Radiation Environment and Medicine 2024 Vol.13, No.1 19–27

Regular Article

Study on the 137Cs and 60Co Transfer Factors from Soil to Several
Tropical Vegetables
Leli Nirwani1*, Wahyudi1 and Dadong Iskandar2
Research Center for Radiation Safety, Metrology, and Nuclear Quality Technology, National Research and Innovation Agency,
BJ Habibie Science and Technology Area, South Tangerangy 15314, Indonesia
2
Research Center for Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Radioactive Waste Technology, National Research and Innovation Agency, BJ Habibie Scienceand Technology Area, South Tangerang 15314, Indonesia
1

Received 23 December, 2022; revised 29 September, 2023; accepted 29 November, 2023

It is necessary to accurately assess the deposition of fallout radionuclides on plants to ascertain
the degree of risk and deleterious effects on public health. Therefore, a study of 137Cs and 60Co
transfer factors (TF) from soil to eight tropical vegetables has been conducted by using a pot
treatment system in the Green House of the Center. The research aims to determine the transfer
factor of 137Cs and 60Co from soil to tropical vegetables such as spinach, swamp cabbages, chilli,
tomato, bitter melon, mustard green, eggplant and cassava. This experiment was carried out by
using the complete random design to evaluate two treatments, consisting of the soil contaminatedwith 137Cs and 60Co and without both radionuclides (137Cs and 60Co). The number of experiments
for each vegetable was 12 pots and the control plant also was 12 pots. After being harvested,
the weight of dried tropical vegetables and soil was measured. Transfer factor was determinedaccording to the accumulation of 137Cs and 60Co concentrations in these tropical vegetables andsoil by counting them using a gamma spectrometer. The transfer factors of 137Cs and 60Co fromdry soil to dry tropical vegetable was found between 0.0153–0.5688 and 0.0024–0.2688, respectively.
The lowest and highest TF were found in tomato and bitter melon, respectively for 137Cs and 60Co
radionuclides.
Key words: transfer factor, 137Cs, 60Co, soil, tropical vegetable

1. Introduction
Both routine and nuclear accidental releases of nuclear
wastes result in radionuclides shipping into theenvironment and ground. Radionuclides in the groundespecially soil are frequently transferred to various plant*Leli Nirwani: Research Center for Radiation Safety, Metrology, and Nuclear
Quality Technology, National Research and Innovation Agency, BJ Habibie Scienceand Technology Area, South Tangerang 15314, Indonesia
E-mail: leli001@brin.go.id
https://doi.org/10.51083/radiatenvironmed.13.1_19
Copyright © 2024 by Hirosaki University. All rights reserved.

tissues by direct transfer through the root system, or by
fallout of radionuclides and resuspension of contaminatedsoil followed by deposition on plant leaves1). The uptake inplants varies, resulting in different public dose rates. Thisis characterized by the transfer factor, which represents
the ratio of radionuclide concentration in the plant to soil
per unit mass. This ratio describes the amount of element
expected to enter a plant from its substrate underequilibrium conditions2).
The transfers of radionuclides through the food chain
have been studied for over fifty years, in keeping with
nuclear and civilian nuclear experiments. The transfer

