The Ends of Empire
Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism*

Michael A. Reynolds
The Kurds are a people who speak a Persianate language or cluster of dialects and whocomprise the dominant population in the territories where contemporary Turkey, Syria, Iraq, andIran meet. The name “Kurdistan” loosely denotes these lands where the Kurds live, althoughbecause an expressly Kurdish state has ever existed, the boundaries of Kurdistan have never been
defined with any precision.1 Scholars typically describe the Kurdish language as encompassing
two major dialects, Kurmanji and Sorani, but disagreements exist about the proper classification of
Kurdish dialects and sub-dialects and about the relationship of other Persianate tongues to Kurdish.
Kurds today likely number somewhere around twenty-five million people and are often identified
as the world’s largest ethnic group without a state. Thus their modern history is generally narrated
as one of victimhood and denial of statehood. This paper represents an attempt to make theseemingly counter-intuitive argument that the collapse of imperial rule in the early twentiethcentury was, for the purposes of Kurdish national aspirations, premature and therefore ruinous inits consequences.

Empire and Its Alternative
The twentieth century witnessed the demolition of multiple empires and the decisive
discrediting of the legitimacy of empire as a concept, although perhaps not the disappearance of
empire as a reality. Against empire, that century saw the triumph of the national idea, which had
been gathering strength throughout the nineteenth century. In brief, the national idea is the belief
that humanity is naturally and reductively divided into nations, each of which holds a sacred andinviolable right to self-determining statehood. 2 Nations, in short, constitute the proper
fundamental unit of global politics, and empire, because it denies the right of nations tosovereignty, is illegitimate. So strong had the association of nation with statehood become that the(nominally) supreme organizations of global society in the twentieth century were incarnatedunder the names “The League of Nations” and “The United Nations.” A far more accurate namefor these organizations might have been something like “The Association of States.”3*

The author would like to thank Professors Wang Ke and Maeda Hirotake for their critiques and suggestions. Allerrors are the author’s alone.
1
On the historical usage of the term “Kurdistan,” see Baki Tezcan, “The Development of the Use of ‘Kurdistan’ asa Geographical Description and the Incorporation of this Region into the Ottoman Empire in the 16th Century,” in
The Great Ottoman-Turkish Civilization, vol. 3, ed. Kemal Çiçek (Ankara: Yeni Türkiye, 2000), 540-53.
2
Elie Kedourie, Nationalism 4th edition (Oxford: Blackwell, [1966] 1993), 1.
3
These ideas are developed at greater length in my book Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the
Ottoman and Russian Empires, 1908-1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 1-21.

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Michael A. Reynolds

For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, mainstream historiography reflected thistrend in global politics, celebrating the dissolution of empires as a part of the necessary andsalutary triumph of nations in a progressive march to freedom and equality. European
historiography presented the Ottoman and Russian empires as entities noxious for their repressionof the national aspirations of their populations. The Ottoman was the “Terrible Turk” whoterrorized the captive nations of the Balkans and Middle East. Historians and commentators on
Russia, including those well outside Bolshevik circles, routinely invoked Vladimir Lenin’s
description of the Russian empire as a “prison house of nations.” In order to bolster their own
legitimacy, the new regimes of post-imperial nation-states regularly assailed their imperial
predecessors for suppressing the nation. Historians in this period reflexively narrated the collapseof empire as the story of the birth, or reawakening, of nations. According to this ubiquitousinterpretation, empires fell once their constituents recovered their national consciousness and rose
against the imperial overlords.
Over the course of the past several decades, however, an alternative approach to the analysis
of nationalism has gained ascendance. This school of interpretation, commonly known as“constructivism,” encompasses a multitude of theories that see nations and national identities notas timeless entities or attributes but instead as historical products of specific socio-economic
processes such as industrialization, the spread of literacy, the formation of certain intellectual or
economic classes, etc.4 The emergence of nationalism, thus, is dependent upon the presence of acertain degree of infrastructural development. Taking this point one step further, one might observethat in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries it was often imperial states that, wittingly or
unwittingly, made possible that infrastructural development through the provision of security andeconomic investment. In other words, empires facilitated, or even generated, the rise ofnationalism and national identities.

Empire as an Incubator of Nationalism?
If the denial of statehood is one of the most fundamental transgressions one can make against
a nation, few nations have been as troubled or long-suffering as the Kurds, described often as theworld’s largest ethnic group without a state. Unlike their fellow Ottoman subjects like the Greeks,
Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Arabs, and Turks among others who managed to acquire one or morestates as the Ottoman empire disintegrated, the Kurds never received a state of their own. To thecontrary, they found their lands partitioned between five states – Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, and theSoviet Union – which at best tolerated them as a minority and circumscribed their rights andopportunities. The Kurds’ record looks only little better when compared to that of their
Caucasian neighbors. The Georgians, Armenians, and Azerbaijanis of the Caucasus, albeit
ultimately denied independent statehood, nonetheless attained formal recognition of their ethnic

4
As examples, see the works on nationalism of Benedict Anderson, Ernest Gellner, Miroslav Hroch, and Ronald
Suny.

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The Ends of Empire: Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism

identities and the trappings of nation and statehood.
In other words, as this paper will suggest, the collapse of empire was not a boon to the Kurds,
but a calamity. The dissolution of Ottoman (and Romanov) rule was, from the perspective ofKurdish nationalism, premature. Up through the end of the Ottoman Empire, the majority of Kurds
were living as tribal pastoral nomads. The lands on which they lived were among the more remoteand undeveloped in the Ottoman empire. Accordingly, the Kurds possessed neither a powerful,shared consciousness that drew them together politically nor any binding institutions that might
have forged such a unifying consciousness later. A small class of nationally conscious Kurdish
intellectuals did exist, but they were few and lacked substantial followers. The real powerbrokers
among the Kurds were the tribal chieftains and sheikhs who held, at most, a weak allegiance to an
overarching Kurdish identity and who were riven by clan and personal rivalries. Religion acted
as a crosscutting cleavage obstructing Kurdish unity, dividing the majority Sunni Kurds from Alevi
and Shi’i Kurds while bonding Sunni Kurds to Sunni Turks. Finally, differing ways of life
separated the more numerous nomadic and semi-nomadic Kurds from sedentary Kurds.

