehicles at traffic signals, allowing
motorcycles and mopeds to manoeuvre more safely without conflicting with other road users when thelight turns green.
This is clearly comfortable for PTW users; however very careful consideration should be given to
traffic signalling calibration to avoid conflicts with pedestrians, as PTWs can accelerate very quickly,
which may surprise pedestrians. In addition, when the advanced stop line is shared with cyclists, carefulconsideration should be given as both users have very different acceleration capacities.
Trials were conducted in Spain and the United Kingdom to assess the safety impact of this measure(see Box 8.3). Legal coverage of Advanced Stop Trials is being incorporated in the Spanish Traffic
Code. A study by Haque and Chin (2010) gives some more pessimistic results, showing that advanced
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stop lines can increase right-angle collisions involving PTWs. According to these authors, advance stoplines should be seen more as a measure to facilitate PTW traffic and mobility.
Box 8.3. Trials with advanced stop line for PTWs
United Kingdom
In the UK, the Traffic Signs Regulations and General Directions do not permit PTWs to use Advanced Stop
Lines (ASLs). The Transport Research Laboratory conducted an experimental study on behalf of the Department
for Transport on the effects of allowing motorcycles the use of ASLs; at present only bicycles are permitted to use
them. During the test track trial, motorcyclists were also permitted to use ASLs at signal-controlled junctions. No
actual conflicts were recorded during the trial, but the combination of cyclists going straight on with motorcyclists
turning left was identified as a potential source of conflict (Ball et al., 2011). There are no plans to change theRegulations to allow PTWs into ASLs.
Barcelona (Spain)
In Barcelona a similar measure was initially assessed at 3 main junctions in the city. The ‘bike box’ is available toall two-wheelers and is indicated with yellow hatched boxes. Barcelona city undertook the evaluation of this measure andconcluded that it benefited PTW safety. As of 2011, 56 advanced stop lines for motorcycles had been implemented. A
time-series study with comparison groups is carried out to evaluate the road safety effectiveness.
Madrid (Spain)
Trials are being carried out in Madrid to allow PTWs to enter the area ahead of the main traffic stop line attraffic signal controlled junctions. Motorcycles can enter this ‘box’ via a bus/motorcycle/taxi/cycle lane to reduce
the risk of PTWs weaving through traffic to reach the head of the queue. The box is formed by positioning a secondstop line for PTWs about 4 metres ahead of the main stop line for other vehicles. The box is marked withmotorcycle pictograms (see figure 8.2).
Figure 8.2. Advanced stop line in Madrid

Allowing PTWs to use shoulders in congested traffic
Some countries are considering allowing PTWs to use shoulders or emergency lanes in traffic jams.
While this could certainly be considered attractive from a mobility perspective, the impact on safety is
not yet documented. Concern has been expressed about its foreseeable negative impact on road safety.
No impact assessment has been made on the effect of this measure.
Traffic filtering and lane splitting
Filtering and lane splitting are used by bicyclists and motorcyclists to overtake vehicles on a
stopped or slow-moving lane by travelling between the lanes. In broad terms, filtering by motorcyclists is
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defined as moving between traffic when other surrounding traffic is stationary. Lane splitting is definedas moving through traffic in motion. These practices are progressively becoming more common, even if
not legal in most countries, due to the increasing congestion in many cities. Both lane splitting andfiltering by PTWs are currently illegal in most OECD countries. However, both practices are tolerated inmost of the countries, to the extent that they are done with prudent manner.
There is little research and few experiments so far on the safety impact of lane splitting andfiltering. Preliminary results from a study in the United Kingdom, conducted by the University of
Nottingham for the Department for Transport (Clarke et al., 2004) show that filtering is responsible forabout 5% of motorcycle Killed or Seriously Injured (KSI) crashes. A US study (Ouellet, 2012) conductedin California concluded that lane splitting occurred in less than 1% of motorcycle crashes and 7% of
freeway crashes and that lane splitting may reduce crash risk for motorcyclists.
Consideration should be given not on the principle alone of authorising or not filtering but on theconditions in which it could apply and the road types that may be concerned. For example, on a 3-lane
road, what is the safest place to filter (between the second and the third lanes, on the emergency lane,etc.)? Should filtering be authorised when the traffic speed is above a certain level (e.g. 80 km/h)? Whatshould be the maximum speed of the PTW when filtering? Practices are diverse, and so are the resulting
risks. Finally, how filtering behaviour can be trained, controlled and enforced?
The debate is still open. Nevertheless, this practice exists. Research is needed to better understandthe safety impact of legalising it.
Conclusions
PTW are very sensitive to the road and traffic environment, including infrastructure design(e.g. alignment, curves, etc.), maintenance (holes, gravel, etc.) and interaction with other road users. Dueto this sensitivity, defects in the road layout are likely to create more difficulties for PTW riders than for
operators of other motorised vehicles.
Road and traffic management have traditionally been designed for four-wheeled vehicles. In somecases, these are not properly adapted for PTWs. Much could be done to facilitate the mobility and safetyof PTWs, without compromising the mobility of other motorised vehicles.
Self-explaining roads and traffic calming measures are ways to guide drivers and riders to adopt
appropriate traffic behaviours and speeds. Designing “forgiving roads, using PTW friendly equipment,
conducting regular audits and inspections contribute to a safer environment for PTWs. Traffic calming
measures aim to lower the speed of all motorised vehicles by interventions on the road design or actions
to influence traffic. These measures have proven their effectiveness to improve safety, including thesafety of PTWs but require careful design to benefit PTWs.
Engineers, road designers and providers, road safety auditors and inspectors should be trained toconsider PTWs in the design, maintenance and operation of roads, and be provided with the necessary
risk assessment tools to make the right decisions based on an overall impact assessment. Local
authorities’ staff should be trained and informed on the infrastructure requirements for PTWs.
Traffic management measures can have a dual purpose: facilitating PTW traffic and increasing
safety. Further research is needed on the safety impact of measures such as advanced stop lines andtraffic filtering. When implementing any new measure in favour of PTW mobility, caution must be paidthat no new risk is induced for themselves or for any other road users.

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Clabaux, N., J.-Y. Fournier, J.-E. Michel (2014), “Powered two-wheeler drivers' crash risk associatedwith the use of bus lanes , Accident Analysis & Prevention, 28: 306-310.
Clarke, D., P. Ward, C. Bartle and W. Truman (2004), In-depth study on motorcycle accidents, Road
Safety Research Report No. 54, Department for Transport, London.
European Road Federation (2009), “Road Infrastructure, Safety of Powered Two-wheelers , Discussion
paper, February, ERF, Brussels.
Mazharul Haque, Md. and Chin, H.C. (2010), “Right-angle crash vulnerability of motorcycles at
signalized intersections: mixed logit analysis , Transportation Research Record, 2194, pp. 82-90.
IHIE (2005), The Guideline for Motorcycling, Chapter 8: Motorcycle and traffic calming, Institute ofHighway Engineers.
IHIE (2010), Guidelines for motorcycling, Institute of Highway Engineers.
Maestracci, M., F. Prochasson, A. Geffroy and F. Peccoud (2012), “Powered two-wheeler road accidents
and their risk perception in dense urban areas: Case of Paris , Accident Analysis & Prevention, 49,
114-123.
MOW (2008), Vademecum motorrijdersvoorzieningen, Belgium Ministry of Transport (MOW).
ECMT (2006), Speed Management, Joint Transport Research Centre Report, Paris: OECD Publishing,ISBN 92-821-0377-3.
Ouellet, J. (2012), “Motorcycle Lane Splitting on California Freeways , Transportation Research Board
Annual Meeting, Paper 12, 1469.

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RACC (2011), PTW´s bus-taxi lane usage, RACC and Barcelona City Council.
http://imagenes.w3.racc.es/uploads/file/23748_Carril_bus_moto_informe_nov2011.pdf
Rizzi, M., J. Strandroth, S. Sternlund, C. Tingvall, B. Fildes (2012), “Motorcycle Crashes into Road
Barriers: the Role of Stability and Different Types of Barriers for Injury Outcome , IRCOBI
Conference.
Webster, D. and A. Mackie (1996), Review of traffic calming schemes in 20 mph zones, TRL Report 215,
Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
York, I., S. Ball and J. Hopkin (2011), Motorcycles in bus lanes: Monitoring of the second TfL trial, TRL
Ltd, prepared for TfL, London.

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Chapter 9. Specific powered two-wheeler issues inlow- and middle-income countries

This chapter is dedicated to the specific issues of powered two-wheeler (PTW) safety in low- andmiddle-income countries, which account for 90% of traffic casualties and where PTWs play a very
important role in the transport system. There are a number of challenges in most of these countries,
including the lack of institutions responsible for road safety; the lack of knowledge of traffic rules,
the lack of enforcement; the lack of proper infrastructure, the sale of low cost PTWs; and the lack ofdata to properly assess the safety issues of PTW in particular.

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9. SPECIFIC POWERED TWO-WHEELER ISSUES IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIESIntroduction
The previous chapters have mainly focused on high-income countries. This chapter is dedicated tothe specific issues of powered two-wheelers (PTWs) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). It is
acknowledged that the situations in low- and middle-income countries cannot be summarised easily andthere is a wide diversity in the role and conditions of PTWs in the transport system and in thecharacteristics of PTW crashes.
This chapter gives some indications of common trends in LMICs and where the experience ofindustrialised countries can be transferred.
Road safety in low- and middle-income countries: general trends
Globally, about 1.24 million people die every year on the roads, and more than 10 million areseverely injured. Low- and middle- income countries account for 90% of the victims (see Figure 9.1) anda very large proportion are vulnerable road users, including children, bicyclists and PTW users(WHO, 2013). Unless immediate and effective action is taken, road traffic injuries are predicted to
become the fifth leading cause of death in the world, resulting in an estimated 1.9 million deaths eachyear by 2020. This is, in part, a result of rapid increases in motorisation without sufficient improvement
in road safety strategies and land use planning.
Figure 9.1. Population, road traffic deaths and registered motorised vehicles in high-,
middle- and low-income countries
High income

Middle income

90%

Low income

80%

80%

72%

70%
60%

47%

50%

52%

40%
30%
20%

16%

12%

10%
0%

8%

12%
1%

Population

Road traffic deaths

Registered motorised vehicles

Source: WHO (2013).

In all countries, road crashes result in tragic human consequences. In low- and middle-income
countries, the considerable economic and social consequences of road crashes constitute a serious braketo economic development. Road traffic crashes are one of the three leading causes of death worldwide
for persons aged 15-45 years. The death of a working-age man in low- or middle- income countries
significantly reduces the income of his household and leads to direct and indirect economic losses to thecountry. Road traffic injuries and fatalities typically consume between 1-3% of LMICs GDP (WHO,2013).

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Low- and middle-income countries are disproportionally affected by traffic-related injuries andfatalities. This is largely because they do not have the national structures in place to promote and enforce
quality road safety laws and regulations. Examples of regulations include mandatory helmet laws andhelmet production standards, police enforcement, road maintenance, etc. In addition, populations
generally lack education and awareness about road safety. Vulnerable road users represent the mostsignificant group of victims of road crashes because of the greater variety and intensity of traffic mix andthe lack of separation from other road users. Of particular concern is the mix between the slow-moving
and vulnerable non-motorised road users, as well as motorcycles, and fast-moving, motorised vehicles.
The UN Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020
In 2011, the United Nations called for a global decade of action for road safety with a goal ofstabilising and then reducing the forecasted level of global road fatalities by increasing activities
conducted at national, regional and global levels. It released the Global Plan for the Decade of Action forRoad Safety to serve as a tool to support the development of national and local plans of action, while
simultaneously providing a framework to allow coordinated activities at regional and global levels. The
Plan is based on 5 pillars: Road safety management; Safer roads and mobility; Safer vehicles; Safer road
users; and Post-crash response. The Plan is very much focused on the specific issues of vulnerable road
users and addressing the issue of PTW safety is a main challenge of the decade.
Role of PTWs in mobility in low- and middle-income countries
Powered two-wheelers play a very important role in the mobility and transport system of low- andmiddle-income countries.
While in many industrialised countries PTWs can be seen as an alternative to the car, in many lowand middle-income countries, the PTW is the only affordable personal motorised mean of transport. In
Southeast Asia, PTWs are often the family vehicle. Families use PTWs to get to work, take their kids toschool, go to the market, and manoeuvre in every day urban and rural life. In many countries, theincrease in urbanisation and motorisation has led to an increase in PTW use in conjunction with newneeds in mobility and because of their easier accessibility, lower cost of use and smaller dimensions ascompared to cars (Haworth, 2012). In addition, PTWs are also used for the transport of goods (seeFigure 9.2).
Figure 9.2. PTW use in Vietnam

Source: Graeme_Newcomb on Flickr.

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9. SPECIFIC POWERED TWO-WHEELER ISSUES IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIESRogers (2008) observed that in developed economies, most PTWs have a large engine displacement
and are commonly used for leisure, while in developing and emerging economies PTWs have a smaller
engine displacement, are more often mopeds and scooters and are often the sole motorised vehicle for thefamily.
In Latin America, the development of the PTW fleet has led to the creation of a large number of
new jobs, such as messengers, couriers or moto taxis, which are a source of income for many young
males. With congestion becoming a major issue in large cities, PTWs are considered as an efficientmeans of transport. Based on indicators from 25 cities in Latin America, the Observatory for Urban
Mobility concluded that travelling by PTW could halve the travel time when compared to mass transit,
and was in some cities much cheaper as well. Figure 9.3 illustrates, for a selection of Latin American
cities, the relative marginal cost of a 9 km journey by public transport, PTW and car and confirms thecheaper price of travelling by PTW, which contributes to the success of this transport mode.
Box 9.1. The use of Bodas Bodas in Uganda
In Uganda towards the end of British rule in East Africa, citizens needed a quick and cheap means of crossing
the border into Kenya, and thus a thriving motorcycle taxi industry was established. The motorcycle taxis arereferred to as “boda bodas, meaning “border-to-border. Now, boda bodas mostly operate within Kampala andcitizens use them commercially to get around the city. There are an estimated 200 000 boda boda operators
throughout Kampala, predominately young adult males (KCCA, 2013).
In a congested city, the boda bodas, while convenient, have become a hazard on the road. According to a
study from Mulago Hospital, the largest public hospital in Uganda, boda boda-related injuries consume more than
65% of the annual budget for the hospital’s surgical unit, and boda bodas are responsible for approximately 75% of
all road traffic-related trauma cases (Kigera, 2010). AIP Foundation runs a “Wear a helmet! public awarenesscampaign in Kampala and conducts road safety workshops for boda boda operators in coordination with the Uganda
Police Force and other agencies.
Source: AIP Foundation.

