What did Jomon people consume for starchy food?
A review of the current studies on archaeologicalstarch grains in JapanSHIBUTANI Ayako1
ABSTRACTThe use of starch residue analysis, an archaeobotanical tool, has become progressively morewidespread across the world in the past few decades. Starch grains have been used to support
key hypotheses regarding residue analysis as well as in the study of ancient plant utilization anddiet. They are important sources of information in contexts where alternative plant remains arepoorly preserved. This paper offers an overview of the methodology of starch residue analysis
and will examine two key case studies in Japan. Common problems are discussed, and extra
caution should be taken in the interpretation of results; notably, taphonomy should be given great
consideration. Despite these issues, the technique is being applied more frequently to Japanesearchaeological case studies, especially with the integration of other lines of archaeobotanicalevidence. Starch residue analysis continues to be an evolving discipline, particularly in Japan,
and like all relatively innovative approaches to reconstruct past plant food cultures, its issues
will certainly be addressed over time.
KEYWORDS: archaeobotany, grinding stone, Japan, Jomon pottery, plant food, starch grains

1.

Introduction

Starch is a polymeric glucose carbohydrate (consisting of two glucose polymers), andstarch grains, microscopic granules that are semi-crystalline and water-soluble, aredeveloped by plants into energy storage organs in plants (Gott et al. 2006; Haslam 2004;
Langejans 2006; Reitz & Shackley 2012). Size and frequency vary from plant to plant,
but grain size is directly related to starch hydration (Gott et al. 2006). All starch grains
preponderantly incorporate two polysaccharides: amylose and amylopectin. In addition,
starch grains have an electric cell wall and are simple to break down (Gott et al. 2006;
Hardy et al. 2009; Sivak & Preiss 1998).
The principal advantage of starch grains over alternative botanical remains is that theirpreservation is not affected by burning or getting wet (Gott et al. 2006). Mechanicalaction and high humidity damage starch granules (Barton 2007; Collins & Copeland
1 National Museum of Japanese History, 117 Jonai-cho, Sakura, Chiba 285–8502 Japan (shibutani@rekihaku.ac.jp)
Category: Original Article Received: 28 April 2017; Accepted: 25 August 2017
JAPANESE JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 5 (2017): 3–25

SHIBUTANI Ayako

2011; Copeland et al. 2009; Lamb & Loy 2005; Reitz & Shackley 2012; Saul et al.
2012; Torrence & Barton 2006; Weston 2009), but they have been found in numerous
environments, ranging from extremely dry to wet and in soils and sediments with pH
levels of moderate to extreme. Starch is found in (tropical and subtropical) sediments
and on artefacts, in temperate and hot climates, and even in coprolites (Langejans 2010;
Lentfer et al. 2002; Riley 2012; Shibutani 2009b; Torrence & Barton 2006). The analysisof ancient starch residue has developed among archaeological studies throughout theworld (Barton & Torrence 2015). The past decade has witnessed a substantial increasein the use of starch residue analysis in archaeological science, and its methodologicalinnovations have enhanced ways to reconstruct past human-environment interactions.
In Japan, Fujimoto’s encyclopaedic work (Fujimoto 1994) and numerous botanical andglycoscience works have advanced starch studies. While studies in applied glycoscience
have a long history in Japan, within the ﬁeld of archaeology, Sahara (2000) and Matsui(2005) have primarily mentioned the beneﬁts of starch residue analysis within the ﬁeldof microbotanical analysis. The study of starch grain assemblages in an archaeologicalcontext has become more common as an archaeobotanical tool in the last decade(Matthews & Nishida 2006; Shibutani 2012a, 2012b, 2015). There has been emphasis
placed on the utilization of starch grains to determine the functions of stone tools (e.g.,
Kamijo 2012; Kamijo 2013; Kobayashi & Kamijo 2012; Onishi et al. 2012; Sangawa
et al. 2012; Shibutani 2009b 2011, 2012b, 2014; Shibutani et al. 2015; Sugiyama 2014)
and wooden ethnographical tools (Kamijo 2014), the utilization of starch morphology as
an indicator of plant food cooked in pottery (Shibutani 2007, 2014; Shoda et al. 2011),
and past plant food consumption reconstructed by human dental calculus (Shimono &Takenaka 2014). In addition, in the current research project, ‘Rice Farming and Chinese
Civilization: Renovation of Integrated Studies of Rice-based Civilizations,’ Japanese
analysts conduct residue analyses of grinding stone tools, pottery vessels, and dental
calculus from Neolithic sites in the Lower Yangtze River area of China to develop their
Japanese studies.
This is often a result of morphological criteria that some researchers see as
problematic, a lack of standardised strategies for the identiﬁcation and quantiﬁcationin numerous contexts, and a poor understanding of taphonomic processes dealing withstarch morphology and assemblages (Shibutani 2012a, 2015). Conﬂicts with alternativelines of proof resembling macrobotanical remains are another concern (Shibutani 2015;
Shoda et al. 2011), and in several cases, it appears as if there is no clear understanding of
the issues (Shibutani 2015).
Despite these areas of concern, the technique is being more frequently applied toJapanese archaeological case studies. Starch grains extracted from archaeological artefacts
show positive leads in terms of the utilization and consumption of bulbs and tubers, even
© Japanese Archaeological Association

4

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

though these macrobotanical remains are sometimes poorly preserved in archaeologicalcontexts (Shibutani 2014). This review will indicate the results of two key case studies
addressing these common issues in terms of distinction of ‘background noise’ (How can
we ﬁnd contaminated materials from residues?) and comparison of starch morphologies
between different artefact types, such as grinding stones and pottery vessels (Can wedeﬁne tool functions from starch assemblages?), and will provide suggestions for several
ways to improve the analysis in future archaeological starch studies.

2. Methods of analysis, identiﬁcation, and quantiﬁcation in
starch residue analysis
Starch residue analysis is split into two broad categories. The ﬁrst category includes
samples from speciﬁc archaeological artefacts that are comparable to residues of starchy
tissues found on the tool surfaces and ‘food crusts’ adhering to pottery and dental
calculus. The second category includes those extracted from bulk sediment and soil
samples (Shibutani 2012a, 2015). Starchy plants have always been linked to humans, andin speciﬁc instances, the assemblage is often linked to an activity due to the associateddiscourse data. When small quantities are present, the complete assemblage is recorded,
and counts are made on what could be thought of as a ‘representative’ proportion of theassemblage. There are no ﬁrm guidelines for quantiﬁcation, and this varies from study to
study, depending on the research goals.
Many studies, speciﬁcally Japanese starch studies, have primarily adopted the Fullagar
technique (Fullagar 2006). Fullagar has designed a method and theoretical approach to
examine starch grains on archaeological artefacts and within sediments. The techniques
employed for collecting samples from archaeological sites could be similar to gathering
pollen and phytoliths (Reitz & Shackley 2012). Regarding residues on stone artefacts,
it is usually recommended that researchers use spot sampling to remove residue fromboth working and non-working surfaces to compare the quantitative incidence of starchgrains. Materials are handled to limit contamination with modern starches, reconcile
conservation against studies that will want untreated samples, and be cautious regarding
each post-excavation improvement and neglect (Loy & Barton 2006; Shibutani 2009b;
Shibutani et al. 2015).
A complimentary review of identiﬁcation strategies in starch residue analysis
is given by Coster and Field (2015), who determined that there has always been
subjective judgement once the identiﬁcation involves a distinctive sample of grains.
The employment of automated image analysis is stressed by Wilson et al. (2010), who
mentioned that quantitative variables are used to characterise the granules, and theassignments and probabilities are calculated objectively. Liu and her fellow researchers© Japanese Archaeological Association