The Kurds under Empire: An Overview
Although, as noted above, Kurdistan has never known any definite borders, it might be said tocomprise, roughly speaking, the territory consisting of the southeastern corner of contemporary
Turkey that runs from Kars westward and just south of Erzurum to Erzincan and then south
between Gaziantep and Şanlıurfa, the northeastern pocket of Syria through the northern region of
Iraq that encompasses Mosul, Irbil, and Kirkuk, and the westernmost strip of Iran that runs fromthe northern border of Iran just west of Lake Urmia southward through Mahabad to Shemdinan.
Mountains and hills dominate this region, and it has been said that the Kurds have no friends
but the mountains. Mountains provide their inhabitants refuge from the control of centralizing
states and make it possible for those inhabitants to preserve a degree of independence. In regions
around the world, peoples determined to escape state control have taken to living in themountains.5 Yet highland living extracts a price. Mountains offer protection from centralizing
states not only because they physically obstruct and hamper the projection of state power, but also
because they generally have little wealth to offer and what wealth they do have is not easily
extracted. Mountainous regions generally host comparatively primitive economies. Since
mountains offer limited arable land and soil of generally low quality, they are unable to sustain
extensive agriculture and thereby impede the accumulation of surplus capital necessary foreconomic development. Mountains, of course, when they do not block outright the movement ofgoods and people, impose costs on their transport, further taxing economic activity.
Mountains stymie cultural homogenization and foster ethnic and linguistic variation forsimilar reasons. They hamper state-imposed programs of cultural homogenization as well as more

5

James C. Scott, The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 2009), 30, 39, and passim.

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Michael A. Reynolds

spontaneous and autonomous processes of linguistic and cultural homogenization. The existenceof multiple, and often mutually unintelligible, dialects both reflects and reinforces social fractures
among the Kurds. The absence in mountainous regions of central institutions that can enforce
law typically favors the emergence of small social group or clan formations through which
individuals gain security for their lives and property in exchange for loyalty. In short, mountainous
regions offer poor soil not just for agricultural and economic activity but also for the emergence ofcohesive national identities. Kurdistan’s mountainous geography has impeded the development of
Kurdish unity and nationalism as much as it has obstructed the attempts of outside states to impose
their will upon the Kurds.
Further augmenting the inhospitality of Kurdistan to the formation of a unifying identity is
the region’s remote location. Thus, not only is Kurdistan a mountainous land, it is also one that is
distant from major waterways aside from the Tigris and Euphrates. Moreover, those two rivers
are themselves of limited utility. They are not large and they flow from Kurdistan for roughly
one thousand kilometers before reaching the Persian Gulf. Holding little intrinsic economic value
and distant from major trade routes, Kurdistan was a comparatively isolated region prior to the
Ottoman conquest.
Historians conventionally date the Ottoman conquest of Kurdistan to 1514, when Sultan
Selim I (1512-1520) defeated his Persian rival, Shah Ismail I, the founder of the Shi’i Safavid
dynasty. Selim I triumphed in part because he managed to win the backing of the Sunni Kurdish
tribes in the region by playing upon their shared tie of faith and guaranteeing the tribes significant
autonomy. Remote and economically inconsequential, Kurdistan had been a backwater, andIstanbul was content to let it remain relatively undisturbed. That situation changed in the middleof the nineteenth century when Istanbul, responding to seemingly relentless defeats at the hands ofthe European powers, embarked on a comprehensive campaign of centralization to maximize its
ability to extract resources. By mid-century, the Ottoman army had completed what has beencalled the “second conquest” of Kurdistan, crushing the last of the semi-independent Kurdish
emirs, Mîr Bedirhan Bey of Cezire-Bohtan, in 1846.
This attempt to impose centralized rule, however, resulted in a region that was more unruly,
not less. The emirs had served as centers of authority in the region and their removal fractured
Ottoman Kurdistan, leaving hundreds of tribes and their sub-divisions to squabble and contest eachother. The Ottoman center revealed itself incapable of taking the next step toward centralization:building local state institutions that could command authority.6 It could offer little but taxationand conscription, alienating most Kurds from its rule. Moreover, and paradoxically, theintroduction of the Ottoman land code to Eastern Anatolia only worsened matters. Kurdish tribal
landowners, the aghas, exploited the law by using it to register under their personal names not justtheir own land but also the land of their dependent peasants. Thus at a stroke the new land code
reinforced the wealth and power of the aghas vis-à-vis both Kurdish society and the Ottoman
6

Martin van Bruinessen, Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan (London: Zed
Books, 1992), 176-82; Mark Sykes, “The Kurdish Tribes of the Ottoman Empire,” The Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 38 (1908): 451-486.

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The Ends of Empire: Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism

state.7
Whereas the tribes were unable to directly challenge Istanbul’s hold on the region, Russia
could. In the War of 1877-1878, the Russian army penetrated deep into Anatolia to Erzurum, andRussia’s annexation after the war of the provinces of Kars, Ardahan, and Batumi placed Russia’sborder on the Anatolian plateau. Significantly, the Russian Army had deployed Kurdish units,
illustrating that not only might Kurds refrain from actively supporting the Ottoman state, but thatthey even be moved to join ranks with Russia.8 The waxing Russian Empire stood right on theedge of an Ottoman region that was in turmoil and unstable.

First Stirrings
In 1880, a prominent Kurd named Sheikh Ubeydullah rallied some twenty thousand Ottoman
and Iranian Kurds to his side with a sudden call for revolt. Demonstrating his awareness of theincreasing strength and presence of the Great Powers in the region and his familiarity with thenormative European idea of the nation, he explained to British officials that he was rebelling in thename of the “Kurdish nation.” Ubdeydullah’s revolt, however, collapsed almost as quickly as it
erupted, and Ottoman authorities exiled him first to Istanbul and later to the Hijaz.9 Significantly,
despite Ubeydullah’s initial success in mobilizing armed support and his appeal to outside powers
on behalf of the Kurds as a collectivity, the Porte was not unduly worried because the sheikh’s real
ire was directed at Anatolia’s Christians, particularly the Armenians.
Armenians, like the Kurds, had inhabited Eastern Anatolia for millennia. Unlike the Kurds,
however, the Armenians were sedentary and mostly peasants. Rivalry between settled peoples andnomadic shepherds is as old as Cain and Abel, and thus some degree of tension between the twogroups was inevitable. Separate religious identities overlaid and reinforced the sociological gulf
between the largely Sunni Muslim Kurds and the Christian Armenians. Kurds and Armenians had
co-existed for centuries, bound together in a form of symbiosis by the different but complementary
economic niches they occupied. That complementarity, however, was unraveling at the end of thenineteenth century. The vastly more literate Armenians were better positioned than the Kurds toadvance themselves economically and tap into global markets. The Christian Armenians could
easily engage with European merchants, missionaries, and schoolteachers whereas Muslim Kurds
hesitated to become too closely involved with the Europeans. Meanwhile, the cash-strapped andfaltering Ottoman state could offer no comparable infrastructure or opportunities to the Kurds. The
result was that in eastern Anatolia’s newly emerging semi-industrial and merchant classes the7

Othman Ali, “Southern Kurdistan during the Last Phase of Ottoman Control, 1839-1914,” Journal of Muslim
Minority Affairs 17, no. 2 (1997): 286-87; van Bruinessen, Agha, Shaikh, and State, 182-84.
8
P.I. Aver’ianov, Kurdy v voinakh Rossii s Persiei i Turtsiei v techenie XIX stoletiia: sovremennoe politicheskoe
polozhenie turetskikh, persidskikh i russkikh kurdov. Istoricheskii ocherk (Tiflis: Izd. Otdela General’nogo shtaba pri
Shtabe Kavkazskogo voennogo okruga, 1900). In 1828 the Russians had noted the strategic implications of theKurdish chiefs’ dissatisfaction with Istanbul. W.E.D. Allen, Caucasian Battlefields, 1828-1921 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1953), 29, 39-40.
9David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I.B. Tauris, [1996] 2004), 53-9.