Figure 9.3. Relative marginal costs* of a 9 km journey by different transport means
in selected Latin American cities, 2007
Cost / travel (USD)1 Public transport

Cost / journey (USD)1 car

Cost / travel (USD)1 PTW

Porto Alegre
R. Janeiro
Curitiba
B. HorizonteSão Paulo
Santiago
Montevideo
Lima
León
San José
Buenos Aires
Guadalajara
Cd. México
Bogotá
Caracas
0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

* Costs include gasoline costs for car and PTW travel, and ticket for public transport. Costs do not include insurance and vehicle depreciation.

Source: OMU.

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The fleet of PTWs in low- and middle-income countries
In low- and middle-income countries, PTWs account for up to 85% of the motorised vehicle fleet
and the PTW fleet is continually increasing. Two thirds of the total registered PTWs worldwide areconcentrated in Asian Countries, The large majority of the PTW fleet is found in Asia with China largely
dominating the market. In India, the PTW fleet, composed in majority of mopeds, represents 72% of the
motorised vehicle fleet and has more than doubled between 2001 and 2011. In Cambodia, since 1990, thenumber of PTWs has continually increased with an average annual increase of 20%1. In Vietnam,
between 2007 and 2011, 9.5 million registered two-or-three wheelers were added to the roads, bringing
the number to 31.5 million units. (2009 and 2013 Global Status Reports on Road Safety, WHO).In SouthAmerica and Africa, the PTW fleet is much smaller but is gradually increasing. In China, according todata from the Traffic Management Bureau of the Ministry of Public Security, the number of PTW units
reached 103 million in 2012 and nearly doubled in the last decade.
Although the registration system does not always allow a distinction between different types of
PTW, in many countries, based on general observation in the streets, the large majority of the fleet iscomposed of small PTW below 125 cm3.
In most LMICs, car ownership is still at an infant level with rate about 20 cars per 1 000 inhabitants(e.g. 8 in India, 41 in Indonesia, 17 in Benin). The first lesson to learn from OECD countries is thatapproaching a car ownership of 800+ cars per 1 000 inhabitants will not solve the mobility issues and iscertainly not a sustainable path to follow. While it is anticipated that public mass transport systems
should and will play a central role in mobility, there is no doubt that individual motorised transport will
heavily rely on PTWs.
Safety of PTWs
Among the 1.24 million people killed every year on the road, 90% of casualties live in a low- andmiddle- income country, and depending on the country, up to 74% of casualties are PTW riders. Looking
at the situation of road traffic deaths per geographical area (Figure 9.4), significant differences appear
between regions. The countries most impacted by PTWs traffic deaths are in Asia.
Figure 9.4. Road traffic deaths by user type

Source: WHO (2013).

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Figure 9.5 is based on the statistical annex of the WHO Global Status Report on Road Safety andidentifies the fifteen countries with the highest share of PTW users killed among low- and middleincome countries of more than 1 million inhabitants and for which data are available.
Figure 9.5. LMICs with highest percentage of PTW users killed in 2010

Source: WHO (2013), countries with more than 1 million inhabitants.

Specific challenges of PTW safety in LMICs
As in other countries, crash contributing factors include human behaviours, infrastructure andvehicle factors. There are a number of specific challenges, though, to overcome to tackle the issue ofsafety in general, including PTW safety:•

Lack of institutions responsible for road safety and lack of laws.

•

Lack of knowledge of traffic rules and lack of enforcement.

• Lack of proper infrastructure, including poor, or low, maintenance.
• Sale of low-cost PTWs.
• Lack of data to properly assess the safety issues in general and of PTW in particular.
Countermeasures
This section aims to complete the chapters of this report dedicated to countermeasures, byhighlighting areas deserving specific attention or higher priority in LMICs. It focuses on the following
issues:•Legislation and capacity building, including work related legislation and enforcement.

•

Measures to improve user behaviour.

•

Measures to increase the use and quality of helmets and other protective equipment.

•

Measures to improve the safety of vehicles.

•

Measures to improve the road infrastructure.
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Box 9.2. PTW Crash trends in Cambodia
According to the Road Crash and Victim Information System (RCVIS), in 2012 there were about 16000
road crash casualties, including 1 966 persons killed. About 70% of those casualties were PTW riders (drivers or
passengers).
Over the last 5 years, the number of PTW fatalities has increased by 21%. However, there was a slightdecrease in the PTW fatality rate (expressed in terms of fatalities per PTW registered). This decrease can be
attributed to the huge increase in motorisation.
Figure 9.6. Trends in registered PTWs and fatalities
2006 – 2010
PTW fatalities

300000Registered PTWs

250000200000150000100000
50000
0

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

PTW fatalities

Registered PTWs

Source: RCVIS.

Speeding was the leading cause of PTW casualties and fatalities, followed by drunk driving and dangerous
overtaking. In 2012, 63% of PTW fatalities were between 15-29 years old. Higher percentages of PTW fatalities
were observed during weekends. Phnom Penh, Kampong Cham and Kandal shared about 35% of PTW fatalities.
Almost half of the PTW fatalities occurred between 4pm and 10pm.
In 2012 66% of PTW fatalities suffered head injuries (compared to 76% in 2009). Among them, only 22%
wore a helmet.
The wearing rate was higher among driver casualties (28%) than among passenger casualties (7%). Thiscan be due to the fact that helmets are compulsory only for PTW drivers and that since January 2009 there has
been enhanced enforcement by traffic police, especially in Phnom Penh.

Legislation and capacity building
Many countries suffer from the lack of a legal framework for road safety in general. According to
the World Health Organisation, only 28 countries, representing 7% of the world’s population and mainly
OECD countries, have a comprehensive legislative framework addressing all main risk factors (speed,
drink-driving, helmet and seatbelt wearing) (WHO, 2013).
Despite road trauma being recognised as a sizeable and growing health problem in LMICs, it isgenerally neglected in those countries. Indeed, it is often given a relatively low priority from central
government. There are usually no government departments or agencies dedicated specifically to roadsafety, and, where they are given responsibility, they are often inadequately funded.

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9. SPECIFIC POWERED TWO-WHEELER ISSUES IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIESThe process of road safety improvement needs to be multidisciplinary and dynamic:•

This requires the involvement of people competent in road safety to manage this process. Thus,
improvement of road safety should begin by capacity building to have skilled professionals inroad safety.

•

There will often be a need to strengthen the institutions responsible for various aspects of roadsafety, and to increase their capability for multi-sectorial action.

•

Co-ordination between the various bodies involved in road safety activities, such as theengineers, police, and the health sector is essential.

Solid crash data system
Estimating the risk in different countries is not a simple task because of the need to control the‘exposure’ (taking account of the size of the population, the number of registered vehicles or kilometres
driven), and to define fatal road crashes (the specified interval between the traffic crash and time of death
which vary between countries). However the most important problem is how crashes are recorded.
Under-reporting of crashes is known to be a particular problem in the developing countries. AeronThomas (2000) reported that between 25 and 60% of crashes can go unrecorded.
Box 9.3. Challenges of PTW safety in Brazil
The current state of PTWs in Brazil
As in many Latin American countries, the mass sales and use of PTWs has been rather recent. The expansionof PTW use in Brazil followed the process of economic liberalisation of the 1990s. Between 1992 and 2011, thenumber of PTWs multiplied by four. As of 2000, the production and export of PTWs increased by almost 10% peryear with the highest sales in 2011 surpassing the two million units.2 In November 2012 the total number of PTWs
in Brazil was above 16 million, representing 26% of all motorised vehicles in the country. It is likely that annual
motorcycle sales figures will surpass those of automobiles during the next few years.
The surprising increase in sales and production of PTWs in the last two years is related to the additional
incentives provided to stimulate the manufacturing of PTWs in 2009.
Brazilian PTW rider profile
A significant number of consumers have moved from using public transportation to motorcycles, due to lower
costs and the poor quality of public transportation in their cities. Recently, middle class people have beenpurchasing motorcycles to avoid congested traffic in large towns. The most common reasons for buying a PTW are
as a substitute for public transport (60%); for pleasure/leisure (19%), as working mode of transport (16%), forseveral reasons (15%), and the remaining 10% as a substitute for their automobile (Vasconcellos, 2010).
Many of the new motorcycles are used in delivery services, mainly in the cities with large levels ofcongestion, like Sao Paulo (the ‘motoboys’). Motorcycles are also used as taxis, legally and illegally, to transportpassengers.
PTW safety
Between 2000 and 2009, the number of motorcyclists killed was multiplied by four; they represented one
quarter of all fatalities in 2009 (see Figure 9.7).

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Box 9.3. Challenges of PTW safety in Brazil (cont.)
Figure 9.7. Trends in the numbers of PTW and other road users killed in Brazil
1996 2009
40000

10000

35000

9000
8000
7000

25000

6000

20000

5000

15000

4000

PTW fatalities

other road users

30000

3000

10000

2000

5000

1000

0

0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Other road users fatalities

PTW fatalities

Source: Ministério da Saude. (2011).

The problems and actions
One of the biggest current problems with PTWs is their “illegal use as a mode of public transport (mototaxis). Moto-taxis are a common problem in intermediate cities; however, in big cities these are not as common due
to heavy traffic and the danger that this mode poses to potential passengers. A moto-taxi ride costs about 1 Real
(USD 0.5) in the favelas. Moreover, the use of motorcycles as a means of public transport is supported and isconsidered “appropriate by the authorities in poor areas.
The Federal Law No 12.009 strengthened the requirements for drivers who use PTWs as a way of living. Thislaw states that the “profession can only be exercised by those who are over 21 years-old. They require a minimumof 2 years to be qualified as a professional motorcycle rider as well as specialised courses.
One of the most common responses to adapt city conditions for motorcycles is the use of special lanes forthese types of vehicles.
Source: Fundacion Ciudad Humana.

Improving behaviours of riders and other road users
Helmet wearing
This is by far the highest priority and the area where most attention should be given in the shortterm. The wearing by all PTW drivers and passengers of a helmet meeting international standards has thepotential to reduce the number of death and serious injuries most effectively and rapidly. As seen in
Chapter 7, the proper wear of quality helmet reduces the likelihood of injury in a crash by 69% and thelikelihood of death by 42%. (Liu et al., 2007).
Little data is available on the rate of helmet wearing in LMICs. In general, the rate of helmet
wearing in LMICs is lower than in HIC. In addition, the helmet wearing rate of passengers and children

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tends to be significantly lower than the helmet-wearing rate of drivers. The helmet wearing rate isestimated between 60% and 70% in most of the LMICs, while the rate registered in HIC is about 86%. A
significant difference appears for the LMICs belonging to Middle East and North Africa, where thewearing rate is about 50%. Lack of awareness and affordability contribute to low helmet-use rates. A
study of the affordability of helmets in 18 countries demonstrates that in low income countries, helmets
are unaffordable for the majority of the population.
Some countries do not have a compulsory national motorcycle helmet law requiring all passengers
to wear a helmet on all PTWs, although the situation has improved in the last decade. The majority ofthese countries are concentrated in Asia and in Africa . In some countries, helmets may be compulsory,
but the safety standards of the helmet may be very poor or non-existent. As an example, in Vietnam,
despite a mandatory helmet production standard, a survey conducted in 2008 by the Vietnam Consumer
Safety Association found that 80% of all helmets sold did meet the standard requirements. While there
are several internationally recognised standards, it is important that a particular government’s helmet
standard is suitable for the weather conditions of the country and is both affordable and available to users(WHO, 2013; WHO, 2006). Simply adopting the European ECE standards may be not the optimalsituation. The availability of an affordable and effective motorcycle helmet in low- and middle-income
countries would certainly improve the current road safety situation in these countries. AIP Foundation
introduced the “tropical helmet, which is a low-cost, light-weight and high-quality helmet design, toincrease the presence of quality helmets in Vietnam. The tropical helmet design fully meets therequirements of the mandatory helmet standard, which AIP Foundation helped the Vietnamese
government develop in 2007. The production standard adopted reflects the reality of road crashes inVietnam, and considers the economic and environmental factors that affect consumption.

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Box 9.4. The Global Helmet Vaccine Initiative
The Global Helmet Vaccine Initiative (GHVI) – elaborated by the Asia Injury Prevention Foundation (AIP)and supported by the World Bank and the FIA Foundation – aims to promote motorcycle helmet wearing acrossthe developing world, working in partnership with governments, the private sector and non-governmentalorganisations, with the objective to “put a helmet on every head in the Decade of Action for Road Safety (20112020). The Programme was first launched in 2007 in Vietnam and has since been extended to other countries.
GHVI’s interventions combine five pillars, each valuable independently, but most effective when
implemented together:• Helmet production: Establishing helmet assembly and testing facilities to make affordable andclimatically appropriate helmets accessible to the market and reinvest the profits into other pillars.
• Targeted programmes: Providing quality helmets and road safety education to promote safe behaviour
among vulnerable road users.
• Public awareness education: Coordinating national mass media campaigns to elicit social change
regarding road safety and correct helmet use.
• Global and legislative advocacy: Supporting the development of comprehensive, enforced traffic
standards, laws, and curricula on the national and local level.
• Research, monitoring, and evaluation: Collecting data to identify high-risk road users, tracking progress
toward targets, adapting to changing circumstances and disseminating best practices.
Target countries are Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, China, Uganda, and Tanzania.
Some accomplishments:• In the six years following the Vietnam helmet campaign and law in 2007, it is estimated that 20 600
lives have been saved, 412 200 road injuries have been avoided and approximately 2.6 billion USD
have been saved.
• In Cambodia, average helmet use across nine target schools increased from 0% to 87% by the end ofeach the 2011-12 and 2012-13 school-years.
In Uganda, between 2011 and 2013, over the course of GHVI’s campaign targeting motorcycle taxis (bodabodas), helmet use increased from 31% to 49% among boda boda drivers in Kampala.