5

SHIBUTANI Ayako

jointly stressed the importance of mixing morphological-size observations and acomputer-based discriminant analysis (Liu et al. 2014). However, there are difﬁculties
with these typological and morphometric approaches.
Typologically, similar starch types, such as circular or oval-shaped starch grains, occur
in an extremely large selection of genera (Shibutani 2010a). Sometimes the diagnostic
criteria are based mainly on visual comparisons, which can be susceptible to soundjudgement or a small amount of variation between different analysts. This is not only aretardant in starch residue analysis but also in several other areas of systematic studies.
Geometric morphometric approaches provide objective techniques for assessing starchform, but until 2017, there was no standardised technique for starch classiﬁcation inarchaeology. Some researchers still use their unique identiﬁcation systems, generally for
usual starch types. Biases created by insufﬁcient count sizes are of major concern andshould lead to errors in vegetation inference in palaeoecological studies.
Even though starch studies are conducted by a small number of specialists inJapan (Shibutani 2015), similar methodologies (Shibutani 2009a, 2010a) are used toclassify starch morphotypes. All starch grains are divided into classes based on sizeand form before biological identiﬁcation is attempted, and basing the starch typology
on geometrical form and size makes it possible to analyse morphological variationsin the starch assemblage. The qualitative comparison of archaeological starch withmodern samples is also conducted. These geometric morphometric approaches supply
an objective technique for assessing starch shape, and despite the necessity of a large
population size, a degree of random variation should be assessed.
Among the previous studies undertaken in Japan, the main studies of Shibutani
and Kamijo adopt similar methods (e.g., Yamamoto et al. 2016). All starch samples
are essentially recovered from surfaces of archaeological and ethnographic artefacts(Shibutani 2015), and some assemblages are extracted from soil samples as well (Kamijo
2008; Soeda et al. 2017). Light microscopy is mainly employed to study starch underbrightﬁeld with cross-polarized light. The use of the SEM remains widely used in thefood sciences for imaging starch grains and has advantages when using macroscopic
food residues (Barton & Fullagar 2006). However, in many Japanese case studies,
there are the small residue samples taken from artefacts and soils. Therefore, it is more
difﬁcult to use than light microscopy, and the selection of techniques largely depends on
the questions asked and environmental conditions.
Typological descriptions of Kamijo and Shibutani are based on size and shapecategories by the same measuring method, and the forms of starch extinction crosses
and surface conditions are also observed (e.g., Yamamoto et al. 2016). Based on thesemethods, some archaeological starch grains are taxonomically identiﬁed to species
level, and others are simply to genus level. This paper shows this standard technique in© Japanese Archaeological Association

6

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

determining morphological characteristics (e.g., shape, size, extinction cross, and surface
condition) and explores the prehistoric consumption of starchy food by examining thesubsequent case studies.

3. Distinction of processed plants from contaminated materials
in the archaeological context
Extensive data has been accumulated in recent years through the analysis of the starchy
tissue residue found on stone artefacts. Starch residue analysis, combined with usewear
analysis and alternative scientiﬁc residue studies, investigates the function of the stone
tools collected. In Japan, starch grains extracted from stone tool assemblages within
the Palaeolithic, Jomon, Yayoi, and Kofun periods have been examined (Shibutani
2012a, 2015), and the speciﬁc plant species of starch discovered indicates the use of nuts
(Juglans, Castanea) and acorns (Quercus, Lithocarpus) along with tubers (Pteridium,
Pueraria) and bulbs (Liliaceae) as prehistoric starchy food (Shibutani 2015).
One of the foremost proliﬁc areas of starch analysis has been in the distinction ofprocessed plants from contaminated materials within the archaeological context. Unlike
alternative debates reminiscent of prehistoric exploitation of untamed plant resources
and the domestication of edible plants, this subject is greatly stressed by Japanese starch
analysts. The key argument lies in the morphological similarity between archaeologicaland modern starch grains. It had been initially mentioned by Loy and Barton (2006) thatthe post-excavation contaminants are divided into four categories: mobile contaminants
within a laboratory, the water used for removing the samples, drinking and ingestion
in storage facilities and laboratories, and pulverized gloves (usually vinyl or latex)
used for treating artefacts. Supporting this point, reﬁned diagnostic limits of laboratory
contamination were delineated by Crowther et al. (2014). The presence of contaminatedstarches on consumables and within the laboratory setting opens the door for suchstarches to be misidentiﬁed as ancient if recovered incidentally throughout the laboratory
process. In Japan, the previous survey about treatments of artefacts after excavations
showed laboratory contamination is not problematic, because artefacts are washedwith tap water, drinking and ingestion are basically prohibited in storage facilities andlaboratories, and pulverized gloves are not used for treating artefacts (Shibutani 2009b).
However, starches from soil layers at archaeological sites are more problematic.
At several sites, there is an abundance of starch on the surfaces of artefacts but notwithin the related sediments and soils (Barton et al. 1998). In many archaeologicalsurveys, particularly in almost all Japanese excavations, soil samples are not always
taken as a means of contamination management, and therefore, the comparison ofarchaeological and modern starches in those cases is typically vague due to lack of soil
© Japanese Archaeological Association