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Michael A. Reynolds

Armenians were growing dominant.10
The emergence of a new and vigorous, if undefined, collective political ambition among
Armenians also fed Kurdish unease. Just across the border inside Russia, a sophisticated, andviolent, revolutionary political movement was taking shape. Higher education inside Russia andabroad had broadened the vistas of a new generation of that empire’s youth. Conscious of thetremendous economic and intellectual transformations unfolding in Europe, they nurtured visionsof forging a vastly different world inside Russia. Confronted with an autocratic political systemthat could not accommodate such ambition and energy, they resolved to destroy it and turned theirenergies toward that end. Russian Armenians were among those active in this revolutionary
movement. Soon, those Armenians were crossing the border to agitate among their Ottoman
co-ethnics and mobilize them in trans-imperial revolutionary organizations. While it would beincorrect to argue that the Ottoman Armenian national movement was the by-product of Russia’sinternal turmoil, the ideologies and methods that Russia’s Armenians exported had a profoundeffect on Eastern Anatolia and indeed politics in the empire more generally.11
Just as the settlement patterns of Kurds and Armenians were intertwined, so, too, did theirclaims to territory overlap. The revolutionaries’ talk of Armenian rights to land and theirassassinations of Kurdish overlords and Ottoman officials judged as especially loathsome
ratcheted up tensions between the two communities.12 As one Kurdish poet lamented, “It isheartbreaking to see the land of Jazira and Butan [Bohtan], I mean the fatherland of the Kurds,
being turned into a home for the Armenians” and “Should there be an Armenistan, no Kurd would
be left.”13 To be sure, figures among both the Kurds and Armenians – understanding theimpossibility for either community to realize its full aspirations without engaging in an apocalyptic
struggle – talked of the importance of mutual co-existence. But the linking of territorial
sovereignty to ethnicity generated a polarizing current that, in the context of the existing politicalvolatility, was virtually impossible to overcome.
The Treaty of Berlin in 1878 had stripped from the Ottoman state territories in the Balkans
and awarded them to Christians on the basis of ethnicity. In addition, the treaty obliged the Porte
to carry out reforms to provide for the security of Ottoman Armenians from raiding and pillaging
Kurds and Circassians. The treaty further assigned the Great Powers the prerogative to interveneon the Armenians’ behalf if such reforms were not forthcoming. The future of Eastern Anatolia, it
10

Reynolds, Shattering Empires, 51-52.
The Committee of Union and Progress saw the Dashnaktsutiun as a model worth studying and emulating. Sâî[Talât Bey] to [Bahaeddin Şakir], 19 October 1907, in “Osmanlı-İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti: Vesâik-i
Tarihiyeden,” Haftalık Şüra-yı Ümmet, no. 204, 2-3, 7 Kanun-i Sânî 1325. M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Preparation for a
Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902-1908 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 217.
12
On the Armenian revolutionary movement, see Louise Nalbandian, The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: theDevelopment of Armenian Political Parties through the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1963). On the Armenian Revolutionary Federation in the last years of the Ottoman empire, see Dikran
Mesrop Kaligian, Armenian organization and ideology under Ottoman rule, 1908-1914 (New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction Publishers, 2009).
13
Kamal Madhar Ahmad, Kurdistan During the First World War (London: Saqi Books, 1994), 159; Reynolds,
Shattering Empires, 55.
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The Ends of Empire: Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism

seemed, was clear: just as the Great Powers had intervened in the Balkans to strip from Muslims
their centuries-old lands and hand them to Christians in the name of ethnicity, so would theyintervene in eastern Anatolia to create an Armenian state.
Initially, a small number of Kurdish reformist intellectuals directed their ire at the regime of
Abdülhamid II (1876-1909). They were all too aware that in a globalizing world at the turn ofthe century, their co-ethnics’ way of life, customs, and comparative ignorance were condemningthem to a future of continued impoverishment and, eventually, domination under others, be they
Ottomans in Istanbul, European imperialists, Armenians, or some combination thereof. These
concerns about the negative consequences of illiteracy and scientific ignorance were in no way
unique to the Kurds. To the contrary, they preoccupied Muslim intellectuals from Bulgaria toCentral Asia at this time.14 The Kurds’ situation appeared, however, especially dire given thenear total absence of modern schools and similar institutions in their lands.
In response to the internal turmoil that was gathering force inside Eastern Anatolia,
Abdülhamid II abandoned the effort to bring the region under Istanbul’s direct control. Instead, hechose to revert to a strategy of indirect rule and co-opt the Kurds. In 1891 he authorized thosetribal chiefs who pledged loyalty to him to form mounted militia units, the eponymous“Hamidiye” regiments. He distributed to those chiefs arms, money, titles, and decorations, andgranted them wide autonomy to use their new weapons and authority as they pleased. By striking apartnership of sorts with the tribal leaders, Istanbul in the short term sought to keep the region
within its orbit. In the longer term, the hope was that it would establish a new local elite thatwould be more closely bound to the sultan.15 The Hamidiye regiments acquired international
notoriety when, in response to Armenian demonstrations and acts of terror in protest of Kurdish
landlords’ extortion, they joined in repeated pogroms against Armenians in the years 1894-1896,
resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of Armenians.16 Although fear of Armenian claims totheir territory motivated many Kurds in their attacks, 17 Hamidiye commanders, acting with
Abdülhamid II’s assent, used the opportunity to expropriate still more Armenian property.
The substitution of direct rule for indirect rule by a centralizing state has been a common
stimulus of nationalism. Discontent with the center’s infringement on local freedoms andprivileges spurs those in the periphery to mobilize collectively and resist.18 The dilemma of theearly Kurdish nationalists under Abdülhamid II, however, was in some sense the opposite: thecenter was not endeavoring to displace local power brokers but rather buttressing them. The
14

Adeeb Khalid, The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1998); Milena Bogoilova Methodieva, “Reform, Politics, and Culture among the Muslims in
Bulgaria, 1878-1908,” (PhD dissertation, Princeton University 2010).
15
On the Hamidiye, see Janet Klein, The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone
(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011).
16
Fuat Dundar, Crime of Numbers: The Role of Statistics in the Armenian Question (1878-1918) (New Brunswick,
NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2010), 144-145.
17
Selim Deringil, “’The Armenian Question is Finally Closed’: Mass Conversions of Armenians in Anatolia
During the Hamidian Massacres of 1895-1897,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 51, no. 2 (2009):
344-71.
18
Michael Hechter, Containing Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).

