੩㩷 ㇺ㩷 ᄢ㩷 ቇ㩷 㒐㩷 ἴ㩷 ⎇㩷 ⓥ㩷 ᚲ㩷 ᐕ㩷 ႎ㩷 ╙㪋㪏ภ㩷 㪙㩷 ᐔᚑ㪈㪎ᐕ㪋᦬
Annuals of Disas. Prev. Res. Inst., Kyoto Univ., No. 48 B, 2005

Landslides in Kisawa area, Tokushima Prefecture during the 2004 Typhoon Namtheun

Gonghui WANG, Akira SUEMINE, Gen FURUYA,
Masahiro KAIBORI*, and Kyoji SASSA*

Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University

Synopsis
During Typhoon Namtheun, heavy rainstorm fell on Shikoku area, and triggered
numerous landslides in Nakagawa basin of Tokushima Prefecture, Japan in August 1,
2004. Among them four large landslides were triggered in Kisawa village, causing greatdamage to properties and leading the missing of two persons. Preliminary investigationon them revealed that these landslides experienced rapid long runout movement. Ring
shear tests on the samples from different landslides showed that shear resistance could
be reduced greatly due to the build-up of high excess pore-water pressure after the shear
failure was triggered by the increase in ground water table during the rain.
Keywords: Rainstorm; Landslide; Typhoon Namtheun; Ring-shear test; Mechanism

1.

Introduction

Typhoon Namtheun (the 10th tropical storm in thewestern Pacific in 2004) originated west of
Minamitorishima Island of Japan on July 25, 2004. It
made landfall on Shikoku island on July 31, thenpassed through the Seto Inland Sea and Hiroshima
Prefecture, and moved toward the eastern part of the
Korean Peninsula, losing energy to become a tropicaldepression (Fig. 1a). Accompanying this typhoon,
heavy rain fell on the Shikoku area of Japan (Fig.1b),
especially in the Nakagawa District (on the southwestpart) of Tokushima Prefecture, setting a new Japanesedaily precipitation record (Fig. 2).
Many landslides were triggered by the storm; themost catastrophic among them were four giant
landsides occurring on Kisawa village of Nakagawa
District, Tokushima Prefecture. These were at the
Oyochi, Kashu, Azue, and Kamagatani areas of
Kisawa village (Fig. 3), and we call them the Oyochi,
Kashu, Azue, and Kamagatani landslides, respectively.
The Oyochi, Kashu, and Azue landslides all arewithin a small area (Photo 1); the Kamagatani
landslide is little further from the others. Theselandslides destroyed houses, forests and farms andsevered roads. Two people were caught in one of thelandslides, and their bodies were never recovered.
This report gives a brief, preliminary account of thelarger landslides in Kisawa area.

2.

Rainfall Characteristics

Torrential rain in Tokushima and Kochi Prefectures
accompanied the slow approach and passing of
Typhoon Namtheun. At Kaminaka town (about 10 km
far away from these four landslides) of Nakagawa
District, Tokushima Prefecture, the total precipitationfrom July 30 to August 2 was more than 2,000 mm(Fig. 2). This is several times the normal precipitation
for the months of July and August in this area. Hourly
precipitation reached more than 120 mm (Fig. 2). The
highest daily precipitation of 1,317 mm was recordedon 1 August (Fig. 2); this value exceeds the previous
Japanese daily precipitation record of 1,114 mm,recorded at Kito village (about 16 km southwest of
Kisawa village) on September 11, 1976 accompanying Typhoon Fran.
The area where precipitation exceeded 1,500mm
for the storm was centered on Kisawa village andKaminaka town, as a very narrow area of 5-6 km in
the east-west direction, and 10-20 km in thesouth-north direction (Fig. 1b). Within this area,
many landslides were triggered.
3.

Geological background

The area where the landslides occurred ischaracterized by deep river valleys with steep slopes,
and many of the mountain slopes have steep chutes.

1

Most of the settlements are located on gentle slopes
formed by past landslides, or on narrow streamsideterraces. According to the subsurface geological mapof Tokushima Prefecture (Tokushima Prefecture,1983), the area is mainly underlain by Paleozoic
greenstone, Paleozoic and Mesozoic pelite andgreywacke, and serpentinite of the Mesozoic
Kurosegawa terrane, as well as limestone and chert.

