報告SYNTHESIZING EXPERIENCES OF IMPLEMENTINGASSET MANAGEMENT IN THE WORLD:
Lessons Leaned from Pavement Management Case Studies

The objective of this paper is to identify factors for successful implementation of asset management systems byreviewing studies of implementation of asset management tools in foreign countries. First, this research
begins by reviewing implementation cases in foreign countries to capture processes, needed resources and strategies to deal with problems, and benefits. Then, the paper summarizes practices in the US and compare the US's
experiences to the experiences in foreign countries to capture the factors required for successful implementationin the US. The paper, finally, explores a direction for successful implementation and addresses future needs todeal with the barriers.

Keywords Asset Management, Pavement Management, successful implementation,
United States, foreign countries

水澤大輔

イリノイ大学シカゴ校都市計画公共政策学部博士課程

MIZUSAWA, Daisuke

スー

マクニイル

デラウェア大学土木工学科教授

Sue MCNEIL

1―― Introduction
Asset management systems (AMS) are tools to support
the systematic process of maintaining, upgrading,and operating physical assets cost-effectively. Suchsystems include asset inventory, condition assessment
and performance modeling, maintenance andrehabilitation alternative selection and evaluation,
methods of evaluating the effectiveness of eachstrategy, project implementation, and performancemonitoring. The benefits from asset management
include more clearly defined objectives, moreconsistent approach to prioritization, more transparency
in decision-making, more efficient and effective use offunding, improved communication between stakeholder
expectations and asset performance, improved
understanding of trade-offs, better information to
support investment decisions, and increased benefits
to system users1), 2).
Yet, there are several barriers to implementing AMS inagencies. The 2004 Transportation Research Board(TRB) Asset Management Peer Exchange Meeting
addressed six barriers : (1) lack of integration using
more sophisticated analytic tools to evaluate andprioritize maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R)
projects ; (2) database issues such as existing legacy
system and costs for data collection ; (3) lack ofadequate communication tools and methods fordifferent audiences ; (4) jurisdictional issues suchas gaps between asset management approaches
used by different agencies ; (5) institutional issues
such as lack of coordinated and consistent asset
management implementation ; and (6) implementation

報告and development costs3). Many ideas for dealing
with the barriers were solicited from participantsin the meeting. Although it is important to synthesize
ideas from best practices and meetings within theUS, we can have opportunities to extend our ideas
to break through the barriers from foreign countries'
experiences.
The objective of this research is to identify factors
for successful implementation of AMS by reviewing
studies of implementation of various asset management
tools from experiences in foreign countries, in terms ofpolicy, technology, institutions, and funding. Since
the largest body of documented international experience
is in pavement management, and since pavement
management is a significant activity and pavements
account for up to 60 percent of the total assets in a
typical agency in the US4), this research focuses onpavement management as one element of asset
management. First, the research begins by reviewing
implementation cases in foreign countries to capture
the process, the needs to deal with asset related
problems, and the benefits from asset management.
Then, it summarizes practices in the US and compares
the US's experience to the experiences in the foreigncountries reviewed in order to capture the factors
required for successful implementation in the US.
Given a result of the comparison study, finally,
the paper explores a direction for successful
implementation and addresses future needs todeal with the barriers.

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運輸政策研究021

2―― IMPLEMENTATION IN FOREIGNCOUNTRIES

Pavement management systems (PMS) form a foundation
for AMS. Many countries have been utilizing PMS. For
example, the Highway Design and MaintenanceStandard Model (HDM-4) developed by the WorldBank and the World Road Association (PIARC) is
used in more than 100 countries5). In addition, private
consulting companies are disseminating their PMS
products to many countries6). Hence, it is assumed
that there are many PMS implementation cases inforeign countries.
This research reviews twenty research papers7)〜26)
representing thirty-three different countries, listed inTable ― 1.