Box 9.5. Helmet wearing in Nigeria
In Nigeria, PTWs have become increasingly popular as a means of commercial transport. It is often the only
form of transport available and useful for navigating poor road networks or congested work.
In Nigeria, four reasons sustain the increasing use of motorcycles:

1. The low cost when brand new (about USD 500) compared to second hand cars (about USD 3 000);
2. It is the only means of transport to many streets, connecting roads or villages;
3. It is fast and efficient in traffic jams in urban roads;
4. It holds a commercial opportunity to earn quick money (in fact, many are quitting menial jobs andbecoming commercial riders overnight, without undergoing the necessary pre-licence tests).
In Nigeria, the mandatory helmet law was repealed in 1979 in some States in the northern part of Nigeria andwas re-enacted in 2009.

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9. SPECIFIC POWERED TWO-WHEELER ISSUES IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIESBox 9.5. Helmet wearing in Nigeria (cont.)
A study of helmet wearing conducted in by University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital observed that none of the
PTW patients wore a helmet at the time of injury, even after the law was re-enacted. This is the result of noncompliance by motorcyclists and weak enforcement by the authority in some parts of the country. Enforcement of
the law was initially ineffective in some parts of the country as riders gave excuses regarding cost of helmets andthe tropical heat. Others cited health and religious concerns.
Source: Solagberu et al. (2006).

In 2006, the World Health Organisation published a road safety manual on helmet wearing for
decision makers and practitioners, focusing specifically on the needs of low-and middle-income
countries. This document provides practical recommendations on the various steps required to improve
the rates of helmets use among PTW users, nationally or at local level. The manual in particular
recommends:•

The adoption of appropriate legislation.

•

The development and adoption of helmet standards to ensure access to quality safety
equipment.

•

The implementation of both voluntary and compulsory measures to increase the compliancewith a helmet law.

•

A well-designed marking campaign to promote the benefits of helmets.

•

An adequate school education and peer education among young people.

Education and licensing
All the steps and measures described in Chapter 5 are appropriate for all countries. Regarding
LMIC, specific attention could focus on:•

Adopting a licensing system, based upon age and experience, for all types of drivers and riders.

•

Inserting crucial road safety awareness issues, such as helmet wearing in the training for
obtaining the licence and in the test.

Communication campaign
While experience from developed countries can certainly be useful, it is very important to adapt thecommunication campaigns to the specific nature and culture of each country. Communication campaigns
should be targeted at the specific safety issues of the country. Of course, one of the focuses of thesecampaigns should be on the use of helmet for riders and also their passengers. Another focus should beon respecting traffic rules, respecting other road users and pedestrians in particular.
Enforcement
In some countries, the low number of road users checked by police, police corruption and the lackof knowledge among road users of the risk of sanctions, severely limits the effectiveness of enforcement.
Enforcement requires collaboration from multiple sectors. A designated government agency shouldcollaborate with the police department to increase enforcement of road safety laws, and the police should
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be well trained in standardised enforcement measures. It also requires the development of a sensible setof rules that are known to all and the systematic implementation of these rules.
Vehicle measures
The lack of legislation and vehicle conditions can be a serious issue in LMIC. Main problems
include: poor quality of motorcycles being manufactured or assembled in LMIC, and being modified byuser and the import of old vehicles; lack of maintenance; the lack of legislation regarding technologicalrequirements, overloaded vehicles.
Headlamp On and Automatic Headlamp On (AHO)
While Headlamp On is included in the 1968 Vienna Convention and compulsory in many countries,
it is not yet an obligation in a number of low- and middle-income countries. In countries with a very highshare of PTW in the traffic, it is sometimes claimed that conspicuity is not a significant issue. However,even in countries with a very high proportion of PTWs, this measure has proven to be very effective in
reducing the number of crashes involving PTWs and legislation should be adopted when needed.
To facilitate the use of Headlamp On, Automatic Headlamp On should progressively be proposed
for the PTW fleet.
Box 9.6. Headlamp on for PTWS in Malaysia
Research in Malaysia, where headlamp on was made compulsory for PTWs in 1992, showed that following
the legislation and two-month information campaigns, collisions where conspicuity was a contributing factor
decreased by 29% (Umar et al.,1996).
The benefit-cost ratio of using running lights during daytime is about 5.4:1 for mopeds and 7.2:1 formotorcycles.

Infrastructure measures
The UN Global Plan for the Decade of Action for Road Safety takes into account improving
infrastructure for the sake of the vulnerable road users. One of the main pillars refers to PTW riders andstates the following:
Actions should aim at raising “the inherent safety and protective quality of road networks for the
benefit of all road users, especially the most vulnerable (e.g. pedestrians, bicyclists and motorcyclists).
This will be achieved through the implementation of various road infrastructure agreements under the
UN framework, road infrastructure assessment and improved safety-conscious planning, design,
construction and operation of roads.”(United Nations, 2011)
Most roads in developing countries are multifunctional and used by pedestrians, cyclists, PTWs,
cars and trucks and also animal towed vehicles, with substantial differences in speed, mass of vehicle anddegree of protection. Ideally, vulnerable road users would be physically separated from the main traffic
flow of cars and trucks.
Economic activity, housing and even villages develop along the sides of rural highways, sometimes
without being properly planned. Such situations generate conflict between road users travelling atdifferent speeds and directions. In such situations, the use of proper entries and exits and so called laybys should be promoted to allow road users a secure exit from and entry into the on-going traffic flow
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9. SPECIFIC POWERED TWO-WHEELER ISSUES IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES

and to allow safe stopping. Public activity areas should be developed only on one side of the road, withspeed reduction measures taking place.
Alternatively, if physical separation is not possible, line markings should clearly delimit the space
dedicated to vulnerable road users. For many rural single carriageway roads, therefore, other options
should be chosen in order to increase the protection of vulnerable road users. These options include
improving hazard perception by means of road lighting at junctions and roundabouts, improving verticalalignment, introducing advisory speed limits at sharp bends, introducing regular speed limit signs andintroducing deterrents to high speed such as rumble strips.
As seen in Chapter 8, the first world exclusive motorcycle lane was constructed in the 1970s in
Malaysia, where the concept has progressively expanded and contributed to a diminution by 39% of
PTW crashes (see also box 9.3). This solution presents the greatest benefit for a traffic volume in excess
of 15 000 vehicles a day, and where the proportion of PTWs in the traffic is between 20% and 30%(Radin et al., 2000).
The implementation of a road infrastructure assessment programme should be encouraged to allow
for a systematic, objective and documented review of the safety characteristics of new and existing
infrastructure. Road infrastructure where safety performance was upgraded can serve as a demonstration
project and promote knowledge transfer, research and innovation.
Funding for new road infrastructure programmes could take the safety characteristics of PTWs into
account.
Developing a strategy for powered two-wheelers in low- and middle-income countries
In many ways, the process of developing a PTW safety strategy in low- and middle-income
countries should follow the same steps as outlined in the E-SUM Action Pack (see Figure 10.1). The firststep should be to gather together all available crash and PTW use data and supplement this withworkshops of stakeholders to identify priority issues. The UN Plan for the Decade provides a goodframework for considering potential actions on the 5 pillars. The feasibility of particular actions within
the national situation should be assessed and short-, long- and medium-term actions identified.
Improving data is likely to be an action that is needed, not only to better understand the current issues,
but also to monitor the outcomes of the actions.

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Box 9.7. PTW safety in Malaysia
Motorcycle is the most preferred, convenient and affordable mode of transport in Malaysia. In 2013, there
were 10 million PTW units, representing half of the country’s total registered vehicles. 90% of the fleet has anengine capacity of 250 cc or less, with the majority of motorcycles between 100 and 250 cc. In Malaysia, theminimum age to possess a valid motorcycle license is 16.
In 2012, powered two-wheelers accounted for 61% of the total road deaths. In the past two decades PTW
fatalities have more than doubled. PTW users also sustain very serious injuries, which entail enormous social costs.

Source : MIROS.

Motorcycle lanes
Exclusive motorcycle lane physically segregates motorcycles from other road vehicles. These lanes areusually constructed along expressways. A study of a-14 km exclusive motorcycle lane along Federal Highway F02
found that installation of the lane had led to a 25% reduction of the motorcycle crashes, rising to 34% when
confounding factors were taken into account (Radin, 1995). A larger subsequent evaluation on the same route founda reduction of 39% in PTW crashes (Radin, 2000).
Non-exclusive motorcycle lanes are constructed within the carriageway of an existing road and usually locatedalong the left side of the road. Pavement markings delineate the corridor dedicated for PTWs. These lanes are quite
common in Malaysia and constitute a cheaper alternative to exclusive lanes.
As of 2014, the total length of motorcycle lanes (exclusive and non-exclusive) was about 200 km. In 2011,
70% of fatal PTW crashes involved other motor vehicles. Fully segregating the PTW traffic could reduce the riskvery effectively.

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9. SPECIFIC POWERED TWO-WHEELER ISSUES IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIESBox 9.7. PTW safety in Malaysia (cont.)
Exclusive motorcycle lane

Non-exclusive motorcycle lane

Source: MIROS.

Helmet – Standard and regulation and awareness campaigns
Helmet wearing has been compulsory since the 1970s. The helmet standard MS1:2011 was recently revised
and is similar to the UN standard. The overall national helmet-wearing compliance rate is about 70%. The helmetwearing rates are higher in urban areas compared to rural areas.
There are still a very high number of PTW fatalities caused by head injuries, due to failure to wear a helmet or
the improper use of a helmet. In order to increase the (proper) use of helmet, a six months Community Based
Programme (CBP) was carried out in 2012 in two districts of the city of Putrajaya. The programme involved social
marketing campaigns, education and enforcement activities to encourage higher compliance with proper helmet
wearing. In the concerned districts, (proper) helmet wearing rate increased from 70% to 86% among riders andfrom 64% to 82% among pillions (Ghani, 2013).
Daytime headlamp on
The mandatory use of headlamp on during daytime was introduced in the early 1990s in order to increase PTW
conspicuity and subsequently reduce motorcycle crashes involving other vehicles. Radin (2005) showed thatdaytime conspicuity related crashes dropped by 29 % after the introduction of this measure.

Examples of the development of strategies and other resources that may be useful in LMICs areprovided in the APEC Compendium of Best Practices in Motorcycle and Scooter Safety (APEC, 2011).
Box 9.7. Conclusions of the International Forum on PTW Safety in Latin America,
held in Sao Paulo Brazil, in September 2013
Between 2008 and 2012, the number of registered PTWs almost doubled in Latin America, while the car fleet
increased by around 20%. During the same 5-year period, the number of PTW users killed grew by 36%. The
typical casualty is a young male with less than two years’ experience driving a PTW.
Main recommendations of the Forum:
1. Safety strategies at national or local level must include special plans for PTWs. These should beformulated with all stakeholders, with the active participation of motorcyclist associations.
2. Ideally, countermeasures should be scientifically based; but since the region suffers from a lack of researchand reliable data, programmes should be designed and implemented following the stakeholders’requirements and monitored to check the results and generate new knowledge.
3. Priority measures should focus on novice riders and include better education programmes, as well as riding
skill tests. A graduated licensing system, with restrictions in the first year, should be adopted.

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Box 9.8. Conclusions of the International Forum on PTW Safety in Latin America,
held in Sao Paulo Brazil, in September 2013 (cont.)
4. Awareness campaigns, backed up by education and enforcement, are necessary.
5. The PTW industry can play a very important role in funding research, contributing to PTW training and in
the rehabilitation of injured people.
6. Safe infrastructure for motorcyclists must be promoted, and roadside hazards and road elements thatgenerate risks should be eliminated.
7. There is a need for regulation of work-related PTW usage (deliveries, moto taxis…). Companies should be
responsible for providing adequate training and protection for their staff.
Source: CAF, the Development Bank for Latin America.

Conclusions
PTWs often play a more important role in the transport system of low- and middle-income countries
than in high-income countries. While public mass transport should and will play a central role inmobility, there is no doubt that individual motorised transport will rely heavily on motorised twowheelers. Public authorities and the other stakeholders are faced with the difficult challenge to manage
the expected increase in PTW traffic volumes, and to provide conditions that will prevent an explosion of
the number of casualties.
Addressing this challenge is urgent and cannot wait for the collection and analysis of detailed data.
Some areas can benefit from the in depth knowledge acquired in OECD countries and priorities measures
should be implemented quickly.
The number one priority in all countries should focus on the proper wearing of good quality helmets
by all PTW passengers. This requires the adoption of a national helmet law, the development whenneeded of appropriate helmet safety standards, as well as intense communication campaigns backed up
by enforcement. All stakeholders have a role to play in this endeavour. One of the most important
challenges is to facilitate the purchase of standardised helmets at reasonable prices adapted to the size ofthe head. Strong communication on the relative low cost of helmets when compared to hospitalisation
costs and the risk of disability and death and school education is needed. Particular attention should be
paid to the proliferation of fake helmets.
Rider and driver education and a licensing system to test the capacity of the riders are also priorities.
Regarding the vehicles, priority actions should focus on the mandatory use of headlamp on to improvethe conspicuity of PTWs, and the progressive implementation of automatic headlamp on (AHO) should
be considered. Other priorities include the need to upgrade and maintain the infrastructure, or ideally toconstruct dedicated equipment for PTWs, especially in countries with the highest share of PTWs in
traffic.
Measures taken in isolation are not likely to be effective. As for most advanced countries, theadoption of a Safe System approach should be the way to follow. This requires in particular the existenceof adequate institutions and qualified staff to organise road safety activities and integrate them intotransport and development plans.

