A FOREST OF PEARLS
FROM THE DHARMA GARDEN
VOLUME I

dBET PDF Version© 2019All Rights Reserved

BDK English Tripiṭaka Series

A FOREST OF PEARLS
FROM THE
DHARMA GARDEN
VOLUME I(Taishō Volume 53, Number 2122)

TranslatedbyKoichi Shinohara

BDK America, Inc.
2019

Copyright © 2019 by Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai and
BDK America, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
First Printing, 2019
ISBN: 978-1-886439-71-9
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2019935629
Published by
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1675 School Street
Moraga, California 94556
Printed in the United States of America

A Message on the Publication of the
English Tripiṭaka
The Buddhist canon is said to contain eighty-four thousand different teachings.
I believe that this is because the Buddha’s basic approach was to prescribe adifferent treatment for every spiritual ailment, much as a doctor prescribes a
different medicine for every medical ailment. Thus his teachings were always
appropriate for the particular suffering individual and for the time at which theteaching was given, and over the ages not one of his prescriptions has failed torelieve the suffering to which it was addressed.
Ever since the Buddha’s Great Demise over twenty-ﬁve hundred years ago,
his message of wisdom and compassion has spread throughout the world. Yet
no one has ever attempted to translate the entire Buddhist canon into English
throughout the history of Japan. It is my greatest wish to see this done and to
make the translations available to the many English-speaking people who havenever had the opportunity to learn about the Buddha’s teachings.
Of course, it would be impossible to translate all of the Buddha’s eighty-four
thousand teachings in a few years. I have, therefore, had one hundred thirty-nineof the scriptural texts in the prodigious Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist
canon selected for inclusion in the First Series of this translation project.
It is in the nature of this undertaking that the results are bound to be criticized.
Nonetheless, I am convinced that unless someone takes it upon himself or herself
to initiate this project, it will never be done. At the same time, I hope that an
improved, revised edition will appear in the future.
It is most gratifying that, thanks to the efforts of more than a hundred Buddhist
scholars from the East and the West, this monumental project has ﬁnally gotten
off the ground. May the rays of the Wisdom of the Compassionate One reacheach and every person in the world.
NUMATA Yehan
Founder of the English
Tripiṭaka ProjectAugust 7, 1991v

Editorial Foreword
In the long history of Buddhist transmission throughout East Asia, translationsof Buddhist texts were often carried out as national projects supported andfunded by emperors and political leaders. The BDK English Tripiṭaka project,on the other hand, began as a result of the dream and commitment of one man.
In January 1982 Dr. NUMATA Yehan, founder of Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai (Society
for the Promotion of Buddhism), initiated the monumental task of translating
the complete Taishō shinshū daizōkyō edition of the Chinese Tripiṭaka (Buddhist
canon) into the English language. Under his leadership, a special preparatorycommittee was organized in April 1982. By July of the same year the Translation
Committee of the English Tripiṭaka was officially convened.
The initial Committee included the following members: (late) HANAYAMA
Shōyū (Chairperson), (late) BANDŌ Shōjun, ISHIGAMI Zennō, (late) KAMATA
Shigeo, (late) KANAOKA Shūyū, MAYEDA Sengaku, (late) NARA Yasuaki,(late) SAYEKI Shinkō, (late) SHIOIRI Ryōtatsu, TAMARU Noriyoshi, (late)
TAMURA Kwansei, (late) URYŪZU Ryūshin, and YUYAMA Akira. Assistantmembers of the Committee were as follows: KANAZAWA Atsushi, WATANABE
Shōgo, Rolf Giebel of New Zealand, and Rudy Smet of Belgium.
After holding planning meetings on a monthly basis, the Committee selected
one hundred and thirty-nine texts for the First Series of the project, estimatedto be one hundred printed volumes in all. The texts selected were not limited tothose originally written in India but also included works composed in China
and Japan. While the publication of the First Series proceeds, the texts for theSecond Series will be selected from among the remaining works; this process
will continue until all the texts, in Japanese as well as in Chinese, have been
published. Given the huge scope of this project, accomplishing the English translations of all the Chinese and Japanese texts in the Taishō canon may take aslong as one hundred years or more. Nevertheless, as Dr. NUMATA wished, it is
the sincere hope of the Committee that this project will continue until completion,even after all the present members have passed away.

vii

Editorial Foreword

Dr. NUMATA passed away on May 5, 1994, at the age of ninety-seven. He
entrusted his son, Mr. NUMATA Toshihide with the continuation and completionof the English Tripiṭaka project. Mr. Numata served for twenty-three years, leading
the project forward with enormous progress before his sudden passing on February
16, 2017, at the age of eighty-four. The Committee previously lost its able anddevoted first Chairperson, Professor HANAYAMA Shōyū, on June 16, 1995, atthe age of sixty-three. In October 1995 the Committee elected Professor MAYEDA
Sengaku (then Vice President of Musashino Women’s College) as Chairperson,
and upon the retirement of Professor Mayeda in July 2016, the torch was passed
to me to serve as the third Chairperson. Despite these losses and changes we, theEditorial Committee members, have renewed our determination to carry out thenoble ideals set by Dr. NUMATA. Present members of the Committee are Kenneth
K. Tanaka (Chairperson), MAYEDA Sengaku, ICHISHIMA Shōshin, ISHIGAMI
Zennō, KATSURA Shōryū, MINOWA Kenryō, SAITŌ Akira, SHIMODA Masahiro,
WATANABE Shōgo, and YONEZAWA Yoshiyasu.
The Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research was establishedin November 1984, in Berkeley, California, U.S.A., to assist in the publicationof the translated texts. The Publication Committee was organized at the Numata
Center in December 1991. In 2010, the Numata Center’s operations were mergedwith Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai America, Inc. (BDK America), and BDK America
continues to oversee the publication side of the English Tripiṭaka project in close
cooperation with the Editorial Committee in Tokyo.
At the time of this writing, in February 2017, the project has completed about
sixty percent of the seven thousand one hundred and eighty-five Taishō pagesof texts selected for the First Series. Much work still lies ahead of us but we arecommitted to the completion of the remaining texts in order to realize the grandvision of Dr. Numata, shared by Mr. Numata and Professor Hanayama, to makethe Buddhist canon more readily accessible to the English-speaking world.
Kenneth K. Tanaka
Chairperson
Editorial Committee of
the BDK English Tripiṭaka

viii

Publisher’s Foreword
On behalf of the members of the Publication Committee, I am happy to present
this volume as the latest contribution to the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series. The
Publication Committee members have worked to ensure that this volume, as allother volumes in the series, has gone through a rigorous process of editorial efforts.
The initial translation and editing of the Buddhist scriptures found in thisand other BDK English Tripiṭaka volumes are performed under the direction of
the Editorial Committee in Tokyo, Japan. Both the Editorial Committee in Tokyoand the Publication Committee, headquartered in Moraga, California, are dedicated to the production of accurate and readable English translations of the
Buddhist canon. In doing so, the members of both committees and associatedstaff work to honor the deep faith, spirit, and concern of the late Reverend Dr.
Yehan Numata, who founded the BDK English Tripiṭaka Series in order to disseminate the Buddhist teachings throughout the world.
The long-term goal of our project is the translation and publication of thetexts in the one hundred-volume Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon,
along with a number of influential extracanonical Japanese Buddhist texts. The
list of texts selected for the First Series of this translation project may be foundat the end of each volume in the series.
As Chair of the Publication Committee, I am deeply honored to serve as thefifth person in a post previously held by leading figures in the field of Buddhist
studies, most recently by my predecessor, John R. McRae.
In conclusion, I wish to thank the members of the Publication Committee for
their dedicated and expert work undertaken in the course of preparing this volume
for publication: Managing Editor Marianne Dresser, Dr. Hudaya Kandahjaya, Dr.
Carl Bielefeldt, Dr. Robert Sharf, and Rev. Brian Kensho Nagata, Director of the
BDK English Tripiṭaka Project.
A. Charles Muller
Chairperson
Publication Committeeix

Contents
A Message on the Publication of the English TripiṭakaNUMATA Yehanv

Editorial Foreword

Kenneth K. Tanaka

vii

Publisher’s Foreword

A. Charles Mullerix

Translator’s Introduction

Koichi Shinoharaxiii

A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I
Fascicle 1
Preface to A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden[Topics To Be Discussed]
Chapter One. The Measurement of World Ages (Kalpas)
Fascicle 2
Chapter Two. The Three Realms
Fascicle 3
Chapter Two (continued). The Three Realms (continued)
Fascicle 4
Chapter Three. The Sun and Moon
Fascicle 5
Chapter Four. The Six Realms of Rebirth
Fascicle 6
Chapter Four (continued). The Six Realms of Rebirth (continued)
Fascicle 7
Chapter Four (continued). The Six Realms of Rebirth (continued)

3
7
9
49
89
123
163
217
273

Bibliography

325

Index

327

A List of the Volumes of the BDK English Tripiṭaka (First Series)

357

xi

Translator’s Introduction
A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden (Fayuan zhulin, T. 2122) is a large
anthology of excerpts from Buddhist canonical sources and historical records,
arranged by theme. The scriptural passages, with some exceptions, were takenfrom Indian Buddhist scriptures translated into Chinese; the settings of the narratives they offer are for the most part Indian. The historical records excerpted
in the collection are of Chinese origin, and their settings are Chinese.
The collection is attributed to Daoshi, a seventh-century monk based at Ximingsi Monastery in the capital city, Chang’an. Ximingsi was completed in 658(Xianqing 3) and the famous Vinaya specialist and historian Daoxuan (598–667)
was invited to serve as monastic supervisor (shangzuo). Daoshi had studied under
the same teacher as Daoxuan (Fayuan zhulin, T.2122:354b16) and was among themonks who were called to Ximingsi (Song gaoseng zhuan, T.2061:726c15–17).
The monastery possessed a collection of canonical works and historical documents. Among the many works attributed to Daoxuan are a catalogue of the
Buddhist canon, A Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures Known in the Great Tang
(Datang neidian lu, T. 2149), a collection of historical documents, Extended
Collection of Writings for Spreading and Illuminating the Way (Guang hongming
ji, T. 2103), and a collection of Buddhist miracle stories, Collected Records ofThree Jewels Miracles (Ji shenzhou sanbao gantong lu, T. 2106), all of which
are dated to 664. These works must have been drawn from the manuscript canon
and other material preserved at Ximingsi. In compiling A Forest of Pearls Daoshi
and his collaborators must also have relied on the same collection of canonicaland historical sources at the monastery that Daoxuan had used. Daoxuan’s collection of miracle stories includes a set of stories that also appear as a group ina section of A Forest of Pearls, and Daoxuan explicitly refers to this collection
for further details.
The thematically grouped collection of scriptural excerpts attributed to Daoshi
exists today under two titles, a more extensive Forest of Pearls from the Dharma
Garden that covers one hundred topics, and a shorter Collected Summaries of All

xiii

Translator’s Introduction

Scriptures (Zhujing yaoji, T. 2123), which covers thirty topics. Virtually identicalsets of excerpted scriptural passages appear in corresponding sections. In the preface
to the Collected Summaries Daoshi speaks of reading through the entire canon
during the Xianqing period (656–660) and preparing summaries (T.2123:1a19–20).
This must refer to his compilation of the anthology of canonical sources thatappear in both these collections.
In A Forest of Pearls a set of miracle stories is appended at the end of eachchapter, devoted to one of the one hundred topics around which the collection isorganized. These stories are missing in the Collected Summaries. In A Forest of
Pearls these stories of miraculous occurrences (ganying yuan, “stories of cosmic
responses”) about events reported in China correlate to speciﬁc scriptural accounts
set in India, and they appear to carry the distinct message that the occurrence ofsuch miraculous events illustrate the efﬁcacy in China of the practices describedin scriptures. The principal sources for these miracle stories were collections ofmonastic biographies and a variety of miracle story collections. Most of the latterare no longer extant and their contents are known only through A Forest of Pearls.
This collection offers a comprehensive and distinctive reading of the Buddhist
canon. The focus of this reading is practice. An extraordinarily rich account of
Buddhist practices is offered, though the rationale for the choice of the one
hundred topics around which the discussion is organized is not always clear. The
sections on overlapping topics appear in a different order in A Forest of Pearls
and the Collected Summaries, suggesting that neither collection followed a rigid
rationale in arranging these topics.
Still, the principal practice of “paying respect to,” or worshiping, the Three
Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha) occupies an important place in both. A
Forest of Pearls begins with an extended explanation of Buddhist cosmology
and a large section on the life of the Buddha. This is followed by chapters on
paying respect to Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha and a separate chapter on theritual of paying respect. At this point a focused discussion of Buddhist practicebegins. The Collected Summaries begins with a section on the Three Jewels thatclosely matches A Forest of Pearls’ sections on paying respect to Buddha, Dharma,and Sangha. Daoxuan’s collection of Buddhist miracle stories in China is alsoorganized around the scheme of the Three Jewels. The Three Jewels stood for
Buddhism and Buddhist practices are summarized as “paying respect” to them,and their efﬁcacy is demonstrated by Three Jewels–related miracles.

xivTranslator’s Introduction

Daoshi’s voice is heard throughout the anthology. He introduces each section
with a short essay, identiﬁes scriptural passages, frequently explaining their signiﬁcance in comparative summaries, and concludes the section with a set of verses.
It is generally also Daoshi’s comments in the interlinear notes within quoted passages,commenting on speciﬁc details in light of other scriptural accounts.

Note on the Translation
The translation of the complete text of the Fayuan zhulin has been carried out
by three translators and will be published in multiple volumes. Volumes I–III
have been translated by Koichi Shinohara. The present Volume I includes Fascicles 1–7, Chapters 1–4. Volume II will include Fascicles 8–12, Chapter 5. Volume III will include Fascicles 13–20, Chapters 6–9.

xv

A FOREST OF PEARLS
FROM THE DHARMA GARDEN
VOLUME I

Fascicle 1

Preface to A Forest of Pearls
from the Dharma Garden
Composed by Li Yan, styled Zhongsi, of Longxi
Grand Master for Court Council and
Gentleman-Attendant of the Orchid Pavilion

From the six lines of divination the arrangements of the eight hexagrams areformed. Then ideograms appear and the illumination of scriptures occurs.
Phoenix calligraphy and dragon diagrams, golden tablets and jade letters—
one hundred schools have different standards and their ten thousand volumes
are divided into many categories. Even though they investigate minutely anddiscuss the norms of things exhaustively, tracing and ordering human emotions
and human nature, they do not go beyond matters of this world. How could
any of these apply to otherworldly matters? Furthermore, there is the teachingof Cang Jie, the ancient court historian, and the discourse of [Zhuangzi], aminor country ofﬁcial. Their treasure scriptures are frivolous and their embroidered books are strange. They are like carving ice, which does not produce
permanent shapes, or writing in the sky, which leaves no substantive [messages]. If we compare these with the ﬂower garlands of marvelous teachings
and the leaves inscribed with mysterious words [containing] the broad teachings of the two vehicles and the eight types of Buddhist scriptures, in termsof their depth and superiority, it would be like comparing a small anthill tothe high mountains Mount Song and Mount Hua, or the amount of water collected in a cow’s hoofprint to the amount of water in the Jiang or Han Rivers.
These Buddhist teachings reveal comprehensive truths, hidden norms, gatesof liberation, and a garden of spells. From beginning to end they tally withsuchness. From beginners to the advanced, all take refuge in true enlightenment. The Buddhist teachings guide those who are lost, born in the ocean ofdesires, causing their senses and sense objects, along with their mind and3

A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I269bmental deﬁlements, to disappear; and they draw those who are at a loss tothe chamber of compassion. Both the treasure robe and the jewel topknot [ofPrince Siddhārtha] arrived [in heaven]. The inﬂuence of this teaching reaches
as many worlds as there are grains of sand in the Ganges River, and theeffects reach an inﬁnite number of world ages. How great are these teachings!
How perfect they are! They cannot be adequately praised! Furthermore, [signaling the Buddha’s birth] comets fell like rain in the realm of the Zhou.
When the Buddha’s teaching reached the Han, the image of the sun accompanied [the golden man in Emperor Ming’s dream].
Cai Yin traveled the west. Zhu [Fa]lan came to the east. The words fromthe golden mouth of the Buddha and the teachings of the Jeweled Tower, transposed onto silk and bamboo, have become available in the central region ofChina. They are contained in numerous scrolls and the accounts are deep andextensive. It is difﬁcult to study in detail the true origins of reality.
We are now under the rule of the Tang, and the Emperor, creator of things,
reigns and proclaims the profound teaching [of Buddhism]. Monastics gather
and transmit the bright teaching, pouring it [like a nourishing] liquid that illuminates and moistens the realm under the [Emperor’s] rule. The sounds ofreciting scriptures and utterances of praise are heard quietly all over the realm.
The prospering of the Buddhist teaching is truly indescribable.
The great monastic of Ximingsi Monastery, Dharma Master Daoshi, styled
Xuanyun, is a leader of the Buddhist community. Intelligent even as a young
child, at a tender age he played with a stupa made of sand; he shaved hishead while he was still wearing the colorful clothes of a youth. His greatcompassion is such that it brings salvation even to ants. Having completed
his training he reached the ordination platform, where he received the complete
precepts. Each of the precepts is perfect, offering protection equal to [thatconferred by] swallowing a gem. Daoshi was well versed in the practice ofself-control, taking delight in it in the same way one follows luminous mirrors.
He loves the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) and penetrates and illuminates reality.
Because of his superior and broad learning he was called to reside at Ximingsi
Monastery. In the time outside of the cultivation of the ﬁvefold teaching, heread the Tripiṭaka extensively. He thought that over many generations, fromthe ancient past to the present, many authors compiled these works. Though
elegant in meaning and beautiful in expression, they are not all worthy of4Preface

recording. Thus, Daoshi selected the best ﬂowers from the ﬁeld of these writings,
sniffed out the fragrant blossoms of the great teaching, and organized them incategories. The work is called A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden,
altogether one hundred fascicles, ﬁlling ten boxes. Though its language is
economical its content is rich. It strings together the essentials of extensive
teachings, comparable to those of [You] Yu (the sage emperor Shun), and thetraces collected here proclaim the teaching as a mirror of the Way.
Like the Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcation of Buddhism (T.
2102) of Master Sengyou (445–518), A Forest of Pearls brings to light [theteaching]; its words are beautiful and the Way is presented clearly. None ofthe profound teachings are left out; all essential teachings are included, without
exception. If a text is too long and detailed one soon becomes tired of it, but
if the content is too abbreviated the scope of learning is limited. Even though
he wished not to ﬁll scrolls with ﬁction and empty words, Daoshi could not
eliminate substantive matters. The writing seems to be extensive; if one studies
it over a long period, one gets to know the essential teachings.
In the ﬁrst year of the Zongzhang period (668 C.E.), on the thirtieth dayof the third month, the compilation was completed. It is our hope that authorsof philosophical writings will ﬁnd in these fascicles jewels that ﬁt their needs
perfectly, and that those who follow the correct path will open this work anddrink the sweet dew of immortality. Investigating these pages, one comes toknow the subtle; in contemplating reality with the teachings presented here,
one comes to see the hidden. Everything that surrounds us is equally illuminated. Circling around the sky one continues to coexist forever with all things.

5

A Forest of Pearls fromthe Dharma Garden
Compiled by Shi Daoshiof Ximingsi Monastery[Topics To Be Discussed:] Measurement of world ages; the three realms; thesun and moon; the six realms; one thousand buddhas; paying respect to the
Buddha; paying respect to the Dharma; paying respect to the Sangha (monastic
order); the practice of paying respect; the ﬁeld of merit; turning to faith; men
and women; entering the Way; repentance; providing guidance; preaching
and listening to the Dharma; understanding; fate; sincerity; supernatural feats;
miraculous response; upholding the teaching; seclusion; anomalies; transformation; dreams; meritorious work; controlling [one’s] thoughts; vows; theDharma robe; the lamp; the banner; incense and ﬂowers; chanting; paying
respect to a stupa; temple building; relics; offerings; accepting invitations;the cakravartin king; rulers and ministers; accepting remonstrance; investigating
the truth; caution; parsimony; punishments for faults; obedience; admonition;
loyalty and ﬁlial piety; unﬁliality; returning kindness; failing to return kindness;good friends; evil friends; choosing [one’s] associates; attendants; measurement;
debating skill; stupidity; deception; laziness; refuting wrong views; wealth;poverty; debt; court cases; reviling; magic; sacriﬁce; divination; praying forrain; the fruits of the garden; ﬁshing and hunting; compassion; releasing living
beings; rescue; suffering; karmic causes; retribution; punishment and happiness;desire; the four kinds of birth; the ten dispositions; the ten evil deeds; the six
perfections; repentance; receiving precepts; violating precepts; receiving afeast; breaking the rule of offering a feast to monks; reward and punishment;
beneﬁt and harm; [consuming] wine and meat; deﬁlement; illness; giving up
one’s body; sending one to death; destruction of the Dharma; other miscellaneous matters; scriptural records.

7

269c

Chapter One

The Measurement ofWorld Ages (Kalpas)(Note: The calamities of kalpas are of two kinds:) (1) Lesser Calamities and(2) Three Great Calamities.

1. Lesser Calamities(This has six parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Epidemics, (3) Warfare, (4) Famine,(5) Successive Generations, and (6) Treatments.
1. Introduction
A kalpa (world age) is the designation for a time period, like the term
“year.” Though time is not a separate entity, the meaning of this designation
becomes clear in the light of the Buddhist Dharma. The holy teaching ispreached widely and contains many different kinds of records that include
not only the profound norms of principle and contemplation but also the mysterious teachings on reward and punishment. If one roams afar lost in the consciousness of the [inﬁnite] past, it is easy to exhaust the [inﬁnite] number ofminute [particles of] dust [and still fail to fathom its depth]. If one returns tothe starting point on the path of enlightenment [and follows the path better
informed about the progression of time], it is possible [to reach the goal]
within the limit of the asaṃkhya period. This may result in the difference
between being lost or becoming enlightened. Even in the massive city in theHell of Incessant Punishment (Avīci) the life span is limited and sinners moveon to further rebirths. [Just by donating for a temple pillar base] a rock used
for [washing] clothes, people are born in heaven. Here the teaching is illustrated
in contrasting cases of good and evil rebirths. In this sahā world one brief
moment is experienced as a hundred years; in the land of the monastics aninﬁnitely long world age constitutes one calendrical cycle of ten days. Hereis the distinction between the deﬁled and the pure.
To speak in broad terms, there is nothing beyond the greater and lesser
kalpas, and each of them contains three items. In the greater kalpa there are9A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I

the calamities of water, ﬁre, and wind. In the lesser kalpa harm comes from
warfare, famine, and epidemics. Thus, we know that beautiful buildings [thattook six years to build] in the end are burned to ashes. The jewel terrace of athousand brahmans in the end ﬂoats away in a sudden downpour. Furthermore,[at the time of these calamities] divinations will not produce any signs; prayers
will have no effect. The shining blades of weapons meet each other, and thepointed swords of starlight cross each other. Living people are harmed andalmost entirely destroyed. Yet fear of the three realms does not lead to awakening. Lamenting over the six realms of rebirth, one is ﬁlled with sorrow.
2. Epidemics
The Dazhidu lun (T.1509) says:
What is meant by jie (kalpa)?
Answer: The Sanksrit term in correct transcription is jiebo batuo (kalpa
bhadra). Jiebo (kalpa) means a division of time; batuo means good.

270a

The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:206b29–c11) says:
The Buddha, the World-honored One, said, “One minor kalpa is called
one kalpa. Twenty kalpas are also called one kalpa. Forty kalpas are also
called one kalpa. Sixty kalpas are also called one kalpa. Eighty minor
kalpas are also called one major kalpa. Why is one minor kalpa called one
kalpa?” At the time the monk Devadatta was in hell, suffering from karmic
retribution, the Buddha said that the period he will remain there is one
kalpa. If the Buddha said that the period [of Devadatta’s stay in hell] is
one kalpa, why are twenty kalpas also called one kalpa? When the Brahmā
god is born in heaven, his life span is twenty minor kalpas. The Buddha
said that it is one kalpa. Why are forty minor kalpas also called one kalpa?
The life span of the Brahmakāyika god is forty minor kalpas. The Buddha
said that it is one kalpa. Why are sixty kalpas also called one kalpa? Thelife span of the Mahābrahmā god is sixty minor kalpas. The Buddha said
it is one kalpa. Why are eighty kalpas called one large kalpa?
The Foshuo Jiezhong shijie jing says:[There are] twenty minor kalpas of destruction. Then, when the twenty
minor kalpas of destruction are ﬁnished, the twenty minor kalpas of arising10Fascicle 1

and formation come. These twenty kalpas of arising and formation havealready started. How many of them have already passed, and how many
are yet to come? Eight minor kalpas have already passed; eleven minor
kalpas are yet to come. The ninth minor kalpa is the present kalpa, which
has not yet come to an end. In this ninth kalpa how much [time] has alreadypassed and how much is yet to come? There are still six hundred and ninety
years to come. (Note: This is calculated taking the last yi-mao year of theLiang [559] as the basis.) In the course of these twenty minor kalpas threekinds of minor calamities occur one after another: ﬁrst the calamity of epidemics, second the calamity of warfare, and third the calamity of famine.
(Note: The names of these three calamities are given differently in different
scriptures. The Chang ahan (Dīrghāgama, T. 1), the Zhong ahan (Madhyamāgama, T. 26), and the Qishi (T. 24) ﬁrst list warfare, then famine andepidemics; the Jushe apidamo (Abhidharmakośa, T. 1558) and the Poshalun (Apidamo da piposha lun; Abhidharma-mahāvibhāśa-sāstra, T. 1545)
ﬁrst lists warfare, then epidemics and famine. The Yüqie (Yogacārabhūmi,T. 1579) and the Duifa (Abhidharmasamuccayavyākhyā, T. 1606) list
famine and then warfare. As for the length of the years and months andthe order, the view of the Yüqie and the Duifa is the correct one.)
Following the Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:215b29–217b6):
This ninth kalpa is the time for the third calamity. This kalpa comes toan end because of famine. The Buddha [taught] the following. In thecourse of the twenty kalpas of arising and formation, in the ﬁrst of thesekalpas, when a lesser calamity occurs there will be a great epidemic. All
kinds of illnesses will spread everywhere in all the lands of Jambudvīpa.
People everywhere will experience a great epidemic. All supernatural
beings will become angry and harm the people of the world. Human life
span will be shortened to only ten years. People will become short instature; some will be [only] two hands tall, some three hands. If they measure themselves with their own hands they will be eight hands tall. The
best food available will be inferior millet. They will consider clothing
made of human hair the best and have only swords and sticks for decoration. At that time people will fail to follow the correct teaching; they
will deviate from the teaching and indulge in greed; wrong views and

11

270b

A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I

other evil behaviors will increase day and night. Evil ghosts will harm
people everywhere.
At that time the lineages of great kings will be terminated and the kingdoms’ territories will gradually become abandoned. Only small local government ofﬁces, scattered in places at great distances from each other,will remain. In this way people will suffer greatly from epidemics, withno one to offer them medicine, food, and drink. For this reason there will
be many who die pointlessly before their life span is exhausted. Each day
and night innumerable sentient beings will die from illness. People will
receive this result because of having committed evil deeds in previous
lives. The disturbance of the kalpa occurs; after death people are rebornin the three inferior realms. At that time local governments will be abandoned; only a small number of families will exist, separated from eachother by great distances. When people die of epidemics, there will be no
one to bury them. The ground will be covered by white bones. Eventually,
more and more houses will be abandoned. During the last seven days ofthe kalpa an innumerable number of sentient beings will fall victim to theepidemic and die. Those who happen to survive this will be scattered indifferent places.
Then, someone will gather together all the men and women in Jambudvīpa. There will only be ten thousand people left; these people will become
the human race for the coming age. These ten thousand people are capableof good deeds. Supernatural beings, not wishing to let the human race becompletely exterminated, will protect them, pouring good nourishment
through their hair follicles. Because of karmic conditions the human race
will not be exterminated, and after seven days the great epidemic will
suddenly disappear. All evil ghosts will be banished. In response to sentient
beings’ needs, food, drink, and clothing will come down from the sky likerain. The seasons will follow in proper order and a good harvest will be
produced. The physical appearance of the people will be attractive, andthey will be free of illness. They will be ﬁlled with the joy felt by relatives
and close friends who have not seen each other for a long time when they
are suddenly reunited. They will stay together all the time and be unwilling
to be separated from each other. In the previous kalpa the human life span
was ten years. These people will give birth to those who are born in the

12Fascicle 1

following kalpa, whose life span may be as long as twenty thousand years.
Such beneﬁts are obtained spontaneously, without any effort. In accordancewith good teachings their actions of body, speech, and mind will be good,
and after their life span is completed they will be reborn in superior realmsof existence. Then, after ﬁnishing their lives as gods, they will be rebornamong human beings. Without any effort they will be naturally good andobserve the precepts fully. After their life span as human beings is overthey will be reborn as gods. This will go on forever and ever.
In the transitional period following the ﬁrst kalpa epidemics and illnesses will be completely absent. This period that connects with the subsequent second kalpa will last for twenty thousand years. During the transitional period people have the same life span as the ﬁrst kalpa; people
then are born from the people of the previous ﬁrst kalpa with a life spanof twenty thousand years.
In the subsequent kalpa people have supernatural powers at their command and are supplied with everything they need. Their life span is forty
thousand years. Sentient beings are reborn as human beings and as gods,
over and over. This is called the second kalpa. In the following transitional
period people have the second kalpa’s life span of forty thousand years.
In the following kalpa people will be provided with everything theyneed, and their life span will be sixty thousand years. They will be reborn
as humans and gods, over and over. This is called the third kalpa. In thefollowing transitional period people have the third kalpa’s life span of
sixty thousand years.
During the periods with sixty thousand- to eighty thousand-year lifespans, women marry at the age of ﬁve hundred years. People have only
seven kinds of discomfort, namely excreting, urinating, feeling cold, heat,sexual desire, hunger, and old age. In these periods all kingdoms are wealthy
and are well provisioned. Robbers, rebels, and thieves are absent. Neighboring villages [are close enough that the inhabitants can] hear each others’
roosters crow. Though they cultivate little the harvest is great. Supplies ofclothing and other property and treasures are sufﬁcient. Sitting in peace,people enjoy pleasures and do not have to run around in search of anything.
The period when the life span is eighty thousand years lasts for an inﬁnite number of years; sentient beings then will not commit any of the ten

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evil deeds. When they begin committing the ten evil deeds, after one hundred years their life spans will be reduced by ten years. In the subsequent
one hundred years the life span will again be reduced by ten years. Humanlife span is thus gradually reduced until it is only about ten years. At thelast stage, when it becomes ten years, the life span will no longer be
reduced. From the maximum of eighty thousand to the minimum of ten
years, the life span will change if the Buddha does not appear in the world.
If the Buddha appears, the true Dharma will stay, and the reduction ofsentient beings’ life span will stop for a while. As the true Dharma begins
to disappear, the life span will also begin to be reduced.
3. Warfare
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:217b8–219a26) says:
The Buddha said, “One minor kalpa is called one kalpa.” The text continues in this way similar to the above, up to the point of saying that“eighty minor kalpas are called a large kalpa.” This large kalpa begins
with the ﬁrst twenty minor kalpas of arising. In the subsequent twenty
kalpas of abiding the second lesser calamity occurs due to great warfare.
When the human life span is ten years the three poisons of greed, anger,
and ignorance, as well as evil views, grow day and night. Parents, children,
siblings, and relatives ﬁght with each other; how much more so do people
who are strangers to each other. At this time people repeatedly treat eachother with contempt; they threaten each other with bricks and stones orwith swords and sticks. Kingdoms in all four directions send expeditions
to conquer each other. An uncountable number of deaths occur in thecourse of a single day and night. Such faults occur spontaneously. People
behave in evil ways, and their karmic consequences are born in the midstof this period, when the pollutions of the kalpa arise. At this time people’shouses collapse, and even those who survive are scattered in different
directions. This period of the end of the kalpa lasts for a little over sevendays. In the last seven days, when people take hold of grasses and trees
they all turn into swords and sticks. With these weapons they harm eachother; afraid, they die in distress. At this time the people, fearing [being
attacked with] swords and sticks, ﬂee into the bushes or cross rivers tohide on remote islands. Some go into caves to avoid disaster. Sometimes

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they see another person and they run away from each other, overcome
with fear. Sometimes they fall to the ground, like a deer confronted by ahunter. After seven days of this, countless people lie dead, killed by swords
and soldiers. Even those who survive are scattered in different places.
Then, someone will gather together all the men and women in Jambudvīpa. There will only be ten thousand people left; these people will become
the human race for the coming age. These ten thousand people are capableof good deeds. Supernatural beings, not wishing to let the human race becompletely exterminated, will protect these people, pouring good nourishment through their hair follicles. Because of karmic conditions, in theintermediate period between the kalpas the seeds of the human race will
be preserved and not allowed to be exterminated. After seven days thegreat warfare will suddenly cease. All the evil ghosts will be banished.
In response to sentient beings’ needs food, drink, and clothing will comedown from the sky like rain. The seasons will follow in proper order anda good harvest will be produced. These people’s physical appearance will
be attractive, and their features will be restored to their original condition.
All good dharmas will spontaneously arise. There will be comfort in coolness, quietude, happiness, and freedom from illness. People will be compassionate and free from harmful intentions. They will be delighted when
they see each other, just as those who have not seen their loved ones fora long time and are suddenly reunited are delighted, stay together, andcannot be separated from each other. The evolution continues, as people
perform good deeds and are born in heaven and then again among humans,from the period when the life span is ten years through the period of thelife span of twenty thousand years, eventually to that of the life span ofeighty thousand years, which lasts for an uncountable number of years.
The rest of the passage is identical to what is given above. I will not botherto reproduce it here again.
4. Famine
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:219b6–221a22) says:
In the course of the evolution from the ﬁrst minor kalpa to the eightiethminor kalpa, in the middle of the kalpa of abiding the third lesser calamity
occurs due to a great famine. When this calamity is about to occur there15

A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I

will be drought and people will suffer from a great epidemic. All supernatural beings will become angry and harm the people of the world. Humanlife span will be shortened to only ten years. People will become short instature; some will be two hands tall, some three hands. They will eat
inferior millet. They will make clothing with human hair and consider it
superior. Having only swords and sticks for decoration, they will not treat
each other respectfully. They will suffer from poverty and ignorance, andwrong views will grow day and night among them. When those who are
more powerful see others with food, they will immediately seize it andeat it themselves. For this reason countless people will die of hunger.
When sentient beings are born at this time, in the midst of the kalpa ofdeﬁlements, they automatically commit evil deeds. When there is no rain
for four or ﬁve years in a row, a great drought will occur. Even whenpeople search they will not ﬁnd weeds and trees, much less rice or otherkinds of grain. All sorts of animals will have already eaten them. In thecourse of a single day and night an innumerable number of people will
die from hunger, leaving commanderies and districts empty.
Only a small number of houses will remain but these will be separated
from each other by great distances. No one will practice the true Dharma
and the three poisons of greed, anger, and ignorance will ﬂourish. Whilepeople suffer in great poverty, the days and nights are ﬁlled with evil. Thenfor six or seven years there will be no rain, and because of the great drought
people will long to see water, but it cannot be found. How much less so[could they ﬁnd] cooked rice? The intermediate period following this kalpa
lasts only for seven days. Each day and night innumerable people die. Even
those who survive will be scattered in many different places.
Then, someone will gather together all the remaining men and womenin Jambudvīpa, adults and children, altogether ten thousand people, whobecome the human race for the coming age. They are capable of gooddeeds. Supernatural beings, not wishing to let the human race be completely
exterminated, will protect these people, pouring good nourishment throughtheir hair follicles. Because of karmic conditions the seeds of the humanrace will not be exterminated. After seven days the famine will suddenly
disappear. All the evil ghosts will be banished. In response to sentient
beings’ needs, food and clothing will come down from the sky like rain.

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The seasons will follow in proper order and a good harvest will be produced.
The people’s physical appearance will be attractive and their features will
be restored to their original condition. All good dharmas will spontaneously
arise. There will be comfort in coolness, quietude, happiness, and freedom
from illnesses. People will be compassionate and free from harmful intentions. They will be delighted when they see each other, just as those whohave not seen their loved ones for a long time and are suddenly reunited
are delighted, stay together, and cannot be separated from each other. The
evolution continues as people perform good deeds and are born in heaven
and then again among humans. Their life span will grow longer, to twenty
thousand years and eventually to eighty thousand years. Other developments
are similar to those described above for other calamities. (Note: according
to the description in the Lishi apitan lun the three calamities last for sevendays each. According to other scriptures and treatises famine lasts forseven years, seven months, and seven days; epidemics last for sevenmonths and seven days, and warfare lasts for seven days.)
The Yüqie lun (T.1579:285c18–286a6) says:[The calamities] begin at the time when the human life span is thirty years.
At that time good food and drink are no longer obtainable. Only fried andcooked dried bones are served at banquets. If a grain of rice, wheat, or
millet is found, it is valued like a maṇi jewel, placed in a box, and guarded
carefully. Sentient beings are weakened; if they fall to the ground theycannot get up. Because of hunger sentient beings almost completely disappear. This calamity of famine lasts for seven years, seven months, sevendays, and seven nights. Sentient beings gather together and begin theactivity of lesser renunciation. For this reason the life span is no longer
reduced and the calamity of famine ceases.
At the time human life span is twenty years the activity of renunciation
undertaken earlier is abandoned. Then many kinds of epidemics spreadwildly. People are struck by these diseases and most die. This calamity ofillness lasts for seven months, seven days, and seven nights. Sentient beings
gather together and begin the activity of middle renunciation. For thisreason the life span is no longer reduced and the calamity of illness ceases.

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Then at the time when human life span is ten years the activity of renunciation undertaken earlier is again abandoned. Then, sentient beings constantly feel a ﬁerce impulse to harm each other. For this reason, they takea blade of grass, a tree branch, bricks, or stones and turn them into sharp
swords, and with these they kill each other. This calamity of warfare lasts
for seven days.

271c

5. Successive Generations
The Zhong ahan jing (T.26:522a27–524c6) says:
In the past a wheel-turning king (cakravartin) appeared in the world. Hisname was Mūrdhajarāja. He upheld the rules of purity and cultivated thevirtue of giving. To the poor in his kingdom he gave from his wealth sothat their needs were met. After a long while, though there were still poor
people in his kingdom, he could no longer give from his wealth to provide
for their needs. One person was then greatly distressed and consequently
stole from someone else. His master captured him and sent him to thekṣatriya king Mūrdhajarāja, saying, “Heavenly king, this man stole myproperty. Please pass judgment.” The king asked the accused man, “Didyou in fact steal?” He said, “Yes, in fact I did steal. The reason I did so
was because I was in dire straits and I could not survive without stealing.”
The king then brought out his own possessions and gave them to the thief,saying, “You may go but do not steal again.” Because of this turn of events
others thought, “We should also steal from others.” Then everyone stole[from others] as if in competition. Consequently, people became poorer
and had nothing to give out of compassion. The result was that people
became even more impoverished and stole more frequently. This caused
human life span to be reduced and people’s appearances to become unattractive. The father’s life span was eighty thousand years, while the son’slife span was forty thousand years.
At the time when human life span was forty thousand years, anotherman stole and was sent to the king. Having heard about this, the kingthought, “If people in my kingdom steal from others, and if I give to themeverything that I own, then my storehouse will become empty and theftwill become even more frequent. Instead I should now make a very sharp
sword and if there is a thief in my kingdom, I should capture him and,18

Fascicle 1

placing him under a tall platform, chop off his head.” Having thought
this, [the king] issued an edict to this effect. From then on, people madecopies of the sharp sword and carried it around with them to rob othersof their possessions. They captured the owners of these possessions andcut their heads off. Consequently, poverty became intense and murder by
the sword increased. This caused human life span to be reduced and people’s appearances worsened. The father’s life span was forty thousand
years, while the son’s life span was twenty thousand years.
At the time when human life span was tewenty thousand years, a thief
thought, “If the king knew the truth, he would bind me with a rope, or
ﬁne me, or line me up on a platform. I would rather lie to the king.” Having
thought this, he said to the king [when asked if he had stolen], “I did notsteal.” For this reason, people became impoverished and their possessions
disappeared. They were not able to provide for others out of compassion.
Theft and murder became more frequent and people lied to each other.
This caused human life span to be reduced and people’s appearances worsened. The father’s life span was twenty thousand years, while the son’slife span was ten thousand years.
At the time when human life span was ten thousand years, somebecame jealous of virtuous people and slept with their wives. This caused
human life span to be reduced and people’s appearances worsened. The
father’s life span was ten thousand years, while the son’s life span was
ﬁve thousand years.
At the time when human life span was ﬁve thousand years, three things
increased—deviation from the teaching, desire for evil, and greedy attachment to evil teachings. Therefore, while the father’s life span was ﬁve thousand years, the son’s life span became two thousand ﬁve hundred years.
At the time when human life span was two thousand ﬁve hundred years,
again three things increased: lying, harsh speech, and frivolous speech.
This caused human life span to be reduced and people’s appearances worsened. Therefore, while the father’s life span was two thousand ﬁve hundredyears, the son’s life span became one thousand years.
At the time when human life span was one thousand years, one thing
increased, namely, following wrong views. Because this one thing
increased, people’s life spans were reduced and their appearance worsened.

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Therefore, while the father’s life span was one thousand years, the son’slife span became ﬁve hundred years.
At the time when human life span was ﬁve hundred years, people were
unﬁlial to their parents and failed to respect monks and brahmans. They
were not obedient, did not perform meritorious deeds, and failed to see
the punishment they would receive in later lives. Therefore, while thefather’s life span was ﬁve hundred years, the son’s life span became two
hundred and ﬁfty or two hundred years.
Today those who enjoy longevity live as long as one hundred years or
so. The Buddha said to the monks, “Sometime far in the future human life
span will be ten years. Women will marry ﬁve months after birth. At thetime when human life span is ten years, millet will be considered the tastiest
food and unpolished grain the greatest delicacy. Ghee, oil, salt, honey, andsugarcane will all have disappeared. Only those who commit the ten kindsof evil deeds will be respected by others, none of whom has ever performed
a good deed. Mothers will vehemently wish to harm their children, andchildren will vehemently wish to harm their mothers. Fathers and sons,brothers, sisters, and relatives in their turn will wish to harm each other,in the same way that hunters who see a deer vehemently wish to harm it.
“During the time when the human life span is ten years, for seven days
the activities of the soldiers with swords will become intense. Wheneverthey take hold of a blade of grass it immediately becomes a sword. Whenthey grasp a dead branch, it also immediately becomes a sword. With
these swords soldiers murder each other. After seven days the activitiesof the soldiers with swords will come to an end.
“At that time, when soldiers harm each other, there will also be those
who know embarrassment and shame, who dislike worldly life and arefree from attachment; these people will go into the mountains or ﬁelds
and hide there for those seven days. After the seven days are over they
will come out of hiding and, on seeing each other, they will feel compassionate and affectionate toward them, in the way that mothers love their
only child, or those who have been separated for a long time feel happiness
when they ﬁnd each other again. With great affection for each other, they
will say to each other: ‘Wise ones, we now see each other. We have now
obtained peace. We sat and gave rise to intentions that were not good and20

Fascicle 1

let all of our relatives die. We should together perform good deeds andreject all murderous deeds.’ As they perform good deeds, human life span
will begin to increase and appearances improve. People with a life spanof ten years will give birth to children with a life span of twenty years.
“Those with a life span of twenty years will think, ‘If we seek to perform
good deeds our life span will be lengthened and our appearance will
improve. We should do more good deeds and together refrain from theact of taking without giving.’ They will do this good deed and their life
span and appearance will improve. People will give birth to children witha life span of forty years. These then will refrain from licentious deeds;
they will do this good deed and their life span and appearance will improve.
People will give birth to children with a life span of eighty years. They
then will refrain from telling lies; they will do this good deed and theirlife span and appearance will improve. People will give birth to children
with a life span of one hundred and sixty years. With the life span extended
to one hundred and sixty years, they then will refrain from telling divisivelies; they will do this good deed and their life span and appearance will
improve. People will give birth to children with a life span of three hundred
and twenty years. They then will refrain from harsh speech; they will dothis good deed and their life span and appearance will improve. People
will give birth to children with a life span of six hundred and forty years.
They then will refrain from frivolous speech, and doing this good deed
their life span and appearance will improve, and they will give birth tochildren with the life span of two thousand ﬁve hundred years. They thenalso will refrain from jealousy; they will do this good deed and their life
span and appearance will improve. People will give birth to children witha life span of ﬁve thousand years. They then again will refrain from anger;
they will do this good deed and their life span and appearance will improve.
People will give birth to children with the life span of ten thousand years.
They then again will refrain from evil views; they will do this good deed
and their life span and appearance will improve. People will give birth tochildren with a life span of twenty thousand years. They then will again
refrain from deviating from the teaching, desire for evil, and greedy attachment to evil teachings. [They will think,] ‘We will refrain from these three[kinds of] evil conduct.’ They will do this good deed and their life span

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and appearance will improve. People will give birth to children with alife span of forty thousand years.
“At the time human life span is forty thousand years, people will become
obedient to their parents, and they will honor and treat with respect themonks and brahmans. Respectfully following their orders, they will cultivate meritorious deeds, anticipating the possibilities of punishments infuture lives. Having done these good deeds, people will give birth to children with a life span of eighty thousand years.
“At the time human life span is eighty thousand years, this Jambudvīpa
will become prosperous, with a large population. Villages will be close toeach other, at a distance that a pheasant can cross in one ﬂight. Women will
marry at the age of ﬁve hundred. There will be seven kinds of discomfort,
namely, cold, heat, excreting, urinating, sexual desire, hunger and thirst,
and old age. There will not be any other kind of trouble. At that time there
will be a king called Śaṅkha, who will become a universal monarch (cakravartin). He will be intelligent and wise and will govern the four realms
under heaven with four kinds of orderly armies. The seven jewels will beabundant and he will have a thousand sons. Handsome and ferocious, hewill be fearless and conquer other groups. He will govern the great earth
all the way to the great ocean. He will rule not by the sword but by moral
teachings and ordinances. There will be peace.” (Note: epidemics and famine
serve to encourage people to follow the Dharma in the same way as above.)
6. Treatments
According to the new translation of the Apidamo da piposha lun (Abhidharma-mahāvibhāṣa-śāstra, T.1545:693b7–16):
There is a holy teaching that serves as the treatment to this problem. If aperson can uphold the precept of not killing for a single day and night, in
future lives this person will not encounter the calamity of soldiers withswords (i.e., warfare). If the person can present one piece of harītakī fruit,that is, if someone takes one harītakī fruit and, with a truly pure mind,
offers it to the sangha, in future lives [he or she] will not encounter thecalamity of pestilence (i.e., epidemics). If a person gives one portion offood to another sentient being, in future lives he or she will not encounterthe calamity of famine.

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Question: Do these three calamities exist on other continents?
Answer: They are absent in their basic forms but similar phenomena
do exist. These are increasing anger, the decline of physical powers, andfrequent hunger and thirst. These apply to two of the continents. In thecontinent of Uttarakuru such similar phenomena are also absent, because
no sins are committed there and there is no increase of anger there.
[Daoshi’s Comment:] Sentient beings by nature form attachments andlack the will to reform. They are greedy, jealous, and increasingly indulge
in evil deeds. Thus, human emotions become intense and the evil poisonsfollow them. Once we are into the last stage of the decline of the teaching,
all people and everything else become evil. Both primary and secondary
karmic retributions, or one’s body and mind as well as the environment inwhich one is born, decline day and night.
The Fu fazang jing (T.2058:308c26–309a4) says:
At the time King Aśoka was personally making offerings of alms to themonks, [he saw] Piṇḍola-Bhāradvāja pouring ghee over rice. The kingsaid, “Great Sage, ghee is hard to digest. Does it not make one ill?” The
Honored One said, “Do not worry. Why? When the Buddha was present,water and ghee were identical. Therefore, one does not become ill by
eating it.” Then, wishing to demonstrate the truth of the matter, PiṇḍolaBhāradvāja put his hand into the ground, to a depth of over forty-two
thousand li, and scooping up the rich soil showed it to the king. “The kingshould now know that because sentient beings lack merit, rich and nourishing tastes have all ﬂowed into the ground. Consequently, the merits
and fortunes of the world have declined.” Having ﬁnished making theoffering, the king was delighted and withdrew.
Even less than a hundred years after the appearance of the Buddha there
was already such a sign of decline. Today, almost two thousand years after
the Buddha’s appearance, how could such nourishing tastes still exist?
The Yüqie lun (T.1579:286a6–13) says:[At the time the three calamities occur] sentient beings also experience threekinds of extreme decline: the decline of life span, the decline of primaryand secondary karmic retributions, and the decline of material resources.

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The decline of life span leads ultimately to a life span of ten years. The
decline of primary and secondary karmic retributions leads to the size ofthe body being reduced to the measure of one hand or one knuckle. Whenthe reduction of material resources occurs, people take millet as the best
kind of food, human hair as the best clothing, and iron as the best material
for decoration. The ﬁve kinds of delicacies all disappear, namely such delicacies as ghee, honey, oil, salt, and the unusual taste of sugarcane.

2. Three GreatCalamities(Note: This contains four parts:) (1) Length of Time, (2) Units of Time, (3)The Kalpa of Destruction, and (4) The Kalpa of Formation.
1. Length of Time
According to new translation of the Apidamo da piposha lun (Abhidharmamahāvibhyāṣā-śāstra, T.1545:700c11–21):
There are three kinds of kalpas: ﬁrst, the antarakalpa; second, kalpa of formation and destruction; and third, the major kalpa. There are also three kindsof antarakalpas: the kalpa of decrease, the kalpa of increase, and the kalpa
of increase and decrease. During the kalpa of decrease the human life spandecreases from inﬁnite to ten years. During the kalpa of increase the humanlife span increases from ten years to eighty thousand years. During the kalpa
of increase and decrease the human life span increases from ten years toeighty thousand years and then decreases from eighty thousand years to ten
years. One kalpa of decrease, one kalpa of increase, and eighteen kalpas ofincrease and decrease constitute twenty antarakalpas. Having passed throughtwenty antarakalpas, the world is formed. Having been formed, it remains
for twenty antarakalpas. Together these two periods are called the kalpa of
formation. Having passed through twenty antarakalpas, the world isdestroyed. Having been destroyed, it remains empty for twenty antarakalpas.
Together these two periods are called the kalpa of destruction. Altogether
these forty antarakalpas are called the major kalpa. During the twenty
antarakalpas of abiding that follows the antarakalpa of formation, the ﬁrst
kalpa is simply of decrease and the last simply of increase; the eighteen
kalpas between these are of both increase and decrease.

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Therefore, the Duifa lun (Dasheng apidamo zajilun, T.1606:720b17–18)
says, “On the basis of this calculation of kalpa numbers the life spans ofgods in the realm of form and the formless realm are shown.”
2. Units of Time
According to the Xiguo zhuan (Record of the Western Regions) by Dharma
Master [Xuan]zang (Datang xiyu ji, T.2087:875c15–17):
The progression of yin and yang (the movement of stars) and the turningof the sun and the moon are called by different names, even though theconditions of the yearly changes remain the same [in India as in China].
The names of the months [in India] are established by lunar stations. The
shortest unit of time is called a kṣaṇa.
According to new translation of the Apidamo da piposha lun (Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāstra, T.1545:701b2–c6):
How does one know the duration of a kṣaṇa? The following is said. According to the Prajñapti-śāstra (T. 1538), when a middle-aged woman weaves
wool she shakes off the ﬁne threads and evens out the material so that it is
not too long or too short. The time she takes to do this is called a tat-kṣaṇa.
It does not matter whether the piece of wool thread is long or short, simply
the time it takes to draw the thread out between the ﬁngers is a tat-kṣaṇa.
Question: I asked earlier about a kṣaṇa. Why do you quote the Prajñaptiśāstra passage on tat-kṣaṇa?
Answer: Here I used the coarse to explain the ﬁne, because the ﬁne is
difﬁcult to know about and cannot be made tangible. One hundred andtwenty kṣaṇas is one tat-kṣaṇa. Sixty tat-kṣaṇas forms one lava, whichcontains seven thousand two hundred kṣaṇas. Thirty lavas forms one
muhūrta, which contains two hundred and sixteen thousand kṣaṇas. Thirty
muhūrtas forms one day and night, which contains twenty thousand lessthan six million ﬁve hundred thousand kṣaṇas. Each day and night thisbody of ﬁve skandhas undergoes a certain series of ceaseless coming into
being and going out of being.
According to one opinion, this is too broad and does not describe akṣaṇa. According to what it holds, when a strong man snaps a ﬁnger theduration of sixty-four kṣaṇas has passed.

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According to another opinion, this again is not right. According to what
it holds, when two strong men pull and cut a bundle of ﬁne Kāśī threads,
as so many of them have been cut, so many kṣaṇas have passed.
According to another opinion, this again is not right. According to thisopinion, when two strong men grab a bundle of Kāśī threads and one man
cuts it with a sharp sword from the kingdom of Cīna (China); as many
threads as are cut, so many kṣaṇas have passed.
According to another opinion, this is still too broad and does notdescribe a kṣaṇa. The World-honored One did not describe the true durationof a kṣaṇa. The World-honored One said, “Imagine that four archers, eachholding a bow and arrow and standing back to back, were to shoot in thefour directions and a fast runner came up to them and said, ‘You should
now shoot simultaneously. I can run and catch all the arrows without
letting any of them fall to the ground.’ Would this not be quick?” Themonks replied to the Buddha, “That is very quick, World-honored One.”
The Buddha said, “That man is not as quick as a ground-traveling yakṣa.
The ground-traveling yakṣa is not as quick as the ﬂying yakṣa. The ﬂyingyakṣa is not as quick as the four heavenly king deities. These deities do
not travel as quickly as the sun and moon. The two wheels of the sun andmoon do not travel as quickly as the gods who guide the sun and moon.
These deities move around quickly, but not as quickly as the coming into
being and going out of being caused by the later-life-producing power(ayuḥ-saṃskāra). The succession of kṣaṇas does not stop even for a
moment.” From this we know that the World-honored One did not describe
the true duration of a kṣaṇa.
Question: Why did the World-honored One not describe the true duration of a kṣaṇa for the beneﬁt of others?
Answer: Because no sentient beings would be able to understand it.

273b

The Anpan jing (T.602:163a14–15) says, “In the period of time it takes
to snap a ﬁnger the mind undergoes nine hundred and sixty [transformations].”
The Renwang jing (T.245:826a10–12; T.246:835c15–16) says, “Onethought moment contains ninety kṣaṇas. One kṣaṇa in turn contains nine
hundred comings into being and goings out of being.”

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The Pusa chutai jing (Pusa cong doushutian jiangshen mutai shuo guangpu
jing, T.384:1024b21–24) says:
The period of time it takes to snap a ﬁnger contains three billion two hundred million and one hundred thousand thought moments. The succeeding
thoughts produce material forms, and succeeding material forms produce
consciousnesses. The power of the Buddha enters each of the ﬁne consciousnesses and lets them achieve salvation.
The Abhidharma-śāstra (ref. Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:887b7–15) says:
There are twelve items. The ﬁrst is called kṣaṇa. The second is called tatkṣaṇa. The third is called lava. The fourth is called muhūrta. The ﬁfth iscalled day and night. The sixth is called half-month. The seventh is called
month. The eighth is called season. The ninth is called ayana (“course,”
half-year), The tenth is called year. The eleventh is called pair. The twelfth
is called kalpa.
One kṣaṇa is translated as “one thought moment.” One hundred andtwenty kṣaṇas is called one tat-kṣaṇa, which is translated as one moment.
Sixty tat-kṣaṇas is one breath. One breath is one lava. Thirty lavas is one
muhūrta, which is translated as one short period. Thirty muhūrtas is one
day and night, which consists altogether of six million three hundred andeighty thousand kṣaṇas.
The Sengqi lü (T.1425:360a12–16) says:
Twenty thought moments constitute one moment. Twenty moments constitute one period of time in which it takes to snap a ﬁnger. Twenty such
periods of time constitute one lava. Twenty lavas constitute one shortperiod. One day and night contains thirty short periods. During the time
when the day is longest there are eighteen short periods during the day
and twelve during the night. When the day is shortest, there are twelve
short periods during the day and eighteen during the night. During thespring and fall equinoxes day and night are equal in length.
The Zhidu lun (T.1509:409b26–29) says:
One day and night is divided into six divisions and thirty time periods

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I(muhūrtas). At the spring and fall equinoxes the day and the night eachhave ﬁfteen time periods. At other times there are increases and decreases.
In the ﬁfth month the day has eighteen time periods and the night twelve.
In the eleventh month the night has eighteen time periods and the day twelve.
According to the Xiguo zhuan (Record of the Western Regions) by Dharma
Master [Xuan]zang (Datang xiyu ji, T.2087:875c19–876a5):
Among ordinary people the day is divided into eight time periods (kālas).
(Note in the original: four in the day and four in the night; each time period
is further divided into four segments.) The period of the moon’s waxing
up till the full moon is called the white portion (śukla-pakṣa), and theperiod of the moon’s waning up till the disappearance of the moon iscalled the black portion (kṛṣṇa-pakṣa). The black portion may be fourteendays or ﬁfteen days. This is because the length of a month varies. The
black portion followed by a white portion constitutes one month (māsa).
Six months together form one ayana. The period when the course of thesun remains inside to the north of the equator is the uttarāyaṇa; the period
when the course of the sun is outside to the south of the equator is thedakṣnāyana. The two ayanas together form one year (vatsara).
The year is also divided into six seasons (ṛtus). From the sixteenth dayof the ﬁrst month to the ﬁfteenth day of the third month is the season of“increasing warmth.” From the sixteenth of the third month to the ﬁfteenthof the ﬁfth month is the season of “excessive heat.” From the sixteenthof the ﬁfth month to the ﬁfteenth of the seventh month is the rainy season.
From the sixteenth of the seventh month to the ﬁfteenth of the ninth monthis the season of “rich growth.” From the sixteenth of the ninth month tothe ﬁfteenth of the eleventh month is the season of “increasing cold.”
From the sixteenth of the eleventh month to the ﬁfteenth of the ﬁrst monthis the season of “excessive cold.”
In the holy teaching of the Tathāgata the year is divided into three parts.
From the sixteenth of the ﬁrst month to the ﬁfteenth of the ﬁfth month is
the hot season. From the sixteenth of the ﬁfth month to the ﬁfteenth of
the ninth month is the rainy season. From the sixteenth of the ninth monthto the ﬁfteenth of the ﬁrst month is the cold season.