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factor is the absorption of radionuclides from soil to plant.
Transfer from soil to plant increases due to several factors
namely chemical characteristics of radionuclide, fallout or
waste, time after fallout, soil characteristics, plant species,
and soil cultivation3). This data of transfer factors is
required as one of the parameters in the calculation of theinternal radiation dose assessment due to the ingress ofradionuclides into the human body through soil pathways plant - human associated with radionuclide releases from
nuclear installations4).
During the nuclear disaster such as the Fukushima
Daiichi power plant in 2011 and other nuclear accidents
before that accident, mostly 137Cs were released. 137Cs
radionuclide emits radiation at the energy of 661.66 keVwith yield Pγ = 0.85 and has a half-life of about 30 years.
137
Cs in the atmosphere can get into the soil which canthen also reach the plants. 137Cs tend to be tied up by soil
so that ver y little is absorbed by plant roots. 137Cs canenter the human body directly when humans consume
food from contaminated plants. In the human body,137
Cs can settle on almost all the soft tissues of the body,
because they have the same characteristics as the stablepotassium (K)2, 5). This highly radioactive substanceis transformed ver y quickly, with a high number ofdisintegrations per second and a short half-life. On theother hand, small amounts of cobalt are naturally foundin most rocks, soil, water, plants, and animals. Radioactive
cobalt, as 60Co and is the most important radioisotopeof cobalt, has been found in nuclear power plant (NPP)sites. 60Co radionuclide emits γ radiation with E = 1173.24
keV and 1332.50 keV with yield Pγ= 0.99 and has a halflife of 5.27 years. 60Co is known to have very low solution
concentrations due to low solubility.
There are many soil types including Alluvial, Latosol,
red-yellow podzolic, Mediterranean, Grumosol/Vertisol
and Andosol. The soilʼs appropriate degree of acidity (pH)ranges from 4.5 to 8.0 with an ideal pH of 5.86–8). Latosol isfound in tropical rainforests with a relatively high content
of iron and aluminium oxides. They are typically classiﬁed
as oxisols (USDA soil taxonomy) or ferralsols according
to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources9). Latosols
are tropical soils, but the reverse is not true because
many soils in the tropics are not latosolic. Latosols are
red or yellowish-red in colour throughout and they do nothave distinct horizons like a podsol. The soil generally
contains a thin but ver y fertile layer of humus dropped
from plants and animals in the forest, followed by aninfertile second layer due to rapid leaching in the highrainfall. The third level, weathered bedrock, is common toalmost all soil types. The latosol is completely reliant on
the rainforest to maintain fertility, as all nutrients leachaway quickly when the forest is felled and the layer ofhumus is no longer being replaced10).
Regarding the incomplete data transfer factor from soil

to vegetable crops in tropical vegetables, it is necessary toresearch the transfer factors from various types of soil tovarious plant types in Indonesia. The data will be used as
input material for the IAEA if any revised the handbookof the transfer factor. The objective of this investigation
is to study the soil-to-plant transfer factor of radionuclides
to selected plant samples from soil to tropical vegetable
crops.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Soil samples
The soil used as media in this experiment is takenfrom surface soil with a depth of up to 20 cm. The soil
was dried and filtered with a 2 mm sieve filter and wasused for preliminary analysis that included pH, organic
matter, texture, concentration of P, K, Al, H, and cationexchange rates conducted in the Research Center for
Soil and Agroclimate in Bogor. In addition, there werealso measurements of 137Cs and 60Co in dry soil before pot
experiments.
2.2 Experimental pot
The experiment was carried out in a completely
randomized design, which tested 2 treatments, namelyby treating the soil with and without 137Cs and 60Co
radionuclides with 12 replicates, respectively. Each pot
is filled with soil that has been air dried, pulverized andfiltered by using a 2 mm sieved filter sieve and thenstirred evenly and weighed between 5 - 20 kg of weight.
The activity concentration of 137Cs and 60Co radionuclides
under study was about 5 kBq/kg soil each. After the soil
sample was contaminated with these radionuclides, it wasallowed to stand for 1 month to reach equilibrium. Eighttypes of vegetables (green mustard, spinach, eggplant,
swamp cabbage, chilli, bitter melon, tomato, and cassava
leaf, either as seeds or trunks) were then planted in thesepots. N, P and K fertilizers were given to keep nutrientbalance in the soil. Watering was done every day. Pest
control was done by using pesticide spraying to avoid pest
attacks.
2.3. Analysis and measurement
Tropical vegetable crops were cut into small pieces,weighed their wet weight in poliethylene vials andclosed, and was measured the 137Cs and 60Co radioactivity
contents with a gamma spectrometer. Furthermore,
tropical vegetables are dried in an oven at 105 °C for 16
hours. Dry tropical vegetables were weighed and thenmeasured the contents of 137Cs and 60Co with a gamma
spectrometer. The ground after being harvested was also
dried, then weighed and put into vials, and measurementsof the activity of 137Cs and 60Co were performed by a highresolution gamma spectroscopic system employing a