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Michael A. Reynolds

establishment of the Hamidiye strengthened the tribal chieftains, the most powerful constituency
among the Ottoman Kurds, and linked them to the center. They were committed primarily tofurthering their own immediate interests, not the long-term interests of a still abstract Kurdish
collective. Thus although the Hamidiye commanders would later reveal themselves to havebecome actors with both their own power bases and an acute sense of their own interests
independent of the sultan, their immediate impact was to bolster the Hamidian regime’s grip on theregion and divert resources into petty, internecine, and unproductive competitions for local
dominance. The formation of the Hamidiye regiments thereby introduced yet another fracture line
to Kurdish society.19 Early Kurdish intellectual activists opposed this new class of Kurdish leader,regarding it as a blight on their people. Marginalized in their own community, they foundthemselves standing alongside the Young Turk Committee of Progress and Union (later known as
the Committee of Union and Progress or CUP) and even the Armenian Revolutionary Federationin opposition to the Abdülhamid II and his regime.20
Prominent among Kurdish opponents of Abdülhamid II were descendants of the last
independent emir, Mîr Bedirhan. Their critique of the autocratic Hamidian regime grew beyond its
perpetuation of their family dispossession to embrace the argument that it was impeding the
progress and wellbeing of the Kurds as a collective. A key part of the solution, they contended,
was to introduce contemporary forms of schooling, education, and communication to Kurds. So
long as Abdülhamid II was in power, however, they saw little prospect that this could be done.
While it was true that the sultan had in 1892 established a school for select Kurds who might serve
as Hamidiye commanders, it was only one school. Moreover, its main purpose was not to reform
Kurdish society but to strengthen the ties between the Ottoman state and the tribes.21 Abdülhamid
II brooked no opposition, forcing his opponents to go underground or move abroad. Hence thegrandchildren of Bedirhan began publishing the newspaper Kurdistan in Cairo and Geneva.22
This sense of educational crisis extended throughout Kurdish society to include even religious
circles. The well-known Naqshbandi Sheikh Bediüzzaman Said-i Kurdi, a Kurd from the town ofNurs near Bitlis, was acutely sensitive to the need for education. Thus, in 1907 he traveled toIstanbul and obtained an audience with Abdülhamid II in order to propose the establishment of auniversity in Eastern Anatolia that would include western sciences alongside Islamic studies.
After WWI, Sheikh Bediüzzaman, a staunch critic of ethno-nationalism of all forms, would abjure
the name “Kurdi” in favor of “Nursi” and would become the most influential religious thinker in
19

For an interesting analysis that contends that an urban Kurdish elite was developing a Turkish, not Kurdish,nationalism in opposition to the Hamidiye, see Joost Jongerden, “Urban Nationalists and Rural Ottomanists: Ziya
Gökalp, Millî İbrahim Paşa and the Political Struggle over Diyarbekir,” in Joost Jongerden and Jelle Verjeij, eds.,
Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-1915 (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 55-84.
20
On these alliances, see M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, The Young Turks in Opposition (New York: Oxford University Press,
1995); and Preparation for a Revolution.
21
Eugene L. Rogan, “Aşiret Mektebi: Abdülhamid II’s School for Tribes (1892-1907),” International Journal for
Middle Eastern Studies 28 (1996): 83-107.
22
Malmîsanij, İlk Kürt gazetesi Kurdıstan’ı yayımlayan Abdurrahman Bedirhan, 1868-1936 (İstanbul: Vate
Yayınevi, 2009); Dzhalile Dzhalil, Iz istorii obshchestvenno-politicheskoi zhizni kurdov v kontse XIX - nachale XX
vv. (St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1997), 20-48.

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The Ends of Empire: Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism

Turkey in the twentieth century.23

Aspiring to Empire
Meanwhile, another grandson of Bedirhan named Abdurrezzak was imagining a different,
more direct solution to the Kurds’ condition.24 Forbidden from going to France to further hishigher education, Abdurrezzak entered the Ottoman Foreign Ministry and was subsequently posted
to St. Petersburg in the 1890s. There he learned Russian and came to admire Russian society,managing to impress his hosts sufficiently to earn the Order of St. Stanislav. Back in Istanbul, he
was in 1906 implicated in the murder of the prefect of Istanbul. Abdülhamid II, perpetuallyparanoid about the Bedirhans, suspected a plot and had Abdurrezzak and his extended family
exiled to Tripoli in Barbary.
Abdurrezzak was freed in 1910 and returned to Istanbul. He quickly departed the city,
however, and made his way across Eastern Anatolia to Russia and began working closely with
Russian officials to unite the Kurdish tribes of Ottoman Anatolia in rebellion against Istanbul. He
was not alone in his decision to take up arms against Istanbul. Following their Constitutional
Revolution of 1908 and the deposition of Abdülhamid II in 1909, the Young Turk Committee ofUnion and Progress had resumed the drive for centralization. Among the new government’s firstinitiatives was to disband the Hamidiye, arrest and punish Kurdish brigands, and back the effortsof centrally appointed provincial governors to enforce laws, including taxation andconscription. Many Hamidiye commanders responded to the new policies by crossing the borderwith their regiments and aligning with Russia. Along with Abdurrezzak, they proceeded with
Russian backing to carry out raids and revolts against the Ottomans for the next four years.
These former commanders saw the formation of an autonomous Kurdistan under Russian
suzerainty as a way for them to regain their former privileges. Abdurrezzak’s ambitions, however,were bigger. Abdurrezzak saw Russian culture as a “gateway to enlightenment” and wasconvinced that the Kurds’ path to salvation went through it. Before a Kurdish nation could besaved, however, it had to be created. The difficulties Abdurrezzak experienced in his attempts tocoordinate the rebel leaders underscored to him the need for a new generation of Kurds with aunifying national consciousness. He saw no prospect that such a generation might emerge under
Ottoman rule, which he blamed for preserving the Kurds in a state of perpetual underdevelopment.
Russia, however, possessed the culture and institutions, particularly schools, which could mold anelite of Kurds that was both technically proficient and nationally conscious. Working together
with Russian officials, in 1914 he established a school for Kurds in Russian-occupied Iran. It
was to be the first of several. The school had a Russian curriculum and was to send its best
23
Carter Vaughn Findley, Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity: A History, 1789-2007 (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2010), 286; Şükran Vahide, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (İstanbul: Sözler Publications, 1992), 25-26,
28-29, 36, 41-47.
24
On Abdurrezzak, see the author’s “Ottoman Kurd and Russophile in the Twilight of Empire,” Kritika:
Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 12, no. 2 (2011): 411-450. See also Dzhalil, Iz istorii.

