IS THE INCREASING LZdaG CANCER EPIDESZCDUE TO RADIOACTIVE POLONIUM Ia CIG?,R ..TTcS?

itfQ C- 2 iz- plG ~. By
Jerome Marmorstein, M .D . •Assistant Clinical Professor of Internal Medicine
U .S .C . College of Medicine

Santa Barbara Cottage Hosvital
Santa Barbara, California
teaching hospital associated with
University of Southern California (U .S .C .) College of Medicine. Reprint Requests
Jerome Marmorstein, M .D .
2320 Bath Street
Santa Barbara, California 93105

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

Phone : (805) 682-7604

.M

ABSTRACTIs The Increasing Lung Cancer Epidemic
Due to Radioactic Pblonium in Cigarettes?

Clinical, experimental, and epidemioloRic evidence is presented to help
explain why primary lung cancer incidence should still be rapidly increasing,with recently observed reversal in leading cell type from squamous cell .to
adenocarcinoma . It is postulated that this may be due to the decreasing amountsof benzopyrene and other polyaromatic hydrocarbons in modern filtered c{garettesmoke, along with evidence of increasing amounts of radioactive lead and polo-nium inhaled readily through the filter .
Evidence for this claim is based on measurements of increased concentrationsof radioactive polonium : in lungs of cigarette smokers ; in modern tobaccos grownsince 1950 ; .and, in high phosphate fertilizers used for tobacco farming in industrialized countries . Critical support for this thesis is based on ex-jerimental
animal inductions of lung cancers that resemble adenocarcinomas with as l :ttle
as 15 rads of radioactive polonium, equal to one-fifth the dosage inhaled by theaverage t•.ro pack a_day cigarette smoker during a 25 year period .

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

The Lung Cancer Paradox
Lung cancer incidence is still rapidly increasing during the past two
decades . Yet, 15% or 30,000,000 Americans have since quit smoking . Also,
90% of American cigarettes have filters and contain an average of h its
former amounts of nicotine and tars .l'2 In spite of this ; twice as manymen died from lung cancer in 1980 than in 1960, and three times as manv wo-

men . 3
Slince at least 85% of lung cancers are reported to occur in cigarettesmokers, the major carcinogens must be within the cigarettes, themselves .4
Furthermore, increased inc4dences of lung cancer are directly proportional
to increased amounts of daily cigarette consumption.s
Criteria For The Increasing Tobacco CarcinoSen(s)Whatever the increasing tobacco carcinogen(s) whould turn out to be, it
should be : 1) inadequatelv filtered by cigarette filters, 2) be able to causelung cancers with small doses in experirsenta? animals, especially of the increasing adenocarcinoma type, 3) be found in greater concentrations in the lungsof cigarette smoke_•g,and 4) have some reason to be increasing in recent decades .
Animal Induction of Lung Cancers
There have been only three types of tobacco chemicals demonstrated to causelung cancers by inhalation or tracheal instaliation into experimental animals .6
As early as 1957 polyaromacic hydrocarbons formed by the combustion of carbon~

and hydrogen in tobacco and its main prototype, benzopyrene, has been acknowledg,~
ed as the most widely recognized carcinogen in tobacco smoke . 7

This carcinogen~~

resulted almost exclusively in squamous cell cancers of the lung when it was in- ~stilled into the respiratory tracts of hamsters and mice .

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

However, benzopyrene's~
0concentration in tobacco smoke has been greatly reduced in the last 30 years bychanges in tobacco processing and use of filters .8 Therefore, benzopyrene seems
unlikely to be responsible for the continued increasing incidence of lung cancer,

Iespecially of the increasing adenocarcinoma type . Several nitrosamines are foundin trace amounts of tobacco smoke which can also induce respiratory cancers inexperimental animals, but with greater difficulty . Furthermore, since 80h of nitrosamines are eliminated by cigarette filters and since 90Z of cigarettes are now
filtered, these chemicals do not appEer to be responsible for the recently increasing lung cancer rates . 9
Radioactive Polonium