Leli Nirwani et al. / Radiation Environment and Medicine 2024 Vol.13, No.1 19–27

21

Table 1. Transfer factor of radionuclides 137Cs and 60Co in several tropical vegetable plants
Name of Plant
Spinach (Amaranthus sp)

Type /
Family of Plants

Soil type

Shrub / Amaranthaceae

Latosol

Soil pH

Transfer Factor
Cs

137

Co

60

5.7

0.2517±0.8717

0.0305±0.1056

Swamp cabbage (Ipomea Reptans poir)

Convolvulaceae

Latosol

5.7

0.0800±0.2229

0.2086±0.5510

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.)

Shrubs / Solanaceae

Latosol

5.7

0.0746±0.1300-

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

Shrubs /Solanaceae

Latosol

6.0

0.0153±0.0795

0.0024±0.0023

Latosol

4.6

0.5688±0.5800

0.2688±0.5100
0.0067±0.0232

Bitter Melon (Momorica charantia L) Herba / Cucurbitaceae (squash type)
Mustard greens (Brassica juncea)
Eggplant (solanum melongena)

7.3

0.0298±0.1032

Shabby /Solanaceae (eggplant type) Dusty clay

Cruciferae (Brassicaceae)

7.5

0.0115±0.0354 (w)*0.2060±0.1789(d)**Dusty clay

5.9

0.5041+ 1,6815

Cassava leaf (Manihot esculenta)

Clay

Euphorbiaceae-

Note: * (w) = wet**(d) = dry

high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector coupled with amultichannel analyzer.
2.4. Calculation
The concentrations of 137Cs and 60Co in tropical vegetables
and soils are determined by the following equation:
Cc - C b
A = ──── ,E. Y. W(1)

with: A = Radionuclide concentrations in the sample (Bq/g), Cc = sample count rates (cps), Cb = background countrates (cps), E = calibration ef ficiency (%), Y = gamma
energy abundance of the radionuclides, and W = sample
weight (g). Radionuclide speciﬁc activities were obtained
from a quantitative analysis of γ-ray spectra using the γlines at 661.6 keV for 137Cs, 1173.2 keV and 1332.5 keV for60
Co.
The radionuclide transfer factor is determined using
the following equation:
Av
TF = ── ,As(2)With TF = radionuclide transfer factor, Av = radionuclide
concentration in dry vegetable sample (Bq/g), and As =radionuclide concentration in dry soil (Bq/g).
3. Results and discussion
Table 1 shows the research results. The values of theCs transfer factors (TF) from soil to several tropicalvegetables vary between 0.0153 and 0.5688, with thelowest TF found in tomato, whereas the highest was
found in bitter melon. The values of the 60Co transfer
factors from soil to several tropical vegetables vary137

between 0.0024 and 0.2688, and similar to the TF of
Cs, the lowest and highest TF of 60Co was found intomato and bitter melon, respectively. These transfer
factor values are still within the transfer factor of IAEA
in Technical Reports Series No.472, where the transfer
factors of 137Cs in the leafy vegetables are between
0.0003 – 0.9800 and in the non-leafy vegetables are
between 0.0007 – 0.7300. The transfer factor of 60Co inthe leafy vegetables was between 0.0130 -1.0000 and in
the non-leafy vegetables was between 0.0570 – 0.2300.
These results showed a considerable difference in theirdistribution among the plants assessed.
The value of the transfer factor is influenced by thetype of soil, type of plant, type of radionuclide and soil
pH. In the type of soil “clay”, dusty clay planted withshrubs (Solanaceae) and Euphorbiaceae obtained a higher
transfer factor 137Cs of 0.2046 in the eggplant (Solanaceae)
and 0.5041 in the cassava plant (Euphorbiaceae), whencompared to the soil type of “Latosol” with Tomato andChilli (Solanaceae) plant species are 0.0153 and 0.0746.
Different types of plants planted in the same type ofsoil that is latosol showed different 137Cs transfer factors,
this was found higher in spinach (Amaranthaceae) was
0.2517 and swamp cabbage (Convolvulaceae) was 0.0800.
Inorganic materials including essential elements areabsorbed from the soil and passed up through the stem,
moving up usually in the xylem11). The results obtained
are lower when compared to the results obtained at thetransfer factor of 137Cs from latosol soil to spinach plants,
namely 0.1701, this is probably due to the type of plant
where mustard is a grass plant where the stems are
relatively barely visible. present or short, this allows thetransfer of 137Cs absorbed from the soil and transmitted
upwards through the stems relatively less while spinach
137