future deterioration of assets and benefits/costsof M&R projects as well as key parameters within
the models.
Integration is how different systems, such as PMS
and BMS, relate to each other physically or
through regulation in order to be able to prioritize
M&R projects based on a common evaluation
platform or establish a common standard for
M&R project evaluation, respectively.
The experiences reported in the literature for
specific countries are categorized using these four
components as shown in Table ― 2. Again international
development is included for completeness but is
not included in any detail.
■ Table―2

Countries Studied by Component Considered

Components■ Table―1

Countries Studied by Area

Areas

Countries
Iran, India, Pakistan, Laos, Malaysia,
Asia
Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam
AfricaSouth Africa
U.K., Italy, Switzerland, Denmark,EuropeGermany, Norway, Finland, Austria,
Hungary, Croatia, Latvia, Slovenia
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia,
Former Soviet
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Union
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
South America Brazil, Colombia
Oceania
Australia, New ZealandNote
8countries
1country
12countries

8countries
2countries
2countries

The papers address various pavement management
implementation practices in terms of four primary
components : (1) information and decision-support
systems : (2) modeling : (3) integration : and (4)international development. The implementations
supporting international development are beyond
the scope of this paper and are not considered indetail.
Information systems provide asset inventory andcondition derived from various surveys. Using thesystems, users can recognize current asset configurationsuch as scale, quantity and location, and condition
such as usage and deterioration. The systems consistof databases, which can store immense quantities of
information related to assets, and decision-support
systems. The decision-support systems can be specificto the PMS or analysis tools in the PMS that provide
optimal solutions such as budgetary needs andwork orders for M&R while taking into accountremaining life of assets by making full use of datastored in the information systems.
Modeling develops, calibrates, and upgrades
representations of the deterioration process androad user effects used in the PMS to estimate022

運輸政策研究Vol.9 No.3 2006 Autumn

Countries
Iran, India, Malaysia, Thailand, South Africa, Italy,
Information
Switzerland, Denmark, Germany, Finland, Austria,
systems andCroatia, Latvia, Slovenia, Former Soviet Union,
Decision-support
Brazil, Colombia, Australia, New ZealandPhilippines, Australia
Modeling
Norway, Hungary, U.K
Integration
Asia (Laos, Pakistan, Philippines, Vietnam,
Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan)International*Strictly, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan are
Development
categorized in the Former Soviet Union.

After grouping the countries, key factors which
represent the motivation for implementation,
events that occurred during the implementation,and lessons learned as reported in the papers are
extracted and synthesized in Figure ― 1. The
largest box surrounded by the solid line (on the left
side of the figure) represents the implementation
process for pavement management consisting of
three components : information and decision-support systems ; modeling ; and integration. Within thebox, there are small boxes addressing events relevant
to implementation such as institutional change
and technology adoption, and ovals representing
needs derived from previous events or societal
demands in the process. The needs also result in
the events where occurring further development.
The activities are undertaken by government andagencies and are directly related to implementation.
Also, the shaded large box on the right hand sideof the figure describes asset management needs for
implementation for all components. It should beborne in mind that the process and needs may notreflect real implementation practices because theliterature review is subjective and papers reviewed
may not contain complete descriptions of the relevant
practices. This review is intended to illustrate theconcepts and diversity of experiences.

報告Asset Management Needs
Legislation
Institutional Reform
Outsourcing-Performance-Based Contracts-Long-Term Contracts

Need for Efficient
Business Models

Need for
Strategic Plan

Need for Integration ofInformation and DecisionSupport Systems into DecisionMaking and Budget Allocation

Need for Asset
Condition Profiling

Application of Efficient Businessand Management Methods

Development of Information andDecision-Support Systems

Key Performance
Indicators

PMS Implementation

Use of Systems(PMS,BMS,etc.)