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The year is also sometimes divided into four seasons: spring, summer,
fall, and winter.
[Daoshi’s Comment:] To summarize all these explanations, ﬁfteen [daysand] nights form a half-month. Two half-months form a month. Three months
form a season. Two seasons form an ayana. One ayana is six months or ahalf-year. Two ayanas form one year. Two and a half years form a pair. Thisis because of intercalary months. When the intercalary month is added to theoriginal month there is a pairing of months, not a pairing of intercalarymonths. If a pair of intercalary months occurs every ﬁve years, this would
mean that one intercalary month occurs every two and a half years. How
could we posit a pair of intercalary months in this same period? The matterbecomes clear once we make this calculation of the time duration. There are
four kinds of kalpas: the antarakalpa, the kalpa of formation, the kalpa ofdestruction, and the major kalpa. A long time passes between the time when
the human life span is ten years and the time when it is eighty thousand. Add
to this the time it takes for human life span to decrease to ten years. The total
is called the antarakalpa. In contrast to other sums of time periods it is called
the antarakalpa. The calculation is made on the basis of the facts.
According to the Za ahan jing (T.99:242b22–24):
If a city, one yojana on all sides and in height, were ﬁlled with dust andone particle of dust taken out every one hundred years, when all the particles of dust had been taken out in this way a kalpa would still not yet
be over.
[Daoshi’s Comment:] I take this to refer to one antarakalpa. In the caseof the major kalpa the comparison would be with a city that is eighty yojanas
in all directions.
The Loutan jing (T.23?) says:
To discuss kalpas with two comparisons, ﬁrst, take a large city one thousandli from east to west and four thousand li from north and south. If this citywere ﬁlled with dust, and every one hundred years gods were to comeand take a single particle of dust, even when all the particles of dust had
been taken away [in this manner], a kalpa would still not have been

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I

exhausted. Second, take a large rock, [measuring] forty li on all four sides.
If every hundred years gods were to come down and touch this rock with
their ﬁne clothes, even when the rock has been worn down due to thisrepeated contact, a kalpa would still not have been exhausted.
This too [illustrates] an antarakalpa.
The Loutan jing continues:
Second, the kalpa of formation consists of forty kalpas; the kalpa ofdestruction likewise consists of forty kalpas. This is because when theworld comes into being it takes twenty kalpas, it stays in existence fortwenty more kalpas. The period of destruction is twenty kalpas, and theperiod of absence is twenty kalpas. Here the period of abiding is combinedwith that of formation and the period of absence with that of destruction,and each of these two periods consists of forty kalpas. The periods of formation and destruction combined last eighty kalpas, and this is called amajor kalpa.
To describe the matter yet again, there are six kinds of kalpas: (1)antarakalpa, (2) kalpa of formation, (3) kalpa of abiding, (4) kalpa of destruction, (5) kalpa of absence, and (6) major kalpa. Or, there are three kinds ofkalpas: (1) minor kalpa,(2) medium kalpa, (3) major kalpa. The minor kalpa
refers to an antarakalpa. The medium kalpa refers to those of formation anddestruction [separately]. The major kalpa refers to those of formation anddestruction together. In the heavens in the realm of desire (kāmadhātu) thelife span is one minor kalpa. In the three heavens of the ﬁrst meditation(dhyāna) [in the realm of form (rūpadhātu)] the kalpa of the life span is themedium kalpa. In the heavens of the second meditations and above the kalpa
of the life span is [counted by] major kalpas.
The worldly arithmetic in foreign countries speaks of sixty ranks. Beyond
these ranks counting is not possible and such numbers are called asaṃkhya
(“inﬁnite”). One to sixty ranks may be used to count the number of kalpas;
the asaṃkhya kalpa refers to the major kalpa.
Thus, when the Dazhidu lun (T.1509:339b21–24) uses the city of one
hundred yojanas as the measure, speaking of taking one particle of dust oncein each one hundred years, or takes as a measure the metaphor of the light30

Fascicle 1

heavenly cloth of Kāśī brushing a rock measuring a hundred yojanas on eachside once every hundred years, all of these refer to the major kalpa.
In the sahā world (Note: There is a different transcription in older sources.)in the course of a one major kalpa a thousand buddhas appear. Since what
is called a kalpa cannot be calculated in ﬁnite numbers, the metaphors of therock, dust, and the city are used to describe its duration. As described above,
there are four kalpas of formation, abiding, destruction, and absence. As
noted above, the life span increases from ten years to eighty thousand years,
and then decreases from eighty thousand years to ten years. Twenty repetitionsof this constitute one minor kalpa. Twenty minor kalpas constitute one kalpa
of formation. If we are to calculate this in years eight trillion one hundredbillion and eight million years corresponds to one minor kalpa. At present
the kalpa of formation has been completed and we are now in the kalpa of
abiding and have ﬁnished eight minor kalpas there. Śākyamuni Tathāgata is
the fourth buddha in the kalpa of abiding. Another nine hundred and ninetysix buddhas will appear successively after him.
According to the Xiguo zhuan (Record of the Western Regions) by Dharma
Master [Xuan]zang (Datang xiyu ji, T.2087:875c4–7):
The unit of measurement of distance is a yojana (note on other transcriptions). One yojana is the distance that a sage king’s army can travel in
one day. According to an old tradition one yojana is forty li. In the customary usage in India it is thirty li. In the opinion of holy scriptures it is
only sixteen li.
The Abhidharma-śāstra says, “Four hastaka (zhou, “elbow”) is one dhanu(gong, “bow”). Five hundred dhanus is one krośa. Eight krośas is one yojana.”[If we base our calculation on the fact that] one dhanu is equivalent inlength to eight [Chinese] chi, [thus, since ten chi is one Chinese zhang,] ﬁve
hundred dhanus is equivalent in length to four hundred zhang. [Consequently],
four hundred zhang is one krośa. One li, on the other hand, is three hundredand sixty [Chinese] bu (“steps”). One bu is six chi. [Since ten chi is one
zhang, altogether two hundred and sixteen zhang is one li. Two li will befour hundred and thirty-two zhang. If we calculate on the basis of the equationthat] ﬁve hundred dhanus is four hundred zhang, one krośa is still thirty-two

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume Izhang short of two li. Thus, we conclude that one krośa is less than two li,
and that eight krośas, which is identical to one yojana, is less than sixteen li.
According to the Zabaozang jing (T.203:452c5), “One krośa is ﬁve li.”
If we combine this with the Abhidharma’s thesis that eight krośas is one
yojana, then the latter will be forty li.
3. The Kalpa of Destruction
According to the Chang ahan jing (T.1:137b13–c10):
How far do the effects of the three calamities reach upward into the heavens?
When the calamity of ﬁre occurs its effects reach as far as Ābhāsvara
Heaven. When the calamity of water occurs its effects reach as far as Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. When the calamity of wind occurs its effects reach as far
as Bṛhatphala Heaven.
When the three calamities are about to occur, all the people of the world
are practicing the correct teaching, following the correct view, and cultivating the ten good deeds. In this way a person achieves the second stateof meditation (dhyāna). Immediately he jumps up into the sky, and dwellingin the realm of holy ones, or of a deity, or of Brahmā, he says loudly,“Wise men and women, you should know the delight of the second stateof meditation, which is free of sensation and viewing.” People, hearing
this, cultivate the state free of sensation and viewing, and when theirbodies are destroyed they achieve rebirth in Ābhāsvara Heaven [among
the heavens of the second state of meditation]. At that time the sentient
beings in hell, having ﬁnished their punishment, their bodies there having
been destroyed, are reborn among human beings. They also cultivate thestate free of sensation and viewing and obtain rebirth in Ābhāsvara Heaven.
Animals, hungry ghosts, asuras (demigods), and other beings in the heavens of the six realms of desire all attain rebirth in Ābhāsvara Heaven. At
this time hell is emptied ﬁrst, then the realm of animals is emptied. Subsequently the realms of hungry ghosts (pretas) and asuras and further theheavens in the realm of desire, up to Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven, are
emptied. And then the human realm is emptied, leaving no traces. This
world is destroyed and the calamity then occurs.
The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:522c13–523a11) says:

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And so there will be no sentient beings left in hell. At this point it is said
that the hell is destroyed. Those who are meant to receive karmic consequences in hell will, by the power of karma, be placed elsewhere. The
cases of the realms of animals and of [hungry] ghosts may be inferredfrom this. At that point no living being is found in a human body andhuman bodies are identical to the Buddha’s body.
At that time, in the human realm in this continent a person without ateacher but who is in accord with the teaching can attain the ﬁrst state of
meditation. Coming out of this meditative state, he says loudly, “Leaving
life produces delight and pleasure, which is very enjoyable and calming.”
On hearing this, other human beings all go into meditation, and when
their lives end they all are reborn in the world of Brahmā. Consequently,
in this continent sentient beings disappear. This is said to be “the disappearance of people from the Jambudvīpa continent.” The case of theeastern and western continents can be inferred from this. In the northern
continent, when their lives are ﬁnished beings are reborn in the heavensof the realm of desire. Because their sense organs are inferior they cannot
abandon desires, and they are reborn in the heavens of the realm of desire.
There they realize a meditative state and, achieving superior karmic conditions, they transcend desires. After this no sentient beings are left in thehuman realm and the human realm is destroyed.
If in the heavenly realm, in the six heavens of the realm of desire, gods
follow the teaching and achieve the ﬁrst state of meditation, they will be
reborn in the world of Brahmā [in the realm of form]. Then it is said thatthe six heavens of the realm of desire have been destroyed. In this way
no sentient beings will be left in the realm of desire, and it is said that
sentient beings in the realm of desire have been destroyed.
In the world of Brahmā, if a sentient being without a teacher but who
is in accord with the teaching attains the second state of meditation andcoming out of this meditative state he says, “Meditative concentration
produces delight and pleasure, which is greatly enjoyable and calming.”
Hearing this, other gods all go into meditation, and when their lives end
they are reborn in Ābhāsvara Heaven [in the realm of form]. Consequently,
in the Brahmā world [in the realm of desire] sentient beings disappear.

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This is said to be “the disappearance of the world of sentient beings.” Only
the insentient world of the environment is left; this world is vast and empty.
In universes elsewhere all sentient beings sense that karmic processes haveceased in this world-system of threefold one thousand worlds.
Then seven suns appear. All the oceans dry up and the mountains become
empty. Continents and islands and the three cosmic wheels on which theystand are all burned. Ferocious winds and ﬂames rise up to the heavenly
palaces, turning the Brahmā palace into ashes. [Normally,] ﬂames that risein a given realm burn the palaces of that realm. [But here] calamities thatare not of that realm wreak destruction on that realm. This is caused by
the interaction between the realms. Thus, it is said, “Lower ﬁre, driven bywind, burns up a higher realm.” Thus, the ﬁre of the realm of desire rises
and causes ﬁre in the realm of form, which proves calamitous. One should
thus know that the development that begins with the gradual disappearanceof the hells results in the disappearance of the insentient world of the environment. This entire development is called the kalpa of destruction.
The Guanfo sanmei jing says:
The period from the beginning of heaven and earth to its end is called one
kalpa. When a kalpa is about to end the calamity of ﬁre occurs. All people
turn against the correct [teaching] and turn to evil [teachings], rushingtoward the ten evil deeds. Rain will stop coming from the sky and plants
will not grow. Beginning with the spring where the streams originate
down to the four great rivers, all water sources dry up. After a long time
the wind goes into the bottom of the ocean, bringing the sun palace up
and placing it in its original location on top of Mount Sumeru.
(Note: The Chang ahan jing, T.1:137c14–138b16, says:
After a very long time a great black wind blows over the ocean, causing
the ocean to a depth of eighty-four thousand yojanas to separate into
two banks. The wind takes the sun palace [from the bottom of theocean] and places it halfway up Mount Sumeru, forty-two thousand
yojanas above the ground and securely in the orbit of the sun. [In thisway the second sun appears. . . .]34

Fascicle 1

In a similar way the appearance of the seven suns is explained one by one.
The Zaxin lun [Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:960a9–13] says:
At the time a kalpa is destroyed, seven suns, like wheels, appear [frombehind] Mount Yugaṃdhara. According to another opinion one sun isdivided into seven suns. According to yet another opinion the sunscome from Avīci Hell, brought out by the karma of sentient beings.)[The Guanfo sanmai jing continues:]
When one sun comes out, a hundred plants and trees suddenly die. Whentwo suns come out the water of the four great oceans, to a depth of one hundred to seven hundred yojanas, spontaneously dries up. When three sunscome out the water of the four great oceans, to the depth one thousand toseven thousand yojanas, begins to decrease. When four suns appear thewater of the four great oceans, to the depth of one thousand yojanas, is completely exhausted, and when the ﬁve suns appear the water of the four great
oceans, seven thousand yojanas long and wide, is completely exhausted.
(Note: The Chang ahan jing, T.1:138a10–b1, says that it after ﬁve sunscome out the water in the ocean begins to change depth. The ocean water
becomes like cows’ hoofprints after a spring rain. In the end the ocean dries
up so that not even a ﬁnger can be dipped in it.)
[The Guanfo sanmai jing continues:]
When six suns come out the ground, as deep as sixty-eight thousand
yojanas, is covered with smoke. From Mount Sumeru through the entire
cosmic world-system numbering one thousand to the power of three, as
well as the eight great hells—everything is burned up. When the smoke
settles nothing is left. The lives of all people have ended. For all beings
on Mount Sumeru and in the six heavens of the realm of desire life comesto an end, and their palaces are emptied. All is impermanent and cannot
remain forever.
When the seven suns come out the great ground and Mount Sumeru
will gradually begin to crumble in an area measuring one hundred thousand
yojanas wide, and in the end there wil be nothing left. Everywhere in themountains jewels explode and smoke and ﬂames reach Brahmā’s heavens.

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All realms of inferior births will disappear. There will be no more punishments; only merits arise. All will gather in the ﬁfteenth heaven and above.
Everything below the fourteenth heaven is destroyed. Newly born gods
have not seen this and are afraid. Gods born earlier come to console them,saying, “Don’t be afraid. [The destruction] does not reach here.”
When people’s lives are ﬁnished they are reborn in Ābhāsvara Heaven.
Thought is their food, light shines spontaneously, and they have the supernatural power to ﬂy. Some are reborn elsewhere. If they are reborn in hell,
when their punishment in hell is completed they are reborn in heaven. If
their punishment is not ﬁnished they are born elsewhere. There is no sun,moon, or stars; there are also no day or night. There is only great darkness.
This is called the ﬁre kalpa. The karmic retribution of the ﬁre kalpa brings
this destruction. When the kalpa is about to completed the ﬁre goes out
by itself. A great cloud forms and gradually drops rain. Each drop is shaped
like the axle of a chariot. At that time the entire cosmic world-system
numbering one thousand to the power of three will be ﬁlled with water,
up to Brahmā’s heavens.
The Yüqie lun (T.1579:286a28–b26) says:
Because sentient beings respond to the karmic powers that produce phenomenal appearances, and because there is the matter of the six kinds ofburning, six suns also gradually appear. Compared with the earlier suns,
the heat of these suns is four times stronger. When they become seven,the heat is increased seven times.
What are the objects of the six kinds of burning? (1) Canals and moatsof different sizes. These are dried up by the second sun. (2) Smaller andlarger rivers. These are dried up by the third sun. (3) The Great Pond Freeof Heat, which is dried up by the fourth sun. (4) The great ocean. It is
dried by the ﬁfth and a part of the sixth sun. (5) Mount Sumeru and theground are ﬁrm and solid; they are burned up by a part of the sixth andthe seventh sun. The ﬂames of these ﬁres are intensiﬁed by wind andspread with increasing strength, reaching as far as Brahmā’s heavens.
In this way the world is burned up and reduced to ashes and charcoal.
Nothing else is left, even in shadowy forms. This is called the destruction

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Fascicle 1of the environment world. This process takes twenty kalpas; the condition[of destruction] lasts for another twenty kalpas.
What is called the calamity of water? After the calamity of ﬁres hastaken place seven times, in the heavenly realms of the second meditative
state a calamity occurs spontaneously from the water element. It destroys
the world in the way water melts away salt. The water and the environment
world disappear simultaneously. After the destruction the condition lasts
for another twenty kalpas.
What is called the calamity of wind? After the calamity of water hastaken place seven times, the calamity of ﬁre again occurs seven times. Then,
immediately in the heavenly realms of the third meditative state, a calamity
occurs from the wind element. It destroys the world in the way wind dries
out the joints of limbs and makes them disappear. This wind and the environment world disappear simultaneously. After the destruction the condition
lasts for twenty kalpas. Here the destruction of the world is described brieﬂy.
The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:526c11–527b18) says:
These three major calamities of water, ﬁre, and wind oppress sentient
beings, making them abandon the lower ground of earth and gather together
in the heavens. The calamity of ﬁre is caused by the appearance of sevensuns. According to one opinion the seven suns travel in a way similar to
the way geese travel, following their separate paths in a circular motion.
According to another opinion the seven suns travel at different heights
following their respective paths in a circular motion. The distance between
these paths is ﬁve thousand yojanas.
Then the calamity of water is caused by a torrential rainfall. Some
explain this as follows: In the sky, in the region corresponding to the thirdstate of meditation, rain heats up and congeals into water. Another explainsthat the cosmic waterwheel comes up from below and shoots up water,which in turn ﬂoods everything. What is certain is that it occurs in thisworld. Later, the calamity of wind is caused by a strong, striking wind.
Some explain this as follows: In the sky, in the region corresponding to
the fourth state of meditation, wind suddenly arises. Another explains thatthe cosmic wind wheel shoots up air, which causes a windstorm. What is37

A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I

certain is that wind calamities work in the same way as the above case[of the water calamity].
What is the sequence of the three calamities? First, the seven calamities
of ﬁre occur one after another. Then one calamity of water occurs. Immediately after that the seven calamities of ﬁre occur again. After these sevencalamities of ﬁre one calamity of water takes place again. In this way
seven calamities of water occur. Then the seven calamities of ﬁre takeplace and then a calamity of wind occurs. In this way eight sets of sevencalamities of ﬁre, one set of seven calamities of water, and one calamityof wind occurs. Each occurrence of a calamity of water or wind follows
a calamity of ﬁre. After the calamity of water or wind there is always acalamity of ﬁre. In this way there is a principled order in the occurrencesof calamities. Why must the seven calamities of ﬁre occur before one
calamity of water occurs? This pattern is determined by the life span of
the gods in Ābhāsvara Heaven, which is as long as eight major kalpas.
So it is in the eight [major] kalpas that the calamity of water occurs. The
reason why seven calamities of water and eight sets of seven calamities
of ﬁre must occur before one calamity of wind occurs is because thispattern is determined by the life span of gods in Śubhakṛtsna Heaven,which is sixty-four [major] kalpas long. Therefore, it is only after eighttimes eight calamities that the calamity of wind occurs. Depending on
how high the level of meditation that is cultivated by sentient beings,
karmic effects mature at different times and their life spans become longer.
Thus, the places where they reside become more permanent.

275c

Thus, verses from the Abhidharma-śāstra (Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:959c22–23) say:
Seven calamities of ﬁre pass in order,
And then one calamity of water.
Seven times seven calamities of ﬁre and seven calamities of water,
And again seven calamities of ﬁre, and after that the calamity of wind.
The Duifa lun (Dasheng apidamo zaji lun, T.1606:719b25–c1) says:
Thus, in the eastern direction, one after another, without interruption, an
inﬁnite number of worlds exists: some are about to be destroyed and some38

Fascicle 1

are about to come into being; some are in the process of being destroyed
and some remain in the state of having been destroyed; some are in theprocess of coming into being and some remain in the state of having comeinto being. As in the eastern direction, so too in all ten directions is thesituation the same. In this way, whether it is the world of sentient beingsor the world of their environments, all have been produced by the powerof karma and desires. They have resulted from the increase of the karmic
power of desire. For this reason they are all called the truth of suffering
The Zaxin lun (Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:959c10–21) says:
Question: Why does the kalpa of destruction not affect [the heavenly
realm corresponding to] the fourth meditative state?
Answer: This realm consists of the Śuddhāvāsa Heavens. These are
the highest [ﬁve] heavens [in the realm of form]. If beings are born there,
they are bound to achieve nirvana there. They will not be reborn in anyof the lower realms. The cessation of things [in the Śuddhāvāsa Heavens]
is not achieved through wisdom; it is only due to the lack of causal conditions that things do not arise there (apratisaṃkyā-nirodhā). The situation
for those beings who dwell [in the lower levels of the realm of form] andexperience the kalpa of destruction is different, because they are reborn
there through the power of increased merits. Because internal (mental)
disturbance is bad, in these [lower] levels internal disturbances lead toexternal calamities. In [the heavenly realms corresponding to] the ﬁrst
meditative state, coarser and ﬁner mental disturbances of ﬁre occur internally, and for that reason the calamity of ﬁre results externally. In [theheavenly realms corresponding to] the second meditative state, internal
disturbances of taking delight in water occur, and for that reason thecalamity of water takes place externally. In [the heavenly realms corresponding to] the third meditative state, internal disturbances of the windof the exhalation and inhalation of breath occur, and for that reason thecalamity of wind takes place externally.
Question: If mental disturbances are absent in [the heavenly realms corresponding to] the fourth meditative state, how could it be not permanent?
Answer: [Even such a small unit of time as a] kṣaṇa is affected byimpermanence. Therefore, [the heavenly realms corresponding to] the39

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fourth meditative state lack the ﬁxed character of continuity. The momenta being is born in that heaven a heavenly palace also appears simultaneously. When the being’s life span ends there, the heaven also disappears.
4. The Kalpa of Formation
The Qishi jing (T.24:355c20–357a2) says:
Then, again after inﬁnite and incalculable days and months, a great cloudappears and covers the entire Brahmā world. Having covered it, it pours
down a ﬂoodlike rain. The raindrops are large, some are like a chariot’s
shaft, others are shaped like a hammer. After hundreds of thousands ofmillions of years the rainwater gradually accumulates and all the places
where the gods reside are ﬁlled with it. This body of water is supported
by four wheels of wind. What are these called? The ﬁrst is called “holding,” the second “safely holding,” the third “not falling,” and the fourth“ﬁrmly holding.”
After the rain stops the water recedes spontaneously and its level goes
down by an inﬁnite number of hundreds of thousands of millions of
yojanas. Then great winds appear simultaneously in the four directions.
The name of the wind is Anapiluo. It blows into the body of water andagitates it incessantly. Great bubbles appear spontaneously in the waterand the great wind blows it up into the sky, and above this the palace ofBrahmā Heaven is built. It is beautiful and attractive, ﬁlled with the sevenjewels of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, crystal, red pearls, musāragalva shells,
and agate. Into this world Brahmā gods are born.
That water recedes further and the water level goes down by an inﬁnite
number of hundreds of thousands of millions of yojanas. As before, thewinds called Anapiluo arise in the four directions. This great wind blows
up bubbles and forms a heavenly palace. Māra gods appear and live aroundthe walls, in the same way as do the Brahmā gods. Only the degree of reﬁnement of the jewels is different. In the same way, other heavens, from Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven to Yama Heaven, are formed one after another. The
six heavens [of the realm of desire] are completed one after another in thesame way as Brahmā Heaven; only the degrees of reﬁnement are different.
Then the water again decreases and the water level goes down further
by an inﬁnite number of hundreds of thousands of millions of yojanas. The

276a

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water then remains calm. From the body of water bubbles go up in the four
directions to a distance of sixty-eight myriad yojanas. The circumference [ofthis body of bubbles] is inﬁnitely vast. A great wind blows up bubbles andforms Mount Sumeru, made of four jewels. The wind blows bubbles again
and forms the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods (Trāyastriṃśa), made ofseven jewels. Again, the wind blows up bubbles and in the middle of Mount
Sumeru, at the height of forty-two thousand yojanas, they form the palacesof the sun and the moon gods, made of seven jewels. It is for this reason
that there are seven sun palaces in a single palace, securely kept even today;these palaces are all made of seven jewels. The wind again blows up bubbles
from the ocean water to the height of a myriad yojanas to form a similar
crystal palace and city for the sky-dwelling yakṣas. The wind also blows
up bubbles on the four sides of Mount Sumeru, each at the distance of one
thousand yojanas from the mountain. Under the great ocean, on the foursides, asura cities, decorated with seven jewels, are formed. Again the windblows up bubbles to form other great jewel mountains.
Continuing in this way, the wind blows up bubbles, passing throughthe four great continents and the eight myriad smaller continents outsideof Mount Sumeru and the other great mountains, and securely stations aboundary there called the Great Surrounding Mountain Range. Its height
and width are both six hundred eighty myriad millions of yojanas. The
boundary range is solidly formed out of diamond and can only be destroyed
with the greatest difﬁculty. In a similar way, the great wind digs into theground to an increasing depth and places the great body of water inside
it. The water remains calm and unmoving. Thus, the great ocean is brought
into existence.
Again, the Qishi jing (T.24:357a2–25) says:
Why is the water of this great ocean so salty and bitter, unsuitable fordrinking? There are three reasons for this. What are the three? First, for
an inﬁnite period of time after the calamity of ﬁre, a heavy cloud covers
the world and does not move. Then the cloud pours down rain all over
the world. This great rain washes over all the palaces in Brahmā Heaven,and then the palaces of Māra’s heaven, then the palaces in Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven, Nirmāṇarati Heaven, Tuṣita Heaven, and Yama

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Heaven. When these palaces are inundated all kinds of salty, sharp, and bitter
tastes ﬂow down from the [heavenly palace buildings]. The rain then washes
over Mount Sumeru, the four great continents, the eight myriad smaller continents, and many mountains. When these places are inundated [these tastes]
ﬂow into the ocean. For this reason the water of the great ocean is salty,
unsuitable for drinking. Second, inside this great ocean live many great
deities with massive bodies. All the excrement and urine [they produce] gointo the ocean. For this reason the water of the great ocean is salty, unsuitablefor drinking. Third, ancient sages cast spells that cursed the water of theocean, vowing to make it salty and unsuitabl for drinking. For this reason
the water of the great ocean is salty, unsuitable for drinking.
Also, according to the Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:523a11–b1):
The kalpa of formation refers to the period from the rising of wind to thetime when sentient beings are born in hell. After this world is destroyedby calamities, for twenty antarakalpas there remains only empty space.
After this long period of time another equally long period of time [follows].
When this kalpa of formation arrives, the karmic power of all sentient
beings increases. In the sky a breeze gradually arises. This is the sign thatthe environment world (bhājana-loka?), which forms the container for
the world of sentient beings, is about to be formed. The wind gradually
becomes stronger and causes, as was said earlier, the wind wheel, thewater wheel, and the the metal wheel to be formed. Then the heavenly
palace of great Brahmā gods, and so on up to the heavenly palace of the
Yama gods, are established. Then the wind rises again. This is how theexternal environment world is formed.
This is due to the power of sentient beings. In other words, for a longtime sentient beings are gathered in Ābhāsvara Heaven. Because of thenumber of gods there the residence becomes crowded. Those beings whose
merits have decreased must spread out into the lower heavens. This is
how this environment world works. First one sentient being dies in Ābhāsvara Heaven and is reborn in the palace of the highest of the Brahmā
heavens, the Mahābrahmā Heaven. Later, other sentient beings die there
and are reborn in the second highest of the Brahmā heavens, Brahmāpurohita Heaven. Some are born in the [lowest] Brahmā heaven. Others

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are born in Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven. Gradually being reborn inlower realms in this way, we get to the human realm, and later beings areborn in the realms of hungry ghosts, of animals, and of hell. It is a matterof principle (Dharma) that if there is later destruction, there must be formation before that. When one sentient being is reborn in Avīci Hell, it is
known that the twenty antarakalpas of formation has been completed.
After this a period of twenty antarakalpas, called “abiding after formation,”
follows in an orderly fashion.
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:225b13–17, c15) says:
When the entire environment world has been formed, two kinds of realms
grow, namely the realm of earth and the realm of ﬁre. The realm of windarises and blows on the realm of ﬁre, which heats and reﬁnes the earth realm.
The realm of wind constantly blows and make all things become ﬁrm. Whenthings have been made ﬁrm all kinds of jewels become visible. . . . In thisway the long period of sixty kalpas is ultimately completed.
The Chang ahan jing (ref. T.1:145a6–148c9) says:
These three plus earth make the four calamities and the four kalpas.
Excluding earth, the remaining three are called the major kalpa. [Thecalamities] do not reach the [heavenly realms corresponding to the] fourth
meditative state, because these realms are the Śuddhāvāsa Heavens. These
are the highest [ﬁve] heavens [in the realm of form]. If beings are born
there, they achieve nirvana there. They are not to be reborn in any of thelower realms. The cessation of things [in the Śuddhāvāsa Heavens] is notachieved through wisdom; it is only due to the lack of conditions that they
do not arise (apratisaṃkhya-nirodhā).
In the course of the transformation of heaven and earth, when heaven
is formed anew, there is nothing in it. The sun and moon are also absent.
In the ground a sweet spring opens up, the water of which has the tasteof honey. At that time some gods of Ābhāsvara Heaven, having exhausted
their merit, are reborn in this newly formed world. Some of them love
this new ground and, being frivolous in temperament, dip their ﬁnger inthe spring to taste the water. After three attempts they taste the sweetness,
and as they keep tasting it their skin gradually becomes coarse, losing the

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heavenly and miraculous light [emitted from their body]. The worldplunges into darkness. Later, a great black wind blows on the ocean waterand taking the sun and moon that are ﬂoating on it, places them securely
on the side of Mount Sumeru in the orbit of the sun. They circle Mount
Sumeru and illumine the four realms under heaven. People at that time
are delighted when they appear and are frightened when they disappear.
From this point on the cycles of day and night, the end and the beginningof the month, the seasons of the year repeat themselves.
When the kalpa of formation ﬁrst begins, gods come down and become
people. They are all born by transformation. Their bodies shine as theywish and they have the miraculous ability to ﬂy. There are no distinctionsof male and female or of higher and lower social rank. Many are born
together. For this reason they are called “many born” (or “sentient beings”).
The earth has the natural taste of butter or fresh ghee. It is sweet likehoney. Later, sentient beings try to taste it by scooping it in their hands,
and eventually they become attached to its taste and make balls of it toeat. The light they emit gradually dims and they lose their supernatural
powers. The faces of those who eat a lot of earth look haggard; the facesof those who eat little remain shiny. This leads to the rise of the distinction
between winning and losing. Because of the distinction between winningand losing the distinction between right and wrong appears. The taste of
the earth gradually disappears and all are distressed, cursing this development as a disaster. Then the earth loses its taste completely and forms
a skin (surface), thin like a pancake. This skin also disappears and anothersurface appears. This thicker surface also disappears.
According to the Zengyi jing (T.125:737a6–6), “Also rich earth appears
spontaneously. It tastes like sweet wine.”
Again, the Loutan jing (T. 23) says:
The sweet earth disappears and a two-branched vine appears. The taste
is also sweet. People eat a lot of it over a long period of time and they all
begin to look as if they are always laughing. The two-branched vine disappears and rice without husk appears. Without cooking it contains all
tasty ﬂavors. Sentient beings eat it and the physical distinction between
male and female appears.

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Again, the Zengyi jing (T.125:737a18–29) says:
Then, those among the gods who have stronger sexual desires become
female human beings, and in this way the distinction between husbands
and wives appears. Later, the sexual desires of sentient beings increase,and so husbands and wives come to live together. After the remaining
effects of the merits of sentient beings that support their life spans are
exhausted, a god of Ābhāsvara Heaven comes here and stays in a mother’swomb. In this way birth from the womb appears in the world. At that time
if one goes to the great city of Campā or to any other residential city quarters, one sees rice plants growing spontaneously. If one harvests the rice
crop in the morning, another crop is ripe by evening. If one harvests it in
the evening, another crop is ripe in the morning. As one crop is harvested,
new crops appear immediately.
The Zhong ahan jing (T.26:675c24–676a19; ref. Chang ahan jing,
T.1:148c10–29) says:
Rice plants grew four cun long and had no stalks. Sentient beings thenharvested what they needed each day. They taught each other to follow
this practice. They took ﬁve days worth of rice. Then the rice plants thatgrew back gradually did not revive and became dead stumps. Then people
cried in distress. They assigned to each a ﬁeld, residences, and rice plants,
and marked out boundaries. People then hid their own rice and stole grainfrom other people’s ﬁelds. Failing to settle such disputes, they voted toestablish an unbiased chief, who was to protect people, rewarding thegood and punishing the evil. Some people used swords, sticks, and othersimilar weapons to beat and kill others. [The outcome was] birth, old age,
illness, and death. The possession of ﬁelds and land led to disputes. Therefore, each took some of his property and provided it [for the common purpose]. Choosing one person of distinguished and elegant appearance, who
was endowed with a great deal of property, they asked him to be the ruler.
This was how the name “people’s ruler” (minzhu) appeared. His ﬁelds
and residences were called by this name. The realm under heaven prospered
in ways that cannot be described in detail here. The ruler honored andpracticed the ten good deeds and showed compassion for people in the45

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way that parents love their children. People respected the ruler just as ason respects his father. Human life span became very long and people
enjoyed unsurpassed prosperity.
The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:526a3–22) says:
From taking the ordinary [human] food their bodies become gradually
heavy. The light disappeared and darkness appeared. The sun, moon, andmany stars appeared from this point on. As people indulged in consuming
it, the tasty earth disappeared. At this point on the thin cakes of earth skinappeared. As they rushed to eat them, the earth cakes disappeared. Thenﬁne rice plants appeared. As they rushed to eat the ﬁne rice plants, theseplants [also] disappeared. Then unplanted fragrant rice plants appeared
spontaneously. The crowd grabbed these and ate them till they were full.
Because this food was coarse residues remained in the body. Because thepeople wanted to get rid of the residues, the two excretory organs appeared.
For this reason male and female organs appeared. Because these organs
looked very different in appearance, due to the power of karmic inﬂuences,
they looked at each other. This is how immorality eventually came into
existence. Further developments led to the rise of theft. So, the community
chose one moral person, and each person took one-sixth of his income
and hired the moral person as the guard, designating him as the ruler ofthe ﬁelds. In this way the name kṣatriya was established. People accepted
his rule and his care spread over all the land. For this reason, he was further
called the great king. There were no kings [before him]. He was the ﬁrst
king; many kings appeared following him.

277b

The Chang ahan jing (T.1:137b2–11) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “There are four things that last for an
incalculable and inﬁnite period of time. This time period cannot be measured by the sun and moon, or by the annual progress of Jupiter. What are
the four? First, as the calamities of the world occur in sequence, the period
between the destructions of this world is extremely long, and cannot bemeasured by the sun and moon, or by the annual progress of Jupiter. Second, when this world is destroyed there will be a period in which it isempty and deserted. For an extremely long time there will be no world.

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This period cannot be measured by the sun and moon, or by the annual
progress of Jupiter. Third, the period from the time when heaven and earth
come into being until the formation of the world is extremely long. This
period of time cannot be measured by the sun and moon, or by the annual
progress of Jupiter. Fourth, after heaven and earth have been formed, thisworld will remain for a very long time. This period of time cannot bemeasured by the sun and moon, or by the annual progress of Jupiter. Thesefour things last for incalculable and inﬁnite periods of time. These time
periods cannot be measured by the sun and moon, or by the annual progressof Jupiter.”[Concluding] verses say:
The distance of one hundred yojanas is easily covered by [a number of]mustard seeds.
The three calamities naturally exhausts themselves.
The ﬁre struck from a stone does not form a permanent ﬂame.
The lightning from thunder does not remain long.
When hunger is extreme people eat each other.
With swords and weapons they conquer each other.
Against pestilence no doctor is effective.
Their labor in vain, people cry out in hatred and suffering.
Close relatives cannot help each other.
Cruel violence leaves behind its echoes.
A boxful of writings left behind is in vain.
The enjoyment of plentiful wealth and valuables is pointless.
There is a great sigh at the swiftness of the river of waves.
And grief at this entanglement of painful karma.
With birth and destruction pressing hard,
The situation is urgent and no peace has been secured.

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Chapter Two
The Three Realms(This chapter is divided into two sections:) (1) Explanation of the Four Continents and (2) Explanation of the Heavens.

1. Explanation of theFour Continents(This section has ten parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) The Name, (3) Measurementof the Earth, (4) Measurement of Mountains, (5) Measurement of Different
Realms, (6) Locations, (7) Size of the Body, (8) Life Span, (9) Size of Clothing,and (10) Comparative Merits.
1. Introduction
The three realms have a ﬁxed ranking and the six realms of existence are
divided into separate sectors. Those that are reﬁned have different appearancesfrom those that are coarse; pain takes different manifestations than pleasures.
If we contemplate the origins [of all these], we are led to material form andmind; these appearances and manifestations are ultimately matters of transientphenomena that come into and go out of existence. The wheel of coming intoand going out of existence is called impermanence. Shadowy illusions ofmaterial form and mind are the origin of suffering. Thus, the Nirvana Sutra
compares them to a great river; the Lotus Sutra compares them to a burning
house. The [Great] Sage is enlightened and, stopping the carriage [of transmigration], returns to the origin; he transcends the three realms of existence andproceeds steadily through the ten stages of the bodhisattva’s path. The worldis constituted by the combination of four basic elements; when primary andsecondary conditions are combined, then at the appropriate time, it is formed.
After undergoing many calamities it returns to nonexistence. Those with shortlife spans consider the time period between the world’s formation and destruction
to be long; by calling it long they reveal the brevity of their own lives.

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278a

Empty space is nonexistent, and therefore its size is unlimited. The world
has no ultimate boundaries and therefore it has no ﬁxed shape. The Dharma
King rules over the great chiliocosm; the Brahmā king governs the small
chiliocosm. Śakra resides at Mount Sumeru. The Iron Mountains (Cakravāḍaparvata) form the encircling wall. The great ocean ﬁlls the eight directions
with water. The sun and moon are the lights for the four quarters. All kindsof sentient beings live in this world as their home; numerous minute conscious
beings do not even think of it as unclean as mud and charcoal. They look at
it from the viewpoint of those sunk in worldliness; false and excessive talkis offered. Those who investigate matters in the light of the Great Way grasp
truth as something familiar.
The world honors the Duke of Zhou and Confucius and always follows
their scriptures. The discourse on the universe remains incomplete, however.
The Book of Changes speaks of “dark heaven” but this does not go beyond
naming it as a profound and deep realm. The Zhuangzi speaks of the “bluesky” but this refers only to the color of distant objects. Daoist recluses, blindly
accepting the Zhuangzi’s “clarity,” believe that the world viewed [by the great
bird Peng] is blue like jade pieces. Confucian scholars, following scripture,
say that heaven is black like lacquer paint. Different colors of blue and green
are both inappropriate to describe the reality that is one and the same. Confucian scholars and Daoist recluses offer different descriptions, ignorant of thefact that reality is one. In this way worldly people honor the name of Heaven
but know nothing about its reality. How could they know anything about themarvelous beauties of the six heavens of the realm of desire or of the light that
illumines Brahmā’s ten heavens in the realm of form? Alas! Knowing nothingof the visible matters in the lower realms, how could one fathom the profoundtruth about these higher realms that is beyond our understanding?
Mahayana scriptures frequently speak of seeking “emptiness” (“sky”).
Such scriptures as the Chang ahan jing and the Loutan jing describe theworld in detail. Their descriptions, both in prose and verse, are extensive,and cannot be discussed fully. Here I only summarize them brieﬂy and present
their essence.
2. The Name
According to the Chang ahan jing (T. 1), the Qishi jing (T. 24), and othersources:50

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At the heart of the four continents is Mount Sumeru. Around this mountain
there are also eight other mountains. Mount Sumeru is surrounded by thegreat ocean, which is eighty-four thousand yojanas deep. The ocean surrounding the ﬁrst of the eight mountains is eight thousand yojanas wide,and contains the water of eight merits (According to the Shunzhengli lun,
T.1562:515b26, these eight qualities of water are [1] sweetness, [2] coldness,[3] softness, [4] lightness, [5] purity, [6] free of odor, [7] does not hurt thethroat when drunk, and [8] does not damage the stomach after it has been
drunk.) Each ocean around each of the subsequent mountains is smaller
than the preceding one to the same measure, so that the water under theseventh mountain is one thousand two hundred and ﬁfty yojanas wide.
The saltwater ocean around these is inﬁnitely wide. Outside of this ocean
is a mountain called Iron Mountain (Cakravāḍaparvata). This mountainsurrounds the ocean, and one sun and one moon circle around day andnight and illumine the four realms. All this is called one land. One thousandof these, surrounded by an iron wall, are called one small thousand–worldsystem. One thousand of these world-systems, again surround by an ironwall, are called one middle thousand–world-system. One thousand of these
middle thousand–world-systems, also surrounded by an iron wall, arecalled one great thousand–world-system. Within it there are millions offour continents, kings of mountains, suns, moons, and peaks. (Note: It has
been noted from olden times that there is a miscalculation in numbers
here.) When the universe is formed, these worlds are formed at the sametime; when it is destroyed, they are destroyed at the same time. All of these
constitute the one location under control of one preaching buddha. This iscalled the threefold thousand–world-system. It is also called the sahā world.
The Zishi sanmei jing (ref. T.622:344a17) says:
As for the sahā world (Note: this term means “to bear.”) (Compiler’s note:things of this world are hard and difﬁcult to bear, so it is designated by
the word “to bear.”), the buddha there is called Nengren (Śākyamuni).
The world is divided into three realms: the realm of desire, the realm of
form, and the formless realm. The desires in the realm of desire are of fourkinds: desires of emotions, desires of forms, desires of food, and sexualdesires. The desires in the realm of form are of two kinds: desires of emotions

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and desires of forms. In the formless realm there is only one kind of desire:desire of emotions. In the ﬁrst, the realm of desire, all four kinds of desires
are present; desires are strong and forms are weaker. Therefore, it is called
the realm of desire. In the second, the realm of form, forms are strong anddesires are weaker. Therefore, it is called the realm of form. In the third, theformless realm, forms have disappeared and desires are inferior. Therefore,
it is called the formless realm. (Note: The Huayan jing discusses the threefold
thousand–world-system and lists many categories, but because the discussion
is cumbersome it is not reproduced here.)
3. Measurement of the Earth
The Huayan jing (ref. T.278:614a13–16) says:
The threefold thousand–world-system comes to be formed from inﬁnite
numbers of causes and conditions. The great earth is based on the wheelof water; the wheel of water is based on the wheel of wind; the wheel ofwind is based on the wheel of space. The wheel of space is not based onanything. Thus as the karma of sentient beings matures, the world issecurely constructed.

278b

The Zhidu lun (T. 1509) says, “The base of the threefold thousand–worldsystem is the wheel of wind.”
The new translation of the Pusazang jing (T.310:252c7–24) says:
The buddhas and tathāgatas have attained the wisdom beyond discursive
thought. Therefore they know about wind and rain. They know of theexistence in this world of a great wind called Ulubojia. All perceptions
on the part of sentient beings are due to the movement of this wind. The
wheel of this wind is three krośas in height. Above this wind in the sky
is another wind, called Wheel of Cloud. The wheel of this wind is ﬁvekrośas in height. Above this wind in the sky is yet another wind, called
Zhanbojia. The wheel of this wind is ten yojanas in height. Above thiswind in the sky is yet another wind, called Vairambhaka. The wheel ofthis wind is thirty yojanas in height. Again, above this wind in the sky is
another wind, called Qulai (Coming and Going). The wheel of this wind
is forty yojanas in height. Thus, Śāriputra, one after another there are
sixty-eight thousand koṭis of wheels of wind. The tathāgatas with their

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great wisdom know all of them thoroughly. Śāriputra, the wheel of windat the top is called Zhoubian (Pervading Everywhere). On it rests thewheel of water in the higher realm. That water six million eight hundred
thousand yojanas in height. On it rests the great earth. This earth is sixtyeight thousand yojanas in height. Śāriputra, on the surface of this earth
is one threefold thousand–world-system.
The Loutan jing (T.23:309c13–18) says:
This earth is twenty billion li deep. Below it are golden grains, also twenty
billion miles deep. Under this are again diamonds, again twenty billion
miles deep. Under this is water, eighty billion miles deep. Under this isunlimited great wind, ﬁve hundred twenty billion miles deep.
Here there are six levels: the ﬁrst four are wheels of the earth, the ﬁfth isa wheel of water, and the sixth is a wheel of wind.
The Jinguangming jing (T.663:345c15) says:
The earth is one hundred and sixty-eight thousand yojanas deep. Under
it are golden sands. “Golden sands” refers to golden grains. Under this isdiamond ground.
The commentary says: “The front wheel of wind is hard and indestructible. A person hit it with a vajra hammer but the hammer broke into pieces
and the wheel of wind suffered no damage. The great strength is thestrength the fourth king of the Brahmā Heaven, Narāyana. It is also thestrength of the buddha body. The wheel of wind is called the Narāyaṇa
wind wheel. Above the wheel of wind is the wheel of water.”
The Lishi jing says:

278c[The wheel of water] is eleven million three hundred thousand yojanas
deep, three hundred and eighty thousand yojanas less than the wheel ofwind. The water does not scatter because of the power of sentient beings’
karma. Just as a storage house containing rice is held up by external objects,
the wheel of water is similarly held up by the wind outside and does not
scatter. Just as milk is reﬁned into cream, so water is reﬁned into goldwith the turning of this wind. The water is eleven million three hundred
thousand yojanas deep. When reﬁned into gold, the water is only eight53

A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I

hundred thousand yojanas deep. The difference of three hundred and thirty
thousand yojanas has become part of the ground of gold. If one moves
within the wheel of gold, from the part of lesser density to that of greater
density the thickness of the wheel is twelve lakṣas. One lakṣa is equivalent
to one hundred thousand yojanas. The diameter of this wheel is the samein all directions.
4. Measurement of Mountains
The buddhas, world-honored ones, all appear and teach in this threefold
thousand–world-system. They appear and then disappear in order to teachboth monastics and laypeople. In the four realms under heaven, which is illuminated by the sun and moon, Mount Sumeru is situated at the center (Note:
In the Tang dynasty it is called Miaogaoshan. Earlier it was called Xumishan.
It is also called Miliu or Miloushan. These are all variant renderings.) The
height of this mountain is three million three hundred and sixty thousand li.
It is made of four kinds of precious material: the eastern side of gold, thesouthern side of blue jade, the western side of silver, and the northern sideof crystal. Inside the great ocean it reaches to the depth of three million threehundred and sixty thousand li. It is based on the wheel of gold.
The Qishi jing (T.24:311c11–312a27) says:
Mount Sumeru is surrounded by eight layers of mountains. The name of
the ﬁrst mountain is Khadiraka. It is forty-two thousand yojanas in height,
and the width of the higher parts of this mountain is the same. It is madeof seven precious materials. The distance between Mount Sumeru andMount Khadiraka is eighty-four thousand yojanas. The circumference [ofMount Khadiraka] is beyond measure. Outside of Mount Khadiraka is
another mountain, called Īṣādhara. It is twenty-one thousand yojanas inheight, and the width of the higher parts of this mountain is the same. It is
made of seven precious materials. The distance between the two mountains
is forty-two thousand yojanas. The circumference [of Mount Īṣādhara] isbeyond measure. Outside of Mount Īṣādhara is another mountain, calledYugaṃdhara. It is twelve thousand yojanas in height, and the width of thehigher parts of this mountain is the same. It is made of seven precious materials. The distance between [Mount Īṣādhara and Mount Yugaṃdhara] istwenty-one thousand yojanas. The circumference [of Mount Yugaṃdhara]

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is beyond measure. Outside of Mount Yugaṃdhara is another mountain,
called Sudarśana. It is six thousand yojanas in height and the width of thehigher parts of this mountain is the same. It is made of seven precious
materials. The distance between [Mount Yugaṃdhara and Mount Sudarśana]is twelve thousand yojanas. The circumference [of Mount Sudarśana] isbeyond measure. Outside of Mount Sudarśana is another mountain calledAsāvakarna. It is three thousand yojanas in height, and the width of thehigher parts of this mountain is the same. It is made of seven precious
materials. The distance between [Mount Sudarśana and Mount Aśvakarna]
is six thousand yojanas. The circumference of [Mount Aśvakarna] is beyond
measure. Outside of Mount Aśvakarna is another mountain, called Nimindhara. It is one thousand two hundred yojanas in height, and the width of
the higher parts of this mountain is the same. It is made of seven precious
materials. The distance between [Mount Aśvakarna and Mount Nimindhara]
is two thousand four hundred yojanas. The circumference of Mount Nimindhara] is beyond measure. Outside of Mount Nimindhara is another mountain, called Vinataka. It is six hundred yojanas in height, and the width of
the higher parts of this mountain is the same. It is made of seven precious
materials. The distance between [Mount Nimindhara and Mount Vinataka]
is one thousand two hundred yojanas. The circumference [of Mount
Vinataka] is beyond measure. Outside of Mount Vinataka is another mountain, called Cakravāḍa. (This term means “surrounded.” So the mountainis called Tieweishan, Surrounding Mountain of Iron.) It is three hundred
yojanas in height, and the width of the higher parts of this mountain is thesame. It is made of seven precious materials. The distance between [Mount
Vinataka and Mount Cakravāḍa] is six hundred yojanas. The circumference[of Mount Cakravāḍa] is beyond measure.
Between each of the mountains listed above is always an ocean. In thewater are blue lotus (utpala) ﬂowers, red lotus (padma) ﬂowers, yellow
lotus (kumuda) ﬂowers, and white lotus (puṇḍarīka) ﬂowers. The water
is covered with various fragrant objects.
Not far from Mount Cakravāḍa is an empty space covered with green
grass, which is a great ocean. To the north of this ocean is a great tree,
called Jambu. Its circumference is seventy yojanas. Its roots extend into
the ground to a depth of twenty-one yojanas. It is four hundred yojanas

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in height and its branches cover the ground in all four directions as far asﬁfty yojanas.
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:116b22–c29) says:
Inside the empty ground of the mountain is a great ocean, called Yuchanna.
Below this water is the passage of the universal monarch (cakravartin). It
is twelve yojanas wide, and ﬂanked on both side by seven walls, sevenbalustrades, seven jeweled nets, and seven lines of trees. It is covered withdecorations of seven jewels. When a universal monarch appears in Jambudvīpa the seawater spontaneously disappears and the road appears. Not far
from this ocean is a mountain called Mount Yuchanna. Not far from thismountain is another mountain called Golden Wall. Beyond this mountainis the Snow Mountain (Himavat), ﬁve hundred yojanas long and wide andﬁve hundred yojanas in depth. In the middle of Snow Mountain is Treasure
Mountain, twenty yojanas in height. The peak of Snow Mountain is one
hundred yojanas in height. At the top is Anavatapta Pond, ﬁfty yojanas long
and wide. The water of this pond is clear and unpolluted. Its bank is constructed from bricks of seven precious materials. The bottom is ﬁlled withgolden sand. The ﬂowers are like wheels of chariots; their stems are liketheir axles. From the hub of the ﬂowers a milky white liquid comes out,
sweet like honey. To the east of the pond is the Ganges River, which ﬂows
out of Oxen Mouth and follows ﬁve hundred rivers to ﬂow into the Eastern
Ocean. To the south of the pond is the Sindhu River, which ﬂows out of
Lion’s Mouth and follows ﬁve hundred rivers to ﬂow into the Southern
Ocean. To the west of the pond is the Bocha River, which ﬂows from Horse’s
Mouth and follows ﬁve hundred rivers to ﬂow into the Western Ocean. To
the north of the pond is the Śīta River, which ﬂows out of Elephant’s Mouth
and follows ﬁve hundred rivers to ﬂow into the Northern Ocean.
Dharma Master [Xuan]zang’s Record of the Western Regions (T.2087:
869b7–c9) says:
In the middle of Jambudvīpa is Anavatapta Pond. (Note: The word anavatapta means “no heat.” The old transcription is based on a vernacular rendition of the name.) It is located south of Fragrant Mountain (Gandhagiri)
and north of Great Snow Mountain. Its circumference is eight hundred li.

279b

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Its banks are decorated with blue jade and crystal. It is ﬁlled with golden
sand; its clear waves are like shining mirrors. Because of the power of
his vow a tenth-stage bodhisattva became a dragon (nāga) king and resides
in the pond, pouring forth clear water for the use of [beings in] Jambudvīpa.
For this reason, from the silver mouth of an ox on the eastern side of thepond ﬂows the Ganges River. (Note: The old transliterations are basedon vernacular renditions.) The river circles around the pond once andﬂows into the eastern part of the South Sea. From the golden mouth ofan elephant on the southern side of the pond ﬂows the Sindhu River. (Note:
The old transliteration is based on a vernacular rendition.) The river circles
around the pond once and ﬂows into the western part of the South Sea.
From the blue jade mouth of a horse ﬂows the Cakṣu River. (Note: The
old transliteration Bocha is based on a vernacular rendition.) The rivercircles around the pond once and ﬂows into the western part of the North
Sea. From the crystal lion’s mouth ﬂows the Śīta River (Note: The oldtransliteration is based on a vernacular rendition.) The river circles aroundthe pond once and ﬂows into the eastern part of the North Sea. Some saythat the stream that goes underground and appears at Mount Jishi is a tributary of the Śīta River, and that this is the origin of China’s Yellow River.
At the present time the cosmic conditions are such that there is no universal monarch. In Jambudvīpa there are four kings. To the south is theelephant king; the warm climate suits elephants. To the west is the kingof treasures; the area facing the ocean is ﬁlled with treasures. To the northis the king of horses; the cold climate suits horses. To the east is the kingof human beings; the climate is mild and there is a large population. Thus,
the kingdom of the elephant king is extremely noisy. People are diligent
in learning and are particularly learned in unusual skills. The land of thetreasure king lacks morality and bribery is common. The customs of thehorse king are naturally violent and include killing. The land of the humanking is civilized and moral principles are made clear. The culture of theking in the eastern realm is superior among those of the four kings. The
residences there have doors that open to the east, and when the sun rises
people face east and worship [the sun]. In the land of the human king thesouthern direction is honored. The cultures of these kingdoms vary but they
may be summarized as follows. As for the norms and decorum governing

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the hierarchical relationship between ruler and subject and the observanceof law and properly composed writings, the land of the human king cannot
be further improved. In the instruction for calming the mind and removing
greed as well as in techniques that lead one beyond life and death, theland of the elephant king possesses superior principles. These are all
clearly presented in scriptures, which are based on local customs gatheredfrom past and present and critically examined. However, the Buddha
appeared in the west and his teachings moved eastward. In the course ofthis transmission the pronunciation [of terms] became distorted and words
got mixed up. Consequently, the meaning of these writings was often lost.
Therefore, “We must have the rectiﬁcation of names.” It is important tobe free of mistranslation.
The Qishi jing (ref. T.24:312c28–313b7; Chang ahan jing, T.1:116c29–
117a19) says:
In the middle of Anavatapta Palace is a hall of ﬁve pillars. The dragon
king Anavatapta always stays there. The Buddha said, “Why is he called
Anavatapta? What is the meaning? All dragon kings in this realm ofJambudvīpa have three afﬂictions. Only the Anavatapta dragon king is
free from these three afﬂictions. What are these three? First, all dragons
suffer when hot wind and sands buffet their body, burning their skin, ﬂesh,
and bone marrow. Only the Anavatapta dragon is free from this suffering.
Second, in all dragon palaces violent winds arise and blow away theirbejeweled clothing. With their bodies exposed, the dragons suffer. Only
the Anavatapta dragon is free from this suffering. Third, when dragon
kings are amusing each other in their palaces, great garuḍa birds enter
the palaces and seize them. As soon as these birds are born they wish toeat dragons, so the dragons are frightened and constantly in distress. Only
the Anavatapta dragon is free from this suffering. If a garuḍa king wishes
to go to this dragon it immediately dies. For this reason it is called anavatapta (which means “no suffering”).”
The Buddha said to the monks, “To the right of Snow Mountain is acity called Kapila (Vaiśāli). To the north of this city are the Seven Black
Mountains. To the north of the Black Mountains is Fragrant Mountain.
The sound of music and dance is heard constantly on this mountain. There

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are two caves on the mountain: one is called Jin and the other Shanjin.
These caves are made of the seven precious materials and are as soft andfragrant as the robes of gods. A beautiful-sounding gandharva king lives
there, accompanied by ﬁve hundred gandharvas.
The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:515c18–21) says:
Among the four continents only Jambudvīpa has the vajra seat. It reaches
the upper limit of the earth above and the Gold Wheel below. Bodhisattvas
in their last birth about to achieve the highest true insight all sit upon thisseat and enter the vajra samādhi. With all the strength of the state of nirvana, both with or without karmic remainder, they uphold the seat.
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:136a14–22, b8–9, 24–25, c10–11) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “There are the deities of the four elements.
What are the four? The ﬁrst is the earth god. The second is the water god.
The third is the wind god. The fourth is the ﬁre god. Each of these elements
contains the other three. Therefore, once when the earth god held a wrong
view and said that water, ﬁre, and wind are absent in earth, I knew what
this god was thinking. So I went to him and asked, ‘Have your ever thought
and said that water, ﬁre, and wind are absent in earth?’ He answered,‘Indeed water, ﬁre, and wind are absent in earth.’ At that time I said, ‘You
should not entertain the thought that water, ﬁre and wind are absent inearth. Why is this so? Water, ﬁre, and wind are present in earth. Because
earth is dominant it is called element (great).’”
The Buddha said to the monks, “For the beneﬁt of the earth god, I
removed his mistaken view and instructed him. He was delighted and,having obtained truth, his eyes were opened. [Similarly,] earth, ﬁre, andwind are present in water; earth, water, and wind are present in ﬁre; earth,water, and ﬁre are present wind. One of these elements is dominant, however, and names are assigned accordingly.”
280a

5. Measurement of Different Realms
According to the Lishi apitun lun (T.1644:181b24–c11):
Outside the salty ocean is a mountain called Cakravāḍaparvata. It reaches
to a depth of three hundred twelve and a half yojanas to the bottom of the59

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ocean and its height above the surface of the ocean is the same. Its widthis also the same. Its circumference is three trillion six hundred million
ten thousand three hundred and ﬁfty yojanas. The distance between thesouthern boundary of Jambudvīpa (the boundary of Nimindhara Ocean)and the base of Cakravāḍaparvata is three hundred million sixty thousand
six hundred and sixty-three yojanas. From the center of Jambudvīpa eastward to the center of Pūrvavideha is three hundred million sixty thousand
six hundred yojanas. From the center of Jambudvīpa westward to thecenter of [Apara]godāniya is three hundred million sixty thousand six
hundred yojanas. From the northern boundary of Jambudvīpa northward
to the northern (?) boundary of Uttarakuru is four hundred million seventy-seven thousand ﬁve hundred yojanas. On the western side the distance
between the further and closer boundaries of the water around Cakravāḍaparvata Mountain is one million two hundred thousand eight hundred andtwenty-ﬁve yojanas. The circumference of the boundary of the water surrounding Cakravāḍaparvata Mountain is three billion six hundred million
eight thousand four hundred and seventy-ﬁve yojanas. From the peak ofthis Mount Sumeru to the peak of the other Mount Sumeru is one billion
two hundred million three thousand four hundred and ﬁfty yojanas. Fromthe center of this Mount Sumeru to the center of another Mount Sumeru
is one billion two hundred million eighty-three thousand four hundredand ﬁfty yojanas. From the base of this Mount Sumeru to that base of theother Mount Sumeru is one billion two hundred million three thousandand ﬁfteen yojanas. This teaching was given by the Buddha, the Worldhonored One.
(Note: According to the Chang ahan jing, T.1:115b13–21, Jambudvīpa
is seven thousand yojanas long and wide, the western continent [Apara]godāniya is eight thousand yojanas long and wide, the eastern continent Pūrvavideha is nine thousand yojanas long and wide, and the northern continent
Uttarakuru is ten thousand yojanas long and wide.)
6. Locations
There are two kinds of human beings: ordinary and holy. If we speak interms of location, there are four kinds, namely, people in the realms under thefour heavens. In terms of places of residence there are altogether four thousand

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and eight places in the realms under the four heavens, and consequently, there
are four thousand and eight kinds of people. We will conﬁne our discussion
to the location of Jambudvīpa.
The Loutan jing (T. 23) says:
Altogether there are thirty-six large kingdoms. There are corresponding
numbers of different kinds of people. To speak in further details, there
are two thousand ﬁve hundred smaller kingdoms. There are again corresponding numbers of different kinds of people.
Furthermore, each kingdom has several different kinds of people, suchas the Hu, the Han, the Qiang, the Lu, the Fan, the Yi, the Chu, and the Yue,
who differ reﬂecting variations in locality. I will not go into details here.
Again, the Loutan jing (T. 23) says:
In this southern [continent of] Jambudvīpa there are six thousand four
hundred different kinds of people. I refer to them [collectively] as a group,
not naming each of the different subgroups.
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:121b29–c4) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “Surrounding the four realms under heaven
are eight thousand realms under heaven. Then there is the great ocean
surrounding the eight thousand realms. Then there is again the great diamond mountain surrounding the great ocean. Outside the great diamond
mountain is again the second diamond mountain. The area between thetwo mountains is dark. Even though the deities such as the sun and moonare very powerful, they cannot illuminate with their light the eight great
hells that are located there.”
Uttarakuru in the North
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:115b13–15, 24–25; 117c15–119b23) says:
To the north of Mount Sumeru is a realm under heaven called Uttarakuru.
Its ground is square, ten thousand yojanas long and wide. People’s faces
are also square, just like the shape of the land. There is a great tree, calledĀmra, seven yojanas in circumference and a hundred yojanas in height.
Its branches spread ﬁfty yojanas in the four directions.

