Positive Psychology: FAQs
Author(s): Martin E. P. Seligman and James O. Pawelski
Source: Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 14, No. 2 (2003), pp. 159-163
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1449825
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COMMENTARIESVon Franz, M. L. (1964). The process of individuation. In C. G. Jung
(Ed.), Mav wul ands svsybols (pp. 158-229). New York: Doubleday.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development andWerner, E. (1995). Resilience in development. Cutrrenet Dire tions in

Psychological Science. 4, 81-85.

Wong, P. T. P., & Fry, P. S. (Eds.). (1998). Tlhe humcatn qluest

validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The

for meacning: A hanidbook of psychological reseactch aind

PANAS Scales. JoLirilal of'Personality and Social Psychology,

clinical applications. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Ernbaum

54. 1063-1070.

Associates, Inc.

Positive Psychology: FAQs
Martin E. P. Seligman
University of Pennsylvania

James 0. Pawelski
Vanderbilt University

As positive psychology gathers momentum, severalemphasize, psychology as usual is important and necfrequently asked questions (FAQs) have surfaced. Laz-essary, and positive psychology is intended as aarus's (this issue) target article provides a version of

supplement, another arrow in the quiver, and not a re-some of these, so we distill these FAQs and some of theplacement for this endeavor.

answers that are emerging with emphasis on some ofLazarus's specific critiques. We do not address severalof Lazarus's other points: the need for longitudinalstudies (because the bulk of the literature in the fields

of optimism and of flow consists of longitudinal studies), that Seligman is a "Johnny-come-lately" (perhaps

40 years of studying these issues seems "lately" tosomeone who worked on them for 50-plus years), thatthe literature is already "well-balanced" between thenegative and the positive (because there have been

70,856 articles on depression since 1887 vs. 2,958 on
happiness; Myers, 2000), and his pervasive aggrava-

Are the Positive and the Negative
Separable, Discrete Classes?

Lazarus (this issue) holds that it is "unwise andregressive" to divide emotions into positive and neg-

ative. Thus, a negative emotion like shame or anger,
for one person at one time in one culture, can be
negative, but at another time or for another person orin another culture, it can be positive. More generally

this FAQ doubts the division of emotions, traits, ortion that his own theory has forked no lightning within institutions into negative and positive. This FAQ co-

positive psychology (coping, stress, and appraisals do
not seem particularly well-suited concepts to illuminate positive emotion and positive traits). Rather weconcentrate on several meatier issues whose resolution
is more likely to advance the field.

One note on terminology first: Lazarus (this issue)
uses the term niegative psychology to denote what
positive psychology is alleged to oppose. We do not
accept this. Lazarus's juxtaposition is his own, and it
is unfortunate; positive psychologists intend no disrespect to the many academics and practitioners who

mes in several forms: (a) that understanding the neg-

ative will lead to an understanding of the positive,
because the positive is merely the absence of thenegative; (b) that positive emotions are opponent
processes of negative emotions-for example, thejoy that the parachute jumper feels on landing is justthe slave process of relief from fear (Solomon &Corbit, 1974); (c) that positive emotions and traits
are always intertwined with the negative, and thetwo cannot be studied separately; and (d) that a foodpellet is not truly positive for a hungry animal but

have spent the bulk of their careers investigating neg- just a reliever of the negative state of hunger. If theative states (Seligman is one of them and is proud of
the accomplishments of this field; contrary to Lazarus's invention, we have written no "diatribes" against"negative" psychology). We prefer the term psychology as usual to describe work that focuses on humanproblems. Lazarus claims that positive psychology
advocates that we "abandon the negative and focus on
positive human qualities." As we have taken pains topositive were just the absence of the negative, wewould not need a positive psychology, just a psychology of relieving negative states. Similarly, if thepositive were just the obverse of the negative, wewould not need a positive psychology, because we
could deduce everything we needed to know about
the positive merely by attaching a negation sign towhat we discover about the negative. These are deep