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Michael A. Reynolds

students to Russia for higher education. During trips to St. Petersburg, in addition to meeting with
diplomats and military officials, he enlisted Russia’s leading Kurdologist in projects to translate
Russian literature into Kurdish and to create a Cyrillic alphabet for Kurdish. Abdurrezzak had
grasped that the crisis confronting the Kurds was greater than merely the inefficiency andmaladministration of the Ottoman state. Socio-economic stagnation was, in the long-term, thereal danger facing the Kurds. In order to overcome that “backwardness” and transform the Kurds
from a collection of tribes into a politically cohesive and economically prosperous social unit theKurds needed an affiliation with an imperial power that could raise their cultural “level.”
Indeed, as Abdurrezzak and other Kurds such as Ismail Simko, were aware, this was precisely
what was happening among the Kurds’ neighbors in the Caucasus. Inside Imperial Russia,
informal or underground national political institutions were beginning to emerge. As noted earlier,Armenians had formed several political parties, the most important of which was thetrans-imperial Dashnaktsutiun.25 In Georgia, a native gentry intelligentsia that was educatedlargely in Russian schools and displaced by a growing economy began to formulate a defense of
their collective, national interests using, paradoxically, the socialist ideas prevalent among theRussian empire’s intellectuals.26
Unlike the Armenians and Georgians, whose hoary and distinctive linguistic and religious
traditions offered comparatively unambiguous bases for the formation of a national identity in themodern sense, the Muslims of the South Caucasus, or Caucasian Turks, were disadvantaged bylow levels of literacy and a religious identity that worked against, rather than reinforced, adistinctive national identity. In this way their condition bore some resemblance to that of the Kurds.
The cumulative regional effects of the oil boom of Baku, a developing infrastructure, Russian
education (even if limited), and the emergence of a collective challenge from the better organizedArmenians, were sufficient to spur the Caucasian Turks to begin to form political parties with anational perspective and to coalesce around the identity of “Azerbaijani.”27 Before the end of
WWI, the Georgians, Armenians, and Azerbaijanis would all take possession of nation-states.
Even in the North Caucasus, where conditions of ethno-linguistic diversity and development weremarkedly less favorable than in the south, local movements of some political sophistication took
shape following the implosion of tsarism. The greater development fostered by Russian imperial
rule facilitated the national mobilization of the various Caucasian peoples in a way the Kurds
could never have matched.

25

For an overview of the parties, see Razmik Panossiann, From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars(New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 188-228. On the Dashnaktsutiun, see Kaligian, Armenianorganization and ideology under Ottoman rule, 1908-1914.
26
Ronald Grigor Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation, 2nd ed. (Bloomington, ID: Indiana University Press,
1994).
27
Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim
Community (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Audrey Alstadt, The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and
Identity under Russian Rule (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1992); Iorg Baberovski [Jörg Baberowski],Vrag est’ vezde: Stalinizm na Kavkaze Tr. V.T. Altukhova (Moscow: Rosspen, 2010), 1-81.

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The Ends of Empire: Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism

World War I: A Kurdish Calamity
The outbreak of World War I cut short Abdurrezzak’s project. He and his men took up arms tofight alongside the Russians, but unlike Russia’s consuls and military ethnographers, the highcommand of the Russian Caucasus Army had limited sympathy for the Kurds, regarding them as
an auxiliary force of dubious loyalty. Despite operating in support of the Russian army andrendering useful services, Abdurrezzak in 1915 found himself sidelined and even briefly
imprisoned by the Russians. He and his brother in 1917 would attain posts in the Russian
administration of Eastern Anatolia as governors of Bitlis and Erzurum respectively, but thedisintegration of the Imperial Russian Army following the tsar’s abdication in the February
Revolution cut short their terms.28 The following year, Ottoman forces captured Abdurrezzak inGeorgia and executed him.
The war, far from concluding in the liberation of the Kurds that Abdurrezzak had hoped for,led to the greatest calamity the Kurds had suffered in their history. Although the Russian army
never adopted a wholesale anti-Kurdish policy, and indeed elements within the army and theRussian occupational authority understood the utility of maintaining Kurdish goodwill, some units,
in particular the Cossacks and the Armenian voluntary regiments, tended to regard the Kurds as
enemies by definition and regularly inflicted indiscriminate violence upon them. Predictably, suchtreatment alienated most Kurds and drove them – literally – from the Russians. The advance of
the Russian Caucasus Army into Anatolia in 1915 and 1916 sent hundreds of thousands of Kurds
fleeing westward.29
The flight of so many in wartime inevitably led to immense suffering and significant loss oflife. Several other factors exacerbated the suffering and rate of mortality. One of the mostimportant was, paradoxically, the Ottoman deportation from Eastern Anatolia of virtually the entire
Christian Armenian and Assyrian populations of Eastern Anatolia. Kurdish tribes took part inmassacres that accompanied the deportations. This should not surprise. Tensions between thetwo communities had been rising sharply just before the war due in part to the adoption by the
Ottomans in February 1914 of a Russian-backed reform plan, a plan that many observers,
Europeans as well as Ottomans, interpreted as the final step before Russian annexation.
Although some Kurds welcomed the prospect of Russian administration, others dreaded it for fearthat the Russians would favor the Armenians.
The uprooting and expulsion of the Armenians had enormous short and long-term
consequences for their Kurdish neighbors. The Armenians, and especially the peasantry, hadconstituted a critical component of the region’s economy. Their elimination caused that economy
to collapse and contributed to subsequent famine. Already before the war observers routinely
noted the markedly poor health of the nomadic Kurds. Wartime hunger and illness inevitably
28

Wadie Jwaideh, The Kurdish National Movement: Its Origin and Development (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse
University Press, 2006), 128; McDowall, Modern History of the Kurds,112 fn. 38.
29
Reynolds, Shattering Empires, 146, 156-63; Ahmad, Kurdistan during the First World War, 93-94, 99-101, 124,
136.