The only other chemical carcinogen found in tobacco known to be capable of readily producing luag cancers in experimental animals is radioactive polonium . •This
emits the most powerfully carcinogenic form of radiation known, alpha radiation.10,1 :Of all of the three proven pulmonary tobacco carcinogens in animals, radioactive
polonium is the least reduced by cigarette filters and is the only one able to causelung cancers in animals by actual iahalation.12,13

Radioactive polonium is completely volatized into the smoke at the ccmbust :ontemperature of cigarettes and hal : is transferred directly into the sain stream
smoke . Of great interest, radioactive polonium produced combined sc,uat :ous and adenocarcinomas after being instilled into the trachea and lungs of Syrian hz=sters,
but were noted to more closely resemble adenocarcinoma . Furthermore, unen transplanted into a host animal, these tumors became pure adenocarcinomas .

vjzety-seven ~percent of Syrian hamsters could be induced to develop these lung cancers • :i_h su=- 0A
fieiently small doses of radioactive polonium that no inflammatory radiation damage ~occurred to the lungs .l4 Doses as low as only 15 rads could induce lung cancer inN

0A

13% of the hamsters . This is equivalent to less than 1/5 the amount of radioac_ive ~polonium inhaled by a two ?ac'.c a day cigarette smoker over a 25 year per .od

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf~.15

Thirteen percent of rats could also be induced to develop lung cancer by inhaling 583 rads of this chemical . Unlike alpha radiation, it required from thousands to tens of thousands of rads from beta or gamma emitting radioactive chemicals to induce lung cancers in experimental animals . Of great importance isthat giving both radioactive polonium and benzopyrene at the same time produced
twice the number of lung cancers than would have been expected from the added

effects of either carcinogen alone,l6
Concentration of Radioactive Polonium in Lungs of Smokers
What evidence is there that radioactive polonium from cigarette smoke actually concentrates in lungs of human smokes? Measurements of concentrations*ofradioactive polonium were made on lung specimens obtained at autopsy and at surgery from 25 active cigarette smoken: and 8 non-smokers . The average concentration of radioactive polonium in peripheral lung tissue was over four times greater in cigarette smokes than in non-smokers or pipe smokers . The source of thelesser amounts of radioactive polonium in non-smokers' lungs was thought to be
due to dietary intake but could .also have occurred bv passive inhalation fromnearby smokers . Radioactive concentrations were highest in those with greatest
daily cigarette consumptions . Furthermore, the average concentration of radioactive polonium was more than 100 times greater in the basalar bronchial epitaeliua that in-the rest of the lung, especially at the level of segmental bronchia :bifurcations where most lung cancers were occurring . These scientists, therefore,
concluded that tobacco radioactive polonium was an important :actor in the causation of human lung cancer . 17 Other studies have also shown four times greater ~concentration of radioactive polonium in peripheral lung tissue as well as tvicen
the concentration in the blood, urine, bones and some soft tissues of cigarette M

smokers .
18

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

,N

~
~

N

Other Sources of Radioactive Polonium
What evidence is there that radioactive polonium actually causes :nran lungcancers? Alpha radiation from polonium and related sources such as radon gas has
been implicated in very high lung cancer incidences in certain under3 ousd mine
workers . Forty to eighty percent of a11 the deaths among the central European
miners in Joachimsthal and Schneeberg were said to be due to alpha radiation induced lung cancer . More recently, alpha radiution caused lung cancers have beenfound among Newfoundland fluospar miners, West Cumasrland hematite mi=ers, andColorado plateau uranium miners . The lung cancer rate for non-smoking uranium
miners was seven times higher than for non-miners who also did not smoke .