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Cs

Co

Transfer factor

137

0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

1

2

3

4

5

60

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Code no. of green mustard sample

Fig. 1. Soil texture triangle from NRCS, USDA13).

Fig. 2. Transfer factor of 137Cs and 60Co from soil to mustard greens.

is a shrub plant where in the stem there is a network ofvessels formed which may be able to transfer more 137Cs
than mustard plants12).
In the same type of soil that is the same soil of Latosol
and the same pH of 5.7 and type of radionuclide showsa different 60Co transfer factor which is higher in theswamp cabbage (Convolvulaceae) was 0.2086, while in the
spinach (Amaranthaceae) was 0.0305. Differences typeof radionuclides in the same plant species show different
transfer factors which in spinach (Amaranthaceae) 137Cs
transfer factor was 0.2526 and higher than that of the 60Co
transfer factor (0.0305).
From the soil analysis, it was known that the soil
texture contains sand 24%, ash 22% and clay 54%. Thisshows that soil is “clay” soil same as Figure 1 Soil Texture
Triangle from the Natural Resources Conservation
Service, USDA13). Clay texture soil has a large area of the
big until the soilʼs ability to retain water and tie nutrients
highly, this shows in the green mustard (Brassica juncea).
From the soil analysis result, the soil chemical contains
soil with a pH is 5.9, this value is not much different fromthe ideal pH value for the growth of the cassava9), which
affects the 137Cs transfer that is high enough to cassava
leaf. The soil type is Grumosol/Vertisol. Therefore, theresults showed that soil type influences the transfer
factors.
The value of the 137Cs transfer factor from soil totropical vegetables is higher than the TF value of 60Co.
Perhaps this is due to the chemical characteristic of
caesium which is similar to the potassium element (in thesame periodic system). Potassium is a macronutrient usedin the growth of tropical vegetables.

The tropical climate of Indonesia gives a big chance
to cultivate many vegetable crops throughout the year
due to the availability of sufficient sunlight. Vegetables
are food derived from plants with high water and fibre
content. It contains a lot of vitamins and minerals neededby the body. In this experiment, we used 8 types oftropical vegetables as the objectives of the research on
this paper that is mustard greens, spinach, eggplant,
swamp cabbage, chilli, bitter melon, tomato, and cassava
leaf.
Mustard Greens (Brassica rapa convar) is a kind ofvegetable which is quite popular. This vegetable is also
known as caisim, caisin, or meatballs mustard12). The
suitable soil for planting mustard greens is loose soil
which contains lots of humus, is fertile and has gooddrainage. The optimum acidity (pH) of the soil for growthis between pH 6 to 7. Figure 2 shows the experimental
results for the transfer factor of radionuclide 137Cs and60
Co from soil to mustard greens.
Spinach (Amaranthus sp.), included in the Amaranthaceae
family, is a crop of a year or more and a shrub. Spinach
can grow throughout the year, both in lowland andhighlands (mountains). The degree of soil acidity (soilpH) that is good for growth is between 6 -713). Figure 3
shows the experimental results for transfer factor ofradionuclide 137Cs and 60Co from Soil to Spinach.
Eggplant (Solanum melongena) is a perennial plant ofshrubs that can grow up to 60 - 90 cm, fruit-producing
plants used as vegetables. Eggplant can grow in low
to highland about 1200 m asl, air temperature 22 - 30oC,
sandy, fertile, rich in organic materials, aeration andgood drainage and pH between 6.8 - 7.3, and sufficientLeli Nirwani et al. / Radiation Environment and Medicine 2024 Vol.13, No.1 19–27
Cs

Co

137

0.8

23

60

Transfer factor

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Code no. of spinach sample

Fig. 3. Transfer factor of 137Cs and 60Co from soil to spinach.