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There are many mountains and bathing ponds. Flowers and fruit areplentiful. Innumerable birds sing in harmony. Soft grasses grow on the
ground, in clockwise circles, jade in color and with the fragrance of vārṣika
ﬂowers that bloom in the rainy season. They are as soft as the garmentsof gods. The ground is so soft that when people step on it the ground sinks
down four inches but when one lifts one’s foot it returns to its original
position. The ground is ﬂat like the palm of the hand. On each of the foursides of the area are Anavatapta Ponds, each one hundred yojanas long
and wide. Four large rivers, each ten yojanas wide, are made of sevenjewels. Birds sing in harmony. There are no ditches or holes, sharp-needledbushes or tree stumps. Mosquitoes, ﬂies, and other poisonous creatures
are also absent. The ground is made of pure jewels.
The climate is mild and well-balanced. Hundreds of plants grow yearround and there is neither summer nor winter. Grains grow naturally, without the need for planting. The rice looks like white ﬂowers, without ricebran and grounds. Like the gods’ food in Tuṣita Heaven, all different tastes
are present in it. Pots and pans appear spontaneously. There is also a maṇijewel, called “light of ﬂame,” that when it is placed under the pot its lightdims when the food is cooked. There is no need for ﬁrewood, and no
human effort is required.
In this place trees called “bent back” grow; their leaves cover overeach other in layers and heavenly rain does not pass through. Men andwomen here spend the night under these trees. A fragrant tree, seventy
miles in height and covered with ﬂowers and fruits, also grows there.
When its fruit ripens the skins of the fruit open spontaneously and giveoff a fragrant smell. Some trees are sixty or ﬁfty li tall. There is a smalltree, ﬁve li tall, and when its fruit ripens the skin opens spontaneously
and various pieces of clothing appear. Sometimes pieces of bodily ornaments, various utensils, or various kinds of food appear.
Sometimes people there play in the river with many treasure boats.
Before going into the water the people leave their clothing on the riverbank,and then board the boat. After they ﬁnish playing [on the water], they
return to the bank and put on their clothing. Whoever comes out ﬁrst putson the ﬁrst piece of clothing they ﬁnd and those who come out later put
on whatever clothing is left. They do not look for the particular pieces of62

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clothing they originally wore. When they come to the fragrant tree called“bent back” the people take up musical instruments, tune the strings, andwith beautiful voices they sing in harmony with the music as they walkaround the garden, amusing themselves. In this place during the night
Anavatapta dragons frequently go up to gather the pure clouds that cover
the world and bring down sweet rain. Like milk drawn from a cow, thewater of eight qualities nourishes the ground everywhere. After midnightthe sky is clear and cool breezes blow from the ocean. The people there
are comfortable and pleased.
The ground of this place is fertile and it is densely populated. Whenfood and drink are needed rice grains appear spontaneously in the cooking
pot. When the maṇi jewel called “light of ﬂame” is placed under the pot
the food is spontaneously cooked and the light of the jewel dims [whenthe food is ready]. Everyone comes and eats as much as they wish. So
long as the host does not have to get up the food is never exhausted. If thehost must get up then the food is ﬁnished. The food is as white and freshas bouquets of white ﬂowers, and its ﬂavor is like that of the food of gods.
There is no illness. People are ﬁlled with vital energy and their complexions are healthy. No one shows any signs of decline. The people inthis place have identical bodies and faces and are indistinguishable fromeach other. They look as vigorous as people in their twenties in Jambudvīpa.
Their teeth are white and perfectly aligned. Their hair is dark and clean
and falls to a length of eight ﬁngers to above their eyebrows, neither too
long nor too short.
When the people in this land feel desire, they gaze at [the object of
their desire] and walk away. The woman then follows him to the garden.
If the woman happens to be a relative of the man’s parents and is not suitable to be his wife, the tree will not provide shade for them, and the twogo their separate ways. If they are not related, the tree then provides shade,and they indulge in pleasure at their will day after day for seven days.
Then they leave each other.
(Note: According to the Lishi apitun lun, T.1644:201b23–28, c9–10;
201c28–202a3, in the northern continent [of Uttarakuru] men do not ask for
women and welcome them as their wives, nor do they buy or sell women.

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When a man wishes to marry a woman he simply gazes at her. If the woman
thinks of a man as desirable, she also simply gazes at him. If a woman has
not realized that a man has gazed at her, the other women tell her, “That man
has looked at you. You two are now husband and wife.” If a man does notrealize that a woman has gazed at him, the other men tell him, “That woman
has looked at you. You two are husband and wife.” When a man and woman
gaze at each other, they then follow each other and go somewhere else. Those
whose desires are strong marry no more than ﬁve spouses; those whose
desires are of medium strength marry four or three. There are also those who
engage in spiritual cultivation and are free from desire until death. Pregnant
women there do not wish to eat.)[The Chang ahan jing continues:]
In this place women give birth after seven or eight days of pregnancy.
They couple take the infant to a busy crossroads and leave him or her
there. Passers-by offer the infant a ﬁnger to lick, from which sweet milk
ﬂows and the baby’s hunger is sated. After seven days the infant is fullygrown to an adult. A male infant joins the community of men; a female
infant that of women. When someone dies here people do not cry. They
decorate the corpse, take it to busy crossroads, and leave it there. A bird
called youwei chanqie takes the corpse elsewhere. (Note: According to
the Lishi apitun lun, T.1644:201a10, a bird takes the corpse to a placeoutside the mountain and devours it.)Furthermore, in this place whenever people urinate or defecate, theground spontaneously opens up [and absorbs the urine and fecal matter],and when they have ﬁnished the ground closes over again. The people inthis place are not obsessive, nor do they accumulate property. Their life
span is ﬁxed and when they die they are reborn in heaven. Why is theirlife span ﬁxed? In their previous lives they have practiced the ten gooddeeds. When their lives ended they were reborn in Uttarakuru. Their life
span is one thousand years, never longer or shorter. Therefore, the life
span of the people here is exactly the same for everyone. If a person gives
to brahmans, to the poor, the ill, and others in distress, providing themwith food and clothing, offering rides on carriages, decorative headwear,
perfume, beds, or residences, or by building stupas, lighting candles, and

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making offerings, when that person’s life comes to an end [he or she] will
be reborn in Uttarakuru, where their life spans will be one thousand years,
neither more nor less. In this place the teaching of the ten good deeds is
not offered, yet everyone’s conduct is in accord with that teaching. Whentheir life there ends, the person is reborn in heaven. For this reason, people
here are praised as being superior. This is the highest among the threecontinents under heaven. Uttara means highest.
The Lishi apitun lun (T.1644:200a21–22, b19–21) says:
The people in this land are white and clean. They decorate their hair andbeards in dark green and black. After they have shaved, in ﬁve days their
hair grows back to the length of seven ﬁngers, with a strip of the samelength, neither more nor less.
The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:515c25–27; 516a5–6) says:
Uttarakuru to the north is shaped like a square seat. Each of its four sides
is of the same length, two thousand yojanas. . . . [O]n two sides are
medium-sized continents, the ﬁrst called Kurava and the second Kauravā.
People live on both these continents.
Pūrvavideha in the East
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:115b15–17, 26–27) says:
To the east of Mount Sumeru is a realm under heaven called Pūrvavideha.
Its ground is a perfect circle, nine thousand yojanas long and wide. The
shape of the people’s faces there is round, just like the land. There is alsoa massive tree called Jialanfu, seven yojanas in circumference and one
hundred yojanas in height. Its branches spread ﬁfty yojanas in the four
directions.
The Zaodiandi jing says, “People in the eastern regions are superior tothose in Jambudvīpa. People [in these regions] use cotton and silk and trade
them at market.”
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:133a23–24?, b21–22, c6–7) says:
The life span of the people [in Pūrvavideha] is generally less than two
hundred years. (Note: The Loutan jing, T.23:296c1, says that the life span65

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is three hundred years.) They eat rice, fish, and meat. (Note: The Lishi
apitun lun, T.1644:201a2–3, says that they do not themselves kill living
beings, nor do they let others kill. Only if a creature dies on its own dothey then eat the meat.) The people there trade grain, silk, jade, andjewels at market. There is a marriage ceremony that people follow when
taking wives.
(Note: According to the Lishi apitun lun, T.1644:201c27–28; 200a20–21,
b17–19, among the people in Pūrvavideha those whose sexual desire is strong
marry as many as seven wives in their lifetimes; those whose sexual desire
is of average strength [marry] as many as ﬁve or six. There are also those
who engage in spiritual cultivation and are free of desire throughout theirlives. In the eastern and western continents the bodies of people are neverblack; otherwise they are like those in Jambudvīpa with bodies of a varietyof colors. People in the eastern continent have a distinct hair style: the front
is cut while the back is left long. They wear two pieces of clothing, a bottom
piece and a top piece that simply wraps around the body.)
The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:515c21–24, 516a3–4) says:
Pūrvavideha in the east is narrow on the eastern side and wide on the west;
three of its four sides are the same length, so its shape is like a half-moon.
The eastern side is three hundred and ﬁfty yojanas in length and the otherthree sides are each two thousand yojanas long. The eastern side of the
Pūrvavideha is wider than the [pointed] southern side of the southern continent, Jambudvīpa. Thus, Pūrvavideha is the shape of a half-moon. On
two sides of Pūrvavideha are medium-sized continents, the ﬁrst called
Deha and the second Videha. People live on both these continents.
Aparagodānīya [in the West]
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:115b17–19, 27–29; 133a24, 25?, c5–6) says:
To the west of Mount Sumeru is the realm under heaven called [Apara]godānīya. Its ground is round, like a full moon, eight thousand yojanas long
and wide. People’s faces are [round], just like the [shape of the] land. . . .
There is also a massive tree called Jinti (tiduka?), seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height. Its branches spread ﬁfty
yojanas in the four directions. (Note: According to the Qishi jing,

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T.24:311b26–28, under this tree is a stone cow, one yojana tall. This is
why the continent is called godāniya, which means “giving to the cow.”)
The life span of the people [in [Aparagodānīya] is three hundred years.
They trade cows, horses, jade, and jewels at market. People there are superior to the people in Jambudvīpa.
The Lishi apitun lun (ref. T.1644:200b16–17; 200c29–201a2, 7–9, c24–26)
says:
People [in Aparagodānīya] either kill living beings themselves or eat meatfrom those that have been killed by others. In this regard they are like thepeople in Jambudvīpa. When a relative dies they take the corpse into themountains and cremate it, or they place the corpse in a body of water,bury it in the ground, or leave it in an empty space. In this regard people
in the eastern and western contents are like those in Jambudvīpa. Theirmarriage [customs] are also similar. Those whose sexual desire is strong
marry as many as twelve wives in their lifetimes; those whose sexualdesire is of average strength marry ten. There are also those who engage
in spiritual cultivation and are free of desire throughout their lives. People
wear their hair long in both front and back. They wear two pieces of clothing,a top and a bottom.
The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:515c24–25; 516a4–5) says:
Aparagodānīya to the west is shaped like a full moon, two thousand ﬁve
hundred yojanas in diameter and seven thousand ﬁve hundred yojanas incircumference. On two sides are medium-sized continents, the ﬁrst calledŚāṭha and the second Uttaramantriṇas. People live on both these continents.
Jambudvīpa [in the South]
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:115b19–21, 29–c7; 133a23–24) says:
To the south of Mount Sumeru is the realm under heaven called Jambudvīpa. Its ground is narrow to the south and wide to the north, seven thousand
yojanas long and wide. People’s faces are shaped just like the land. Thereis also a massive tree called Jambu, seven yojana in circumference andone hundred yojanas in height. Its branches spread ﬁfty yojanas in thefour directions.

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I(Note: According to the Qishi jing, T.24:311b29–c2, under this tree is a
deposit of Jambūnada gold. The tree is twenty yojanas in height. Because
this superior gold is mined under this tree, it is called Jambūnada gold.)[The Chang ahan jing continues:]
There is also the tree of the king of the garuḍas, called Julishanpoluo,
seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height. Its
branches spread ﬁfty yojanas in the four directions. There is also the treeof the king of the asuras, called Shanjin, seven yojanas in circumference
and one hundred yojanas in height. Its branches spread ﬁfty yojanas in
the four directions. There is a tree in Trāyastriṃśa Heaven called Huadu,
seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas in height. Its
branches spread ﬁfty yojanas in the four directions.
People in Jambudvīpa live for one hundred years. Many die young.
For the ﬁrst ten years they are ignorant. At twenty they begin to have someknowledge but they are not yet wise. At thirty their emotional and intellectual powers are strong. At forty there is no limit to what they can [understand and] practice. At ﬁfty they do not forget what they have learned. At
sixty they become stubborn. At seventy they become physically slow. At
eighty they lose their physical beauty. At ninety their illnesses cause muchpain. At one hundred all their sense organs decline. By then they haveexperienced three hundred winters, summers, and springs, and taken thirtysix thousand meals. There are also handicapped people there.

281c

The Lishi apitun lun (T.1644:200b10–16; ref. 200b29–c1, 22–24; 201b21–22) says:
People in Jambudvīpa wear a variety of clothing and jewelry. Some wear
their hair long, divided into two knots. Some shave their hair and beard.
Some leave the hair at the top of their heads and shave everything else.
This is called cūḍā hair. Some pull out their hair and beards. Some havetheir hair and beards trimmed. Some weave their hair. Some leave theirlong hair loose. Some trim their loose front hair and let the back hair forma circle [in a bun]. Some go about naked. Some wear clothes that cover
the top but leave the bottom exposed, or that exposes the top but covers
the bottom. Some cover both top and bottom and others simply cover the68Fascicle 2

front and back. The wide variety of food the people of this continent eat
cannot be described in detail here. We know about their marriage ceremonies and ways of trading at market from what we see.
The same treatise says (T.1644:201c23–24):
In their lifetimes people in Jambudvīpa desire an inﬁnite number of things.
They are unlike the people of the three other continents, who have only
limited desires. There are, however, also those who engage in spiritualcultivation and are free from desire throughout their lives in Jambudvīpa.
The Shunzhengli lun (ref. T.1562:516a2–3) says, “Jambudvīpa to the south
has two peripheral continents, the ﬁrst called Cāmara and the second Cāmarāvarā. People live on both these continents.”
7. Size of the Body
The Lishi jing (Lishi apitun lun, T.1644:215c5–6) says:
Before the age of ten years old people in Jambudvīpa are very small, someonly about two or three hands tall. When they grow to normal size they
are eight hands tall.
The Pitan lun (ref. Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:887a17–19) says:
When people in Jambudvīpa become one hundred years old, their heightis three and a half zhou tall; some are eight zhou. (Note: The Chang ahan
jing, T.1:133a10, speaks of “three and a half zhou tall.” There may havebeen some uncertainty or this text speaks in loose terms.) People in Pūrvavideha are eight zhou tall. People in Aparagodānīya are sixteen zhou tall.
People in Uttarakuru are thirty-two zhou tall.
8. Life Span
According to the Abhidharma, the life span of the people in Jambudvīpa
is indeterminate. There are three categories: a superior life span of one hundred
and twenty-ﬁve years, a medium life span of one hundred years, and an
inferior life span of sixty years. There is also an innumerable number ofpeople who die without completing their life spans. These categories apply
in the period of the declining world age. At the beginning of a world age thelife span is inﬁnite, or eighty-four thousand years.

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The Chang ahan jing (ref. T.1:133a23–25) says:
The life span of people in Jambudvīpa is one hundred and twenty years,
though many die young [before their life span runs out]. The life span of
the people in Pūrvavideha to the east is two hundred years. (Note: The
Loutan jing, T.23:296c2, says that the life span of the people [in Pūrvavideha] is three hundred years.) The life span of the people in Aparagodānīya
to the west is three hundred years. The life span of the people in Uttarakuru
to the north is one thousand years. (Note: In the other three continents people
also die young; only in the northern continent [of Uttarakuru] do people
always live out their ﬁxed life span of one thousand years.)
9. Size of Clothing
The Qishi jing (T.24:344c12–16) says:
The height of people in Jambudvīpa is three and a half zhou. Consequently,
their clothing is seven zhou long and three and a half zhou wide. The
people in Aparagodānīya and Pūrvavideha are the same size as those in
Jambudvīpa, and both the length and width of their clothing is the same.
The people in Uttarakura are seven zhou tall and their clothing is fourteenzhou in length and seven zhou wide at both top and bottom. The asuras
are one yojana tall; their clothing is two yojanas long and one yojana
wide, and weighs half a kārṣāpana. (Note: In Chinese measure, one-halfliang. Other scriptures give different sizes for the asuras’ clothing. For
example, the asura Vemacitra is four times taller than Mount Sumeru.)

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10. Comparative Merits
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:135b23–c26) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “The people in Jambudvīpa are superior tothose in Aparagodānīya in three ways. What are the three? First, they arecourageous, have a good [faculty of] memory, and are capable of conductthat produces karma; second, they are courageous, have a good [faculty of]memory, and are diligent in spiritual cultivation; third, they are courageous,
have a good [faculty of] memory, and buddhas appear [in that continent].
The people in Aparagodānīya are superior to those in Jambudvīpa in three
ways. What are the three? First, they have more cows; second, they havemore sheep; third, they have more jewels.

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Jambudvīpa is superior to Pūrvavideha in three ways. What are thethree? First, people there are courageous, have a good [faculty of] memory,and are capable of conduct that produces karma; second, they are courageous, have a good [faculty of] memory, and are diligent in spiritual cultivation; third, they are courageous, have a good [faculty of] memory, andbuddhas appear [in that continent]. Pūrvavideha is superior to Jambudvīpa
in three ways. What are the three? First, the land is extremely wide; second,
the land is extremely large; third, the land is extremely beautiful.
Jambudvīpa is superior to Uttarakuru in three ways. What are the three?
First, the people there are courageous, have a good [faculty of] memory,and are capable of conduct that produces karma; second, the people there
are courageous, have a good [faculty of] memory, and are diligent in spiritual cultivation; third, they are courageous, have a good [faculty of] memory, and buddhas appear [in that continent]. Uttarakuru is superior to
Jambudvīpa in three ways. What are the three? First, people there haveno family relationships; second, they have no possessions; third, they alllive for one thousand years.
The people in Jambudvīpa are superior to the hungry ghosts (pretas)
in the above-mentioned three ways. Hungry ghosts are superior to the people
in Jambudvīpa in three ways. What are the three? First, they live long lives;second, the bodies are large; third, they beneﬁt from actions of others.
The people in Jambudvīpa are superior to garuḍas in the above-mentioned three ways. Garuḍas are superior to people in Jambudvīpa in three
ways. What are the three? First, they live long lives; second, their bodies
are large; third, they have a palace.
The people in Jambudvīpa are superior to the asuras in the above-mentioned three ways. Asuras are superior to people in Jambudvīpa in three
ways. What are the three? First, their palaces are tall and wide; second, theirpalaces are beautifully decorated; third, their palaces are clean and pure.
The people in Jambudvīpa are superior to the four heavenly kings in
the above-mentioned three ways. The four heavenly kings are superior to
the people of Jambudvīpa in three ways. What are the three? First, they
live long; second, they are good-looking; third, they enjoy many pleasures.
The people in Jambudvīpa are superior to the gods of Trāyastriṃśa
Heaven, Yama Heaven, Tuṣita Heaven, and Nirmāṇarati Heaven in the

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above-mentioned three ways. The gods of these heavens are superior to thepeople of Jambudvīpa in three ways. What are the three? First, they live
longer; second, they are good-looking; third, they enjoy many pleasures.

2. Explanation of
the Heavens(This is subdivided into twenty-two parts:) (1) Ranking, (2) Names [of the
Heavens], (3) Karmic Causes, (4) Birth, (5) Measurement of Realms, (6)Measurement of Bodies, (7) Measurement of Robes, (8) Life Span, (9)Dwelling Place, (10) Spaciousness, (11) Adornment, (12) Presenting theMemorial, (13) Supernatural Powers, (14) Bodily Halo, (15) Commerce, (16)Marriage, (17) Food and Drink, (18) Servants and Vehicles;, (19) Attendants,(20) Distinction of Classes, (21) Wealth and Poverty, and (22) Funerals.
1. Ranking
According to the teaching in the Posha lun (ref. T.1546:49b5–21):
There are thirty-two kinds of heavens: the realm of desire has ten, therealm of form has eighteen, and the formless realm has four.
First, the ten heavens in the realm of desire consist of (1) Ganshou(Karoṭapāṇi?), (2) Chihuaman (Mālādhāra?), (3) Changfangyi (Sadāmatta?), (4) the heaven of the sun, moon, and stars, (5) the heaven of thefour heavenly kings, (6) the thirty-three heavens (Note: Under the comprehensive name Trāyastriṃśa), (7) Yama Heaven, (8) Tuṣita Heaven, (9)Nirmāṇarati Heaven, and (10) Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven. (Note theheaven of the sun, moon, and stars, etc. and the last four heavens are in
the sky. The other ﬁve are situated on the mountain. Details are foundbelow in the section on locations).
Second, the eighteen heavens in the realm of form consist of (1) the
three heavens of the ﬁrst meditative state (Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita,
and Mahābrahmā). (Interlinear note: These three heavens do not constituteseparate realms of residence. The Brahmapurohita deities are higher andawe-inspiring and the Mahābrahmā king rules over them. Of the threeheavens, Brahmakāyika refers to the common deities, Brahmapurohita toministers, and Mahābrahmā to the ruler. Only at this ﬁrst level of meditation
do distinctions among ruler, minister, and commoner exist. Distinctions

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are absent above this level.), (2) the three heavens of the second meditative
state (Parītābha, Apramāṇābha, and Ābhāsvara), (3) again the three heavensof the third meditative state (Parīttaśubha, Apramāṇaśubha, and Śubhakṛtsna), and (4) the nine heavens that exist only in the fourth meditative
state (Punyaprasava, Fuai [Anabhraka?], Bṛhatphala, Asaṃjñika (Note:
This “no-thought” heaven again is not a separate place; it is the sameplace as the preceding one, but because non-Buddhists live here it is given
a separate name.), Abṛha, Atapa, Sudṛśa, Sudarśaṇa, and Akaniṣṭha).
Third, the four heavens in the formless realm consist of (1) Inﬁnite
Space (Ākāśānantyāyatana), (2) Inﬁnite Consciousness (Vijñānānantyāyatana), (3) Nothingness (Akiṃcanyāyatana), and (4) Neither Thought
nor No-thought (Naivasaṃjñānāsamjñāyatana). (Note: These three realms
altogether contain thirty-three kinds of heavens.)
Question: I do not know how many among these thirty-two heavens arefor ordinary beings and how many are for holy beings.
Answer: In two of these heavens only ordinary beings live, and in ﬁve
only holy beings live. In the remaining twenty-ﬁve heavens both ordinaryand holy beings live. The two in which only ordinary beings live are the
Mahābrahmā Heaven of the ﬁrst meditative state and the Heaven of Nothought (Asaṃjñāna) of the fourth meditative state. These are both places
where non-Buddhists live.
Question: Why do only ordinary beings live in these two heavens?
Answer: The king of Mahābrahmā Heaven is deﬁcient in positive karmic
causes. He says that only he can produce heaven, earth, and all beings, andbecause of this they arrogantly despise all holy beings and refuse to live inthe same place as these beings. In the Heaven of No-thought only nonBuddhists who have practiced the no-thought meditation are born and receive
the karmic reward of being in the state of no-thought for ﬁve hundred worldages. Non-Buddhists cannot achieve nirvana. When their rewards have been
exhausted they are bound to follow wrong views and be reborn in hell. For
this reason holy beings are never born there.
The abovementioned ﬁve heavens where only holy beings live refer tothe ﬁve heavens of pure beings (Śuddhāvāsa), above Bṛhatphala throughAbṛha, Atapa, [Sudṛśa, Sudarśaṇa, and Akaniṣṭha]. This is where nonreturners

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I(anāgāmin) and arhats live. If an ordinary being is born there, they proceed
to obtain a nonreturner’s body, achieve the four meditative states, and issue
forth untainted wisdom and meditative work ﬁlled with good perfuming
effects. Some engage in the ﬁve kinds of practices and are reborn there. Ordinary beings lack these meditative works ﬁlled with good perfuming effects,
and for this reason they are not reborn there. It is correct and without doubtthat nonreturners are born there.
Question: Arhats are free from rebirth. How is it that they are said to beborn there?
Answer: One should [more correctly] say that nonreturners of the realmof desire are born there and achieve arhatship. It is not that they are ﬁrst
arhats and are then reborn there.
The abovementioned remaining twenty-ﬁve heavens where both ordinary
beings and superior beings live together cannot be discussed in detail here.
Generally, according to the teachings of the Small and Great Vehicles,
there are four categories of heavens.
The Niepan jing (T.374:494b21–26) says:
There are four kinds of heavens: (1) the worldly heaven, (2) the heavensof rebirths, (3) the pure heaven, and (4) the heaven of truth. [Gods in the]worldly heaven are like kings. The heavens of rebirths refer to the various
heavens from the heaven of the four heavenly kings to the heaven of Neither Thought Nor No-thought. The pure heaven is for stream-winners(srota-āpanna) through pratyekabuddhas. The heaven of truth is for bodhisattvas of the ten stages. Why is it called “truth”? Bodhisattvas of the ten
stages are called the heaven of truth because they understand the truth of
the teaching well and see into the truth of the emptiness of all beings.
283a

2. Names [of the Heavens]
Discussing the heavens of four heavenly kings, the Chang ahan jing (ref.
T.1:79c28–80a8) says:
The eastern heavenly king is called Dhṛtarāṣṭra; the name is translated
into Chinese as Governed Realm Ruler. (Note: The Dazhidu lun, ref.
T.1509:443b10, gives a slightly different transcription.) He rules over the
gandharva and piśāca generals, guarding people in Pūrvavideha against

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invasion. The southern heavenly king is called Virūḍhaka; the name istranslated into Chinese as Increase Heaven Ruler. (Note: The Dazhidu
lun, ref. T.1509:443b11, gives a slightly different transcription.) He rules
over the kumbhāṇḍa and preta ghost generals, guarding people in Jambudvīpa against invasion. The western heavenly king is called Virūḍhaka; thename is translated into Chinese as Mixed Words Ruler. (Note: The Dazhidu
lun, T.1509:443b12 gives a slightly different transcription.) He rules overthe dragon (nāga) and pūtana ghost generals, guarding people in Aparagodānīya against invasion. The northern heavenly king is called Vaiśravaṇa;the name is translated into Chinese as Wide Hearing Heaven Ruler. (Note:the Dazhidu lun, T.1509:443b13, gives a slightly different transcription.)
He rules over the yakṣa and rākṣasa generals, guarding people in Uttarakuru against invasion.
The Dazhidu lun (T.1509:443b14–20) says:
The god Śakra’s full name in Sanskrit is Śakra-devānam Indra. Śakra istranslated in Chinese as “able,” deva is translated as “god,” and indra istranslated as “lord.” Together the name means “able lord of gods.” The nameof the god Suyāma is translated in Chinese as “very good.” Tuṣita is translated
in Chinese as “well-satisﬁed.” Nirmāṇarati is translated in Chinese as “enjoying transformation.” [Paranirmita]vaśavartin is translated in Chinese as“enjoying freely what others produced by transformation.” The king ofBrahmā Heaven is called Sikhi, which is translated in Chinese as “great top”
or “great vessel.” Śuddhāvāsa is translated in Chinese as “pure dwelling.”(Note: The Dazhidu lun explains the meaning of each name, one after
another. The names of higher heavens are the same as those listed in the
Posha lun. For the sake of concision they are not reproduced here.)
The Zhong ahan jing (ref. Za ahan jing, T.99:290c21–291a25) says:
At one time another monk approached the Buddha and paid respect bybowing [his head] to the Buddha’s feet. After withdrawing to a corner, headdressed the Buddha, “World-honored One, why is Śakra (Śakra-devānām
Indra) called by this name?”
The Buddha replied to the monk, “In a previous life Śakra was a humanbeing and performed spontaneous giving. He gave drink, food, money,75

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goods, and lamps to monks and brahmans who were poor and in distress.
Because he was strong (śakra) enough to do this, he is called “Śakradevānām Indra.”[The monk asked,] “Why is he [also] called Puraṃdara?” The Buddha
said, “When he was a human being in a previous life he frequently [traveledfrom town to town] and performed giving, offering clothing, drink, food,lamps, and so on. For this reason he is called Puraṃdara.”[The monk asked,] “Why is he also called Maghavā?” The Buddha
said, “When he was a human being in a previous life, his name was
Maghavā. So, he is called by his original name.”[The monk asked,] “Why is he also called Vāsava?” The Buddha said,“When he was a human being in a previous life he offered a gift of robes(vāsa). So he is called Vāsava.”[The monk asked,] “Why is he also called Kauśika?” The Buddha said,“When he was a human being in a previous life his surname was Kauśika.”[The monk asked,] “Why is he also called Sujāṃpati?” The Buddha
said, “Because Sujā is the ﬁrst empress of this heavenly emperor.”[The monk asked,] “Why is he also called Thousand Eyes (Sahāsrākṣa)?”The Buddha said, “When he was a human being in a previous life, he wasintelligent and wise. In one sitting he could consider a thousand matters,
observing and investigating them.”[The monk asked,] “Why is he also called Tili?” The Buddha said,“Because this heavenly emperor is the ruler of the thirty-two heavens.”
The Buddha said to the monk, “When Śakra-devānām Indra was ahuman being in a previous life he practiced seven kinds of virtuous deeds,
and because of this he was able to become this deity. What are the seven?
The list begins with serving one’s parents and ends with making offerings
to everyone equally. The content of these deeds are described in the versein the scripture (T.99:2.290b14–19).

283b

3. Karmic Causes
Question: What deeds produce the karmic effects leading to each of thesix realms of existence?
According to the Dazhidu lun (ref. T.1509:280a21–b3):
The karmic causes of the six realms of existence are none other than good76

Fascicle 2

and evil deeds. Each has three subcategories. The higher category leads
to birth in heaven; the middle to birth as human being; and the lower tobirth in the four inferior realms. According to this theory, only the higher
subcategory of good deeds leads to birth in heaven. [Here] no distinction
is made between general practice and meditation.
The Yebao chabie jing (T.80:893b5–12) discusses the ten good deeds thatlead to rebirth in heaven in detailed terms of the distinctions between generalpractice and meditation and the distinction of three realms. The scripture says:
There are also ten good deeds that lead sentient beings to birth in the heavens of the realm of desire. If they practice the superior ten good deeds
they can be reborn in the heavens of the realm of desire.
This refers to general good deeds of the realm of desire. [The scripture
continues:]
There are also ten good deeds that lead sentient beings to birth in the heavens of the realm of form. If they practice the tainted (sāsrava) ten gooddeeds they can be reborn in the heavens of the realm of form. These correspond to meditation.”
This refers to the meditative good deeds of the realm of form. [The scripture
continues:]
There are also the four karmic deeds that can lead sentient beings to rebirthin the formless realm: ﬁrst, the meditation of emptiness that goes beyond
all thoughts of forms and destroys all dualistic thought; second, the meditation of consciousness that goes beyond all meditations of emptiness;third, the meditation of nonexistence that goes beyond all meditations ofconsciousness; fourth, the meditation of no-thought and its negation that
goes beyond all meditations of nonbeing. By means of these good deeds
they obtain rebirth [in the heaven] of the formless realm.
If someone asks why the ten good deeds are not mentioned in regard to
this last realm, one should reply that one in the formless realm has transcended
form and disregards such things as the body and speech [in terms of which
the ten good deeds are described]. For this reason, one only speaks of four
karmic deeds and not of the ten good deeds.

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However, the views expressed above are all the teaching of the Tathāgata.
He distinguished the different retributions for different kinds of deeds. Causes
and effects match each other without error .
According to the Shanjie jing:
Monks uphold two hundred and ﬁfty precepts and nuns uphold three hundred and seventy-eight precepts. There are also deeds that lead to birth inheaven.
Thus, a verse in the Sifenlü jieben (T.1429:1022c12–13; T.1430:1030b11–12) says, “Intelligent people guard their precepts and obtain three kinds ofhappiness: fame, wealth, and birth in heaven after death.” This refers to theheaven in the realm of desire.
The Zhengfanian jing (ref. T.721:142b24–25) says:
Some uphold the precepts of not killing, not stealing, and not engaging
in immoral sexual conduct; for these three good deeds they are reborn inheaven.
283c

This also refers to rebirth in a heaven in the realm of desire. In the teachings
given by the Buddha on different occasions, such heavenly rebirth is not
attributed solely to these three causes.
According to the Wenshi jing (T.701:803a22–c3), by bathing a monk as
an act of spiritual purity, one can be reborn in heaven or in higher realms.
This too is the Buddha’s teaching on a different occasion. It is not that bybathing a monk one can be reborn in all higher realms; one can be reborn
only in the heavens of the realm of desire.
Furthermore, according to the Nirvana Sutra (T.374:374a12–b2):
A loving mother tries to save her child [from drowning] in the Ganges
River, but both the mother and child die and are reborn in the Brahmā
Heaven. This refers to general worldly love, and it is not supported byother good deeds of Buddhist meditation. How can [such an act] lead torebirth in heaven? It must have resulted from other distant causes and was
not mere worldly love that caused rebirth in heaven. The teaching that bysimply hearing once the word “nirvana” one can avoid falling into thefour inferior realms of rebirth is also intended in the same way.

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Therefore, the Zhenfanian jing (ref. T.721:142b19–c11) teaches:
By following the seven precepts of not killing, not stealing, not engaging
in immoral sexual conduct, not telling lies, not engaging in insincere ﬂattery, not uttering slanderous words, and not speaking harshly one can bereborn in the heaven of the four heavenly kings. By upholding seven kindsof precepts, one can be reborn in the heavens. There are three kinds. By
upholding the precept of not killing one can be reborn in the place of thefour heavenly kings. By upholding the precepts of not killing and notstealing one can be reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods (Trāyastriṃśa). By upholding the precepts of not killing, not stealing, and not
engaging in immoral sexual conduct one can be reborn in Yama Heaven.
By upholding the precepts of not killing, not stealing, not engaging in
immoral sexual conduct, not lying, not uttering slanderous words, notspeaking harshly, and not engaging in insincere ﬂattery, one can be reborn
in Tuṣita Heaven. Accepting worldly precepts and having faith in Buddhist
precepts, not killing, not stealing, not engaging in immoral sexual conduct,
not lying, not uttering slanderous words, not speaking harshly, and not
engaging in insincere ﬂattery, one can be reborn in Nirmāṇarati Heavenand Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven.
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:30b25–28) says:[These deities] had earlier engaged in spiritual cultivation under the Buddha
and when their lives here ended they were born in the Heaven of theThirty-three Gods (Trāyastriṃśa), causing the deities in that heaven toincrease their ﬁve beneﬁts: ﬁrst, their life span in heaven; second, theirappearance in heaven; third, their reputation in heaven; fourth, their pleasures; ﬁfth, their power in heaven.
The Za ahan jing (T.99:353b26–354a21) says:
Then the World-honored One said to the monks, “In the past, in the kingdom of Kosalā, there was a lute player called Guttila. He wandered among
the people of Kosalā and rested in a ﬁeld. Six heavenly maidens from thegreat heavenly palace came to the where the lute player Guttila was staying
in the kingdom of Kosalā and spoke to him, saying, “Uncle, play the lute79

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for us. We will sing and dance.” The lute player Guttila said, “Sisters, it
should be this way. I will play the lute for you, and you will tell me who
is born in heaven and for what reason they are born there.” The heavenly
maidens said, “As you play the lute we will sing and dance, and the song
we sing will explain the conditions for being born in heaven.” [Guttila]
then played the lute and the six heavenly maidens sang and danced. The
ﬁrst maiden sang these verses:

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As a man I gave a woman the gift of a beautiful robe.
Because of this gift of a robe, I obtained this superior rebirth [as aheavenly maiden].
For giving something that I cherished, I was reborn in heaven andhave everything as I wish.
I live in a palace, ﬂy up and travel in the sky.
With the body of a heavenly being, made of gold,
I am the best among a hundred heavenly maidens.
Observe this merit, which is the highest example of redirected merit.
The second maiden sang these verses:
As a man I gave a woman the gift of quality perfume.
Because of this gift of something I cherished, I was reborn in heavenand have everything as I wish.
I live in a palace, ﬂy up and travel in the sky.
With the body of a heavenly being, made of gold,
I am the best among a hundred heavenly maidens.
Observe this merit, which is the highest example of redirected merit.
The third maiden sang these verses:
As man I gave a woman the gift of food.
Because of this gift of something I cherished, I was reborn in heavenand have everything as I wish.
I live in a palace, ﬂy up and travel in the sky.
With the body of a heavenly being, made of gold,
I am the best among a hundred heavenly maidens.
Observe this merit, which is the highest example of redirected merit.

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The fourth maiden sang these verses:
As I recall a previous life,
I was someone’s maidservant.
I did not steal, nor was I greedy.
Tirelessly, I engaged in spiritual cultivation.
Taking for myself only a measured amount of food,I divided my food and offered assistance to the poor.
Now I live in a palace, ﬂy up and travel in the sky.
With the body of a heavenly being, made of gold,
I am the best among a hundred heavenly maidens.
Observe this merit, which is the highest example of making offerings.
The ﬁfth maiden sang these verses:
As I recall a previous life,
I was someone’s wife.
My mother-in-law had a violent temper,
Constantly criticizing me.
I upheld the moral principles, and cultivated the proper ways of
behaving as a woman, humble and obedient.
Now I live in a palace, ﬂy up and travel in the sky.
With the body of a heavenly being, made of gold,
I am the best among a hundred heavenly maidens.
Observe this merit, which is the highest example of making offerings.
The sixth maiden sang these verses:
I once encountered some monks and nuns.
I heard from them the correct teaching, and after a short while
received the lay precepts.
Now, I live in a palace, ﬂy up and travel in the sky.
With the body of a heavenly being, made of gold,
I am the best among a hundred heavenly maidens.
Observe this merit, which is the highest example of making offerings.
Thereupon the lute player Guttila of Kosalā kingdom uttered the following
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Luckily I came here, to the forest of Kosalā,And was able to see these heavenly maidens, with most beautiful
heavenly bodies.
Having seen them and heard them teach, I should with increased
effort cultivate good deeds.
Because of the merits of this new effort I will be able to be bornin heaven.
When [Guttila] had ﬁnished saying this, the heavenly maidens disappeared.
4. Birth
Birth in the Heavens of the Four Heavenly Kings
According to the Chang ahan jing and the Dazhidu lun, the gods in theheavens of the four heavenly kings all marry and satisfy their desires, justas do human beings. But they are born by transformation. Their newborns
are like two-year-old human children and sit on [their mother’s] laps. (Note:
According to the Shunzhengli lun, as noted below, they are like ﬁve-yearold human children. According to another scripture, a newly born male childsits on his mother’s right knee, and a female child sits on her mother’s left
knee.) Shortly after a newborn has arrived, they become thirsty and hungry.
Spontaneous jeweled vessels ﬁlled with a hundred different kinds of foodappear. In the case of those with greatest amount of merit, the color of therice is white; in the case of those with an average amount of merit, it is blue;in the case of those with smallest amount [of merit], it is red. If they arethirsty the jeweled vessel ﬁlls with sweet juice. The color varies, as in thecase of the food. They do not keep what is left of the drink but throw it intoﬁre, just as in the case of ghee. By the time they ﬁnish eating they are thesame size as the other gods. When they are ﬁrst born they still remember
their previous lives, but as they play they forget them.
Birth in the Heaven of the Thirty-three [Gods].
The Piyeposhenrenwen jing (ref. Piyeshawen jing, T.354:230b7–231c15)
says:
The Great Sage should know this. In the Heaven of the Thirty-three [Gods]
the gods play and have fun. Going through the forest, if the mind [of a82Fascicle 2

deceased sentient being] sees a male deity and a female deity sitting
together, it is overjoyed and [the sentient being] is quickly reborn there.
Just like a bead threaded on a string will run straight along the string when
one end of the string is pulled, that sentient being will not be reborn elsewhere. When the sentient being is about to be born there a ﬂower appears
in the hand of the female deity. When she sees it, she realizes that she ispregnant. She then takes the ﬂower and gives it to her husband, saying,“I am going to have a child. Be happy!” Seeing this, the male deity isdelighted, knowing that his wife is bearing a divine child. The two deities
are pleased, and after seven days have passed, the sentient being, withlong hair, pure and uncontaminated, endowed with a god’s clothing, isborn in that heaven. During the seven days he entertains the thought, “I
withdraw from such-and-such place to be born in this heaven. I will perform good deeds for my parents.” [When he thinks in this way] he is ﬁlledwith joy. With joy desire appears, and the sentient being immediately goesto that place in heaven, just as a drunken elephant stumbles. His nose is
like an elephant, round and long, and his chest is ﬂat and gold in color.
His upper and lower body is large, while it is narrow in the middle. His
gait is cautious. He is thoughtful and courageous. His waist bends like a
bow and his back is straight. His thighs are large, like banana plants. He
knows the laws of heaven well. His beard is very short. He has the strong
fragrance of the gods. His nails are thin, and his body is clean. Without
help from anyone, he dresses and adorns himself. There is no illness inheaven. He gradually grows up in the palace, where there is no master.
When the heavenly maidens see him, they gather around him, saying“Holy child, welcome! In this palace we have no husband who is our master. We have long been separated from our husband and have only children.
We are young, endowed with beautiful features. We will provide milk,
just as if it were to come from a golden jar. Our faces are of the color ofa newly opened lotus ﬂower. We move like lightning. We are attractive
and pleasing. We are heavenly maidens. We will now serve you. This isa place for seeking pleasure.” In this way the women approach the childand serve him.
In the Heaven of Thirty-three Gods is the Hall of Good Teaching, theplace where the gods gather together. It has eighty-four thousand pillars,

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each made of jewels. Within it is free of troublesome vermin such as mosquitoes and ﬂies. Nor are there any difﬁculties such as sleepiness andexhaustion. Inﬁnite numbers of heavenly maidens offer fun and pleasure
as one wishes. Such troubles as jealousy and ﬁghting are absent. The
cheeks of the heavenly maidens are pure and spotless, like the mirror of
the round moon. With their own methods, using perfume and colors, they
decorate their faces. These maidens sing and entertain each other.
The Qishi jing (T.24:346a27–c22) says:
In that heaven, either from a male or female deity, as they sit, the newborn
suddenly appears near the knees or between the thighs. When the newcreature has just been born, he or she looks like a twelve-year-old humanchild. If a male child, he is born somewhere around the knees of the sitting
male deity. If a female child, she is born between the thighs of a female
deity. As soon as the child is born, the deity says that he or she is his or
her child. When the child is born, because of his or her previous karma
the child entertains three kinds of thoughts: ﬁrst, the child recalls where
he or she died; second, the child realizes where he or she has just beenreborn, third, the child realizes that this rebirth is the fruit of his or her
previous karma, that it is the reward for merit. Having entertained thesethoughts, the newborn thinks of eating. Immediately many jeweled vessels
appear in front of the newborn, each spontaneously ﬁlled with heavenly
food of different colors.

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The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:519b26–c1) says:
What is the size of the bodies of the gods who have just been born in thesix heavens in the realm of desire? When gods are born in these heavens,
their bodies are the same size as those of ﬁve-, six-, seven-, eight-, nine-,or ten-year-old human beings respectively. After birth they quickly growto their full sizes. When the deities of the heavens in the realm of desire
are born, their bodies are fully grown and they are wearing beautiful heavenly robes. All the gods speak the holy language (Sanskrit). Thus, theirlanguage is identical to that of Central India. Therefore, they understandthe language of the scriptures without studying it.

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5. Measurement of Realms
The Qishi jing (T.24:310c23–311b6) says:
At the foot of Mount Sumeru are three levels of areas in which gods live.
The lowest level is sixty yojanas wide and deep, the second level is forty
yojanas wide and deep, and the highest level is twenty yojanas wide anddeep. Each has seven layers of walls surrounding the palace. Numerous
birds sing beautiful songs, and nothing anyone might wish for is lacking.
In each of these levels yakṣas also live. In the middle part of Mount
Sumeru, at the height of forty-two thousand yojanas, is the palace where
the four heavenly kings live. At the top of Mount Sumeru is the palace ofthe Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods. This is where Śakra (Indra) lives.
Above the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods is Yama Heaven. Above thatis Tuṣita Heaven. Above that is Nirmāṇarati Heaven. Above that is Paranirmitavaśavartina Heaven. Above that is Brahmakāyika Heaven. Below
Brahmakāyika Heaven, in the space between it and the heaven below, isthe palace of Māra, the Evil One. Above Brahmakāyika Heaven is Ābhāsvara Heaven. Above Ābhāsvara Heaven is Śubhakṛtsna Heaven. AboveŚubhakṛtsna Heaven is Bṛhatphala Heaven. Above Bṛhatphala Heaven is
No-coarse-thought (Asaṃjñika?) Heaven. In the space below this heaven
are the palaces of other deities, called no-thought (āsaṃjñin) beings.
Above Asaṃjñika Heaven is Abṛha Heaven. Above Abṛha Heaven is
Sudarśana Heaven. Above Sudarśaṇa Heaven is Sudṛśa Heaven. AboveSudṛśa Heaven is the palace of Akaniṣṭha Heaven. Above Akaniṣṭha
Heaven are further heavens: the [Heaven] of Unbounded Emptiness, theHeaven of Unbounded Consciousness, the [Heaven] of Nonexistence, the[Heaven] of Neither Thought Nor No-thought. These names all refer toplaces where gods live. In these differently marked areas different sentient
beings live, coming and going, appearing and disappearing. All beings inthis world undergo birth, aging, illness, and death and are reborn in different
realms. The highest realm in which they can be reborn are these heavens.
This world is called the sahā world. Innumerable worlds in all directions
are also like this world.
The Lishi apitun lun (T.1644:198c29–199b2) says:

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Two hundred thousand yojanas below Jambudvīpa is Avīci Hell. One hundred thousand yojanas below Jambudvīpa is the location of the hell of
Yama’s world. Between these two are other hells. (Note: This treatise
does not discuss the distances among these hells.) Four hundred thousand
yojanas above here is the place where the four heavenly kings live. Eighthundred thousand yojanas above here is the location where the thirtythree gods live. One million six hundred thousand yojanas above here is
the location where the gods of Yama Heaven live. Three million two hundred thousand yojanas above here is the location where the gods of Tuṣita
Heaven live. Six million four hundred thousand yojanas above here is thelocation where the gods of Nirmāṇarati Heaven live. Twelve million eight
hundred thousand yojanas above here is the location where the gods ofParanirmitavaśavartin Heaven live.
A monk asked the Buddha, “How far is it from Jambudvīpa to Brahmā’splace?” The Buddha said, “The distance between Jambudvīpa and Brahmā’splace is very far. Suppose on the ﬁfteenth day of the ninth month, whenthe moon is full, a person in Brahmā’s place dropped a rock measuring
one hundred square zhang downward, which fell without obstruction
through the space in between, it would not reach the ground of Jambudvīpa
until the full moon in the ninth month of the following year. Apramāṇābha
Heaven is still further by the same distance. From Apramāṇābha Heaven
to Ābhāsvara Heaven is again the same distance. From Ābhāsvara Heaven
to Parīttaśubha Heaven is again the same distance. From Parīttaśubha
Heaven to Apramāṇaśubha Heaven is again the same distance. From
Apramāṇaśubha Heaven to Śubhakṛtsna Heaven is again the same distance.
From Śubhakṛtsna Heaven to Anabhraka Heaven is again the same distance.
From Anabhraka Heaven to Punyaprasava Heaven is again the same distance. From Punyaprasava Heaven to Bṛhatphala Heaven is again the same
distance. From Bṛhatphala Heaven to Āsaṃjñika Heaven is again the same
distance. From Āsaṃjñika Heaven to Sudṛśa Heaven is again the same
distance. From Sudṛśa Heaven to Sudarśana Heaven is again the same distance. From Sudarśana Heaven to Abṛha Heaven is again the same distance.
From Abṛha Heaven to Atapa Heaven is again the same distance. From
Atapa Heaven to Akaniṣṭha Heaven is again the same distance.

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Fascicle 2[Verses say:]From Akaniṣṭha [Heaven] to the ground of Jambudvīpa,
If one were to throw a dense rocky mountain,
After sixty-ﬁve thousand ﬁve hundred and twenty-three years, with no
obstacles in the space in between,
The rocky mountain will reach Jambudvīpa.
The Dazhidu lun (T.1509:124c13–17) says:
If someone were to throw a one square-zhang rock from the edge of theheavens of the realm of desire, it would take eighteen thousand three hundred and eighty-two years before it reached the ground here.

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Chapter Two(continued)
The Three Realms(continued)(Part 2: Explanation of the Heavens continues.)
6. Measurement of Bodies
The Zaxin lun (T.1552:886c24–887a15) says:
Seven subatomic particles (paramāṇus) form an atom (aṇu). These are thesmallest units. [Those with] divine eyes can see them, and bodhisattvas
and universal monarchs can also see them. Seven atoms form a moleculeof metal. Seven molecules of metal form a molecule of water. Seven molecules of water form a molecule [the size] of the tip of a rabbit’s hair. Seven
molecules the size of the tip of a rabbit’s hair form a molecule [the size ofthe tip] of a sheep’s hair. Seven molecules the size of the tip of a sheep’s
hair form a molecule [the size of the tip] of a cow’s hair. Seven molecules
the size of the tip of a cow’s hair form a particle of dust [that can be seenin the light coming through a narrow gap]; seven dust particles form a lice
egg. Seven lice eggs form a lice. Seven lice form a particle of wheat. Seven
wheat particles form one aṅgula (“ﬁnger”). Twenty-four aṅgulas is a
hastaka (“elbow”). Four hastakas is a dhanu (“bow”). Five hundred dhanus
is one krośa. Eight krośas is one yojana. Thus, a verse says:
Seven paramāṇus forms one aṇu.
Seven aṇus forms one metal molecule.
A particle of water, the hairs of a rabbit and cow,
Each follows as the preceding is multiplied by seven.
Thus, in the treatises the sizes of the gods, from the four heavenly kings
to the gods in Akaniṣṭha Heaven, are measures by krośas.