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9. SPECIFIC POWERED TWO-WHEELER ISSUES IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES

Notes

1.

Source: Ministry of Public Works and Transport – Vehicle registration statistics, 2010.

2.

ABRACICLO Associação Brasileira dos fabricantes de motocicletas, ciclomotores, motonetas e similares
URL: www.abracilo.com.br

References
Aeron-Thomas, A. (2000), Under-reporting of road traffic casualties in low income countries, TRL
project report, POR/INT/199/00, Crowthorne: TRL Limited.
APEC (2011), Motorcycle and scooter safety: compendium of best practices; developing motorcycle
safety strategies, Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation.
Ghani, Y. (2013), “Community-based programme: a potential policy for road safety and injury
prevention in Malaysia , The Newsletter of the Road Traffic Injuries Research Network (RTIRN),
October-December.
Haworth, N. (2012), “Powered two-wheelers in a changing world: Challenges and opportunities ,Accident Analysis & Prevention, 44, 12-18.
Liu, B.C., R. Ivers, R. Norton, S. Boufous, S. Blows and S.K. Lo (2007), “Helmets for preventing injury
in motorcycle riders , in: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, No. 4, Ministério da
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Brasılia.
Radin Umar, R.S., M. Mackay and B. Hills (2000), “Multivariate analysis of motorcycle accidents andthe effects of exclusive motorcycle lanes in Malaysia , Journal of Crash Prevention and Injury
Control, 2(1):11-17.
Radin Umar (2005), “The Value of Daytime Running Headlight Initiatives on Motorcycle Crashes in
Malaysia , Transport and Communications Bulletin for Asia and the Pacific, No. 74.
Radin Umar, R.S., G.M. Mackay and B.L. Hills (1996), “Modelling of Conspicuity-related Motorcycle
Accidents in Seremban and Shah Alam, Malaysia , Accident Analysis & Prevention, 28 (3):325-332.
Radin Umar, R.S., G.M. Mackay and B.L. Hill (1995), “Preliminary Analysis of Exclusive Motorcycle
Lanes along the Federal Highway F02, Sha Alam Malaysia , Journal of IATSS Research, 19(2),93-98.

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Rogers, N. (2008), “Trends in Motorcycles Fleet Worldwide , presentation to Joint OECD/ITF Transport
Research Committee Workshop on Motorcycling Safety.
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Solagberu, B.A., C.K.P. Ofoegbu, A.A. Nasir, O.K. Ogundipe, A.O. Adekanye and L.O. Abdur-Rahman(2006), “Motorcycle injuries in a developing country and the vulnerability of riders, passengers, andpedestrians , Injury Prevention, 12:266-268.
Vasconcellos, E. (2010), “El costo social de la motocicleta en Brasil , in: Ciudad y Movilidad del siglo
XXI, Universidad del Rosario-Fundación Ciudad Humana, Bogotá, pp. 46-61.
WHO (2006), Helmets: a road safety manual for decision-makers and practitioners, World HealthOrganization, Geneva.
WHO (2009), Global status report on road safety: time for action. Geneva: World Health Organization
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WHO (2013), Global status report on road safety 2013: supporting a decade of Action, World HealthOrganization, Geneva.
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Chapter 10. Developing and implementing an integrated road safety
strategy for powered two-wheelers

This chapter outlines the need for a strategic approach to powered two-wheeler (PTW) safety tointegrate effort and guide the allocation of resources toward initiatives that have proven benefits. It
discusses motorcycle safety strategies in the context of a Safe System approach.

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176 10. DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING AN INTEGRATED ROAD SAFETY STRATEGY FOR POWERED TWO-WHEELERS
Introduction
This chapter outlines the need for a strategic approach to powered two-wheeler (PTW) safety tointegrate effort and guide the allocation of resources toward initiatives that have proven benefits.
The structure of this chapter follows the recommended approach of the OECD’s Towards Zero –Ambitious Road Safety Targets and the Safe System Approach (OECD/ITF 2008):•

Adopt a highly ambitious vision for road safety.

•

Set interim targets to move systematically towards the vision.

•Develop a Safe System approach, essential for achieving ambitious targets.

•

Exploit proven interventions for early gains.

•

Conduct sufficient data collection and analysis to understand crash risks and current
performance.

•

Strengthen the road safety management system.

•

Accelerate knowledge transfer.

•

Invest in road safety.

•

Foster commitment at the highest levels of government.

These principles will provide a test to determine the completeness of any final strategy but effort
needs to be paid to the process of planning and developing a strategy to ensure that these principles are
met. While drawing on these principles, the need for adaptation to the specific needs of motorcyclists is
also discussed.
These principles can be re-ordered into a strategic planning process:Situational analysis•

Conduct sufficient data collection and analysis to understand crash risks and current performance

Define strategic objectives•

Adopt a highly ambitious vision for road safety.

•

Set interim targets to move systematically towards the vision.

•Develop a Safe System approach, essential for achieving ambitious targets.

Determine strategies and actions•

Exploit proven interventions for early gains.

•

Invest in road safety.

Establish supporting arrangements•

Strengthen the road safety management system•

Accelerate knowledge transfer.
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Invest in road safety.

•

Foster commitment at the highest levels of government.

177

Each of these sections is covered in this Chapter.
However, before the work to develop a strategy starts, planning the development activity andestablishing commitment to undertake the strategy development is essential.
Planning a strategy
Planning the development and implementation of a strategy should take account of the benefits to be
accrued from the development process and provide a balance between these benefits and the need forearly actions to create quick benefits. Apart from the value of these benefits in themselves, they can also
serve as valuable examples to engage stakeholders and garner support for further, perhaps morechallenging initiatives.
Strategy development is an iterative process that can achieve commitment to change through aprocess that spirals in from broad discussion of the situational analysis and future trends, to overarchingvision and objectives then to strategies and finally to the specific actions required to achieve the strategic
goals. This process should provide the opportunity for stakeholder and broader community input to thekey issues of concern and the key areas in which significant change in policy, practices or investment isrequired.
A key step in the planning process is the identifications of the lead agency, its roles andresponsibilities and those of other agencies and non-government stakeholders. Relevant stakeholders will
include user groups and commercial organisations, such as the motorcycle industry and equipment
suppliers and retailers. One of the challenges in this process is to ensure that all stakeholders are
considered and not just those who have the greatest capability or the loudest voice. For example, nonrecreational riders are usually not represented to the same extent as recreational riders involved in club
activity.
The capacity of lead agencies and other stakeholders needs to be recognised and, if necessary,
actions taken to increase capacity and capability. In particular, the inclusive involvement of the
motorcycling fraternity in the planning of a strategy will not only assist in the development of shared,
agreed objectives, but may also identify areas in which capacity building and the sharing of informationis required.
Agreement to the objective of the strategy and its interrelationships with other pre-existing, orplanned strategies will provide a sound basis for a development process that achieves agreement andstakeholder buy-in. Demonstrated buy-in can be achieved in a number of ways:•

Agreement that a variety of motives for action are legitimate but all should contribute to any
overall target of strategy objective.

•

Acknowledgement that evidence-based measures should form the basis of the strategy.

•

Commitment to the strategy and, ideally, agreement to incorporate the strategy into their own
management systems.

A key issue in the development of a motorcycle safety strategy is the status of strategies covering
road safety generally and covering motorcycles’ role in the transport system. There needs to be
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178 10. DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING AN INTEGRATED ROAD SAFETY STRATEGY FOR POWERED TWO-WHEELERS
recognition that many actions under the umbrella of a general road safety strategy will have benefits formotorcycle riders. Conversely, there will be little chance of success in implementing measures
addressing motorcycle safety if the necessary broader institutional frameworks are not in place.
Ideally, a motorcycle safety strategy would be one of a suite of strategies that, together, address thedominant road safety factors in each jurisdiction. There may also be benefit in developing comprehensive
motorcycling strategies that include safety as a desired outcome alongside accessibility, mobility andenvironmental outcomes. This may provide justification for actions that contribute to a number ofoutcomes, where justification may otherwise be insufficient if safety alone is considered.
The link between planning a strategy and developing a strategy
Early engagement by all stakeholders in the process of strategy development will increase theopportunity that the strategy will address all key and emerging issues and will be accepted by all parties
who will share the responsibility for its implementation and success. The key stakeholders in this process
are the road users themselves – both riders and other road users. Their engagement in the process ofplanning a strategy can represent the start of the strategy development process.
Key outcomes from this stage include:•

Consensus regarding the vision for motorcycling’s role in the transport system, and its safety,
in particular. How are the sometimes competing demands of safety, mobility and personal
freedom to be reconciled?

•

Agreement to the scope of the strategy – its timelines, coverage.

•

The level at which the strategy is aimed – national, regional or local and the linkages to existingor required strategies at the other levels or for road safety more broadly.

•

Strengthening the social processes and individual or organisational capabilities to support theirrole in road safety management.

•

Increasing community and media interest in the issue and the need for evidence-based
solutions.

At the local level, an example is provided through the E-SUM Action Pack which is “...intended toprovide an easy-to-use template to help municipalities better understand their own PTW road safety
problems, and to develop and implement remedial measures in a practical way. The process outlined in
the E-SUM Action Pack is summarised below (Figure 10.1).
This statement emphasises the need for the complexity and scope of strategies to reflect theirintended audience and the depth to which different strategies tackle the issues outlined in this chapter
should depend on this overarching need – fitness for purpose.

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179

Figure 10.1. Processes in planning and developing a strategy

National Policy
Strategic vision

Identify
problem areas
and define
objectives

Selectinterventions
and/or developa PTW safetyplanAnalyse PTW
problemLocalstrategy andobjectives

Evaluate theinterventions of
the plan

Implementinterventions
and monitor

The contents of the E-SUM Action Plan also provides a description of the recommended strategy
development process – following the standard Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle (see Table 10.1).
Table 10.1. E-SUM Action Plan recommended strategy development process
1.

Identification and collection of data required for analysis of PTW casualty problems

2.

Data analysis

3.

Identification of casualty issues

4.

Using the Esum Good Practice Guide and Demonstration Projects to select interventions

5.

Setting up a monitoring framework for interventions

6.

Implementation of interventions

7.

Evaluation of effectiveness and reporting

Developing a strategy
The process of developing a strategy can provide significant benefits not only from the research andanalysis necessary to inform the content of the document, but also from the stakeholder engagement
required to obtain broad consensus to the actions that the strategy sets out.

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180 10. DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING AN INTEGRATED ROAD SAFETY STRATEGY FOR POWERED TWO-WHEELERS
A new strategy provides the opportunity for a review and testing of the assumptions underlying
current policies and may provide a once in a decade opportunity to set new paradigms in relation to
expectations of road user behaviour, resource commitments and legislative frameworks.
The development process will normally follow the strategy content as outlined at the beginning of
this Chapter as it describes a process of problem definition, objective setting, agreement to strategies andactions and, finally, implementation mechanisms.
Situational analysis
These issues should inform the strategy development activity. Issues covered may include:•

Current and potential future trends in PTW use.

•

The facts about risks and serious casualties by crash types; by location (urban/ rural); by type of
PTW user including scooters, mopeds, low powered motorcycles, higher powered motorcycles;
commuter or recreational use; age category of user; speed and alcohol (and non-helmet wearing)
involvement in serious casualty crashes, and comparing these to data for the balance of non PTW
serious casualties by crash type.

•The role of other road users in PTW safety.

•

The licensing requirements and practices in a jurisdiction for: (a) novices obtaining a riders
licence for the first time; and (b) those returning to riding after a long absence and reach anunderstanding of their implications for safety outcomes.

•

Research advice which models the estimated impact of a number of individual interventions
upon serious casualty outcomes.

•

Areas where further research is needed.

•

Current funding levels and funding options in a resource constrained environment.

•

The different target segments of the PTW road safety market.

It can also be beneficial to define current coordination arrangements and the involvement of
national, regional and local governments, and develop options for strengthening these.
As the role of stakeholders will be critical in the development and implementation of road safetymeasures, the context of this should be clearly stated, including:•

Understand, and effect, the “shared responsibility concept – what it means and requires.

•

Agreement by stakeholders around most of the issues identified in the planning stage.

•

Identification of those issues where differences remain.

Defining strategic objectives
Setting a vision and targets
While a number of jurisdictions have established ambitious visions for road safety supported byaggressive targets, the level of ambition directed towards PTW safety is less common.

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181

Sweden provides:“The objective of this strategy is to demonstrate how the number of motorcycle andmoped fatalities could be halved and the number of seriously injured riders reduced by
25 per cent by the year 2020, thus contributing its share to the 2020 interim goal.
The strategy is based on the management by objectives model for road safety based on
Vision Zero – the Swedish Parliament’s long-term road safety plan.
The motorcycle and moped are a natural element in the transport system and thereby
also in road safety operations.
Accident prevention measures are the most important element in making motorcycle
traffic safe.
The most important element for safe moped traffic is to limit the consequences ofaccidents.
(Trafikverket, 2010).
Whereas the statement from the Lillehammer conference is less explicit:“It is a fundamental motorcycle safety requirement that motorcycles should have aplace in overall transport policy and infrastructure policy/management.
(OECD/ITF, 2008).
This seems to imply that the goals for motorcycle safety should be equal to those for other modes
but this is not clearly stated.
The European Commission acknowledges the need for ambitious targets:“Why set targets?
In the latest evolution of the road safety management system, key institutional
management functions provide the foundation for system-wide interventions to achievea range of results expressed as different types of quantitative targets (Bliss and Breen,2009). Targets provide the focus for the national road safety strategy and the level of
their ambition drive decisions about coordination needs, legislative needs, funding andresource allocation, promotion needs, monitoring and evaluation, as well as research,development and knowledge transfer.
It includes ambitious overall reduction targets within its Strategic Plan to 2020 but the specific goals
for motorcycling recognise the challenges in achieving targets:“This ever-growing group of users is the one where it is the most difficult to attain asignificant reduction in accidents and fatalities. In particular the reduction rate offatalities amongst motorcycle riders is lower than for other road users.
The problem of motorcyclists safety should be addressed through a range of actions.
(European Commission, 2010).