Oyochi landslide was triggered mid-slope on themountainside, about 1 km from the Oyochi settlement(Photo 2) at approximately 20:30 hr, August 1. Twopeople were caught up in this landslide, and theirbodies have not been found. The head scarp is
situated at an altitude of about 1000 m, while the joinof the slope to the Oyochi valley is about 560 m. The
slope angle averaged 34 degrees. The displaced
materials of about 0.5~1106 m3 from the cover andweathered bedrock moved downslope to the river, andhit the opposite side of the channel. A part of thedisplaced mass crossed a ridge on the opposite slope(area Ԙ in Photo 2), and transformed into a large
debris flow, traveling a further 2 km along the valley(area ԙ in Photo 2). In this area, the bedrock ismainly composed of greenstone and serpentinite withvisible cracks. Immediately below the source area,
the displaced mass is meters thick, and contains somehuge boulders (Photo 3). The deposited mass could beliquefied by stamping feet, indicating the highlyliquefiable character of the landslide materials.
KamagataniFig. 1 (a) Path of Typhoon Namtheun (after National
Institute of Informatics, 2004). (b) Rainfall
distribution in the Shikoku area from July 30 toAugust 2 (after Nakagawa River Office, Shikoku
Development
Bureau,MinistryofLand,
Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT), Japan, 2004)

Kashu

Azue

Oyochi

Kisawa

2500

120

2000

90

1500

60

1000

30

500

0
0

Accumulated precipitatin (mm)Precipitatin (mm/h)

Kaminaka
150

Fig. 3 Location of Oyochi, Kashu, Azue andKamagatani landslides

0
8

16

30 July

24

8

16

24

31 July

816

1 August

24

8

16

24

2 August

Time

Fig. 2 Hyetograph of the heavy rainfall (data courtesyof Shikoku Electric Power Co., Inc.)
4.

Landslides in Kisawa area

4.1 Oyochi landslide and Kashu landslide
The Oyochi and Kashu landslides occurred on thesame ridge and side of the mountain (Photo 1).

Photo 1 Oblique aerial view of the Oyochi, Kashu,
and Azue landslides (photo by Shikoku
Development Bureau, MLIT, Japan)2OyochiPhoto 2 Oblique aerial view of Oyochi landslide(photo by Shikoku Regional Development Bureau,
MLIT, Japan)
Photo 5 Oblique aerial view of Azue landslide and theunstable blocks after the August 1, 2004 event(photo by Nakanihon Sky Service Station, Japan).
The broken brown line outlines the area of theancient landslide

Photo 3 Deposits of landslide mass at Oyochi

Kashu

Photo 6 Oblique aerial view of the Fudono area after
the landslide (photo by Shikoku Regional
Development Bureau, MLIT, Japan)
800
BeforeAltitude (m)

700

A

After

600
17.8o

500

S

A'
400

o
23.5

300
200
0

Photo 4 Oblique aerial view of Kashu landslide(photo by Shikoku Regional Development Bureau,
MLIT, Japan)

200

400

600
800
1000
Horizontal distance (m)

1200

1400

Fig. 4 Longitudinal section of the Azue landslide(A-A’ in Photo 5; S is sample point for grain size
analysis and ring-shear test)3

Photo 7 Subsidence on the left hand side of thelandslide locating on the upper part of the Azue
landslide scarp (yellow dashed region in Photo 5)

4.2 Azue landslide
Azue landslide is located on the left side ofSakashu-Kito River, in front of the Kashu landslide(Photo 5). A remarkable scar indicating an ancientlandslide is also visible at the same site (Photo 5
outlined approximately by the brown broken line).
We also found a small-scale linear depression on themountain top during our survey. The new landslide
occurred near the southern boundary of the oldlandslide scar within the weathered bedrock layer.
Azue landslide has a width of about 130 m, ahorizontal length of about 1 km, and a depth ranging
from 10 to 20 m. The volume of the displaced
material was estimated to be about 1~2106 m3. The
displaced material slid down the slope, crossed theriver, and rose up the opposite mountain slope toabout 30 m (immediately below the Fudono area),
destroying and carrying away the Fudono bridge,
which was built on the national road (Photo 6).
A longitudinal section of the landslide (Fig. 4), wasplotted using data from an airborne laser scanner after
the failure (performed by Aero Asahi Corporation),and the pre-failure topography was obtained from aforest map with 2-m contour. The landslide originatedon a slope of approximate 23.5 degrees with anapparent friction angle of about 17.8 degrees (Fig. 4).
From the travel distance and the height reached on
the opposite slope, the speed of the displaced
landslide material was estimated to be very fast (>20m/s, Hiura, et al, 2004).