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Thus the Posha lun (T.1545:702a26) says, “The bodies of the four heavenly
kings are a quarter krośa in height.”
According to the Zhengfanian jing (ref. Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:887a19–24):
The size of gods of the four heavens is the same as that of their kings. (Note:
The Abhidharma also says the same.) The size of the gods in the Heavenof Thirty-three Gods is one-half krośa in height. That of Śakra (Indra) is
one krośa. The size of the gods in Yama Heaven is two quarter-krośas inheight. (Note: The body of Śakra is taller than that of Yama because in apast life he singlemindedly devoted himself to pious works.) The gods inTuṣita Heaven are one krośa tall, just like the gods in Śakra’s heaven. The
gods in Nirmāṇarati Heaven are one and one-quarter krośas in height. The
gods in Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven are one and one-half krośas in height.
(Note: These are the sizes of the gods in the heavens of the realm of desire.)
Second, as for the sizes of the gods in the realm of form, the Za apitanxinlun (T.1552:887a24–b4) says:
The gods in Brahmakāyika Heaven are one-half yojana in height. The gods
in Brahmapurohita Heaven are one yojana in height. The gods in Mahābrahmā Heaven are one and half yojanas in height. The gods in Parīttābha
Heaven are two yojanas in height. The gods in Apramāṇābha Heaven are
four yojanas in height. The gods in Ābhāsvara Heaven are eight yojanasin height. The gods in Parīttaśubha Heaven are sixteen yojanas in height.
The gods in Apramāṇaśubha Heaven are thirty-two yojanas in height. The
gods in Śubhakṛtsna Heaven are sixty-four yojanas in height. The gods in
Fuqing (Anabhraka, No Cloud[like Gathering of Gods]?) Heaven are one
hundred and twenty-ﬁve yojanas in height. The gods in Puṇyaprasava
Heaven are two hundred and ﬁfty yojanas in height. The gods in Bṛhatphala
Heaven are ﬁve hundred yojanas in height. The gods in the Heaven of Nothought are the same. The gods in Abṛha Heaven are one thousand yojanasin height. The gods in Atapa Heaven are two thousand yojanas in height.
The gods in Sudarśana Heaven are four thousand yojanas in height. The
gods in Sudṛśa Heaven are eight thousand yojanas in height. The gods in
Akaniṣṭha Heaven are sixteen thousand yojanas in height.
Third, the formless realm transcends physical shapes and cannot be described

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in words. (Note: The Great Vehicle also speaks of subtle forms. Their descriptions found in the scriptures and treatises are not reproduced here.)
7. Measurement of Robes
Question: What are the heavenly robes like?
According to the scriptures, the gods in the six heavens of the realm of
desire wear heavenly robes and freely ﬂy about everywhere. Their clothing
looks like robes but emits light, and it is not like the ordinary brocade of ourworld. The clothing of the gods in the realm of form is also called heavenlyrobes, but its light constantly changes, sometimes brighter and sometimes
more beautiful, and it cannot be described.
The Qishi jing (T.24:344c16–29) says:
The four heavenly kings are one-half yojana tall; their robes are one yojana
long and one-half yojana wide, and they weigh one-half liang. The godsin the Heaven of the Thirty-three [Gods] are one yojana tall; their robes
are two yojanas long and one yojana wide, and weigh one-half liang. The
gods in Yama Heaven are two yojanas tall; their robes are four yojanas
long and weigh one-quarter of one-half liang. The gods in Tuṣita Heaven
are four yojanas tall; their robes are eight yojanas long and four yojanas
wide, and weigh one-eighth of one-half liang. The gods in Nirmāṇarati
Heaven are eight yojanas tall; their robes are sixteen yojanas long andeight yojanas wide, and weigh one-sixteenth of one-half liang. The gods
in Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven are sixteen yojanas tall; their robes are
thirty-two yojanas long and sixteen yojanas wide, and weigh one thirtysecond of one-half liang. The gods in Māra’s heavens are thirty yojanas
tall; their robes are sixty-four yojanas long and thirty-two yojanas wide,
and weigh one sixty-fourth of one-half liang. In the many heavens above
these the size of the gods’ bodies and their robes are no different.
The Qishi jing (ref. Lishi apitun lun, T. 1644:200b3–10, 27–29) says:
The robes of the gods in the various heavens of the realm of desire aredecorated in many different ways and cannot be described in detail. In
the two heavens of Nirmāṇarati and Paranirmitavaśavartin, however, thesizes of the gods’ robes follow what is in their minds, and the weight of
their robes is likewise. The gods in the realm of form do not wear robes

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but look as if they do. Their heads do not have hair and look like heavenly
crowns. There is no distinction between male and female forms; there is
only one gender.
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:133a16–22) says:
The robes of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty-three [Gods] weigh six
zhu (about four grams). The robes of the gods in Yama Heaven weighthree zhu. The robes of the gods in Tuṣita Heaven weigh one and a half
zhu. The robes of the gods in Nirmāṇarati Heaven weigh one zhu. The
robes of the gods in Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven weigh one-half zhu.
The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:519b27–28) says, “The moment the godsof the realm of form are born their bodies are fully developed and coveredby clothing.”
8. Life Span
The Za apitanxin lun (T.1552:887b19–c26) says:
As for the life spans of the gods, ﬁfty years for human beings is one day andnight for the four heavenly kings. Calculating in terms of days and months,
ﬁve hundred years, the life span of the four heavenly kings equals nine million
human years, based on the calendar of the sun and moon. Similarly, taking
one day and one night in Revivifying Hell (saṃjīva naraka) [as a unit] andcalculating the time period in terms of days and months, ﬁve hundred years,
the life span in Revivifying Hell, equals one hundred years for human beings.
Taking one day and night in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods [as a unit],
and calculating in terms of days and months, one thousand years, the life
span of the thirty-three gods, equals three hundred and six million humanyears. Taking one day and night in Black Rope Hell (kālasūtra naraka) [asa unit] and calculating in terms of days and nights, one thousand years inBlack Rope Hell equals two hundred human years. Taking one day and nightin Yama Heaven [as a unit] and calculating in terms of days and months,
two thousand years, the life span of the gods in Yama Heaven, equals one
billion four hundred and four million human years. Taking one day and nightin Multiple Punishment Hell (saṃghāto naraka) [as a unit], and calculatingin terms of days and months, two thousand years, the life span in Multiple

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Punishment Hell, equals four hundred human years. Taking one day andnight in Tuṣita Heaven [as a unit], and calculating in terms of days andmonths, four thousand years, the life span of the gods in Tuṣita Heaven,amounts to ﬁfty-seven billion sixty million human years. Taking one day
and night in Shouting Hell (raurava naraka) [as a unit] and calculating interms of days and months, four thousand years in Shouting Hell equals eight
hundred human years. Taking one day and night in Nirmāṇarati Heaven [asa unit] and calculating in terms of days and months, eight thousand years,
the life span of the gods in Nirmāṇarati Heaven, equals two hundred andthirty billion human years. Taking one day and night in Loud Shouting Hell(mahāraurava naraka) [as a unit], and calculating in terms of days andmonths, eight thousand years, the life span in Loud Shouting Hell, equals
1one thousand six hundred human years. Taking one day and night inParanirmitavaśavartin Heaven [as a unit], and calculating in terms of days
and months, sixteen thousand years, the life span of the gods in Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven, equals ninety-two billion sixty million human years.
Taking one day and night in Heat Hell (tāpana naraka) [as a unit], calculatingin terms of days and months, the life span in Heat Hell is sixteen thousand
years. The life span in Multiple Heat Hell is one-half a world age (kalpa).
The life span in Avīci Hell is one world age. The maximum life span in therealm of animals is also one world age. As for earth-upholding dragons andhungry ghosts, the longest life span among them is ﬁve world ages.
Second, the life span in the realm of form is calculated in terms ofworld ages. The life span of the gods in Brahmakāyika Heaven is onehalf a world age. The life span of the gods in Brahmapurohita Heaven is
one world age. The life span of the gods in Mahābrahmā Heaven is one
and a half world ages. For the gods in Parīttābha Heaven it is four worldages. For the gods in Ābhāsvara Heaven it is eight world ages. For thegods in Parīttaśubha Heaven it is sixteen world ages. For the gods inApramāṇaśubha Heaven it is thirty-two world ages. For the gods in Śubhakṛtsna Heaven it is sixty-four world ages. For the gods in Fuai Heaven it
is one hundred and twenty-ﬁve world ages. For the gods in Puṇyaprasava
Heaven it is two hundred and ﬁfty world ages. For the gods in Bṛhatphala
Heaven it is ﬁve hundred world ages. For the gods in the Heaven of Nothought it is the same. For the gods in Abṛha Heaven it is one thousand

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world ages. For the gods in Atapa Heaven it is two thousand world ages.
For the gods in Sudarśana Heaven it is four thousand world ages. For thegods in Sudṛśa Heaven it is eight thousand world ages. For the gods in
Akaniṣṭha Heaven it is sixteen thousand world ages.
Third, the life span in the formless realm in the Heaven of [Unbounded]
Emptiness is twenty-thousand world ages; in the Heaven of [Inﬁnite] Consciousness it is forty thousand world ages; in the Heaven of Nothingness
it is sixty thousand world ages; in the Heaven of Neither Thought Nor
No-thought it is eighty thousand world ages. In all the three realms somebeings die without fulﬁlling their life spans. Only in Uttarakuru, for theﬁnal-body bodhisattvas in Tuṣita Heaven, and in the Heaven of No-thoughtis the life span ﬁxed and there is no such thing as not fulﬁlling one’s life
span. In other cases some die before fulﬁlling their life spans.

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The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:520b13–29) also agrees, though it says:
In the realm of human beings people in Uttarakuru are endowed with thestrongest powers of merit, and even those of inferior capacities who indulge
in physical pleasures do not receive punishment and after death are reborn
in heaven without fail.
Otherwise this work agrees with the views cited above.
Question: At the time of the world age of ﬁre, when the great conﬂagration
marks the end of the world, the ﬁre reaches the heavenly realm of the ﬁrst
meditative state [in the realm of form] and burns up everything. Why does
the Za apitanxin lun cited above claim that the ruler of Mahābrahmā Heaven,[which belongs to this level of heaven in the realm of form,] survives for aperiod of one and a half world ages?
Answer: The “one and a half world ages” here refers to the theory thattakes sixty minor world ages as one and a half world age. This world age is
not a major world age. According to the theory that speaks of the major worldages of water, ﬁre, and wind, the major world age consists of eighty minor
world ages. The life span in the sixty minor world ages is still shorter by
twenty minor world ages than this major world age that includes destruction
by ﬁre. There is no contradiction between this theory and the comment about
the life span of “one and a half world ages.”

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How do we know this? The old Jushe lun (Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya) calls
an anatarkalpa a “special world age” (T.1559:220a23). The Lishi apitan lun
calls it the “minor world age” (T.1644:206c1). The new Jushe lun (T.1558:
262b28) and the new Posha lun (T.1545:601c8; 690c5) call it a “medium
world age.” These three names refer to the same thing, and the duration
involved is the same. According to the Āgamas (ref. T.1:40c–41c), the humanlife span was at ﬁrst eighty-four thousand years. Every one hundred years it
decreased by one year until it became ten years. Then it began to increase [atthe same rate] until it again became eighty-four thousand. One cycle of thisincrease and decrease is called a medium world age (the “special” [anatarkalpa]
and “minor” world ages mentioned in other texts refer to the same unit.)
According to the Jushe lun, the period that comes to an end when heavenand earth undergo the three calamities and their course is exhausted is calleda “greater world age.” Going through the calamities of water, ﬁre, and wind
one by one (ref. T.1558:66b) takes eighty medium world ages. As one medium
world age comes to an end, another medium world age comes into being. In
the course of nineteen medium world ages, different kinds of sentient beings
gradually come to exist. For a period of twenty medium world ages all things
exist. Then in the course of the next nineteen medium world ages things aregradually destroyed. Then in one medium world age ﬁre, water, and winddestroy the environment. In the course of nineteen medium world ages hunger,
illness, and [acts of war] destroy sentient beings. The comment about the life
span of one and a half world ages can be accommodated within this theory.
The Abhidharma also speaks in the same vein, speaking of the place that“exists” and the place that is “emptied” ﬁrst (ref. Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:
960a26). The place that still “exists” at the end is the lowest hell of Avīci.
This is the place that becomes “empty” at the very end. The realm in which
the sentient beings ﬁrst come to “exist” is not ﬁxed. In the world age of ﬁre
it is the realm of the ﬁrst [meditative state]. In the world age of water it is
the realm of the second meditative state. In the world age of wind it is therealm of the third meditative state. If we follow this theory, then one great
world age includes these sixty medium world ages plus twenty special worldages of emptiness. Altogether there are eighty special world ages.
The major world age and its subdivisions are distinguished in this way.
Let us now show how there is no contradiction. It is said above that the life

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span of the gods in Brahmakāyika Heaven is one-half a world age. You should
know that this means “half a world age” in reference to [another categoryof] special world age; thus it means twenty medium world ages. Second, thelife span of the gods in Brahmapurohita Heaven is one world age. This means
one special world age, or forty medium world ages. Third, the life span of
the gods in Mahābrahmā Heaven is one and a one-half world ages. You should
know that this refers to one and a half special world ages, or sixty medium
world ages. Given this way of calculation, there is no contradiction. This
explains the matter with regard to the ﬁrst meditative state.
From the second meditative state on, you should calculate in terms of the
major world ages of the three calamities and not use medium or special worldages as units of calculation. In the second meditative state, the life span in
the ﬁrst heaven called Parīttābha is two world ages, in the second heaven
called Apramāṇābha it is four world ages, and in the third heaven calledĀbhāsvara it is eight world ages. If someone asks, “Since the calamity ofwater reaches the realm of the second meditative state, how can the gods inĀbhāsvara Heaven have a life span of eight world ages?”, we should remind
him of the following. After seven calamities of ﬁre the calamity of water
occurs and this reaches the realm of the second meditative state. Therefore,the Ābhāsvara gods can have a life span of eight major world ages.
In the third meditative state, the life span in the ﬁrst heaven called Parīttaśubha is sixteen world ages, the life span in the second heaven called Apramāṇaśubha is thirty-two world ages, the life span in the third heaven calledŚubhakṛtsna is sixty-four world ages. If someone asks, “Since the calamityof wind reaches the realm of the third meditative state, how can the gods inŚubhakṛtsna Heaven have a life span of sixty-four world ages?”, we should
remind them of the following. After sixty-three calamities, either of water
or of ﬁre, the calamity of wind occurs. Therefore, the Śubhakṛtsna gods canhave a life span of sixty-four world ages.
How do we know that this is the case? According to the Abhidharma sevencalamities of ﬁre occur one after another and then the calamity of water
occurs. Thus, by the time the sequence of seven times seven, or forty-nine,calamities of ﬁre is completed, seven calamities of water would have occurred.
Altogether ﬁfty-six world ages would have passed. Then after these ﬁfty-six
world ages seven calamities of water occur again, and it is after these seven96

Fascicle 3

calamities of ﬁre that the calamity of wind occurs and its destruction reaches
the realms of the third meditative state. Altogether, including the preceding
ones, this takes sixty-four world ages. Following this reasoning, the Śubhakṛtsna gods can have a life span of sixty-four world ages .
Thus, a verse in the Abhidharma (Za apitanxin lun, T.1552.959c22–23) says:
Seven ﬁres pass one after another.
And then one calamity of water occurs.
After seven times seven ﬁres and seven waters,
And still another seven ﬁres, the calamity of wind occurs.
Question: In the case of the four heavens of the formless realm, the life
span in the Heaven of [Inﬁnite] Consciousness is twice as long as that in the
Heaven of [Inﬁnite] Space. Why is it that for the even higher two heavens
the life span is not doubled?
Answer: The Posha lun (ref. T.1546:327b10–23) reproduces three different
explanations of this matter offered by doctrinal masters. The ﬁrst explanation
is as follows:
In the two heavens of Inﬁnite Space and Inﬁnite Consciousness there exist
the [meditative] practice of inﬁnitude and the rest of the [tenfold] allsense-ﬁelds (kṛtsnāyanatana) meditative practices. This is the reason thelife span is doubled in the latter. In the Heaven of Inﬁnite Space the inﬁnitude practice results in a life span of ten thousand world ages; other practices result in an additional life span of ten thousand world ages. Altogether
a life span of twenty thousand world ages is obtained. In the Heaven of
Inﬁnite Consciousness the inﬁnitude practice results in a life span oftwenty thousand world ages; other practices result in an additional life
span of twenty thousand world ages. Altogether the life span of forty thousand world ages is obtained. In the heavens above these there is no inﬁnitude practice and consequently the life span is not doubled. This is theﬁrst explanation.
A second explanation by another doctrinal master is as follows:
In these two heavens of [Inﬁnite] Space and [Inﬁnite] Consciousness there
exist the two kinds of practices, namely, meditation and wisdom. This is

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the reason why the life span is doubled in the latter. [In the Heaven of
Inﬁnite Space] the practice of meditation results in a life span of ten thousand world ages; the practice of wisdom results in an additional life spanof ten thousand world ages. Altogether the life span of twenty thousand
world ages is obtained. In the Heaven of Inﬁnite Consciousness the practiceof meditation results in a life span of twenty thousand world ages; thepractice of wisdom results in an additional life span of twenty thousand
world ages. Altogether the life span of forty thousand world ages isobtained. In the two heavens above these there exists only the practice of
meditation; the practice of wisdom is absent. For this reason the life span
is not doubled. This is the second explanation.
The third explanation by a yet another doctrinal master is as follows:
The ﬁxed (predetermined) life span in each of the four heavens of theformless realm is only twenty thousand world ages. Through rejecting or
failing to reject desires the life span is doubled or not doubled in the different heavens. In the Heaven of Inﬁnite Space the gods fail to reject thedesires that belong to this realm. Therefore, their life span is only twenty
thousand world ages. In the realm of Inﬁnite Consciousness the ﬁxed life
span is twenty thousand world ages. Due to rejecting the desires of the
Heaven of Inﬁnite Space another twenty thousand world ages are added.
This doubles the former and results in a life span of forty thousand worldages. In the Heaven of Nothingness the ﬁxed life span is twenty thousand
world ages. Due to rejecting the desires of the heavens of Inﬁnite Spaceand Inﬁnite Consciousness another forty thousand world ages are added.
In the Heaven of Neither Thought Nor No-thought, twenty thousand worldages is the ﬁxed life span. Due to rejecting the desires of the lower threeheavens another sixty thousand world ages are added. Because of this calculation, the life span in the realm of Neither Thought Nor No-thought iseighty thousand world ages.
These are the three explanations. The truth is revealed in these.
9. Dwelling Place
Question: Describe the places where the gods live.
Answer: According to the Posha lun (ref. T.1546:49b7–21):

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Although there are thirty-two heavens there are only twenty-eight dwellingplaces. The four heavens of the formless realm transcend forms, there are
no dwelling places there. These gods dwell everywhere in the two realmsof desire and form. When their lives end sentient beings who have completed the work that leads to rebirth in the four heavens of the formless
realm immediately receive the karmic retribution of rebirth in the formless
realm. Although there are no speciﬁc places, this rebirth is different fromthat in the realm of form taught in the Great Vehicle.
The twenty-eight dwelling places are located on Mount Sumeru. Four
thousand yojanas above the ground level, in the space around the mountainthat is ten thousand yojanas long and wide, is the place where the Karoṭapāṇi gods dwell. Going up further the same distance, at eight thousand
yojanas is the place where the Mālādhara gods dwell. Going up further
the same distance, and surrounding the mountain at a distance of fourthousand yojanas, is the place where the Sadāmatta gods dwell. Goingup further the same distance and surrounding the mountain at a distanceof four thousand yojanas is the place where the gods of the sun, moon,and stars dwell.
Going up further the same distance and surrounding the mountain at
a distance of four thousand yojanas is the place where the four heavenly
kings dwell. (Note: Inside this place are seven golden mountains. The residential areas of the cities of the four heavenly kings are all situated insidethese mountains.) Going up further forty thousand yojanas, one reaches
the top of Mount Sumeru, forty thousand yojanas wide and long; this is
the place where Indra’s city, called Sudarśana, is situated; it is ten thousand
yojanas long and wide, and equipped with one thousand gates. This is theplace where the thirty-three gods dwell. Going up further forty thousand
yojanas above this mountain is a place, cloudlike and made of sevenjewels, that is shaped like the ground. This is the place where the god
Yama dwells. Going up further the same distance is a ground, cloudlike
and made of seven jewels, where Tuṣita Heaven is located. Going up
further the same distance is a ground, cloudlike and made of seven jewels,where Nirmāṇarati Heaven is situated. Going up further the same distanceis a ground, cloudlike and made of seven jewels, where Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven is located. In this way, up to Akaniṣṭha Heaven, the

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highest heaven of the realm of form, each heaven has a ground that iscloudlike and made of seven jewels. The heavens are separated from eachother by the same distance.
The repetitive comments for these heavens are not reproduced here. The
Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:518c18–519a23) says:

288b

The Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods is located at the summit of Mount
Sumeru. The four sides of the peak are each twenty thousand [yojanas]
long. Thus, the entire circumference equals to eighty thousand [yojanas].
Some doctrinal masters say that each side is eighty thousand [yojanas]
long. The lengths of the bottom and top of each side are identical. In eachof the four corners at the top is a peak that is ﬁve hundred [yojanas] inheight and width. A yakṣa (demigod) called Vajrapāṇi lives there andprotects the heavens. At the top of this mountain is also a palace called
Sudarśana, twenty-ﬁve thousand [yojanas] long on each side, altogether
ten thousand [yojanas] in circumference. The golden wall [surrounding it]is one and half [yojanas] high. Its ground is ﬂat and is also made of puregold, decorated with one hundred and one different kinds of jewels. The
ﬂoor is as soft as cotton, and when one steps upon it it cushions the impact.
This is where the Indra’s city is located. The city has a thousand gates,
which are beautifully decorated. Five hundred blue-robe yakṣas, fearsome
in appearance and each one yojana tall, armored and bearing weapons,
guard the city gates. Inside the city is the Vaijayanta Hall, decorated withvarious beautiful jewels. The jewels cover this heavenly palace, and so
this palace is called Vaijayanta (shusheng, “particularly victorious” or “particularly superior”). Each side is two hundred and ﬁfty [yojanas] long; thecircumference is one thousand [yojanas]. Within this city are many lovely
things; outside, along all four sides, are beautifully decorated gardens,
where the gods play together: (1) Chariot Garden (Caitraratha), in which
different kinds of chariots appear in accordance with the power of eachgod; (2) Roughness Garden (Pāruṣya), where when the gods are about to
go to battle, weapons appear according to their needs; (3) Mixed Grove
Garden (Miśrakāvaṇa), in which the gods enter to play the same game andhave a lot of fun; and (4) Pleasure Grove Garden (Nandana), in which different kinds of very subtle objects of desire appear together and one never100Fascicle 3

tires of seeing them one after another. These four gardens are all differently
shaped, but each has a circumference of one thousand [yojanas]. Insideeach is a magical pond; each side of the pond measures ﬁfty yojanas. The
pond is ﬁlled with the water of eight meritorious qualities. These four gardens are copiously decorated with ﬂowers, ﬁlled with birds and fragrant
groves. The fruit of karma is difﬁcult to understand; the happiness of thegods [cannot be measured by human categories]. Outside of the city, near
the southwestern corner, is the Great Hall of the Good Dharma. The godsof the Thirty-three Heavens gather here and debate with the asuras, determining what conforms to the Dharma and what does not.
The Qishi jing (T.24:342a22–b28) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “Why is the place where gods gather called
the Hall of Good Dharma (Sudharmasabhā)? When the gods of the Thirtythree Heavens gather there they discuss only the deep meaning of goodstatements on subtle matters, carrying out inferences and visualizations;these matters all involve the most essential facts, or the truly correct principles. Therefore, the gods call this place the Hall of Good Dharma. Why
is it called the Parūṣakavana Garden (meaning “roughness”)? On entering
this garden, the gods of the Thirty-three Heavens sit on two rocks called‘wise’ and ‘good and wise’ and discuss only worldly statements, which
are rough (i.e., coarse), not good or playful. This is why the garden iscalled Parūṣakavana. Why is it called ‘the carriage garden of miscellaneouscolors’? On entering this garden the gods of the Thirty-three Heavens siton two rocks called ‘miscellaneous colors’ and ‘good miscellaneous colors’and discuss only worldly statements regarding various miscellaneous colors. This is why the garden is called ‘the carriage garden of miscellaneouscolors.’ Why is it called ‘the garden of messy disorder’? On the fourteenth
and ﬁfteenth days of the eighth month, the gods of the Thirty-three Heavens
bring all the palace ladies into this garden. The gods and women sport witheach other without hindrance, indulging freely in their delights. Enjoying
the ﬁve sensory pleasures of the gods, they roam around happily. This is
why the gods all call this garden ‘the garden of messy disorder.’ Why isthere a garden in this heaven called ‘delight’ (Nandana)? On entering thegarden, the gods of the Thirty-three Heavens sit on two rocks called ‘delight’101

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288cand ‘good delight.’ Their minds are ﬁlled with delight and extreme pleasure.
This is why the gods all call that garden ‘delight.’ And why is the tree given
the name Pārijātaka Kovidāra? A deity, called Moduo, lived under this tree.
Because [Moduo] enjoyed the ﬁve sense pleasures of the gods, playing
happily with others, the gods called the tree Pārijātaka Kovidāra.”10. Spaciousness
Question: How spacious are the heavens?
Answer: According to the Posha lun (ref. T.1546:49b8–c4 ):The peak of Mount Sumeru is eighty-four thousand yojanas long andwide. In the middle is a ﬂat place where one can live, only forty thousand
yojanas [long and wide]. Yama Heaven is double [the length and width]of this; its area is eighty thousand yojanas long and wide. In this way thelengths and widths [of each heaven] double from one heaven to anotherand the area of Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven is sixty-four thousand
yojanas [long and wide].
The sizes of the heavens (“lands”) of the four meditative states [in therealm of form] are not determined. There are two theories. According tothe ﬁrst theory, the heavens of the ﬁrst meditative state are the same sizeas the four continents; the heavens of the second meditative state are thesize of a smaller chiliocosm; the heavens of the third meditative state are
the size of a middle chiliocosm; and the heavens of the fourth meditative
states are the size of a greater chiliocosm. According to the second theory,the heavens of the ﬁrst meditative state are the size of a smaller chiliocosm;
the heavens of the second meditative states are the size of a middle chiliocosm; the heavens of the third meditative state are the size of a greaterchiliocosm; and the heavens of the fourth meditative states are inﬁnite insize and their structure is indescribable. (Note: Doctrinal masters consider
the second theory to be correct.)
Question: If the heavens of the ﬁrst meditative state are of the size of one
smaller chiliocosm, and so on, and the heavens of the fourth meditative state
are inﬁnite in size, then I do not know whether the heavens from Brahmakāyika Heaven of the ﬁrst meditative state to Akaniṣṭha Heaven are situatedabove the greater chiliocosm and shared by all the worlds, or if above each102

Fascicle 3of the four continents there are separate heavens, beginning with Brahmakāyika all the way up to Akaniṣṭha.
Answer: According to the Loutan jing:[The heavens exist] separately above each of the worlds consisting of thefour continents, and these heavens are not the same. Thus, it is said therethat inside each of the greater chiliocosm are ten billion Mount Sumerus,
great oceans, Cakravāḍaparvata Mountains, and so on, including ten billion
Akaniṣṭha Heavens. This statement leaves no room for doubt .
However, according to the Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:520b2–3):
The word “small” [in the expression “smaller chiliocosm”] implies the inferiority of the lower[-level heavens]; this expression is used because [thesmaller chiliocosms do not include the higher levels of heaven, above Parittābha, the lowest among the heavens of the second meditative state]. [Inthat case the heavens above Parittābha are not found in the middle chiliocosm,
consisting of one thousand smaller chiliocosms, nor does the greater chilocosm, consisting of one thousand middle chiliocosms, include these higher
heavens.] [This is as in the saying:] “You may collect many cows whosehorns have been cut off; you still will not get the missing horns.”
Question: If each of the worlds consisting of the four continents has its own
separate set of heavens above, all the way up to Akaniṣṭha, each of these sets[of heavens must] occupy a separate place. Don’t they get in each other’s way?
Answer: Even though ten billion heavens happen to be in the same place,they do not get in each other’s way. Rays of light that cross each other all
reach their goals and do not interfere with each other. The gods and the heavens are also like this. This is because they are all made of subtle matter. Just
as it is said in scriptures the gods from the realm of form came down to listen
to the Dharma. Even if sixty gods all sit together on the tip of needle they
do not ﬁnd themselves crowded and they do not get in each other’s way.
The textual evidence from this passage leaves no room for doubt. (Note:
According to one analogy, the heavens of the ﬁrst meditative state are like
villages; those of the second are like districts; those of the third are likeregions; and those of the fourth are like states.)

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11. Adornment
According to the Dazhidu lun (ref. T.1509:752b10–18):
Mount Sumeru is thirty-three billion six hundred million li high and ismade of four jewels: the eastern side is [made of] yellow gold, the westernside of white silver, the southern side of lapis lazuli, and the northern sideof crystal. Surrounding the mountain on its four sides are the Yugaṃdhara
Mountains, each forty-two thousand yojanas high. The rulers of the fourheavenly realms reside on each of these mountains.
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:115b21–24) says:
The northern side is made of heavenly gold, and its light illumines thenorthern direction; the western side is made of crystal, and its light illumines the western direction; the eastern side is made of heavenly silver,
and its light illumines the eastern direction; the southern side is made oflapis lazuli, and its light illumines the southern direction.
The Dazhidu lun (ref. T.1509:443b9–14; ref. Chang ahan jing, T.1:130b2–18) says:
Each of the rulers of the four heavens resides in his own city: the city to
the east is called Dhṛtarāṣṭra; the city to the south is called Sudarśana; thecity to the west is called Zhouluo; there are three cities to the north, one
is called Viṣāṇā, the second Gavāṃpati, and the third Āṭavaṭa.
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:30b15–25) says:
Pañcaśikha said, “When the gods of the Thirty-three Heavens gather at
Sudarśana Hall to hold discussions, the rulers of the four heavens sit
according to the respective directions of their heavens. The god Dhṛtarāṣṭra
sits to the east, facing west. Śakra (Indra) is in front of him. The god Virūḍhaka sits to the south, facing north. Śakra is in front of him. Virūpākṣa
sits to the west, facing east. Śakra is in front of him. Vaiśravaṇa sits tothe north, facing south. Śakra is in front of him. Only after the rulers of
the four heavens have been seated will I take my seat.
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:181c18–22; 182c2–9, 15–27) says:

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As for the great city of Sudarśana of the gods of the Thirty-three Heavens,the circumference is ten thousand yojanas. The surrounding wall is madeof pure gold and is ten yojanas high. The upper fortiﬁcation is half ayojana high; the gate is two yojanas high. Outside of this gate are further
gates that are one and a half yojanas high. There is a gate every ten yojanas,
thus going around the four sides of the city there are one thousand gate
towers. These gates are all made of jewels and decorated with a variety
of maṇi jewels.
The great city is divided into four parts. In the center is a golden estate
where Śakra lives. Every twelve yojanas [around the circumference] is agate; going around all four sides there are four hundred and ninety-nine
gates. Because there is another small gate there are ﬁve hundred gates
altogether. This estate looks like an independent city set off by itself. It
is also guarded by four troops of guards. The palace is protected by fences,
trenches, trees, ponds, and mixed-growth forests; inside performances ofplays, music, and other kinds of games take place. Details of the numerous
jewel decorations cannot be given here.
In the middle of this estate is a multistoried jewel palace building called
Vaijayanta. It is ﬁve hundred yojanas high and two hundred and ﬁfty
yojanas wide. Its circumference is one thousand ﬁve hundred yojanas. On
the four sides of this building are jewel military towers at twenty-six placeson the eastern side and twenty-ﬁve places on the other four sides, altogether
one hundred and one towers. Each of these towers are two yojanas wide
on each side; the circumference is eight yojanas. On top of these towers
is another jewel tower, one-half yojana high, which is used as the viewpoint.
In each of the military towers are seven heavenly maidens; in the palaceof each of these seven heavenly maidens are seven court ladies. Inside thepalace building are seventy thousand seven hundred chambers, in which
there are seven heavenly maidens, who in turn are accompanied by sevencourt ladies. Each of these heavenly maidens is the principal queen ofŚakra. In the military towers and inside the chambers [of the palace building]there are altogether four hundred million ninety-four thousand and nine
hundred queens and three billion four hundred million sixty-four thousand
and three hundred court ladies. The queens and court ladies together there

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number three billion nine hundred million ﬁfty-nine thousand and two
hundred. At the center of the highest point in the multistoried Vaijayantapalace building is a round room, thirty yojanas wide, ninety yojanas incircumference, and forty-ﬁve yojanas high. This is the place where Śakra
lives. It is made of lapis lazuli inlaid with various jewels.
The Za ahan jing (T.99:133b16–19) says:[Inside Śakra’s palace is] Vaijayanta Hall, which consists of one hundredpavilions. Each pavilion has seven levels; each level consists of seven chambers. Seven queens live in each chamber and each queen is assisted by sevencourt ladies. Venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana traveled through the smaller
chiliocosm but never encountered anything as beautiful as Vaijayana Hall.
The Qishi jing (T. 24; ref. Lishi apitan lun, T.1644:183a5–b2; 185b21–
24; 186a24–25; 187a1–2, c3–5) says:

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Inside the palace is decorated with carvings, and the sensual pleasures
one receives there cannot be described in detail. In this place Śakra lives
with the daughter of the asura Śācī. Śakra’s transformation bodies livewith various queens. All the queens think as follows: “Śakra lives withme. The true body [of Śakra] lives with Śācī.” Inside the palace city there
are residential quarters situated in all four sides and markets on the street
corners, all thoughtfully designed and built. In heavenly cities the merits[of the residents] determine the number of buildings, which are all madeof jewels and are symmetrically shaped and handsome. In this heavenly
city there are ﬁve hundred roads, [laid out] in a clear pattern formed bystraight and parallel streets crossing at right angles. The four gates areconnected by these streets and the east and west sides face each other.
The stores in the markets at the street corners are ﬁlled with goods. In theheavens there are seven kinds of markets: ﬁrst a rice and grain market,
second a clothing market, third an incense market, fourth a food and drink
market, ﬁfth a ﬂower headdress market, sixth a market of skillful artisans,seventh a market of prostitutes. At each of these there are market ofﬁcials.
Gods and goddesses come to these markets to trade, discussing the valueof the merchandise, debating quantities, and discussing measurements,
all according to the market rules. Although the gods and goddesses engage

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in these activities, they do so as games. There is no taking or giving, andno sense of ownership. Free from selﬁsh desires, they take only what isneeded. If the objects give them pleasure, the gods take them freely; ifthey don’t, they say, “This is very valuable but it is not what I need.” Thepassageways inside the markets are smooth-surfaced and lovely, with decorations made of various jewels, hanging heavenly cloth, and raised ﬂags
and banners. The sound of music is heard incessantly. A voice can also
be heard, saying, “Welcome! Welcome! Whatever you wish to eat or drink
I now present as an offering.” This great palace city is where Śakra lives.
The central ofﬁces of the heavenly prefectures, commanderies, districts,
and villages are found here. (Note: Other heavenly sites are decorated
with jewels and ﬁlled with pleasurable fragrances. The wonderful karmic
rewards enjoyed in these places cannot be recorded here in detail.)
Outside of the north gate of the great city of Sudarśana, at a distanceof twenty yojanas, is a great garden called Nandana (Delight), whose circumference is one thousand yojanas. Inside the garden is a pond, also
called Nandana, one hundred yojanas long on each side and one hundred
yojanas deep, ﬁlled with heavenly water, and the sides and bottom are
tiled with bricks made out of the four precious gemstones. Outside of theeast gate is a garden called Caitraratha, with a pond called Citra. Outsideof the southern gate is a garden called Parūṣakavana, with a pond of thesame name. Outside of the western gate is a garden called Miśrakāvana,with a pond of the same name. The size of each of these pond is the sameas the one described earlier. Many different kinds of ﬂowers, fruits, birds,
and trees in the forests are found there, and birds ﬂy around singing. Its
beauty is beyond description.
12. Presenting the Memorial
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:184a25–185b5) says:
At that time Śakra led other gods and wishing to play in the garden, hecame to the Hall of Good Dharma (Sudharmasabhā). Surrounded by thegods, he respectfully entered the garden. On the side of the central pillarof the Hall of Good Dharma was a lion seat. Śakra went up to that seat.
To the right and left there were sixteen gods sitting in a line on each side.
The other gods sat according to their rank. At that time Śakra had two

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290aprinces, one called Candana and the other Xiupiluo. The two generals of
the Thirty-three Heavens sat on both sides of the gods of the Thirty-three
Heavens. At that time heavenly king Dhṛtarāṣṭra sat near the eastern gate,accompanied by his ministers and soldiers, who paid respect to the gods
and were allowed to sit among them. At that time heavenly king Virūḍhaka
sat near the southern gate, accompanied by his ministers and soldiers, who
paid respect to the gods and were allowed to sit among them. At that timeheavenly king Virūpākṣa sat near the western gate. At that time heavenly
king Vaiśravaṇa sat near the northern gate (Note: Both of these two latterheavenly kings, as in the ﬁrst two cases, were accompanied by their attendants who were allowed to sit among the gods.) The four heavenly kings
were at the Hall of Good Dharma to memorialize the good and evil eventsin the world to the god Śakra and the gods of the Thirty-three Heavens.
Then the Buddha, the World-honored One, said, “On the fourth dayof this month the four heavenly kings will travel in the world and examine
the following conditions, one after another, saying, ‘Today how manyobserve the eight precepts? How many practice giving? How many cultivate meritorious deeds? How many honor their parents, monks, brahmans,
and the elders in the family?’ On the fourteenth and the ﬁfteenth day ofthe month [the four heavenly kings] do the same. If there are not many
people who have accepted the eight precepts, practiced giving, and honored
these people, the four heavenly kings will go to the Hall of [Good] Dharma
and report to the god Śakra on the condition of the world. When the many
gods and the god Śakra hear this, they are distressed and say, ‘This situation
is not good and is not in accord with the Dharma. The followers of thegods will decrease in number and the company of demons will increase
daily.’ If people accept the eight precepts, practice giving, and cultivate
meritorious deeds, when the four heavenly kings make their report the
many gods and the god Śakra will be overjoyed and will say, ‘This situationis very good and is in accord with the Dharma. The followers of the gods
will increase daily and the company of demons will decrease in number.’”
Then the Buddha uttered the following verses:
On the eighth day the ministers of the four heavenly kings travel
around the realm under heaven.

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On the fourteenth day the princes of the four heavenly kings observe
the world.
On the ﬁfteenth day, at the best time, the four heavenly kings, having
heard good reports,
Will themselves travel in the world, observing good and evil deeds.
The intentions of the people in this world agree with the Way andthe Dharma.
Many honor their superiors and practice giving to bodhisattvas.
Conquering anger, they cultivate the Way; the merits of these men
and women increase.
Then the gods of Thirty-three Heavens, hearing this, are overjoyed.
Frequently taking delight in others’ good deeds, the four kingsspeak well.
The followers of the gods increase over and over.
The company of demons decrease day by day.
Recalling the Enlightened One, the Dharma is preached to theholy assembly.
Gods dwell in peace and happiness; joy is born in the heart.
Worldly fruits and otherworldly fruits—those born in the realmof human beings can obtain both.
Being good to the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, they dwell in
the realm of the Three Jewels.
I now preach to you about the three good realms of rebirth.
If people see truth and reality, abandoning evil and cultivating good,With a little of the valuable currency obtained in this way, they canobtain a great deal.
Like the gods of the Thirty-three Heavens, who performed a few
good deeds and are born in the heavens.
As for the god Śakra and the other deities, their great merits arewidely admired.
They gather at the Hall of Good Dharma and other locations.
For men and women who perform good deeds, the four heavenly
kings present their report.
These people are loved by the pure deities and their karmic effects
perfume the many heavens.

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13. Supernatural Powers
The Loutan jing (T. 23:296a24–b1; ref. Chang ahan jing, T.1:132c9–15)
says:
In the space between the two realms of desire and of form is Māra’s palace.
Consumed with jealousy, Māra grinds down merit just as one grinds down
a stone. The palace is six thousand yojanas on each side and is surroundedby seven walls. All of the decoration is like that of a lower heaven. The
deities who come here have the following characteristics: (1) They can
ﬂy over incalculable distances; (2) they can ﬂy back incalculable distances(3) they go freely; (4) they come freely; (5) the bodies of the gods haveno skin, muscles, blood, or ﬂesh; (6) their bodies do not produce impure
feces or urine; (7) their bodies do not become fatigued; (8) female deities
do not give birth to children; (9) the eyes of the gods do not blink; (10)according to their wishes, their bodies become blue if they like blue,
yellow if they like yellow, or any other color that they like.
Here is another list of the ten characteristics: (1) they can ﬂy endlessly;(2) they can go away from and return to places at whatever distance; (3)in the heavens there are no thieves; (4) they do not speak to each otherabout whether their bodies are good or bad; (5) they do not invade eachother; (6) the gods’ teeth are of equal length and are sensitive; (7) their
hair is dark blue, seven zhi long; (8) if the body of a god is blue, his hairis also blue; (9) if a god wishes to be white his body becomes white; (10)if a god wishes to be black, his body becomes black.
The Qishi jing (Qishi yinben jing, T.25:399b12–23) says:
All the gods have ten distinct characteristics. What are these? (1) Whenthe gods ﬂy back and forth they have no limits; (2) when gods ﬂy backand forth they ﬂy freely; (3) when the gods ﬂy they are neither late nor
early; (4) when the gods walk they leave no traces; (5) the bodies of thegods never become fatigued; (6) the bodies of the gods have shapes but
they do not cast shadows; (7) no god produces feces or urine; (8) no god
produces saliva; (9) the bodies of the gods are pure and subtle, and do nothave skin, ﬂesh, muscles, veins, fat, blood, marrow, or bones; (10) the
bodies of the gods may appear to be tall, short, blue, yellow, red, white,

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large, small, crude, or subtle, just as they wish, and they are always beautiful, handsome, and striking; people love them. All the gods have theseten mysterious characteristics. Furthermore, the bodies of gods are substantial; their teeth are white and set closely together; their hair is dark
blue and neat, soft, and moist; their bodies emit light. They also havesupernatural powers, they can ﬂy, and their eyes do not blink. Necklaces
appear spontaneously and their clothing is free of dirt.
The Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:520a5–11) says:
For those in the realm of the four heavenly kings to go up and see the Heavenof the Thirty-three Gods is not the same as for those in the realms of thethirty-three gods to go up and see Yama Heaven. If supernatural powers areactivated through meditation, however, anyone can go up and see higher
realms. Some rely on another’s power to go up and see higher heavens;
they obtain supernatural powers to go up, guided by heavenly beings, andreach the heavens to which they are entitled. Having arrived in the heavens,
some can also look down and see the lower realms. When they have cometo higher realms and then turn downward, they must transform themselves
into bodies of lower realms in order to be seen. This is because they are indifferent realms. Similarly, beings in one realm do not feel it when they are
touched by beings in a different realm. When those in higher realms turnto lower realms, they must transform their bodies [into those of lower levels]in order to see the gods who live at the lower levels.
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:201b7–20) says:
People in Jambudvīpa cannot see forms outside the limit of this continent
except by means of supernatural powers or other meritorious powers.
Those in the other three continents cannot see forms outside the limits of
their respective continents except by means of supernatural powers orother meritorious powers, gods in the six heavenly realms of desire cannot
see from their respective heavens forms outside the limit of those heavens
except by means of supernatural powers or other meritorious powers.
Even when they look afar they can only see objects inside Mount Cakravāḍa. They cannot see objects that lie beyond this mountain. Gods in the
Great Brahmā Heaven (Mahābrahmā) cannot see from their own palace

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forms outside the limit of this heaven except by means of supernatural
powers or other meritorious powers. Even when they look afar they can
only see objects inside the chiliocosm.
14. Bodily HaloThe Dazhidu lun (T.1509:443b20–27) says:
As retribution from earlier karma the body emits light. The bodies of thegods in the realm of desire constantly emit light. This is due to gifts [theyhad made] of lamps and candles, as well as puriﬁcation from upholding
precepts and meditation. Their bodies constantly emit light that is visible
even when the sun and moon are not shining on them. The gods of the realmof form practice meditation and remove desires. They cultivate the concentration of ﬁre. For this reason their bodies constantly emit light that is more
beautiful than the light of the sun and moon or the light that appears in therealm of desire as karmic retribution. This light is unlike anything in theheavens of the realm of desire. In summary, all of these lights result fromthe puriﬁcation of mind. The light emitted by the buddhas extends to one
zhang in all directions. The light emitted by the gods may reach as far as
an inﬁnite number of yojanas. Yet if it is placed next to the light emitted by
the buddhas it is overwhelmed [by the buddhas’ light] and disappears.
The Yupoyi jingxing [famen] jing (T.579:954b19–22) says:

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The Buddha told Viśākhā, “The Tathāgata has six kinds of lights. What
are the six? They are (1) blue light, (2) yellow light, (3) red light, (4) whitelight, (5) crimson light, and (6) purple light. These lights of different colors
illuminate objects. These are called the Tathāgata’s six kinds of light.”
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:132c18–133a9) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “The light of a ﬁreﬂy is not as bright asthat of a candle. The light of a candle is not as bright as a torch. The lightof a torch is not as bright as that a large ﬁre. The light of a large ﬁre is not
as bright as that of the four heavenly kings. The light of the clothing andbodies of the four heavenly kings is not as bright as that of thirty-three gods.
Continuing in this way, the light of the Akaniṣṭhabhavana gods is not asbright as the god Maheśvara’s light. Maheśvara’s light is not as bright as112

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the Buddha’s light. Even if the light of a ﬁreﬂy and so on, up to the Buddha’s
light, are brought together [the combined light] is not as bright as the lightof the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the
cessation of suffering, and the truth of the path. For this reason, monks whoseek light should seek the light of the Four Noble Truths of suffering, thecause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path.”
Furthermore, the same source (Chang ahan jing, T.1:132c15–18) says:
Human beings may be of seven colors. What are the seven? Some are ofgolden color. Some are of the color of ﬁre. Some are blue. Some are yellow.
Some are red. Some are white. Some are black. Gods and demons are alsosimilarly of seven colors.
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:200a16–25) says:
The sentient beings in Jambudvīpa are of various colors. With the exceptionof the color black the people in Pūrvavideha in the east and Aparagodānīya
in the west are of the same various colors as the people of Jambudvīpa.
The human beings in Uttarakuru in the north are all a clean white color.
The beings in the heavens of the four heavenly kings are of four different
colors: blue, red, yellow, and white. The beings in all the heavens of therealm of desire are similar. How do the gods acquire these four colors?
At the time of their births if they see blue ﬂowers, they become blue. The
situation with the other colors is likewise.
15. Commerce
The Qishi jing (Qishi yinben jing, T.25:400a5–9) says:
In trade the people of Jambudvīpa sometimes use money, sometimes grain
and silk, and sometimes people. In trade, the people of Aparagodānīya
sometimes use cattle and sheep and sometimes maṇi jewels. In trade, thepeople of Pūrvavideha sometimes use goods and silk, sometimes the ﬁvekinds of grain, and sometimes maṇi jewels. In Uttarakuru there is no trade;
whatever people wish to have spontaneously appears.
Furthermore the Qishi jing says:
In the heavens of the realm of desire, such as those of the four heavenly

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kings and the thirty-three gods, trade and tourism that lifts people’s spirits
also exist but they take different forms from those among human beings.
This has been discussed earlier.
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16. Marriage
The Qishi jing (Qishi yinben jing, T.25:400a9–27) says:
The other three continents also have their respective ways of marriage
between men and women. People in Uttarakuru have no homes. Men andwomen copulate under the hanging branches of trees and there is nothing
like marriage. Dragons, garuḍas, and asuras all have their own procedures
for marriage, roughly similar to those of human beings. Marriage exists
among the gods in the six heavens of the realm of desire and in the realmof māras. These have been brieﬂy explained earlier. In all of the heavens
above marriage does not exist, because the distinction between male andfemale does not exist. When human beings in the four continents engage
in the sexual act, two organs are brought together and impure liquid substances ﬂow. When dragons, garuḍas, and all others engage in the sexualact, two organs are brought together but only gases are released, giving
pleasure, and nothing impure is involved. When the gods in the thirtythree heavens engage in the sexual act, as the organs are brought together
pleasure is realized, and again only gases are released. The process is nodifferent from that of the dragons and garuḍas described above. In Yama
Heaven the gods take hold of each other’s hands as the sexual act; in Tuṣita
Heaven gods only think of each other; in Nirmāṇarati Heaven the gods
gaze at each other; in Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven the gods talk to eachother; the gods in Māra’s heaven also gaze at each other. In all these cases
pleasure is realized and the sexual act is consummated.
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:201b28–202a6) says:
When the gods in the heavens of the four heavenly kings look for a woman[to marry], only after the women’s families give permission do they takethem as wives. Gifts and money are offered. Gods in the other heavensof the realm of desire do something similar. Human beings in Jambudvīpa
and the other continents, the gods in the heavens of the four heavenly
kings and in the Heaven of Thirty-three Gods must engage in copulation

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to perform sexual acts. Gods in Yama Heaven embrace to perform thesexual act. Gods in Tuṣita Heaven hold hands to perform the sexual act.
Gods in Nirmāṇarati Heaven laugh to perform the sexual act. Gods in
Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven gaze at each other to perform the sexualact. Human beings in the continent of Aparagodānīya in the west receive
pleasure that is two times greater than that of those in Jambudvīpa. Continuing in this way, the gods in Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven receive
pleasure that is two times greater than that of those in Nirmāṇarati Heaven.
Among human beings in the four continents are [women] who eat badly
and those who grow fetuses in their wombs. Among the female gods inthe heaven of the four heavenly kings none of the female deities eats badly
or grows a fetus in her womb; they do not give birth nor do they holdbabies. Male and female deities give birth either from the knees or in their
sleep. When a baby is born to a female deity, she says “This is my child”;
the male deity also says “This is my child.” The child has one father andone mother. When a baby is born from the knees of a sleeping father, there
is only one father and all his wives and mistresses become [the child’s]
mother. There are spiritual practices that enable them to remain free ofdesires until death. For the gods born in the heaven of the four heavenly
kings there are inﬁnite ways of satisfying desires. There is also spiritualcultivation for remaining free of desire until death. The situation in all of
the heavens of the realm of desire is similar. For all women touch is thesource of pleasure. For all male beings releasing impurities (i.e., semen)is the source of pleasure. For all of the gods in the realm of desire therelease of gases is the source of pleasure.
The newly translated Posha lun (T.1545:746a13–25) says:
According to the sutra, at the beginning of the world age human beings
did not have male and female organs, and men and women looked thesame. Later, after people began eating food, male and female organs
appeared, and consequently the distinction between male and female
developed. In the realm of form there is no physical food. For this reason
the two [sexual] organs are absent. According to one view, the male andfemale organs are useful in the realm of desire but not in the realm ofform. Therefore, they do not exist there. The two organs of nose and

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tongue have their use in the realm of desire, but they do not exist in therealm of form. Following this line of enquiry further, the following question
arises: Are the gods in the realm of form male or female? Answer: The
following must be said: these gods are all male. Even though they do nothave male organs they have the appearance of men. Also, because thesegods are free of deﬁlements they are male.
17. Food and Drink
The Qishi jing (T.24:345b24–c27; ref. Qishi yinben jing, T.25:400b29–
401a4) says:
For all sentient beings there are four kinds of food, which sustain theirconstitutive elements (skandhas). What are the four? (1) Gross and subtle
physical food, (2) sense perception as nourishment, (3) thought as nourishment, and (4) consciousness as nourishment. Which sentient beings
take gross and subtle physical food? The people in Jambudvīpa eat rice,barley, beans, and meat as gross physical food, and massage, bathing, andanointing the skin as subtle physical food. People in the other continents
and the gods in the six heavens of the realm of desire all take gross andsubtle food. The gods in the heavens higher than these take the pleasureof meditation and the joy of learning the Dharma as food and no longer
consume gross and subtle physical food.
Question: Which sentient beings take sense perception as food?
Answer: All creatures whose bodies are born from eggs take sense perception as food. Which sentient beings take thought as food? Sentient
beings that nourish their sense organs with thought and lengthen their lives,
such as ﬁsh, turtles, snakes, frogs, and kalākuṭa (halāhala) [lizards], as
well as all other sentient beings that nourish their sense organs with thought
and lengthen their lives—all these use thought as food. Which sentient
beings take consciousness as food? Sentient beings in the hells and the godsin such heavens as Inﬁnite Consciousness (vijñānānantyāyatana) take consciousness as food. Gods in the heavens of the four heavenly kings all eat
sudhā (heavenly food), taking it once in the morning and again in the evening(ref. T.24:345c8–14).
Once inside the body [the sudhā] transforms itself into a bodily substance.
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can also be turned into the eight kinds of food and drink, such as hardkhādanīya food. This is the situation with all the gods in all the heavensof the realm of desire. The gods in the realm of form, from the heaven of
the ﬁrst meditative state up to Śubhakṛtsna Heaven (of the third meditative
state) take joy as food.
The gods in the heavens in the formless realm take thought as food.
Question: How do the gods eat and drink?
Answer: According to the scripture (ref. Qishi jing, T.24:346b14–16), thegods in the realm of desire differ in terms of their nobility and attractiveness.
To those endowed with a good deal of merit everything is provided as theywish. If they wish to drink, their cups are ﬁlled with the drink of immortality;
if they wish to eat a hundred different dishes arrive. Those endowed with little
merit are never offered food and drink that satisﬁes them. Because they are
not satisﬁed they come down to the human world looking for food.
Thus, the scripture (ref. Qishi jing, T.24:346b16–19) says that while thegods share their jeweled eating vessels, the color of their food differs according
to their accumulated merit. To those in the highest category the food appears
white; to those in the middle category, it appears yellow; and to those in thelowest category it appears red. The gods in the realm of desire take thepleasure of meditation as food. If we were to describe it in terms of the theoryof the four kinds of food (i.e., physical food, sense perception, thought, andconsciousness), then they take only sense perception as food.
18. Servants and Vehicles
Question: What about the servants and vehicles of the gods?
Answer: A scripture says, “The gods in the six heavens of the realm of desire
have servants and vehicles.” “Servants” refers to attendants. “Vehicles” refers
to the animals that they ride. The gods in the six heavens of the realm of desire
are distinguished in terms of rulers, ministers, wives, mistresses, and those
who are of humble or noble [birth] or those who are higher or lower in the[social] hierarchy. The humble must obey the noble. The lower must follow
those who are higher. As for vehicles, the gods in the six heavens of the realmof desire all have various kinds of animals that they ride when they go out.
Some ride horses and elephants, some ride peacocks, some ride dragons.

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According to the Posha lun (ref. T.1545:866c24–867a12; T.146:48b3–15):
Below Trāyastriṃśa Heaven elephants, horses, owls, geese, waterfowl,
peacocks, and dragons exist. Above Yama Heaven no four-legged creatures,such as elephants or horses, exist. Only birds, such as Teaching the Undisciplined, Truth-speaking, and Red Water, reprimand the gods and keepthem from undisciplined behavior.
Question: If elephants, horses, and other four-legged creatures are absent,
what do the gods in those heavens ride?
Answer: As the commentary to the treatise says, though there are no elephants and horses when the gods wish to go out, because of the power of
their merit elephants and horses appear miraculously, following the gods’
minds, and the gods ride them freely as they wish. When they have ﬁnishedriding the animals disappear.
Birds such as Teaching the Undisciplined exist everywhere in the six heavens, and as teachers to the gods they reprimand them for their lack of discipline. They are not conﬁned to heavens higher than Yama Heaven.
Question: These birds are still only animals. How can they serve as teachers
to the gods?
As the Zhengfanian jing (T. 721) says:

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When they were human beings in earlier lives these birds served as teachers
who taught in the realm under the three heavens. The gods in their earlier
lives were sentient beings who received their instruction. Faithfully receiving the instruction, they gave and upheld the precepts, and they have now
been reborn in the heavens. When they were teachers in their previous
lives the birds were called Violating Precepts for Proﬁt. Their hearts were
not sincere, and now they have been reborn as heavenly birds. Due to thepower of their limited goodness derived from their teaching efforts they
were reborn in the heavens. Because they originally were teachers they
now serve as teachers to the gods, and when the gods are undisciplined,
they come and reprimand them. When the gods see and hear these birds,
they all repent and refrain from undisciplined acts.
19. Attendants
Question: How numerous are the gods’ attendants?

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Answer: According to the treatise, the gods in the realm of form cannot
be said to be many. These gods are neither male or female, and they do not
become coupled as husband and wife. When they are born they come into
being through transformation; when they die they go out of being throughtransformation. Through primary and secondary causes their palaces appear,
following them. They derive pleasure from meditation. It is not possible tosay how many attendants they have. The gods in the realm of desire havethe distinction of the male and female gender and are coupled as husband
and wife.
Thus, the Dajiyi shenzhou jing (T.1335:570c28–571a7, 17) says:
The four heavenly kings, world-protectors, govern the four directions. The
heavenly king Dhṛtarāṣṭra governs over the gandharvas. The heavenly
king Virūpākṣa governs over the kumbhāṇḍa ghosts. The heavenly kingVirūḍhaka governs over the dragons (nāgas). The heavenly king Vaiśravaṇa
governs over the yakṣas. Each of these heavenly kings has ninety-one sons,handsome in appearance and very powerful. All of them are called emperors.
These heavenly kings altogether have four hundred and sixty-four sons,
who guard the four directions. Śakra governs the four intermediate directions. The heavenly king Great Brahmā governs the upward direction.
The Dazhidu lun (T.1509:474c17–20) says:
Supernatural beings in the mountains, rivers, trees, grounds, and cities
are all subject to the four heavenly kings. When the four heavenly kingscame they all appeared, following them. Those among these beings who
had not been able to obtain the Perfection of Wisdom scriptures thus cometo the place of the Perfection of Wisdom scriptures, worship them, andrealize their beneﬁts.
The attendants in the heavens higher than the Heaven of the Thirty-threeGods are numerous and cannot be listed in detail. The many attendants in
the heavens lower than that of the Thirty-three Gods include heavenly maidens,
numbering nine billion nayutas, who belong to Śakra. Each of these maidens
has ten sons and an inﬁnite number of ministers. Together they form thegroup of attendants. As a verse says:

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume IŚakra responds equally to each of the heavenly maidens,
Ninety-two billion nayutas in number;
Each of these heavenly maidens says to herself,“It is with me only that the heavenly king entertains himself.”
As for the gods with the smallest number of attendants, even they haveten thousand heavenly maidens as their attendants. This is the absolute minimum number [of attendants].

292c

20. Distinction of Classes
Question: What is the distinction of classes among the gods like?
First, in the six heavens of the realm of desire the ruler, ministers, andpeople, and the king’s wife and concubines, are differentiated. In Śakra’s
heaven Śakra is the ruler, the thirty-two gods are the ministers, and the othergods are the people. Among women, Madame Śācī is the empress and theother heavenly maidens are concubines. The situation is similar in the otherﬁve heavens. In the realm of form the distinction of classes exists only inthe three heavens of the heaven of the ﬁrst meditative state: Great Brahmāis the ruler, Brahmapurohita is the minister, and the assembly of Brahmāgods is the people. In the heavens above these all the gods receive the same
karmic retribution and the distinction of classes does not exist.
21. Wealth and Poverty
Question: What are wealth and poverty among the gods like?
Answer: According to the Zhengfanian jing (T. 721), above Yama Heaven,including all the heavens of the realm of form, all the gods possess equal
wealth. Below the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods karmic retribution differs
and the distinction of wealth and poverty exists. Those with rich karmic retribution are provided with everything and the result of their karmic retribution
is abundant. Those with poor karmic retribution are given clothes and palaces;
their food is constantly insufﬁcient. Therefore, the scripture says that thegods with poor karmic retribution were once hungry, and for that reason
they came down to Jambudvīpa to pick sour dates and ate them. People
were puzzled by their appearance and questioned them. They answered, “We
are not human beings but gods with poor karmic retribution. Though we livein palaces and wear beautiful clothes, our food is always insufﬁcient. That120

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is why we have come here to pick dates and eat them. You should not ﬁnd
this strange.” The details of this story are in the scripture. (Note: In their previous lives these gods had upheld the precepts [śīla] and practiced patience[kṣānti] but did not practice giving [dāna].)
22. Funerals
In the heavens of the four heavenly kings up to Akaniṣṭha Heaven (thehighest heaven of the realm of form), when gods die their bodies are not cremated, or exposed, or buried. Like a ﬂame, they disappear without leaving
a corpse behind. This is because these gods are born through transformation.
Gods in the heavens of the four heavenly kings kill and let others kill but
they do not eat the ﬂesh of the dead. The same is true in the Heaven of theThirty-three Gods. From Yama Heaven upward to Akaniṣṭha Heaven thegods do not kill living beings nor let others kill, and they do not eat the ﬂeshof the dead. This is because these beings are born through transformationand do not leave any substance after death.
[Concluding] verses say:
The three realms are entangled.
The six realms of rebirth are ﬁlled with activities.
Creatures ceaselessly come and go,
Suffering endless pain.
Retribution presses upon them
And their pain spreads and increases.
From evil deeds
These dangers arise in response.
How could one have known about the water in which one might drown?
Who could know how to navigate it with a boat?
Carrying heavy burdens,
Beings cannot ﬂy up high.
We wish to leave this polluted world,
And rest in the Pure Land.
Singlemindedly turning ourselves to the correct path,
We will achieve unlimited longevity.