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COMMENTARIES

and important objections to a field that advocates theinvestigation of the,positive.

ing is a neon "here-be-growth" marquee that tells youthat a potential win-win encounter is at hand. By ac-

That the same discrete emotion is sometimes nega-

tivating an expansive, tolerant, and creative mind-set,tive and sometimes positive is often (but not always,

positive feelings maximize the social, intellectual,e.g., agony, bliss) true, but this intriguing fact cuts noand physical benefits that will accrue (Fredrickson,

ice against positive psychology. Rather the scientific2001; Seligman, 2002). On this account, if true, posi-

issue is the understanding of those emotions undertive emotion is an entirely different system with an

the conditions that they are positive versus negative.

entirely different function from negative emotion.

This in turn depends on the venerable and difficult
question of whether indifference can be well-defined.

Parallel considerations hold for traits and institu-

tions. My satisfaction at seeing a perfect hybrid tea

If it can, the states and traits and institutions "north"rose is not the relief of any aversive state, such asof indifference are positive and those "south" of in-

beauty deprivation, and the presence of civility in a de-difference are negative. If indifference cannot beliberative body provides benefits (e.g., friendship) overwell-defined, an enterprise that claims that the posi-

and above the mere removal of the costs of incivility

tive can be scientifically understood in its own right(e.g., revenge). Thus we conclude that although the un-collapses.

derstanding of a positive sometimes hinges on the un-

The basic intuition underlying the several attempts

derstanding of an obverse negative, that state of affairs

to define an indifference point is that there are someis far from universal, and therefore the positive must-(very large number of) events that when added to or

at least sometimes-be understood in its own right.

subtracted from a particular concatenation of circumstances do not make that concatenation more or lessaversive or more or less desired. Those events (e.g.,

Is Positive Psychology Just

turning the lights down 2% as I write this sentence)"Happiology"?

are "neutral," or "indifferent" in that concatenation.
Events that make that concatenation more aversive

Lazarus (this issue) thinks that positive psychology

are negative, and those that make it more desired areis almost entirely about the study of positive emotion,

positive. Change the concatenation, and there is noth-and the target article seems largely a vehicle for theing to prevent the events from changing their inten-

promotion of his own theory of emotions. Indeed, posi-sity or even switching valence. Thus, I believe indif-

tive psychology holds that the scientific understanding

ference is definable, and therefore the positive can beof subjective well-being-pleasure, contentment, joy,well-defined. For related attempts at defining indif-

mirth, ecstasy, ebullience, and the like-is important.

ference see Nozick (1997, pp. 93-95), and Irwin

We believe, however, that positive psychology is not

only the study of positive feeling but also the study of(1971).

There seems to be value in studying positive emo-

positive traits and positive institutions. Within thetions and positive traits in their own right, and not as

study of positive emotion itself we divide it into emo-

always the slave process to some negative state.

tion about the past (satisfaction, contentment, pride,

Sometimes, of course, positive emotions and positive

and the like); the present, which is commonly termed

traits are simply the other end of some bipolar dimen-

happiness by the layperson (pleasure, ecstasy, joy, andsion (e.g., agony and relief), but often the positive isthe like); and the future (hope, optimism, trust, faith,

not yoked to the negative, only to the absence of theand the like). Seen this way, although happiness in thepositive. Joy does not seem to be the absence of sad-lay sense is one important subject of positive psychol-ness, because it need not arise when all sadness is re-ogy, it forms only one third of the area of positive emo-

moved (the underlying dimension for joy ends at thetion, which in turn forms only one third of the domain

absence of joy, not the presence of sadness, which isof positive psychology.

an additional process), nor does sadness seem to be

Positive psychology on this view is about more

the absence of any positive state (the underlying di-than just hedonics, the study of how we feel. We be-mension for sadness ends at the absence of sadness,lieve that simple hedonic theory, without consider-with the presence of positive states being an addi-

ation of strength, virtue, and meaning, fails as an ac-

tional process).