:orthose uranium miners who did smoke cigarettes their incidence was six times higher
than in those miners who did not smoke .19

Bio,logic Nature of Alpha Radiation
Why should the relatively low levels of radiation found in tobacco saoke measured only in picocuries be able to cause lung cancer? This is because radioactive
polonium emits an alpha type of radiation . Picocurie for picocurie, alpha radiation has at least 10 to 20 times the cancer causing disruption for living cells asother forms of radiation . Some scientists estimate that it may be as high as 100
times . The reason :s that it causes a higher densit7 of radiation da=a3e.o pro-duce an increased relative biologic effect . This is because it is concentrated inside the cells where it can produce its greatest damage to the genetic Ma 3aterials
in the nucleus, producing fractures and translocations of the chromosomes . Alpharadiation is alsn loaown to preferentially cause cancer with low dosages f :ecuent?p~
given, rather than several large doses . Other forms of radiation travel xuca widero
N0

and further and'spread out their energy, thinning it over broader amounts of t_ssue}i
M
In addition, alpha radiation is unique in that decreasing the dose in hamsters two ~1
hundred fold only caused a reduction of its cancer inc+dence by about one third ."0 ~http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

I~w'hile radioactive polonium has only a half life of about a third of a year, its
precursor, radioactive lead, which accompanies it, has a half life of 22 years .
Furthermore, the average cigarette smoker continues to bathe his lungs in radioactive polonium repeatedly day after day, year after year .
Insoluble Radioactive Particles
One reason for early skepticism about radioactive polonium's role in causing lung cancer was that it was solub .le in water and, therefore, rapidly cleared .
Therefore, its mechanism for prolonged rentention in the lung was seriously questioned . Sowever, in 1974 Martell demonstrated the presence of insoluble microscopic
particles of radioactive lead in cigarette smoke, which is the immediate precursor,
and therefore, responsible for the continued presencef of radioactive polonium inthe lungs . These insoluble crystals are formed by combustion of tobacco containing
increased amounts of calcium phosphate and radioactive lead and polonium, especial_-~from high phosphate fertilized tobacco . Furthermore, these insoluble radioactive
particles are not uniformly distributed throughout the lungs, but are focalized torelatively small amounts of lung tissue . As a result, the small volumes of lungtissue around each cluster of radioactive,insoluble smoke particle receives from100 to 10,000 times the natural level of alpha radiation exposure.21'22

Radioactive Polonium and Lead in Tobacco Plants
How does radioactive polonium and its immediate precursor, radioactive lead,~
get into tobacco leaves and why is it increasing? Studies have shown that most Q

Nof these radioactive chemicals enter the tobacco plant from natural and unnatural ~deposits in the soil during growth . Lesser amounts of radioact'_ve polonium and ~lead enter the tobacco leaves directly from the atmosphere . The major reason for ~the increased amounts of radioact :ve polonium and lead in tobacco in recent decades~
has been found to be due to the increased use of artificial high phosphate fertilizers in moderate industrialized countries . These fertilizers are made from apa-

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

tite rock which contains significant amounts of natural radioactive chemicals, including radium, polonium, and lead . These rocks are ground up and dissolved in su?furic acid to make the fertilizer . Their widespread use did not appear in thiscountry until after the completion of the Tennessee Valley Authority in 1940 which
was responsible for the develo pment of these fertilizer plaats . 23,24
Tobacco is a unique farm product in that the quality of the,tobacco requires
reduction of tobacco nitrogen . Therefore, large amounts of high .phosphate fertilizers are repeatedly applied to restricted amounts of land to use up to the soil
nitrogen while stimulating greater tobacco growth . Studies have demonstrated thatthe amounts of these radioactive chemicals found in the soil and in the tobacco
leaves increases with the amounts of high prosphate fertilizer used . Furthermore,aaerican tobacco farmers are subsidized on the basis of not planting all of theiravailable land, encouraging them to use more fertilizer on more densely grown toba-

cco . 25
Geographic Variations in Tobacco Radiation
Since the highest lung cancer rates occur among smokers in more highly indus-

crialized countries, like the British Commoauealth and the United States, it is suspected that their use of high phosphate fertilizers may be the major factor . Lesser
developed countries use more natural fertilizers and apply it to lands less densely
cultivated, often using crop rotation . Tobacco samples from lesser developed countries such as India, Indonesia, and Turkey have been measured to have about one-ch__i
the radioactivity of more modern countries.26

Recently Increased Tobacco Radioactivity
Radioactivity in tobacco has actually been measured to be increased in thiscountry . Studies measured radioactivity in tobacco samples from 1938 to be .only
one-caird to one-sixth the amounts in samples obtained in the 1950s and 1960s .27