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Chapter Three
The Sun and Moon
(Note: This contains thirteen parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Lunar Mansions,(3) The Sun Palace, (4) The Moon Palace, (5) Climate, (6) Illumination, (7)Waxing and Waning, (8) Rising Clouds, (9) Thunder, (10) Lightning, (11)Rainfall, (12) Irregular Weather, and (13) Earthquakes.
1. Introduction
Before the universe came into being, the two foundations of yin and yang
had not yet manifested. After sentient beings accumulated grain the threelights (sun, moon, and stars) shone on them, activating the deep compassionof jewel-like will and issuing forth the mysterious thought of auspiciousness.
Harnessing the yang spirit, they let the light ﬂow. Clarifying the yin soul,
they make the stars rise. Like galloping windhorses, they move in theircourses. In accordance with the measurements of astronomical instruments,
they travel in the right degrees. They order heat and coldness properly forthe three time units of the year. They move from morning to evening throughthe four continents. Even though the patterns are above, in the sky, they serve
as signs below on earth. Just as if their virtue matches the Original Goodness[of the Book of Documents], they travel along the ecliptic circle (huangdao).
Their logic differs from that of human relationships and is comparable tothat of ﬁsh and water; mirrors are transported along the profound paths andcircle around the three lunar stations. Praising good words, they demonstrate
their effects with auspicious events that appear at the ﬁvefold turning pointsof the year. Showing evil omens, they discipline the evil ones. By looking
up at the mysterious mirrors we look upon our own lives in terms of rewardand punishment. Great is the use of the sun and moon!
2. Lunar Stations
The Daji jing (T.397:274a13–275c29, 282a19–b26) says:

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293b

Then the dragon king Sāgara said to Jyotirasa Bodhisattva, “Great being,
who has spoken about the lunar stations? Who made the larger and smallerstars? Who made the sun and moon? Who placed them in empty space?
Thirty days form a month and twelve months a year. How are these timeunits determined? To which location [in the sky] do they belong? What
are their clan names and personal names? What are their good and evil
qualities? What do they eat and what should we give them as offerings?
How are their days and how are their nights? The sun, moon, and lunar
stations—at what pace do they move? You rank as the ﬁrst among sages.
Take pity on us dragons and explain these matters fully. Having heard yourexplanation, we who seek release from suffering will serve these stars.”
Jyotirasa Bodhisattva replied to the dragons, “In the past, at the beginning of the present age of the wise, there was a god called Mahāsammata.
He was unusually handsome and intelligent. He governed with correct
conduct and always took pleasure in quiet meditation. Staying away fromlove and attachment, he always kept himself pure. The king had a queen,
who was greedy with sexual desire. Because the king no longer cared forher, she had no way to satisfy her need.
One time she saw a donkey with an erect penis; sexually aroused, shetook off her clothes and approached it. The donkey saw her and they had
sexual intercourse. Consequently, she became pregnant and at the end of
one month gave birth to a child. His head, ears, mouth, and eyes were all
like those of a donkey; only his body was shaped like a human body, but
it too was covered with coarse hair, just like the body of an animal. Whenshe saw this creature she was frightened and immediately threw him into
the toilet. Due to his power of merit, however, he hovered in the air anddid not fall.
At that time a female demon (rākṣasī), called Donkey God, saw thatthe child had not been soiled and said to herself, “He must be a child ofextraordinary merit.” She took hold of the child in the air and washedhim. She then went to the Himalayas, fed the child milk and raised him,
treating him exactly the same way as she did her own children. When thechild grew up she made him take the drug of immortality; he played withthe other children of the gods day and night. Another great deity cameand loved this child, feeding him tasty meals, candies, and herbs. The

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child’s body was transformed: it was decorated with meritorious effects
and illuminated with bright light, and the other gods all praised him, calling
him Kharoṣṭhī, which means Donkey-lipped Great Sage.
For this reason, wherever Donkey-lipped Sage went, in the Himalayas
and elsewhere, various beautiful ﬂowers, good fruit, medicines, fragrances,
clear streams, and different kinds of birds appeared by transformation.
Wherever he stayed the place was ﬁlled with a rich harvest. Beneﬁting
from the medicines and fruit, his crude appearance gradually changed andhe became handsome. Only his lips were still like those of a donkey. For
this reason he was called Donkey-lipped Sage.
Donkey-lipped Sage studied the holy teaching. For sixty thousand
years he stood on one leg, not putting his other foot down, day and night,
never becoming fatigued. The gods saw the great sage undergoing thisausterity. Then the gods of Brahmā Heaven and Śakra Heaven, as well as
those in the higher realms of the realm of desire, gathered and came to
pay respect. Dragons, asuras, and yakṣas all gathered together like a cloud.
All the sages and practitioners of the holy path came to the place of Donkey-lipped Sage. Placing their offerings, they held the palms together andasked, “Great sage, whatever you are searching for, would you pleasespeak of it to us gods? If it is within the range of our capabilities we will
immediately give it to you. We will not begrudge it.”
When Donkey-lipped Sage heard these words, he felt delighted in hisheart and answered the gods, “You can satisfy what I truly want. I will
explain brieﬂy. I recall that in one of my previous lives in a past world
age I saw in space many lunar stations, the sun and the moon travelingday and night at a ﬁxed speed and illuminating the realm under heaven.
I want [you to help me] understand this matter thoroughly. Out of pity
for the beings who live in darkness, these lunar stations, the sun, and themoon work tirelessly. At the beginning of the present world age of thewise such efforts were not expended. You, gods and dragons, took pity
on me and came here. I ask you to describe the working of these stars andthe sun and moon, so that they can be set up [in the present world age justas they were in the past]; in the past some stars are good and some evil,
some are good-looking and some ugly. Just as I have requested, please
describe them exhaustively.”

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All the gods said, “Great sage [Kharoṣṭhī], this is a very profound matter,and it is outside of our own sphere [of knowledge]. Taking pity on all sentient
beings, please quickly describe how the matter stood in the past world age.”
Then the sage Kharoṣṭhī said to all the gods (Fayuan zhulin, T.2122:
293c6–294c19, from Daji jing, T.397:274c10–275c23), “First [they] placed
Mao (Kṛttikā) as the leading lunar station.”[Kharoṣṭhī told the deities], “The stars revolve and travel in the sky. Is
it not true that Mao (Kṛttikā) is the leading lunar station? ”
Then the sun deity said, “This Mao lunar station constantly travels aroundthe empty sky, going through the four realms under heaven, always performing good deeds and generously beneﬁting us. I know that this lunar
station is a ﬁre god.”
At that time a sage called Great Virtue, said, “This Mao lunar station is
the son of my sister.”
The lunar station has six corners and is shaped like a shaving knife. In
one day and night it travels through the four realms under heaven. [Themoon] proceeds for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. It is a ﬁregod. Its clan name is Biyeni. To those that belong to this lunar station anoffering of ghee is made.
[Kharoṣṭhī told the deities], “Then [they] placed Bi (Rohiṇī) as the second
lunar station. It is a water god. Its clan name is Poluotuo. The Bi lunar station
has ﬁve stars and is shaped like a standing hairpin. In one day and night[the moon] moves for forty-ﬁve muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To
those belonging to the Bi lunar station an offering of deer meat is made.
“Then [they] placed Zi (Mṛgaśira) as the third lunar station. It is a moongod. It is the moon’s son. Its clan name is Piliqieyeni. There are three stars
and the lunar station is shaped like the head of a deer. In one day and night[the moon] moves for ﬁfteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To thosethat belong to the Zi lunar station an offering of roots and fruit is made.
“Then [they] placed Shen (Ārdrā) as the fourth lunar station. It is a sun
god. Its clan name is Posishichi. Its nature is evil and it is frequently angry.
It consists of one star, like a woman’s mole. In one day and night [the moon]moves for forty-ﬁve muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging
to the Shen lunar station an offering of ghee is made.

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Fascicle 4“Then [they] placed Jing (Punarvasu) as the ﬁfth lunar station. It is a sun
god. Its clan name is Posishichi. It consists of two stars and is shaped like afootprint. In one day and night [the moon] moves for ﬁfteen muhūrtas [toreach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Jing lunar station anoffering of rice ﬂour and honey is made.
“Then [they] placed Gui (Puṣya) as the sixth lunar station. It is the godof the planet Jupiter. It is Jupiter’s son. Its clan name is Paobonapi. Its natureis gentle and it takes pleasure in cultivating the good teaching. There arethree stars, which together look like the Buddha’s mark of a broad torso. In
one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar
station] . To those belonging to the Gui lunar station an offering of rice ﬂourand honey is made as well.
“Then [they] placed Liu (Aśleṣā) as the seventh lunar station. It is a snake
god. Its clan name is Sheshi (“Snake Clan”). It consists of only one star, likea woman’s mole. In one day and night the moon moves for ﬁfteen muhūrtas
[to reach this lunar station]. To those that belong to the Liu lunar station anoffering of milk gruel is made.
“These seven lunar stations correspond to the Eastern Gate.
“Then [they] placed the ﬁrst lunar station in the southern direction. It iscalled Qixing (Maghā, “Seven Stars”). It is a ﬁre god. Its clan name is Binqieyeni. Its ﬁve stars are shaped like a riverbank. In one day and night [themoon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those thatbelong to the lunar station of Qixing one should prepare an offering of gruelmade of rice powder and black sesame.
“Then [they] placed Zhang (Pūrvaphālgunī) as the second lunar station.
It is a god of moral virtue. Its clan name is Jutanmi. It consists of two stars
and is shaped like footprints. In the course of one day and night [the moon]moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging
to the Zhang lunar station an offering of bimba fruit is made.
“Then [they] placed Yi (Uttaraphalgunī) as the third lunar station. It is aforest deity. Its clan name is Jiaochenru. It consists of two stars and is shaped
like footprints. In the course of one day and one night [the moon] moves forﬁfteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Yi
lunar station an offering of cooked green and black beans is made.

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294b“Then [they] placed Zhen (Hastā) as the fourth lunar station. It is a
Shapilidi god. Its clan name is Jiasheyan. It is the son of the Scorpion
Sage. It consists of ﬁve stars and is shaped like a human hand. In one day
and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station].
To those that belong to the Zhen lunar station an offering of cooked tareand millet is made.
“Then [they] placed Jue (Citrā) as the ﬁfth lunar station. It is a god ofdelight. Its clan name is Zhituoluoyani. It is the son of a gandharva. It
consists of only one star, shaped like a woman’s mole. In the course of
one day and night [the moon] moves for ﬁfteen muhūrtas [to reach thislunar station]. To those belonging to the Jue lunar station an offering of
ﬂour and rice is made.
“Then [they] placed Gang (Svātī) as the sixth lunar station. It a Moduluo
god. Its clan name is Jiazhanyanni. It consists of only one star, shaped
like a woman’s mole. In the course of one day and night the moon moves
for ﬁfteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to
the Gang lunar station one should offer green beans, fermented milk, andhoney cooked together.
“Then [they] placed Di (Viśākhā) as the seventh lunar station. It is a
ﬁre god. Its clan name is Xiejiltuoyeni. In the course of one day and night[the moon] moves for forty-ﬁve muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To
those belonging to the Di lunar station one should offer different kindsof ﬂowers.
“These seven lunar stations correspond to the Southern Gate.
“Then [they] placed the ﬁrst lunar station in the western direction. Its
name is Fang (Anurādhā). It is a god of compassion. Its clan name is Alanpoyeni. The Fang consists of four stars and is shaped like a necklace. In
the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [toreach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Fang lunar station anoffering of wine and meat is made.
“Then [they] placed Xin (Jyeṣṭhā) as the second lunar station. It is a Śakra
god. Its clan name is Luoyanna. The Xin consists of three stars and is shaped
like [a grain of] barley. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves
for ﬁfteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the
Xin lunar station an offering of unreﬁned rice gruel is made.

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Fascicle 4“Then [they] placed Wei (Mūlā) as the third lunar station. It is a huntergod. Its clan name is Jiasheyeni. The Wei consists of seven stars and isshaped like a scorpion’s tail. In the course of one day and night [the moon]moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging
to the Wei lunar station an offering of fruit and roots is made.
“Then [they] placed Ji (Pūrvāṣādhā) as the fourth lunar station. It is awater god. Its clan name is Mochajiazhanyanni. The Ji consists of fourstars and is shaped like a cow’s horn. In the course of one day and night[the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To
those belonging to the Ji lunar station an offering of the juice from a ﬁg’s
skin is made.
“Then [they] placed Dou (Uttarāṣādhā) as the ﬁfth lunar station. It isa ﬁre god. Its clan name is Mojialuoni. The Dou consists of four stars andis the shape of a man clearing the ground. In the course of one day andnight [the moon] moves for forty-ﬁve muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station].
To those belong to the Dou lunar station an offering of unreﬁned rice, rice
ﬂour, and honey is made.
“Then [they] placed Niu (Abhijit) as the sixth lunar station. It is a
Brahmā god. Its clan name is Fanlanmo. The Niu consists of three stars
and is shaped like a cow’s head. In the course of one day and night [themoon] moves for six muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To thosebelonging to the Niu lunar station an offering of puriﬁed butter (ghee)and cooked rice is made.
“Then [they] placed Nü (Śravaṇā) as the seventh lunar station. It is aViṣṇu god. Its clan name is Dilijiasheyeni. The Nü consists of four stars
and is shaped like a grain of barley. In the course of one day and night[the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To
those belonging to the Nü lunar station an offering of bird meat is made.
“These seven lunar stations correspond to the Western Gate.
“Then [they] placed the ﬁrst lunar station in the northern direction. Its
name is Xuxing (Dhaniṣṭhā). It a Śakra god. It is Shapo’s son. Its clanname is Jiaochenru. The Xuxing consists of four stars and is shaped likea bird. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves for thirty
muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to the Xuxing
lunar station an offering of the juice from cooked black beans is made.

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294c“Then [they] placed Wei (Śatabhiṣā) as the second lunar station. It isa Tuoluonu god. Its clan name is Dannani. In one day and night [the moon]moves for ﬁfteen muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging
to the Wei lunar station an offering of unreﬁned rice gruel is made.
Then [they] placed Shi (Pūrvabhadrapadā) as the third lunar station.
It is a snake-head god. It is the scorpion god’s son. Its clan name is Shedujianiju. The Shi consists of two stars and is shaped like a footprint. In one
day and night [the moon] moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar
station]. To those that belong to the Shi lunar station an offering of meatand [animal] blood is made.
“Then [they] placed Bi (Uttarabhadrapadā) as the fourth lunar station.
It is a forest god. It is Varuṇa’s son. Its clan name is Tuonanshe. The Bi
consists of two stars and is shaped like a footprint. In the course of one
day and night [the moon] moves for forty-ﬁve muhūrtas [to reach thislunar station]. To those belonging to the Bi lunar station an offering ofmeat is made.
“Then [they] placed Kui (Revatī) as the ﬁfth lunar station. It is a Fushe
god. Its clan name is Asepaini. The Kui consists of one star and is shaped
like a woman’s mole. In the course of one day and night [the moon] moves
for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging to theKui lunar station an offering of reﬁned butter (ghee) is made.
Then [they] placed Lou (Aśvinī) as the sixth lunar station. It is a gandharva god. Its clan name is Ahanpo. The Lou consists of three stars andis shaped like a horse’s head. In the course of one day and night [the moon]moves for thirty muhūrtas [to reach this lunar station]. To those belonging
to the Lou lunar station an offering of cooked barley and meat is made.
“Then [they] placed Wei (Bharaṇī) as the seventh lunar station. It is a
Yama god. Its clan name is Baqiepi. The Wei consists of three stars andis shaped like the legs of a tripod. In the course of one day and night itcovers forty time units. To those belonging to the Wei lunar station anoffering of unreﬁned rice and black sesame is made.
“These seven lunar stations correspond to the Northern Gate.
“Among these twenty-eight lunar stations there are ﬁve that cover
forty-ﬁve time units, namely Bi, Shen, Di, Dou, and Bi. There is a lot tobe said about the twenty-eight lunar stations, and it is difﬁcult to come to130

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understand them deeply. I will not discuss the matter in detail here. HereI discussed the lunar stations brieﬂy. ” The gods who heard the discussion
were delighted.
Then, facing the assembly, the sage Kharoṣṭhī held his palms together
and said, “Arrange the sun, moon, the year, and time units in this way.”(Note: The Zhi riyue nianshi jing, Scripture of Placing the Sun, the Moon,
the Year, and the Time Units, belongs here. It is not included here due to
its length.)[Continuing from the Daji jing (T.397:282a19):][Question:] What are the six seasons of the larger and smaller star mansions?
Answer: The ﬁrst and second months are called the season of moderate
warmth. The third and fourth months are called the season for planting.
The ﬁfth and sixth months are called the season for praying for rain. The
seventh and eighth months are called the season for the ripening of fruit.
The ninth and the tenth months are called the cold and freezing season.
The eleventh and twelfth months are the season of snowstorms. In thisway the twelve months are divided into six seasons.
Furthermore, there are eight larger star mansions: Suixing (Jupiter),
Yinghuoxing (Mars), Zhenxing (Saturn), Taiboxing (Venus), Chenxing(Mercury), the sun, moon, and Heluohouxing. There are twenty-eightsmaller star mansions, which refer to the set of lunar stations starting with
Mao and ending with Wei. I placed them in this way in an orderly fashion.
You have all heard the explanations.
At that time all the gods, sages, asuras, dragons (nāgas), and humanbeings, with palms joined, said, “Now, this heavenly sage is to be honored
to the highest degree among gods and humans and none among the dragons
and asuras is superior to him. In wisdom and compassion he is the ﬁrst.
For the duration of innumerable kalpas he has not failed to take pity on
sentient beings and he has obtained meritorious rewards. Among all thegods and human beings there is none who has comparable wisdom. He
makes the cosmic laws function in this way. There are none among thesentient beings who can make the laws work in this way. All beings aredelighted, and he brings comfort to us. It is good, most virtuous one. You
bring peace to sentient beings!”

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Then the sage Kharoṣṭhī spoke again, saying that the twelve months
constitute one year. In a moment he ﬁnished speaking about these mattersregarding the larger and smaller stars. He also placed the four heavenly
kings in each of the four directions around Mount Sumeru to bring beneﬁt
to sentient beings in each direction.
Then everyone in the assembly praised the sage, saying, “It is good!”
They were boundlessly delighted. Then the gods, dragons, yakṣas, andasuras presented offerings, day and night.
After innumerable ages another sage, called Qieli, will appear in theworld. He will again speak about the arrangement of the star mansions,
small and large, and the calculations of the lunar periods and seasons.
(Note: Details can be found in the scripture.)
I have now listed the twenty-eight lunar stations. Each has different afﬁliates
and spiritual guards. Thus, according to the Daji jing (T.397:371a11–b13):
The Buddha said to the ruler of the sahā world, the heavenly king Brahman,
Indra, and the four heavenly kings, “In the past how did the heavenly sage
place the lunar stations, the sun, moon, and planets in order to protect theland and nurture sentient beings?”
The great king Brahmā and others replied to the Buddha,“In the past theheavenly sage placed the lunar stations, the sun, moon, and planets in orderto protect the land and nurture sentient beings. In the eastern direction areseven lunar stations: (1) the Jue lunar station, in charge of birds; (2) the
Gang lunar station, in charge of those who have renounced the householder’slife and seek the holy path; (3) the Di lunar station, in charge of sentient
beings born from water; (4) the Fang lunar station, in charge of those whodrive vehicles for proﬁt; (5) the Xin lunar station, in charge of women; (6)the Wei lunar station, in charge of sentient beings in the continents andislands; and (7) the Ji lunar station, in charge of potters.
“In the southern direction there are seven lunar stations: (1) the Sei
lunar station, in charge of metal workers; (2) the Gui lunar station, incharge of all kings and ministers; (3) the Liu lunar station, in charge ofdragons in the Himalayas; (4) the Xin lunar station, in charge of thewealthy; (5) the Chang lunar station, in charge of thieves; (6) the Yi lunar

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station, in charge of merchants; and (7) the Chen lunar station, in chargeof the kingdom of Suraṣṭra (?).
“In the western direction there are seven lunar stations: (1) the Kui
lunar station, in charge of boatmen; (2) the Lou lunar station, in chargeof merchants; (3) the Wei lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Poloujia; (4) the Mao lunar station, in charge of water buffaloes; (5) the Bi
lunar station, in charge of all sentient beings; (6) the Zi lunar station, incharge of the kingdom of Vaideha; and (7) the Shen lunar station, in chargeof the kṣatriyas.
“In the northern direction there are seven lunar stations: (1) the Dou
lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Jiaobusha; (2) the Niu lunar
station, in charge of the kṣatriyas and the kingdom of Anduobojiena; (3)the Nü lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Yangqiemoqietuo; (4)the Xu lunar station, in charge of the kingdom of Nasheluo; (5) the Wei
lunar station, in charge of those who wear ﬂower crowns; (6) the Shi lunar
station, in charge of the kingdoms of Gandhāra and Shuluna, as well as
all creeping creatures such as dragons and snakes; and (7) the Bi lunar
station, in charge of those who are happy among the gandharvas, Bhagavatsof great virtue, and past heavenly sages.
“In this way the lunar stations were placed in the four directions inorder to protect the land and nurture sentient beings.”
Then the Buddha said to the Brahmā king and the others, “You must
listen carefully. Among the heavenly sages in the world I am the mostsuperior with regard to all knowledge. It is also I who causes the stars andstar mansions to protect the land and nurture sentient beings. You mustannounce to them how I divided the land and sentient beings so that eachis protected and nurtured according to this division. The divided kingdoms
belong separately to the twenty-eight lunar stations.”
Question: What are the sizes of the stars?
Answer: According to the Zengyi ahan jing (T.125:736a9), the larger stars
are one yojana in diameter and smaller stars are two hundred steps in diameter.
According to the Loutan jing, the circumference of a large stars is seven
hundred li; that of a mid-sized star is four hundred and eighty li; and that ofa small star is twenty li.

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According to the Yüqieshidi lun (T.1579:288a7–8), the larger among thestar mansions are eighteen krośas; the midsized ones are ten krośas; and thesmallest ones are four krośas.
Compiler’s comment: According to Buddhist scriptures these star mansions
are all residences of the gods, who live inside them; due to their karmic
powers light is emitted. According to secular books, they are said to be simply
pieces of rock. Thus, during Song period (420–479) a star fell; the meteor
was like a piece of rock. Some said it was not the star but rather a stone thatfell from the Heavenly River. Thus, according to one secular book, the Heavenly River is connected with the Earthly River, and thus stones sometimes
fall from the river.
The Xumi xiangtu shan jing says,
The river in heaven is called Yemaluo; it travels in the sky; over a longtime large rocks and small [particles of] sand have occasionally come off
it; these have been ﬁxed as stars.

295c

This work is not an authentic scripture but rather an arbitrary composition
by a secular author. Though it has been in circulation it does not represent
the Buddha’s teaching.
In the eighteenth year of the Zhenguan period of Tang (644 C.E.), in thetenth month, on the day of bingshen there was a great thunder in the sky at
the boundary between Fenzhou and the Wenshui district of Bingzhou. A stone
fell from a cloud in the sky. It was of the size of a pheasant’s beak, with araised back and a ﬂat bottom. Zhang Xiaojing, Aide of the Wenshui district,along with the ofﬁcial of Fenzhou, presented a memorial. At that time anelder from Mahābodhi Temple in Magadha came to the Western Capital. He
was very knowledgeable about all sorts of things. The emperor asked him
about this occurrence. The elder answered, “Two dragons fought with eachother and consequently dropped down like stones.” If we are to speak on thebasis of this exchange, it is not necessarily the case that what falls from thesky is a star.
[The Yanshi jiaxun, Guixin chapter, says:]
The matters of the distant heavens cannot be fathomed by ordinary beings.
Heaven and earth are the hardest to know for human beings. It is said

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among people that heaven is the ether of essence; the sun is the yangessence; stars are the essence of myriad things. According to what Confucian scholars teach to reassure us, when a star falls it becomes a stone.
If its essence is that of a stone it cannot possibly emit light. It would also
have a heavy mass. To what would it have been attached?
The diameter of one large star is one hundred li. The distance between
the head and tail of one lunar stations is several tens of thousand li. Objects
one hundred li in diameter are arranged at distances of several tens of
thousand li, and as they move the distances between the stars do notchange. Furthermore, the light emitted by the stars, the sun, and the moonis similar; only the sizes [of these celestial objects] varies. How can thesun and moon be stones? Stones are solid and dense. How could a crowor a hare reside within it? How can stones move in the qi by themselves?
Suppose that the sun, moon, stars, and lunar stations were all qi. The substance of qi is light, and qi merges with the sky. Their movement and turning cannot diverge from one another. How then can the sun, moon, theﬁve planets, and the twenty-eight lunar stations all have different degrees
and move unevenly, rather than move uniformly? How could qi fall andsuddenly turn into stones? If the earth is the accumulation of dregs, it
should sink at the bottom. Yet, when we dig in the ground springs open
up. The earth ﬂoats upon water. What lies under the water? Streams in ahundred valleys gather into the Yangzi River and the Yellow River. Where
do these streams originate? The rivers ﬂow to the east into the ocean. Why
does the ocean not overﬂow? To where does the water of the Guitang
Gorge [into which the rivers ﬂow] and the Weilü Deeps [through which
the water ﬂows] eventually lead? What gas continues to burn in the rocksof Wujiao [over which water ﬂows]? Who controls the ebb and ﬂow of
the tides? Why doesn’t the Milky Way that hangs in the sky not fall down?
How come water, which by nature ﬂows downward, rise up there?
As soon as heaven and earth were established there were lunar stations.
The nine continents had not been marked and many states were not divided.
Marking boundaries of the territory is like traveling through lunar stations.
After the feudal system is established who controls the borders? [The fortunes of] states change but the stars are steady in their course of progress.

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296a

Calamities and good fortune never miss the right time. Patterns in the sky
are large; stars are numerous. How could the [corresponding] divisionsof the ground be conﬁned to China? The lunar station Mao is Maotou(Pleiades), which is the protective star of the Xiongnu tribes. How would
it abandon the western Hu, the eastern Yi, the [southern] Diaozhi (?) or
Jiaozhi? As we explore [these matters] exhaustively, we cannot treat humanaffairs as being beyond cosmic [inﬂuences].
People believe only what they see with their own eyes and hear with
their ears; they doubt everything that lies beyond this limit. Yet the Confucians have several astronomical theories, such as huntian and gaitian,and speak of the “conformation of the heavens” (antian) and the “vastnessof heaven” (qiongtian). These theories are quite comprehensive and unlike
the viewpoint of those who only accept what they themselves see. Yet
their calculations are not reliable. Why should we believe the speculationof worldly people and doubt the superior teaching of the Great Sage? Why
are we tempted to deny the existence of worlds as numerous as grains ofsand in the Ganges River, and of world ages (kalpas) as numerous as
minute dust particles? Zou Yan spoke of the nine continents. Those wholive in the mountains do not believe that a ﬁsh can be as large as a tree.
Those who live near the ocean do not believe that a tree can be as big as
a ﬁsh. Emperor Wu of the Han did not believe in the existence of a bowstring made of glue; King Wen of Wei did not believe in the existence ofﬁre-resistant cloth. Foreigners see embroidered silk and do not believethat it is made of ﬁbers secreted by worms that eat [mulberry] tree leaves.
People of the Wu region, living south of the Jiang River, do not believein the existence of a tent that can hold one thousand people. When wecome to the region north of the Ho River the people there do not believe inthe existence of a boat that can hold twenty thousand shi. These things havereal proof of their existence. In the world there are such things as magicians
and different magical techniques, such as walking on ﬁre, stepping on
swords, harvesting melons [immediately after planting], and moving wells;suddenly a thousand changes and ten thousand transformations take place.
It is within the power of human beings to do these things. Why, then,could not miraculous cosmic responses beyond the limits of our understanding actually happen; for example, a seat decorated with a jeweled

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Fascicle 4banner one hundred yojanas long, or the miraculous appearance of thePure Land, or the emergence of a marvelous stupa from the ground?
Wang Xuance’s Xiguoxing zhuan says:
In the fourth year of Xianqing (659) the king’s emissary reached Polishe.
For the Chinese visitors the king there arranged to have ﬁve women perform. These ﬁve women handled three swords, adding more swords until
they had ten. They also performed rope tricks. Going up in the air on topof the rope, they put on their shoes and then threw them, while handlinga sword, a shield, and a spear in their hands. They performed various otherkinds of tricks, [such as] cutting off their tongues and pulling out theirintestines. These cannot be described in detail here.
3. The Sun Palace
The Qishi jing (T.24:358c21–359b29) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “The palace of the sun god is ﬁfty-one
yojanas in depth, width, and height. The palace looks square, like an ordinary residence, but from a distance it appears round. It is made of twomaterials, gold and glass. Two parts of each side are made of heavenly
gold, pure and luminous; one part is made of heavenly gold, clean andluminous. Five kinds of winds blow and make the sun move: (1) a holding
wind, (2) a dwelling wind, (3) an adaptive turbulent wind, (4) a Poluohejia
wind, and (5) a future wind.
“In front of the sun palace are innumerable gods. As they move to thefront they each experience pleasure. These gods are called ‘Steadily Moving.’(Note: According to the Chang ahan jing the structure of the sun palace
and its walls are thin like ﬂower petals. They are supported by the ﬁvekinds of winds.)“Furthermore, inside the sun palace is a carriage made of Jambūnada
gold. It is sixteen yojanas tall and eight yojanas square, and is decorated
most beautifully. The god and his attendants are inside the carriage, enjoying
the pleasures that satisfy the ﬁve desires. The sun god has the life span ofﬁve hundred years. His son and grandson succeed him from generation to
generation and rule in this palace. The palace remains for the period of
one world age. The light that shines from the body of the sun god illumines

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the carriage. The light that shines from the carriage in turn illumines thepalace. The light is thus passed on and illumines beyond the four continents
and the many worlds. There are one thousand light rays on the body ofthe sun god, the carriage, and the palace. Five hundred light rays shine
sideways; ﬁve hundred rays shine downward. The palace of the sun god
moves constantly. For a period of six months it moves northward; it keeps
moving gradually all day and travels a distance of six krośas in a day.
(Note: The Zabaozang jing [T.203:452c5] gives one krośa as ﬁve miles.)It never departs from the sun’s path. For the next period of six months it
moves southward; it keeps moving gradually all day and travels a distanceof six krośas in a day. It does not fall off the sun’s path. As the sun palace
keeps moving with the cycle of six months, the moon palace moves insimilar fashion in a cycle of ﬁfteen days.”
4. The Moon Palace
The Qishi jing (T.24:360b24–361b4) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “The palace of the moon god is forty-nine
yojanas wide and deep, forming a perfect square. It is surrounded by fenceson all four sides and the palace is made of seven jewels. The palace buildingof the moon god is made only of heavenly silver and heavenly blue jade,pieces of which are placed side by side. Two parts are of heavenly silver,clear and untarnished and which shines brightly. The remaining part is ofheavenly blue jade, also very clear and transparent. The light shines throughit and illuminates far and wide. Again, ﬁve kinds of wind support the moon.
(Note: The same names of the ﬁve kinds of wind as above are given here.)As the moon palace moves in the sky it is preceded and pulled by thepalaces of numerous gods; these gods all receive pleasure. This palace also
has a large carriage, made of blue jade, eighteen yojanas in height, andeight yojanas wide. The moon god and heavenly maidens are inside thiscarriage. The desires of each of the gods’ ﬁve sense organs are satisﬁed invarious combinations, and these deities move about freely. The life spanof the moon god is ﬁve hundred years. Generations of his descendants rule
there. The palace lasts for a period of one world age. The light that shinesfrom the body of the moon god illuminates the blue carriage. The lightthat shines from the carriage in turn illuminates the moon palace. The light138

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from the moon palace illuminates the four continents. The moon god emits
ﬁve hundred rays of light directed downward. It also emits ﬁve hundred
light rays that shine sideways. For this reason the moon god is called One
Thousand Rays of Light.’ It is also called Cool Light.”
Why does the moon palace appear gradually? The Buddha answered,“There are three reasons: (1) it rotates; (2) for half a month blue-coloreddeities, whose clothing and necklaces are all uniformly blue, hide in theirpalace and because of this hiding the moon appears gradually; and (3) sixty
rays of light shine simultaneously from the moon palace and obstruct thelight from the moon. For these reasons the moon appears only gradually.
“Why is the moon palace perfectly round? Again, there are three reasonsfor this. (1) At the right time the moon rotates and the moon palace appears.
(2) The blue-colored deities hide for half a month but on the ﬁfteenth day
the form of the moon palace is perfectly round and its light brightest. If
one lights a torch in a pool of fuel, all [the light from] smaller lamps isoverwhelmed and disappears. Similarly, on the ﬁfteenth day the moon
palace overcomes all other sources of light. (3) As for the sixty rays oflight that are simultaneously emitted from the sun palace and that obstruct
the light of the moon palace, on the ﬁfteenth day the moon palace is fully
empowered. There is no shadow anywhere. At that time even rays of lightfrom the sun cannot obstruct the light of the moon.
“Again, why does the moon palace completely disappear on the ﬁfteenth
day of the waning period? The moon palace is closest to the sun palaceon the ﬁfteenth day of the waning period. It is covered by the sun’s lightand therefore becomes completely invisible.
“Again, why is the moon palace designated by the same term as‘month’? During the waning (black) period the moon palace graduallydisappears day by day, until it is entirely gone at the end of the month.
The strength of the light decreases gradually [over the course of the month].
For this reason, it is designated by the term ‘month.’ (Note: in the Western
Region the month is divided into black and white. From the ﬁrst day tothe ﬁfteenth day is called the white month. From the sixteenth day to the
day the moon disappears is called the black month. In China the black
month is included [in the white month] and together they are called amonth.)

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I“Why do shadows appear in the moon palace? The jambu (rose apple)
tree exists on this continent. Because of this tree the continent is called
Jambudvīpa. The jambu tree is tall and large and its shadow appears in
the moon.”
The Yüqie lun (T.1579:288a6–7) says:
The shadows of the ﬁsh and turtles in the ocean are reﬂected in the moon.
For this reason black patterns appear there. (Note: According to the Xiguo
zhuan [Record of the Western Regions], once in the past a rabbit was cultivating the bodhisattva practice. The Heavenly Ruler wanted to test [therabbit’s practice] and asked for some meat to eat. The rabbit threw itself into
a ﬁre [to offer its body as a sacriﬁce]. The Heavenly Ruler took pity on it
and placed the burned rabbit on the moon so that all future beings would see
the rabbit’s body and know that it had cultivated the bodhisattva practice.)
5. Climate
According to the Qishi jing (T.24:359b29–360a19):

297aAgain, why is heat generated in the summer? The Buddha said, “For six
months the sun palace travels northward. In one day it steadily travels the
distance of six krośas, without fail. There are ten reasons why heat is generated. Its light touches upon ten kinds of mountains and generates heat.”
Again, why are there cold areas? After six months the sun palace graduallyturns to the south. There are again twelve reasons why coldness is generated. Between Mount Sumeru and Mount Khadiraka is the Sumeru
Ocean, eighty-four thousand yojanas wide with an immeasurable circumference. The ocean is ﬁlled with ﬂowers that have a powerful fragrance.
The light of the sun reaches this ocean. This is the ﬁrst reason why there
is coldness. [There are similar oceans between these mountains:] Second,
Mount Īṣādhara; third, Mount Yugaṃdhara; fourth, Mount Sudarśana;ﬁfth, Mount Aśvakarṇa; sixth, Mount Nimindhara; seventh, Mount
Vinataka; and eighth, Mount Cakravāḍa. [As the sun shines on these mountains, coldness results.] Ninth, the sun reaches the places where rivers
ﬂow in Jambudvīpa, and for this reason there is coldness. Tenth, there aretwice as many rivers in [Apara]godānīya. Eleventh, there are twice as

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many rivers in Pūrvavideha. Twelfth, there are twice as many rivers in
Uttarakuru. The light of the sun reaches these twelve groups of rivers andcoldness results. (Note: In addition to the eight mountains, the opening
section on generating heat mentions, as the ninth reason, the demigods’[yakṣas] palace in the sky, ten thousand yojanas above the ground. The
tenth reason is the mountains in each of the four continents. Altogether
ten reasons are listed.)
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:197c10–23) says:
Question: Why is it cold in winter? Why is it hot in spring? Why is it
sometimes hot and sometimes cold in summer?
In winter the water element is dominant and has not begun its downward
trend. Vegetation is moist and has not begun to dry up. The earth element
is damp; the ﬁre element is turned downward; the water element rises
upward. We know this because [at this time] deep water is warm and shallow water is cold. When the cold season arrives the sun moves along theoutside path, and the daylight is shorter. The yang force is inside. Foodis digested quickly. For this reason it is cold in winter.
Why is it hot in spring? During this season the strength of the waterelement declines. Vegetation dries up and the ground splits from the lackof moisture. The water element is directed downward and the ﬁre element
rises upward. We know this because [at this time] deep water is cold andshallow water is warm. Having passed through winter, the sun travels
along the inside path and the daylight is longer. The ﬁre inside the body
declines. Therefore, it is hot in spring.
Why is it sometimes hot and sometimes cold in summer? The groundis constantly scorched in the eighth month. When a large cloud sends
down rain, the ground steams with vapor. When the wind blows the vapor
disappears. Then, it becomes cold. If there is no wind, then it is hot. For
this reason, it is sometimes hot and sometimes cold in summer. (Note: In
the Western Region four months constitute a season. There is only spring,summer, and winter; there is no autumn. For this reason there are threeresidences [to be used in each of these] three seasons.)
The Qishi jing says:

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Why do rivers ﬂow in the world? The Buddha said to the monks, “Thesun generates heat; the heat causes scorching; scorching causes steam;steam causes sweating (i.e., precipitation). This moisture in the mountains
forms the rivers.”
6. Illumination
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:145–b8¬10) says:
At the beginning of the world age heaven and earth were in great darkness.
A great black wind blew over the great ocean. The sun was then installed
to illuminate the world. It was placed halfway up Mount Sumeru, along thesolar route. It turns around the four continents and shines on sentient beings.
The Qishi jing (T.24:358c2–13) says:
At that time the world became dark. Suddenly the sun, moon, and stars
appeared, and there were days, nights, years, and seasons. Then the sun
went up to the great palace. It arose from the east, circled around the middleof Mount Sumeru, and went westward. After it sets there, it returns toappear again in the east. When sentient beings saw the sun rise from theeast again, they said to each other, “The sun rose from the east, and circled
around Mount Sumeru. It will set in the west.” When they saw it a thirdtime, they said to each other, “This is the heavenly light that travels.” Thisis how the sun got its name (“Sūrya” means “This is that one.”)The Zhidu lun (T.1509:347c1–2) says, “The diameter of the sun and themoon is ﬁve hundred yojanas, and yet they appear to be no bigger than a fan
when we see them.”
The Chuchu jing (T.730:526b15–16) says, “The Buddha told Ānanda,‘The limit of what the human eye can see is known to be four hundred andtwenty thousand yojanas.’”The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:197b16–18) says:
Why are there nights? Why are there days? There is night because of thesun, and because of the sun there is day. The realm of desire is itself dark.
Because the sunlight is covered there is night. Because the sunlight is
exposed, there is day.

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The Qishi jing (T.24:360b4–c3) says:
When the sun is at its highest point on the continent of Jambudvīpa [inthe south], it is beginning to set on the continent of Pūrvavideha [in theeast], it is beginning to appear on the continent of Aparagodānīya [in thewest], and it is midnight on the continent of Uttarakuru [in the north].
When the sun is at its highest point on the continent of Aparagodānīya it
is beginning to set on this continent of Jambudvīpa, it is beginning toappear on the continent of Uttarakuru, and it is midnight on the continentof Pūrvavideha. When the sun is at its highest point on the continent of
Uttarakuru, it is beginning to set on the continent of Aparagodānīya, it isbeginning to appear on the continent of Pūrvavideha, and it is midnighton the continent of Jambudvīpa. When the sun is at the highest point on
the continent of Pūrvavideha, it is beginning to set on the continent of
Uttarakuru, it is beginning to appear on the continent of Jambudvīpa, and
it is midnight on the continent of Aparagodānīya.
The Buddha said to the monks, “West to the people in Jambudvīpa iseast to the people in Aparagodānīya. West to the people in Aparagodānīya
is east to the people in Uttarakuru. West to the people in Uttarakuru iseast to the people in Pūrvavideha. West to the people in Pūrvavideha iseast to the people in Jambudvīpa. The same relationship applies in thenorth-south direction.”
7. Waxing and Waning
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:197b18–c4) says:
Why is the one part of the moon black and the other part white? It isbecause of the sun that one part [of the moon] is black and the other part
white. The course of the sun follows that of the moon. Each day the distance between them either decreases by forty-eight thousand and eighty
yojanas or increases by the same amount. When they come closer [to eachother], the sun covers three and one-third yojanas of the moon each day;in ﬁfteen days the sun covers the moon completely. On that day the blackpart is complete. The sun also leaves the moon at the rate of forty-eight
thousand and eighty yojanas. The moon opens up by three and one-third
yojanas each day; in ﬁfteen days the moon is completely exposed. The

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people in the world say that the moon is completely white (bright). Whenthe sun and moon are furthest apart, the moon is full; the people in theworld say that the moon is completely white. When the sun and moon are
in the same place, they are said to be moving together; the people in theworld say that the moon is completely black (i.e., hidden). When the sunfollows the moon, the light of the sun illuminates the light of the moon.
Because the light of the moon is coarse a shadow appears, and this shadow
covers the moon. This is why the back part of the moon is missing. In thisway, larger and larger parts of the moon are covered, and in ﬁfteen days
the moon is covered completely. The period when the sun follows themoon is designated as the “black part.” When the sun precedes the moon,each day new parts are exposed in the same way, and in ﬁfteen days theentirety of the moon becomes completely visible. The period when thesun precedes the moon is called the “white part.”
The Qishi jing (T.24:360a22–b3) says:

298a

Question: Why is the night long and the day short in winter?
The Buddha answered the monk, “After six months the sun palace
begins to gradually travel south. Each day it moves precisely six krośas.
In this season (winter) the sun palace is at the southern end of Jambudvīpa,
where the land is narrow. The sun passes this end [of the continent] very
quickly, and therefore in winter the days are short and the nights are long.”
Again, why are the days longer and the nights shorter in spring andsummer?
The Buddha answered, “After another six months the sun palace begins
to gradually travel north. Each day it moves precisely six krośas. During
these seasons the sun travels over Jambudvīpa where the land is wide andits passage [over the continent] takes a long time. Therefore, the days are
long. For this reason, in spring and summer the days are long and thenights are shorter.”
The Zhidu lun (T.1509:409b24–c14) says:
The “Nonretrogression” (Avaivartika) chapter [of the Perfection of Wisdom
Sutra] speaks of the division of the day and month (ref. T.223:256b24),
which should be understood as follows: The day begins at dawn and ends

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at [twilight], consisting of the ﬁrst part, middle part, and last part. The
night is also divided into three parts. The day and the night together consistof thirty time units (muhūrtas). At the spring and fall equinoxes, ﬁfteentime units belong to the day and ﬁfteen to the night. At other times there
are increases and decreases. At the summer solstice in the ﬁfth lunar month
the day consists of eighteen periods and the night of twelve; at the wintersolstice in the eleventh lunar month the day consists of twelve periods
and the night of eighteen. The month may consist of thirty and one-halfdays, or of thirty days, or of twenty-nine and one-half days, or of twentyseven and one-half days. There are four kinds of months: ﬁrst is the monthof the sun, second the worldly month, third the month of the moon, andfourth is the month of the lunar stations. The month of the sun is thirty
and one-half days; the worldly month is thirty days; the month of themoon is twenty-nine days plus thirty sixty-seconds of a day; the monthof the lunar stations is twenty-seven days plus twenty-one sixtieths of aday. The intercalary month results from the combination of the month of
the sun and the worldly month, and is called the thirteenth month. Sometimes thirteen months forms one year. The year contains three hundredand sixty-six days, and repeats itself.
The bodhisattva knows that in the middle of a day, the former half ofthe day has already gone out of existence and the latter half of the day has
not yet come into existence. The middle point does not remain; there is no
speciﬁc and ﬁxed characteristic that marks this point. The day thus is“empty”; there is no existence to which it corresponds. When the thirtiethday of the month has arrived, the preceding twenty-nine days have alreadydisappeared. How can one gather all of the disappeared days in the one daythat is present and form a month? If a month does not exist in this way, how
can one gather these months and form a year? Therefore, the Buddha said
that worldly dharmas (i.e., existence) are like an illusion or a dream. They
are nothing but the delusive product of the mind. A bodhisattva is capableof forming worldly days, months, and years; he or she is also capable ofdeconstructing them into nonbeing. This is called skillful distinction.
8. Rising Clouds
The Qishi jing (T.24:348b21–24; c22–29) says:

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298b

There are four kinds of clouds in the world: white, black, red, and yellow
clouds. Of these four kinds of clouds, the white one is common in the realmof earth; the black one is common in the realm of water; the red one is common in the realm of ﬁre; the yellow one is common in the realm of wind.
The clouds rise above the ground into space. Some reach one krośa andstay there. Others reach two, three, and so on up to seven krośas and staythere. Some clouds go up into empty space to the height of one yojana, andso on up to seven yojanas and stay there. Some clouds go up one hundred
yojanas and so on up to seven hundred yojanas and stay there. Some clouds
rise above the ground to the height of one thousand yojanas, and so on up
to seven thousand yojanas. This continues until the end of the world age.
The Chang ahan jing (T.1:136c28) says, “At the beginning of the world
age clouds appear and reach Ābhāsvara Heaven.” (Note: According to scripture, there are many kinds of clouds—sometimes ﬁve-colored and auspicious
clouds appear, at other times red clouds, black clouds, and other kinds ofclouds appear. These cannot be described exhaustively. Details can be foundin such scriptures as the Renwang jing [T. 246].)
9. Thunder
The Qishi jing (T.24:349a1–7) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “Someone following non-Buddhist teachings may come and ask you, ‘Why is there sound in the sky?’ You should
then answer as follows: ‘For three reasons of mutual contact sound appears
in cloudy skies. What are the three? First, the wind realm and the earth
realm come into contact inside the cloud, and for this reason sound occurs.
Second, the wind realm and the water realm come into contact inside thecloud, and for this reason sound occurs. Third, the wind realm and theﬁre realm come into contact inside the cloud, and for this reason soundoccurs. Why is this so? For example, if the branches of a tree rub against
each other ﬁre may be created. The contact [between the earth, wind,
water, and ﬁre realms] described above work in a similar way.’” (Note:
According to scriptures there are many kinds of thunder—sometimes
supernatural beings are said to hit the drum on the thunder chariot. Thus,
popular sayings speak of the “heavenly drum.” Those with many sins and146

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evil deeds are hit [by this drum] and die. Here we see [the working of]karmic retribution.)
10. Lightning
The Qishi jing (T.24:349a15–28) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “Someone following non-Buddhist teachings may come and ask you, ‘Why does electric lightning appear suddenlyin the sky?’ You should then answer as follows: ‘For reasons that will be
described in two parts electric lightning appears in the sky. What are thetwo [reasons]? First, the electricity of lightning in the eastern direction iscalled “no thickness.” The electricity of lightning in the southern direction
is called [“following] the stream.” The electricity of lightning in the western
direction is called “fallen light.” The electricity of lightning in the northern
direction is called “one hundred growing trees.” Second, if the electricity
called “no thickness” that appears in the eastern direction and the electricity
called “fallen light” that appears in the western direction come into contact
with each other, they scrape and hit against each other and for this reason
a bright light appears in the clouds in the sky. This is called electric lightning. Again if the electricity called “following the stream” that appears
in the southern direction and the electricity called “one hundred growing
trees” that appears in the northern direction come into contact with eachother, they scrape and hit against each other and for this reason electric
lightning occurs. This may be compared to the process of the wind blowing
two trees into contact with each other. Suddenly ﬁre appears and spreads
through the two trees.” (Note: According to scripture, sometimes there isﬁrst thunder but no lightning, other times there is lightning but no thunder.
From the contact of electric currents ﬁre results and then thunder may beheard by people and animals.)
11. Rainfall
The Fenbie gonde lun (ref. T.1507:31b1–10) says:
There are three kinds of rain: the rain of the gods, the rain of the dragons(nāgas), and the rain of the asuras. The rain of the gods is ﬁne and misty.
The rain of the dragons is coarse with large raindrops. When the dragons

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are happy the rain is mild and nourishing; when they are angry thunder
and lightning appear. The asuras, who ﬁght with the gods in Indra’s heaven,are also capable of causing rainfall. Their rain is sometimes coarse andsometimes ﬁne. (Note: There are also many other kinds of rain. Sometimes
there are no clouds yet it rains. Sometimes there is ﬁrst a cloud and thenit rains. Sometimes the dragons bring down the rain. Sometimes it rains
independent of the dragons. The karmic conditions of sentient beings
determine this. Details can be found in the scriptures.)12. Irregular Weather
The Qishi jing (T.24:349b1–c14) says:
The Buddha said to the monks, “There are ﬁve conditions that create
obstacles to rainfall. Diviners cannot fathom these and become increasingly
confused. They predict rain yet the rain does not come. What are theseﬁve? First, a cloud rises in the sky and thunder is heard, or lightning may
be seen and a cold wind may begin to blow. These are all signs of approaching rain, and all diviners of weather and astronomers determine that it
will rain at that time. Then the asura king Rāhu comes out of his palace,takes the cloud in his two hands, and throws it into the ocean. This is theﬁrst condition that creates an obstacle to rainfall. Diviners are not awareof this, and yet the rain does not come [despite their predictions].
“Second, a cloud rises in the sky and the sound of thunder is heard in
the cloud; lightning also appears, and the wind brings cold air. Diviners
see these signs and determine that rain will come. Then the power of theﬁre realm increases and burns up the cloud that had appeared. This iscalled the second condition that creates an obstacle to rainfall. Diviners
are not aware of this, and yet the rain does not come in the end [despite
their predictions].
“Third, a cloud rises in the sky and the sound of thunder is also heard
in the cloud; lightning appears as well. In addition, the wind brings incold air. When diviners see these signs, they determine that rain will deﬁnitely fall. But the power of the wind realm increases and blows away thecloud, and it goes into the riverbank in Kaliṅga, or in a desert, or into the148Fascicle 4

riverbank in Molianna. This is called the third condition that creates an
obstacle to rain. Diviners are not aware of this, and yet the rain does notcome in the end [despite their predictions].
“Fourth, because sentient beings are licentious and deﬁle the pure practices, rainfall becomes irregular. Fifth, because the people of Jambudvīpa
do not follow the teaching they are stingy, jealous, and hold the mistaken
opinions of heterodox views, and for this reason rain does not fall.” (Note:
These last two points are described in the original passage in the same
way as the earlier three points. The Chang ahan jing also has a similar
passage.)
The Zengyi ahan jing (T.125:650a9–16) says:

299aThere are four kinds of shadows that cover the sun and moon and prevent
their light from reaching us. What are these four? They are ﬁrst clouds,
second dust in the wind, third smoke, and fourth the asuras. These all cover
the sun and moon and prevent their light from reaching us. Monks also havefour kinds of bondage that cover the human mind and keep them away fromunderstanding—ﬁrst the bondage of desire, second [the bondage of] anger,
third [the bondage of] ignorance, and fourth [the bondage of] materialism.
These all cover the human mind and keep it from understanding.
The Sifen lü (T.1428:619b10–13) also presents a similar list of four—
ﬁrst, licentious desire; second, drinking wine; third, amassing money andvaluable objects; and fourth, [engaging in] wrong kinds of livelihood. Thesefour things also prevent the Buddha’s teaching from being clear.
Thus, verses say:
The ﬁre element causes smoke to rise up.
The cloud element takes the form of towering clouds.
The divine dragon spits out mist.
The rising dust falls on the world of human beings.
Wine is the gate of licentiousness.
Licentiousness is the source of life and death.
Gold and silver give rise to grave illness.
Wrong kinds of livelihood destroy the root of the precepts.

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13. Earthquakes
The Fo banniyuan jing (T.6:182a18–24) says:Ānanda brought his palms together and asked the Buddha, “I would liketo learn about earthquakes.”
The Buddha said to Ānanda, “There are three conditions [for earthquakes]. The ﬁrst is that the earth sits on a body of water, and the waterrests upon the wind, and the wind rests upon the sky. When a great windrises the water is disturbed, and when the water is disturbed the earth
moves. The second is that when a monk who has attained the Way or amysterious god wishes to cause a cosmic response, the earth moves as aconsequence. The third is the power of the Buddha. Before and after
achieving the buddhahood the Buddha moves, and the suns, moons, andheaven and earth all respond. Many among the gods and human and supernatural beings achieved understanding.”
The Da fangdeng daji nianfo sanmei jing (Da fangdeng daji jing pusa
nianfo sanmei fen, T.415:838b16–20) says:
The entire earth shook in six ways: (1) moving everywhere, (2) shaking
everywhere, (3) swelling up everywhere, (4) roaring everywhere, (5)rising up everywhere, and (6) awakening everywhere. Each of these six
ways had three aspects, thus there were eighteen manifestations. In thisway the east swelled up and the west sank; the west swelled up and thesouth sank; the south swelled up and the north sank; the north swelled up
and the south sank; the middle swelled up and periphery sank; the peripheryswelled up and the center sank.
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:173b5–16) says:
The Buddha told Purāṇa, “There is also a great deity whose powers are
known in all the heavens. If this god wishes to make the earth shake thenhe can make the earth shake. Some monks have great supernatural abilities
and powers, and during visualization they can make the size of the earthchange from large to small and from small to large. These monks can also
make the earth shake. There is wind called Vilambā. This wind blows
constantly and upholds the movement of the earth. Sometimes the wind150

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blows upward and sometimes downward. Sometimes the wind blows fromthe side, and sometimes it blows in a balanced way and holds up the earth
as it turns.”
The Zhidu lun (ref. T.1509:117a12–b10) says:
There are four kinds of earthquakes: the ﬁrst kind is caused by ﬁre, the secondby dragons, the third by garuḍas, and the fourth by the gods and the twentyeight lunar stations. Rākṣasas and gods can also cause earthquakes.
The Zengyi ahan jing (ref. T.125:753c12–754a11) says:
The Buddha was at Śrāvastī and said to the monks, “There are eight reasonsfor the quaking of the earth. The earth is sixty-eight thousand yojanas
deep and is held up by water. The water in turn is supported by empty
space. Sometimes the wind in the empty space moves, and the water also
moves. When the water moves the earth shakes. This is the ﬁrst kind ofearthquake. If a monk acquires supernatural powers he can move about
freely and regards the earth as if it were the palm of his own hand. He
can make the earth shake. This is the second kind of earthquake. Again,
the gods who have great supernatural and miraculous powers can makethe earth shake. This is the third kind of earthquake. Again, at the time
when I, as a bodhisattva in Tuṣita Heaven, was about to be born into thisworld the earth shook. This is the fourth kind of earthquake. When I, asa bodhisattva, realized that I was in my mother’s womb the earth shookgreatly. This is the ﬁfth kind of earthquake. When I, as a bodhisattva, realized that ten months had passed and that I was about to come out of mymother’s womb the earth shook greatly. This is the sixth kind of earthquake.
When I, as a bodhisattva, having renounced the householder’s life, sat on
the seat of enlightenment, conquered Māra, and ﬁnally achieved enlightenment the earth shook greatly. This is the seventh kind of earthquake.
When in the future I, as a bodhisattva, enter nirvana without remainder
the earth will shake. This is the eight kind of earthquake.”(Note: Elsewhere the scriptures also talk about many different kinds of earthquakes. Sometimes [it is said that] when the earth quakes holy beings comeinto the world; when mountains quake holy beings who have attained the fourth

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fruit, or arhats, come into the world. Or when buddhas and bodhisattvas are
said to come into the world. Some speak of the shaking of one world-system,other of many world-systems. Sometimes it is said that sentient beings endowedwith little merit can feel the earth quaking and being damaged. Details, in termsof the primary and secondary karmic effects, are described in the scriptures.)
Compiler’s Comment: Below I will summarize brieﬂy the descriptions in
non-Buddhist sources of the ﬁrst differentiation of heaven and earth, yin andyang, and the appearance of forms and their transformations. There are ﬁvelevels of discussion: Original Substance, Primal Simplicity, Primal Commencement, Primal Beginnings, and Primal Material.
According to the Hetu, “The Original Substance has no shape; it is noisy
and active. As it comes to rest, it becomes earth; as it looks down, it becomes
heaven.”
The Litong says, “Heaven and earth are produced by the Original Substance; they are the ancestors of the myriad things.”
The Diwang shiji by Huangfu Shian says, “The Primary Substance, when
it begins to sprout, is called the Primal Commencement.”
The Sanwu liji says:
When heaven and earth have not yet come into being, they are undifferentiated like a chicken’s egg. [The universe] begins in the undifferentiatedstate and becomes differentiated step by step. The planet Jupiter begins
its movement from the neighborhood of the Sheti stars. The Original Substance is then opened up.
The Dixi pu says:
When heaven and earth ﬁrst arise, all is undifferentiated. Then, the heavenly
emperor is born and governs for a period of eight thousand years, withthe virtue of wood as the ruling principle.
The Liezi says:
If that which has shape is born from that which is without shape, thenfrom where are heaven and earth born? (Zhang Qian [Zhan?]’s commentarysays: heaven and earth have no origin from which they emerge; they
emerge spontaneously.) For this reason [it is said that] there was Primal

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Simplicity, Primal Commencement, Primal Beginnings, and Primal Material. These transformed into the One; the One transformed into the Seven;
the Seven transformed into the Nine. The Nine is the ultimate point oftransformation, and on reverting it transforms into the One. The One isthe beginning of the transformation. What is clear and light rises andforms heaven; what is muddy and heavy falls and forms earth. The substance that is harmoniously blended forms human beings. For this reason
heaven and earth contain intelligent essences, while the myriad things areborn by transformation.
The Xici zhuan (“Commentary on the Appended Phrases”) chapter of theBook of Changes, Part I, says:
For this reason in change there is the Great Ultimate, from which the Two
Principles of yin and yang emerge. These Two Principles give rise to theFour Images; the Four Images give rise to the Eight Trigrams. The Eight
Trigrams determine the auspicious and the inauspicious.
The Chunqiu wei, Ganjingfu chapter, says:
The ruler of human beings is equally luminous as the sun and moon, andaccords perfectly with the four seasons. Therefore, heaven is his father,earth his mother, the sun his elder brother, and the moon his elder sister.
(Note: The ruler treats heaven as his father in the ceremony performed atRound Hill; he treats earth as his mother in the sacriﬁce of the Square
Marsh; he treats the sun as his elder brother at the Eastern Suburb; andhe treats the moon as his elder sister at the Western Suburb.)
The Chunqiu wei, Shuotici chapter, says:
The speech of heaven is pervasive. Residing high, it is principle; [residing]below it is the scriptures for people. It is the essence of all yang [phenomena].
Containing all, it is the Great One; differentiated it takes on different names.
For this reason the character of the One is established [to refer to] heaven.
The Chunqiu fanlu says:
There are ﬁve elements in heaven. Heaven is one element. Earth is one
element. Yang is one element. Yin is one element. Soil is one element.