7

SHIBUTANI Ayako

samples.
Experimental studies examine burial conditions and taphonomic processes ofarchaeological starches for effective contamination control (Barton 2009; Shibutani
2009b). According to these results, the buried artefacts lay at a shallow depth of
10–20 cm. in what was essentially a loosely packed and recently disturbed soil horizon.
This soil depth may be biologically extremely active and contain primarily aerobic
microorganisms, such as fungi (Barton 2009; Barton & Matthews 2006). However,
Barton’s experiment (Barton 2009) conﬁrms that almost all of the starch grains in
sediments do not move into deep cavities on the surface of artefacts. In Japanesearchaeological surveys, excavated materials are washed clean with tap water to remove
adhering soils (Shibutani 2009b), and contaminated residues could be lost during thesecleanings. In addition, starch from the working surface of a stone tool is the direct
evidence of processing plants (Shibutani 2012b).
These previous studies show that the comparison of starch residues on tools fromdifferent soil layers at the same excavation point enables to avoid the contaminatedproblems. In order to present this simple distinction technique, a case study at the
Kitakogane Shell Mound in Hokkaido (Shibutani et al. 2015) shows starch residue
analysis of grinding stone tools without soil samples.
In Hokkaido, Crawford (Crawford 1983, 1992, 1993; Crawford et al. 1976; Crawford& Takamiya, 1990) and D’Andrea (D’Andrea 1995a, 1995b; D’Andrea et al. 1995)
primarily developed ﬂotation techniques for use in Japanese archaeological surveys,
and the amount of archaeobotanical data has been increasing (Takase 2011). There arealso numerous reports of acorns and nuts, berries, tubers, burdock, and millet remains
from many Jomon sites (e.g., Yamada 1986, 1993; Yamada & Shibauchi 1997; Yamada& Tsubakisaka 2009; Yoshizaki 1997). These macrobotanical remains conﬁrmed
the vegetation history in the Jomon period. According to Igarashi et al. (1993), in
8,000–10,000 years BP, larch forests remarkably increased in basins under cold climaticconditions, and from 10,000–12,000 years to the Younger Dryas BP, larch disappeared
from Hokkaido. Birch-walnut forests ﬂourished for about 8,000 years in the area along
rivers of the central basin with increased precipitation.
The Kitakogane Shell Mound is on a tongue-shaped plateau that faces Funka Bay at
the southernmost point of Date and was occupied from Early to Middle Jomon (about
5,000–3,500 BC). The site consists of ﬁve shell mounds, 14 graves, six pit dwellings, anda watering basin used for disposing stone tools, including grinding and hammer stones. It
is an extremely important site to examine environmental changes and human adaptations
to such changes, rituals at shell mounds and watering places, and the grave system of thetime (Aono et al. 2013).
From Kitakogane, numerous faunal remains were found. Botanical remains were
© Japanese Archaeological Association

8

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

Figure 1. Examples of sampled stone tools at the Kitakogane Shell Mound and starch grainsconsidered as processed plants (Shibutani et al. 2015). White circle: sampling spot; Bar: 10 µm;
Magniﬁcation: 1: ×200, 2–4: ×400; a: brightﬁeld, b: brightﬁeld with cross-polarised light.

© Japanese Archaeological Association

9

SHIBUTANI Ayako

seldom preserved despite the site having over 5,000 grinding stones, presumably used
for processing plants. Some criteria, anticipating a ‘high proportion’ of speciﬁc variations
between archaeological and modern starches, are not generally found in Japanese
starch residue analyses. The concern was determining a technique to assess residues
on grinding stones without sediment samples as an example of the presence of starch(Shibutani et al. 2015).
Residue analyses of 34 grinding stone tools (19 grinding stones, ﬁve querns, one
hammer, ﬁve heated cobles, and four natural pebbles) were chosen to assess theconsistency of starch morphological variations and discover if there have been variations
depending on the preservation of sediment proﬁles. Residue samples were consistently
obtained from objects recovered from ancient living surfaces from the higher layer tothe lower layer. In total, 17 starch grains were recovered from eight tools, and theirmorphometric conditions were well-preserved with features that clearly deﬁned theoutline of a Maltese cross with few fractures.
Based on the distinction system, using soil layers and the working surfaces of stone
tools, proof of processed plants was found through two intact starch grains located on theworn surfaces of two ground stones and one degraded starch on the surface of a heatedpebble. Two ground stones were excavated from a depth of 50–60 cm and 70–80 cm
from the ground surface, and starch grains were recovered from their usewear parts.
Taxonomic identiﬁcation was supported through ‘one-on-one comparisons between
ancient starches and modern reference collections’ (Yang et al. 2013). These two starchgrains can thus show plants processed by ground stones, and they are thought to be two
walnut grains (Juglans).
Regarding heated stones, only this one contains a degraded starch, and residue samplesof other stones and a natural pebble stone found from the same excavation spot did notcontain any starch grains. It is not assumed that natural and modern contaminatedstarches attached in the burial process of this site. This starch may be evidence of aprocessed plant, even though it was an unidentiﬁed species.
The botanical identiﬁcation and distinction of soil proﬁles resulted in 10 starch grains
being extracted from natural pebbles, and non-used surfaces of sampled stones were
presumed to be insigniﬁcant contaminated materials from sediments. These sampledstones were found from the current ground surface and disturbance soil layers, and thesestarch grains did not show signiﬁcant relation to usewears of stone tools. Additionally,
the residue samples themselves contained many plant materials, such as tiny fragmentsof ﬁbres and tissues. The preliminary studies (Holst et al. 2007; Shibutani 2010b, 2011,2012b; Veth et al. 1997; Yang et al. 2013) mentioned that residue samples sometimes
contain other plant materials, such as ﬁbres, tissues, and phytolith, together with starchgrains, and they may be used for processing plants with stone tools. However, in this© Japanese Archaeological Association

10

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

case study, these plant materials were presumed to be modern ones by their quality andquantity, and therefore, their starch grains may be contaminated materials.
Four starch grains along with a possible chestnut (Castanea) starch were not assumed
to be processed plants or contamination. Although residue samples of three natural
pebbles from the same excavation spot did not contain any starch grains, their sampledstone tools were found from the disturbance layers. The number of starch grains did
not indicate any differences from non-used surfaces, and therefore, we were not able to
conﬁrm whether these starches were processed plants or contamination (Shibutani et al.
2015).
The exploitation of walnut trees in southern parts of Hokkaido started at the beginningof the Earliest Jomon, and during the latter half of Early Jomon, they had been greatly
distributed in Hokkaido (Yamada 1993; Yamada & Shibauchi 1997). The rate ofchestnuts grows much faster than that of beech, which took about 5,300 years to arriveat the Kuromatsunai Low Land, which is the northern are of natural growth (Yamada& Shibauchi 1997). Potential Juglans starch grains from the Kitakogane Shell Mound
can thus show that stone querns were used for processing walnuts in southern Hokkaido
during the Early and Middle Jomon. Despite these results and the fact that it is unclear
whether walnut starch grains show food use, the results highlight an identiﬁcation andclassiﬁcation scheme that is primarily qualitative and simply reproducible.