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182 10. DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING AN INTEGRATED ROAD SAFETY STRATEGY FOR POWERED TWO-WHEELERSThe Spanish plan recognises the need for a visionary approach but does not make this vision
concrete through ambitious targets:“It has been wished to base the preparation of the plan on a shared vision among all operatorsintervening in the phenomenon of the accident rate regarding motorcycles.
Similar to the Lillehammer statement, the Victorian PTW Strategic Action Plan recognises the needfor improvement without defining any degree of ambition (Victorian Government, 2008):“With such significant increases in the numbers of PTWs on Victorian roads, there is aneed for greater consideration of PTWs in road use and transport policy development
and planning. Those working in these fields need to become more aware of the needs ofPTWs and the role they can play in the transport network.
In an environment where PTWs are an increasing component in Victoria’s transportmix, the plan seeks to identify initiatives and actions that will:• significantly reduce the number of riders and pillion passengers killed orseriously injured• ensure that PTWs are given appropriate recognition in transport and road use
policy and planning.
The UK followed a similar approach in its 2005 motorcycling strategy (DfT, 2005):“The principal aim of our strategy is to ‘mainstream’ motorcycling.
The theme of this strategy therefore is to facilitate motorcycling as a choice of travel
within a safe and sustainable transport framework.
Our aim is to make motorcycling a safe, enjoyable experience for those who choose thismode. This means taking account of the needs of motorcyclists, promoting safetymeasures and mainstreaming motorcycling, so that its needs are considered as fully as
any other transport mode, in the development of transport policy.
The United States document provides the answer to a much more fundamental question:“The mission of the National Agenda for Motorcycle Safety is to point the way to themost promising avenues for future motorcycling safety efforts in the United States(U.S.).
The goal of the National Agenda for Motorcycle Safety is to enhance and improve
motorcycle safety. The National Agenda simply attempts to answer the question, “Whatare the most important issues in improving motorcycle safety?
The key issue to address in this matter is described in The Netherlands’ Sustainable Road Safety(SWOV, 2006):“Do motorised two-wheelers actually fit into Sustainable Safety? The brief answer tothis question is no, because Sustainable Safety speaks of achieving a considerable
reduction of risks and of numbers of casualties. We could say that motorised twowheelers (motorcyclists and moped riders) would fit within Sustainable Safety if therisks for this group were reduced to a similar level to that of car drivers and pedal
cyclists. Currently, the risk is still 75 fatalities per billion person kilometres for
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183

motorcyclists, and 91 for moped riders, whereas the risks for car drivers and pedal
cyclists are respectively 3 and 12 fatalities per billion person kilometres. Such a sharp
decrease in risk is inconceivable without draconian measures. It is difficult even toconceive of Sustainable Safety measures that could lead to a substantial reduction in thenumber of victims of crashes involving motorised two-wheeled vehicles.
Furthermore, the relatively high risk of motorised two-wheelers calls for a discussion
concerning the acceptance of risk in a risk society (‘How safe is safe enough?’); whatshould reasonably and responsibly be done to reduce risks (‘As low as is reasonably
achievable’).
While this document was drafted by road safety practitioners within the Government, the result of
this consideration is reflected in the Dutch strategic action plan for motorcycling (Rijksoverheid, 2011),
which, as is recommended in this report, was prepared to reflect the consensus views of stakeholders:“The aim of this action plan is to reduce the per kilometre risk of accidents faced by
motorcyclists with a view to reducing the number of motorcycle casualties. Although
the multi-year trend does reflect a reduction in the number of fatalities, the number ofmotorcyclists killed in road accidents has not decreased in the past three years,
providing additional impetus for the introduction of this action plan.
This action plan is part of the Strategic Plan for Road Safety 2008-2010 (StrategischPlan Verkeersveiligheid 2008-2010). The implementation of additional protective
measures for vulnerable road users (including motorcyclists) is one of the cornerstonesof this Strategic Plan, the guiding principle of which is that all measures must be
proportional, i.e. increasing motorcycle road safety must not come at the expense of thefreedom of motorcyclists to use the road in a responsible manner. The Ministry of
Infrastructure and the Environment believes that this action plan will facilitate achieving
the ambitious aims mentioned above, while adhering to this principle.
(Action plan for improving road safety for motorcyclists Strategic approach)Research and modelling
The development of an effective strategy implemented through sound actions depends on a solid
research base to ensure that specific interventions are supported by evidence. Research can also informthe mix of strategies necessary to achieve desired outcomes.
These desired outcomes should include ambitious improvements in road safety as measured byfatalities and serious injuries. However, this work should also include the development of agreed safety
performance indicators set at a level to allow continual monitoring of the factors it is possible to manage.
The determination of strategies and actions should be driven by the desired intermediate and overalloutcome targets that have been agreed.
A process to achieve to ensure an evidence-based strategy will include steps to:•

Obtain research advice which models the estimated impact of a number of individualinterventions upon serious casualty outcomes and other safety performance indicators.

•

Progressively refine the research-based modelling of estimated effects on serious casualties of amix of initiatives to establish materiality awareness, (to lessen the tendency by seniorbureaucrats and Ministers to discard potentially uncomfortable but substantially beneficial
interventions) and to underpin target setting for the strategy.

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Set targets for fatality and serious injury reductions for the life of the strategy and key safety
performance indicators and measure (and report publicly on) progress.

While this process has been exploited in a number of jurisdictions in the development of generalroad safety strategies, its application for PTW safety will be faced with greater sensitivity to research andmodelling accuracy due to the relatively smaller number involved and the greater the impact ofvariability on the currently quite broad-brush estimates used in current modelling.
This demand for increased accuracy will remain a challenge to be gradually addressed as research
improves the ability to predict the impact of future interventions.
For example, while the impact of infrastructure spending or speed enforcement may be relatively
certain, the impact of changes to protective clothing or improvements in rider training or driverawareness are currently less amenable to predictive modelling.
Nevertheless, the Swedish Strategy for 2010-2020 indicates how modelling can inform thedevelopment of a suite of measures to meet a specific target (see table 10.2).
Table 10.2. Potential of safety interventions – Results of modelling in Sweden
Prioritised operational areas
for motorcycles
Anti-lock braking system (ABS)Traction control
Speed limit observance
Correctly used helmet + full-bodyprotective equipment
Visibility of motorcycle /alertness of other road users +alertness of motorcycle rider
Sobriety
Safe intersections in built-up
areas + urban areas
Make existing guard rails
appropriate to motorcycles
Safe lateral reserves
Other operational areas
Total (lives saved per year)

Potential(Number of lives saved
per year)
31
5
At least 15
4+3

Present
situation

Goal level

Effect

30%
?
?
-

98%
?
80%
-

15
?
At least 9
?

6+5

?

?

?

8
4+8

?
?

?
50%+?

?
2+?

5

0%

?

?

6
5

?
-

?
-

?
5
31

Target: -50% reduction in motorcyclist fatalities by 2020 (Lives saved per year)

27

Source: Trafikverket (2010).

PTWs in the Safe System
The safe system is variously described in a number of jurisdictions but has a single core principle: arecognition that road users will make mistakes, or inappropriate decisions, and that the system, while
also minimising errors, should accommodate these errors so that no individual road user is exposed tocrash forces likely to result in death or serious injury.

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This unacceptability of trauma is central to approaches such as Vision Zero in Sweden andSustainable Road Safety in the Netherlands.
The Safe System approach assumes that road users will enter the system competent and will takemeasure to ensure that they remain compliant and alert. The system then ensures their safety byproviding vehicles, road and roadside infrastructure and travel speeds that combine to ensure that any
crashes that do eventuate result in crash forces that are below the level of human tolerance to physicalharm.
Applying the Safe System to reduce general levels of road trauma will result in developments invehicle occupant protection, protection from roadside hazards and separation from oncoming traffic onhigh speed roads with limited access and lower speed limits (e.g. 50 km/h) and intersection treatments
such as roundabouts where traffic conflicts are inevitable. Where pedestrian and cycling traffic is
introduced into the mix, there is a growing use of even lower speed limits (e.g. 30 km/h).
Another characteristic of Safe System approaches is consideration of the interactions between the
different elements of the system and between the effects of different interventions. Some aspects of thisare well recognised, for example, the influence of road design on chosen travel speeds. The challenge isto optimise the protection by combining the components of the road traffic system.
A potential area of future research would be to investigate such interactions in more detail todetermine whether future road safety interventions and their underlying standards may need to be
improved. For example, research (Berg et al., 2005) has indicated that the interactions between riders androadside barriers are evenly split between riders and their vehicles sliding into barriers (separately or
together) and others hitting the barrier on the motorcycle while in an upright, riding position. If loss ofcontrol due to braking leads to the former scenario, it could be hypothesised that an increasing uptake of
ABS would lead to a relative reduction in such crashes. The most effective interventions to improvesafety in impacts with roadside objects may therefore need to consider the rider/PTW system and also thepotential protection that may be offered by the vehicle, as well as protective clothing or modifications to
the roadside environment and furniture.
Inclusion of PTW riders into the Safe System yields two challenges. The first is the technicalproblem of providing protection from physical harm at the speeds at which collisions with other vehicles
or fixed objects are likely. While this could be solved by ensuring travel speeds by, and in the vicinity of,
motorcyclists are much lower, this then amplifies the second challenge. This is to ensure that any
measures taken to improve PTW safety are supported both by the broader community and by PTW riders
in particular.
This leads to consideration of whether the conventional Safe System approach should be modified
by recognising that, in the short to medium term, use of PTWs will remain an inherently risky activity
and that measures should be taken to reduce risk. This may result in, for example, strategies that focus
more on avoiding crashes, rather than mitigating their effects, as outlined above in the Swedish strategy.
The risk mitigation approach then poses another challenge for jurisdictions. While the Safe Systemapproach for example as exemplified by Vision Zero reinforces the unacceptability of trauma, a risk
reduction approach to some extent confirms that some level of risk is acceptable.
In other words, in considering Reason’s model of reducing trauma outcomes (Reason et al., 2006),
the “Swiss cheese model, the later interventions in the model will, for many years, contain large gapsthat cannot be easily plugged. This leads to the conclusion that the most significant gains may derivefrom attention to the early parts – error and crash avoidance, rather than mitigating their effects.
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However, as guided by Safe System thinking, strategies should not ignore the opportunities that areavailable to address the later stages of the causal chain – such as the promotion of improved protective
clothing and equipment.
Decisions regarding resource allocation to road safety, the level of regulatory controls imposed onroad users and other community costs will depend on agreement regarding the level of risk, or the
reduction in trauma that is being sought over the life of a strategy. While the Swedish strategy spells thisout, very few others do. This can lead to constant debate between stakeholder groups regarding theacceptability of proposals as there is seldom any objective target that any proposals are supporting.
The contrary view to the Safe System is that continued progress to reduce PTW risks is sufficienteven if these reductions do not lead to reductions in overall levels of trauma, as the growth in PTW use
outweighs the reduction in risk.
So, in the development of a road safety strategy for PTWs, while many jurisdictions recognise theneed for broad stakeholder agreement to the content of the strategy, a shared commitment to a specifictarget will assist in subsequent determination of actions. Spain, in particular has put a strong emphasis on
the need to achieve a shared vision (DGT 2007).
One of the factors in determining the appropriate level of risk, or the rate of risk reduction, is the
proportion of traffic represented by recreational riding and the proportion of stakeholder input that isprovided by that sector. While this will vary across developed economies, the domination of PTWs inemerging economies may provide different opportunities for interventions that may be unacceptable
amongst the more recreationally-focused users in developed countries.
While this discussion has considered strategies for improving PTW safety as separate from generalroad safety strategies and their overall target, over time these two needs will merge. Growth in PTW use
and improvements in safety for other road users are resulting in a general trend, across all countries, for
PTWs to represent a growing proportion of road trauma. Achievement of overall Safe System goals will
be increasingly difficult without close attention to PTWs.
Determine strategies and actions
Effective strategies will address the problem through a broad and integrated range of interventions
that will exploit the synergies from multi-action programmes.
These should cover the full suite of Safe System interventions, subject to evidence of effectivenessand prioritised and targeted according the special needs of motorcyclists and the individual needs of eachjurisdiction.
Some key questions can assist in the development of strategies and actions:•

What proven countermeasures can be implemented immediately – to provide immediate benefits
and to provide visible evidence of commitment to action. Such commitment can then help garnerbroader stakeholder and community support for further, perhaps more challenging, actions.

•

The development of what longer-term actions should be started now to address known or
predicted future issues•

What work needs to be considered to develop greater understanding of motorcycle trauma, future
trends and research findings to allow future countermeasures to be planned.