Use of PMS
Need for High
Quality Model
Modeling

Need for Solutions forLack of Optimization andBacklog over Various Modes,
and Various Systems
Integration

Implementation Process■ Figure―1

Technology-Technological Support-ToolsAdaptation to Local Condition
Knowing Limitation and Current Condition-Complete and Accurate Data
Institutions- Organization
Creation of Taskforce/Expert Team/Working Group
Clarification of role
Leadership
Self-RelianceIntellectual Independence-StaffMotivation
Responsibility/Commitment to Systems-Relationships
Participation/Involvement in Process
Communication with Stakeholders
Cooperation
Knowledge Exchange- Education
Basic Knowledge of System
Training
Funding- Financial Support
Legend- Events- Needs

Process and Needs of Pavement Management Practices

2.1 Process

Briefly, the process for incorporating the threecomponents is explained as follows :2.1.1 Information and Decision-Support Systems

The implementation cases related to informationand decision-support systems were motivated bylegislation requiring outsourcing to utilize long-term
performance-based contracts in Australia and New
Zealand7), 8), 9), and institutional reform introducing
a style of business similar to the private sector inSouth Africa, thereby relying on outsourcing10).
Also, implementations in Malaysia and Italy canalso be assumed to be motivated by outsourcing
directly11), 12).
Given the motivation by governments or topmanagement, transportation agencies recognizedthat a strategic plan and asset condition profilingwere needed to implement outsourcing. A strategicplan identifies specific goals, objectives for supporting
the goals, and strategies for reaching goals over along-range planning horizon. Hence, the plan is anecessity to guide outsourcing contracts to desired
goals identified by agencies. In parallel, asset
condition profiling is important to show current
condition and how close the agencies get to theirgoals through outsourcing.
In addition, the systems implemented in many
countries were motivated by the recognition ofneeds for efficient business models including

報告

Policy-Strategic Planprocesses and tools, and integration of systems
into decision-making and budget allocation in thetransportation planning process such as comparison
between construction and M&R and comparison
among various M&R projects. Since, for example,
countries such as Iran, Thailand, Austria, and theformer Soviet Union did not possess any systems
for pavement management, agencies werestrongly motivated to implement decision-support
systems13), 14), 15). Although India had owned PMS
since 1990, an agency upgraded decision-support
functions in it because the system did not truly
match their needs and had not been used16). On
the other hand, Switzerland and Germany owned
information systems which could store and query
asset inventory and condition data. However,
because the systems could not analyze andprocess optimal solutions such as budgetary needs
and work orders for M&R, agencies developed
decision-support system − PMS14).
Once agencies recognized the needs, they tried
to apply efficient business and management
methods and developed the systems. At the sametime, they defined key performance indicators to
capture asset condition. Finally, some agencies
implemented the systems to achieve their goals
and the execution of outsourcing contracts, whileothers implemented PMS per se in conjunction
with the application of deterioration models
derived from their historical data or other agencies.
Prior to the following processes, PMS implementation

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運輸政策研究023

was definitely occurred.
2.1.2 Modeling

The model enhancements reported occurred after
implementation and support the decision-support
system (i.e., PMS). These enhancements were motivatedby the need for high quality road deterioration
and road user effect models in order to obtain
more accurate projection of asset deterioration,budgetary needs and work orders for M&R.
Examples of this aspect were observed in theAustralia17)and Philippines18).
2.1.3 Integration

Integration also occurred after implementation anduse of PMS due to the lack of optimization andbacklog of projects across various modes such aspavement and bridge. Although there were various
management systems in Norway, they were stovepipe
systems that prevented decision-makers fromprioritization of operation and maintenance fordifferent modes using a consistent decision-making19).
Hungary owned PMS only and developed a combined
PMS with BMS having the same mathematical model
to be able to optimize M&R projects between
pavement and bridge20). Interestingly, the United
Kingdom developed integrated PMS standards forassessment and maintenance needs in the nation, inorder to plan maintenance expenditure effectively,
whereas individual agencies used different PMS21)
following a consistent set of principles1.
2.2 Asset Management Needs

To support these three components throughout theprocess there are specific asset management needs interms of policy, technology, institutions, and funding.
In other words, these needs address existing problems
in pavement management implementation throughcase studies of experiences in foreign countries.
There are four categories as follows :2.2.1 Policy

Strategic Plan : The South African and Finnish cases

mentioned that the agencies developed a strategicplan that set long-term management goals andobjectives and monitoring performance using
performance indicators against the objectives10).
As mentioned in the discussion on information
systems, outsourcing and institutional reform motivate
agencies to introduce a strategic plan and theninformation systems including PMS. In Finland this isreferred to as an "objectives approach". Since theroad agency is assigned goals and objectives by the
Ministry, there is merit in that different organizations
can share common contexts for the strategic plan,thus being able to conduct the same objective
approach at all organizational levels22).