4. Plant food processing by grinding stone tools and pottery
vessels in the Jomon period in Japan
Food crust remains show a necessary part of the archaeobotanical record forreconstructing past societies, but they are not as often analysed as other macrobotanicalremains due to their burial preservation (Pető et al. 2013; Zheng et al. 2015). Starches
from various contexts are vital in collecting information about tool use and processing
materials.
Although fewer studies dealing with starchy food remains adhering to the innersurfaces of pottery are conducted than starch studies of stone tools, an outstanding
review of this type of analysis is given in Crowther (2012) and Zheng et al. (2015).
Crowther (2012) argued that earlier studies lack an overarching informative framework
for understanding the differential native starch survival affecting the archaeobotanicalreconstructions and interpretations of the artefact function. Her experimental study
therefore investigated the usually overlooked but vital part of the cooking method, thepresence of wetness, to assist in showing the mechanisms underlying the preservationof starch during cooking and form prophetical statements regarding the circumstances
under which starches survive. Examining relevant samples of food crust remains, Zheng© Japanese Archaeological Association

11

SHIBUTANI Ayako

et al. (2015) mentioned vital opportunities to interpret the ingredients of food remains
and processing technologies thoroughly and showed that their desiccated food remains
were made of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and barley (Hordeum).
Most of the previous studies conduct analyses of food crusts adhering to the insideof pottery combined with multiple analyses, such as carbon and nitrogen stable isotope
analysis with starch residue analysis (e.g., Armas et al. 2015; Saul et al. 2012; Shoda et al.
2011). However, the association of analysing starch residues from a variety of materials,
such as grinding stones, pottery vessels, and wooden pestles and mortars, has seldom
been examined in the archaeology world. This association is vital to understanding pastcomposite use, corresponding to whether edible plants were used as plant food or fordifferent purposes, such as utilizing ﬁbre materials.
In Japanese studies, the comparison of starch residues from varied materials has also
developed to reconstruct past plant food and foodways. Such issues are noted for starchassemblages of grinding stones and pottery sherds from the Jomon site of Shimo-yakebesite in Higashi-Murayama city, Tokyo (Shibutani 2014). In this case study, many wellpreserved starch grains were recovered from Jomon pottery sherds, but few starches
were from grinding stones. Another study by Yamamoto et al. (2016) reports that many
starch grains were extracted from grinding stone tools, even though rare starch grains
were found in the residue inside of pottery. This paper shows whether this difference wascaused by tool functions.
The Shimo-yakebe site is one of the foremost vital wetland sites from the Middle toFinal Jomon subperiod (ca. 5,300–2,800 cal BP) within the Kanto plain, central Japan. At
this site, many well-preserved plant macrofossils, wooden structures for water usage, andpiles of Aesculus, Juglans, and Quercus fruits were found (Research Group of Cultural
Properties at Higashi-murayama City 2006). Among them, a total of 40 charred plantremains that were attached to inner surfaces of the Jomon potteries were excavated.
These charred plant remains are classiﬁed into ﬁve groups: scaly bulb remains, ﬁbre
remains, fruit and seed remains, woven remains, and unidentiﬁed macrofossil remains(Kudo & Sasaki 2010; Sasaki 2006). Numerous grinding stones were also excavatedfrom survey areas in this site (Research Group of Cultural Properties at Higashimurayama City 2006).
Residue samples from 38 charred plant remains on pottery sherds and 20 grindingstone tools (ground stones and pestles) were consistently examined. Pottery residue
samples were mainly taken from fragments of charred remains followed by Crowther’s
procedure (Crowther 2005), and the spot sampling of stone tools was based on Fullagar’s
method (Fullagar 2006) as well as other Japanese studies.
122 starch grains were recovered from 23 charred plant remains, and 46 starch grains
were extracted from 13 stone tools. These conditions were comparatively well-preserved© Japanese Archaeological Association

12

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

Figure 2. Examples of sampled pottery vessels at the Shimo-yakebe site and starch grainsconsidered as processed plants (Shibutani 2014). White circle: sampling spot; Bar of pottery photos:
2 cm, bar of starch grain photos: 10 µm; Magniﬁcation: ×400; a: brightﬁeld, b: brightﬁeld withcross-polarised light.
© Japanese Archaeological Association

13

SHIBUTANI Ayako

Figure 3. Examples of sampled stone tools at the Shimo-yakebe site and starch grains considered
as processed plants (Shibutani 2014). White circle: sampling spot; Bar: 10 µm; Magniﬁcation: ×400;
a: brightﬁeld, b: brightﬁeld with cross-polarised light.

© Japanese Archaeological Association

14

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

with features that clearly deﬁned outline and extinction crosses and rare fractures(Shibutani 2014).
Starch grains extracted from the working surfaces of grinding stone tools at the
Shimo-yakebe site were known to be Quercus, Castanea, Cardiocrinum, and Pueraria.
These grain assemblages were proof of food plants processed with stone tools. Cracked
and decayed starch grains were conjointly recovered, and these speciﬁc plant species can
include acorns and nuts, even if they lack diagnostic features comparable to availablereferences. According to an experimental study by Liu et al. (2013), the broken forms ofstarch may vary in plant species, and milling or grinding can cause structure modiﬁcationin starch grains. The recovery rates of intact starch grains from sampled stone tools at
the Shimo-yakebe site were therefore related to the processed components. Supportedby these morphological fractures and the botanical investigation, it was concluded thatground stone usages mainly varied in processing acorns, nuts, and bulbs.
Regarding starch grains extracted from pottery sherds, the botanical identiﬁcation
showed the subsequent results: starch grains from bulb remains with potsherds were
known to be Lilium, Castanea, Quercus, and Juglans; possible Pueraria and acorn starchgrains were from ﬁbre and woven remain samples; and unidentiﬁed macrofossil remain
samples contained Juglans-type starch (Shibutani 2014). The results coincide with carbon
and nitrogen stable isotope analysis and C/N ratio analysis by Kudo and Sasaki (Kudo &Sasaki 2010; Sasaki 2006) and showed that tubers and bulbs were cooked together withacorns and nuts in the sampled Jomon pottery.
Crowther (2012) already mentioned that the utilization of wet (e.g., boiling andsteaming) rather than dry (e.g., baking, broiling, parching, and toasting) cooking methods
have a substantial adverse impact on the survival of starch. Once totally gelatinised,
starch is incredibly difﬁcult to recognise microscopically and classify taxonomically,
preventing the identiﬁcation of cooked starch in archaeological food residues. The recent
experimental study of cooking starchy food with Jomon pottery showed that the different
preservation of starch grains at species level may be mainly caused by grain sizes(Nishida 2017). In another case of Yayoi pottery residues (Shoda et al. 2011), several
gelatinised starch grains could possibly have contained unidentiﬁed starchy foods,
although scanning electron microscopy showed identiﬁable features of rice on the broken
grains that still contained bran.
At the Shimo-yakebe site, 109 well-preserved (mostly without fractures) starch grains
were extracted from the inside of pottery. Based on the previous experimental studies(Crowther 2012; Henry et al. 2009), when cooking plants in the sampled Jomon pottery,
low temperature or high wetness content of starch grain itself caused poor gelatinisation(Shibutani 2014).
Charred plant remains are ideal for investigating past starchy food cooking.
© Japanese Archaeological Association

15

SHIBUTANI Ayako

Experimental and archaeological starch results can provide insight into cooked starchresistance to gelatinisation and degradation, and they will help explain starch taphonomy
in archaeological contexts. Additionally, at the Shimo-yakebe site, while grinding stone
tools were used for processing nuts, acorns, and bulbs, residue samples of Jomon pottery
indicated the cooking method of tubers and bulbs. Consequently, the combination ofanalysing residues from varied materials is more convincing than one technique toreconstruct the past plant food cultures.