Photo 8 Exposure of the sliding surface beneath theold landslide. The materials above/below thesliding surface are weathered green stone
4400

Precipitation
3

300

2

200

1

100

0

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Precipitation (mm/day)Shear displ.
Shear displacement (cm)Kashu landslide (Photo 4) occurred on the same
slope near the Oyochi landslide, and almost at thesame time as the Oyochi event. The head scarp is
situated at an altitude of about 910 m, while thealtitude of river floor is about 300 m. The slope angle
averaged 27 degrees. According to a local resident,
Kashu landslide started on the lower valley slope near
Kashu settlement (below A-A’ in Photo 4), and was
followed by another two failures, finally retrogressing
almost to the ridgeline of the mountain on August 2.

0

October, 2004
Date

Fig. 5 Observed shear displacement and daily
precipitation on October 2004 for the unstable block
above the Azue landslide
The main failure of Azue landslide occurred at
approximately 23:00 hr on August 1, a little later thanthe Oyochi and Kashu landslides. Afterwards, loudcrashing noises continued for several hours, probably
due to retrogressive failures. On the upper parts of theslope near the scarp, landsliding of the unstableregions of the displaced mass on a small scale is still
continuing, and some places has been covered bythick displaced material. Light green and light
red/purple bedrock (green stone) is exposed on theright hand side of the landslide.
We were told that a landslide occurred 5 years ago
on the area below the curve of F-F’ shown in Photo 5,
also during heavy rain. We noticed that a smoothsurface of relatively hard bedrock crops out (below
F-F’ on Photo 5), which strikes N45ºE and dips north(Hiura, et al, 2004). We infer that this surface formed
an impermeable or less permeable layer, whichfacilitated a rapid rise in the local ground-water table
during the storm, which in turn triggered the slope
failure.

4

100

Altitute (m)After
Before

C

50
o

20
0

o

33

C'

S'
-50
0

50

100

150

200

250

Horizontal distance (m)Photo 9 A general view of Kamagatani landslide. S’marks the sample site, and the red dashed cycle
marks the site of Photo 10

Photo 10 A close view of the location marked by the
red dot in Photo 9. This is the location of the coolground-water resurgence

Photo 11 A displaced concrete block from thesoil-conservation (check) dam (Black area outlinedby the broken white line) on the slope opposite thelandslide source (Red arrow: downstream of thevalley; White curved arrow: move direction of theblock)

Fig. 6 Longitude section of the Kamagatani landslide(S’ is sample point; the pre-failure topography was
obtained from neighboring slope)
Above the main scarp of Azue landslide, anotherhuge block moved slightly. After the landslide,numerous cracks with significant displacements were
found on the slope above the main scarp (and along
the scarp of the old landslide). The white dashed linesthat were made basing on the observed cracks outline
the boundary of each landsliding sub-block. The roadon the left hand side of the old landslide scar was
severed by a crack, where there was subsidence ofabout 2.0 m (Photo 7). The subsidence increased to
2.5m over about two weeks. It exposed awell-consolidated sliding surface of the old landslide(see Photo 8), which originated in the bedrocks andstrikes N44ºW and dips 48ºW.
Preliminary bore-hole data indicate that theunstable block ranges from 20–50 m in thickness.
Therefore, the unstable landslide mass was estimatedto be in the order of 106 m3. This landslide mass isstill deforming, and measured displacements by the
installed extensometers show that its movement isvery sensitive to rainfall. This can be seen from Fig. 5,
where the monitored shear displacement on October
2004 by means of an extensometer located on point E
in Photo 5 is plotted together with the daily
precipitation. A detailed account the deformation ofthis landslide mass is beyond the scope of this report
and will be presented elsewhere.
4.3 Kamagatani landslide
Kamagatani landslide (Photo 9) is located on theright slope of the valley of Kamagatani River, theupper tributary of Sakashu-Kito River. This landslide
is about 7 km north of the three landslides discussed
above.
The landslide originated on a slope of about 33
degrees. It has a width of 120 m, a length of 200 m,
and a depth of 10–15 m. The displaced landslide mass
was estimated to be about 2105 m3. The source area
consists of mudstone, which is overlain by sandstone
and ancient colluvial deposits. The failure occurred
within the outer layers of these strata. In the middle
part of the source area, a ridge-shaped roll existed,suggesting the presence of hard rock. A large amountof groundwater discharges near the mudstone-5

sandstone boundary (Photo 10). The landslide carriedaway a soil-conservation (check) dam that previously
stood on the toe of the slope. A large block ofconcrete from the dam is now on the top of the slope
ridge on the opposite slope across the valley (Photo11). This is where we placed the total-station
measurement system to measure the landslide’s
longitudinal profile (point C’ on Fig. 6). The
displaced soil mass reached and dammed Kamagatani
River. The landslide dam had been eroded by theriver before our investigation, but we have inferredfrom the deposit profile remaining on the river banks
that the displaced material was deposited with a final
slope angle of about 9 degrees. From the height of theconcrete block and elevation of deposits on the slope
opposite to the landslide, the displaced landslidematerial was estimated to have had a speed greaterthan 17 m/s when it reached the valley bottom.
5.