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運輸政策研究Vol.9 No.3 2006 Autumn

2.2.2 Technology

Technological Support : Several countries such
as Malaysia, Philippines, and Brazil received
support from international organizations for
implementation11), 18), 23). The technological support iscritical for agencies where there is little technologicalsupport for turnkey implementation of projects.
Tools : Experiences in the former Soviet Unionand India emphasized the context in which thetools are being applied.
・Adaptation to Local Condition : Usually, PMS
must be adapted to local conditions to obtain
more accurate analysis results and match withagencies' needs13). Without the adaptation, PMS
may not be used by agencies as India caseshows16).
・Knowing the Limitations and Current Condition :After systems are implemented and users
understand the systems, they understand thelimitations and performance condition of thesystems13). This will motivate them to find solutions
and update the systems.
Complete and Accurate Data : Many cases (e.g., Italy,
Finland, Former Soviet Union, Thailand, etc.) identify
problems of incomplete and inaccurate data. Even if
agencies implement systems, they cannot obtaincomplete asset inventories and condition data,and cannot analyze budgetary needs and workorder for M&R projects without complete andaccurate asset data12), 13), 17), 22), 24), 25). Therefore, beside
preparation of survey methods and equipment,
database systems, and training for survey anddata handling is critical.
2.2.3 Institutions

Organization : The supporting organizational structure
has several elements.
・Creation of team : Implementation cases in
Malaysia, Austria, and New Zealand created an
exclusive team to handle the implementation
process7), 11), 14), 25). Although the names of theteams are different (i.e., taskforce, expert team,and working group), the functions are common
to proceed with implementation by facilitating
stakeholder input and disseminating common
vision or goals.
・Clarification of roles : This reduces work
redundancy among staff and increases their
responsibility for their roles. Also, this avoids
conflicts among policy, administration, and services
when conducting institutional reform10).
・Leadership : Leadership is a thrust to move
implementation forward to achieve success.
Leadership at the top-level of the organization isrequired.
・Self-reliance : This factor is important to ensuresustainability of improved economic performance ofagencies, especially in developing countries25).

報告・Intellectual independence : In addition to selfreliance, intellectual independence is important in all
aspects of agency decision-making. A good solution
will not come from external consultants but fromthe inside25). If an agency depends on external
consultants, they cannot deal with problems bythemselves quickly and take time to ask theconsultants solutions. This will obstruct continual
usage of PMS.
Staff : Within the organization, staff must haveattributes that support AMS development andimplementation.
・Motivation : In Finland, staff in a road agency
are provided maximum bonus of 3.5％ of theirannual pay by the Ministry if they achieve yearlyobjectives of performance-based maintenance22).
The motivation contributes to putting cost-effective
pavement management into practice.
・Responsibility/commitment to systems : Thismeans that users have to be responsible forand committed to use the systems that havebeen implemented continuously. This will integrate
the systems into agency's decision-making
process of M&R project evaluation and budget
allocation, thus being able to utilize system
performance16), 26).
Relationships : Connections among participants,
processes and tools were identified as key.
・Participation/involvement in process : Four
implementation cases7), 10), 23), 24) emphasize thisfactor which provides various benefits such as
sharing common vision, cooperation, andknowledge exchange.
・Communication with stakeholders : Communication
will promote vision or goals among stakeholders
and agencies can win pubic support for more
funding10).
・Cooperation : Close cooperation between staff andwith other organizations during implementation
allows them to conduct necessary works smoothly,
thus achieving implementation effectively14), 21), 26).
・Knowledge exchange : This factor contributes tosolving problems in front of agencies during
implementation process as well as system users
after implementation14), 25).
・Support from stakeholders : Lack of support fromstakeholders such as political and public brings
problems in implementation of initiatives25).
Education : Successful implementation requires
participants to be knowledgeable in terms of basic
systems and have access to specialized training.
・Basic knowledge of system : Without systems
knowledge, such as how to use a personal
computer, it is difficult to obtain knowledge
from training easily13). In addition, having
knowledge of systems may allow staff to movefrom traditional work practices to new procedures.
It is expected that the staff's fear of change will