5. A summary of the common problems and workable solutionsin Japanese archaeological sites
A review of two applications of starch residue analysis in Japan has discovered fourcommon issues that need to be addressed. First, before archaeological samples are evenexamined, a stronger case must be made that starch types are diagnostic. This requires
the objective classiﬁcation of starch morphometrics for attempting the taxonomic
identiﬁcation and contamination controls. Second, the potential dominant factors on
starch presence should be addressed systematically. Third, with archaeological samples,
taphonomy is usually poorly understood or passed over, and inappropriately small
amounts of starch grains are used to support interpretations. Fourth, the impact of burial
settings on starch preservation and assemblage composition needs further investigation.
The scientiﬁc discipline dealing with starch should be addressed with urgency. The
current morphological analysis, like other areas of the scientiﬁc discipline, is a visual
examination by a limited type of specialist with the conclusions being supported by thequantity and quality of characteristic types (Shibutani 2015). Despite the criticisms ofsubjective starch identiﬁcation by ‘expert analysis,’ visual identiﬁcation is, and image
analysis is not always possible. Extra caution should be applied in the visual examinationof starch grains. A major concern with starch evidence in Japanese studies is that current
statistical tests offer only a chance that a precise assemblage guarantees processed plants,
rather than having the ﬂexibility to show that one starch type is exclusive to at least one
species. These methods limit researchers to interpret the possibility of plant use.
Morphological changes could possibly occur before deposition, but consideringthat starch identiﬁcation relies on extremely speciﬁc, usually reﬁned, morphologicaldiagnostic criteria, the potential of morphological changes might be a necessary areaof investigation. For example, gelatinised starches are susceptible to degradation, either
from mechanical agitation that may cause gelatinised granules to burst or break up into
smaller fragments or through being damaged post-deposition (Barton 2007; Barton &Matthews 2006). Breakage of conjoined forms has already been established (Crowther2012; Henry et al. 2009), and weathering of the surface of starch has occasionally been
© Japanese Archaeological Association

16

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

discovered. Once starch variation among and between plant species has been properly
addressed, we can examine the depositional and post-depositional morphological changes(i.e., taphonomic process).
Stratigraphic combination and moving might be priorities when attempting to relate
starch to archaeological tool uses. Recent studies have investigated (Barton 2007;
Barton & Matthews 2006), and potential contamination has been mentioned in earlier
studies (Crowther et al. 2014; Loy & Barton 2006). Post-depositional processes are also
extraordinarily varied depending on the type of soil as well as the size that the analysis isallotted. However, stratigraphic controls for starch residue analysis are rarely conductedin Japan, but it is still possible to scrutinise the associated assemblages from in situ
decay. We have the distinction here to take residue samples from ancient living surfaces
from the upper soil layer to the lower layer. This methodology will offer stratigraphic
management that may dispel many arguments against starch interpretations and provide
a direct demonstration of the depositional and post-depositional processes. Identifying
between multiple depositional pathways may also be achieved by examining associateddiagnostic indicators to differentiate vessels and spores from plant structure fragments.

6.

Conclusions

Starch grains have abundant potential as archaeological tools, and their study offers amassively valuable technique for understanding human use of starchy food resourcesin prehistory. Starch residue analysis continues to evolve as a discipline, particularly
in Japan, and like all comparatively innovative approaches, it has problems that canhopefully be addressed over time. The approach to modern starch reference materials
indicates that the assemblages vary in plant species, but the degree and causes ofvariation, even within an individual plant, need to be fully understood before we canapply this to archaeological samples and make deﬁnitive conclusions. The conﬂict withdifferent lines of proof resembling macrobotanical remains in Japan is a concern.
The problems are often summarised as (1) potential judgement in developing andapplying morphological criteria, (2) issues applying criteria from modern assemblages toarchaeological assemblages and contamination management, and (3) poorly understoodtaphonomy. Until these are addressed satisfactorily, caution should be taken whencreating a deﬁnitive starch residue analysis. Researchers must be realistic about what canand cannot be determined from the information and avoid over-interpretation.
The scientiﬁc discipline may also beneﬁt from the publication of images of reference
specimens and archaeological assemblages in East Asia as well as numerical tables,
and therefore, different datasets can be compared with a great deal of conﬁdence.
Many analysts have examined various modern plant species and varieties in their own© Japanese Archaeological Association

17

SHIBUTANI Ayako

studies (e.g., Field 2006; Lance 2005; Lentfer 2009; Therin et al. 1997; Warinner et al.
2011), but no communal database permits other researchers access to this information
for comparison. Classiﬁcation algorithms will only assign one of the categories forwhich training data is available. The more representative the modern training data inJapan or East Asia is, the more reliable the classiﬁcation will be. The development ofmorphometric ways and automatic image analysis will improve with large datasets,
and this could offer a reliable dataset that will beneﬁt researchers worldwide. As morematerial is analysed, this data will only be improved.

Acknowledgements
The research was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) (No. 23701013 and26750101), Grant-in-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research (B) (Tomoya Aono, No. 26284125), Grantin-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research on Innovative Areas (Minoru Yoneda, 15H05969), and the
National Museum of Japanese History Institute-based Project, ‘Constructing Integrated
Studies of Cultural and Research Resources, and Renovating Sharing Infrastructures of
Research resources in Japanese History and Culture’ (Project leader: Masaru Nishitani)
I would especially like to thank the members of the Date City Institute of Funkawan
Culture in Japan for their help at various stages in this study. I would also like to thankthe archaeologists of the studied sites who provided research materials for this article. I
am also grateful to Dr. Koji Mizoguchi and Dr. Ken’ichi Sasaki for their suggestions on
this paper.