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Michael A. Reynolds

exacted a tremendous toll upon the Kurds, whose poor health and susceptibility to disease
European travelers had routinely noted even prior to the war. Indeed, so miserable were Kurdish
refugees that observers, including Armenians, found them indistinguishable in their physicalcondition and appearance from Armenian deportees.
The fates of an estimated 700,000 Kurds resembled that of the Armenians in another aspect:
they, too, found their movements determined by an Ottoman government intent on remaking theethnographic face of Anatolia. The Ottoman Minister of the Interior Mehmed Talat Pasha
recognized that Ottoman sovereignty over a poly-ethnic Anatolia would always be vulnerable in aworld order that increasingly endorsed ethnic homogeneity as a criterion for statehood. He
identified in the war an opportunity to facilitate the Turkification of Anatolia and initiated an effort
to implement this. The expulsion of Anatolia’s Christian communities was one part of this effort.
The shuffling and resettlement of Ottoman Muslims was another. Hence, Talat directed that
Kurdish refugees from Eastern Anatolia be relocated to Western Anatolia where Turks
predominated so as to facilitate their assimilation over time. In general, the idea was to distribute
non-Turks (Muslim and Christians alike) among Turks in such a way that in any given locale theratio of the former to the latter would not exceed one to ten. Likewise, Turkish refugees were to beresettled in Eastern Anatolia to strengthen the Turkish presence and dilute the Kurdish.30 The
challenge posed by the Kurds’ tribal social structures did not escape the Unionists’ attention.
Talat ordered that aghas and sheikhs be removed to locations separate from those of their tribes in
the hope that this would lead to the withering of tribal structures and ties.31 Although specifying
precise numbers for the numbers of Kurds who perished in the first world war is an impossibility,
it can be stated with some confidence that the mortality rate for Kurds between the years of 1914
and 1923 was extraordinary, even as great as over thirty percent.32
World War I thus represented a calamity for the Kurds as a whole. Tsar Nicholas II’s
abdication triggered the collapse of Russian power and the dissolution of the Russian empire.
That collapse, of course, meant the evaporation of Abdurrezzak’s vision of building a Kurdish
nation under Russian tutelage. His project managed to outlive him briefly. In 1919-20 Kurds in
Bitlis were experimenting with a Cyrillic alphabet for Kurdish.33 Yet the war’s outcome, whenevaluated according to its consequences for the prospects of Kurdish nationalism, was not a total
loss. It had all but eliminated the Armenians as rival claimants to the territory of Kurdistan. The
Kurds would no longer need the Turks to back them.34 This, in turn, set the stage for competition
between Turks and Kurds for control over most of the same territory. That clash did not begin
immediately. Indeed, in the initial post-Great War period, most Kurds put themselves on the
30

On the vision of Anatolia as a Turkish land, see Erik Jan Zürcher, “How Europeans Adopted Anatolia andCreated Turkey,” Turkology Update Leiden Project Working Papers Archive (June 2005). On the resettlement
policies of the Unionists, see Fuat Dündar, İttihat ve Terakki’nin Müslümanları İskan Politikası (Istanbul: İletişim,2001) and Modern Türkiye’nin Şifresi: İttihat ve Terakki’nin Etnik Mühendisliği (Istanbul: İletişim, 2008).
31
Dündar, Modern Türkiye’nin Şifresi, 410-19.
32
Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims (Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press,
1995), 243; Findley, Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity, 234.
33
Dzhalil, Iz istorii, 110.
34
Findley, Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity, 250.

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The Ends of Empire: Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism

same side as the Turks.

The Post-War Scramble for Kurdish Lands
With the signing of the Mudros Armistice on 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire
surrendered and put itself at the mercy of the victorious Entente powers. Those powers had arrived
at a general plan for the final partition of the Ottoman Empire during the war. That plan,sometimes dubbed the Sykes-Picot-Sazonov plan after the leading British, French, and Russian
figures who had negotiated it, reduced the Ottoman empire to a truncated rump Sultanate in theinterior of Anatolia. The plan made no provision for Armenian or Kurdish nationalist claims, andparceled out the lands inhabited by Kurds to Russian, British, and French control.
Russia’s withdrawal from the war nullified the Sykes-Picot-Sazonov agreement, but Britain
and France did not forego their intent to divvy up the last Ottoman lands. They and several otherpowers finalized their plans in August of 1920 in the French town of Sèvres. They now awarded to
the recently born Armenian Republic the chunk of Eastern Anatolia previously assigned to Russia.
The award more than doubled Armenia’s size. Armenia, however, had barely strength enough tohold its current territory and the notion that it could absorb much more was folly. The treaty was
not so generous to the Kurds, but it did demarcate an autonomous Kurdistan in southeastern
Anatolia. The proposed Kurdish entity may not have encompassed all the lands where Kurds
predominated – in particular, it left out those lands that the French and British coveted – but it did
encompass a substantial chunk of them. The treaty further stipulated that should the majority of
the “Kurdish peoples” of this territory desire full independence, they would have the right toaddress that request to the Council of the League of Nations one year after the treaty had come into
force.
The Treaty of Sèvres would have appeared to represent a modest victory for Kurdish
nationalism. Yet the reality was that most Kurds in Eastern Anatolia opposed the treaty andespecially its creation of an expansive Armenia. Just as fear of Greek rule spurred Muslims in
Western Anatolia to rally behind the “National Forces” or Kuva-yı Milli of Mustafa Kemal,35 so
too did the prospect of Armenian rule drive many Kurds to join them. Mustafa Kemal deliberately
downplayed his Turkish nationalist proclivities in favor instead of emphasizing the bond ofreligion. Thus his National Forces represented an array of Anatolian Muslims, including mostSunni Kurds.36 Once again, the crosscutting cleavage of Sunni Islam caused most Kurds to joinwith their Turkish co-religionists. The Alevi Kurds of Dersim, by contrast, rose in rebellion against

35
There were important exceptions to this pattern of Muslims rallying to Mustafa Kemal. See Ryan Gingeras,
Sorrowful Shores: Violence, Ethnicity, and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1912-1923 (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2009).
36
Erik Jan Zürcher, The Unionist Factor: The Role of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish
National Movement, 1905-1926 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984). For a more comprehensive account of the Turkish
struggle, see Stanford Shaw, From Empire to Republic: The Turkish War of National Liberation, 1918-1923: A
Documentary Study 5 vols.(Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2000).