報告

be removed.
・Training : Four cases10), 11), 13), 26) identify theimportance of training, which enhances use of
systems and allows users to obtain desired
results by following adequate process gainedby training.
2.2.4 Funding

Financial Support : As described in Technological

Support, Malaysia, Philippines, and Brazil were
technologically supported by internationalorganizations for implementation. Simultaneously,
financial support was provided to initiate
implementation projects11), 18), 23).
2.3 Benefits

Sixteen implementation cases address various
benefits obtained from the three components :information and decision-support systems, modeling,
and integration as follows :2.3.1 Information and Decision-Support Systems

Australia, Italy, Finland, and Germany cases articulatesignificant cost savings due to pavement management
using the systems8), 9), 12), 14), 22). For example, anagency in Finland reached optimal road conditionlevel while its financing had decreased by 50
percent22). Since those countries, except Germany,
deploy performance-based contracts and/or strategicplanning, the cost reduction may come not only
from the systems but also the contracts and/or
planning. The Australian case explains that theachievement of the cost savings was brought bytargeting critical maintenance activities, use ofinnovative materials, appropriate material applicationand proficient inspectors8).
Cases from Brazil, Denmark, Croatia, Latvia, Slovenia, andColombia all address program optimization while taking
into account budget constraints where the highest
benefit is obtained23), 26). Also, the Swiss casedescribes identification of necessary corrections
to satisfy the needs of the national roads14). Irandetermined guidelines for road maintenance obtained
from optimum maintenance methods resulted in
PMS15). Obviously, the systems contribute to creatinga rational pavement management plan with available
budget.
Furthermore, there are many intangible benefits
reported as follows :・Manageable and predictable road network8), 12)・Improved performance of management activity8), 22)
・Improved communication22)
・Reduction of responsibilities of administrationby sharing with contractors8), 12)
・Consistent data used throughout the process22)
・Impact assessment of cost increase or benefit

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運輸政策研究025

decrease23), 24)
・A good overview of present condition of network26)
・Comparison of the returns to be expected fromeach maintenance strategy alternative14), 23)
・Being able to monitor asset condition andmaintenance costs24)
・Improvement of quality of performance curves(i.e., deterioration models) due to data collection
and processing14)
2.3.2 Modeling

The Australian case identifies the benefit ofgreater confidence in forecasting future conditions,establishing maintenance programs and substantiating
budget requirements with appropriate deterioration
models17).
2.3.3 Integration

The Norwegian case proposes an AMS frameworkto addresses the benefit that AMS project prioritization
can cover different areas such as pavement andbridge operations and maintenance. Also, it mentions
the benefit of considering socio-economic factors(e.g., user costs and other community costs) in theprioritization process19). Because most management
systems such as PMS and BMS can consider thesocio-economic factors, this benefit is applicable tothe information and decision-support systems.
The case from the United Kingdom is different fromthe Norwegian case since they integrated PMS
standards for assessment and maintenance needs
nationally. As a result, they obtained benefits21) :・Minimized PMS development costs to the publicpurse, and・Provided an assessment of the overall funding
requirements and ensured a consistent andequitable distribution of funds.