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The development of countermeasures should also take into account that evidence about crash cause
and driver culpability, although valuable input to the process, may not assist in the development of themost effective actions to reduce trauma that results from these factors. For example, while a proportionof crashes may be caused by other drivers not looking for or seeing PTWs, countermeasures that only
tackle this root cause may be less effective than approaches that seek to modify car driver behaviour yet
also recognise that other measures will be needed to cater for the limitations in any behavioural change
programme.
The limitations in focusing on crash causation highlight the need for a combination of measures tobe taken in many cases.
Safe System actions
The discussion of the Safe System, above, considered the applicability of the Safe System in
relation to the setting of strategic targets that reflected the desire to move to, or towards, a Safe System,
or whether a less ambitious, but more pragmatic, goal of risk reduction was more appropriate.
The Safe System also provides a framework to ensure broad consideration of a range ofcountermeasures that, together, provide a more complete system of protection.
Broadly, the Safe System components of road users, vehicles and infrastructure follow three wellestablished pillars of road safety, as described by models such as the Haddon Matrix. The Safe System
goes further, by recognising that human error is inevitable and that the other components of the systemshould work together to prevent the outcome of these errors from being death or serious injury. This
results in the fourth factor speed being introduced as a factor to mitigate harm, based on the known
empirical relationships between impact speed and the probability of serious trauma. This approach isillustrated in the growing use of 30-40 km/h speed limits in areas of significant potential interaction
between pedestrians and powered vehicles.
Similarly, data for passenger car crashes indicate that the potential for side impacts at speeds greaterthan 50 km/h and head-on impacts at greater than 70 km/h should be designed out of the system if therisk of serious injury or fatality is to be avoided
Similar empirical data for PTW riders is scant. However, the protection afforded by helmet andprotective clothing would not approach that provided by a car’s occupant restraint system, including thesubstantial structure around the occupant. The application of this approach to PTWs could lead to aconclusion that, as rider and driver error is inevitable, speeds should be managed so that impacts withother vehicles or infrastructure are below the level that would contribute to life threatening trauma. This
speed would be increased through the use of frangible infrastructure, improved protective equipment andthe physical separation from other vehicles. The difficulty in achieving these, in practice, and within thebounds of community acceptance, demonstrates the large gap between current practices and a Safe
System.
In applying the Safe System to passenger cars, an assumption is made that drivers are competentand compliant and that the system of vehicles, infrastructure and speed working together has thepotential to remove all risk of serious trauma. For PTWs, the speeds necessary to achieve these outcomeswith the present performance and extent of use of protective equipment and forgiving infrastructure arelikely to be so low that an alternative approach may need to be considered. That is to accept that asignificant proportion of the gains to be made will be due to measures taken to improve the compliance,and competence of riders and other road users. So, while jurisdictions should select strategies and actions

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appropriate to their needs and institutional and social environment, there may need to be a conscious
decision not to follow the same balance of strategies that provide optimal outcomes for other road users.
The specific actions included in a strategy should build on the evidence-based countermeasuresdescribed in the previous chapters. This Section provides examples of important questions that a strategic
process should answer in developing a suite of measures that work together to address the key issues
identified during the problem definition process.
Road users
Ensuring safe entry of riders to the road system:•

What measures are necessary to ensure that riders enter the road system with adequate riding
skills, hazard perception and responsible attitudes?

•

Has the minimum age for riders been set with full consideration of the social and road safety
impacts?

•

Once on the road system, how do they develop skills through experience and what measures arenecessary to manage the elevated risk during this period?

•

What measures need to be taken to target specific rider groups, e.g. returning riders or off-roadriders?

•What are the appropriate mechanisms to achieve desired capability and behaviours – off- andon-road training, mentoring etc. and how should these differ for different subsets of the rider
population?

Ensuring compliant behaviour by riders in the road system:•

What are the key behaviours to be managed?

•

How should enforcement, education, marketing and sanction schemes work together to achieve
desired behaviour change?

•

What innovative communication channels can be used to reach the target audience?

•

What measures are necessary to improve the effectiveness of systems that prevent access to theroad system by those who have demonstrated an inability or unwillingness to comply?

•

What electronic or other systems are in place to reduce unlicensed riding?

Ensuring continuing alert and competent riders:•

Apart from those addressing the general road user population, should there be specificmeasures targeting PTW riders to reduce the influence of alcohol, drugs, fatigue, drowsiness
etc.?

•

What interventions are required to respond to the different segments of the PTW road safetymarket, with the style and tone of communications programmes which seek to encourage safe
behaviours selected to gain the greatest traction with the identified sub-group?

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189

Shared responsibility:•

What measures are necessary to reinforce the concept of shared responsibility for road safety
and what are the specific behaviours these are seeking to influence?

•

Are these opportunities to improve other road users’ ability to look for, perceive and react tomotorcycles?

•

Segmentation.

•

How should the above actions be tailored and priorities altered for different PTW groups?
These may include:− Moped riders− Scooter riders− Commuters− Recreational riders− Returning riders− Off-road riders− Urban versus rural riding

PTW users can also be segmented according to attitudinal and motivational differences, leading todifferent attitudes to risk, use of protective clothing and riding styles.
Vehicles and equipment
Crash avoidance:•

What current or emerging technologies should be encouraged or required on PTWs to reducethe incidence of crashing due to rider error? These might include improvements to braking
and/or stability systems, tyres, etc.

•

What current or emerging technologies should be encouraged, or required, on PTWs or othervehicles to reduce the incidence of crashes due to other factors? These might include
conspicuity aids, collision detection systems, v2v communications, etc.

Crash protection:•

What current or emerging technologies should be encouraged or required to reduce the risk ofserious injury to riders in the event of a crash? These might include airbags, automatic crashnotification.

Helmets and protective clothing•

What standards are set to define the required level of protection afforded by helmets and otherprotective equipment?

•

What regulations are necessary to ensure the wearing of this equipment?

•

Are these standards and regulations consistent with the physical and social environment?

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What programmes are required to increase compliance with these regulations and to encourage
the use of additional protection?

•

Are these actions tailored to different PTW groups, e.g. novice riders, off-road riders, scooter
riders?

Infrastructure
Provision for motorcyclists in new road infrastructure:•

Has the impact of network developments on PTW trauma been taken into account in thedetermination of PTW road safety targets?

•

What standards should be set to define required infrastructure design and performance?

•

What guidelines are necessary to encourage motorcycle-friendly infrastructure?

•

What procedures are necessary to define when investment in PTW-compliant infrastructure isrequired?

•

What programmes are required to increase road authorities’ and road designers’ awareness ofthe needs of PTWs and their capability to design to these needs?

•

Are road safety audits undertaken from the perspective of all road users, including PTW users?

Segregation:•

What measures can be taken to reduce the interaction between incompatible traffic streams,
particularly between PTWs and heavier motor vehicles?

•

Is it necessary to reduce the sharing of lanes by PTWs and other vehicles?

Specific motorcycle treatments:•

What innovative treatments should be trialled to investigate the potential to improve PTW
safety?

•Are programmes in place to collect and analyse crash data to determine the locations of greatest
PTW risk?

•

Are programmes to address these risks in place and is the rate of investment consistent with thetargeted reductions in PTW trauma?

•

Do these programmes encompass blackspot/black length (reactive) and infrastructure safety
risk reduction (proactive) investment programmes?

•

Are effective practices for reporting (of on-road motorcycling hazards) and response
arrangements in place by all road authorities including local government?

•

Do road operations practitioners share experiences within/with other road authorities about
good operating practices?

Speed management•

How much is the community (motorcyclists and the general community) prepared to support
speed limits that are set at, or approaching, Safe System limits?

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191•

What limits should be placed on the maximum speed, power or acceleration of all PTWs, or
those ridden by certain riders, for example novice riders?

•

What programmes are necessary to increase riders awareness of the role of low-level speeding?

•Should differential speed limits be applied for different classes of motorcyclist, e.g. novice
riders, moped or scooter riders?

•

How should speed limits, roads and roadsides and vehicles interact to optimise progression to a
Safe System?

•

Are there locations where speed limits should be reduced on winding recreational routes somotorcyclists are not encouraged to engage in legal but unsafe speed behaviours?

•

What current or emerging technologies should be introduced to raise riders’ awareness of speed
limits or restrict vehicles to the speed limit?

•

How should enforcement technologies, sanctions and licensing procedures work together todiscourage speeding and remove irresponsible and recidivist speeders from the road system?

Establish supporting arrangements
Consideration of the questions above should result in agreed strategic actions that address the PTW
safety issues that are the most critical for each jurisdiction. They define WHAT needs to be done toimprove PTW safety. The following section of a strategy will define HOW these actions can be
implemented and supported.
Resource allocation and prioritisation
Actions taken to address PTW safety need to be balanced against the competing demands forresources from other road safety actions and from unrelated programmes seeking support in a resourceconstrained environment. In addition to funding for the delivery of interventions, there is also
competition for support in areas such as research, policy development and legislative processes.
The establishment of quantitative outcome targets and the development of an understanding of theoutputs required to achieve these targets will help inform the resource allocation process. Without thesetargets, there is a risk that competition for limited resources will result in resources being directed toother areas of road safety. The monitoring of performance to outcome and output targets should provide
an objective process to help support the case for increased overall funding to cover this gap should thisallocation to other areas occur.
There are three key decisions to influence the allocation of resources to PTW safety:•

How can existing programmes be shaped to enhance PTW safety?

•

How much can be allocated to programmes that are specifically targeted at PTW safety?

•

What processes should be used to prioritise effort, once a decision to allocate resources has been
made?

While economic tools such as benefit cost analysis will help direct resources at the key problems,
they carry the risk that some areas, such as PTW safety, may be less able to attract funding than othermodes with greater traffic densities. Blackspot programmes can deliver outcomes with very significant
benefit cost ratios, but crash types that are more dispersed in the network will not be able to compete
against crashes at, typically, intersections.

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PTW safety may therefore be enhanced by the application of road safety resources toward
conventional initiatives that benefit the whole road user base, if these are targeted at locations or otherdemographic sectors that would otherwise not be supported. Indeed, the benefits for PTW riders may beless than for other road users, but they may be considered to be PTW programmes if they would
otherwise not be funded under a process driven purely by benefits for the whole road user population.
On the other hand, the provision of infrastructure
or implementation of other measures
specifically for the benefit of PTW riders will be influenced by the benefits for PTW riders alone and thecost of providing these benefits. The lower the marginal cost of making provision for PTW riders, thegreater will be the opportunities to make these provisions.
As an example, consider the case of roadside barriers. Policies to provide supplementary protection
for PTW riders that increase the overall cost of barriers may result in fewer locations being able to betreated for the benefit of all road users and this could result in a net community cost. A challenge for the
future is to minimise the cost differential to render the compromises that need to be made less significant.
While this trade-off is particularly important for retrospective programmes that are treating existing
locations with higher crash risk, it can be addressed in the provision of new infrastructure by theestablishment of standards and policies to require improved performance in PTW crashes. However, in
the allocation of scarce and limited resources, such policies will always result in trade-offs being requiredin other areas and these trade-offs may carry a net community cost.
An alternative approach, such as that adopted in Australia with the Victorian Motorcycle Safety
Levy, is to dedicate a specific expenditure programme to PTW safety, without competition from otherdemands for road safety investment. In the Victorian case, this expenditure programme is funded by aspecific levy on PTW owners (see Box 10.1).
Box 10.1. Australian Case Study: The Victorian Motorcycle Safety Levy
The Motorcycle Safety Levy (AUD 66 for 2012/13) is an addition to the compulsory personal injury insurance
premium on PTWs with a capacity of 126cc and over. The levy is included with registration renewals.
Special purpose vehicles, recreation registered motorcycles, motorcycles used solely for primary production
operations and veteran, vintage, or classic motorcycles with club permits are exempt from the levy.
The funds from this levy go directly to projects to improve the safety of riders.
From the start of the levy in October 2002 to the end of June 2012, approximately AUD 45 million was raised
from the levy. To date, the funds raised have been allocated to over 148 road improvement projects and 54 otherprojects involving areas such as research and education.
Application of funds follows a Strategic Guide for Expenditure of the Motorcycle Safety Levy Funding toachieve the greatest benefits for rider safety.
This Strategic Guide defines four priority areas for projects to be considered for funding:− Engineering, technology and Intelligent transport systems (ITS).
− Enforcement.
− Education.
− Enhanced information for decision making.

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193

Benefit-cost analysis
Analysis of relative benefits and costs can be used in a number of ways to influence resource
allocation and project prioritisation. Benefit-cost analysis can be used to help answer the following
questions:•

How should resources be allocated between competing programmes; for example between a
motorcycle blackspot programme, or a programme in another area of road safety, or acompletely different area of government responsibility? In this case, the power of the analysis
can be limited by the varying assumptions made about very different types of benefit. As
discussed earlier, the most appropriate tool may be a more strategic analysis of overall resource
needs to meet agreed performance targets.

•

How should programme resources be allocated between competing projects? For example,
which blackspot projects should be funded from a fixed resource source? In this case, thebenefit-cost analysis should result in the optimal programme being developed with maximum
road safety benefit resulting from the resource input. While this analysis should provide more
useful results as the nature of inputs and outcomes should be the same, there is still a need tounderstand the role of uncertainty both in the underlying risk and in the effectiveness of the
proposed treatment.

•

Is an action worth doing? In other words, is the benefit-cost ratio above one, or above somepredetermined level that has been set as a target return?

Role of stakeholders to promote consumer demand, community acceptance and participation
While much of the responsibility for implementing a PTW safety strategy will rest withgovernments and industry, no significant change will be possible without engagement with thecommunity to ensure that they are aware of the shared responsibility for road safety. This extends beyond
responsibility on the road to responsibility at other times.
Programmes such as New Car Assessment Programmes, now in place in many countries, havedemonstrated the benefits in achieving improvements in safety performance driven by manufacturers
offers and consumer demand rather than the slower pace of regulatory change. The SHARP programmein the UK applies the same principle to motorcycle helmets to raise consumer awareness that they canprovide themselves with a greater level of protection by making informed choices. This should thenstimulate the market to provide improved performance in response to this demand.
The extension of this process to PTW protective clothing may provide similar benefits, but it would
also benefit from an international approach.
Suppliers, clubs and other organisations have a role to play in promoting safe riding practices, safer
clothing and equipment and safer bikes.
Economic incentives should be investigated to determine the extent to which safe choices and safe
riding can be influenced by economic factors. These might include incentives for participation in
effective training, offence-free riding, tax breaks for safety equipment. The source of these incentives
may be government or insurers. The design and scale of these incentives are likely to vary considerably
between jurisdictions due to differing economic conditions and financial systems in place.