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Michael A. Reynolds

the National Forces in the fall of 1920. Isolated, they could hold out only six months.37
Kurds were initially a key component of Mustafa Kemal’s movement, and when thatmovement formalized its aims in the “National Pact” or Misak-ı Millî, it included in its territorial
claims not only the predominantly Kurdish provinces of Eastern Anatolia but also the province ofMosul in Mesopotamia. Since British military planners regarded Mosul as essential for the
security of Iraq, however, Britain insisted on retaining Mosul inside the mandate of Iraq. 38
Assured of Kurdish support, Mustafa Kemal and his forces focused first on beating back the
Armenians and linking up with the Bolsheviks advancing southward from Russia and westward
across the Caucasus. Then, with their rear secured, they turned to push the invading Greek armyout of Anatolia, and ultimately compelled the now war-weary Great Powers in 1923 to relinquish
their plans to partition Anatolia and recognize the borders of the Republic of Turkey in the Treatyof Lausanne.

The Kurds and Their Post-War Woes
The Turkish Republic saw its purpose to be the radical transformation of Turkish society froma state of “backwardness” and weakness to one of “modernity” and strength. Fundamental
components of Mustafa Kemal’s “Turkish Revolution” (Türk İnkılabı) were an aggressive
secularism that subordinated religion to the interests of the state and a vehement Turkish
nationalism that insisted that all Muslim citizens of the republic embrace Turkishness as their own
identity. That Kurds would object to the imposition of Turkism is self-evident, but the secularizing
reforms were no less alienating. Although the sultan’s status as Caliph or head of the global
Sunni community may have had little tangible importance, it had served as a symbolic tie thatbonded Kurds to Turks. Mustafa Kemal’s abolition of the caliphate in March 1925 signaled arupture in that relationship. That act, coupled with other secularizing reforms adopted that month,prompted a Kurd known as Sheikh Said of Palu to revolt in the name of restoring caliphal rule. A
prominent Naqshbandi sheikh, Sheikh Said commanded considerable authority as a religious
figure and held ties by marriage to neighboring Kurdish chiefs. His call to rebellion was heard, andhe and his followers managed to seize the town of Elazığ. Yet again, however, Kurdish tribal andreligious fissures revealed themselves. Whereas virtually all of the Zaza tribes as well as twolarge Kurmanji tribes heeded Sheikh Said’s call, Alevi Kurds scared by the Sunni overtones of theuprising, took up arms in support of the state and helped rout the insurgents. Republicanauthorities tried and executed Said and placed Eastern Anatolia under military rule.39
Scholarship differs on whether the Sheikh Said Rebellion should be understood as an
expression of Kurdish nationalism or of Islamic resistance to secularism. What is more significant
37

McDowall, Modern History of the Kurds, 184-87.
Charles Townshend, When God Made Hell: The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq,
1914-1921 (London: Faber and Faber, 2010), 493-513.
39
Findley, Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity, 250-51; Erik Jan Zurcher, Turkey: A Modern History (NewYork: I.B. Tauris, 2004), 178.
38

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The Ends of Empire: Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism

than the precise nature of the motives of the rebels is that by suppressing the rebellion Ankara
demonstrated it possessed a formidable coercive capacity, one greater than that of its imperial
predecessor. This is not to say that the new regime pacified the Kurdish regions. To the contrary,well armed Kurdish “bandits” and “brigands” abounded.40 These, however, lacked a politicalprogram and unity.
Kurdish activists recognized the imperative of unification to maximize Kurdish power and in
1927 established the “pan-Kurdist” organization “Khoybun.” Khoybun spearheaded the so-calledAğrı Dağı (Mt. Ararat) rebellion, but in 1930 the Turkish army, granted permission to ride Soviet
railways through Armenia, surrounded the rebels and put down this revolt, too.41 The Turkish
state’s decisive military superiority allowed it now to choose the time and place for the next major
confrontation. In 1937 the Turkish armed forces conducted a series of offensive operations in thehistorically rebellious province of Dersim (later renamed Tunceli). By 1938, the army had
thoroughly subdued the region. Ankara had asserted centralized control over Eastern Anatolia in a
way that Istanbul had never been able to.

Kurds in Iraq, Syria, Iran, and the Soviet Union
Kurds in the states surrounding Turkey failed little better. Five states – Turkey, Iraq, Syria,
the Soviet Union, and Iran – partitioned Kurdistan. Along with new boundaries came enhanced
border controls as the new states all jealously strove to assert domination over their territories.
The consequences for Kurdish life were devastating, as the new borders choked off local
economies and divided tribal confederations, tribes, and families. In Iraq and Syria, Kurds foundthemselves living under governments that espoused Arab nationalism and classified the Kurds as
minorities, regarding Kurds almost as interlopers. Although Iran did officially acknowledge
Kurdish and other non-Persian identities, the country’s new leader, Reza Shah, pursued
centralizing nationalist policies that privileged the privileged Persian ethnicity to the detriment of
Kurdish. The Iranian state may not have actively repressed the Kurds, but it kept themmarginalized and did little to foster their development or integration.
Only a small number of Kurds remained in the territories that became part of the Soviet
Union, at most 300,000 but perhaps far less.42 Their experience under Soviet rule differed fromthat of their co-ethnics elsewhere, at least for a limited time. The Soviet state formally recognized
Kurdish identity and in 1923 the Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan even included among its counties
one called “Kurdistan,” (Kurdistanskii uezd), also known as “Red Kurdistan” (Krasnyi Kurdistan),40Uğur Ümit Üngör, “Rethinking the Violence of Pacification: State Formation and Bandits in Turkey,
1914-1937,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 54, no. 4 (2012): 755-757.
41
M.S. Lazarev, Istoriia Kurdistana (Moscow: Institut Vostokovedeniia, 1999), 255; Kurdistan i Kurdskii vopros(Moscow: Vostochnaia literatura, 2005), 104-155; Jordi Tejel, Syria’s Kurds: History, Politics, and Society Tr.
Emily and Jane Welle (London: Routledge, 2009), 18-19.
42
McDowall writes that the number of Kurds incorporated into the Soviet Union was “probably in the order of
200,000-300,000” (McDowall, Modern History of the Kurds, 491). Daniel Müller’s research (see below) would
suggest, however, that the real number was probably far less- 45 -