3―― PRACTICES IN THE US
The US transport system has been developing
since the nineteenth century. For example, in
1893, the Office of Road Inquiry started roadway
research, construction of pre-interstate highways,
and traffic surveys27), 28). After the era of major
new highway construction, transportation issues
changed from a focus on the expansion of thesystem network to increasing the efficiency ofoperating and managing the existing system.
M&R costs would continue to increase over time
because of infrastructure deterioration caused byincreases in the vehicle miles of travel, theincrease in heavy trucks, aging infrastructure, andinappropriate M&R strategies. At the same time, theperformance would degrade because M&R cannot
catch up with the pace of deterioration of infrastructure026

運輸政策研究Vol.9 No.3 2006 Autumn

due to the reasons aforementioned and an agency
cannot afford to invest in the additional M&R
needed due to budget constraints. Simultaneously,
the degradation in performance will raise user
costs. Hence, transportation agencies such as state
DOTs had implemented pavement management
systems. For example, Caltrans started collecting
road performance information and using a PMS
in 197729). Recently, outsourcing incorporating
performance-based contracts in road management
has been initiated in several states such as theDistrict Columbia30) to execute more cost-effective
maintenance. Similar to the foreign counties' cases,
outsourcing requires both agencies to profile
asset condition and contractors to utilize informationand decision-support systems including PMS.
The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency
Act (ISTEA), enacted in 1991, provided encouragement
for states to develop AMS for specific types ofassets. ISTEA initially required states to have six
AMS (pavement management systems, bridge
management systems, etc.) that cover all Federal-aid
infrastructures by 1996, in order to optimize available
funds in preserving the national transportation
infrastructure31). The passage of the ISTEA enhanced
and encouraged the development of AMS applications.
Although the ISTEA management system requirement
was rescinded in 1995, the National Highway
System Designation Act of 1995 encouraged continued
development and implementation of the ISTEA's
management system32), 33), 34). Furthermore, ISTEA
required agencies to introduce a long-range plan in
their transportation planning35), 36). Agencies areusing a systematic strategic planning approach toaddress future goals, objectives, and recommendations
consisting of both capital investment and operation
programs for the transportation system. In order toachieve their goals of the strategic plan, management
systems, which are a vehicle for showing assets'
performances, are required37).
Over the last decade, the Office of Asset Management of
the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) andarms of professional organizations, the American
Association State Highway Transportation Officials(AASHTO) and the TRB, have been studying bestpractices and disseminating to states asset management
concepts extracted from their studies34), 38). Politicians,
engineers, planners, and academicians have identified
AMS as tools to support cost effective maintenance,
upgrading, and operations decisions related tophysical transportation assets.
The Governmental Accounting Standard Board
Statement 34 (GASB 34) is another factor encouraging
PMS implementation. In 1999, the GASB 34 guidelines
were instituted requiring state and local agencies to報告