1
http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf-6-

A number of scientific articles have suggested that radioactive nuclear explosive fall-outs have also contributed to soil and tobacco leaf absorption of radioactivity . Since uranium is a source of radioactive polonium and lead, this is noc
unreasonable . If peak contaminations occurred between 1945 and 1960 when atmospheric detonations were occurring more frequently, the resulting increase in lungcancer incidence might not be seen until a number of years later . It is also
known that the Northern Temperate hemisphere, which .includes the United States andEurope, receives disproportionately larger amounts of fall-out-than from any otherpart of the world . Atomic bomb survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki suf :ered increased lung cancer incidence but not until years later . Half the lung cancers
were of the adenocarcinoma lung type . 28
Occupational Exposures
In addition to uranium and related mining already discussed, another occupational hazard that promotes lung cancer is asbestos . The most frequent sourceof exposure has been in shipyard workers, especially during World War IT_, .and'otaer
forms of asbestos exposing occupations . Even several months exposure would increase the tendency for lung or pleural lining cancer many years later . This tendency was greaterly increased if the person also smoked cigarettes .29 w.artellsuggests that radioactive chemicals and cars are absorbed on the inert asbestos
fibers and trapped deep within the lungs where it cannot be disposed of .

Air Pollution
What about air pollution just from living in cities? rllthougn usual'yo only rela-M

Ctively slight differences in lung cancer incidences have been shown between city Nr

and rural non-smokers, significant increases in lung cancer do occur in cigaretteM
0smokers who live in cities . However, these differences are still relatively smalu
when compared to the overwhelming influence .of cigarette smoking, itsel°,30 C`te

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

cigarette smokers are more likely to spend more time indoors in smoke-filled, crowded
rooms . Martell hPs demonstrated that radioactive polonium and lead particles adhere
to other smoke particles and remain suspended in room air to be breathed over andover by smoker and non-smoker alike . He found the greater the smoke concentration,ithe longer and .the denser the suspension in the room air.31

Changing Type of Predominant Lung Cancer
Contrary to what most te.•ctbooks have reported in the past, the most common typeof primary lung cancer reported ia a number'of recent surveys is turning out to bepriaar,r adenocarcinoma rather than squamous cell carcinoma .32
A 1977 article from the Roswell Park Memorial Institute based on 1600 cases indicated that their primary lung adenocarcinoma rate surpassed squamous cell cancer
for the first time in 1974 . To determine if changes in the interpretation of patho-

logy slides could be a factor, they re-evaluated their older slides by the newer criterion . As a result, there would have been a 17% more frequent diagnosis of adenocarcinoma in this old group, still leaving a substantial number of increased lungadenocarcinomas unaccounted for . Since their male adenocarcinoma rate was increasing at an even greater rate than the female, the increase in adenocarcinoma was notjust due to the increase in female lung cancer rates . The Roswelll ?ark Group also
found that 95Z of all their lung cancer patients had smoked tobacco as did'991Z of thosawith adenocarcinoma, thereby refuting previous impressions that primary lung adenocarcinomas'were frequently found in non-smokers . Since lung cancers diagnosed after 1900
were most often found in t•ao pack a day cigarette smokers, while the group before 1960
were most often one pack a day smokers, they suspected that the reduction in nicoti ::ein modern filtered cigarettes promoted greater amounts of individual c ;garette cor_sumrL~l~_tion . In turn, this might allow alterations in chemical carcinogen intake that wou ;d O
0
33
}~
.
lead to the increased prevalence of pr imary l ung ad eaocarc inomas
Mhttp://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf~~~

Passive Smoking

Of concern to many non-smokers is the risk of lung cancer from frequent exposure to other people's smoking, so-called passive or secondhand smoke .