References
Aono, T., Y. Nagaya, A. Mitani, O. Kondo, & T. Nishimoto (eds.) 2013. KITAKOGANE, Datecity: Date City Institute of Funkawan Culture (in Japanese).
Armas, Y.C.D., W.M. Buhay, R.R. Suarez, S. Bestel, D. Smith, S.D. Mowat, & M. Roksandic.
2015. Starch analysis and isotopic evidence of consumption of cultigens among ﬁshergatherers in Cuba: the archaeological site of Canímar Abajo, Matanzas. Journal ofArchaeological Science 58: 121–132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.03.003
Barton, H. 2007. Starch residues on museum artefacts: implications for determining tooluse. Journal of Archaeological Science 34(10): 1752–1762.
Barton, H. 2009. Starch granule taphonomy: the results of a two year ﬁeld experiment, in M.
Haslam, G. Robertson, A. Crowther, S. Nugent, & L. Kirkwood (eds.) Terra australis
30: archaeological science under a microscope: studies in residue and ancient DNA
analysis in honour of Tom Loy: 129–140. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press.
Barton, H. & R. Fullagar. 2006. Microscopy, in R. Torrence & H. Barton (eds.) Ancient© Japanese Archaeological Association

18

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

starch research: 47–52. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press, INC.
Barton, H. & P. Matthews. 2006. Taphonomy, in R. Torrence & H. Barton (eds.) Ancient
starch research: 75–94. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press, INC.
Barton, H. & R. Torrence. 2015. Cooking up recipes for ancient starch: assessing current
methodologies and looking to the future. Journal of Archaeological Science 56: 194–201. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.031
Barton, H., R. Torrence, & R. Fullagar. 1998. Clues to stone tool function re-examined:
comparing starch grain frequencies on used and unused obsidian artefacts. Journal ofArchaeological Science 25(12): 1231–1238. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1998.0300
Collins, M.J. & L. Copeland. 2011. Ancient starch: cooked or just old? Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108(22): E145, author
reply E146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1103241108
Copeland, L., J. Blazek, H. Salman, & M.C. Tang. 2009. Form and functionality of starch.
Food Hydrocolloids 23(6): 1527–1534. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2008.09.016
Coster, A.C.F. & J.H. Field. 2015. What starch grain is that?—a geometric morphometricapproach to determining plant species origin. Journal of Archaeological Science 58:
9–25. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.03.014
Crawford, G.W. 1983. Paleoethnobotany of the Kameda Peninsula Jomon. AnthropologicalPapers. Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan.
Crawford, G.W. 1992. The transitions to agriculture in Japan, in A.B. Gebauer & T.D. Price(eds.) Transitions to agriculture in prehistory. Monographs in World Archaeology:
117–132. Madison: Prehistory Press.
Crawford, G.W. 1993. Correlation of foxtail and broomcorn millet remains in House 1 at the
Kashiwagigawa 11 site, Hokkaido, in C. Nakamura (ed.) Prehistory and environmental
science: 254–259. Sapporo: Yoshizaki Masakazu sensei kanreki kinen ronshu kankokai.
Crawford, G.W., W.M. Hurley, & M. Yoshizaki. 1976. Implications of plant remains from the
Early Jomon, Hamanasuno Site. Asian Perspectives (Honolulu) 14(1): 145–155. http://
hdl.handle.net/10125/16861
Crawford, G.W. & H. Takamiya. 1990. The origins and implications of late prehistoric
plant husbandry in northern Japan. Antiquity 64(245): 869–911. https://doi.org/10.1017/
S0003598X00079011
Crowther, A. 2005. Reviewing raphides and the aroid microfossil record in the
Paciﬁc. Australasian Archaeometry Conference 2005. Plant Microfossils and theArchaeological Record, Australian Key Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis,
The University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006, Australia. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-0120097-0
Crowther, A. 2012. The differential survival of native starch during cooking and implications
for archaeological analyses: a review. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 4(3): 221–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-012-0097-0
Crowther, A., M. Haslam, N. Oakden, D. Walde, & J. Mercader. 2014. Documenting
contamination in ancient starch laboratories. Journal of Archaeological Science 49:© Japanese Archaeological Association

19

SHIBUTANI Ayako

90–104. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.04.023
D’Andrea, A.C. 1995a. Archaeobotanical evidence for Zoku-Jomon subsistence at the
Mochiyazawa Site, Hokkaido, Japan. Journal of Archaeological Science 22(5): 583–
595. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-4403(95)80144-8
D’Andrea, A.C. 1995b. Later Jomon subsistence in northeastern Japan: new evidence from
Palaeoethnobotanical studies. Asian Perspective 34(2): 195–227. http://hdl.handle.
net/10125/17064
D’Andrea, A.C., G.W. Crawford, M. Yoshizaki, & T. Kudo. 1995. Late Jomon
cultigens in northeastern Japan. Antiquity 69(262): 146–152. https://doi.org/10.1017/
S0003598X0006436X
Field, J. 2006. Reference collections, in R. Torrence & H. Barton (eds.) Ancient starchresearch: 95–113. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press, INC.
Fujimoto, S. 1994. Denpun to shokubutsu—kakusyu denpun no hikaku— (Starch andplants: comparisons of starches into plants). Fukuoka: Ashi shobo (in Japanese).
Fullagar, R. 2006. Starch on artifacts, in R. Torrence & H. Barton (eds.) Ancient starchresearch: 177–203. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press, INC.
Gott, B., H. Barton, D. Samuel, & R. Torrence. 2006. Biology and starch, in R. Torrence &H. Barton (eds.) Ancient starch research: 35–45. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press, INC.
Hardy, K., T. Blakeney, L. Copeland, J. Kirkham, R. Wrangham, & M. Collins. 2009.
Starch granules, dental calculus and new perspectives on ancient diet. Journal ofArchaeological Science 36(2): 248–255. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.015
Haslam, M. 2004. The decomposition of starch grains in soils: implications forarchaeological residue analyses. Journal of Archaeological Science 31(12): 1715–1734.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2004.05.006
Henry, A.G., H.F. Hudson, & D.R. Piperno. 2009. Changes in starch grain morphologies
from cooking. Journal of Archaeological Science 36(3): 915–922. http://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jas.2008.11.008
Holst, I., J.E. Moreno, & D.R. Piperno. 2007. Identiﬁcation of teosinte, maize, and Tripsacumin Mesoamerica by using pollen, starch grains, and phytoliths. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104(45): 17608–17613.
Igarashi, Y., T. Igarashi, H. Daimaru, O. Yamada, T. Miyagi, K. Matsushita, & K.
Hiramatsu. 1993. Vegetation history of Kenbuchi basin and Furano basin in Hokkaido,
North Japan, since 32,000 yrs BP. Quaternary Research 32(2): 89–105. http://doi.
org/10.4116/jaqua.32.89
Kamijo, N. 2008. Analyses of use-wears and starch residues on grinding stones from the
Karakami site, in K. Miyamoto (ed.) Karakami site: 125–130. Fukuoka: Archaeologicalresearch laboratory, Graduate Schools of Humanities, Kyushu University (in Japanese).
Kamijo, N. 2012. Starch residue analysis of grinding stones and stone querns, in Naganoken koko gakkai (ed.) Interpreting the development of Middle Jomon culture: Naganoken koko gakkaishi: 143–144. 95–104. Nagano: Nagano-ken koko gakkai (in Japanese).
Kamijo, N. 2013. Analyses of use-wears and starch residues on stone slabs found from© Japanese Archaeological Association