Michael A. Reynolds

which had the town of Lachin as its administrative center. Soviet authorities authorized the
publication of one or more Kurdish newspapers, schools that taught in Kurdish, and a
Kurdish-language theater. In the Soviet context there was nothing unusual about the endorsementof Kurdish ethnic identity. To the contrary, the Soviet authorities, gripped with what has been
described as “ethnophilia,” required all Soviet subjects to be classified according to nationality,
understood as ethnicity. Moreover, every “nation” was to be endowed with the markers ofnationhood, e.g. a distinct territory, national literature, traditional costume, a native language press,
etc.43 At the same time, Soviet support for Kurdish culture should not be exaggerated. The
numbers of Kurds affected were limited and the Kurdistan County lasted only about ten years.44
Alas, for the Kurds of the Soviet Union, 1930 marked the highpoint of their political standing.
That year Moscow abolished the Kurdistan County and in the following years it deported theKurds from the Caucasus into Central Asia. Whereas the original hope of the Soviet leadershiphad been to use Red Kurdistan as an example of the benefits of Soviet development to cultivate
influence among the Kurds of the Middle East, in 1930 Stalin had recalculated the geopoliticalequation. Red Kurdistan’s existence was harming relations with Turkey and Iran. More
importantly, Stalin feared it might serve as a conduit for the subversion of the Soviet Union insteadof its neighbors.45

Conclusion
Paradoxical though it might seem, the fact is that the end of empire both as reality and alegitimate form of statehood circa 1918 proved to be a catastrophe for the Kurds. Most obviously,
war and the process of imperial collapse war exacted a terrible human toll, involving thedislocation of over a million Kurds and the deaths of hundreds of thousands of others. Less
obviously, empire’s demise was, from the standpoint of Kurdish national aspiration, premature,arriving as it did at a moment that found the Kurds still fragmented politically, socially, andconceptually. Predominantly illiterate and poor and lacking both institutions that united them and anationally conscious elite that might have mobilized them, the Kurds were unprepared tocomprehend, let alone assert and defend, a collective ethno-national interest in the age of national
self-determination. At the turn of the century a nationally conscious Kurdish intellectual class wasjust coming into existence and in Ottoman Anatolia a new class of Kurdish powerbrokers was very
slowly attaining political savvy. Well before the former could acquire significant power and thelatter could assimilate an ethno-national program, World War I broke out. Amidst that war and theensuing struggles for Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Mesopotamia those structures were simply
43
On Soviet “ethnophilia,” see Yuri Slezkine, “The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State
Promoted Ethnic Particularism,” Slavic Review 53, no. 2 (summer 1994): 414-452. On Soviet nationality policy inthis period, see Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union,
1923-1939 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001).
44
Daniel Müller, “The Kurds of Soviet Azerbaijan 1920-1991,” Central Asian Survey, vol. 19 no. 1 (2000): 46–65.
45
This was part of a much broader pattern. Terry Martin, “The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing,” The Journalof Modern History 70, no. 4 (December 1998): 813-861.

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The Ends of Empire: Imperial Collapse and the Trajectory of Kurdish Nationalism

overwhelmed.
As result, the Kurds found themselves not merely without a state or autonomous entity of
their own, but instead divided and under the control of several regimes indifferent or even hostileto Kurdish ethnic identity. In this way, their fate stands in contrast to those of their neighbors, theTurks, Arabs, Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijanis. Although the fall of empire traumatizedvirtually all of these populations, they all nonetheless managed to secure political recognition of
their ethnicity. The small number of Kurds under Soviet rule briefly had an exceptional experiencein so far as they received formal recognition of their ethnic identity, albeit with severe restrictions
on how they might express that identity. Even so, the Kurdistan County lasted barely a decade.
That physical division and political suppression in the years following 1920 would impede
Kurdish nationalism is obvious. Sometimes overlooked is that the end of empire further retarded
the development of Kurdish nationalism by setting the Kurds back economically. Toward the endof the nineteenth century, Eastern Anatolia and adjoining lands were beginning to undergo
economic growth and integration into broader markets. The Kurds collectively were falling behind
and in danger of seeing their traditional social dominance upended. Yet the end of empire only
worsened their economic prospects. Empires traditionally fostered economic growth through theunification of large spaces and populations and by enabling ethnic groups to specialize and fill
economic niches.46 Anatolian Armenian peasants, skilled craftsmen, and merchants were vital to
the regional economy and could not be easily replaced. Their destruction inevitably wrecked that
economy.
The partitioning of Kurdistan by multiple new state borders obstructed regional trade andimpaired economic recovery for decades. None of the states had abundant capital or vibranteconomies that could drive the development and growth in their Kurdish region. Indeed, Turkey inthe early decades of the republic deliberately decided not to develop the region’s infrastructure lest
paved roads and rail lines assist a possible Soviet invasion. The self-consciously modernizing
regime of Kemalist Turkey had little development to offer southeast Anatolia.
For long, many Turks, and even Kurds, believed that Turkey’s Kurdish problem was really a“Southeastern problem.” In other words, they held that the fundamental problem in the region was
not the ethnic identity of its population so much as its socio-economic underdevelopment, a stateof affairs caused in no small measure by the Kurds’ atavistic tribal structures.47 Beginning in the
1960s, however, infrastructural development and economic growth began to change Eastern
Anatolian society fundamentally. The result was not the melioration of the Kurdish Question,
however, but the setting aflame of the minds of Kurdish youth.48 Exposed through Turkish
higher education to the ideas of Turkish nationalism and social revolution, young Kurds became
46

William Hardy McNeill, Polyethnicity and National Unity in World History (Toronto: University of Toronto
Press, 1986).
47
See, for example, İsmail Beşikçi’s famous Doğu Anadolu’nun Düzeni: Sosyo-Ekonomik ve Etnik Temeller(Istanbul: E. Yayınları, 1969). Beşikçi later disowned his argument in favor of the Kemalist struggle against the
feudal aspects of Kurdish society
48
On “minds aflame,” see Valerii Tishkov, Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Conflict in and after the Soviet Union: The
Mind Aflame (London: Sage, 1997).

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Michael A. Reynolds

politically radicalized. The best known of these is Abdullah Öcalan, who in 1978 founded theKurdistan Workers Party (Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan or PKK). Since 1984, the PKK has been
waging a violent campaign against the Turkish Republic in the name of Kurdish nationalism, and it
shows no sign of giving up. In Iraq, the Kurds have achieved autonomy. Meanwhile, in Iran
Kurdish nationalists continue to fight and in Syria Kurdish nationalist sentiment abides.
Yet even as Kurdish national sentiment now matures, nearly one century after the end offormal empire in the Near East, policy-makers and intellectuals alike have grown more skeptical ofnationalism in general and of the nation-state in particular. The dispersion of Kurds across thecities of western and central Anatolia and the accelerating economic integration of the region
suggest the obsolescence and impracticality of a Kurdish state. In addition, the consolidation of
Kurdish political structures in multiple countries means that a unitary Kurdish state would likely
be possible only after an intense, and violent, internal struggle. Whether or not delayeddevelopment will cause the Kurds to insist on statehood, and whether it will leave them ahead as
the world moves back to the future and away from the nation-state as the preferred model ofpolitical sovereignty remain to be seen.

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