Possible mechanisms for these landslides

As mentioned previously, the Oyochi, Kashu, andAzue landslides have very similar geologicalbackgrounds, while the Kamagatani landslide isdifferent. Nevertheless, they all were rapid to someextent. To understand the triggering, as well as thepossible movement mechanism, it is important tounderstand the shear behavior of these materials
before and after the failure, and how these areaffected by rainfall. Therefore, samples were takefrom the source area of Azue landslide (S in Photo 5)
and from the Kamagatani landslide (S’ in Photo 9),
for laboratory examination, and testing in a ring-shear
apparatus described in Sassa et al. (2004a). Due to asize limitation imposed by the shear box, gravel
greater than 2 mm in diameter was removed bysieving before testing. The grain size distribution of
the samples used in the tests is presented in Fig. 7.
The landslides were obviously triggered by heavy
rain, and so to simulate the rising ground-water table
due to rainfall, shear tests were performed withslowly increasing pore-water pressure. For the test,
the oven-dried sample was first deposited dry in theshear box, and then saturated with the aid of carbon
dioxide and de-aired water. After the sample had beensaturated and consolidated to the initial stress state,pore-water pressure was increased slowly until shear
failure was triggered. Note that the saturation degree
was checked for each sample by measuring the BD
value, which is a parameter proposed by Sassa (1988)
for the saturation degree in the direct shear state.
For Azue landslide, the sample had a specificgravity of 2.94 in the field, and dry density of 2.08
g/cm3. Because the test aim was to examine the shear
behavior of the landslide material before and after
failure, a soil element was selected from the sliding
surface where the overlying soil was 25-m thick. The
initial normal stress and shear stress acting on the soil
element were calculated to have been 488 kPa and212 kPa, respectively. The test results are presented in

the form of time-series data (Fig. 8a) and effective
stress path (Fig. 8b). Shear failure was triggered when
the pore-water pressure was increased to a certain
value (Fig. 8a). The monitored pore-water pressure
after failure showed a brief reduction and thereafter
increased with further shearing. During this period,
shear resistance was greatly reduced. The effective
stress path fluctuated widely (Fig. 8b), probably due
to problems in measuring pore pressure (as detailed in
Sassa et al 2004b). The final apparent friction angle
was very small, about 5.4 degrees.
A similar test was performed on a sample from the
Kamagatani landslide. Time-series data (Fig. 9) showthat shear failure was triggered when the pore-waterpressure was increased to point “P”. After failure,pore-water pressure showed a sharp increase and thendecreased. To measure the pore-water pressure within
the shear zone, the shear box was switched to an
undrained condition after point “SUD”. The
pore-water pressure increased with progress ofshearing. The shear resistance showed almost nochange in the final shear stage, indicating no further
build up in excess pore-water pressure within theshear zone. The apparent friction angle was about 8.3
degrees (Fig. 9b). Although the final shear resistanceshown in Fig. 9 is smaller than that in Fig. 8; thegreater apparent friction angle in Fig. 9b is
considered to be due to the smaller initial normal
stress. The initial consolidated normal stress usually
does not affect the shear resistance at steady state
when a sample is subjected to undrained shearing, if
other test conditions are the same (Castro & Poulos
1977; Kramer 1988).
6.

Summary

A field investigation was made of the larger
landslides triggered at Kisawa village by an
unprecedented rainstorm accompanying typhoon
Namtheun in 2004. Basic characteristics of theselandslides were described and some laboratory
ring-shear experiments were performed to examine
possible triggering and movement mechanisms.
(1) The Oyochi, Azue, and Kamagatani landslides
moved rapidly over long distances. No evidence wasfound from which to determine the speed of the
Kashu landslide.
(2) The Azue landslide originated on the gentle
slope on an ancient landslide. Due to the occurrenceof the new landslide, the old landslide was reactivatedand continues to move.
(3) Impermeable hard bedrock (or a layer of lower
permeability) enabled the ground-water table to rise,
which caused an increase in pore-water pressure
within the overlying soil, and triggered the landslides.
(4) Results of ring-shear tests on samples from
Azue and Kamagatani landslides showed that highexcess pore-water pressure could be built up such thatshear resistance lowered to very small values,
indicating that both samples are highly liquefiable.