20

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

the Takamigaoka sites, in N. Takeuchi & T. Watanabe (eds.) Excavation report of the
Takamigaoka sites: 1070–1073. Iwata: Iwata city educational board (in Japanese).
Kamijo, N. 2014. Mortar, pestle, tub, pounder of Ainu: from observations of morphologicalfeatures and usewears with starch residue analyses (Ainu minzoku no tateusu totategine, oke, tegine: keitai siyokon kansatsu to zanzon denpuntsubu bunseki kara), in
H. Takakura (ed.) Higashi Asia kobunka ronko 1: 82–100. Fukuoka: Chugoku shoten(in Japanese).
Kobayashi, Y. & N. Kamijo. 2012. Starch residue analysis of stone tools, in T. Sekine & N.
Kamijo (eds.) Studies on the Kamegaoka culture in the Shimokita peninsula. 2-text
section 2: 30–33. Hirosaki city: Department of Japanese Archaeology, Graduate Schoolof Humanities, Hirosaki University and the Research Center for Kamegaoka Culture,
Hirosaki University (in Japanese).
Kudo, Y. & Y. Sasaki. 2010. Characterization of plant remains on Jomon potteries excavatedfrom the Shimo-yakebe site. Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History 158:
1–26 (in Japanse with English abstract). http://id.nii.ac.jp/1350/00001811/
Lamb, J. & T. Loy. 2005. Seeing red: the use of Congo Red dye to identify cooked anddamaged starch grains in archaeological residues. Journal of Archaeological Science
32(10): 1433–1440. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2005.03.020
Lance, B. 2005. Building a starch reference collection. Australasian Archaeometry
Conference 2005. Plant Microfossils and the Archaeological Record (Field, J. ed.)
Austraian Key Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The University of Sydney,
N.S.W. 2006, Australia. Austraian Key Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The
University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006, Australia.
Langejans, G.H.J. 2006. Starch grain analysis on Late Iron Age grindstones from South
Africa. Southern African Humanities 18(2): 71–91.
Langejans, G.H.J. 2010. Remains of the day-preservation of organic micro-residues onstone tools. Journal of Archaeological Science 37(5): 971–985. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jas.2009.11.030
Lentfer, C., M. Therin, & R. Torrence. 2002. Starch grains and environmental
reconstruction: a modern test case from West New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Journalof Archaeological Science 29(7): 687–698. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2001.0783
Lentfer, C.J. 2009. Building a comparative starch reference collection for Indonesia andits application to palaeoenvironmental and archaeological research, in M. Haslam,
G. Robertson, A. Crowther, S. Nugent, & L. Kirkwood (eds.) Terra australis 30:
archaeological science under a microscope: studies in residue and ancient DNA
analysis in honour of Thomas H. Loy: 80–101. Brisbane: University of Queensland
Press.
Liu, L., S. Bestel, J. Shi, Y. Song, & X. Chen. 2013. Paleolithic human exploitation ofplant foods during the last glacial maximum in North China. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110(14): 1–6. https://doi.
org/10.1073/pnas.1217864110© Japanese Archaeological Association

21

SHIBUTANI Ayako

Liu, L., S. Ma, & J. Cu. 2014. Identiﬁcation of starch granules using a two-step identiﬁcation
method. Journal of Archaeological Science 52: 421–427. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jas.2014.09.008
Loy, T. & H. Barton. 2006. Post-excavation contamination and measures for prevention, in
R. Torrence & H. Barton (eds.) Ancient starch research: 165–167. Walnut Creek: Left
Coast Press, INC.
Matsui, A. 2005. Kankyo kokogaku heno syotai (Introduction to environmentalarchaeology). Tokyo: Iwanami shoten (in Japanese).
Matthews, P.J. & Y. Nishida. 2006. History and aims of starch analysis. Bulletin of the
Niigata Prefectural Museum of History 7: 1–6 (in Japanese).
Onishi, T., A. Manabe, T. Sangawa, K. Kanegae, & N. Nakamura. 2012. Survey of foodplant utilization based on analyses of micro remains and micro wears: focusing on
Studies of Life Ways. Kagoshima Koko 42: 99–108 (in Japanese).
Pető, Á., F. Gyulai, D. Pópity, & Á. Kenéz. 2013. Macro- and micro-archaeobotanical studyof a vessel content from a Late Neolithic structured deposition from southeastern
Hungary. Journal of Archaeological Science 40(1): 58–71. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jas.2012.08.027
Reitz, E.J. & M. Shackley (eds.) 2012. Environmental archaeology, London: Springer New
York Dordrecht Heidelberg London.
Research Group of Cultural Properties at Higashi-murayama City (ed.) 2006. Shimo-yakebe
Site I (1), Higashi-murayama city: Research Group of Cultural Properties at Higashimurayama City (in Japanese).
Riley, T. 2012. Assessing diet and seasonality in the Lower Pecos canyonlands: anevaluation of coprolite specimens as records of individual dietary decisions. Journal ofArchaeological Science 39(1): 145–162. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.09.016
Sahara, M. 2000. Takara sagashi karano dakkyaku (Exceeding a treasure hunting).
NEWTON ARCHEO 12: 160–167 (in Japanese).
Sangawa, T., T. Fukui, T. Onishi, & M. Kuwahata. 2012. A study of plant utilization in theInitial Jomon period at Oujiyama site, Miyakonojyo city (Miyazaki, Japan). Kyushu
Kokogaku: Journal of the Archaeological Society of Kyushu 87: 113–125 (in Japanese).
Sasaki, Y. 2006. Plant remains adhering to the Jomon pottery, Research Group of Cultural
Properties at Higashi-murayama City (ed.) Shimo-yakebe Site I (1): 223–235. Higashimurayama city: Research Group of Cultural Properties at Higashi-murayama City (inJapanese).
Saul, H., J. Wilson, C.P. Heron, A. Glykou, S. Hartz, & O.E. Craig. 2012. A systematic
approach to the recovery and identiﬁcation of starches from carbonised deposits on
ceramic vessels. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(12): 3483–3492. http://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.05.033
Shibutani, A. 2007. Starch residues on grinding slabs and cooking potteries from the
Tsukuba, Saraokayama, and Miyakenishi sites in Jomon age. Cultura Antiqua 59(2):116–126 (in Japanese).
© Japanese Archaeological Association