.LLreadv

several studies, including a large one from Japan involving hundreds of thousandsof people 34 and a smaller one from Greece, 35 have shown significantly increased
incidence of lung cancer among non-smoking wives of smoking husbands . This could
be related, at least in part, to the demonstration that 75Z of radioactive polonium
of a cigarette escapes back into the room air to be repeatedly re-inhaled by thesmoker and nonsmoker alike . This might explain a significant portion of lungcancers that have occurred in those who have never smoked or who had smoked nany
years earlier but were still being exposed to smoke from others . To support thepotency of secondary smoking, studies have measured significant bronchial constriction in those exposed to the cigarette smoke of others.36

Conclusions
Since benzopyrene induced in hamsters almost exclusively squamous cell carcinomas in proximal bronchi, and radioactive polonium produced more peripheral lungcancers that more closely resembeLed adenocarcianmas, this suggested a possible
cause and effect relationship of benzopyrene to squamous cell carcino . .a, and o :radioactive polonium to adenocarcinoma . Accordingly, the relative decrease in
human squamous cell lung cancer incidence has occurred during a period of decreasing concentration of benzopyrene in moderate filtered cigarette smoke . -at the sametime, the increased incidence of human peripheral lung adenocarcinomas has been
occurring during a period of increased average daily consumption of cigarettes by
individual smokers, which would provide greater total intake of inadequately

N

0

N

r

tered radioactive polonium . In addition, radioactive polonium and lead had ac=uall ;~been measured to be increasing in tobacco concentration in recent decades .

Therefore, the increasing lung cancer epidemic primarily in cigarette smokers

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

9goduring recent decades, especially of primary adenocarcinoma, may be related tothe increased amounts of radioactive polonium and lead inhaled froB modern cigarettes . These are likely to interact and potentiate any amounts of other tobacco
carcinogens, such as benzopyrene or nitrosomines . At the same time the decreased
prominence of pulmonary squamous carcinomas may be due to decreased amounts ofbenzopyrene and other polyaromatic hydrocarbons in modern filtered cigarettes .
Support of this possibility was the study by Auerbach ec al'that showed dramatic
reductions in bronchial squamous hyperplasia in cigarette smokers wi:o died between
1970 and 1977 as compared to those who died between 1955 and 1960 .37 Other typesof lung cancers would also be due to the various combinations of carcinogens incigarettes also .
Summary
Clinical, experimental and epidemiologic evidence is presented to help explain
why lung primary cancer incidence is still rapidly increasing, with a recently observed reversal in leading cell type from squamous cell to adenocarcinoma . It is
postulated that this may be due to the decreasing amounts of benzopyrene and otaer
polyaromatic hydrocarbons in modern filtered cigarette smoke, along cri_h evidence
of increasing amounts of radioactive lead and polonium inhaled readily through thefilter .
Evidence for this claim is based on measurements of increased concentrationsof radioactive polonium : In lungs of cigarette smokers ; in modern tobaccos grownsince 1950 ; and in high phosphate fertilizers used for tobacco far=ing in industrialized countries . Critical support for this thesis is based on espert=enta? ~Nanimal inductions of lung cancers that resemble adenocarcinomas with as little as ~15 rads of radioacive polonium, equal to one-fifth the dosage inhaled by the aver- N

age two pack a day cigarette smoker during a 25 year period .

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf~
toREFERENCES
U .S . Department of Health, Education and Welfare . Smoking and Health- A reportof the Surgeon General . Preface PVII, 1979
2) Medical World News . Page 12, October 11, 1982 .
3) C .A . A Cancer Journal for Clinicians . Vol 32, No .l, Jan-Feb . 1982
4) U .S . Department of Health, Education and Welfare . The Health Consequences of
Smoking-Cancer . Pg .6 . 1982 .
5) Wynder, Ernst, The latest datea on tobacco as a carcinogen . Our patient andCancer . Page 42, August 1981 .
6) U .S . Department of Health, Education and Welfare . Smoking and Eealth- A report.

of the Surgeon General, No ..I,. pp 5-30 ; 14-60-61, 1979

7) Wynder, E .W ., Wright, G . A study of tobacco carcinogenesis . Cancer 10 (2) :257-71,
March-April, 1957 .
8) U .S . Department of Health, Education and Welfare . Smoking and Health- A reportof the Surgeon General, No . 1, pp 14-112, 1979
9) U .S . Department of Health, Education and Welfare . Smoking and Health- A reportof the Surgeon General, No . I, pp 14-107, 1979 .