count of the positive life. A simple hedonic theory

Theoretically, the idea that positive and negative

claims that the quality of a life is just the total goodemotions are different in kind is attractive. Just as

moments minus the total bad moments. This is morenegative feeling is a firefighting "here-be-dragons"

than an ivory tower theory, because very many people

sensory system that alarms one, telling one unmistak-run their lives around exactly this goal. The sum total

ably that one is in a win-lose encounter and oneof our momentary feelings turns out to be a very poor

should get rid of the noxious stimulus, the feelingmeasure of how good or how bad we judge an epi-

part of positive emotion is also sensory. Positive feel-

sode- a movie, a vacation, a marriage, or a life-to

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COMMENTARIES

be. How well an episode ends, how intense the peak

can result in positive emotion. However, followingof pleasure or pain, the trajectory of the episode-Nozick (and Aristotle), positive psychology is princi-

worsening or improving-are all documented viola-pally interested in the emotions that result from the ex-tions of hedonics, and they easily override the sum ofercise of strengths and virtues.
We are not puritan or sophomoric enough to suggest

the feelings in an experience (Fredrickson, 2001;
Schkade & Kahneman, 1998).

eliminating shortcuts. There is a cost of getting happi-

Ludwig Wittgenstein, the great Anglo-Viennese

ness so cheaply, however, when the shortcuts become

philosopher, was by all accounts miserable. A collec-

one's principal road to happiness. Positive emotion

tor of Wittgensteinobilia, Seligman has never found aalienated from positive character leads to emptiness; tophoto of Wittgenstein smiling. Wittgenstein was de-a lack of meaning; and as we age, to the gnawing fearpressive, irascible, and scathingly critical of everyone

that we are fidgeting unto death. It is possible that thearound him and even more critical of himself. In aspiritual malaise and the epidemic of depression thattypical seminar held in his cold and barely furnishedhas swept all the wealthy nations (Seligman, Reivich,Cambridge rooms, he would pace the floor muttering,

Gillham, & Jaycox, 1996) have at their core the use of"Wittgenstein, Wittgenstein, what a terrible teacher

the shortcuts displacing the use of the strengths to pro-you are." Yet his last words give the lie to hedonics.

duce positive emotion.

Dying alone in a garret in Ithaca, New York, he said

to his landlady, "Tell them it's been wonderful!"
Isn't Positive Psychology Just Positive(Malcolm, 2001).

Thinking Warmed Over?

We want to suggest that positive character, the deployment of strength and virtue, is a road to the good life,

a life different in kind from the pleasant life, but no lessPositive psychology has a philosophical but not

an empirical connection to positive thinking. Bothwonderful and no less positive (Peterson & Seligman, inpress). The Wittgenstein story illustrates that a life areof relevant to the hoary free will-determinism isstrength and virtue can override grim hedonics. Flour-sue. This issue finds its way into Western theology
ishing is the centerpiece of positive psychology, andthrough the Arminian heresy (Jacob Harmensen,

Robert Nozick's "experience machine" shows that posi-1560-1609). The Arminian view holds that human

tive experiences alone are not sufficient for flourishing

beings can participate in their own grace, that

(Nozick, 1974). Nozick imagined a machine that cangrace is not predestined but depends-to some ex-

give a person any experience desired. By placing thetent at least-on the individual. The individual

person in a floating tank and hooking up electrodes tocan choose actions that will get him or her into

the brain, talented neuropsychologists could use thisheaven. This was a heresy because it denied thatmachine to give the feeling of writing a great novel,

God alone bestows grace and that the individual

making a new friend, or reading an interesting book. Al-

cannot participate in grace by choosing good or

though we may long for such experiences, few of us

evil. This heresy is at the foundation of Method-

would agree to hook up to this machine for life. Nozick

ism, and Norman Vincent Peale's positive think-argued that this is, in part, because we want to have theseing movement grows out of this heritage. Positive

feelings only as a result of our actually doing these activ-

psychology is also wedded at its foundations toities. It is not just positive feelings we want, we want to

the individual freely choosing. Without such abe entitled to our positive feelings. We want to construe,

premise the notion of positive strengths and vir-"appraise" perhaps, our good feelings as stemming fromtues would make no sense. In this sense, both en-

personal strengths and virtuous action (Lyubomirsky,

deavors have common roots. However, positive2001).