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Alternative mechanisms may include the imposition of insurance penalties; for example if PTW
users are involved in a crash while not wearing protective gear.
One of the challenges of many road safety programmes is that the recipient of the benefits and theprovider of the resources are often not the same organisation or group of individuals. Opportunities tocreate this link should be investigated.
Implementing a strategy
The implementation of a strategy starts with its development, and the process outlined in thischapter would lead not only to the creation of a strategy, but also to the engagement of all relevant
stakeholders in the process.
Accountability for implementation will be a key factor in determining the success of a strategy.
Through the situational analysis and development of strategic response to this, the desired key
performance indicators should be developed to ensure that tracking of performance can be done.
There can be a benefit, through demonstration projects being developed, funded and implemented at
local and regional level, to enable innovation and change to be progressed. This can not only provide
early tangible benefits, but can also promote the strategy and increase awareness and knowledge.
Early achievement of tangible benefits can provide momentum for on-going effort by validating thedirection of the strategy and strengthening the shared ownership.
Monitoring and evaluation
No strategies can provide a complete and accurate roadmap of the actions to be taken throughout its
life. Limitations in data, uncertainty of effects, the development of new trends and the emergence of newtechnology all drive the need for flexibility in implementation. A safety performance framework,
including responsibilities, monitoring, measuring, reporting and accountabilities will facilitate thisprocess. This could be complemented by performance indicators for each stakeholder, measuring theoutput of each stakeholder’s actions.
The “Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle of continuous improvement documented in management systems,
such as ISO 39001 will be both a relevant and helpful tool to support the systematic and continuous
improvement for each stakeholder, both public and private, by ensuring establishment of effective
management systems.
These systems will include input and output measures to determine whether the strategy is being
implemented and intermediate and overall outcome measures to assess whether the strategy is producing
the desired result. Tracking of these measures and regular reporting to practitioners and the community
should prompt review of ways to improve implementation, as well as the need for adjustment of thestrategy in the face of changing trends or unexpected variations in the road safety impacts.
In addition to on-going monitoring, the implementation plan should include regular reviews tocheck and report that implementation of the strategy is proceeding to schedule and whether the strategy
itself needs to be adjusted in light of experience gained, emerging trends and technologicaldevelopments.
The key outcome measure for the community, opinion leaders and policy makers will be trends inserious casualties, particularly fatalities. Owing to the random variation in some of these data, the
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development of understanding of statistical significance will provide benefits in avoiding knee-jerkreactions to short-term trends that prove to be the result of no more than uncontrollable random variation.
For PTWs as a subset of the total road safety situation, the smaller total numbers involved can increase
the potential for this.
Conclusions and recommendations
Growing PTW traffic makes it imperative to adopt safety interventions targeting this mode oftransport. A strategic plan to achieve the goal of a Safe System should be integrated with road safety
strategies across all modes, as well as examining opportunities across society for the cultural andattitudinal changes that are required for significant and sustainable improvement.
As the economic costs associated with PTW crashes are significant, investing in PTW safety canbring important societal and economic benefits. These benefits are likely to amplify as growth in PTW
usage increases the total cost the trauma imposes on the community.
Improving the safety of PTWs should be a shared responsibility. All relevant stakeholders need tobe actively involved in the process of drawing up and implementing a shared road safety strategy which
includes safer behaviour of all road users, safer infrastructure and vehicles with enhanced safety features.
A toolbox of measures is required to improve the safety of PTW riders within the traffic system. These
measures must take into account the specific challenges of PTWs traffic, and also consider the variety of
PTW users, insofar as some segments may be addressed with particular measures. A strategic approachshould consider the most effective combination of measures according to the specific needs of individual
jurisdictions.
Additional research will provide a better understanding of current challenges related to PTW
mobility and safety problems and help achieve a traffic system which better integrates and protects
PTWs in a cost efficient manner. However, significant benefits can be achieved by applying current
knowledge. A lack of complete understanding should not be an impediment to action being taken
immediately. A robust strategic management process should ensure that on-going monitoring andevaluation are in place to adjust and improve strategies as new knowledge emerges.

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References
ATC (2011), National Road Safety Strategy, 2011-2012, Australian Transport Council, Canberra.
Berg, A., P. Rücker, M. Gärtner, J. König, R.H. Grzebieta and R. Zou (2005), “Motorcycle Impacts to
Roadside Barriers – Real World Accident Studies and Crash Tests Carried out in Germany andAustralia , in: Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safetyof Vehicles, Washington, USA, June.
Bliss, T. and J. Breen (2009), “Country Guidelines for the Conduct of Road Safety Management
Capacity Reviews and the Specification of Lead Agency Reforms, Investment Strategies and Safe
System Projects , Global Road Safety Facility, World Bank, Washington, D.C.
DfT (2005), The Government’s Motorcycling Strategy, Department for Transport, London.
DfT (2011), Strategic Framework for Road Safety, Department for Transport, London.
DGT (2007), Strategic Plan for the Road Safety of Motorcycles and Mopeds, Direccion General delTrafico, Ministerio del Interior, Madrid.
European Commission (2010), “Towards a European road safety area: policy orientations on road safety,
2011-2020 , Brussels, 20.7.2010, COM(2010) 389 final.
European Commission (2011), “Quantitative road safety targets , European Commission,
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/specialist/knowledge/qrst/ (accessed 30 July 2015).
OECD/ITF (2008), “Workshop on Motorcycle Safety , Lillehammer, 10-11 June, Final Report,
ITF/OECD/JTRC/TS6(2008)1.
Reason et al. (2006), “Revisiting the ‘Swiss Cheese’ Model of Accidents , Eurocontrol Experimental
Centre, EEC Note 13/06, Brussels.
Rijksoverheid (2011), “Action plan for improving road safety for motorcyclists – Strategic approach ,Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment, The Hague.
SWOV (2006), Wegman and Aarts (eds.), Advancing Sustainable Safety – National Road Safety Outlookfor 2005-2010, SWOV Institute for Road Safety Research, Leidschendam.
Trafikverket (2010), Improved safety for motorcycle and moped riders. Joint strategy for the period
2010–2020, Swedish Transport Administration, 2010:043, Borlange.
Victorian Government (2008), “Victoria’s Road Safety and Transport Strategic Action Plan for Powered
Two-Wheelers, 2009-2013 , Melbourne.

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Chapter 11. Conclusions and recommendations

This chapter provides a summary of the main findings of this report, indicating the steps that should
be taken to ensure increased safety for all users of powered two-wheelers (PTWs). The need for asystematic approach to powered two-wheeler safety is highlighted and recommendations for the
implementation of a toolbox of countermeasures are provided.

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11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The role of powered two-wheelers in mobility
The powered two-wheeler population is increasing and plays a significant role in mobility.
The powered two-wheeler (PTW) population, which includes motorcycles, scooters and mopeds, isconstantly increasing and plays a significant role in mobility in many countries, particularly in many of
the world’s large cities.
Worldwide, the current production of PTWs is around 50 million units per annum, compared witharound 65 million units for passenger cars. In the various OECD countries, PTWs account for between
2 to 31% of the motorised fleet; the highest percentage generally being found in countries with a mild
climate. PTWs can be the dominant motorised transport mode in some developing and emerging
countries, comprising up to 85% of motorised vehicles. In most OECD countries, the motorcycle fleet
increased much faster than the passenger car fleet from 2001 to 2010. In France for example, the PTW
fleet has increased by 48% in the last decade, while the car fleet increased by only 11%.
In many cities, PTWs have become a real alternative to passenger cars given the level of traffic
congestion. Indeed, PTWs present a number of advantages, including flexibility, reliability of travel time,and lower cost of use compared to a private car. As a consequence, the PTW fleet has expanded very
rapidly in some cities. As an example, in 2013 Rome was the European city with the largest PTW fleet,with about 700 000 PTWs (compared to 1.9 million passenger cars).
Some riders use PTWs as their primary form of transport, others more for recreation. For many it is
the only affordable or practical means of individual motorised mobility. In Europe, PTWs are commonlyused for commuting, but this is less common in the United States, Canada or Australia, where theprimary purpose of PTW use is often recreational riding. In some low- and middle-income countries,
PTWs are the main mode of individual motorised transport and considered to be the family vehicle.
The PTW rider population is composed mostly of males, but the trend is changing, with more andmore females also riding. In many OECD countries, there is an increasing number of “returning riders,i.e. typically males in the 40-50 year age group, who stopped riding a PTW for a period of more than
5 years, who usually return to riding on powerful motorcycles.
It is essential to take into consideration PTW needs in transport policy.
PTWs are becoming an important component of the transport system and in some cities represent up
to 30% of the motor vehicle fleet. They present both assets for mobility, and also challenges in terms of
traffic management and safety. However, only a few countries have in place a national transport strategy
for PTWs; though several measures have been taken at local level.
Traditionally, the transport system in many countries has focused primarily on four-wheeled vehicle
traffic. There would be many benefits, in terms of mobility and traffic management as well as traffic
safety in a better integration of PTWs into mobility plans and in the development of national and local
transport strategies.
Safety issues for powered two-wheelers
PTW riders are at far greater risk than car drivers
In OECD countries, PTWs represent on average 8% of the motorised vehicles but 17% of total
fatalities. This share is much higher in low- and middle-income countries, where PTWs can represent up
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to 70% of road fatalities. They have not benefited at the same pace as car occupants from safety
improvements over the recent decades. While, on average, OECD countries have seen a reduction of
about 36% in the number of persons killed in traffic crashes in 2000-2010, the number of motorcyclists
killed has decreased by only 13%. The discrepancy is particularly obvious in the United States, where thenumber of motorcyclists killed increased by 44% between 2001 and 2011, while the number of passenger
car occupant fatalities decreased by 29%.
Per kilometre driven, PTW riders have a much higher risk of being killed than car occupants. For a
motorcyclist the risk, depending on the country, is between 9 and 30 times higher. The increased risk isslightly lower for moped riders. PTW riders are also more likely to be very seriously injured, with longterm disabilities, in a road crash than other motorised road users. As the large majority of motorcyclists
are younger than other motorised road users, this translates in many years lost, or with reduced
capacities.
Addressing the safety issues of powered two-wheelers should be seen as a priority in all countries toimprove overall road safety. It is one of the main challenges in the context of the UN Decade of Action
for Road Safety.
In addition to the human tragedy associated with PTW crashes, their economic consequences are
significant; therefore investing in PTW safety can bring important societal and economic benefits.
Poor perception and control are frequent failures that lead to PTW crashes
Poor perception and control are frequent failures that lead to PTW crashes. The most common PTW
fatal crashes occur at intersections with other traffic, often involving a problem of perception andappraisal by the driver and/or the rider. The other most frequent crash type are single-vehicle crashes,notably due to intrinsic difficulties of riding a PTW (e.g. necessity to keep the balance) and to the higher
sensitivity of riders to external perturbations (e.g. wind or poor pavement conditions). The consequencesof crashes are particularly aggravated for PTWs by the aggressiveness of roadside obstacles.
The problem of perception is complex and involves a variety of parameters: the visualcharacteristics of PTWs, the sensory capabilities of the human perceptual system, the atypical behaviourof PTWs and the familiarity with PTWs in traffic.
As for other road users, speeding (i.e. driving above the speed limit or at inappropriate speed) andconsumption of alcohol and drugs are critical factors in the occurrence and severity of crashes. Operating
a PTW requires more co-ordination, balance and alertness than operating a car, which explains that
impaired riding is even more problematic for PTW riders.
A more frequent combination of road crash contributory factors is found in PTW crashes comparedto other road users crashes, which results in the multiplication of the relative risk of PTWs.
Human behaviours and conditions are the most frequently represented contributing factors in PTW
crashes. However this does not mean that solutions to improve the safety of PTWs must only focus on
behaviours. A Safe System approach is required: it can be more efficient to change crash and injury
outcomes by implementing a range of interventions, including for road users, the infrastructure, thevehicle and the system as a whole.

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11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSPTW safety in the context of a Safe System
A Safe System approach is required to improve the safety of PTWs
The Safe System approach recognises the fact that road users can make mistakes, or takeinappropriate decisions; the role of the system is first to minimise the production of these errors andsecondly to prevent road users from death and serious injuries when errors occur.
Effective strategies have been shown to be based on specific targets. These should be supported byregular evaluation of progress against outcome measures relevant to each intervention. The results of theevaluation allow adjustments to plans to ensure on-going effectiveness of the strategy and continuous
improvement in implementation.
Inclusion of PTW users into the Safe System yields two challenges. The first is the technicalchallenge of providing protection from physical harm at the speeds at which collisions with othervehicles or fixed objects are likely. While this could be solved by ensuring travel speeds of (and in thevicinity of) PTWs are much lower, this then amplifies the second challenge, which is to ensure that any
measures taken to improve PTW safety are supported both by the broader community and by PTW riders
in particular.
This leads to consideration of whether the conventional Safe System approach should be modified
by recognising that in the short to medium term, PTW riding will remain an inherently risky activity andthat measures should be taken to reduce risk. This may result in, for example, strategies that focus moreon avoiding crashes rather than mitigating their effects.
Improving PTW safety is a shared responsibility between all stakeholders. A Safe System also calls
for a shared responsibility on the road and to be accountable for one’s own actions. Improving the safetyof PTWs requires all relevant stakeholders to be actively involved in the process of drawing up andimplementing a shared road safety strategy, which includes safer behaviour of all road users, safer
infrastructure, and vehicles with enhanced safety features. This shared responsibility should also extend
to the planning for road safety and the implementation of road safety management systems. PTW safety
is not only the responsibility of governments, administrations and manufacturers, but also PTW
associations, insurance companies, the media, etc.
While a Safe System approach is adapted to all countries, whatever their level of development andsafety performance, it must acknowledge that the usage of PTWs varies greatly in different parts of theworld. A tailored approach is therefore required to take account of the local specificities.
A toolbox of measures is required to improve the safety of PTW riders
A toolbox of measures is required to improve the safety of PTW riders within the traffic system.
These measures must take into account the specific challenges of PTW traffic, and also consider thevariety of PTW users, insofar as some segments may be addressed with particular measures. A strategic
approach should consider the most effective combination of measures according to the specific needs ofindividual jurisdictions. The measures are developed in the points below. Developing countries often
lack basic standards for roads and road safety. In such cases, priority should be given to securing basic
infrastructure and an inclusive approach taken towards motorcycling in transport policies, including
training and education of riders, helmet law, etc.