10) Winters, T .H ., Difranza, J .R . New England Journal of Medicine 306 (6) : 365,
February 11, 1982 .
11) Wynder, E ., Hoffman, D . Tobacco and tobacco smoking . Academic ?ress New York andLondon, pp 464-70, 1967 .
12) Radford, E ., Hunt, V . Polonium-210 : A volatile radioelement in ciga_et_es Sc_elce(143) pp 247-249, January 17, 1964 .
13) 'Riille, C .C ., 3erk, H .L ., Hull, T . Lung'cancer following polonium-2 .0 innalat_on O
in rats . Radiation Reserch (31) pp 760-74, 1967 .

~14) L .ttle, J .F ., O'Toole, W . Respiratory tract tumors in hamsters induced by benzo- I;bpyrene and polonium-210 alpha radiation . Cancer Research Vol 34 : 3026-39,Nov . 197V

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

tREF ERE:TCES CONT .
15) Little, J .B ., Kennedy, A .R ., and McGrandy, R .B . Lung cancer induced in hamsters
by low doses of alpha radiation from polonium-210 .Science (188) pp 737-38, 1978 .
16) McGrady, R .B ., Kennedy, A .R ., Terzaghi, M ., Little, J .B . E.9erimental lung carcinogenesis . Springer-Verlag, pp 485-91, 1974 .
17) Little, J ., Radford, E ., McCombs, H ., and Hunt, V . Distribution of Polonium 210
in pulmonary tissues of cigarette smokers . NEJ"s Vol . 273 (25), pp 1343-51,
December 16, 1965 .
18) Ratewsky, B ., and Stahlhoffen, V . Polonium-210 activity in the lungs of cigarette smokers . Nature (209) pp 1312-13, 1966 .
19) Wagoner, J .K ., Archer, V .E ., Lundin, F .E ., Holaday, D .A ., Lloyd, J .W . Radiation
as a cause of lung cancer in uranium miners . :, 273 (4) pp 181-88, July 22,
1965 .
20):fartell, E .A . Tobacco radioactivity and cancer ia smokers . American Scientist
Vol . 63 : 404-410, July-August 1975 .

21) `iartell, E .A . Radioactivity of tobacco trichomes and insoluble cigarette smoke
particles . Nature Vol . 249 pp 215-217, May 17, 1974 .
22) Martell, E . A ., Sweder, K .S . The roles of polonium isotopes in the etiology oflung cancer in cigarette smokers and uranium miners . Radiation Hazards in
Mining . M . Gomez, Editor : .;L`O+, New York, 1981 .
23) Tso, T .S ., Harley, N ., Alexander, L .T . Source of lead-210 and polonium-2L0 in
tobacco . Science Vol . 153 : 880-83, May 5, 1966 .
24) Wynder, E ., Hoffman, D . Tobacco and tobacco smoking . Academic ?ress New Yorkand London, pp 464-70, 1967 .
25) Tso, T .S . Hallden, N .A., Alexander, L .T . Radium-226 and polonium-210 in leaf
tobacco and tobacco soil . Science pp 1043-44, November 30, 1964 . Also source
chart comparing tobacco radioactivit? from 1938 and 1950 and 1960 .

26) Hill, C .R . Polonium-210 in man . Nature Vo . 208 :423-528, October 30, 1965 .