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Human being is one element. Metal is one element. Wood is one element.
Water is one element. Fire is one element. Altogether there are ten elements.
Heaven also has the energy (qi) of delight and anger, as well as the heartof sadness and happiness. Heaven and human beings go side by side, harmonizing with each other in terms of the same categories. Heaven andhuman beings are one. Spring brings life into being because of its energyof delight. Fall kills because of its energy of anger. Summer nourishes
because of its energy of happiness. Winter stores because of its energy ofsorrow. These four are shared by heaven and human beings.
The Erya says:
Qiongcang (“arching blue”) refers to the blue sky. (Note: Li Xun says: In
ancient days people looked up and saw the shape of the sky, rising high inthe middle like an arch. Its color is blue. Therefore, they called it “arching
blue.”) Spring is called cangtian (“blue sky”). (Note: Li Xun says: In spring
myriad things are born. Their color is blue-green. Therefore, spring iscalled “blue sky.”) Summer is called haotian (“thriving sky”). (Note: Li
Xun says: In summer the energy of myriad things is strong and their energy
thrives. Therefore, summer is called “thriving sky.”) Fall is called mintian(“patterned sky”). (Note: Li Xun says: In fall myriad things ripen and show
patterns. Therefore, fall is called “patterned sky.” “Pattern” refers to thenatural pattern given by sky. Guo Jingchun says: The character min means
to take pity. One takes pity on myriad things that decline in fall.) Winteris called shangtian (“higher sky”). (Note: Li Xun says: In winter the energyof yin stays above and myriad things fall over and are stored below. Therefore, winter is called “higher sky.” Guo Jingchun says: “This means thatat this time Nonbeing remains high above and looks down upon the world.”)
The Guangya says:
The sky is round. Its north-south diameter is two hundred million thirtythree thousand ﬁve hundred and seventy-ﬁve bu (“steps”) long. Its eastwest diameter is four bu shorter. Its periphery is six hundred million one
hundred thousand seven hundred and twenty-ﬁve bu long. The distance
between the ground and the sky is one million one thousand six hundred

154

Fascicle 4seventy-eight and one-half li. The thickness of the ground is the same as
the height of the sky.
The Xiaojing says:
There are seven barriers and six intermediate points all around heaven.
The distance between the inner barrier to the middle barrier is altogether
one hundred and nineteen thousand li, each separated by nineteen thousand
eight hundred and thirty-three and one-third li. From the middle barrier tothe outer barrier, each is separated by ﬁfty-nine thousand ﬁve hundred li.
The Luoshu zhenyaodu says:

300a

The circumference of the sky is three hundred and sixty-ﬁve and onequarter degrees. One degree is one thousand nine hundred and thirty-two
li long. The distance between the sky and the ground is one billion seven
hundred million eight thousand ﬁve hundred li.
The Lunheng says:
Each day it proceeds by one degree. One degree is two thousand li. In thecourse of one day’s time it proceeds one thousand li. It moves as fast as
the mythical animal qilin.
The Baihutong says:
The sun moves slowly. The moon moves quickly. While the sun moves
one degree, the moon moves thirteen and seven-nineteenth degrees. The
diameter of the orbit of the sun and the moon is one thousand li.
Furthermore, to measure the course of the sun, there is a distinction between
the inside and the outside. The distance between the extreme northern point
to the extreme southern point is nine hundred and ninety yojanas. The sun
takes one hundred and eighty days to move from the inside to the outside. It
also takes one hundred and eighty days to move from the outside to the inside.
This is called the movement. It is said that the sun travels sixty li each day—the wheel of the sun’s orbit is large and the sun travels slowly in the sky.
Because it travels slowly, it only covers sixty li. For this reason the year has
twelve months. Six months for northward moving; six months for southward
moving. Altogether it travels a course of three hundred and sixty degrees.

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The Baihutong says :How is the waxing and waning of the moon effected by the sun? It takes
three days to form the outline of the moon (chengpo, “without light”); it
takes eight days to ﬁll it with light (chengguang). In sixteen turns, twice
eight, the cycle is completed. As the last day of the month changes to themorning of the ﬁrst, the moon receives the order again and the processrepeats itself.
A month may be longer or shorter. The sky turns leftward; the sun andmoon turn rightward. The sun moves slowly while the moon moves
quickly. The period for the moon to catch up with the sun is called a month.
After twenty-nine days the moon is short by seven degrees, but after thirtydays it is in excess by seven degrees. Days cannot be divided and so theshorter months are formed. This explains the effects of yin and yang.
Why is the intercalary month formed? The sky contains three hundredand sixty-ﬁve and one-quarter degrees. In the course of twelve months
the sun falls short by twelve degrees. Therefore, one intercalary month isinserted in the third year; another is inserted in the ﬁfth year. In thesecases yin is insufﬁcient and yang is in excess. The intercalary month resultsfrom the excess of yang.
Xuzheng’s Changli says:
The diameter of the orbit of the sun and the moon is one thousand li. Its
circumference is three thousand li. The distance from the ground is seventhousand li.
The Shangshu says, “The light of the sun illuminates three hundred andsix thousand li.”
The Dishuoshu says, “The sun and the moon illuminate four hundred andﬁfty thousand li.”
The Liezi says:
Confucius traveled east and saw two children debating with each other.
When he asked why, one child said, “I think that the sun is closer to us
when it ﬁrst rises and is far away in the middle of the day.” The otherchild held that the sun is far away when it ﬁrst rises and is closer in the156

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middle of the day. The ﬁrst child said, “When the sun ﬁrst rises it looks
like a large wheel but in the middle of the day it looks like a small pan.
Does this not mean that when it is far it looks smaller and when it is closer
it looks larger?” The other child said, “When the sun ﬁrst appears the temperature of the air is cold. In the middle of the day it is as hot as boilingwater. Does this not mean that when the sun is close by it is hot and when
it is far away it is cold?” Confucius could not decide. The two children
laughed, saying, “Why do people say that you are wise?”
Huan Tan’s Xinlun says:
When I was young I heard people tell the following story on the street.
Confucius traveled east and saw two children debating with each other.
When he asked why, one child said, “I think that the sun is closer to us
when it ﬁrst rises and is far away in the middle of the day.” The otherchild held that the sun is far away when it ﬁrst rises and is closer in the
middle of the day. The commandant of Changshui, Guan Ziyang, thoughtthat the distance between people and heaven above is far, and the areas[close to the ground] in the four directions are closer. When stars rise in
the east in the evening they are few and scattered; the distances between
them are over one chang. In the middle of the night they are high up in
the sky in great numbers. The distances among them are only one or two
chi. The sun is the heavenly yang. Fire is the earthly yang. The earthly
yang rises above. The heavenly yang comes down. If one lights a ﬁre on
the ground and checks its heat from the sides and from above, regardlessof differing distances the heat above exceeds by half the heat from thesides. When the sun is above [our heads], the heavenly yang is balanced
at its peak point. Therefore, it is hot. When the sun has just risen the heatcomes out of the sun [from the side], and so it is cool. In the west [where
the sun sets behind the trees] the level of the heat is the same [as in themorning]. Yet the air (qi) is different from what it is in the morning.
The Lunheng says:
The sun and moon are not round. They look round because they are at agreat distance from people. The sun is ﬁre essence. On earth water andﬁre are not round. How could only ﬁre in heaven be round? The sun and

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the moon in heaven (i.e., the sky) are like the ﬁve planets. The ﬁve planets,
like other stars in constellations, are not round. Only their light makes
them look round. How do we know this? In the Spring and Autumn period
a meteor fell in the city of Song. It looked like a piece of stone. Stones
are not round. Thus, we know that the sun, moon, and the ﬁve planets are
not round.
The Lunheng says:
Confucian scholars say, “There is a three-legged crow in the sun.” The
sun is ﬁre. If a crow goes into a ﬁre it is burned. How could a crow standin [a ﬁre]? Thus, the crow shares the essence (qi) of the sun.
The Shi wei, Tuiducai chapter, says, “The moon acquires a soul in threedays and light in eight days. When the body of the toad is formed the rabbit( juebi) begins to appear.” (Song Jun’s commentary: juebi means rabbit.)
The Chunqiu wei, Yangong tu chapter, says, “The toad is the essence ofthe moon.”
The Chunqiu wei, Yuanmingbao chapter, says:
The yin essence forms the moon. Each day it moves thirteen degrees. It
always obediently accepts responsibility and receives. (Note: It receives
the yang essence.) Because it receives luminous essence within, metal
and water form its internal illumination.
The Hetu wei, Shikai chapter, says:
The dust of the Yellow Spring goes up to form the blue cloud. The dustof the Red Spring goes up and forms the red cloud. The dust of the White
Spring goes up and forms the white cloud. The dust of the Black Springgoes up and forms the black cloud. (Note: This appears in the Huainan
Zi as well.)

300c

The Hetu wei, Kuadixiang chapter, says, “From Mount Kunlun ﬁve-coloredclouds appear.
The Yijing (Book of Changes), Shuogua chapter, says, “Xun is wind. Nothing is quicker than wind in bending myriad things.”
The Hetu wei, Ditongji chapter, says, “Wind is the messenger of heaven.”

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The Erya says:
The condition in which the four energies (qi) are in harmony is considered
to be pervasively correct. This is called jingfeng (“auspicious wind”). (Note:
Li Xun says “auspicious wind” is the Wind of Grand Peace.) The southernwind is called kaifeng (“happy wind”). The eastern wind is called gufeng(“valley wind”). The northern wind is called liangfeng (“cool wind”). The
western wind is called taifeng (“great wind”). The fenlun (“burning wheel”)[wind] is said to be tui, “collapsing.” (Guo Pu’s commentary says that thewind is from above to below.) The fuyao (“whirlwind”) is said to be yan(“ﬂamelike”). (Note: From below to above.) When wind is combined withﬁre it is called tun (“disturbance”). (Note: “Disturbance” here describes
how it ﬂares up.) The turning wind is called piaofeng (“tornado”). The
wind that blows when the sun comes out is called baofeng (“violent wind”).
The wind that blows bits of soil is called mai (“dust wind”). The wind thatblows in cloudy weather is called yi (“cloudy wind”).
The Yi wei, Jilantu chapter, says, “Falling yang is wind. The movementof falling yang does not cause tree branches to make sounds.”
The Yijing, Shuogua chapter, says, “Zhen is lei (“thunder”). Nothing isgreater than lei in moving myriad things.”
The Hetu wei, Ditongji chapter, says, “Thunder (lei) is the drum of heavenand earth.”
The Zuo zhuan says:
If one stores ice at the proper time, then when thunder (lei) occurs it shakes(zhen). If one abandons the ice and does not use it, then even when thunder
does not occur, it shakes.
The Chunqiu wei, Yuanmingbao chapter, says, “When yin and yang cometogether thunder (lei) is formed.”
The Shi guang zhan says:
In the spring thunder (lei) begins to occur. It makes the sound bobo gege. A
thunderbolt (pili) is male thunder (lei); it is formed by the essence (qi) of
drought. It makes a noise like the sound of the word. The sound is not loud.
A thunderbolt (pili) is female thunder; it is formed by the essence of water.

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The Shi guang zhan says:
In the vernal equinox, if rain is accompanied by thunder (lei), its soundis like that of thunder but it is not really thunder. The sound comes frombelow the ground. Soldiers appear from below the residence. If there isno cloud in the sky and yet it thunders, it is called the movement of acomet (tiankou). Inauspicious things will happen in the kingdom within
three years.

301a

The Hetu wei, Shikai chapter, says, “Intensiﬁed yang is thunder (lei).”
The Yi wei, Jilantu chapter, says, “When yin and yang are combined, thelightning (dian) is bright and its light lasts long.”
The Chunqiu wei, Yuanmingbao chapter, says, “When yin and yang strikeagainst each other, there is lightning (dian).”
The “Heavenly Ofﬁces” chapter of the Book of History (Shiji) says, “Lightning (dian) is the movement of yin and yang.”
The Geliang zhuan says, “Duke Yin said, ‘Ting (“thunderbolt”) is a kindof lei (“thunder”).’” (Note: This refers to an excessive one. Today these arecalled by another name for thunderbolt.)
The Erya says, “Quick thunder is called tingni (“thunderbolt”).” (GuoPu’s commentary says that intensiﬁed thunder is called pili.)
The Shuowen says, “Zhen (“quake”) means thunderbolt (pili); it shakes
things.”The Shiming says, “Pili means to break. Zhen means to ﬁght (zhan). It
destroys whatever it attacks, as if in battle.”
The Yiyuan says:
When the monk Huiyuan (334–416) was meditating on Mount Lu, traveling dragons ﬂew in front of him. Master Yuan, angered, threw a stone
at a dragon and hit it. The dragon then ﬂew up high. Then a sudden windstorm occurred. The master realized that this was caused by the dragon.
He climbed up the mountain, burned incense, gathered the monks, andthey recited verses together. Thereupon, a thunderbolt circled around thestone thrown at the dragon. The cloud and rain then disappeared.
The Yiyuan says:

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The Qifu group had a hostage who was brutal. He held a thunderbolt in
his palm, and released it outside his body. Four characters written on hisback marked his offense. Early in the history of the kingdom Shiqu abandoned him.
[Concluding] verses say:
The sun and moon have long been hung in their places.
The stars in the sky are constantly bright.
Like gold during the day and at night like jade.
How could they compare with total darkness?
When they appear there is bright light.
When they disappear, [we know that] they will return.
Waxing and waning, hiding and reappearing,
From the last day of the month to the ﬁrst day of the next, they movein accordance with the measurements of astronomical instruments.
Stars are lined up according to their ranks.
Fortunes and longevity are controlled by mysterious powers.
Sages establish all these.
According to karmic causes good things increase.
Cloud and dragon meet,
Going up and down, then separating from each other.
Thunder and lightning strike,And cold and hot weather appears according to its proper time.

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Chapter Four
The Six Realmsof Rebirth(Note: The six realms of rebirth are discussed in the following six parts:) (1)The Gods (The Heavens), (2) Human Beings, (3) Demons (Asuras), (4) Ghosts
and Spirits, (5) Animals, and (6) The Hells.

1. The Gods
(The Heavens)(Note: This contains four parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Explanation of theName, (3) Suffering, and (4) Decrease of Karmic Effects [That Cause Rebirthin This Realm].
1. Introduction
To discuss the gods’ rebirths, we know that they are rich and colorful.
Their clothing and possessions are luminously fresh and their bodies are lightand skillful. Yet even in the sixth and highest heaven among the heavens of
the realm of desire there is King Māra. [The superior] Heaven of No-thought(Āsaṃjñika) is still a state that non-Buddhist teachings [mistakenly] claimed[as nirvana]. At the height of the four heavens of emptiness in the formless
realm, attachment to evil views is not slight. In the midst of the six heavensof the realm of desire, delusions are particularly heavy. When one fails to
uphold the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra and to serve the Nirvana Sutra, arrogance grows and attachment to the [the delusions of] self and others becomesincreasingly powerful. Consequently, [eventually] the ﬂowers worn by thegods on their heads wilt, and the sweat from their armpits dampens the edgesof their clothes. The light shining around the palace fades and the clothes ofthe deities made of diaphanous material gather dirt.
Because of their pure minds beings repent and wash away all sins, andthey are variously born as gods in the heavenly realms: the six heavens of

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the realm of desire, i.e., the heaven of the four rulers, the Heaven of theThirty-three Gods, Tuṣita Heaven, the realm of Yama, the Heaven of Selfproduced Pleasures, the Heaven of Pleasures Produced by Others; the heavensof the realm of form, i.e., Brahmā, Brahmapurohita, Ābhāsvara, Śubhakṛtsna,Bṛhatphala, Anāgāmi[phala], Abṛha, Atapa, Sudarśana, and Sudṛśa; the fourheavens of the formless realm, i.e., the heavens of Empty Space, of Inﬁnite
Consciousness, of Nothingness, and of Neither Thought Nor No-thought. In
this way they occupy all possible space horizontally and vertically reach tothe summit of the heavens.
Sometimes the gods sit upright on ﬂower seats. Activated, their movement
lasts over many world ages. When they meditate in a jade palace, they ﬁx
their gaze on one place and do not move from it for a thousand years. Let
the clothing given to them spontaneously never leave their bodies. [Let them
forever] roam around Indra’s palace, called the Hall of Good Conduct. [Letthem] remain above the suffering of birth and death (separation), remain freeof the troubles of warfare, reject receiving the ﬁve signs of decline for a longtime, and remain richly blessed with the seven jewels forever. Let their physical bodies be handsome and awe-inspiring, their appearance blindingly luminous. Having left behind the causes of suffering for long, let them rise inpurity to receive the fruits of happiness.
2. Explanation of the Name
Question: What is meant by the six realms of rebirth (liuqu)?
Answer: According to the Pitan lun (ref. Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:922a5),qu (“realm of rebirth”) means “to arrive at.” It also means “way.” The pointis that good or evil causes are the “way” to “arrive” at places of rebirth; forthis reason these realms are called qu. Also people arrive at different placesof rebirth according to the karma that they themselves have produced; forthis reason these places are called qu. To name the point of arrival implies
a sense of direction. In other words, the karma that people produce directs
them toward such realms as heaven and hell.
Question: Are there only these six realms? Certainly there are other realms,
isn’t it so?
Answer: Each school is consistent [in its discourse] about the number ofrealms. The Loutan jing (T. 23) speaks of the sentient beings of the nine

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realms of existence, listing the realm of the bodhisattvas, that of pratyekabuddhas, and that of śrāvakas (hearers) in addition to the six realms of rebirth
mentioned earlier. This is because ordinary beings and those holy beings live
together, so that the former might beneﬁt from the latter’s inﬂuence.
According to the terminological explanation in the Posha lun (T.1546:49b6),
heaven is so called because it is ﬁlled with shining light. The word “heaven”(tian) has a similar sound and meaning and is related to the word “peak” (dian),
which means “above.” Heaven is the only existent thing among myriad things
that are located in the sky above. That is why it is called the “peak.” Heaven
also means “manifest” (xian). “Manifest” implies that it is lofty and visible
from everywhere. Among the myriad things only heaven is located high above,making everything clearly visible. For this reason it is called “manifest.”
Question: Why is the realm of heaven called by that name?
Answer: That realm is the most excellent, the happiest, the best, the subtlest,
and the highest among all the realms. That is why it is called the realm ofheaven. According to one source, it is only after producing extraordinarily
good conduct, speech, and thought that people are led there, born there, andcontinue to remain there; for this reason it is called the realm of heaven. According to another source, that realm is called heaven because of the increase oflight there. In that realm light shines spontaneously day and night. Grammarians
say that it is called heaven because there is the capacity for illumination there;with this capacity superior consequences are manifested and the karmic causesof previous lives are thoroughly illumined there. There is also an explanationthat the realm is called heaven because beings there enjoy the pleasures ofplay. They are constantly playing and experiencing wonderful delights there.
Question: What do the gods look like?
Answer: They stand erect.
Question: What language do they speak?
Answer: They all speak Sanskrit.
According to the Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:198a5–6):
Gods are called devas; because they have performed good deeds they areborn in that realm of existence; that is why they are called devas.
To brieﬂy discuss features of the retribution bodies of gods, there are
no bones and ﬂesh in their bodies, nor do they do such impure things as

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urinating or excreting. Their bodies shine brightly both day and night.
Because of their karmic retribution, they are endowed with the ﬁve supernatural powers, and their physical bodies are free from all obstructions.
Therefore, the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:380c27–29), explaining the matter
through metaphor, says:
Suppose someone were to light ﬁve hundred lamps in one room; the lightof each of these lamps does not overpower the light of any of the otherlamps. Similarly, ﬁve hundred gods may be easily placed in the hand of
one god, and the gods would not crowd or obstruct each other.
The same scripture also says (ref. T.721:348b3):
Sometimes one hundred and sometimes one thousand Yama gods sit
together on a single ﬁlament of a lotus ﬂower; because of the good consequences of their good deeds in previous lives they do not obstruct orcrowd each other.
According to the Dazhidu lun (T.1509:710b23–24), “In Bianjing (Śubhakṛtsna) Heaven, the third heaven of the realm of form, sixty gods can sit on
the tip of a pin and listen to the Dharma without obstructing each other.”
Again, the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:343c1–10) says:
At that time the King of Yama deity spoke in verse to the other deities:
If a person contemplates the Buddha in his mind,
He is called someone who lives his life well.
Because he does not neglect contemplating the Buddha,
His life is called a life that matters among many lives.
If a person contemplates the Dharma,
He is called someone who lives his life well.
Because he does not neglect contemplating the Dharma,
His life is called a life that matters among many lives.
If a person contemplates the Sangha (monastic community),
He is called someone who lives his life well.
Because he does not neglect contemplating the monastic community,
His life is called a life that matters among many lives.

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Again, according to the same scripture (T.721:347c1–6), there were threegreat beings in Yama Heaven who constantly preached the Dharma for thesake of undisciplined and indulgent gods. Who were these three? First was
the king of the Yama gods, Mouxiuluntuo Bodhisattva; second one was Goose
King Bodhisattva; and third was Peacock King Bodhisattva, who was variously
decorated. These three great beings constantly preached the Dharma for the
beneﬁt of others, sometimes succeeding in causing some of them to attain thelevel of the śrāvaka’s enlightenment, and sometimes succeeding in causing
some of them attain the level of the pratyekabuddha’s enlightenment.
3. Suffering
I will now describe how the scriptures detail suffering in the realm of heaven
as well as the suffering of the luminous realms of form and the formless realm.
Even though these higher realms are superior there is nevertheless some subtle
pain there. Therefore, according to the Chengshi lun (T.1646:285b10–14):
In the above two realms (i.e., the realm of form and the formless realm)
there are no crude forms of suffering but there are still subtle forms of suffering. How do we know this? We speak of the four positions of walking,standing, sitting, and lying down in discussing the four meditative states.
In each of these four positions there is also suffering. Furthermore, in therealm of form there are the [three] consciousnesses of the eyes, ears, andbody. Perception in each of these consciousnesses is labeled as either pleasureor suffering. When in one of the four modes of conduct (walking, standing,sitting, and lying), we seek to change to another. From the fact that we seek
to change [our position] we can infer the existence of suffering.
Furthermore, due to a lack of understanding people form attachments thatare followed by karmic consequences. When they make this mistake great
suffering results. As said in the scripture, when life is about to end only those
who have attained the Way show no sign of despair and suffering. How can
the ordinary beings we are discussing here be free of despair and suffering?
The expression “free from suffering” is used in the treatise because suffering
is very subtle. Just as when there is very little salt in our food we say it is“free of salt,” [though there are still trace amounts of salt in it]. The expression[“free of suffering”] does not mean that there is only pleasure and no suffering

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at all in heaven. In the life of pleasure in the realm above beings are in a stateof silent quietude, free from attachment, and they are incapable of giving riseto crude forms of greed and anger. Therefore, they are said to be free from suffering and pleasure. Furthermore, it is said that there is no suffering in heaven
because there are no instruments of punishment such as swords and sticks
there. It is not that there are no subtle forms of suffering in heaven.
Therefore, according to the Niepan jing (T.374:552c29–553a4; T.375:798c17–21):
Even in the most supremely pure and clean garden, if one were to placea corpse inside it the garden becomes impure and people will abandon it
and not be attached to it. Similarly, in the heavens of the realm of form,
even though that realm is pure, because beings have bodies the buddhas
and bodhisattvas all abandon them. Those who do not contemplate thematter in this way are not engaged in the cultivation of the body.
From this statement we know that suffering exists in the heavens.
According to the Fajubiyu jing (T.211:596a13–25):
Four monks were sitting under a tree and asked each other, “What is thegreatest suffering in the world?” One of them said, “Sexual desire is thegreatest suffering.” Another said, “Hunger and thirst are the greatest suffering.” The third said, “Anger is the greatest suffering.” The fourth said,“Fear is the greatest suffering.” They debated the meaning of suffering
endlessly. The Buddha knew what they were saying and going to the place
where the monks were he asked, “What have you been debating about?”
The monks paid respect to the Buddha and explained what they weredebating in detail.
The Buddha said, “Monks, your discussion has not penetrated to thebottom of the meaning of suffering. The greatest suffering in the worldis having a body. Hunger and thirst, cold and heat, anger, fear, and thevice of sexual desire are all based on the body. The body is the source ofall suffering; it is the source of all trouble. Human beings are worried andanxious about everything, crawling around in the three realms like worms,
and yet we cruelly harm each other. We are attached and bound to theidea of self and ceaselessly go through [cycles of] lives and deaths. All

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suffering you must seek absolute quietude. By controlling your mind correctly and becoming quietly freed from all thought, you can attain nirvana.
This is the greatest pleasure.
From this quotation we know that beings who have not attained the holyknowledge (i.e., the Dharma) and who have not destroyed their bodies thatbelong to the three realms cannot be free from suffering.
Question: In the realm of form beings have bodies and thus can receive
suffering. If they do not have forms and shapes [in the formless realm], inwhat forms are beings born that they receive suffering?
Answer: This kind of retribution is very subtle and minute, to the pointof being invisible. Though they are free from crude obstructions they are notwithout subtle forms. This issue is discussed extensively in another chapter.
According to the Zhidu lun (T.1509:232b20–21):
When beings die or withdraw from the above two realms (i.e., the realmof form and the formless realm), they are greatly distressed; in the lower
realm it is as if they have fallen from the highest place and have been broken into pieces.
According to the Zhengshi lun (T.1646:285b3–4):
Suffering and pleasure accompany a body through the four stages in therealm of form. Despair and joy accompany the mind to the summit of all
the heavens.
Question: Those who are reborn in the heavens have rejected evil deeds
and accumulated good deeds. Why then are they reborn in the three evil
realms of the hells, hungry ghosts, and animals if their karmic retribution
has been exhausted?
Answer: From the very beginning of time sentient beings have committed
an inﬁnite number of evil deeds. If they have been greedy and angry [even]for one day they receive rebirths in a thousand different forms. So, since they
have committed many evil deeds, they are reborn even more times. The
karmic effects [of a given birth] disappear after a limited period of time andfurther rebirths follow. When the karmic retribution for their good deeds is

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exhausted, the seeds of the evil deeds they committed earlier mature, and they
are reborn again in the three evil realms. There is nothing puzzling about this.
Therefore, according to the Chengshi lun (T.1646:297a22–24):
Suppose someone who is in the realm of form or the formless realm has
claimed that that existence is nirvana; when his life ends he remains in
the intermediate state of existence in the realms of form or desire, andfalls into a heterodox view, saying that there is no nirvana. He then reviles
the supreme Dharma. From this we learn that evil deeds exist in the [heavens of] the realms of form and desire.
Furthermore, according to the Zhidu lun (T.1509:175b27–28), “Those who
die in the Heaven of Neither Thought Nor No-thought fall into Avīci Hell.”
From this we learn that all realms of rebirth in the three realms are ﬁlledwith suffering.
Third, let us clarify suffering in the heavens of the realm of desire. Whenbeings engage in battles in those heavens, they harm one another and boththeir bodies and minds suffer. If their limbs are cut off they grow back again.
When they are severed in two at their necks or torsos, they then experience
the suffering of death.
According to the Pitan (Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:894c22–25):
All gods living in the heavens of the realm of desire commit deeds thatbelong to each of the ten categories of evil deeds, variously in opposition
to the rules of discipline. Even though gods do not harm other gods, theyharm the beings in other realms of existence. Sometimes they cut off theirhands or legs but the beings are then reborn. If they cut off the heads ofthese beings they die. The beings attack each other, one after another.
Starting from these extreme cases, evil deeds that fall into all the othercategories of evil deeds are all present in the heavens.
Furthermore, when the effects of their merits are about to be exhausted,
the ﬁve signs of decline appear and the gods become greatly distressed.
According to the Niepan jing (T.374:585c25–27; T.375:833b28–c1):
Although in the heavens there is nothing that causes major suffering andthe bodies of the gods are soft and smooth, when they see the ﬁve signs

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Fascicle 5[of decline] they suffer greatly in a manner that is no different from thesuffering of the beings in the hells and other evil realms.
Thus, birth in heaven is like honey mixed with poison—it tastes good at
ﬁrst but causes suffering later.
According to a verse in the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:131b11–c3):
If honey is mixed with poison it cannot be eaten.
The pleasures in the heavens are like that; when beings leave, they
suffer greatly.
When their karmic effects have been exhausted they become despondentand distressed.
As they abandon the heavenly maidens,
Their moment of departing from the heavens is full of great suffering.
Such suffering is beyond comparison.
The time when the karmic effects of good deeds are about to be exhausted
Is like the moment when a candle ﬂame goes out.
They do not know in which realms they will be reborn.
Great suffering arises in their hearts.
When they are about to leave the heavens,
Great suffering arises in their hearts.
Various kinds of suffering and pain in the hells—
Sixteen of these is still less than this one kind of suffering [that theyexperience in heaven].
All circles of ﬂame
Result from the power of loving attachment.
Loving attachment chains and binds sentient beings.
[From the heavens] to various evil realms of existence—
The three realms are like a turning wheel.
Bound by the effects of karma, the wheel turns ceaselessly.
For this reason if a being abandons love and desire,Through rejecting desire, he can attain nirvana.
Again, according to the Niepan jing (T.374:589b14–18; T.375:837a24–27):
Even if beings receive the bodies of gods such as [those] in Brahmā Heaven
and the gods of the Heaven of Neither Thought Nor No-thought, when

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their lifetime as a god is over they again fall into the three evil realms ofexistence. Even if beings receive the bodies of gods such as the four heavenly kings and the Heaven Where Gods Freely Enjoy Pleasures Produced
by Others (Paranirmitavaśavartin), when their lifetime as a god is overthey go to the realm of animals where some are born as lions, and others
as tigers, buffaloes, hyenas, wolves, elephants, horses, oxen, and donkeys.
From this passage, we learn that when the karmic effects that led to theirbirth as gods are exhausted, these gods suffer greatly. Now that we know
about these difﬁculties we should confess our sins openly and sincerely, listingthem item by item, and expiate them through ritual repentance.
If someone has committed a sin but its karmic consequences have been
exhausted, and if that person later performs good deeds, he [or she] may bereborn in heaven. Yet, they are still subtly affected by the inﬂuences of theirearlier sin.
According to the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:182b16–26):
If a god committed the sin of stealing in his previous life, at the time
[when the ﬁve signs of decline appears] he sees with his own eyes theheavenly maidens taking the jewelry that he himself is wearing and offering
the jewels to other gods. If a god committed the sin of lying in his previous
life, when the heavenly maidens hear what that god says they misunderstand him as expressing a wrong view and utter abusive words to him. If
a god offered wine to someone who was upholding the precepts, or violated
the precept and drank wine himself, or produced wine, then when he isabout to die his mind becomes confused and, unable to concentrate on
correct thought, he falls into hell. If a god committed the sin of killing
living beings in his previous life, the life span of this god is shortened
and his life in heaven ends quickly. If a god committed the sin of sexual
licentiousness in his previous life, all the heavenly maidens abandon him
and sport with the other gods with delight. These are called the ﬁve signsof decline. Because the gods were negligent in upholding the ﬁve precepts,
they are bound by the effects of karma and suffer from these retributions.
Again, according to the same source (T.721:180c17–181a1):
The god Indra again contemplated the fruits of karma. On the wall of the172Fascicle 5

temple he saw the eighteen sections of Screaming Hell. Those who commit
the sins of killing living beings, stealing, sexual licentiousness, and lying
fall into this hell and suffer in various ways. When they come out of hell
they are reborn as hungry ghosts and live very long lives in this form.
When they die in the realm of hungry ghosts they are reborn as animals
and harm each other cruelly. When they die in the realm of animals they
are reborn as human beings. Their bodies are emaciated and they lack any
authority and power. If they are suffering from the effects of other sins,even if they are reborn as gods the size of their body and their very appearance are inferior, and the jewelry that decorates their bodies and their halo
are unimpressive. They are not loved by the heavenly maidens. The heavenly maidens turn against them, abandon them, and go to the other deities.
These humble deities possess little wisdom and their minds are not uprightand honest. They are laughed at by the other gods. When the gods andasuras ﬁght, they are killed by the asuras. All this is because of the effectsof the other sins that these beings had committed.

4. Decrease of Karmic Effects [That Cause Rebirth in This Realm]
According to the new translation of the Posha lun (T.1545:364c21–22;
365a21–b14):
When the life of a god in the heavens is about to end, two types of the
ﬁve signs of decline appear; the ﬁrst is called minor signs and the second
is called major. What are the minor ﬁve signs of decline?
1. When the gods move around everywhere, coming and going, ﬁve
kinds of beautiful music are heard from the jewels that decorate their bodies.
The music is more beautiful than that performed by professional musicians.
When a god reaches the stage nearing the end of his life this sound stops.
According to one view, an uncontrollable sound is also heard.
2. The halo around the gods is blindingly bright and shines day andnight. Their body has no shadow. When their life is about to end the lightbecomes dim. According to one view, when a god ﬁnally dies his shadow
appears immediately.
3. The skin of the gods is ﬁne and smooth. After they have bathed in
the fragrant ponds and come out of the water it does not cling to their

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bodies and their skin is dry. Their skin is like the ﬂower and leaves of alotus. When a god reaches the stage nearing the end of his life water clings
to his body.
4. The world perceived by the gods is extraordinarily marvelous andbeyond the limits of ordinary sense organs. It turns like a wheel of ﬁreand does not remain still even for short periods of time. When a god
reaches the stage nearing the end of his life he becomes ﬁxated on one
object of perception, and even after a long time he cannot get rid of it.
5. The gods are endowed with great physical power and they do notblink their eyes. When a god reaches the stage nearing the end of his life
his physical strength weakens and he blinks many times.
What are the major ﬁve signs of decline? (1) A god’s clothing, which
was previously clean, becomes soiled. (2). The crown of ﬂowers [wornby a god], which was previously blooming, now withers. (3) Suddenly
sweat ﬂows from the god’s armpits. (4) An unpleasant smell suddenly
comes from the god’s body. (5) The god cannot remain seated comfortably
in his own seat.
The situation can be changed even after the ﬁrst of these two sets ofﬁve signs of decline has appeared. When the ﬁve kinds of minor signs of
decline appeared the god Indra thought that the ﬁve kinds of major signsof decline were about to appear, and he became frightened. He entertained
the following thought: “If anyone can save me from this decline andcalamity, I will later take refuge in him.” Then he realized that none otherthan the Buddha, the World-honored One, could protect him from [theﬁve major signs of decline]. He went to the place where the Buddha wasstaying and asked him to show compassion and save him. The Buddha
preached for him and when [Indra] gained insight into the truth all of thesigns of decline disappeared at once. The god jumped up, dancing in joy
and delight before the Buddha, uttered many loving words, and uttered
the following verse:
The Great Sage should know
That sitting in this seat
I regained the life span of a god.
I only wish to honor and remember you.

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According to the Shefu luohan jing (ref. T.206:521c26–b11):
Once there lived a god in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods. When hislife as a god was about to end seven kinds of signs appeared: (1) The lighton his neck disappeared, (2) the ﬂowers in his headdress withered, (3) thecolor of his face changed, (4) dust gathered on his clothes, (5) sweat cameout of his armpits, (6) his body became thin, and (7) he left his own seat[due to discomfort]. Then he thought to himself, “After my life here isended I will be reborn in a lower realm as a pig in the womb of a scabrous
sow in the kingdom of Kuśinagara.” He was greatly distressed but did
not know what he could do [about this fate]. The other gods said, “The
Buddha is here now, preaching for the multitude. Only the Buddha canhelp you escape from your plight caused by your previous sins.” The god
immediately went to the Buddha and greeted him respectfully, bowing totouch his forehead to the Buddha’s feet. Before he had a chance to ask aquestion, the Buddha knew what he had in mind and said, “You certainly
know that all things are ultimately transient. Why do you become distressed
about such matters as obtaining or leaving the body of a pig? Recite theThree Refuges regularly.” Thus, the god recited the Three Refuges threetimes every day. After seven days the god’s life as a pig ended and he wasreborn as a son of an elder in the kingdom of Vaiśālī. While he was stillin his mother’s womb the god recited the Three Refuges three times daily.
As soon as he was born and his feet touched the ground, he kneeled andtook refuge in the Three Jewels of his own accord. When his mother gavebirth to him there was no afterbirth. The maidservants who were attending
the birth were all frightened and ran away. The mother was also puzzled,
saying that the baby was a delusion caused by the deity of Mars, and she
was about to kill it. The father realized, however, that the baby was an
extraordinarily noble person, and ordered that he be brought up withgreat care. When he was almost seven years old he was playing at theroadside with some friends, and happened to see Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana approach. The child went forward and paid respect to them.
The holy ones were surprised, so the child explained in detail his experience with the Buddha in heaven. This child invited the Buddha to cometo his house and the Buddha preached for him. The child, his parents,

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and all the members of his extended family attained the rank of avaivartya,which means “free from retrogression.” (Note: According to the scriptures
there are many different kinds of gods. Details were given in the thirtytwo parts in the section on the three realms [282b–292c]. In the present
context, in the discussion of the six realms of existence, I discussed thesubject brieﬂy in six parts.)

Miracle Stories(Six stories are cited brieﬂy:) From the Jin dynasty (265–419), Layman Shi
Shiguang and the monks Shi Huiwei and Shi Xianhu; from the Song dynasty(420–479), two women with the surname Lun; from the [Northern] Wei and
Wei dynasties (386–534), the monk Shi Tanluan and Layman Chuan Xianchao; from the Liang dynasty (502–557), the monk Shi Huishao.
Introduction to the Miracle Stories
Evil karmic consequences are momentous, and they easily mislead people’s
minds as they proceed on their paths; the powers of myriad good deeds areminiscule and it is difﬁcult for them to evoke a response from spiritual reality.
Wicked thoughts occur frequently; we often hear about immoral situations.
The right Dharma is seldom encountered, the teaching declines, and the Way
is lost. For this reason, if we fail to pursue the truth even for one moment,
then we are separated from it for a period of ten thousand world ages; if weare distanced from it even for one split-second, we are kept apart from it fora long period of one thousand reigns. Indeed, because those who have faith
in the right Dharma and those who damage it are constantly in competition,and good and evil people are in conﬂict with each other, ignorant and deluded
people easily become shallow admirers of the heterodox teachings and those
who follow the pure and correct teaching frequently encounter unjust persecutions. For this reason, after more than six hundred years have passed
since the Dharma entered China, [Buddhism] has been persecuted three times.
Disasters followed one after another and calamities reached our own times.
The occurrences of such events are signs of cosmic responses and retributions
for our moral conduct.
Thus, the Prince of Jian’an had a miraculous dream and was cured of his illness. Miraculous spirits appeared to Wenxuan (Xiao Ziliang, Prince of Jingling)176

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and his illness was cured. When the king of Wu surrounded a temple a lightappeared ﬂoating above the relic. When a Qi ruler was about to execute punishment the blade of his sword suddenly broke into pieces. When the rulerof the Yuwen family (Northern Zhou) persecuted Buddhism boils erupted
on his body. When the Toba ruler (Northern Wei) abolished Buddhist temples
pus ﬂowed from his abscesses. Sun Hao urinated on an image of the Buddha
and his penis ached. Helian (Xia) was wicked and was killed by lightning.
Matters concerning good or evil deeds, fortunes and misfortunes, andother auspicious signs are recorded extensively in such works as the Xuanyan,
the Mingxiang, the Baoying, the Gantong, the Yuanhun, the Youming, theSaoshen, the Jingyi, the Fayuan, the Hongming, the Jinglu yixiang, the Sanbao
zhengying, the Shengji guixin, the Xiguoxing zhuan, the Mingseng, theGaoseng, and the Mingbao shiyi. There are hundreds of fascicles of suchworks and they cannot be listed here in detail. In these works the facts arerecorded in the scriptural style and highlighted more clearly than the sun andmoon in the sky, so that everyone can see them clearly. If anyone doubts thetruth of retribution, the consequence is that he will end up in delusion. Therefore, a scripture says, “If a person performs a good deed, good reward follows;
if he performs an evil deed, an evil retribution follows.” The Book of Changes(Kun section, Wenyan) says, “A house that heaps good upon good is sure tohave an abundance of blessings. A house that heaps evil upon evil is sure tohave an abundance of ills.”
Truly we know that [rewards and] retributions for good and evil deeds
follow like shadows and echoes; pain and pleasure appear one after another.
I have examined over four thousand stories, and selected stories of miraculous
occurrences that I have appended at the end of each chapter. Unless proofs
are cited, it is difﬁcult to remove a difﬁcult disease. As for other pieces ofevidence not included here, it is my wish that someone will supplement these
sections with them.
Jin Dynasty
Layman Shi Shiguang was a man of Xiangyang. In the eighth year of the
Xianghe period (333–334) he died in Wuchang. Seven days later, the monk
Zhi Fashan was reciting the shorter version of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra
when he became tired and laid down for a while. He heard a human voicein the spirit altar. There was a maidservant in the Shi household, whose name

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was Zhangxin. She saw Shiguan sitting on the spirit altar, dressed in exactly
the same way as he had always dressed. Shiguang said to Zhangxin, “I was
originally destined to be reborn in the realm of dragons but Master Zhi reciteda scripture for me, and Tanhu and Tanjian welcomed me to the pleasurable
location of the seventh heaven of the god Brahmā. Tanhu and Tanjian wereboth novice monks of Zhi Fashan, and they had passed away.”
Later, Zhi Fashan was again invited to the household to recite the longer
version of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra. Shiguang again came to the spirit
altar. While he was still alive Shiguang had donated two banners, and thebanners were still at the temple. He called out to [the maidservant] Zhangxin
and asked, “Send those banners to me.” As soon as Zhangxin replied “Certainly,” she immediately died. When Zhangxin brought the banners, theyboth ﬂew together in the northwestern direction, ascending a dark green
mountain, the color of a vaiḍūrya jewel. When they reached the top they
could see the Gate of Heaven at a distance. Shiguang then held up the banners
himself and let Zhangxin return. He gave her a piece of dark green incensethat looked like a pea, saying “Present this to Master Zhi Fashan.” Before
Zhangxin had completed her return trip she saw from a distance Shiguang
entering the Gate of Heaven. Zhangxin continued on her journey and arrived
back home and suddenly she was revived. She no longer had the incense in
her hand. The banner was still at the temple.
When Shiguang and Zhangxin had left the house together, a six-year-old
boy in the household pointed his ﬁnger and said to his grandmother, “Father
is ﬂying in the sky. Grandma, can you see him?” Later, Shiguang returnedto the house accompanied by more than ten heavenly beings. After roaming
around the house for a while, they departed. Every time he came back hewas wearing a hairpin and a head cover, but when he left his head was bare.
Zhangxin asked him about this, and he answered, “In heaven there is a crownbut I do not wear it here.” Later he appeared wearing the heavenly crown,
accompanied by a group of heavenly beings who were playing drums andzithers and singing. Quickly he went to his mother. Zhangxin asked him,
“Why do you come so frequently?” Shiguang said, “I come to let you people
learn about moral retribution. I also wish to entertain my mother.”
The sound of the zither was pure and beautiful, entirely unlike worldly
music. Everyone in the household, both young and old, could hear it. However,178

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their voices seemed mufﬂed as if they were being heard over a wall. People
could not distnguish them. Only Zhangxin could understand their speech
clearly. After a while they left. Zhangxin went to send them off and she saw
Shiguang enter a black gate. After a while he came out and said to her, “My
father-in-law is receiving the punishment of whipping today. It will be
extremely painful and unbearable. I took a glance and came back. He had
been found guilty of the crime of murder. Therefore, he is receiving this retribution. Tell my sister-in- law that if she gets a monk to recite a scripture[my father-in-law] will be able to escape this punishment.” The father-inlaw had been the General of Light Chariot. The punishment caused by retribution then ceased. (Note: This story comes from the Mingxiang ji.)
The origin of the monk Shi Huiwei of Chang’an is unknown. He stayed ata great temple in Chang’an and upheld the precepts, maintaining remarkablepurity. Frequently he went up into the mountains and down into the valleys
to cultivate the practice of meditation. A headless ghost approached him but
Huiwei did not show any sign of surprise or fear on his face. He said to theghost, “You have no head. That means that you never have a headache. How
wonderful!” The ghost disappeared, and then reappeared as a ghost withouta torso; he only had arms and legs. Huiwei again said, “You have no torso.
That means that you never have troubles with any of the ﬁve organs. How
pleasurable!” Immediately, the ghost again changed his appearance. Huiwen
sent him away every time, speaking to him in the same [calm and friendly]
manner. A long while later, it became very cold and started snowing. A woman
came to ask him to let her stay overnight at the place where he was practicing.
Her appearance was attractive and she was wearing a brightly colored dress.
She conducted herself in a pleasing and elegant fashion, saying that she wasa heavenly maiden. She said, “Because you are virtuous the gods sent me tocome and amuse you.” She spoke in a manner that was meant to arouse desire
and lead Huiwei astray from his original commitment, but Huiwei maintained
his integrity and his mind was not disturbed even for a moment. He then said
to her, “My mind is like lifeless ashes. It cannot get tempted by a bag ofskin.” The woman then went away, beyond the clouds. Looking back, shesaid, “It is possible to drain the water of the ocean. It is possible to make
Mount Sumeru lean to one side. But this monk holds fast to his commitment
and nothing will affect that.” Later, in the third year of the Long’an period

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I(399 C.E.), Huiwei traveled to the west accompanying Faxian. We do notknow where his life came to an end. (Note: This story comes from the Lianggaoseng zhuan, T.2059:396b18–c2.)
There was also Shi Xianhu, whose secular surname was Sun. His place oforigin was Liangzhou. He came to stay at Yanxingsi in Guanghan and practiced meditation on a regular basis. He was also well informed about monastic
discipline and never violated the monastic code even a little. He died in theﬁfth year of the Long’an period of the Jin dynasty (401 C.E.). When he wasabout to die ﬁve-colored lights appeared from his mouth and illuminated thetemple interior. He had left instruction that his body be cremated, and his
disciples followed this order. After all the joints of his body had completely
burned up, one ﬁnger of one hand remained intact. So his disciples buried
the ﬁnger at the bottom of his stupa. (Note: This story comes from the Lianggaoseng zhuan, T.2059:396c4–8.)

304bSong Dynasty
Cengcheng in Dongguan was the place of origin of two women with thesurname Lun, who were the sisters of Shizu. In the ninth year of the Yuanjia
period (432 C.E.), the older sister was ten years old and the younger sister
was nine. Their village was remote and the people there were ignorant; noone knew the teachings of the scriptures. Suddenly, on the eighth day of thesecond month, both sisters disappeared. Three days later they returned andasserted that they had seen the Buddha. On the ﬁfteenth day of the ninth
month they again disappeared. After ten days they returned, speaking a foreign
language. They recited Buddhist scriptures and other books in Sanskrit. Whenthey encountered a monk from Central Asia they could communicate freely
with him right away.
On the ﬁfteenth day of the ﬁrst month of the following year they again
went away. People who were working in the ﬁelds said that they saw themrise up into the sky with a gust of wind. Their parents, fearful, wailed loudly
and offered sacriﬁces to the gods, asking for good fortune. After a month thesisters returned. They had shaved their heads and become nuns. They wereclothed in nuns’ robes and held the hair that had been shorn from their heads
in their hands. They told the following story: “We saw the Buddha and somenuns. They said, ‘Because of your karmic conditions from previous lives,

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you will be our disciples.’ The Buddha raised his hand and rubbed the hairon our heads and the hair then fell off. The Buddha gave us our religious
names. The older one is called Fayuan and the younger Facai. When we wereabout to be sent back, the Buddha said, ‘You should build a temple. I will
give you the scriptural teaching.’”
After they returned home the women destroyed the spirit altar and raised
a hut as a temple. During the night they recited the scriptures. Every evening
a ﬁve-colored light was seen ﬂoating around the mountain peaks, like somany lamps. The two women said, “From now on our deportment will beelegant and our use of speech correct. Even the [reﬁned] customs of thecapital city will not be superior to our manners.” The prefect Wei Lang went
to the village and offered his goodwill and material support [to the nuns].
When he heard the people in the village talking about them, he was truly
amazed and marveled at what they said. Because of these events the people
in the village in a valley honored the Buddha’s teaching. (Note: This story
comes from the Mingxiang ji.)
[Northern] Wei Dynasty
The family background of the monk Shi Tanluan of Xuanzhongsi in the
Shibiku valley in Xihe is unknown, but the family was originally from Yamen.
The family’s residence was near Mount Wutai and people in the area enjoyedhearing stories of miracles and strange events. Tanluan had a chronic disease
and went around seeking treatment. Coming to a ruin at Qinling in Fenquan,
he went into the deserted city and looked upward above the eastern gate.
There were blue clouds and suddenly he saw the Gate of Heaven open. Tanluan clearly saw the ofﬁcials occupying the courtly ranks in the six heavensof the realm of desire, those of higher rank overshadowing those of lower
rank in an orderly fashion. Because of this [vision] his illness was cured.
Later, Tanluan visited Tao [Hongjing]’s hermitage in Jiangnan (south of
the Jiang River). He was seeking the immortals’ techniques, which he hoped
would prolong his life. When he came to the mountain Tao welcomed him
in delight, and gave him a work in ten fascicles describing the immortals’
techniques. On his way back home Tanluan came to the Zhejiang River, wherea deity called the Master of Baolang Zi lived. When a drum was struck thehigh waves would last for seven days. Tanluan encountered high waves and181

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304ccould not cross the river. He then went to the shrine of this deity, explaining
his situation, and he prayed to the deity, promising him that if he responded
to his request he would raise another shrine there. Immediately the deity manifested his body, which looked as if it was twenty zhang tall. The deity
approached Tanluan and said, “If you want to cross [the river], you should
do so tomorrow morning. I hope you will not renege on your promise.” In
the morning the waves were still quite rough and high, sounding as if they
were driven by angry drumbeats. As soon as Tanluan entered the boat thewater became quiet and peaceful. Thus he was able to cross to the other side.
The emperor of the Liang dynasty thought highly of him, and therefore ordereda shrine to be built for the deity of the Jiang River [who had helped Tanluan].
Tanluan later left the emperor’s palace and came to the border of the northernstate of Wei. He was hoping to visit famous mountains to learn about newtechniques for [spiritual] cultivation. When he came to Luoyang he met the
Tripiṭaka master Bodhiruci. Tanluan said to him, “Buddhism contains many
instructions for prolonging life and achieving immortality. Are these superior
to the teaching of the immortals’ scriptures in this land?” Bodhiruci spat on
the ground and said, “What kind of nonsense is this? The two teachings are
not comparable. Where in this land is a teaching that prolongs life and achieves
immortality? Even if you could prolong life would it be very long before
you died and ended up circulating in the three realms of existence?” Bodhiruci
then gave Tanluan the Sutra on Contemplation (T. 365), saying, “This is thetechnique of the Great Sage. If you follow this in your [spiritual] cultivation
you are bound to achieve liberation from the cycle of life and death that
repeats for eternity.”
Later Tanluan moved to Xuanzhongsi, a temple carved into the rock wallof Mount Beishan in Fenzhou. Singlemindedly he followed the teaching of[the Sutra on Contemplation], cultivating the Pure Land practice. When hewas sixty-seven, on the day his life was to come to an end, ﬂags, ﬂowers,
banners, and umbrellas appeared high above the temple building. Fragrance
ﬁlled the air and loud music was heard. Everyone who was ascending themountain to the temple witnessed this. In the fourth year of the Xinghe period(542 C.E.) of the Wei dynasty, Tanluan died at the mountain temple on Mount
Pingyao. He was sixty-seven years old. (Note: This story comes from the[Tang] gaoseng zhuan, T.2060:470a13–c6.)

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Wei Dynasty
The personal name of Chuan Xianchao, a retainer in the Qibei Commandery, was Yiqi. During the Jiaping period (249–254), while spending thenight alone, he dreamed of a heavenly maiden who came and followed him.
She described herself as a jade woman of heaven. She was originally fromthe Eastern Commandary (in heaven?). Her name was Chenggong Zhiqiong.
She had lost both parents as a child. The Ruler of Heaven pitied her for thepain she suffered living alone, and issued an order to allow her to descend
to the human world and marry a husband there. Chuan Yiqi’s dream mentioned
above was the consequence. Yiqi’s soul was alerted to her presence, and was
delighted by her extraordinarily beautiful appearance.
When Yiqi awoke from the dream he kept thinking about the jade woman
reverently. Sometimes she seemed to be there, and other times she was absent.
This continued for three or four evenings. Then she manifested more solidly,
arriving in a carriage and attended by eight maidservants. She was dressedin lace and embroidered silk, and her face and body were those of the ﬂying
immortals. She said that she was seventy years old but her appearance wasthat of a ﬁfteen- or sixteen-year-old girl. On the carriage was a barrel of wine,
clear and white, and there were ﬁve kinds of utensils made of vaiḍūrya jewels.
Extraordinary food and drink were provided and they brought the wine down
and started eating. Yiqi joined in the feast.
The woman said to Yiqi, “I am a heavenly jade woman. I was sent down
to be married, and that is why I am here to accompany you. Is this not a proofof your great virtue? If the cosmic fortunes dictate that I spend the night[with you], we shall become husband and wife. Even if no beneﬁts result
from this there will be no harm, either. However, in moving here and there,
I must ride in a carriage or on a well-nourished horse; my food and drink
must be of exotic kinds, sent from distant places; plain or patterned silk material must always be provided in plenty. And because I am a goddess I cannot
bear a child for you. My nature is not at all jealous, however. It is alright if
you fulﬁll the worldly obligations of marrying and having a human family
elsewhere.”In the end Yiqi and the deity became husband and wife. She presented apoem to him:

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Fluttering up and down, and suddenly going up, I speak.
I play with my fellow deities among cliffs of clouds piled up, one upon
the other.
Flowers of miraculous grass do not require watering.
Supreme virtue appears at the appointed time.
Would an immortal descend for no purpose?
Immortals arrive in response to cosmic fortunes.
If you accept me as your wife, I will bring prosperity to the ﬁve groupsof relatives.
If you send me away calamities will follow.

305aThis is the outline of the poem. The original text of the poem contains
over two hundred words and cannot be reproduced here in full.
She also wrote a commentary on the Book of Changes, a work in seven fascicles, and predicted auspicious and inauspicious fortunes. Yiqi always madeuse of her predictions. Seven or eight years after they became husband andwife, Yiqi’s parents arranged for him to marry an ordinary wife. After that, theheavenly [jade] woman avoided him during the daytime and appeared at nightto sleep in his house. She would arrive in the evening and depart early in themorning. She would appear and disappear suddenly, as if she were ﬂying
around. Only Yiqi saw her; others could not see her. If Yiqi was in a dark roomwith her human voices could be heard. Such traces of her presence were frequently found, yet no one else could see her body. Later people became suspicious and asked him about these events. So, Yiqi told them about his situation.
Then the jade woman requested his permission to leave, saying, “I am adeity. Though I have been with you, I do not wish to be seen by others. You
are by nature careless and sloppy, and have told others about our relationshipover the years. Our love is strong, and once we are separated we will certainly
feel miserable and resentful. But this turn of events prevents us from prolonging this relationship. Each of us must do our best.”
She called her attendants to bring wine and food. She wrote a Daoist register, made two layers of clothes from a piece of silk cloth, and presented
these to Yiqi. She also offered a poem:
Taking your arm, I take leave of you; shedding tears I depart on anaimless journey.