report the book of the physical assets and to
improve accountability to the public in terms oftransportation services39). These guidelines also
motivated some agencies to develop and implement
integrated AMS so that they can evaluate theirassets' value and include their value on the financial
reports using an inventory system and investment
analysis in AMS and private sector business principles40).
Some states instituted a strong driver, legislation,
which motivates agencies to utilize AMS and execute
efficient business. For example, the state ofMichigan passed Act 499 of the Public Acts of2002 which established the Transportation AssetManagement Council (TAMC) to advise the State
Transportation Commission on a statewide asset
management strategy for maintaining, preserving,and improving Michigan's federal-aid eligible
roads and bridges and the process and necessary
tools needed to implement the strategy41). The
state of Vermont also passed Sections 24 and 25 of
Act No. 64 in 2001. They require the state agency tosubmit asset management plan (i.e., list of assets
and those condition, deterioration rates, annual
funds necessary to fund M&R at the recommended
performance level, M&R activities, and comparative
cost differential between maintaining the infrastructure,utilizing a preventive maintenance program anddeferring those maintenance costs) to the Houseand Senate Committees on Transportation42).
However, the barriers to implementing AMS identified
in the 2004 TRB Asset Management Peer Exchange
Meeting3) are significant. In addition, most participants inthe peer exchange insisted with one voice thatcost is a critical issue and barrier. Without showingthat the benefits of AMS implementation exceed thecosts for AMS implementation and operation, theimplementation will not be realized. In particular,
upper-level managers are interested in benefits
that can be translated into monetary values43),
because they will decide whether AMS have tobe implemented in the M&R planning process
based on their economic decision.
As future research to address these barriers, the participants in the meeting identified the followings3) :・ Research to deal directly with the barriers
mentioned above,・ Educational initiatives to facilitate knowledge
exchange through Local Technical Assistance
Programs (LTAP), and training courses, and・ Information exchange such as case studies, conceptsof asset management, and components of
AMS through publications and internet-based
dissemination.
Also, methods to quantify benefits are required to報告justify AMS implementation using publicresources, that is, to show the cost-effectiveness of
AMS3). Therefore, it is imperative to quantify thebenefits of AMS implementation and demonstratethat the benefits exceed the implementation andoperating costs, in order to disseminate andimplement AMS in agencies. Agencies, especially,in states where there is no legislation, need methods
to recognize the benefits of AMS. The quantificationof benefits of AMS will be a most crucial factor to
implement AMS for all agencies.

4――COMPARISON BEWTWEEN FOREIGNCOUNTRIES AND THE US

From the review of AMS experiences focusing on
PMS, in foreign countries and the US, the following
similarities and dissimilarities are observed. The
similarities show worldwide trends in management
strategies, while the dissimilarities show thecharacteristics of the US and where possible,
identify asset management needs relative to theinternational experiences reported in the literature. It
is noted that the comparisons are subjective and do
not provide a complete picture of implementation
cases because the documentation provided in theliterature is not necessarily comprehensive.
4.1 Similarities

Throughout the world, the environment in whichtransportation agencies operate has several common
features, although there are differences in the
degree of development, and extent and complexity ofthe transportation system. Since, for example,
Asia supported by international organizations
generally embraces minimum requirements oftransportation systems due to resource constraints,
they are required to introduce effective maintenancemethods to achieve sustainable development.
Agencies in the US also need effective maintenancedue to the extensive system stock and budget
constraints. The needs for efficient business practices
and integration of systems with decision-making
and budget allocation are observed in many
countries including the US.
In addition, outsourcing utilizing long-term
performance-based contracts has been gaining
acceptance in many countries. This contract typehas been more widely used in foreign countries
and has been introduced in the US recently.
Hence, the motivations to implement PMS are
similar and most countries are on the same track. It
also means that the needs identified from foreigncountries' cases are generally applicable to the US.
By and large, the needs addressed in foreign

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運輸政策研究027

countries' cases are similar to those in the US
such as technological and institutional issues.
4.2 Dissimilarities

The focus of the foreign countries' case studies
range from information and decision-support systems
to modeling and integration, while the US agencies
seem to focus on integration, which is an advanced
feature in the PMS development process as shownin Figure ― 1. This may come from the relativeadvanced levels of asset management in the US
where PMS have been implemented since the1970s and AMS have been evolving with influencesfrom ISTEA and GASB 34.
Another dissimilarity is the decision-making process.
Particularly in Europe, the decision-making iscentralized to determine management process
and system standards14), 21), 22). For example,
Austrian federal ministry created a special taskforce tomotivate PMS implementation. Most of stateadministrations agreed in principle to follow thedecision to use specific application made by thetaskforce. On the other hand, in the US, theprocess is decentralized because the responsibility
for building AMS is entrusted to local and regional
agencies.
Also, needs related to strategic planning and personnel
are rarely listed in the barriers identified by theparticipants in the Peer Exchange Meeting. Rather,
the responses at the meeting focus on technologicaland large-scale institutional issues such as research,education, and information provision. Since ISTEA
required agencies to introduce a long-range plan in
their transportation planning36), they develop a
strategic plan systematically. Thus, it is assumed that
there is no need to address a strategic plan.
Regarding the needs for personnel, these needs
may have already been incorporated into individual
agencies or the focal point of the meeting wasdifferent from qualitative issues. Otherwise, theseneeds are completely neglected by agencies in
the US.
Furthermore, the need for methods to quantify
the benefits of AMS is stated by the US only. The
US may be more sensitive to use public resourceson transportation investment.