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

REFBRENCES CONT .
27) Tso, T .C . Hallden, v .a ., Alexander, L .T . Radium-226 and poloniua-210 in lea+
tobacco and tobacco soil . Science pp 1043-44, November 30, 1964 . Also sourceof charge comparing tobacco radiactivity from 1938 and 1950 and 1960 .
28) Ishimaru, T ., Cihak, R ., Land, E .E . Stter A ., and Yamada, A . Lung cancer at
autopsy in A-Bomb survivors and controls . Cancer Vol 36 (5) pp 1723-28,
November 1975 .
29) Wagoner, J .K ., Archer, V .E ., Lundin, F .E ., Holaday, D .A ., Loyd, J .W . Radiation
as a cause of lung cancer in uranium miners . NEJM 273 (4) pp 181-88, July 22,

1965 .
30) Schottenfeld, D ., and Fraumeni, J ., Jr . Cancer epidemiology and p_evention .
W .B . Saunders, . Philadelphia, pp 338-338, 1982 .
31) Martell, E .A . Radioactivity of'tobacco- tricbomes and insoluble cigarette smoke

particles . Nature . Vol . 249 pp 215-217, May 17, 1974 .
32) Valaitis, J ., Warren,- S ., Gamble, D . Increasing incidence of adenocarcinoc :a of .
Cancer 1042-46, March 1 47 (5), 1981 .
33) Vincent, R .G ., Pickren, J .W ., Lane, p .W ., Bross, I ., Takita, H ., ez.outen, L .,Gutierrez, A .C ., Psepk, T . The changing histopachology of lung cancer . Cancer
Vol . 39 : 1647-54, April 1977 .
34)- Hirayama, T . ::on-smoking wives of heavy smokers have a higher :is :< of lung cancer .
British Medical Journal (282) pp 183-185, Jan . 17, 1981 .
35) Trichopoulos, D ., Ralandioi, I ., Sparros, L ., XacMa :zon, B . Lung cancer and passi :esmoking . International Journal of Cancer 27 (1) pp 1-4, January 15, 1981 .
36) White, J . and r'roeb, H . Small airways dysfunction in non-smokers chronically exposed to tobacco smoke . New England Journal of Medicine Vol . 302 (13) pp720-33, O

March 27, 1980 .

NN.

37) Auerbach, 0 ., Hammond, E .C ., and Garfinkel' ., L . Changes in bronchial epithelium min relation to cigaret•e smoking, 1955-1960 vs . 1970-1977 . aew England Journal N`~of Medicine Vol . 300, No . 8, February 22, 1979 .

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

-13-

~
~

fii'is~.: :"'. .:.... r--..tI~~

61.dd.r~---

Lo.Y/ww
Liwr~ SQ--,----- ~~

~

L L
3
.

•

... . .. .. Ceba. i 11..aw.: . .~.. . . ...

~..r . ~.....1~....: ..... ~. . •~.

.

~MM.M .fus

C,•t ~, C E~1~
'

~

-

i

ty.q

z6

IYww~M

~y

t~p

tsw

- ---, .
.

/.

ttrto

.w
C/ .w •r rrtw aYwwM. M. u3. ..w

t070 u3. C..r. ...ww.w .

.ri _`t t~ r -6 <; l ``,ahttp://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

C, i ,,I C

.

t~

I

. L" !

,-

Folonlu . Concenc in daerlcsa C1=sreccas and S.oke

Fo210 coscrot (pc)

2 Rac
to10
of:o
'

-

in
.aiaZoci a eCoWry* /ijp- fc=aiiLe atreY to

1AWle
TOWl
aeA .
s.oke tocal
clRqrecce ash Buec rmoke Mct .
(Oe)
seoke

and
a.oke

$raai a, oaaftlcar
0 .19 (2) 0 .33

81

0 .10(7)32

0.56 (=) 0 .43

90

0 .12(2)46

0 .19 (2) 0 .32

y2

0 .0da(2)4708

0 .0 79(3)41

3rand 1 . seatilter
0 .480)0 .0l3(2)0.12(2)6rand C . tilter
0 .39M
0.40(4)0 .035(2)0 .094(2)stamM D . tilcer
0.033(1)

0 .13(_)( .)0 .17 (2) 0 .33•Racio 01 tocal in 4sh, bucc . and s.oke co cocal in vbole cltareceo
FroU Rsdford . t .7 ., and Hunc . Y .x .