6References
80
Azue
60
40
Kamagatani
20
0
0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

Grain size (mm)Fig. 7 Grain-size distributions of samples from the
Azue and Kamagatani landslides (after removal ofthe >2 mm size fraction)
Finally, it is noted that further studies of the sliding
characteristics of the unstable landslide block above
Azue landslide during rainfall are needed and arebeing planned.
Acknowledgment

Stresses and pressure (kPa)Prof. Okabe of Tokushima University, Prof. Hiuraof Kochi University, Dr. Satofuka and Dr. Tsutsumi of
Kyoto University, are thanked for their help anddiscussions in the field survey. Thanks also go to the
Aioi Civil Office of Tokushima Prefecture and to the
Kisawa Village office for their help in the field.
600
500

Castro, G. and Poulos, S.J. (1977): Factors affecting
liquefaction and cyclic mobility. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 103,
pp. 501-516.
Hiura, H., Kaibori, M., Suemine, A., Satofuka, Y. andTsutsumi, D. (2004): Sediment-related disasters in
Kisawa-Village and Kaminaka-Town in Tokushima
Prefecture, Japan, induced by the heavy rainfall of
the Typhoon Namtheun in 2004 (prompt report).
Journal of the Japan Society of Erosion Control
Engineering, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 39-47.
Kramer, S.L. and Seed, H.B. (1988): Initiation of soilliquefaction under static loading conditions. Journalof Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 114, pp.
412-430.
Nakagawa River Office, Shikoku Development
Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure andTransport, Japan (2004) The flood situation on thedownstream of Nakagawa river due to the 2004
Typhoon No. 10 (Namtheum) (in Japanese). at
website:http://www.skr.mlit.go.jp/nakagawa/nakagawa_topic
s/H16_10gou/mokuji.html.
National Institute of Informatics (2004): Digital
Typhoon:Typhoon200410(Namtheun).
http://agora.ex.nii.ac.jp/digital-typhoon/news/2004/
TC0410/index.html.en.
1200

(a)

Normal stress
1000
Displ.

400
300

800
600

Shear resistance

400

200
100
0
0

200

pore pressure
400

800

1200

1300
Time (s)

0
1500

1400

Shear displacement (cm)Percent finer by weight (%)

100

Shear resistance (kPa)

300

(b)

ESP

Start

200

TSP
100

0
0

End
5.4O

100

200

300

400

500

600

Normal stress (kPa)

Fig. 8 Results of a ring-shear test on a sample from the Azue landslide. (a) Time-series data for normal stress,
shear resistance, pore-water pressure and shear displacement; (b) stress path (ESP: Effective Stress Path; TSP:
Total Stress Path) (Pore-pressure parameter, BD= 0.96, e = 0.425)

7

1600

Stresses and pressure (kPa)200
Normal stressP

Shear resistance

800

100

Displ.
pore-water pressure

50

0
0

(b)

1200

150

100

200

400

SUD

300

400
500
Time (s)600

700

Shear displacement (cm)

(a)

0
800

120

P

Shear resistance (kPa)

ESP
Start
80

TSP
SUD

40
End

0

8.3o
0

40

80
120
Normal stress (kPa)

160

200

Fig. 9 Results of a ring shear test on a sample from the Kamagatani landslide. (a) Time-series data for normal
stress, shear resistance, pore-water pressure and shear displacement; (b) stress path (BD = 0.97, e = 0.513)
Sassa, K. (1988): Geotechnical model for the motionof landslides. Special Lecture of 5th Int’l. Symp. on
Landslides, “Landslides”, Rotterdam: Balkema, Vol.
1, pp. 37-55.
Sassa, K., Fukuoka, H., Wang, G., and Ishikawa, N.
(2004a): Undrained dynamic-loading ring-shear
apparatus and its application to landslide dynamics.
Landslides, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.7-20.
Sassa, K., Wang, G., Fukuoka, H., Wang, F., Ochiai,T., Sugiyama, M. and Sekiguchi, T. (2004b):
Landslide risk evaluation and hazard zoning for
rapid and long-travel landslides in urban

development areas. Landslides, Vol.1, No.3, pp.
221-235.
Suemine, A., Kaibori, M., Wang, G., and Furuya, G.
(2004): Preliminary investigation report on thelandslide hazards on the upstream basin of NakaRiver, Tokushima Prefecture, triggered by the
Typhoon No. 10, 2004. Landslide: Journal of theJapan Landslide Soc, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 87-89 (inJapanese).
Tokushima Prefecture (1983): Subsurface geologicalmap: Kumosoyama. Naigai Map Co. Ltd., 33p.

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