psychology is also different in three significant

Thus positive psychology is not, and has never been, ways from positive thinking.
just happiology. It is the study of three very different
kinds of positive lives: the pleasant life, the good life,

and the meaningful life (Seligman, 2002).

First, positive thinking is an "armchair" activity. Positive psychology, on the other hand, is tied
to a program of empirical and replicable scien-tific activity. Second, positive thinking urges
positivity on us for all times and places, but posiMiss the Mark?

tive psychology does not hold a brief for
positivity. Positive psychology recognizes that in

Wealthy cultures invent myriad shortcuts to feelingspite of the several advantages of positive think-

good. These produce positive emotion in us withouting, there are times when negative thinking might

our going to the trouble of using our strengths and vir- be preferred. Many studies correlate optimism
tues. Shopping, drugs, chocolate, loveless sex, andwith later health, longevity, sociability, and suc-television are all examples. Positive psychology does

cess, but pessimists may be able to do at least one

not deny that these shortcuts, along with many others,

thing better: Much of the experimental evidence
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COMMENTARIES

suggests that in many situations negative think-positive psychology is yielding some unintuitive re-ing leads to more accuracy (Alloy, Abramson, &sults. Just to name a few: In one study, researchers

Chiara, 2000). This is true of real life as well:asked widows to talk about their late spouses.

when accuracy is tied to potentially catastrophic

Some of the widows told happy stories; some told

outcomes. When a pilot is deciding whether tosad stories and complained. Two and a half years

deice the wings of his or her airplane, one wants

later, researchers found that the women who had

one's pilot to be a pessimist.

told happy stories were much more likely to be en-

The third distinction between positive thinking

gaged in life and dating again (Keltner & Bonanno,

and positive psychology is that many leaders of the1997). Researchers have also found that physicians

positive psychology endeavor have spent decades

experiencing positive emotion tend to make moreworking on the "negative" side of things-depres-accurate diagnoses (Isen, Rosenzweig, & Young,sion, anxiety, victims, trauma, and oppression. We do1991); that optimistic people are more likely than

not view positive psychology as a replacement for

pessimists to benefit from adverse medical infor-

psychology as usual, or as a "paradigm shift"; rather

mation (Aspinwall & Brunhart, 2000); that in presi-

we view positive psychology merely as a normal sci-

dential elections over the past century, 85% wereence supplement to the hard-won gains of "negative"

won by the more optimistic candidate (Zullow,

psychology.

Oettingen, Peterson, & Seligman, 1988); that
wealth is only weakly related to happiness bothwithin and across nations (Diener & Diener, 1996);
Is Positive Psychology Elitist?

that trying to maximize happiness leads to unhappi-

Many of the scientists who work on positive psy-that resilience is completely ordinary (Masten,chology are affluent, White, middle-aged intellectuals

2001); and that nuns who display positive emotion(although the majority of the 12 Templeton Positivein their autobiographical sketches live longer andPsychology Prize winners have been female). How-

are healthier over the next 70 years (Danner,

ness (Schwartz, Ward, Monterosso, et al. 2002);

ever, this does not mean the substance of the science re- Snowdon, & Friesen, 2001).

flects such a bias. First, in its classification of thestrengths and virtues (Peterson & Seligman, 2003), a

major inclusion criterion is the ubiquity of thestrengths as positively valued across almost all cul-

Doesn't Human Suffering Trumptures. The success of positive psychology will be de-

Human Well-Being in Its Demand on

pendent on its ability to identify and study strengths

Our Sympathies and Attention?