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In numinous quietude I climb onto the carriage, which leaves quickly,
as if it is ﬂying.
After [the jade woman left], Yiqi fell into a deep depression that lasted
for days and took him to the verge of a nervous breakdown.
Later, he happened to be on a road on Mount Yu in Qibei. He was travelingwestward and, looking far ahead, he saw a horse-drawn carriage on a winding
road. The person on the carriage looked like the jade woman, Zhiqiong. He
ran to the front of the carriage. Indeed, she was the jade woman. So he opened
the cover over the carriage and the two saw each other. At ﬁrst they were overwhelmed with emotion but then they were happy. Helping each other backinto the carriage, they sat closely together and rode the carriage to Luoyang.
There they established a household and lived together just as they had before.
She was still alive during the Taikang period (280–289), but she no longer
came and went everyday. Only on the third day of the third month, the ﬁfth
day of the ﬁfth month, the seventh day of the seventh month, the ninth day of
the ninth month, and the ﬁrst and ﬁfteenth days in the same month does she
come down to see him and, after spending the night, she returns [to the heavens].
Zhang Mosheng composed a poem about the divine woman [on the basis of
this story]. (Note: This story comes from the Sousheng ji.)Liang Dynasty
The secular surname of the monk Shi Huishao of Longyuansi in the Shu
Commandery was Chen. His original registration was in Taiqiu in Yingquan.
When he was a small boy he wanted to know a great deal, and he was remarkably more intelligent than his peers. When he was ﬁfty-four years old he diedin the Moheyan Hall of the temple in which he was based.
At that time there was a citizen of Chengdu called Ying Shifeng, a wise
person. He became ill and lost consciousness but his body around his heartremained warm. After ﬁve days he regained consciousness and told the following story.
He had been taken to King Yama and heard him give verdicts. He heard
Yama say, “Welcome, Dharma Master.” Shortly thereafter, Master [Huishao]
arrived. King Yama stepped down from the building and, with palms joined,
he bowed to touch his forehead to the master’s feet. The king did not say a185

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word but prepared a document that had one large character, zheng (“government”), on it.
Huishao went outside and sat under a tree at the side of an open road. A
young boy appeared and presented a robe placed inside a lacquered willow
winnower. He bade Huishao to put it on. Ten monks appeared to welcome
him. Shifeng recognized two among them as the meditation masters He and
Ci. There were lines of banners and decorative umbrellas along the sides of
the road, and [all the masters] then ﬂew up and went away.
Again, during the night of the day Huishao died, a nun at Anpusi, who
had been ill for a long time, lost consciousness. After regaining consciousness
she told the following story.
She had accompanied Dharma Master Huishao and ﬁve hundred monks,
and they had climbed seven jeweled staircases to reach the lecture hall of
the heavenly palace. The ground looked like quartz and the seats were beautifully decorated. There were also dusters and tables. Lotus ﬂowers ﬁlled thepond. Huishao sat at his seat and talked for awhile. After a short while hestood up and ordered those who had come to send him off to return [to theirusual places].
There are other extraordinary signs and miracles like these that occurredat Huishao’s death. On the third day of the seventh month of the second yearof the Tianjian period (503 C.E.), Huishao died at Longyuansi. He was ﬁftyfour years old. (Note: This story comes from the Liang gaoseng zhuan; ref.
Tang gaoseng zhuan, T.2060:470c16–471b2.)

2. Human Beings
305b(This consists of seven parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Explanation of the Name,(3) Places Where Human Beings Reside, (4) Karmic Causes, (5) Noble andHumble Beings (Hierarchies of Social Status), (6) The Wealthy and the Poor(Socioeconomic Classes), and (7) Suffering.
1. Introduction
In the realm of human beings their bodies look impressive on the surface,
but they commit numerous sins. Human beings take pleasure in doing wrong
things. The Way of humanity and wisdom has declined and the teaching oflove and goodness has disappeared. Consequently, Cui Shu murdered his

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lord; Shang Chen killed his father. Six powers competed with each other;
ten thousand states formed aggressive alliances. All indulge in arrogance;each displays unrestrained licentiousness. The atmosphere of purity has longdisappeared; inﬂuences of moral superiority do not prevail. The three poisons(greed, anger, and ignorance) ﬂourish in competition; the ten entanglements
contest with each other to issue forth. The four violent ﬂows of passion spreadwidely; the ﬁve corners that obscure the mind are deeply rooted in mysterious
profundity. Wrong views and ignorance continuously reappear in great profusion. Consequently, life becomes precarious, like a leaning tree or a city
under siege. The sweet taste of honey in one’s mouth disappears quickly, thevine inside a well (i.e., the means of salvation) does not remain for long.
Under a pine tree on a hill echoes the wailing of a broken man; in a broadstreet inside many gates voices moaning with sadness are heard.
If all the beings of the human realm now repent—the creatures of “roundhead and square feet,” which includes superior examples endowed with wisdom and inferior ones that are ignorant, and who live everywhere: in thewestern direction as far as Aparagodānīya, in the eastern direction as far as
Pūrvavideha, in the north as far as Uttarakuru, and in the south as far as thisJambudvīpa world; some furthermore living in houses under roofs made ofwooden boards and with curtains of woven wool, others with their bodies
tattooed and with disheveled hair, drinking blood and eating fur, or nestingin caves and holes, polishing their hooves and blackening their teeth, or sleeping on their stomachs and crawling around, ﬂoating on Roshui like a hair,or climbing steep mountains with ropes, living in a remote city among barbarians, protected by armor and bearing a spear, or chained in prison; somecarrying money on their shoulders or wielding wooden sticks in their hands—
if all these beings were to make the vow to cultivate rites and polite conduct,human beings would acquire the virtues of ﬁlial piety on the part of thosebelow and loving-kindness on the part of those above; wanton thoughts wouldcease and licentious desires would come to an end. The substance of thesebeings would become as solid as rock and metal; they would soar above
other beings just like the sacred mountains Song and Hua. The eight kindsof suffering would not invade their lives and the nine calamities would havelong been removed from them.

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2. Explanation of the Name
According to an explanation in the Posha lun (T.1546:49a13–14):
Human beings are called by that name because the word means “to stopand cease.” Because beings can “stop and cease” in that realm, which isone of the six realms of existence, it is called the realm of human beings.
What is meant by this is that only in this realm among the six realms,
beings can “stop and cease” giving rise to passions and evil disturbances. In
no other realm than that of human beings can beings do this better. That is
why the nature of this realm matches the meaning of “stopping and ceasing.”
In addition, the pronunciation for the word “human” (ren) is the same asthat of the word “to bear,” and this points to the fundamental similarity
between the meaning of these words. Because these beings can peacefully“bear” a life that is sometimes at odds with the ways of the world, they arecalled by this name.
The Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:198a10–13) says:
Why is man called manusha (Skt. manuṣya)? There are eight reasons. (1)He is intelligent, (2) his conduct is superior, (3) his mind is reﬁned, (4)he has the potential for supreme enlightenment, (5) his wisdom is superior,(6) he is capable of distinguishing the real from the unreal, (7) he is thecorrect vessel in which the holy Way may be placed, and (8) he is produced
from the karmic effects of intelligent wisdom. For these reasons, man iscalled manuṣya.
The new Posha lun (T.1545:867c7–21) says:

305c

Question: Why is this realm of rebirth called manuṣya?
Answer: In the past there was a universal monarch called Māndhāta.
He told the people, “Whatever you want to do, you must ﬁrst think about
it, take its measure, and observe.” At that time people did just as the kingtaught them and whatever they wanted to do, they ﬁrst thought about it,
took its measure, and observed. In a variety of work requiring skills, they
then turned out to be skillful. That was because they were able to use theirminds (manas) and think and observe whatever they were doing. For thisreason, human beings are called manuṣya.

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According to another view, because they perform to an increasing
degree the lower category of subtle deeds of body, speech, and mind,
beings are born in that realm and are made to continue their existence
there. For this reason that realm is called that of human beings.
According to yet another view, because they are arrogant, these beingsare called human. It is because none of the beings in the ﬁve realms are
as arrogant as human beings.
According to still another view, because they are capable of quietingthe mind they are called human beings. It is because none of the beingsin the ﬁve realms are as capable of quieting the mind as are human beings.
For this reason, it is said in scripture that human beings are superior togods in three things: (1) they are courageous, (2) they have a good memory,and (3) they can commit themselves to a life of purity.
3. Places Where Human Beings Reside
The new Posha lun (T.1545:867c25–868a14) says:
In the four realms under heaven, human beings live in the four great continents. They are Jambu[dvīpa], [Pūrva]videha, [Apara]godānīya, and[Uttara]kuru. Human beings also live in the eight subcontinents. What are
the eight subcontinents? The continent of [Uttara]kuru has two subordinate
continents: Kurava and Kauravā. The continent of [Purva]videha has two
subordinate continents: Deha and Suhe (Videha?). The continent of[Apara]godānīya has two subcontinents: Śāṭha and Uttaramantriṇas. The
continent of Jambu[dvīpa] has two subordinate continents: Cāmara andFaluozhemoluo (Cāmarāvara or Avaracāmara?). In these eight subcontinents
people are short in height, just like dwarves in our world.
According to one view, people live only in seven of the subcontinents.
Only demons live in the subcontinent of Cāmara. According to anotherview, the eight that are mentioned here are nothing more than alternatenames for the four main continents. This confusion arose because for eachof the four continents two alternate names were given. If we are to follow
this interpretation, as mentioned above each of these eight subcontinents
has ﬁve hundred smaller subordinate continents. Human beings live in someof these smaller continents, non-humans in other, and still others are empty.

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Question: What is the outward appearance of the beings in the humanrealm like?
Answer: They stand upright. Human beings in Jambu[dvīpa] have facesthat look like a wheeled carriage; human beings in [Purva]videha havefaces that look like a half-moon; human beings in [Apara]godānīya havefaces that look like a full moon; human beings in [Uttara]kuru have facesthat look like a square pond.
Question: What are their languages like?
Answer: When the world ﬁrst came into being everyone spoke the holy
language (Sanskrit). Later, when beings began taking food and drink,inequalities developed and ﬂattery and deception increased. Consequently,
different languages developed and those who are unable to speak at all
also appeared.
4. Karmic Causes
The Yebao chabie jing (T.80:894a16–20) presents four phrases to distinguish the different types of karmic causation:(1) “Karmic causation that results in physical pleasure but mental suffering”
refers to ordinary beings in fortunate external circumstances; (2) “karmic
causation that results in mental pleasures but physical suffering” refers
to arhats in unfortunate external circumstances; (3) “karmic causationthat results in both physical and mental pleasure” refers to arhats in fortunate external circumstances; and (4) “karmic causation that results inboth physical and mental suffering” refers to ordinary beings in unfortunate
external circumstances. In all these cases, everyone receives pleasure andsuffering through karmic causation.
The Pusazang jing (Dabaoji jing, Pusazang hui, T.310:196a22–b1) says:
At that time the World-honored One told the elder Xianshou, “The elder
should know the following. As I observed all the sentient beings in theworld, they were oppressed by ten situations of suffering. What are theten? (1) They were oppressed by the suffering of birth. (2) They were
oppressed by the suffering of old age. (3) They were oppressed by the suffering of illness. (4) They were oppressed by the suffering of death. (5)They were oppressed by the suffering of sadness. (6) They were oppressed

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by the suffering of resentment. (7) They were oppressed by the very factof experiencing suffering. (8) They were oppressed by melancholy. (9)They were oppressed by the suffering of unbearable pains. (10) They were
subjected to the oppression of the great of pain of repeated birth and death.
I saw these ten kinds of suffering oppressing sentient beings. In order toattain supreme enlightenment and be released from these oppressions,with pure faith I abandoned the household of the Śākya clan and pursued
the supreme Way. Furthermore, Elder [Xianshou], I observed that all sentient beings in the world, for innumerable world ages, commit millions
and trillions of faults and are constantly struck by ten kinds of large poisoned arrows. What were the ten? They are (1) the poisoned arrow oflove, (2) the poisoned arrow of ignorance, (3) the poisoned arrow of desire,4) the poisoned arrow of greed, (5) the poisoned arrow of faults, (6) the
poisoned arrow of stupidity, (7) the poisoned arrow of arrogance, (8) the
poisoned arrow of biased views, (9) the poisoned arrow of the mistaken
view of being, and (10) the poisoned arrow of the mistaken view of nonbeing. I saw sentient beings struck by these ten kinds of poisoned arrows
and sought supreme enlightenment in order to put a stop to these poisoned
arrows. For this reason, with pure faith I abandoned the household of theŚākya clan and pursued the supreme Way.
5. Noble and Humble Beings (Hierarchies of Social Status)
If we are to speak in terms of the four directions, in the north in Uttarakuru
there is no differentiation of noble and humble beings. The distinction between
master and servant is absent there, and that is why there is no differentiationof noble and humble beings. In the other three directions differentiation ofnoble and humble beings is always present. Rulers, ministers, and common
people are separated and in great households the masters and servants are
distinguished. Therefore, noble and humble beings form different categories.
Altogether these types can be classiﬁed into six groups: (1) the most noble
group among the nobles, referring to such beings as universal monarchs, (2)the middle group among the nobles, referring to kings of small kingdoms,(3) the lowest group among the nobles, referring to many ofﬁcials, (4) the
humblest group among the humble, referring to developmentally challenged
children, (5) the middle group among the humble, referring to servants and

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slaves, and (6) the least extreme group among the humble, referring toprincesses and maidservants. This is a rough and general classiﬁcation. To
attempt a more detailed, exhaustive classiﬁcation would be difﬁcult.
6. The Wealthy and the Poor (Socioeconomic Classes)
If we are to speak in terms of the four directions, the people in the northin Uttarakuru are the wealthiest and have the greatest equality [among theclasses]. In the continents in the east and west, some are wealthy and others
are poor. In the south, in Jambudvīpa, people are the most impoverished.
The situations in the continents in the four directions all differ and aredescribed in detail in the scriptures.
Again, in Jambudvīpa, the economic fortunes of people are not ﬁxed. There
are three categories. The highest category includes such beings as the universal
monarch, who governs everywhere in the four directions and rules over thefour oceans. Everything he needs is supplied without fail. The situation of theuniversal monarch is described in the scriptures. The universal monarch’s
powers, provided for him through the merits of his deeds in previous lives,
are the greatest. When he renounces the householder’s life ﬁve miraculous
phenomena appear and seven jewels arrive through cosmic response.
The ﬁve miraculous phenomena are (1) through cosmic response ﬂowing
springs and bathing ponds with calm and clear water appear everywhere in
the world; (2) through cosmic response heavenly sweet dew appears in thepalace courtyard, and when the monarch drinks the dew his body becomeslight and his illnesses are cured; (3) through cosmic response the level ofthe great sea goes down by the length of one yojana, and roads of golden
sand appear everywhere, on which the monarch travels around in the realm
under the four heavens; (4) through cosmic response oxhead incense appearson the shores of the ocean; if the king picks it up and burns it the aroma iseven stronger, and if he blows on it into the direction of the wind the fragrance
reaches far to places forty miles away; if dead people smell this fragrance
they come back to life; (5) the kācilindika bird is born in the ocean; if themonarch holds and touches its body he experiences a great sensation of
comfort in body and mind, superior to any of the pleasures of the six senses.
The following verse in the Wangsheng lun (T.1524:230c27–28) refers tothis bird:

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The seven jewels that decorate the Pure Land are like grasses;
They are soft and ﬂexible and turn right and left.
If anyone touches these he feels extreme pleasure,Greater than that given by the kācilindika bird.
[The universal monarch] has one thousand sons, endowed with seven jewels,
courageous and ﬁerce. (Note: This matter is described in the scripture mentioned above.)
The second category of median wealth refers to people like the rulers ofsmall kingdoms.
The third category of wealth, the lowest, refers to Jotika. (Note: There
are also three categories of poverty and if you think about it you will be able
to determine them for yourself.)
7. Suffering
In the realm of human beings there is no real pleasure and everything leads
to suffering. Ignorant people think that there is pleasure, but informed people
know that everything is suffering. Deluded views hold that there is pleasure
but the view that corresponds to reality holds that everything is suffering.
Therefore the Fu fazang jing (T.2058:302c27–303a5) says:
Those who are suffering in different ways in the world all wish to obtainpleasure. But this body is not solid; it rots and is easily destroyed. Like
bubbles, our bodies change and disappear after a moment’s time. Even ahandsome appearance to which people are very attached goes away andcannot be found anywhere anymore when the decline of old age sets in.
Outside our bodies are covered with skin, which is decorative; pus andblood, which are impure, ﬂow within. Conditioned phenomena are impermanent and in one moment of our life, extremely quickly, they come into
being and go out again four hundred times. These phenomena may becompared to phenomena in the open sky, where clouds gather with thunder
and lightning and strong winds blow, yet soon the clouds scatter, the windceases, and everything is back to normal again. The ﬁve kinds of desires(corresponding to the ﬁve sense organs) are unstable, just like the phenomena in the open sky. People may seek peaceful happiness together,
yet given the effects of impermanence who will be left remaining in this

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state? The world is ﬁlled with many forms of suffering and it is difﬁcult
to remain in the world for long.
For this reason, we know that the human body consists only of sufferingand impermanence. Reason dictates that we should abhor life and quickly
seek liberation.
[The Fu fazang jing (T.2058:305c28–306a5) says:]
All conditioned phenomena are nothing but heaps of suffering—they arelike a tumor or a latrine, or an arrow that has pierced a human heart. The
wheel of life, old age, sickness, and death turns endlessly. Impermanenceis the law of dissolution and rapid decay. Like a prisoner facing death,
whose life cannot be said to be long-lasting, or a prisoner who has nothing
he loves or for which he seeks, or a piece of fruit on the road that people
ﬁnd bitter and throw away, this body is to be reviled. It is bound to be
reduced to nothing. After death crows, magpies, foxes, and wolves rush
to eat it; blowing winds and exposure to the sun turn the body into a rotten
and smelly lump; the hair and teeth are scattered around in disorderly
fashion. Why should we be attached to a body like this? We should work
diligently on the means of salvation and quickly seek liberation. Even thewealthy and noble gods are in the end bound to be reduced to nothing;even if they possess an attractive outward appearance inwardly they arein a state of constant despair and sadness.
For this reason, as it is said in the Dazhuangyan lun (T.201:264b27–28):
It is like wearing a golden chain; the chain is good but it can be used tobind and tie up a person. The throne of a king is like this; the king is constantly despondent and fearful.
[The person] is [constantly] thinking about protecting [what he has]. If
he loses it, he is visited by great sorrow. It is as if we speak of pleasure precisely because food and clothing have been denied to us. Thoughts of pleasure
go out of control in the midst of acute suffering
For this reason Piṇḍola spoke in verse to King Udayana (Pintoulutuluoshe
wei Youtuoyanwang shuo jing, T.1690:785c20–786a4):
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Changes in the throne cannot be stopped even for a short while.
Quickly, like electric lightning,
In a moment it is reduced to decline and disappearance.
The throne of a king is endowed with tremendous wealth.
Ignorant ones truly yearn for it.
But decline and disappearance come in no time, andThe suffering of the mighty is greater than that of lowly and humble ones.
The king occupies a high throne;
His reputation ﬁlls the world in all ten directions.
Being handsome and attractive,
He ornaments his body in a variety of ways.
He is like someone who is about to die,
Wearing a ﬂowered headdress and necklaces.
It will not be long before he gives up his life.
The throne of a king is like this.
The Buddha said that the example of someone about to die is justlike a king:
They are both always afraid.
While walking, standing, and sitting down, all the time,
Whether they are among familiar people or among strangers,
they are always ﬁlled with suspicion and fear.
Ministers, commoners, and queens and court ladies in the palace,
Elephants, horses, and rare jewels,
The land that belongs to the kingdom, and everything else,
Are all the king’s possessions.
Yet when a king is about to give up his life,
All abandon him, and not one of any of these things will accompany him.
Again, in the Niepan jing (T.374:373a26–b16; T.375:612c22–613a12)
the Buddha says in verse:
In all the worlds,
Those who have been born are returned to death.
Even if their life span is incalculably long,
They are bound in the end to die.
Those who prosper are bound to decline.

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Things that come together will be separated.
The vigorous years cannot last for long.
A healthy condition will be invaded by illness.
Life is swallowed by death.
There are no entities that exist permanently.
Kings may be free to do anything they want,
And their power may be unmatched.
Yet everything changes and disappears.
Our life span is also like this.
The wheel of suffering ceaselessly turns.
Beings ﬂow and turn on it without end.
All three realms of rebirth are impermanent.
There is no happiness in anything that exists.
Even though the Way toward salvation must be based on reality,
Everything that exists is empty and ultimately nonexistent.
Entities that dissolve keep changing.
In every instance, these entities eventually decline and become troubled.
Fear is worse than any of the other evils.
Old age, illness, and death bring distressing decline.
In this realm where nothing exists permanently,
Destruction and hatred easily enter.
Everything is obscured by the passions,
In the same way as the silkworm is [sequestered] within its silken cocoon.
How could wise ones ﬁnd happiness in this place?
This body is constituted by suffering.
Everything is impure.
Tied to catastrophes by ropes, our body is just like a tumor.
There is nothing good at its very basis.
Even superior bodies like those of the gods are also like this.
All the objects of our desires are impermanent.
Therefore, I do not become attached to them or hunger for them.
Leaving desire behind, I direct my thought skillfully,
And achieve realization of the truth.
Therefore, Honorable Piṇḍola[-Bhāradvāja] said to the king (Pintoulutuluoshe wei Youtuoyanwang shuo jing, T.1690:786b25c1):

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Great king, please observe the matter well. What objects of the ﬁve desires
are permanent? Is there a king’s throne that remains stable for a long time?
Which kingdoms maintain their borders without having the size of theirterritory reduced? What rare jewels are free from eventual loss and dispersion? Which pleasures based on desire are permanent and unchanging?
Which entities come together and do not scatter apart again? All the objectsof the ﬁve desires are in their essence nothing but suffering. They all arise
from deluded thought and take shape as “pleasures.”
For this reason, even a king’s throne is [a place of] suffering and there isno peace in it. The situation is similar to that of the man who saw things ina dream and when he woke up realized that the things of which he dreamed
were not real. For this reason, wise people should feel revulsion toward [samsaric] existence and take leave of it, and then immediately realize that everything, both within and outside of ourselves, changes—all is impermanent.
Even though coarse and ﬁne entities appear to be different, in one moment
the difference [between them] disappears and the two become the same.
For this reason it is said in the Nirvana Sutra (T.374:588b15–19; T.375:
836a20–26) that because forms are suffering the distinction of the ten periodsof time appears. The ten periods are the stages of (1) membrane, (2) foam,(3) froth, (4) lump of ﬂesh, (5) limbs, (6) infant, (7) childhood, (8) youth,(9) adult, and (10) declining old age. If any of these stages was not impermanent the progression from the membrane stage to the stage of old age anddeath would not take place.
The ferocious ﬁre of the three poisons (greed, anger, and ignorance) burns
the mind ceaselessly. Therefore, we are pained by this suffering.
(Note: According to the scriptures there are many kinds of human beings.
Details have been given above in the part on the four realms under heavenin the section on the three realms of existence.)

Miracle Stories(Note: Eighteen stories are listed here brieﬂy.)
The Chunqiu wei, Yangong tu chapter, says:
Confucius was ten chi tall and nine wei around the middle. When he wassitting he looked like a squatting dragon; when he stood he looked like a

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stations Mao or Dou.
The Wuyue chunqiu says:
Wu Zixu had an audience with King Liao of Wu. Liao saw from a distancethat Wu Zixu’s appearance was extremely fearsome—he was over one
zhang and ten wei wide, and the distance between his eyebrows was one
foot in length. King Liao spoke with him for three days and Wu Zixu did
not repeat the same words even once. Wu Zixu knew that the king liked
him. Every time he entered the palace to talk to the king, Wu Zixu appearedstrong and relaxed; he had an air about him of great courage and fortitude.
The Liang ji says:
Lü Guang, styled Shiming, formed alliances with powerful and wise
people and provided for the strongmen who attended him. He was eightchi and four zun (inches) tall, his eyes had double pupils, and ﬂesh protruded from his left elbow. By nature he was grave and careful, while
when discussing strategies he was open and relaxed. He was accessible
and prepared to consider a wide range of possibilities. His contemporaries
did not know about him. Only Wang Meng, when he was still a private
citizen, marveled at him, saying, “This man is an extraordinary person.”
The Hetu wei, Yuban chapter, says:
If you go ninety thousand li to the north of Mount Kunlun, you reach the
kingdom of Longbo. The human beings who live there are thirty zhangtall. They live for eighteen thousand years before they die. If you go eastward from Mount Kunlun, you reach the kingdom of Great Qin. The
human beings there are ten zhang tall. From there if you go one hundred
thousand miles to the east, you reach the kingdom of Tiao. The humanbeings there are three zhang and ﬁve chi tall. From there, if you go one
hundred thousand miles to the east, you reach the kingdom of Zhongqin.
The human beings there are one zhang tall.
The Hetu wei, Longyu chapter, says:

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At each of the eastern, western, southern, and northern poles of heaven
there are soldiers with copper and iron foreheads. They are thirty million
zhang tall, and there are three trillion of them. At each of the eastern, western, southern, and northern poles of heaven there are diamond warriors
who do not fear death. They are thirty million zhang tall, and there arethree trillion of them. In the City of Great Peace in the middle of heaven,
there are armed soldiers who are steel-faced ghosts that eat everything.
They are thirty million zhang tall, and there are three trillion of them.
The Wuxing zhuan, Hongfan, says:
At the time of the First Emperor of Qin, giants appeared. They were ﬁvezhang tall and their footprints were six chi in diameter. The barbariantribes were subjugated by them. They were seen in the sky above Lintao.
The people of Qin said, “We should not let them prevail among the barbarians; that will cause calamities.”
The Weizhi says, “People in the Indian kingdom are all one zhang and eightchi tall. Men and women in the kingdom of Cheli are both eight chi tall.”
The Weizhi also says:
In the second year of the Xianxi period (265) in Xiangwu, an oracularstatement appeared: “A large human being will appear. He will be overthree zhang tall, and his footprints will be three chi and two zun in diameter.
White-haired, he will wear a single layer of yellow clothing and a yellow
hat. He will raise his staff and call to the people.” The king began to say,“The Age of Great Peace is upon us now.”The Shenyi jing says:
There is an unusual kind of human being who lives in the southeast direction. These beings travel everywhere under heaven. They are seven chitall, and they are measure the same around the middle. The hair on theirheads is disheveled and they do not take regular food or drink. In themorning they swallow three thousand evil ghosts and three hundred [more]in the evening. They simply swallow them, they do not chew. The ghosts
are the food of these beings and mist and dew are their drink. They are

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called Tianguo; they are also called Shixie (Eating Evil; i.e., “swallowing
evil ghosts”). They are also called Huangfu (Yellow Father). (Note: The
Huangfu ghosts people talk about today are named after these beings.)
The Shenyi jing says:
There is an unusual kind of human being who lives beyond the ocean in
the northwest direction. They are two thousand li tall, and the distance
between their two legs is one thousand miles. The measurement aroundtheir abdomens is one thousand six hundred miles. They only drink two
and half sheng of wine (Note: heavenly wine and sweet dew.), and they
do not eat the ﬁve kinds of grain or meat. When hungry they raise theirfaces toward heaven and then they feel satiated. They love to roam aroundthe mountains and oceans. They do not commit violence on common people, nor do they harm any of the ten thousand things in the universe. They
form one living organism with heaven and earth. They are called “peopleof no roads” (Note: The reason for the expression “no road” is that they
do not consider high rank or great reputation as their way.) They are also
called “humanity” (ren). (Note: In ceremonies they are called “people ofhumanity.”) Another name [for them] is “trustworthiness.” (Note: In ceremonies they are called “people of trustworthiness”). Another name [forthem] is “spirits.” (Note: They live as one organism with heaven and earth
and never die. That is why they are called “spirits.”)

308a

The Shuwang benji says, “During the reign of Prince Xiang of Qin, there
was a man of Xiangchang in the Dangqu Commandery who was twenty-ﬁvezhang and six chi tall.”
The Waiguo tu says, “Human beings who live in the kingdom of GreatQin are over one zhang and ﬁve chi tall. They have long arms and are veryskillful at riding camels.”
The Shi wei, Hanshenwu chapter, says, “At the northeastern pole there
live human beings who are nine cun tall.”
The Guoyü says, “Confucius said, ‘People of the kingdom of Jiaoyao arethree chi tall. They are the shortest people.’”The Xiyu zhuan, Weilue, says:
The kingdom of dwarves is located to the northwest of Kangju (Sogdiana).

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Both the men and women there are three chi tall and they are very numerous. According to the local tradition in Kangju, a merchant once lost his
way and arrived at this kingdom. There were many pearls and ﬂuorescentjewels in the kingdom. After crossing this kingdom the merchant traveled
more than ten thousand miles before he arrived at Kangju.
The Weilue says:
In southern Japan there is a kingdom of dwarves. Human beings there arethree or four chi tall. This kingdom is located over four thousand li awayfrom the kingdom of the female ruler.
The Waiguo tu says:
The people of Jiaoyao are one chi and six cun tall. When a headwind
blows toward them they lean backward; when a tailwind blows over them
they lean forward. They have all the usual facial features, like eyes andeyebrows. They only sleep outdoors. According to one source, [the peopleof] Jiaoyao are three chi tall. In their kingdom grasses and trees die insummer and come back to life in winter. The kingdom is located thirty
thousand li from Mount Jiuyi.
The Liezi says:
Forty thousand miles eastward from the central continent of China lies
the kingdom of Jiaoyao. People there are one chi and ﬁve cun tall. At thenortheastern pole live the people called Jingren, who are nine inches tall.
In the twenty-sixth year of the First Emperor of Qin, giants over thirtytwo feet in height appeared. Their footprints were six feet in diameter.
All the barbarian tribes bowed down before them. Twelve of these people
appeared at Lintao. Confucius said, “People of the kingdom of Jiaoyao
are three feet tall. They are the shortest people.” Even the tallest humanbeings are not taller than ten feet. Ten is the highest of numbers. Now wehear about human beings who are ﬁve zhang tall. These must be exceptions.
In this year the Qin kingdom for the ﬁrst time annexed the six states. They
were happy and regarded the appearance of the giants as an auspicious
sign. They smelted metal and produced twelve images of them. They
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Great Wall in the north. The wall went through Lintao in the west andreached Liaodong, spanning a distance of several thousand miles. This is
why the giants ﬁrst appeared at Lintao: they indicated the place where
troubles would ﬁrst occur. Twelve years later, the rule of Qin came to an
end. (Note: The twelve stories above were all taken from historical records.)

308b

In the fourth year after Wang Mang established his state (12 C.E.), shadowsof dwarves, only a little more than one chi tall, were observed at Chiyang.
Some of these dwarves were riding on a carriage and others were walking
on foot; they were handling numerous things, large and small. They themselves
said that this event would end in three days.
According to the Guanzi, in the marsh that had been dried up for hundredsof years, in an impassable valley where water wells up incessantly, the water
monsters called qingji are born. The qingji have an appearance like that ofhuman beings. They are four zun tall, wear yellow clothes and yellow headdresses. Carrying yellow umbrellas, they ride on small horses and are skillfulhorsemen, galloping around everywhere. If you call them by their name,even if they happen to be one thousand li away, they respond immediately.
Thus, the shadows observed at Chiyang might well have been the qingji.
Also, according to the same work, in a small pond that has long been driedup live frog spirits. The frog spirits have one head and two bodies; theirappearance is like that of a snake. They are eight feet long. If you call one
by its name you can use it to catch ﬁsh and turtles. (Note: These two stories
are found in the Sousheng ji.)

3. Demons (Asuras)(Note: This is divided into seven parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Explanation of
the Name, (3) Dwelling Places, (4) Karmic Causes [for Rebirth], (5) Attendants, (6) Food and Clothing, and (7) Battles.
1. Introduction
We shall now discuss the realm of the asura demons. Those born in thisrealm in their pathological thought always suspect that they are not being
treated the same as others; some organize rebellions and engage in battles;
they also lead troops to do battle with and conquer each other. They are talland large in appearance but always look tired and hungry. Their bodies are202

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rough and coarse and they are always angry. Standing tall, they are fearsome;accompanied by others who are equally tall they take people by surprise. All
have three heads and eight arms that protrude from their bodies in layers.
Striding over mountains and walking upon the ocean, they grasp the sun andhold the clouds up high. In heaven they seek banquets and they ferment winein the ocean.
Such beings all take refuge in the Three Jewels. Particularly, the asurakings Śambara and others, the attendants of Vemacitra, the peers of Kharaskandha, and furthermore the retinues of Bali and his brother Rāhu, or the
like-minded Śācī and Batuo (Bhadrā?)—they all vow to get rid of their arrogance and practice to remove their tendency toward ﬂattery. Their palacehalls are illuminated, with rich and luxurious carpets of orchid ﬂowers everywhere. When a ceaseﬁre is declared and warfare ceases their anger disappears
and greed does not arise. The suffering from double-edged swords is no
more; the pain, continuous like a lotus root thread, is forever eliminated.
Happily listening to the right Dharma and thirstily looking up to the Great
Vehicle, they give up their tired and ugly bodies and accept a handsome form;
they protect the state’s borders, as well as the state and the ruling house.
Building the city of Dharma, they contribute to the cause of wisdom’s sun.
2. Explanation of the Name
Why are these creatures called “demons” (asuras)? According to the Lishi
apitan lun (T.1644:198a3–5):
Demons are unable to tolerate good deeds nor can they repent of theirinfractions. Even when they listen to various teachings their minds areunmoved. Because they are arrogant they are not good young men, but
because they are not gods either they are called demons.
The name axiulo is given in other scriptures as axulun. Now, according
to the new Posha lun (T.1545:868b4–6):
In the Sanskrit text the correct sound (for the root of this word?) is given
as suluo. Suluo means “gods.” Because these creatures are not gods, however, they are called asuluo (i.e., “not gods.”) Furthermore, suluo alsomeans “handsome.” Because these creatures are not handsome they arecalled asuluo.

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The Chang ahan jing says:

308c[Asura] demons give birth to handsome girls and ugly boys. For this reason,
they are called “not handsome.” Sometimes they are called “not drinking.”
There are two interpretations of the signiﬁcance of this name. According
to the ﬁrst, these creatures upheld the precept of not drinking in their past
lives, and because of the karmic effect of this conduct they are called “notdrinking.” According to the second interpretation, they originally werevery fond of wine. In the realm under the four heavens they gathered ﬂowers
and scattered them over the ocean in order to ferment the seawater intowine. This did not work, however, and the water of the ocean turned into
saltwater. Because they could not obtain wine they were forced to abandon
wine completely. Therefore, they are called deities that do not drink wine.
The Posha lun (ref. T.1546:50a6–21) says:
Some say that [the asura] demons belong to the realm of the gods, but
because their minds are crooked they are not ﬁrmly established as gods.
Some say they belong to the realm of hungry ghosts (pretas). As illustrated
by the fact that the god Śakra’s consort Śācī was an asura demon, however,they are able to mate with gods.
Therefore, the Gāthā-sūtra says that some of the [asura] demons are
ghosts, some animals, and some gods.
The Zhengfanian jing (T.721:107a13–14) says “Some are ghosts and someanimals.”
Some say that [the asuras] are inferior gods. The designation “inferior god”
applies to Vemacitra. The name Vemacitra means “loud sounds”; it also means“cave-dweller.” When a loud sound is heard at the bottom of the great ocean
he shouts “I am Vemacitra.” For this reason, he is called “loud sounds.” Helives in a cave in the ocean. Therefore, he is called “cave-dweller.”
3. Dwelling Places
The Zhengfanian jing (ref. T.721:107a–124c) says:[Asura] demons live in ﬁve locations. The ﬁrst location is on the earth in
the middle of a mountain range. The demons who live there are the weakest.
The second location is to the north of Mount Sumeru. If you go into the204Fascicle 5

ocean for a distance of twenty-one thousand yojanas there is a place wherea demon lives. His name is Rāhu and this monster rules over a host of an
inﬁnite number of demons. If you go another three times the distance oftwenty-one thousand yojanas you reach a place where another demon
lives. His name is Yongjian. If you go another four times the distance oftwenty-one thousand yojanas, there is a place where another demon lives.
His name is Huaman (Śambara?). If you go further twice the distance oftwenty-one thousand yojanas, you come to a place where yet anotherdemon lives. His name is Vemacitra. The voice of this demon goes throughthe ocean and is heard outside of the ocean. He says, “I am the demon
Vemacitra.” For this reason this demon is called Loud Sounds.
As for the mother of Vemacitra, the Chang ahan jing (ref. Guanfo sanmei
hai jing, T.643:646c14–647a18) says:
At the very beginning of the world age the god Guangyin (Light andSound) went into the ocean to wash his body. A water spirit entered his
body and planted one egg. After eight thousand years a girl was born. Her
body was shaped like Mount Sumeru. She had nine hundred and ninetynine heads and each head had one thousand eyes. There were nine hundredand ninety-nine separate mouths, and each mouth had four tusks. At theend of each tusk was a ﬂame that looked like thunder and lightning. There
were twenty-four legs and nine hundred and ninety-nine hands. At one
time this girl was bathing and playing in the ocean. A water spirit entered
her body and planted an egg. Again, after eight thousand years Veracitra
was born. He had nine heads and each head had one thousand eyes. Water
was constantly coming out of his mouth. He had nine hundred and ninetynine hands and only six legs. A female gandharva gave birth to Śācīrāhu,
who was chosen by the god Indra (Śakra) as his consort. The asura demon
Rāhu is also called Zhangriyue (Obstructing the Sun and Moon); he stands
at the front of Indra’s army and directs the light of the sun toward theasura demons, blinding them so that they do not see the army of gods
approaching. Therefore the asura demons hold their hands up to block
the rays of the sun. They are powerful and ﬁght with the gods frequently.
The new Posha lun (T.1545:868b17–b23, 29–c17) says:

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Question: To where do the asuras retire?
[Answer:] According to one view, inside Mount Sumeru is a vacant space.
The mountain thus resembles a treasure bowl that has been placed upside
down. Inside this empty space is a city, and that where the asuras live.
Question: According to a scripture, an asura said, “The ocean in which
we live has the same uniform salty taste.” If the village where they live
is located within the salty ocean, how could the asura king live inside a
mountain?
[Answer:] According to one view, on top of the golden wheel inside
the salty ocean is a large golden platform, ﬁve hundred yojanas in bothheight and width. There is a city on top of the platform, and that is where
the asura king lives. The asura king also has four gardens; the ﬁrst iscalled Auspicious Happiness, the second Delight and Joy, the third Utmost
Joy, and the fourth Attractive. Just as in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three
Gods there is the pārijātaka tree, so too in the asura king’s residence there
is also a tree.
Question: What do the asura demons look like?
Answer: They stand upright.
Question: What is their language?
Answer: They all speak the holy language (Sanskrit).
Question: To which of the six realms of rebirth do they belong?
Answer: According to one view, they belong to the realm of the gods;
according to another they belong to the realm of the hungry ghosts.
The Qishi jing (T.24:336a10b3; 337c26–338a25) says:
One thousand yojanas beyond Mount Sumeru to the east and under theocean is the land of the asura king Vemacitra. The living space is eighty
thousand yojanas in width and depth. It is surrounded by seven balustrades
and seven layers of gold and silver nets with bells. Outside there are sevenlines of tāla trees. All these are made of seven jewels. They are decorated
elaborately in a manner that cannot be described completely. Inside thebig city is a palace standing by itself, called Shemopoti. The palace is ten
thousand yojanas in width and depth, and is surrounded by seven walls,
all of which are made of seven jewels. The walls are one hundred yojanas
tall and ﬁfty yojanas wide. Inside the garden are ponds, ﬂowers, and fruit,

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and birds singing harmoniously. (Note: More complete descriptions are foundin the original passage in the scripture; details have been abbreviated here).
One thousand yojanas beyond Mount Sumeru to the south and under
the ocean is the palace of the asura king Yongyue. His palace is eighty
thousand yojanas in width and depth. One thousand yojanas beyond Mount
Sumeru to the west and under the ocean is the palace of the asura kingŚambara. His palace is eighty thousand yojanas in width and depth. One
thousand yojanas beyond Mount Sumeru to the north and under the ocean
is the palace of the asura king Rāhu. His palace is eighty thousand yojanas
in width and depth (Note: The palace where Rāhu lives is similarly beautiful as those mentioned above.)
The city of Mopodi is where the [asura] king lived. The asura kingRāhu held meetings at a palace, which was also called Seven Heads. Thispalace was eighty thousand yojanas in width and depth, and was surrounded by seven walls and seven layers of balustrades. These were madeof seven jewels. On all four sides, to the left and close by, innumerable
numbers of minor asura demons are gathered.
Details cannot be given exhaustively here. (Note: They are explained in
the sutra.)309b

4. Karmic Causes [for Rebirth]
The Yebao chabie jing (T.80:893a24–28) says:
The ten [evil] deeds that lead to rebirth as an asura demon are: (1) minor
evil conduct of the body, (2) minor evil conduct of speech, (3) minor evil
conduct of thought, (4) giving rise to the arrogance that despises others,(5) giving rise to the arrogance that assumes that one’s own body andmind are permanent, (6) giving rise to the arrogance of falsely claimingthat one has attained enlightenment, (7) giving rise to great arrogance,(8) giving rise to the arrogance of falsely claiming to have virtue, (9)giving rise to the arrogance of claiming to be superior to those who actually
are superior to oneself, and (10) directing the karmic effects of all gooddeeds to rebirth in the realm of the asura demons.
The Zhengfanian jing (ref. T.721:108c7–109a16; 109b11–113a9; 113c25–
114a8; 114b12–124c14) discusses generally the four different kinds of karmic

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causes for rebirth as an asura demon. This work appears to summarize theteachings of other scriptures. For the most part we attain rebirth in the asura
realm through three kinds of causes: anger, arrogance, and doubt.
The Za ahan jing (ref. Za piyu jing, T.207:526c11–19) says:
In a previous life an asura demon was once a poor man, who lived neara riverbank. He regularly crossed the river to collect ﬁrewood. At one
time the river water became very deep and the current very fast and strong.
Several times the man was carried away by the water and almost lost hislife. At that time a pratyekabuddha visited the house and begged for food.
The people of the house were delighted and gave food to him. After eating
the food, the pratyekabuddha ﬂew into the sky and went away.
When the poor man saw this, he was led to make a vow: “In my later
rebirth I vow to obtain a body so large that the deepest waters will notcome above my knees.” Because of this development, the asura obtained
an extraordinarily large body. The waters of the four oceans do not reachabove his knees. If he stands up in the ocean, his body rises higher than
the summit of Mount Sumeru. He can let his hand rest on top of that mountain and look down on the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods.
5. Attendants
The Zhengfanian jing (T.721:108c01–5) says:
The ﬁrst king of the asura demons, Rāhu, has four jade women, who had
been born from memories: (1) Shadowlike, (2) Fragrances, (3) Beautiful
Forest, and (4) Superior Virtue. Each of these ladies was attended by
twelve million maidens. They all attend the king of the asura demons andentertain themselves together. They indulge in sense pleasures freely inways that cannot be described in detail. The second king is called Yongjian,more powerful than the ﬁrst king. The third king is called Huaman (Śambara), and is even more powerful than the second. The fourth king is called
Vemacitra. His power and the number of his attendants are many times
greater than that of the third, beyond calculation. As for the other ministers,
court ladies, and various servants, their numbers too are incalculable. For
this reason, we know that the gap between noble and humble asura kings
is very wide, and they cannot be discussed in a uniform manner .

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6. Food and Clothing
The Zhengfanian jing (T. 721) says:
The food and clothing of the asura demons appear spontaneously by themselves. The garlands of their crowns and their clothing are all made ofseven jewels, and are just as fresh and clean as those of the gods. The
food they eat appears just when they think of them, and all are as variously
delicious as the gods’ foods.
The Dazhidu lun says:
The [asuras’] food and clothing are superior to those of human beings.
When the food is actually eaten, however, it is no longer as good as humanbeings’ food. In other words, when the asura demons eat their food, thelast mouthful turns into blue-green mud, like the food of a dragon (nāga)king. This food is varied and delicious with a hundred ﬂavors, but when
the king actually eats the food the last mouthful turns into a toad. For thisreason the scripture says that an asura king’s food is not as good as thatof human beings.
7. Battles
The Zengyi ahan jing (T.125:560c7–18) says:
At that time the Buddha said to the monks, “No being has been given alarger body than the king of the asura demons. Its height and width areeighty-four thousand yojanas. Its mouth is one thousand yojanas in widthand height. When [the asura] was about to touch the sun, his body doubled
in size to one hundred and sixty thousand yojanas. When he appeared
before the sun and moon, the kings of the sun and moon both became
afraid and were no longer at peace in their places. This was because thebody of the asura king was so fearful [to behold]. The kings of the sunand moon were frightened and their light disappeared.
“However, the asura demon did not dare go forward to seize the sunand moon. This was because the sun and moon are endowed with greatsupernatural powers. Their life spans are extremely long and in appearance
they are most handsome. They enjoy pleasures endlessly. [The speciﬁclength of their life span ] is the period of one world age (kalpa). Furthermore,

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the beings in this world came to rescue [the sun and moon]. Consequently,
the sun and moon were beyond the reach of the asura demon. The asura
demon then became distressed and disappeared into its own place.”
The Chang ahan jing (ref. T.1:141a22–29; 142c29–144a12) says:

310a

The asura demon is very powerful and says to himself, “These gods ofthe Heaven of Thirty-Three Gods and the gods of the sun and moon move
above my head. I vow to seize them and turn them into earrings.” Hebecame more and more angry and wanted to strike them. So he ordered
the two asura kings Śambara and Vemacitra and their ministers to makepreparations to engage in battle with the gods. At this time the two dragons
Nanda and Upananda encircled Mount Sumeru seven times with theirlong bodies. The mountain moved and was covered by clouds. When they
hit the surface of the great ocean with their tails, the waves covered Mount
Sumeru. The gods of the Heaven of Thirty-Three Gods said, “The asuras
are about to begin a battle.” Many dragons and supernatural beings, holding
weapons, went into battle, one after the other. The outcome of the battle
went against them and they all ﬂed. In front of the palace of the god of
the four heavens they armed their vehicles to engage in combat. The godof the four heavens ﬁrst reported the situation to the god Indra (Śakra),
who in turn reported to higher deities, up to the deity of the highest heavenof the realm of desire. Numerous gods as well as dragons and other supernatural beings surrounded them. Indra gave the command, saying, “If ourarmy turns out to be victorious, bind the asura Vemacitra with ﬁve bonds
and bring him to the Hall of Good Dharma. I would like to have a lookat him.” The asura demon also said, “If our army turns out to be victorious,
bind Indra with ﬁve bonds and bring him to the Hall of Seven Leaves. I
would like to have a look at him.”
The great battle began immediately but neither was injured. Only theirbodies touched each other, which caused them both great pain. Then Indra
manifested a body that had one thousand eyes, holding a vajra that emitted
smoke and ﬁre. When the asura demon saw this, he retreated in defeat.
The gods then captured Vemacitra and brought him back to Indra (Śakra).
Seeing him from a distance Vemacitra abused Indra. Indra responded, “I

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would like to discuss morality with you. Do not abuse me. The life spanin heaven is one thousand years; a few live longer and most do not livethat long. With your evil intentions you ﬁght well in battle. Furthermore,
you have violated the precepts. Yet even though you are unreliable inspeech, because you have given generously for spiritual purposes you
have been reborn in this form. (Note: According to another scripture, theasura had been reborn in that form because even though he had not beenstraightforward in thought he had indeed cultivated meritorious deeds.)
The Guanfo sanmei jing (T.643:646c27–647b10) says:
As for the king of asuras, Vemacitra, whose mother eats ghosts, eats only
by chewing mud and lotus roots. When this demon grew up he saw thatthe gods were attended by maidservants. He said to his mother, “Everyone
has a consort. Why am I the only one who is alone?” His mother replied,“In Fragrant Hill (Gandhamādana) lives a supernatural being called a gandharva. That supernatural being has a beautiful daughter, is as white as
white jade. Beautiful music can be heard coming from all the pores onher body. It would please me greatly for you to have her as your wife. Do
you want her?” The asura demon said, “Good, good. I would like you togo there and ask for her.”
The mother then went to Fragrant Hill and said to the god of music(gandharva), “I have a son who is so powerful that he is free to do anything[he wishes]. There is no other being in the realm under the four heavens
as powerful as he. You have a good daughter. You should let my son marryher.” When the daughter heard about this proposal, she wished to happily
return with the mother and marry her son.
Not long after the asura demon married the girl she became pregnant,and after eight thousand years she gave birth to a baby girl. The child was
exceptionally beautiful; there was no one comparable to her either inheaven or in the realm under heaven. She had eight thousand four hundred
attractive facial expressions and she could strike eight thousand four hundred attractive poses, both to the right and to the left, and likewise on thefront and back sides [of her body]. When the asura demon saw her hethought that she was extraordinary. It was as if the moon had taken the211

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310bplace of the stars. She was indeed quite remarkable. Kauśika (the surnameof the god Indra in his human life) heard about her and requested her as
his wife. The asura demon was delighted and gave her to him to be hiswife. Kauśika became the god Indra (Śakra) and called his wife Yueyi.
All the gods who saw her marveled at her beauty, exclaiming that such
beauty had never before existed. When they looked at her to the east, they
forgot all about the western direction; when they saw her to the south,
they forgot about everything in the northern direction. Every one of her
features, including the hair on her head, gave pleasure.
Indra was very fond of his garden and bathed in the pond there with anumber of maidservants. Yueyi became jealous and sent ﬁve yakṣa demons
to her father, saying, “Now Indra does not bestow love on me; he only playswith maidservants.” When her father heard these words, he became very
angry. Mobilizing the four kinds of troops (i.e., soldiers mounted on elephants,horses, and chariots, and foot soldiers), he attacked Indra (Śakra). There in
the midst of the great ocean, sitting atop Mount Sumeru, with his ninety-nine
hands he attacked the city in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods and caused
Mount Sumeru to move. The waters of the four great oceans made huge waves.
Indra was taken by surprise and did not know where to go.
At that time a supernatural being told the god, “Do not be greatly frightened. In the past the Buddha preached the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra.
The king recited the scripture over and over again and the army of ghosts
was crushed by itself. Then Indra (Śakra) sat in the Hall of Good Dharma,
burned many famous types of incense, and made a great vow: “The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra is a great spell. It is the supreme spell. It is an
incomparably wonderful spell. It is truly effective. I uphold this teaching
and will realize the Buddha’s Way in order to make the asura demons
ﬂee without any effort on my part.” When he said these words a wheelof swords appeared in the sky. This was due to Indra’s merit. Spontaneously
the wheel began to come down right on top of the asura demon, severing
its ears, nose, arms, and legs, which then fell into the water of the great
ocean. They looked red, like a pearl in a clam. The asura demon wasamazed and frightened. Not knowing where to ﬂee, he scrambled about
and crawled into a lotus ﬁlament.

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Miracle Stories(Note: Three stories are brieﬂy cited.)
The Xiguo zhuan (Record of the Western Regions) says:
In a rocky valley to the south west of the kingdom of Campa in Central
India there is a cave of asura demons. A man was traveling around themountains, engaged in religious practice, and came across this cave byaccident. He then went inside the cave and saw the palace of the asura
demons. It was marvelously beautiful, almost like the palace of the gods
in heaven. The pond in the garden and the forest of fruit trees cannot be
described fully in detail.
When the asura demons saw the unexpected arrival of the man [intheir palace], they said, “Can you stay here for long?” The man answered,“I wish to return home.” When the asura demons saw that he did not wish
to stay they gave him a peach, and when the man had ﬁnished eating it
the asura demons said, “You should get out quickly. I am afraid your bodyis growing larger and the cave will not be big enough to contain it.” Assoon as the demons ﬁnished saying this, the man ran to escape. He grewtaller and his body became rough and large. He managed to get his headout of the cave but his body had become so large that became stuck in the
cave and in the end he could not get out.
Several hundred years have passed since then. Only the man’s headcan be seen from the outside, and it resembles three large jars. Whenpeople see it they tell this story to each other. Taking pity on him, one
man offered, “We can carve the rock to let you get out. How about that?”
The head answered, “I would be grateful.” The man then reported this indetail to the ruler of the kingdom. The ruler consulted his ministers, who
said, “This extraordinary man must be so strong that he alone could ﬁght
against a thousand soldiers. If we were to carve away the rock and let him
get out but then something unexpected happens, no one could controlhim.” So they left the large man stuck in the rock cave as before. People
at that time called him the Large-headed Sage.
An emissary from the Chinese kingdom of Tang, Wang Xuance, went
to that place three times, and spoke to the man, patting the large head213

A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I[affectionately]. He could clearly understand what the head said. Recently
there was a forest ﬁre on the mountain and the head was burned black.
Yet the man with the large burned head is still alive.
The Record of the Western Regions was compiled in sixty fascicles as anational project and submitted to the throne. By imperial edict learned scholars
were ordered to produce paintings and drawings to accompany the sixty-fascicle record, and these were collected at the government’s central ofﬁce. This
constituted altogether forty fascicles. The project began at the beginning of
the third year of the Linde period (666 C.E.) and ended in the summer of theﬁrst year of Qianfeng period (667 C.E.). I have met [Wang] Xuance, who
told me the details of this story.
310c

The Biography of Dharma Master Xuanzang says:
The kingdom of Dhanakataka belongs to South India. Both on the eastern
and western sides of the capital city are mountains, and there are large
temples in these mountains. In one of these temples was a master of doctrinal treatises, Bhāviveka. (Note: His name in Chinese is Qingbian.)
Before Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva he made a vow to stop eating grain
and to drink only water for three years. He was determined and prayed
to see Maitreya Bodhisattva. Then Avalokiteśvara manifested his material
body and ordered Qingbian to go to the deity Vajrapāṇi, who was staying
in a large cave in the mountain to the south of the city, and to recite thevajra spell (dhāraṇī).
After three years the deity gave him this instruction, “Inside the caveis the palace of the asura demons. If you follow the correct way and makea proper request a rock door will open. Go through the door and bring out
Maitreya, who will be waiting there. I will make sure that you will succeedin this act.” After another three years had passed, Qingbian uttered thespell and threw a pepper seed at the rock wall , and suddenly the wall
opened wide. Hundreds of thousands of people were present there and all
were amazed to see this. The master stepped through the gate and looking
back, again and again, he told the people to follow him, but only six people
followed him. Others were afraid and did not enter, saying that poisonous
snakes lived in the cave. After the master had gone inside, the rock doors
closed up and formed an intact wall again.

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Dharma Master Xuanzang also told the following story:In the thirteenth year of Zhenguan (639 C.E.) [I] was at Nālanda Monasteryin the kingdom of Magadha in Central India. [I] met a layman, who toldme, “There was a man who loved women. Every time he heard scripture
recited he noted that the male offspring of the asura demons are extremely
ugly but the female offspring are attractive. He had heard that there wasan asura cave in a nearby mountain and that there was a extremely beautiful
palace there, as reﬁned as the palace of the gods in heaven. That man
thought that he would like to meet an asura’s daughter and marry her. He
practiced spells diligently for three years, and when the three-year period
was about to end his wish was granted. This man had long been a closefriend of mine. When he was about to go to the cave, he invited me toaccompany him on his trip to the palace of asura demons. At that time I
went with him, and since the spell had become effective, we arrived at
the gate of the palace.
“The guard at the gate looked very serious. My friend asked the guard,
sincerely and passionately, to let him pass through the gate to see the ladyof the palace. The guard reported the reason of our visit in detail to thoseinside. The lady of the asura demon was delighted and asked the guard,‘How many people have come?’ The guard replied, ‘There are two people.’
The lady said to the guard, ‘The one who uttered the spell may come in.
The one who accompanied him will stay outside the gate.’ He returnedand said, ‘The one who recited the spell may come in.’ I had no sensationof how this happened, but as I watched my friend being led inside mybody was suddenly back at my own house, and I was standing to the southof the building.
“From then on I have never heard any news about my friend. Becauseof this I made the commitment to renounce the householder’s life and cultivate the religious path. I vowed to make offerings to the Three Jewels
in this temple building.” This man told this story in detail to Dharma
Master Xuanzang.