Cs-WetCs-Dry

137

0.45

137

Transfer factor

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Code no. of eggplant samples

Fig. 4. Transfer factor of 137Cs from soil to eggplant in dry samples and wet samples.

Cs

Co

137

0.8

60

Transfer factor

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Code no. of swamp cabbage samples

Fig. 5. Transfer factor of 137Cs and 60Co from soil to swamp cabbage.

sunlight14). Figure 4 the experimental results for transfer
factor of radionuclide 137Cs from soil to eggplant withmeasurement condition for dry samples and wet samples.
Swamp Cabbage (I pomoea reptans poir) is a grassshaped plant that is crawling (twisted). Having a root

tire system and its root branch spread in all directions,can penetrate the soil to a depth of 60-100 cm and extend
horizontally at a radius of 100-150 cm or more15). Figure 5
shows the experimental results for transfer factor ofradionuclide 137Cs and 60Co from soil to swamp cabbage.

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Leli Nirwani et al. / Radiation Environment and Medicine 2024 Vol.13, No.1 19–27

Transfer factor of 137Cs

0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

8

9

Code no. of chilli samples

Fig. 6. Transfer factor of 137Cs from soil to chilli.

Cs

Co

137

1

60

0.9

Transfer factor

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Code no. of bitter melon samples

Fig. 7. Transfer factor of 137Cs and 60Co from soil to bitter melon.

Cs

Co

137

0.03

60

Transfer factor

0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Code no. of tomato samples

Fig. 8. Transfer factor of 137Cs and 60Co from soil to tomato.

Large chilli (Capsicum annum L.) is a seasonal cropof shrubs or half shrubs that have a somewhat diffuserooting system; The main stem grows upright and thebase is woody. Leaves grow singly with varied shapes,
namely taper to ovate and pointed ends. Chilli fruit

contains a lot of carotenes, vitamin A, and vitamin C. Ideal
soil for pepper plants is the type of soil andosol, latosol
and regosol. The optimum pH is 5.5-6.8 where above or
below this acidity will result in low production16). Figure 6
shows the experimental results for transfer factor of

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25

Transfer factor of 137Cs

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Code no. of cassava leaf samples

Fig. 9. Transfer factor of 137Cs from soil to cassava leaf.

radionuclide 137Cs from soil to chilli.
Bitter melon plants are herbaceous plants one year old
or older that grow to creep and creep. Plants that are fruit
vegetables have leaves that are shaped like fingers withyellow flowers17). Figure 7 shows the experimental results
for transfer factor of radionuclide 137Cs and 60Co from soil
to bitter melon.
Tomato is one type of vegetable that many people
favour because it tastes good and fresh as well as a sourceof vitamins18). Including the type of plants in the form ofshrubs or shrubs with a length that can reach 2 meters.
The surface of the stem is covered with many ﬁne hairs,
especially the green parts. Among the hairs are usuallyhair glands. Figure 8 shows the experimental results fortransfer factor of radionuclide 137Cs and 60Co from soil to
Tomato.
Cassava leaf (Manihot esculenta) is a kind of plantthat leaves cooked vegetables containing the amino acidmethionine19). Cassava leaves have 5 to 9 sheets of leaves.
The stem has a distinctive branching pattern, which
varies depending on the cultivar. Cassava is a tropicaland subtropical annual tree of the Euphorbiaceae family.
Cassava plants grow well in rainfall between 1,500-2,500mm/year. The air temperature is at least about 10oC.
Temperatures below 10oC cause plant growth slightly
hampered, it becomes dwarfed due to flower growththat is less than perfect. Optimum humidity between 6065%. Soil with a crumb structure has a good air system,
nutrients are more easily available and are easy toprocess. For better cassava plant growth, soils must be
fertile and rich in organic materials both macro and microelements. Figure 9 shows the experimental results fortransfer factor of radionuclide 137Cs from soil to cassava
leaf.
Currently, there is a new and increasing concern
for the environment stemming from various evidence