and virtues that are valued by persons regardless of
their culture, ethnicity, gender, age, and nationality. It

Positive psychology holds that one of the best ways

is for this reason that the classification of the strengths

to help suffering people is to focus on positive things.

and virtues includes strengths like kindness and perse-

Persons who are impoverished, depressed, or suicidal

verance, but not punctuality and wealth. Unlike punc-

care about far more than merely the relief of their suf-

tuality and wealth, kindness and perseverance are val-

fering. These persons care-sometimes desperately-ued by virtually everyone, regardless of accidents ofabout strength and virtue, about authenticity, about

culture, class, or gender.

meaning, and about integrity.

Second, affluent, middle-class academics hardly

Furthermore, positive psychology holds thathave a corner on strength, virtue, and happiness. Peo-the relief of suffering very often depends on theple in Rwanda and Calcutta, contrary to popular myth,building up of happiness and of strengths.

are enormously concerned with achieving strength,

Fredrickson (2001) reviewed her findings on pos-virtue, and happiness (Biswas-Diener & Diener, 2001).

itive emotion as "undoing" negative emotion andBeing poor or oppressed does not extirpate the needs

as the building blocks of resilience that combats

for integrity and honor and kindness and pleasure.

physical illness. Lyubomirsky's (2001) illumina-

Masten (2001), by documenting the sheer ordinarinesstion of what conditions enhance happiness has di-of resilience, provides persuasive testimony of the im-rect relevance for the practice of clinical psychol-

portance of positive psychology for all people.

ogy and the relief of mental disorders. These
strengths function as a buffer against misfortune
and against the psychological disorders, and theyIs Positive Psychology Discovering

may be the key to resilience (Masten, 2001). The

Anything Surprising?

birthright of a psychologist is not merely to heal
damage and treat disorder but also to guide peo-

We believe that much of the value of any scienceis the discovery of surprising facts, and research inple toward the pleasant life, the good life, and themeaningful life.

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COMMENTARIES

Keltner, D., & Bonanno, G. A. ( 1997). A study of laughter and disso-

Noteciation: The distinct correlates of laughter and smiling during

Martin Seligman, Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104.

bereavement. Journcal of Personality anid Social Psycholog, 73,
687-702.

Lyubomirsky, S. (2001). Why are some people happier than others?
The role of cognitive and motivational processes in well-being.
American PsYchologist, 56, 239-249.

Malcolm, N. (2001). Ludwig Wittgenisteini: A menwoir New York

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While Accentuating the Positive,

Don't Eliminate the Negative or Mr. In-Between
Howard Tennen and Glenn Affleck
Universit) of Connecticut Health Center

Lazarus's (this issue) trenchant critique of positive not sufficiently developed to warrant special issues an
psychology in the target article is sure to galvanize thespecial sections in psychology's flagship journal andmovement's adherents. We suspect that we were askedthat it has yet to make sufficiently ample contribution
to provide a commentary as representatives and de-to have a handbook devoted to its accomplishments.
fenders of positive psychology. Yet we find ourselvesLazarus's comments betray his adherence to a view ofagreeing with the premise and nearly all details of Laz-science that assumes that progress emerges over tim

arus's argument. We begin with three quibbles and then that findings build on one another; that unanticipate

offer elaborations of what we consider Lazarus's mostfindings are embraced; and that paradigm shifts, if thetelling criticisms.

exist, emerge from the accretion of incontrovertible ev

dence and not from whole cloth. Dr. Lazarus, get wit
the program! Have you not read the positive psychology
Quibble 1: Surely You're Joking,Dr. Lazarus!

"manifesto" (Sheldon, Frederickson, Rathude,
Csikszentmihalyi, & Haidt, 2000) or its "declaration of

independence" (Snyder & Lopez, 2002)? Do you not
Our first quibble, with tongue in cheek, is with Lazaknow that positive psychology's scientific agenda is be-

rus's (this issue) implication that positive psychology
ing isestablished at conferences, institutes, and summits;
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