22

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

Shibutani, A. 2009a. Late Pleistocene to early Holocene plant movements in southern
Kyushu, Japan. Archaeologies 5(1): 124–133. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11759-009-9094-z
Shibutani, A. 2009b. Plant food processing and using in early Japan: theory, methods, andapplications of starch residue analysis, Graduate University for Advanced Studies (inJapanese, PhD thesis).
Shibutani, A. 2010a. A comparative starch reference collection in Japanese archipelago
and its application to Japanese archaeological studies—focusing on morphologicalclassiﬁcation of archaeological starch grains. Japanese Journal of Historical Botany18(1): 13–27 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Shibutani, A. 2010b. Transition of plant utilization in the Sannai-Maruyama site fromresidues of starchy tissues on stone tools, in Cultural Properties Protection Division,
Aomori Prefectural Board of Education, Sannai-Maruyama Historical Site Preservationand Utilization Promotion Ofﬁce (ed.) Bulletin of Sannai-Maruyama Site 13: 79–88.
Aomori: Aomori Prefectural Board of Education (in Japanese).
Shibutani, A. 2011. Starch on stone tools at the Nishitaragasako site, Kagoshima, Japan,
and its plant utilization in the Upper Palaeolithic period. Bulletin of the Hiroshima
University Museum 3: 73–88 (in Japanese with English abstract). http://doi.
org/10.15027/32072 10.15027/32072
Shibutani, A. 2012a. Recent results of starch residue analyses and further research problems.
Millet Newsletter 27: 1–9 (in Japanese).
Shibutani, A. 2012b. Starch residues on stone tools from the Mizusako site, Kagoshima,
Japan, and plant utilization during the incipient and earliest Jomon periods. Japanese
Journal of Historical Botany 21(2): 55–66 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Shibutani, A. 2014. Starch residues of plant remains on Jomon pottery and stone tools
from the Shimo-yakebe site, Tokyo, Japan, and their implications for plant utilization.
Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History 187: 357–386 (in Japanese). http://
id.nii.ac.jp/1350/00000296/
Shibutani, A. 2015. The present issues on starch analysis in Japanese archaeology. Cultura
Antiqua 67(1): 108–118 (in Japanese).
Shibutani, A., T. Aono, & Y. Nagaya. 2015. Examination of contaminated materials in starch
residue analysis: focusing on the Kitakogane Shell Mounds in Date city, Hokkaido.
Bulletin of the National Museum of Japanese History 195: 1–32 (in Japanese). http://
id.nii.ac.jp/1350/00002224/
Shimono, M. & M. Takenaka. 2014. Starch granules in dental calculus of human skeletal
remains from Shimauchi Tombs with underground corridor-style burial chambers.
Bulletin of Kagoshima Women’s College 49: 1–4 (in Japanese).
Shoda, S.Y., A. Matsutani, D. Kunikita, & A. Shibutani. 2011. Multi-analytical approach tothe origin of charred remains on Yayoi pottery from the Joto site, Okayama. Japanese
Journal of Historical Botany 20(1): 41–52 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Sivak, M. & J. Preiss. 1998. Starch: Basic science to biotechnology, in M. Sivak & J. Preiss(eds.) Advances in food and nutrition research: 41. London: Academic Press.
© Japanese Archaeological Association

23

SHIBUTANI Ayako

Soeda, Y., T. Aono, Y. Nagaya, A. Shibutani, K. Nakamura, N. Kanno, K. Matsuda, T.
Mitani, T. Miyaji, T. Watanabe, & N. Kohno. 2017. The impact enormous volcanic
eruptions, tsunamis and the coldest period of the Little Ice Age had on the Ainu II.
Bulletin of Hokkaido Museum 2: 49–60 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Sugiyama, K. 2014. Issues on food resources in islands (Tosho ni okeru syokuryo shigen no
mondai), in Yayoi culture and ﬁshers (Yayoi bunka to kaijin): 95–138. Tokyo: Rokuichi
shobo (in Japanese).
Takase, K. 2011. Study on impressions remained on the surfaces of clay vessels dated to aperiod from the Final Jomon to the Yayoi and Epi-Jomon by a replication method: acase study in Hokkaido and Miyagi. Hokkaido Kokogaku 47: 33–50 (in Japanese withEnglish abstract). http://iss.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000022102-00
Therin, M., R. Torrence, & R. Fullagar. 1997. Australian Museum starch referencecollection. Australian Archaeology 44(1): 52–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03122417.1
997.11681589
Torrence, R. & H. Barton (eds.) 2006. Ancient starch research, Walnut Creek: Left Coast
Press, INC.
Veth, P., R. Fullagar, & R. Gould. 1997. Residue and use-wear analysis of grinding
implements from Puntutjarpa Rockshelter in the Western Desert: Current and proposed
research. AustraIian Archaeology 44: 23–25. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40287308
Warinner, C., J.D.A. Guedes, & D. Goode. 2011. Paleobot.org: establishing open-accessonline reference collections for archaeobotanical research. Vegetation History andArchaeobotany 20(3): 241–244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00334-011-0282-6
Weston, J. 2009. Seeing red: the use of a biological stain to identify cooked and processed/
damaged starch grains in archaeological residues, in A. Fairbairn, S. O’Connor, & B.
Marwick (eds.) Terra australis 28: New Directions in Archaeological Science: 77–91.
Canberra: ANU E Press.
Wilson, J., K. Hardy, R. Allen, L. Copeland, R. Wrangham, & M. Collins. 2010. Automatedclassiﬁcation of starch granules using supervised pattern recognition of morphologicalproperties. Journal of Archaeological Science 37(3): 594–604. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jas.2009.10.024
Yamada, G. 1986. About plant food in prehistoric Hokkaido. Hokkaido Kokogaku 22:
87–106 (in Japanese).
Yamada, G. 1993. On the botanical remains, mainly nuts, from prehistorical sites in
Hokkaido. Cultura Antiqua 45: 13–22 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Yamada, G. & S. Shibauchi. 1997. Nuts excavated from Jomon sites of Hokkaido—
Especially about chestnuts—. Bulletin of the Historical Museum of Hokkaido 25: 17–30(in Japanese with English abstract).
Yamada, G. & A. Tsubakisaka. 2009. About seeds of bamboo grass excavated from remains.
Bulletin of the Historical Museum of Hokkaido 37: 13–22 (in Japanese with English
abstract).
Yamamoto, N., A. Shibutani, & N. Kamijo. 2016. Plant food in the Jomon Period from starch© Japanese Archaeological Association

24

WHAT DID JOMON PEOPLE CONSUME FOR STARCHY FOOD?

residues on deep bowls, stone pestles and mortars: the scope of case studies in Ishikawa
Prefecture, Japan. The Journal of the Faculty of Letters, Nagoya University. History
62: 51–82 (in Japanese with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.18999/jouﬂh.62.51
Yang, X., H.J. Barton, Z. Wan, Q. Li, Z. Ma, M. Li, D. Zhang, & J. Wei. 2013. Sago-type
palms were an important plant food prior to rice in southern subtropical China. PLoS
ONE 8(5): e63148. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063148
Yoshizaki, M. 1997. Jomon agriculture: retrieval of Evidence. Quaternary Research 36(5):343–346 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Zheng, H.P., H.E. Jiang, Y.B. Zhang, E.G. Lü, Y.M. Yang, & C.S. Wang. 2015. Early processed
Triticeae food remains in the Yanghai Tombs, Xinjiang, China. Archaeometory 57 (2):378–391. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12110© Japanese Archaeological Association

25