5―― CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONThis research reviewed papers from thirty-threedifferent countries to identify the factors for successful
implementation of PMS, one AMS element. The
factors were divided into the four components and028

運輸政策研究Vol.9 No.3 2006 Autumn

then categorized by the motivation for development,
related events, and the lessons learned. Then, thefactors categorized were synthesized as theimplementation process and asset management
needs for pavement management. After that, theresearch summarized US experiences and compared it
to the experiences in the foreign countries tocapture what kinds of factors are required forsuccessful implementation in the US.
The comparison shows that the motivation andneeds for AMS are almost the same for foreigncountries and the US. However, several differences
are observed as follows. First, the US focuses on
integration rather than implementation of informationand decision-support systems and modeling. Thissuggests that the US is in the advanced development
process of AMS implementation. Second, thedecision-making process in the US is more
decentralized than foreign countries federal system.
Without an authority that has a leadership andcoordination function, it is difficult to implement
AMS among various level agencies. Certainly, thepartnership of FHWA, AASHTO, and TRB is analternative model to a central government in foreigncountries that provide technical support anddisseminated information. Third, the needs regarding
strategic planning and personnel are rarely
observed in the US. It is not required to address theneed of strategic plan since agencies havealready developed the plan in their transportation
planning process. As for needs related to personnel,
US agencies might be better able to check
whether their resources are sufficient to support
implementation. Fourth, the need for quantitative
methods to address benefits of AMS is identified by
the US only. It is expected that countries whose
resources are inadequate will need methods tojustify AMS investment in the future.
As a result, the factors for successful implementation
to deal with the barriers in the US are to strengthen
the role of the partnership among FHWA, AASHTO,
and TRB as leaders and coordinators and to seek
the resources needed for implementation in term ofagency personnel. Although the factors may notdirectory affect the barriers, they will create thefoundation to provide effective solutions such as
tools, functions, and methods.
The environment in which agencies operate
worldwide appears to be converging on similar
issues as technology is developed and knowledge
and experiences are exchanged worldwide. The
asset management needs extracted both from foreigncountries and from the US are common keys todeal with the barriers in the US in addition toother countries. Although this research did not
involve Japanese cases of AMS implementation

報告(as there is little documentation of Japaneseexperiences), presumably, the needs are applicable
to solve barriers existing in Japan.
Because, however, it is difficult to articulate howneeds should be applied from literature review(i.e., which needs should be applied ; who should
apply the needs ; and when and where the needs
should be applied.), applying needs is still obscuretask. Therefore, it is needed to investigate an efficientmethodology to apply the needs throughout AMS
implementation process based on discourse andknowledge that try to figure out complex problems
across different stakeholders in the process, leading
to the barriers.
NOTE
1 http://www.ukpms.com/index.asp
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海外におけるアセットマネジメント導入の経験から成功要因を学ぶ：舗装マネジメント事例より

米国においてアセットマネジメントシステム（AMS）
は発展してきているが，AMSの導入に際していくつかの障害が指摘されている．本報告は，AMSの一つの要素である舗装マネジメントシステムの導入事例に焦点を当て，AMS導入を成功へ導く要因を明らかにすることを目的とする．はじめに導入過程，導入障害の解決に必要なリソース及びストラテジー，AMS導入によりもたらされる利益を海外事例より把握する．そして米国における事例を取りまとめ，海外事例と比較し，米国における導入を成功に導くための要因を捉える．最後に，導入を成功させるための方向性を検討し，障害に対応するための将来における必要性を提示する．
キーワード ; アセットマネジメント, 舗装マネジメント, 成功導入事例, 米国, 海外

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