that the environment is being seriously affected by
the activities of human beings. If the level of activity
concentrations of natural radionuclides in the soils werehigher than the range of the world average, it might posea radiation hazard to the population. Continuous intakeof radionuclides through the food chain may have someserious health effects on individuals in the long term.
Therefore, it is important to assess the internal doses
to humans from ingestion of radionuclides present inagricultural products and it is necessary to know the mainprocesses which determine the transport of radionuclides
in the environment20).
Much research has been done to study the transportof radionuclides, especially 137Cs and 60Co as the fission
product of uranium. These two radionuclides are more
representative of discharges from nuclear facilities andare of interest for radiological protection because of theirgreat mobility in the biosphere and affinity with biologicalsystems.
Khadra et al.20) studied the TF of 137Cs in wheat plantsfrom the sandy loam soil and found that the TF was 0.81
and from clayey soil was 0.24, showing that soil typeinfluences the transfer factors. They also revealed that
TF in roots were higher than those for leaves for all
soils only for 137Cs. Quinto et al.21) studied 137Cs and 60Co
uptake by lettuce plants in field conditions and found that
the TF of both radionuclides ranged from 0.05 to 0.1 inmature vegetables. Choi et al.22) found the TF of 137Cs forseeds of soybeans is in the range of 3.0×10-5 – 2.7×10-4
and for leaves is in the range of 9.2×10-5 –1.9×10-4. These
TF were decreased to 34% in the fourth year. A very old
experiment by Boikat et al.23) found that TF combinedfrom all experiments appeared lognormally distributedwith median values of 0.22 on podzolic and 0.09 on
marshy soils. Whereas a study by Mollah and Begumfrom Bangladesh24) found the TFs of 60Co for rice, bean,

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peanuts, pineapple, cabbage, tomato, spinach and grasswere found to be 0.09, 0.15, 0.12, 0.67, 0.28, 0.79, 1.03 and
0.34, respectively, and much more studies about TF of
a large number of radionuclides to many types of plants
are being conducted.
Here we studied the transfer factor from several
types of soil and vegetables. The transfer factor depends
sensitively on chemical, physiological and ecologicalconditions. Radionuclides absorbed are transferred to theplant organs and their quantities are determined basedon the kind of contamination source and of biologicaland environmental processes. Some other factors that
affect this factor are the type of radionuclide, plant
species, soil type, soil physical properties (soil texture),soil chemical properties (soil pH, soil organic matter
content, and soil cation exchange capacity) and stableelement concentration4, 19-21). Whereas minor factors aredifferences in crop varieties, differences in agricultural
management (fertilization) and the weather.

Technical Report Series No.: 472.
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Abu-Khadra SA, Abdel–Sabour MF, Abdel–Fattah AT, Eissa HS.
Transfer Factor of Radioactive Cs and Sr from Egyptian soils toroots and leafs of wheat plant. IX Radiation Physics & Protection
Conference; 2008 Nov 15–19; Nasr City - Cairo, Egypt. 2008.

4. Conclusion
a. The transfer factors of radionuclide 137Cs from soil to8 tropical vegetable plants that are mustard greens,spinach, eggplant, swamp cabbage, chilli, bitter melon,
tomato, and cassava leaf are 0.0298, 0.2517, 0.2061,
0.0800, 0.0746, 0.5688, 0.0153 and 0.5041, respectively.
b. The transfer factors of radionuclide 60Co from soil to
5 tropical vegetable plants that are mustard greens,spinach, swamp cabbage, bitter melon, and tomato is0.0067, 0.0305, 0.2086, 0.2688, and 0.0024, respectively.
c. In general, the transfer factor of 137Cs was higher than
the 60Co. The lowest and highest transfer factor were
found in tomato and bitter melon, respectively for 137Cs
and 60Co radionuclides.
d. It is suggested that research on transfer factors in othertypes of soils and other crops should be conducted.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the fruitful collaboration of thetechnical staff of the Environmental Chemical Laboratory,
Radioecology Division of the Center.
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