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

Tumor incidence in hamsters given multiple intracracaeal instillacions of
21dPo or BP

Treatmenc
group

1
2

3

4
5
6
7

CarcinogenDose/
instillation

ControL ; no instillations
Control ; hematite only

No . ofanimals
aucopsied

60
34

No .
respiracorp
tumorsTumor
incidence

0

0
0

ii~Po

0 .2 mCi

35

35

25

97%
63Z

210Po '
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benzo(a)pytene'O .OLmCi '3 mg
0 .3 mg

32
39
37

17

53A".

Po

0 .2aCic

From Little, J .B ., and 0'Toole, Gi .F .

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

37

24
3

6L:

Polonium-210 Concenc :ations in ?eripberal Lung Parenchysa andPeribronchial Lymp 2iodes in 25 Current Cigaretee Smokers

and 8 Yon-smokers
Pilonium210
Concencracionpicoaries/gm.

x

x
x

x

:coc
xx=

xx
x~oc

xx

xxxx

x

xx

x

x

x

x

x

Smokers Yon-saokers Smoicers Von-Smoicers
Peripneral Lung Peribronchial

Parenchyma Lqmph aodes

From Lictle . J .3 . ., 3adford . r .? . . `lcCam6s . H .L . . andHanc . V .R .

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

Polonium-210 Content of Various Cigarette Tobaccos

Origin of Sample

No . ofsamples

210 Po activity (pc ./kg)
aax . Xin . aean

United States

8

650

390

510

Cent . and S . America

6

1,350

290

370

Rhodesia

3

700

600

Australia

2

650

610

640

India and Pakistan

2

669

250

410

I ndo nes ia

1

---

230

210

240

Turkey and Greece

From Hill, C .R .

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

570
230

7Lecural Radioaccivttr 1n Tobarcosi

Aetivic7 (PC %)Tobacco Yeartype peoduewl!(saauredb1" 116(.`Lar 19K)

"6
Calc . Mr »6;lro. ~,1(Yav L96A)

(C)
'10
C+l
l .
cro . M 210

(C7U

Pb/iu

(At b.rv.lc)!01

Ysawredro .'•+0(!Ltv 1960).11r-CurM!1ar•.laed . 197S
Iennsylvansa 193%
ti*as

0 .099_ 0 .03$•
0 .039W .006

0 .03
0 .01

0 ._7
0 .12

0 .6
S ._

alSM .71•:f .17_O .nt

tlw-soren
Ceer%sa 1930
(T1Lten 1950
ewl,v) 1963

Caereta L9S9(ax .d)_„ 1960
1961
1962
1963

0 .71+0 .002
0 .J7r0 ._6
0.13_0 .011

Q:19W.002
0.30+0 .016
0.J0_0 .00y
0. :1:0 .01y
0.J0:0 .013

Lasc A.rtA 1133
Corellsa 1936
1939
1960
1961

0.15+0 .002
0 .11'0 .000
0 .19T0 .0010 .2}W .007
0 .16;0 .007

1963

0 .16:A .011

L962

0 .lf.:p.013

0 .11
0 .13
0 .006

0.06
0.03
0 .02
0 .0L
0 .00d
0 .04
0 .03
0 .03
0 .0J
0 .01
0.003
0.006

O .c6
0 .54

0 .a
0.27
0 .:3

0 .42

0 .36
0 .42
0 .23
0 .33
0 .37
0 .11
0 .31
0 .45
0 .31

L .3
1 .3
2,7
0.:
9 .d
L .:
l .i
L .:

O .tl_0 .01
9.«f_0 .02

0 .30_0 .01
0 . .3_0 .j1
0 .4" .01
I .J370 .03
0 .s2_0 .06

L .9
2 7
L .9
C.6'
3 .:

0 . :5+0 .03
0 .33+0 .02
0 .3ST0 .11
0 .397043
0 . :3 ;0 .01

L .9

0 .30_0 .01

3 .2

0 .s3_0 .03•Rrrsr terss ar . ene scaiidaed d .riatiee ealerlacee !re. tff0a .awurs.eca ei aacn
radlum sa.pls aed ac Lea.c tbree ..aeure.esta ef eaeb !o saaple .

tro. Tae . T.C . . Ba114.e . :1 .A. . aed Ai .:ander . L .T.

http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

tihttp://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/egz58e00/pdf

2021642149