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Countermeasures
Promoting appropriate behaviours of road users
The Safe System approach assumes that road users will enter the system competent and will takemeasures to ensure that they remain compliant and alert. Licensing, training, education, and enforcement
campaigns are essential tools for improving riding safety.
Licensing, training and education
Access to PTWs should be gradual, with a licensing system aiming to manage novice rider risks
while riders are gaining experience and maturity. The licensing system should also ensure that maturenovice riders directly accessing high-powered motorcycles possess the skills, knowledge and correct
attitude to safely drive these vehicles.
Several countries have adopted graduated licensing schemes. These schemes are designed toprovide new riders with driving experience and skills that can be developed gradually over time in lowrisk environments. The rider obtains a licence by passing through a number of stages; restricted,
provisional or probationary and full licence.
In Europe, Member States of the European Union have a harmonised licensing system. The 3rd
Driving Licence Directive came into force in January 2013 and mandates a strict graduated approach
towards heavier machines. The Directive requires a minimum age of 24 to ride the A category(> 35 kW). However, the subsidiarity principle applies and countries can adapt the Directive.
Training for riders and drivers, with the objective that they acquire a good appreciation of the roadenvironment and its dangers, is an important step towards promoting safer behaviours. Riding a PTW
requires technical skills more so than for driving a car and novice riders of every kind of PTW shouldbe trained. This training should focus not only on basic manoeuvring skills and mastering traffic
situations, but also on addressing attitudes towards safety, with a special emphasis on hazard perception
and defensive riding. As an attitude, defensive riding enables the rider to systematically foresee what theriskiest scenario may be at any given moment. Defensive riding allows the PTW rider to avoid theriskiest situations, should they occur. Training should be conceived to promote safe behaviours;
performance-focused training has not proved to be effective in increasing safety.
The training challenges for PTW safety do not address PTW riders only. The curricula for training
and education of drivers in all other vehicle categories should also focus on risk awareness when dealing
with PTWs, their vulnerability, and crash patterns.
Enforcement
Enforcement of traffic rules is an indispensable ally of other safety measures. PTW operators, asother operators of motorised vehicles, must comply with traffic rules and typical enforcement activities
to control speeding, drink and driving, and non-respect of traffic rules. Intensive, visible enforcement
accompanied by other measures, such as communication and publicity, has proven to have a strong
deterrent effect by increasing the perceived likelihood of detection. In addition, the progressive adoptionof automated speed enforcement has also proven its effectiveness in reducing speed. In this respectmotorcyclist associations can also play an important role in making enforcement understood andaccepted as an effective safety measure.

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11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSCommunication campaigns
Communication campaigns addressing required behaviour change should be targeted at key groupsof drivers, riders and other road users. Every road user should be made aware of the specific risks
associated with PTWs vulnerability and crash patterns. Facilitating a safety dialogue among the
motorcycling community has proven to be an effective tool in conveying safety messages.
The helmet is the most important source of protection against severe injuries and death
The helmet is clearly the most important source of protection against injury for both motorcyclists
and moped riders. It contributes to a dramatic reduction in the risk of being killed or severely injured.
Helmets can prevent damage to the brain, which may result in very severe physical and psychologicalhandicaps.
All countries should have and enforce a helmet law. A 100% wearing rate is the only acceptableobjective. Still, not all OECD countries have a national helmet law. Enforcement and communication
campaigns should not only focus on wearing but also on proper wearing of a helmet (i.e. with fastenedchin strap) and on fighting, especially in low- and middle-income countries, against the proliferation of
fake helmets.
Other protective equipment includes airbag jackets and protective clothing (gloves, jackets andboots). The Working Group recommends promoting the use of this equipment with adequate safety
standards. Airbag jackets appear as a promising technology to minimise injury to the rider in case of acrash and further research is needed to evaluate their effectiveness.
Regarding high visibility clothing, research shows different results regarding their effectiveness in
reducing conspicuity-related crashes, depending on time and location. The contrast with the roadenvironment is the most important element: in short, when riding through highly dense traffic, a rider
should wear bright clothing. When riding mostly in open-space (cruising) a rider is better off wearing
darker clothing. At night reflective clothing is more effective.
Vehicles with enhanced safety features
There are a number of developments within the motorcycle industry for technologies to assist in theprevention of a crash (active safety) and to protect occupants and riders during a crash (passive safety).
Some are already available and proposed as an option when purchasing the bike, while others are still at
the development stage.
The Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) and Combined Braking System (CBS) are well proventechnologies which can significantly improve the safety of PTWs in specific traffic situations involving
emergency braking. While ABS is currently offered as an option on new bikes of major PTW
manufacturers, with a slow penetration rate in most OECD countries, the Working Group considers thatit can certainly benefit all PTWs and should become a standard. Cost is however an issue, and industry
and government should work together to facilitate a quicker penetration of these technologies, which will
become mandatory in some regions in the coming years (expected in the European Union for the year2016). While this technology is mature for OECD countries, there might be other priorities in low- andmiddle-income countries especially for the light motorcycles, as the implementation of existing lighting
regulation, or in other fields the generalised use of helmets.
Advances in car technology can also bring positive safety benefits to PTW users. There are anumber of new technologies, such as forward collision warning, blind spot information and vulnerable
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road user protection systems, which can prevent collisions, including those with PTW riders, pedestrians
and cyclists.
There is a consensus that there has been little advancement of intelligent transportation systems(ITS) research dedicated to motorcycle safety. ITS developed for motorcycles offer opportunities toimprove the safety of the rider as well. There is, however, a number of constraints specific to PTWs thatneed to be carefully addressed, including the specificities of the vehicles and the riding task, and thechallenges posed by the Human Machine Interface requirements, costs, and the required support from the
motorcyclist community.
Self-explaining and forgiving roads contribute to lower crash risk
The road environment has a significant influence on the risk of crashes involving PTWs.
Contributing factors include: road surface defects (such as roughness, potholes or debris on the road);presence of slippery material (water, oil) on the road; broad line markings or use of raised pavement
markers; poor road alignment; presence of obstacles, roadside hazards and safety barriers, andinteractions with other road users (including heavy vehicles, cars, cyclists, pedestrians and other PTWs).
PTW-friendly road design, maintenance and infrastructure generally benefit all road users. The aim
is to ensure that the safety of PTW riders is considered in the design and maintenance of roads and theimplementation of traffic management plans. The design of junctions (for example roundabouts), thechoice of barriers and road surfaces, require an integrated impact assessment taking into account all roads
users and local conditions. Special consideration is also required during periods of construction where
temporary construction materials are used: the road surface properties during the works can be hazardous
for motorcyclists.
A consistent road environment invites road users to adopt the appropriate behaviours for safe riding
and driving. A self-explaining road allows road users to anticipate changes in the local road context.
Infrastructure can be improved to guide drivers and riders to adopt appropriate behaviour, to prevent theoccurrence of crashes and mitigate their consequences (forgiving roads).
Engineers, road designers and providers, local authorities, road safety auditors and inspectors shouldbe trained to consider PTWs in the design, construction, maintenance and operation of roads, and be
provided with the necessary risk assessment tools to make the right decisions based on an overall impact
assessment.
Need for further research
Extending the knowledge on PTW mobility and crash mechanisms
Additional research is needed to better understand current challenges related to PTW mobility andsafety problems. This involves a need to develop and apply relevant methods, tools and indicators tomeasure PTWs in traffic flows and analyse their mobility and behaviour (exposure data). More in-depth
investigations will allow a better understanding of fatal and serious injury crash patterns and causes.
Conspicuity and other perception problems deserve further study in order to identify key contributing
factors and effective countermeasures.
Operational research and development is needed
Operational research and development is needed to achieve a traffic system which better integrates
and protects PTWs in a cost efficient manner. A co-ordinated and concerted cooperation between a
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11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

variety of disciplines (e.g. civil and mechanical engineers, economists, educationalists, psychologists,
transport planners, lawyers etc.) is key to the development of a consistent set of measures to address realissues regarding the safety of PTW riders.
While Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) offer opportunities to improve the safety of drivers aswell as riders, they require more R&D on their capacity to prevent PTW crashes, as ITS applications forcars are not directly transferable to PTWs. Any ITS application which removes, or interferes with, thelongitudinal or lateral control of the vehicle could have adverse effects. Further research is therefore
needed on the challenges posed by the Human Machine Interface requirements, the impact on humanbehaviours, and adequate training for the riders.
Further research is required with regard to the content and effectiveness of training (including postlicence training) with the aim of improving the behaviour and safety of both drivers and riders.
Further research and development into protective clothing and equipment with lower weights andimproved ventilation are needed and should be encouraged.

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WORKING GROUP MEMBERS

Working group members

Chair: Mr Pierre VAN ELSLANDE (France)
Australia

Mr James HOLGATE
VicRoads

Austria

Mr Martin WINKELBAUER
Kuratorium für Verkehrssicherheit

Belgium

Mr Kris REDANT
Belgian Road Research Centre (CRR)
Mr André TOURNEUR
SPF Mobilité et Transports

CanadaMr Raynald MARCHAND
Canada Safety Council

European Commission

Ms Cristina MAROLDA
European Commission, Directorate for Mobility and Transport
Mr Casto LOPEZ BENITEZ
European Commission, Directorate for Mobility and Transport

FranceMr Bernard JACOB
Institut français des sciences et technologies des transports,
de l’aménagement et des réseaux (Ifsttar)
Ms Hélène DE SOLÈRE
Centre d’ Études sur les Réseaux, les Transports, l’Urbanisme et les
Constructions (CERTU)Mr Pierre VAN ELSLANDE
Institut français des sciences et technologies des transports,
de l’aménagement et des réseaux (Ifsttar)

Germany

Mr Kai ASSING
Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen (BASt)

GreeceMr Dimitris MARGARITIS
Centre for Research and Technology Hellas (CERTH)
Mr George YANNIS
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA)IMPROVING SAFETY FOR MOTORCYCLE, SCOOTER AND MOPED RIDERS © OECD/ITF 2015

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206

WORKING GROUP MEMBERS

IsraelMr Shlomo ZAGMAN
Israel National Road Safety Authority

Italy

Mr Luca PERSIA
University La Sapienza, Rome

MexicoMr Emilio MAYORAL
Instituto Mexicano del Transporte (IMT)Mr Rodrigo ROSAS OSUNA
Centro Nacional para La Prevención de Accidents (CENAPRA)The Netherlands

Ms Saskia DE CRAENSWOV Institute for Road Safety Research

New Zealand

Mr Wayne JONES
Ministry of Transport

NorwayMr Lars INGE HASLIE
Road Directorate

Portugal

Mr João DIAS
Technical University of Lisbon

Spain

Mr Juan MUGUIROATOS Consulting
Mr Fernando RUIZ
Direccion General de Trafico

SwedenMr Per-Olov GRUMMAS GRANSTRÖM
Swedish Transport Administration

United Kingdom

Mr Andrew COLSKI
Department for Transport

United States

Ms Linda DODGE
Department of Transportation
Mr Craig MORRIS
Research and Innovation Technology Administration (RITA)
Ms Carol TAN
Federal Highway Administration
Mr Diane WIGLE
National Highway Safety Administration (NHSA)

ITF/OECD

Ms Véronique FEYPELL-DE LA BEAUMELLE
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WORKING GROUP MEMBERS

207

Members of the Editorial Committee
The report was drafted primarily by members of the Editorial Group:
Mr James HOLGATE (Australia), Mr Kris REDANT (Belgium), Ms Hélène DE SOLÈRE (France),
Mr Pierre VAN ELSLANDE (France), Mr Dimitris MARGARITIS (Greece), Mr George YANNIS(Greece), Ms Saskia DE CRAEN (the Netherlands), Mr Lars INGE HASLIE (Norway), Mr JuanMUGUIRO (Spain), Mr Per-Olov GRUMMAS GRANSTRÖM (Sweden), Ms Véronique FEYPELL-DE
LA BEAUMELLE (ITF/OECD)
Other contributors
Ms Debbie ASCONE (NHTSA, United States), Ms Hildga GOMEZ (CAF Latin American
Development Bank), Ms Magali JAFFARD (Ifsttar, France), Mr Michael JORDAN (NHTSA, UnitedStates), Ms Mandy JUTSUM (Department for Transport, United Kingdom), Ms Eleonora
PAPADIMITRIOu (NTUA, Greece), Mr Thierry SERRE (Ifsttarr, France), Mr Davide SHINGO USAMI(University La Sapienza, Italy).
Peer review
The report was reviewed by Professor Narelle HAWORTH (Queensland University of Technology,
Australia) and Professor Claes TINGVALL (Swedish Transport Administration). The Working Groupand the Secretariat are very grateful for their comments and suggestions to improve the quality of thisfinal publication.

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where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify goodpractice and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies.
The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, the Czech Republic,
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OECD PUBLISHING, 2, rue André-Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16(75 2015 02 1 P) ISBN 978-92-82-10793-5 – 2015

Improving Safety for Motorcycle, Scooterand Moped Riders
The global fleet of powered two-wheelers (PTWs) is constantly increasing. In many countries,
motorcycles, scooters and mopeds play a significant role in mobility, particularly in manyof the world’s large cities. As such, PTWs are becoming an important component of thetransport system. However, they represent an important challenge for road safety. PTW
riders are at far more risk than car drivers per kilometre ridden in terms of fatalities andsevere injuries entailing long-term disability. Moreover, they have not benefited from safety
improvements at the same pace as car occupants over recent decades. Addressing
the issue of PTW safety is thus an essential contribution to the success of the United Nations’
Decade of Action for Road Safety, which aims at halving the expected number of road deaths
worldwide by 2020.

International Transport Forum
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Email : itf.contact@oecd.org
Web: www.internationaltransportforum.org(75 2015 021 P1)ISBN 978-92-821-0793-5

2015-09 /Photo credit: Roberto Muñoz, gettyimages

This report reviews recent trends in powered two-wheeler crashes, the factors contributing
to these crashes and their severity. It describes a set of countermeasures targeting user
behaviours, the use of protective equipment, the vehicles and the infrastructure. Finally,
it discusses motorcycle safety strategies in the context of a safe system.