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Chapter Four(continued)
The Six Realms of Rebirth(continued)
4. Ghosts and Spirits(This has eleven parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Explanation of the Name, (3)Dwelling Places, (4) Categories, (5) Karmic Causes [for Rebirth], (6) Body
Size, (7) Life Span, (8) Beautiful and Ugly Appearance, (9) Pain and Pleasure,(10) Noble and Ignoble Ghosts, and (11) Residences.
l. Introduction
To come to the methods used by ghosts and spirits, such creatures takeparticular delight in strange and evil things. They frequently commit crimes
in mysterious and secret places. Some dwell among darkly shaded rocks;
some ﬁnd shelter in high hills, or in unreachable mountain streams, or indense bush. Others stay in deserted ﬁelds in uninhabited places outside ofcities. They are of extraordinary appearance and make strange sounds that
disturb ordinary beings and frighten ignorant creatures. They falsely adopt
awesome manifestations and cunningly strange appearances. Some ghosts
are in the shape of a bird but have the nature of ﬁsh, or they may have ahuman face but the heart of a beast. Some make music with drums and singalong with stringed instruments, beating drumsticks and chiming bells. All
these creatures alike repent their sins.
They dwell in shrines in the nine continents and serve as the spirits of ten
thousand states. Among them are the Great Count of Gusu, Ji Zi of Yanling,
Yuchuan Wenming, the bearded kings of caves and marshes, water gods,
mountain spirits, masters of wind and rulers of rain, [the god of thunder] Fenglong, [the god of lightning] Lieque, the ﬁre god Huilu, and Linghou. Someride on a bamboo pole as if it were a dragon, ﬂying like wild birds instead of

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I[elegant] geese. They reside in tall shrines attached to multistoried buildings.
Coming and going in the falling rain, they travel up and down the dividing
winds. There are also such ghosts such as the yellow-headed general andthose with needle hair, Xiuli (Sūrya[mitra]), Lena (Ratna[keśa]), [jiu]pantu(kumbhāṇḍas), and other rākṣasas, with their three thousand attendants andﬁve hundred followers. All [of these creatures] repent [their sins].
Furthermore, there are those who have extremely grave hindrances, called
hungry ghosts (pretas). The light in their eyes is like ﬂashing lightning. Theirthroats are as small as the eye of a needle. They cannot even hear words like“water” or “juice,” and they never taste foods made with rice. The joints of
their limbs are all aﬂame at the same time. As they turn around their bones
creak, as loudly as the sound of ﬁve hundred carriages.
Today the merit of good acts are available to bring beneﬁt to all sentient
beings. A vow should be made to ensure that the hungry and thirsty ghosts may
be able to eat and drink freely and that the other seductive and alluring ghosts
and spirits stop groveling before people to get what they need. Let them glorify
the teaching of the Buddha, protect the world, and guard the images and scriptures. We make offerings for a long time and record the consequences of goodand evil deeds in order to enable people to practice spiritual cultivation forever.
2. Explanation of the Name
What does the name “realm of ghosts” mean? According to the Lishi [apitan] lun (T.1644:197c29–198a2):
311b

The realm of ghosts is called preta (“gone forward”) because King Yama[of the realm of the dead] is called a preta. Those who are born in this realm
are called by the name of its king. Therefore, [hungry ghosts] are also called
pretas. It is also said that this realm is connected with other realms as beings
come and go through it, superior and inferior realms are connected by this,and therefore it is called preta, the realm of “coming and going.”
Again, the new Posha lun (T.1545:867a20– b4) says:
Question: Why is that realm called preta?
Answer: The Shishe lun says, “Just as the ruler of the world of ghosts
at the present time is called Yama, so the ruler of the world of ghosts at

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the beginning of the world age was called preta. For this reason sentient
beings that went and were born there were called pretas. Thus, everything
in the world of the pretas has been called by this name since then.”According to one view, if a person has committed and indulged inexcessively greedy evil deeds of body, speech, and mind he is born there.
For this reason, he experiences both hunger and thirst [in that realm]. For
more than one hundred thousand years he does not even hear the word
“water,” so how could he see or touch it? Impossible! Some of these beings
have a belly as big as a mountain but a throat as narrow as a pinhole. Even
when they ﬁnd food and drink they cannot take them in.
According to one view, they are called ghosts (preta, “ones who go
forward”) because they are driven and forced into labor. They are constantly
made to work everywhere by the gods and are always running around.
According to another view, because they have many desires they arecalled ghosts. Among the ﬁve realms of existence none is inhabited bybeings whose desires exceed those of the inhabitants of this realm, always
wanting many favors from other sentient beings. For this reason this realm
is called the realm of ghosts.
Furthermore, ghosts and spirits are explained in the Posha lun (ref. T.1545:
48c5) as follows: “ghost” (gui) means “fear” (wei). This means that ghosts
are weak and fearful. Also, something that is always greedily seeking is calleda ghost. This refers to the fact that hungry ghosts constantly seek food fromothers in order to live. Therefore, they are given the name “greedily seeking.”
3. Dwelling Places
According to the Posha lun (T.1545:48c7–9):
Hungry ghosts have two dwelling places: primary and secondary. There
are different views on the primary dwelling place. The work mentioned
above says that ﬁve hundred yojanas below this world we call Jambudvīpa
is the realm of hungry ghosts, governed by King Yama. This is the [hungry
ghosts’] primary dwelling place.
The Shansheng youposai jing (T.1488:1072b15–17) also has the same
view:

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Five hundred yojanas below this world is the city of Yama, the ghost king.
The perimeter of each of its four sides is seven hundred and seven million
ﬁve hundred thousand yojanas. The multitude of ghosts that the king rules
over live inside [this city].
In addition, as the Wudaoku jing (ref. Wudao zhangju jing, T.741:548a18–19) says, “These hungry ghosts live between the two Iron Surrounding Mountains.”
Therefore this scripture says in verse:
Between the two Iron Surrounding Mountains
One does not see the sun or moon.
Hungry ghosts gather together there
In order to pay for their sins [committed in] previous lives.
Coming now to the secondary dwelling place, according to the Posha lun(ref. T.1545:867b6–10; T.1546:48c9–12), there are again different views:

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There are two kinds of secondary dwelling places: one is for awesome
ghosts and the other for ghosts that are not awesome. Awesome ghosts
live in mountains and valleys, or in the sky, or on the shores of the ocean.
They all have palaces and their karmic retribution is superior to those ofhumans. The ghosts without awesome powers dwell amid impure dungand dirt, or in overgrown graves, or by lavatories and old tombs. None ofthem has a house. Their karmic retribution is inferior to that of humans.
Again, as the abovementioned work says (ref. T.1545:867b12–19;
T.1546:48c12–17):
The four directions under heaven all have dwelling places for ghosts. In
the two directions, east and west, there are both awesome ghosts andghosts without awesome powers. There are only awesome ghosts in thenorthern direction and no ghosts without awesome powers. This is because
karmic conditions are superior there.
In the heavens, up to Tuṣita Heaven, are also the dwelling places of
the awesome ghosts. They are driven to labor by the gods of those heavens.
Hungry ghosts do not live in heavens higher than Tuṣita Heaven.

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The new Posha lun (T.1545:867b15–c5) also says:
Among the gods of the four heavenly realms and the thirty-three heavens
dwell only the awesome ghosts. They guard and patrol the gates and allserve as servants for the gods who live in these heavens. It is said that to
the west of this world are ﬁve hundred islets, in two rows. (Note: According
to the old Posha lun [T.1546:48c16], to the west of this world are ﬁve hundred cities of ghosts. These ﬁve hundred cities are of two kinds.) On thetwo rows of islets are ﬁve hundred cities. In two hundred and ﬁfty of thesecities the awesome ghosts live; in the other two hundred and ﬁfty cities
live the ghosts without awesome powers. For this reason in ancient daysa universal monarch, called Nimi, said to his charioteer Mātali, “I wish togo out on a pleasure drive. You should drive the chariot on this road andlet me see the sentient beings receiving good and evil karmic retribution.
Mātali did as he was told by the king and drove the chariot between thetwo rows of islets. The king saw the awesome ghosts. They wore crowns
on their heads and their hair was decorated with ﬂowers. They were dressedin heavenly garments and ate delicious food, as if they were the sons ofgods. They rode on carriages drawn by elephants and horses and every
one of them was playing happily. The king then saw the ghosts without
awesome powers. Their hair was disheveled and they were naked, lacking
clothing. They looked emaciated, covered with their own hair. They wentaround begging, carrying unglazed pots. When the king saw these sights,
he came to believe deeply in good and bad karmic retribution.
Question: What do the ghosts look like?
Answer: They mostly look like human beings. Some look like animals.
Some ghosts look like pigs; some look like different kinds of other inferior
animals. They look as they do in the wall paintings.
Question: What is their language?
Answer: At the beginning of a world age they all speak Sanskrit. Laterthey use different languages according to their circumstances. Some saythat their appearance and speech are determined by the circumstances inwhich they ended their earlier lives to be reborn in this realm.
Comment: We do not follow this view. Suppose someone dies in the formless realm and was reborn [in this realm]—would he be without form and221

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speech? If one follows this view, wherever one had been born previously would
determine his language and appearance [in the realm of ghosts].
4. Categories
The Zhengfanian jing (ref. T.721:92a22–b21; 92c13–102c22) says:

312a

The total number of hungry ghosts may be divided generally into thirtysix kinds. Because the behavior that caused rebirth [in this realm] differs,
they receive different retributions.
l. Boiling cauldron ghosts: Because these creatures committed murderwhen hired by others, they are cooked in a boiling cauldron. Or they had
been entrusted with objects and refused to return them to the owners later,
so they receive this retribution.
2. Pin-mouthed smelly ghosts: These creatures once hired others tocommit murder. Their throats are narrow like a pinhole and not even adrop of water can pass through them.
3. Vomited food-eating ghosts: The husbands of these ghosts advised
their wives to make religious offerings, but the women said there wasnothing to give. Instead they accumulated property and were stingy. Therefore, these wives now must constantly eat vomited-up food in this rebirth.
4. Excrement-eating ghosts: Wives who deceived their husbands, eating
and drinking by themselves, and who felt hatred toward their husbands,
now as ghosts eat and vomit up excrement all the time.
5. Fire-eating ghosts: These creatures withheld food from people andcaused their deaths, so they are now burned by ﬁre and suffer from hunger
and thirst.
6. Breath-eating ghosts: These creatures often ate good food but did
not give any to their wives and children, letting them suffer from hunger
and thirst, so they now only have odorous breath for food.
7. Dharma-eating ghosts: These creatures preached the Dharma toothers only in order to obtain wealth. Their bodies are now racked byhunger and thirst and they have lost all their ﬂesh. Their lives are maintained by virtue of the monks’ preaching of Dharma.
8. Water-eating ghosts: These creatures sold wine as water, deceiving
ignorant people and causing them to violate the pure precepts, so they
constantly suffer from scorching thirst.

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9. Greedy ghosts: These creatures haggled over prices when buying
and selling and obtained things by cheating, so they now constantly sufferfrom hunger and thirst. They obtain food from the offerings given forancestral spirits.
10. Saliva-eating ghosts: These creatures deceived those who hadrenounced the householder’s life by giving them impure food, so they are
constantly hungry and thirsty and their bodies are cooked and boiled.
They beg for other people’s saliva and eat it with impure food.
11. Flower garland-eating ghosts: In their previous life these creatures
stole the Buddha’s garland offerings to adorn themselves. When people,
on encountering unfortunate events, now make offerings of garlands theseghosts subsequently get to eat them.
12. Blood-eating ghosts: These creatures killed living beings and ate
their blood but did not give anything to their wives and children, so they
have received the form of this type of ghost. If blood is poured out during
a sacriﬁcial rite these ghosts get to eat it.
13. Meat-eating ghosts: These creatures had butchered sentient beingsand cut off their ﬂesh, weighed it, and committed deception when tradingin it, so they have received this retribution. Because they are very deceptive
and ugly, people shun them [and ﬂee at] the sight [of them]. If people sacriﬁce mixed pieces of meat these ghosts get to eat it.
14. Incense-eating ghosts: These creatures sold defective incense andreceived a handsome price for it, so they eat only the smoke from incenseand later receive the retribution of poverty.
15. Fast-walking ghosts: These creatures violated the precepts yet stillwore monk’s robes. They took [offerings of food] through deception,saying that they would offer them to ill people, but they did not give thefood to the ill and instead consumed it themselves. Consequently theyreceive this retribution. They eat impure food all the time and their bodies
burn without any external cause.
16. Ghosts that spy on others when they are defecating and urinating:
These creatures cheated and stole property and did not cultivate meritorious
works, so they receive this retribution. Flames burst forth from the hairson their body. They consume people’s vital powers and impure excretions
in order to sustain their own lives.

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312b

17. Darkness ghosts: These creatures sought wealth by illegal meansand caused the legitimate owners to be imprisoned in jail. Blinded in thedarkness of jail, the legitimate owners appealed continuously for help withpitiful cries. For this reason, their tormentors now suffer the pain of being
put in a dark place full of evil snakes and of being cut up with swords.
18. Great-power ghosts: These creatures stole other people’s thingsand gave them to bad friends, not performing meritorious acts of giving,so they receive this retribution. They are endowed with great supernatural
powers but must endure great suffering.
19. Blazing ghosts: These creatures destroyed and plundered cities,
and murdered people. For this reason they receive this retribution. They
scream and shout as ﬂames burn all over their bodies. Later they are reborn
as humans and are constantly robbed by others.
20. Ghosts that spy on children and defecating adults: These are creatures whose children were killed and they became very angry. For thisreason they receive this retribution. They constantly spy on people defecating and are capable of harming children.
21. Desire ghosts: These creatures gained wealth by licentious deeds
but did not give anything for meritorious purposes, so they receive thisretribution. They wander around among humans and engage in sexualintercourse with them. They deceive people by taking the forms of extraordinary creatures in order to secure their livelihood.
22. Ocean-islet ghosts: These creatures, walking in a deserted ﬁeld,
saw an ill person and cheated him of his possessions, so they are reborn
in an ocean islet and receive the pain of heat and coldness ten times worse
than usual.
23. Ghosts that hold the stick for King Yama: In previous lives thesecreatures were close to kings and ministers and committed violent andevil deeds in a dictatorial manner, so they receive this retribution. They
have become attendants of the King of Hell, Yama, and serve as his stickholding ghosts.
24. Small children-eating ghosts: These creatures used magic, stole
property from others by deceit, and killed pigs and sheep, so they havefallen into hell after death and receive this retribution. They constantly
eat small children.

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25. Human soul-eating ghosts: These creatures deceived their closefriends, saying, “I will protect you” to urge their friends to be more daring;
the friends then fell and died in the battleﬁeld while they did nothing to
aid them. Because of this they receive this retribution.
26. Demon ghosts: These creatures killed living beings and threw a
big party, so they receive this retribution of suffering from hunger andbeing burned by ﬁre.
27. Fire-scorched food ghosts: Because their minds were engulfed bystinginess and they delighted in eating food that belonged to the monastery,these creatures ﬁrst fell into hell and after coming out of hell their bodies
are scorched in a cauldron of ﬁre.
28. Impure street ghosts: These creatures gave impure food to religious
practitioners, so they receive this retribution and eat impurities.
29. Wind-eating ghosts: When a person who had renounced the worldcame to beg alms, these creatures agreed to give him food but did not giveit in the end. Because of this they receive this retribution and constantly
suffer from thirst and hunger. Their torment is like the pain of hell.
30. Coal-eating ghosts: When they were in charge of a prison thesecreatures prevented the inmates from eating and drinking. Because of thisthey receive this retribution, and constantly eat burning coal.
31. Poison-eating ghosts: These creatures used poison to murder others,
so they fell into hell and later came out and became ghosts. They arethirsty and hungry all the time and constantly eat poison and ﬁre, whichburns their bodies.
32. Deserted-ﬁeld ghosts: In a wide ﬁeld where artiﬁcial lakes andponds have been created to provide travelers with water, these creatures
spoke rudely, broke dikes, and let travelers go thirsty. Because of this theyreceive this retribution. They are constantly hungry and thirsty and ﬁreburns their bodies.
33. Ash- and soil-eating cemetery ghosts: These creatures stole andsold ﬂowers that had been offered to the Buddha in order to make a living.
Because of this they receive this retribution. They constantly eat the hot
ashes of burned corpses among the dead.
34. Ghosts that live under trees: These creatures saw people plant trees
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their own use. Because of this, they have fallen into the realm of trees
and constantly suffer from cold and heat.
35. Crossroads ghosts: These creatures robbed travelers on the road of
their provisions. For this evil deed their bodies are sawed apart constantly.
They take food from the shrines at crossroads and live on it.
36. Māra ghosts: These creatures practiced heterodox teachings and did
not believe in the correct and true teaching, so they have fallen to the statusof ghosts of Māra and constantly harm others who practice the right Dharma.
According to the Shunzhengli lun (T.1562:517b13–c21):

312c

There are three kinds of ghosts: those “without property,” those “withlittle property,” and those “with a great deal of property.”
Those “without property” also include three kinds: “torch-mouth,”“pin-mouth,” and “foul-mouth.”
The torch-mouth ghosts constantly emit blazing ﬂames out of theirmouths, which burn with incomparable intensity; their bodies look likeburned up tāla trees. This is the painful retribution caused by extreme
stinginess.
The pin-mouth ghosts’ stomachs are massive, like a mountain valley,
but their mouths are like a pinhole. Even though they see various kindsof wonderful food and drink they cannot take them in; their hunger andthirst are difﬁcult to bear.
The foul-mouth ghosts have extremely bad breath, which stinks likerotting matter and comes from these ghosts all the time. [The smell of
their breath] is worse than excrement overﬂowing from a privy; the foulsmell clings to their mouths and they constantly go through the motionsof vomiting. Even when they ﬁnd food and drink they cannot take them;tortured by hunger and thirst, they run around screaming wildly.
Those “with a little property” also include three kinds: “needle hair,”“smelly hair,” and “big goiter.”
The needle-haired ghosts have body hair that is straight, hard, andsharp, so that one cannot go near them. The hair drills holes into theirown bodies and pierces the bodies of others. These ghosts are like a deer
shot by poisoned arrows, running wildly in fear. Sometimes they ﬁnd
impure food that temporarily eases their hunger and thirst.

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The smelly-hair ghosts have hair that is extremely odiferous and dirty;
it makes their skin and bones stink and rot. Steaming dust from theirbowels and stomach rises into their throats and becomes their spittle. Theirpain is unbearable; if one seizes the body of such a ghost and pulls on its
hair, it rends the skin and increases the excessive pain. These ghosts sometimes ﬁnd impure food that temporarily eases their hunger and thirst.
Because of the effect of evil karma, the goiter ghosts develop a large
goiter in their throat; it is hot and dry like a tumor and it aches. When theypeel the skin of the goiter for each other stinking pus wells out. They ﬁght
over food to ease their hunger a little.
Those “with a great deal of property” also include three kinds: “shrineseeker,” “thrown-away food-seeker,” and “greatly powerful” ghosts.
The shrine-seeker ghosts constantly go to shrines and feast on what
people have offered for the sacriﬁce. [These ghosts] are born in realms as
determined by their karma but they often visit different places. They ﬂyin the sky like birds and go back and forth freely. With the superior understanding they had in a previous life they made the wish, “When my life
ends, may my descendants build a shrine for me and provide me with foodand drink.” Because of this superior understanding they are born among
these ghosts. The good karmic causes of their previous lives bring about
the offerings at shrines now. Some of them loved those who were close tothem in a previous life and wished to make them all wealthy and well provided for, but they accumulated wealth in a manner that does not accord
with the Dharma. With stinginess in their minds they did not make spiritual
gifts. Because of this evil karmic cause they were born among these ghosts.
Such ghosts live around lavatories and other impure places near their
original residences. Their loved ones, remembering them, invite solitaryand impoverished monks and brahmans to make offerings to them andhonor their merit. When these ghosts see that they are recalled by theirclose ones in connection with the wealth they had left behind, and also see
the results of their stinginess clearly manifested in the poverty of those
who are receiving the offerings, pure faith arises in their minds. They continue to nurture the activities that accompany the act of giving. Becauseof this they receive the fruit in the same life, and because of this karmic
force they obtain plentiful provisions.

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The ghosts who seek thrown-away food wish to collect leftover food andexcrement discarded by other people to use as their food. So they are also
well provided for. Because of the fault of stinginess in their previous life,
however, where there is food or drink they see only ﬁlth or nothing at all. In
pleasure and purity they see only ﬁlth. Yet because of good karmic rewards
all their needs are amply provided for. Food and drink are available to them.
We are born into realms as determined by karma but our different fates
are unpredictable. Offerings made to ghosts affect them accordingly. In thehell realm different karmic causes mature at different times, producing different effects (i.e., retribution or punishments); some are interrupted andthen resume, but not so in other realms. In the human realm we can acquire
superior knowledge and pure practice, but not so in other realms. In heaven
everything appears as one wishes. These things are determined by karmic
rebirth but there is no ﬁxed formula for predicting the ultimate outcome.
As for the ghosts of great power, the description here is roughly the sameas that found in the Posha lun above.
In addition, the Yüqie lun (T.1579:297b5–24) says:
There are three kinds of ghosts. The ﬁrst are external obstruction ghosts.
Because sentient beings were stingy they are reborn among these ghosts.
They are always hungry and their skin and ﬂesh are dry like coal. The hairon their heads is in wild disorder and their lips are dry and burned. They
constantly lick their mouths and faces with their tongues. Hungry, thirsty
and fearful, they run around everywhere. Whatever springs and ponds theyﬁnd are guarded by sentient beings wielding swords and sticks who do not
let them approach. Or the water turns into pus and blood and they themselves
do not wish to drink it. They are called external obstruction ghosts.
The second group is internal obstruction ghosts. This refers to sentient
beings whose mouths like a burning needle and who have very large stomachs. Even if they obtain food and drink they cannot take them. These are
the internal obstruction ghosts.
There are hungry ghosts called violent ﬂame garland ghosts; their foodand drink all get burned up. For this reason they suffer greatly from hunger
and thirst. They are called the no obstruction ghosts.

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Now, good deeds are said to be of beneﬁt. They occasion happy karmic
rewards. Evil deeds harm others and invite destructive retribution. Doing
good deeds is comparable to climbing a mountain: one understands that it is
difﬁcult to ascend. Evil deeds are like collapsing and falling, which are indeed
easy to do. Therefore, the heavenly palace is vacant and the footsteps of visitors are few, while the jails of hell are overwhelmed by those who compete
for a place in it and gather there in great numbers.
5. Karmic Causes [for Rebirth]
As the Dazhidu lun (T.1509:279c17–18) says, “There are three kinds ofevil [deeds]. Only if a creature commits the minor kind of evil is he rebornin the realm of hungry ghosts.”
The Shidi lun (ref. T.1522:148b10–24) also presents the same view andexplains which of the ten evil deeds a creature may commit that will cause
him to ﬁrst be reborn in the three inferior realms of hell, hungry ghosts, andanimals, and later to obtain a human body.
The Zhengfanian jing (ref. T.721:93a4–29) says:
If out of greed and jealousy a being falsely ﬂatters and deceives others,
or while being stingy and accumulating wealth he does not give offerings,
he is reborn in the realm of ghosts. When his lifetime as a ghost is over,often he is reborn in the realm of animals, receiving the body of cātaka
bird. Constantly hungry and thirsty, he suffers greatly. He can only drink
rain that falls from heaven, waiting for it with his mouth open and facing
upward; he cannot drink any other water. Therefore he is constantly troubled by hunger and thirst.
The Yebao chabie jing (T.80:893a19–23) says:
If a being commits all of the ten evil deeds he is reborn among the hungry
ghosts. [The ten evil deeds are:] (1) with his body he commits light evil
deeds, (2) with his mouth he commits light evil deeds of speech, (3) withhis mind he commits light evil deeds, (4) he is stingy and greedy, (5) heperpetrates inappropriate evil deeds, (6) he fawns over others and is envious, (7) he entertains heretical views, (8) he is attached to wealth and lifeat the moment of death, (9) he dies of hunger, (10) he dies of thirst. Becauseof these evil deeds one is reborn among hungry ghosts.

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The Fenbie gongde lun (T.1507:40b6–16) says:
Some monks were practicing meditation, some in a graveyard and others
under trees. A monk was once contemplating a corpse. At night he saw ahungry ghost beating the corpse. The monk asked, “Why do you beat thiscorpse?” The ghost answered, “Because this corpse troubles me so much,
I beat it.” The follower of the Way said, “Why don’t you beat your mind
rather than beat the corpse?” After a short while a god sprinkled this stinking corpse with heavenly mandāra ﬂowers. The monk asked, “Why do
you sprinkle this stinking corpse with ﬂowers?” The god answered,“Because of this corpse I attained rebirth in heaven. This corpse is a goodfriend of mine. Therefore, I come to sprinkle ﬂowers on it to repay it for
its kindness in the past.” The follower of the Way answered, “Why don’t
you sprinkle ﬂowers on your mind rather than on the stinking corpse?
The source of all good and evil deeds is the activity of the mind. Are you
forgetting the source to grasp at the branches?”
6. Body Size
According to the Wudao jing:
The largest in size among the hungry ghosts is one yojana in height. His
head is like a large mountain yet the diameter of his throat is as thin as aneedle. The hair on his head is disheveled and he looks gaunt and thin.
He walks supported by a stick. There are many such ghosts. The smallestof the hungry ghosts is like a small child with [basic] mental faculty (gandharva?). Some say its size is three inches in diameter.
Details are in the scriptures and need not be recorded here.
7. Life Span
According to the Guanfo sanmei jing (T.643:661b3), “The longest life
span of ghosts is eighty-four thousand years; the shorter life spans are notspeciﬁed.”
Following the Chengshi lun (T.1646:247a28), “The longest life span isseventy thousand years; shorter ones are also not speciﬁed.”
Following the Youposai jing (T.1488:1072a23–25):

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The longest life span is ﬁfteen thousand years. Five thousand years in humantime is one day and night among the ghosts. In terms of these days and nights,
the ghosts live ﬁfteen thousand years. (Note: To calculate by human days,
months, and years, the number is equivalent to seventeen million years).
Following the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:92c25–28):
The life span of a ghost is ﬁve hundred years. Ten years in human timeis one day and one night among the ghosts. It is ﬁve hundred years withthis latter time. (Note: To calculate in human days, months, and years, thenumber is equivalent to one million eight hundred thousand years).
8. Beautiful and Ugly Appearance
According to the Posha lun (ref. T.1545:867b23–29; T.1546:48c21–25):
The ghosts with awesome powers are counted among the good-looking
ghosts in appearance. They are handsome, no different from gods. Also
the gods of the ﬁve sacred mountains and the four [great] rivers [in China]
are all very handsome. They are all said to be good-looking.
On the other hand, among the ugly ones are the ghosts without awesome
powers. Their appearance is hideous and cannot be described in detailhere. Their bodies are hollow like the insides of a hungry dog; their hairis in disarray like wild weeds; their throats are like thin needles; their legs
are like dry and rotten wood; from their mouths saliva constantly drips
and snot ﬂows from their noses; pus seeps from their ears and blood fromtheir eyes. With all these things they are said to be extremely ugly.
9. Pain and Pleasure
According to the Posha lun (ref. T.1545:867a27–b1; b7–12, 23–26;
T.1546:48c2–3, 10–11, 21–23):
Those who suffer pain among the ghosts are the ghosts without awesome
powers. Constantly beset by hunger and thirst, they cannot even hearwords such as “juice” or “water.” How could they encounter a good meal?
It is impossible! If they ﬁnd a wide river and wish to drink from it, thewater turns into a burning torch. If the water enters their mouths it scorches
their stomachs. How could such creatures not suffer pain? On the other

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hand, those who happily enjoy pleasures among the ghosts are the ghosts
with awesome powers. Rich and beautiful, they obtain whatever clothing
and food they want just by wishing for it. They wear heavenly garments
and eat the food offered to gods. Their appearance is always elegantly
relaxed. Riding with a whip, they go from place to place, traveling quickly.
They roam and play according to their mood. In what way are they be different from gods? How could such things not be pleasures? Impossible!
Question: Since such pleasures are superior to those of human beings,
why does the scripture speak of the different realms of humans and ghosts?
Answer: The scripture says that the realm of ghosts is inferior to that ofhumans. This has two meanings, described brieﬂy: (l) ghosts are inferior tohumans in regard to public and manifest behavior; that is to say, because
ghosts hide during the daytime and roam around at night they are inferior tohumans; (2) ghosts are inferior to humans in that they are timid and fearful.
Even if they have awesome powers, because their retribution is inferior they
are always afraid of humans; if they encounter any people during the day ornight, they invariably make way for them and hide.
Question: If the gods are inferior to humans, how did they acquire awesome
powers similar to those of the gods as retribution?
Answer: They performed giving frequently and on a large scale in theirprevious lives so they obtained this awesome retribution; but because they
were not truthful, ﬂattering others dishonestly, they received rebirth in therealm of ghosts.

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10. Noble and Ignoble Ghosts
According to the Posha lun (T.1546:48c9–10), some [ghosts] have awesome
powers. They may be called “noble.” Some lack awesome powers. They may
be called “ignoble.” Also, the rulers of ghosts may be called “noble,” while
those who are driven and used may be called “ignoble.”
Question: What about their economic conditions?
Answer: Those with awesome powers are well provided for and freely
have the use of servants. Thus they are called “wealthy.” Some ghosts areconstantly driven and ordered to work. They do not hear even of simple
food and have difﬁculty ﬁnding even worn-out clothes. These [ghosts] arecalled “poor.”232

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11. Residences
According to the Posha lun (ref. T.1545:867b8–9, 10–12; T.1546:48c10–
12):Those with awesome powers have palaces and residences decorated withthe seven jewels. All mountain and river deities have residences to live
in. Those without awesome powers, such as the ﬂoating and wandering
ghosts and the hungry and thirsty ones, do not have residences. They live
temporarily in grave mounds and stay in bushes, among grasses and trees,
and in caves. These are their living quarters.
The Zhuangyan lun (T.201:275c13–276a17) says:
The Buddha said, “In the past I heard of a son of a merchant whose namewas Śroṇakoṭikarṇa. He took to the ocean to seek treasure and having
achieved success he returned. He and his companion stayed overnight indifferent places. One time, having lost his companion, he was frightened
and pressed by hunger and thirst. He saw a city far away and thought there
would be water there. He approached the city to look for water to drink,
but it was a city of ghosts. He entered the city. The crossroads of the major
streets running in the four directions and other places where people would
usually gather together were empty and he did not see anyone. Hungry
and thirsty, he said “I am pressed with hunger and thirst!” He then saw
another city [at some distance] and thought there would be water there.
He approached that city and looked for water, but again it was a city ofghosts. He entered the city, but the crossroads of the major streets runningin the four directions and other places where people would usually gather
together were empty and he did not see anyone. Hungry and thirsty, hecried out “Water, water!” The hungry ghosts heard a voice saying “water”
and they all gathered like a cloud, saying, “Who among the merciful
wishes to give water?” The bodies of all these ghosts were like scorchedpillars. Covered with their own hair, they all approached with their palms
joined, and each said, “Please give me water!” When the hungry ghosts
heard that Śroṇakoṭikarṇa was himself pressed by thirst and was looking
for water, their hope vanished and, sighing deeply, they said, “Perhaps
you don’t know, but this is a city of ghosts. Why did you come here tolook for water?”

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Then they said in verse:
We live in this castle.
In a billion years
We have not yet even heard the word “water.”
How could be any among us who were able to drink some?
Like a palm tree forest
That is burning, ablaze,
We are likewise
Burning in all our limbs and joints.
The hair on our heads is entirely disheveled.
Our bodies are broken and bruised all over.
Day and night we think of food and drink.
Out of fear we run around in all directions.
Pressed by hunger and thirst,
With our mouths wide open, we run in search for food and drink.
A man follows us with a stickAnd, pursuing us, he whips us.
Another man hits us with a hammer and no one can go near him.

314b

We suffer this pain.
How could we obtain water?
Be merciful and give to others.
In our previous lives
We were stingy and jealous.
We never gave anyone juice, water, or any food and drink.
We did not give any of our possessions to others,
And we caused others not to give.
For these grave acts
We now suffer pain.

Miracle Stories(Note: Six stories are cited brieﬂy:) From the Song dynasty (420–479 C.E.),
Sima Wenxuan, Wang Hu, and Li Dan; from the Tang dynasty (618–907
C.E.), Sui Renqian, demons and monsters in the mountains in Linchuan, andmiscellaneous non-Buddhist stories about ghosts.

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Song Dynasty
Sima Wenxuan was a man of the Honei area and he believed deeply in
the Buddhist teaching. In the ninth year of the Yuanjia period (426 C.E.) his
mother and younger brother died. Toward the morning of one full moon night
he suddenly saw his brother sitting at the spirit altar, looking just as he used
to when he was alive. Turning quickly toward Wenxuan, he sighed and said
he wanted food and drink. Wenxuan then tested him, saying, “You performed
the ten good deeds in your lifetime. If the scripture is true, you should havebeen reborn in heaven or in the realm of humans. Why were you rebornamong ghosts?” Deep in thought, the brother looked up and down and did
not reply. That evening Wenxuan saw his brother again in a dream. His brothersaid that because of the good deeds he had cultivated in his life he had beenreborn in heaven; the ﬁgure at the spirit altar in the morning was the king of
ghosts, not he. Since he was afraid that the older brother might become skeptical [about the effects of Buddhist cultivation], he had come to tell this tohim [in his dream].
The next morning Wenxuan asked the monks to recite the Shoulengyan
jing (T. 642) and ordered his men to beat and tie up the ghost. The ghost
escaped under the ﬂoor and ran outside the house. His appearance was ugly.
Everyone in the house was surprised and fearful, and chased him away, shouting loudly. The ghost said, “I was hungry and was only begging for food.”
He left some days later.
Later, there was a ghost at his mother’s altar. It was tall and had a red
body. Wenxuan’s oldest son, Xiaozu, exchanged words with the ghost. The
ghost’s answers were all well-informed. At ﬁrst Xiaozu was afraid, but inthe end he became more at ease and accustomed to the ghost. The ghost also
became more tame, going in and out of the house just like a member of thefamily. The story about this ghost spread in the capital city at that time andmany people came to see it. At the time there was a monk in Nanlin Temple
who along with Senghan, a monk of Lingwei Temple, debated with the ghost
in a very relaxed manner. The ghost said, “In a past birth I was a respected
and noble person. Because I committed many evil deeds, however, my karmic
retribution is not exhausted, and I have this body as a consequence. In the past
Year of the Tiger, four hundred divisions of ghosts spread diseases all over.
The calamities they caused should not have troubled you who are followers

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314cof the Way. But they committed many evil deeds and disrupted good activities.
Therefore, I have been sent to look over things.”
The monks offered him food. The ghost said, “I have my own food. You
should not offer this food to me.” Senghan said, “You know a great deal
about my life. From which realm have I come and why did I become a monk?”
The ghost answered, “You came from the realm of humans. Your originalvow is the karmic reason for your renouncing the householder’s life.” Themonk asked about life, death, and the realms of rebirth, and the ghost answered
almost all his questions. There were also miracles, but since they were too
numerous we cannot record the details [here].
Senghan said, “The realms of humans and ghosts differ. You are notlooking for food. Why have you stayed here so long?” The ghost said, “Thereis a woman here that I must arrest, but she honors the precepts and is diligent
in religious duties, so I have difﬁculty in obtaining her. This is the reason
for my delay now. I am greatly ashamed to disturb my host.” After this he
did not show his body very much, and later visitors heard only his voice.
This was in the tenth year of Yuanjia (427 C.E.). On the twenty-eighth dayof the third month the ghost said to Wenxuan, “I appeared suddenly andstayed on, yet you used all your family resources to perform meritorious
deeds. Having been treated with such great reverence, how could I be sorude as to stay much longer?” Xiaozu said, “You may stay, but why did you
appear at the altar set up for someone who had just died?” The ghost answered,“The deceased in your family all have their own places. This seat was vacantso, I borrowed it temporarily.” So saying this, he departed.
Wang Hu was from Chang’an. His uncle had been dead for several years when,in the twenty-third year of the Yuanjia period (446 C.E.), he suddenly reappeared.
Returning home, he blamed Hu for lacking diligence in spiritual cultivationand for not managing the family affairs properly. He gave him ﬁve strokes of
the cane as punishment. Those who were nearby or were in the neighborhood
all heard his words and the sound of the cane. They also saw the wounds. But
they did not see the uncle; only Hu could interact with him personally.
The uncle told Hu, “I should not have died. Authorities of the realm of thedead should check the ghost registration for me. I have a large following of ofﬁcials and soldiers now. I am afraid they may frighten people and damage the236Fascicle 6

village. So I won’t go any further into it.” Hu also saw a large crowd of ghosts
in turmoil outside of the village. Suddenly the uncle departed, saying, “I will
come back again temporarily on the seventh day of the seventh month next
year. I want to take you around the dark realms of hell, of ghosts, and of animals
to let you know the retribution for sin and for meritorious deeds. Do not preparea reception. If you do not put a stop to your faults suffering will come.”
When the time came, the uncle returned and said to the people in Hu’shousehold, “I am now going to take [Wang] Hu for sight-seeing. I will bringhim back, so do not worry.” Hu then suddenly lay down on the bed andbecame unconscious, as if he were dead. Then the uncle took Hu to many
mountains and showed him ghosts and strange creatures. Before they arrived
at Mount Songgao ghosts passing by Hu offered him food. The taste of theoffering was no different from ordinary food except for the ginger, which
was extremely soft and tangy. Hu wanted to take it back with him. The creatures laughed at Hu and said, “You can only eat this food here. You cannot
take it back.” Hu ﬁnally saw one place, a beautiful and spacious building,with high quality and well-made curtains and carpets. Two young monks
stayed there. Hu went to them and the two monks offered him a variety offruit and some coconuts.
Having visited many places over a long period of time and seen in detailthe painful and happy retributions of sins and meritorious deeds, Hu took
his leave and returned home. His uncle said to Hu, “You know that you must
cultivate good. Why remain a householder? The forest-dweller (āraṇyaka)
White Feet is loftily correct in upholding the precepts and the practice ofcultivation. You should serve him as your master.” This follower of the Way
in Chang’an had white feet, so his contemporaries called him “Forest-dweller
White Feet.” He was greatly revered by the barbarous Wei people and theWei ruler treated him as his teacher. Hu followed his uncle’s advice. Whenhe was in the temple he saw the young monks of Mount Songgao among thevisiting student monks. Hu was very surprised and, breaking from his orderly
conduct, he asked when they had come. The two monks said, “We live inthis temple. We don’t remember meeting you in the past.” Hu mentioned theencounter at Mount Songgao. The monks said, “You are mistaken. How canthere be such a thing?” The next day the two monks had departed without
giving any reason.

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume I[Wang] Hu then told the other monks what had happened, describing what
he had seen at Mount Songgao earlier. Everyone in the community was surprised and pursued the monks, but they did not ﬁnd them. Thereupon theyrealized that the two monks were divine personages. Toward the end of the
Yuanjia period a monk from Chang’an called Shi Tanshuang who traveledin the region south of the Yangzi River told this story in detail.
Li Dan, styled Shize, was from Guangling. He was well known in his village
for his assiduous ﬁlial piety and simple life. On the fourteenth day of the ﬁrst
month in the third year of Yuanjia (426 C.E.) he suddenly died. After seven days,
before his heart had become cold, he regained consciousness, and took a drink
and ate some gruel. He recovered overnight and told the following story.
A man with the ﬂag of a messenger had come to the head of his bed andsaid, “The ruler of hell is calling you.” Dan immediately followed him andwent directly northward. The road was very ﬂat and clean. When he arrived,
he found city buildings as tall and beautiful as our present city gates. Somecreatures sent welcoming words, telling him to come to the front. In the ofﬁce
above the courtyard he saw thirty people in unlined ofﬁcial robes and blue
headdresses, sitting gravely in rows. One person was sitting in the eastern
corner. His jacket was open and he was leaning on a desk. He had attending
guards that must have numbered over one hundred. Seeing Dan, these people
spoke. The man who was sitting said, “I will show you hell in order to let
the world learn about it.”
When Dan heard these words, he raised his head to look around. The scene
had changed completely and he was now in the middle of hell. He saw manysinners receiving painful retribution, moaning and screaming. It was unbearable to watch. In a while word came that the ruler of hell had sent a message
to him and that there were people waiting for him. Because of this, he returnedto this world.
In the ﬁrst month of the sixth year (429 C.E.) Dan died and again revived
on the seventh day. He described the things he had seen, which were roughly
the same as the ﬁrst time. There also were sinners who sent word to theirfamilies through him. They had committed crimes when they were alive andthey now instructed their families to perform meritorious deeds. They mentioned their names, close acquaintances, and village units. Dan sought out
their families according to what he had been told and always found them.

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He had also heard that in the jia-shen year of the calendrical cycle anepidemic would spread to kill evil people. If the disciples of the Buddhist
teaching performed the one-day practice of the eight precepts, cultivatedtheir minds, and did good deeds they would be spared. [Li] Dan, originallya Daoist leader ( jijiu), immediately wanted to abandon Daoism, but the
Daoist believers remonstrated against him, so he ended up following bothteachings. He constantly encouraged people to perform the one-day practiceof the eight precepts.
Zheng Xianzhi of Yingyang was Vice-Director of the Imperial Secretariat.
During the fourth year of the Yuanjia period (427 C.E.) he was traveling to
the capital following the emperor’s carriage. When they arrived at the capital
Zheng died suddenly that evening. Thereupon, a man was possessed with
miraculous speech and said, “My life span has long since ended and I shouldhave passed away from the world a long time ago. Fortunately, in recent
years I have been honoring the Buddhist teaching. I freed living creaturesfrom captivity and made offerings. With this merit I added several years to
my life. Both hidden and manifest retributions follow a person just as do
shadows and echoes. Abandon all worldly obligations and honor the greatteaching!” At this time many superior and noble people heard these words.
(The above three miracles come from the Mingbao ji).
Tang Dynasty
Sui Renqian was from Handan in the Zhao Commandery. As a young man
he studied Confucian scriptures and did not believe in ghosts, always wanting
to test their existence. So he followed a ghost specialist and studied for overten years, but he still could not see ghosts. Later he moved to the Xiang
district and saw a man on the street who looked like a heavenly ofﬁcial. The
man was wearing shining clothes and riding a good horse, followed by ﬁfty
mounted men. Seeing Renqian, he did not say a word. Later Rengian saw
this man several times but it was always like this. In ten years they ran into
each other dozens of times.
Later, the man suddenly stopped his horse and called to Renqian, “I see
you frequently and truly think of you with affection. I wish to be a friend ofyours.” Thereupon, Renqian greeted him respectfully and asked who he was.
The man answered, “I am a ghost with the surname Cheng and personal name

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Jing. Originally from Hongnong, I served as an Administrative Aide during
the Western Jin period (265–316 C.E.). My present appointment is that of
the Administrator of the state of Hu.”
[Sui] Renqian asked, “Where is that state and what is the name of theruling prince?” The man answered, “Regions north of the Yellow River sharea border with the state of Hu. The capital is to the northwest of Loufan, inthe desert. As for the prince, the late Prince Wuling of Zhao governs the state
now, but it is controlled by Mount Tai. Every month the prince sends an
envoy to pay homage to Mount Tai. That is why I came here so frequently
and encountered you. I can be useful—I can let you know about calamities
before they arrive so that you may avoid them and escape from violent injuries.
Only the fate of life and death and retributions of great fortunes and misfortunes cannot be changed.”
Renqian agreed. So Jing ordered one of his followers to serve as the ofﬁcer
in charge. Having thus presented Renqian with a man to accompany him,
Jing told him to report to the man as soon as something happened. If there
was ever anything that the man did not know, he was to come and ask Jing.
Having given this instruction [Cheng] Jing departed. The ofﬁcer in charge
followed Renqian as if he were his personal attendant. Whenever Renqian
asked something, the man knew the answer.
In the beginning of the Daye period (605–616 C.E.), Cen Zhixiang of
Jiangling was the director of Handan. His son Wenben had not undergone
the initiation ceremony. Zhixiang requested Renqian to teach Wenben at
home. Renqian told the above story to Wenben, and then said that Administrator Cheng, [the ghost who had left an attendant with Renjian,] told him,
“There is one thing I am embarrassed to tell you, but since we are friends I
must tell you. Ghosts also eat, but they cannot eat sufﬁciently and they sufferfrom hunger. If they obtain human food they can be satisﬁed for one year.
Many ghosts frequently steal human food. Since my status is high and I haveimportant duties I cannot steal. Would you prepare a meal for me?” After
Renqian told Wenben this, Wenben prepared an offering consisting of rare
and tasty food. Renqian said, “Ghosts do not wish to enter people’s houses.
We should set up a tent and seats outside near the water and offer the wine
and food.” Wenben followed this instruction. When the time came, Renqiansaw Jing and two other guests come and sit down. After this the one hundred

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mounted soldiers came and sat down. Wenben repeatedly bowed toward theseats and apologized for the modesty of the meal. [Sui] Renqian also communicated Jing’s words of gracious acceptance.
Earlier, when Wenben had been about to set out the food, Renqian asked
that a gift of gold and silk also be offered. Wenben asked, “What sort ofthings?” Renqian said, “The things that ghosts use are different from thoseof people—only gold and silk are used in common, and it is better to give
ersatz gold and silk. A large piece of tin painted yellow for the gold and materials made with paper for the silk would be the most valuable.” Wenben did
as he was told. When [Cheng] Jing ﬁnished eating, he had his followers takea seat and eat. Wenben presented the gold and silk materials he had prepared.
Jing was overjoyed and thanked him, “Through scholar Sui [Renqian], I troubled you. Do you wish to know the length of your life span?” Wenben declined,saying, “I do not wish to know.” Jing laughed and departed.
Several years later Renqian became very ill, not rising from his bed forover a month. Renqian relied on the ghost ofﬁcer in charge of his affairs.
The latter did not know the reason for Renqian’s illness so he asked theadministrator Cheng. The administrator reported, “There is no one who knows
anything about it in our state. When I go to the court in Mount Tai next month
I will ask about it for you and report back.” The following month the administrator came and said, “A man from your region, called Zhao something, isthe recorder of Mount Tai. There is a vacancy for one member at the recorder’sofﬁce and he recommended you for this position. Therefore, they are preparing
a document in order properly to recruit you. When the document is ready
you will die.” Renqian asked about requesting to have the document nulliﬁed.
Jing said, “Your life span should be over sixty years. Now you have only
just turned forty, but Recorder Zhao is arbitrarily recruiting you. You shouldmake the request.” Then he said, “Recorder Zhao asked about you, saying,“Brother Sui [Renqian] was a fellow student in the past and I have deep affection for him. Fortunately, I have now become a recorder at Mount Tai, andthere is a vacancy in the ofﬁce. The district magistrate is now looking forsomeone [to ﬁll the position]. I have already spoken to him. He approved of
the appointment. Brother Sui cannot live for very long. Our lives all end indeath. When death does come, a man does not necessarily ﬁnd an ofﬁce suchas the vacant one I now have. Why does he begrudge twenty [more] years

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and temporarily extend his life span? If the document is nulliﬁed now I cannot
place the request again. He must make up his mind about coming here. Thereis no room for doubt.” [Sui] Renqian was depressed and fearful and his illness
became more serious.
[Cheng] Jing said to Renqian, “Recorder Zhao wishes to take you there,no matter what means he has to use. You can only escape if you appeal directly
to the ruler of Mount Tai.” Renqian asked how he could see the ruler. Jing
said, “Only ghosts can see him. Go to the shrine at Mount Tai. Once you
cross a small peak to the east, there is a ﬂat area which is the location of theircapital. If you go there, you should be able to see him.” Renqian told Wenben,
who made the travel preparations for him. Several days later, Jing spoke to
Renqian once again, “The document is about to be completed. I am afraid
you cannot escape even if you appeal. Quickly, make a Buddhist image. The
document will then quickly disappear by itself.” Renqian told Wenben to
spend three thousand pieces of gold and have an image of the seated Buddha
painted on the western wall of the temple. When it was completed Jing cameand said, “You have escaped!”
Renqian did not truly believe in the Buddha and was still doubtful. So he
asked Jing, “Buddhism teaches about the causes and consequences governing
the three ages, past, present, and future. Is this teaching true or false?” Jing
answered, “It is all true.” [Renqian said,] “If so, when people die, they must
be divided and enter into the six realms of rebirth. Why should everyone
become ghosts, just as both Prince Wuling of Zhao and you are now ghosts?”
Jing said, “How many families are there in your district?” Renqian said,“Over ten thousand.” Jing asked again, “How many prisoners?” Renqiansaid, “Always fewer than twenty.” Jing asked again, “Among the ten thousandfamilies, how many are ofﬁcials of the ﬁfth rank?” Renqian replied, “None.”
Jing asked again, “How many ofﬁcials above the ninth rank?” Renqian said,“Several tens.” Jing said, “The division into the six realms is just like this.
Not even one in ten thousand succeeds in being reborn in heaven. This iscomparable to the fact that not even one person in your district is an ofﬁcialof the ﬁfth rank. Several people among ten thousand succeed in being reborn
as human beings, just as several tens in your district are ofﬁcials of the ninth
rank. Several tens also enter hell, like your prisoners. But the majority arereborn as ghosts and animals, like the taxed peasants in your district. There

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are also ranks within the realm of ghosts.” [Cheng] Jing then pointed to oneof his followers, “That man is far inferior to me, but those who are inferior
to him are even more numerous.” Renqian said, “Do ghosts die?” Jing said,“Yes.” Renqian asked, “When they die, into which realm are they reborn?”
Jing answered, “We do not know—just as people know life but do not knowwhat happens after death.”[Sui] Renqian asked, “Is the Daoist ceremony of presenting a written
request proﬁtable or not?” Jing said, “Daoists govern over the six realms by
the order of the Heavenly Ruler. They constitute the Heavenly Ofﬁce. King
Yama is comparable to the Son of Heaven among humans. The ruler of Mount
Tai is comparable to the Director of the Imperial Secretariat. The Divine Secretaries of the Five Realms are comparable to ministers. Our state is like alarge region or commandery. Every time human affairs are judged Daoists
send up a ceremonial petition. This is called ‘requesting a fortune’ and iscomparable to seeking the benevolence of spirits. The Heavenly Ofﬁce
receives it and sends it down to King Yama, saying, ‘On such a month andsuch a day, we received So-and-so’s appeal. You should investigate the truth
exhaustively without committing injustices.’ Yama respectfully receives theorder and executes it. This is like receiving when one receives an Imperial
Order in the human realm. Unless there is a good reason, one should not seek
an exemption from orders. If there is injustice one should always be able toreport it. How could one call this ‘proﬁtable’?”Renqian asked again, “What sort of merit does a family that cultivates the
Buddhist teaching receive?” Jing said, “The Buddha is the Great Sage. He does
not send down documents. The gods in heaven reverently honor those who
cultivate the Buddhist Way, and such people often receive generous pardons.
If their merit is great, even if they are in inferior realms of existence, the condemning documents cannot reach them. This is something with which I am
not familiar. I do not know the reason for this.” After saying this, Jing departed.
After a few days Renqian was able to get up and recovered from his illness.
Wenben’s father died and he returned home. Renqian sent a letter to Wenben, saying, “Ghosts and spirits are indeed greedy. In the past they wanted
you to provide food and drink for them. Consequently they were extremely
polite. These days they know that there are no beneﬁts to be had any more,so they do not bother to come and see me any longer. Yet the ghost ofﬁcer

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who was charged to attend to me still appears and follows me wherever I go.
When this district was ransacked by bandits and many were killed, I was
guided by this attendant ghost as usual, and even though the bandits were
not seen anywhere I was able to capture them all in the end.”On the eighth day of the ninth month in the sixteenth year of Zhengguan(642 C.E.), civil ofﬁcials gathered for an archery ceremony at Xuanwu Gate.
Wenben was at that time the Vice-Director of the Secretariat. He was withhis brother who was Chamberlain for the Palace Revenues, as well as Secretarial Censor Ma Zhou and Palace Steward Wei Kun. When the emperor
sat facing them, Wenben related the above story himself. (Note: The above
miracle story is from the Mingbao ji, T.2082:792b21–793b29.)
The Sousheng ji says:
In mountain districts in Linchuan specters appear. Often strong winds andheavy rain causes a howling sound, and the specters shoot at people. The
place they hit leaves a mark like a hoof that has swollen up greatly. The
poison is either of the male or female kind. The male kind works quickly,
the female kind slowly. The quick one does not take more than half a day,and the slow one not more than overnight. Bystanders often come to thevictim’s rescue and with their help the stricken person gets a little better,but death always come in the end. This phenomenon is commonly called
the “sword-trouble ghost.”
Therefore, a secular book says, “The evidence of the manifestation ofgood and evil fortune caused by ghosts and spirits is known in the world.”
The Laozi (chapter 39) says:
Of old, these obtained the One; heaven obtained the One and was clear;earth obtained the One and was tranquil; gods obtained the One and had
their potencies; The valley obtained the One and was full; lords andprinces obtained the One and the realm under heaven became settled.
Thus, heaven, earth, ghosts, and spirits share the common vital rootwith the self. When the breath (qi) is divided, inherent nature becomesdifferentiated. When divisions are established, forms become different.
There is nothing that can share a common nature and form with otherthings. The living are the masters in the realm of yang; the dead are the244Fascicle 6

masters in the realm of yin. Each according to his nature keeps his own
sphere at peace. The specter exists in the midst of the great yin.
(The above item is from the Sousheng ji.)
The Hanshi waizhuan says:
When a creature dies he becomes a ghost. “Ghost” (gui) means “returning”(gui). The soul returns to heaven. The ﬂesh returns to soil. The blood
returns to water. The blood vessels return to valleys. The voice returns tothunder. Physical movement returns to wind. The eyes return to the sunand moon. The bones return to wood. The muscle returns to mountains.
The teeth return to stone. The fat returns to dew, and the dew returns tograss. The inhaling and exhaling breath again return to another person.
The “Sacriﬁce” chapter of the Liji (Book of Rites) says:
Zaiwo said, “I have heard of ghosts and spirits but I do not know what
they mean.” The Master said, “The breath (qi) is the thriving activity ofthe spirits; the body is the thriving activity of the ghosts. When ghosts
and spirits are brought together, the teaching is realized.”
Cui Hong’s Shiliuguo Chunqiu, “The Record of the Former Liang” chapter,
says:
Zhang Qing was a man of the Ma clan in Anding region. When Qing
killed Qu Jian, Jian uttered this curse: “A white dog appears in the moonlight.” After drawing his sword and killing Jian, Qing fell to the groundand did not rise. His attendants saw Jian at his side. In this way Qing
died a violent death.
The Shenyi jing says:
In the northeastern direction is the rock cave of the star of ghosts. This
cave has three hundred doors. On the side of the rock is a sign saying,“Gate of Ghosts.” The gate is closed during the daytime. In the evening
human voices are heard. There is a blue-colored ﬁre.
(The above four miracles are copied from the Yülan.)Once when as a young man Song Dingbo of Nanyang was walking around

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at night he met a ghost. He asked it, “Which ghost are you?” The ghost asked
back, “Who are you, sir?” Dingbo deceived him, saying, “I am also a ghost.”
The ghost asked, “Where are you going?” [Song] Dingbo answered, “I amgoing to the city of Wan.” The ghost said, “I also am going to the city ofWan.” So they walked together for several miles.
The ghost said, “Walking on foot is too slow. We could take turns carrying
each other.” Dingbo said, “Very good.” So the ghost ﬁrst carried Dingbo forseveral miles. Then it said, “You, sir, are too heavy. Perhaps you are not aghost?” Dingbo said, “I died recently, so my body is [still] heavy.” Dingbo
then carried the ghost, which was almost weightless. They repeated this twoor three times. Dingbo said again, “I have only recently died and do not knowwhat ghosts fear and avoid.” The ghost answered, “The only thing we do not
like is human saliva.” As they were traveling together the road eventually ran
into water. Dingbo let the ghost cross it ﬁrst and heard no sound. When Dingbo
himself waded across, he made a sound. The ghost said again, “Why is there
a sound?” Dingbo said, “Because I only recently died I have not practiced
crossing water. That is why I made a sound. Don’t become suspicious of me.”
When they were about to reach Wan, Dingbo lifted the ghost up on topof his head and held him fast. The ghost screamed loudly, asking to be letdown, but Dingbo did not listen to the ghost’s cries. Soon they arrived at themarket in Wan and he let the ghost down on the ground. The ghost thenchanged into a sheep, so Dingbo sold it. Frightened by the transformation of
the ghost into a sheep, he spat at it. Dingbo went away with one thousandﬁve hundred pieces of money. At this time Shi Chong said, “Dingbo sold aghost and got one thousand ﬁve hundred pieces of money.” (This story appears
in the Lieyi zhuan.)
The Biography of Zhao Tai says:

317a[Zhao] Tai suddenly died. Two messengers came to help him. They entered
the local government building from the western side. The building had
three black gates altogether and walls that extended several tens of miles.
The building was tall and had a tiled roof. Others who had also died on
the same day, ﬁve or six thousand men and women, stood outside thegates. An ofﬁcial wearing unlined silken clothes held a pen and recorded
the names of all the people who had gathered there. Men’s and women’s

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names were recorded separately. The ofﬁcial told Zhao Tai, “Do not move.
We are about to present you to the ruler of Mount Tai. Your name is thetwentieth in the list. Your turn will soon come.” The ruler was sitting facing
west, surrounded by guards holding swords. The attendants called each
person by name and brought them all into the ruler’s presence. The ruler
ordered them to jail according to the severity of their crimes.
According to the Baopu Zi, “Both the Jiuding ji and the Qingling jing
say, ‘Ghosts appear at the death of both humans and animals.’”
When Sun En of Wei was in rebellion, the Wuxing region was in chaos.
A man who was escaping from a dangerous situation suddenly entered theshrine of Lord Jiang. When he went through the gate a wooden image pulled
a bow and shot him dead. Passers-by and the shrine guards all witnessed it.
(This story comes from the Youming lu.)

5. Animals(Note: This has ten parts:) (1) Introduction, (2) Explanation of the Name, (3)Dwelling Places, (4) Body Size, (5) Life Span, (6) Karmic Causes [forRebirth], (7) Retribution, (8) Cultivation of Merit, (9) Pain and Pleasure, and(10) Beautiful and Ugly Appearance.
1. Introduction
To come to animals, they are born due to the retribution caused by ignorance. There are many kinds of animals and there is more than one principlethat governs them. Endowed with the impure quality of ignorance, a creatureis reborn in this inferior realm. Having lost intelligence it has only excessive
greed and anger. Thus, wasps and scorpions accumulate poison and snakes
nourish anger. Pigeons and sparrows are addicted to copulation, jackals andwolves are quick and violent. Some are also covered in fur and have horns.
Some have beautiful green feathers and carry jewels in their beaks. Somehave large beaks with sharp points and others have long and sharp talons orclaws. Again, some are under the rule of other creatures, while some are controlled by humans. Dogs are busy barking at night and roosters compete witheach other to announce the dawn. Oxen exhaust themselves in the ﬁelds andhorses labor in military campaigns. Their ﬂesh thus wastes away and theirskin dries up. Some may hide in ﬁelds of grass and marshes, but in the end

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they are captured in nets and traps. Some escape into ponds but unexpectedly
become victims of ﬁshing nets. All of these animals repent.
There are large creatures such as the gigantic bird Peng and the leviathan
Kun, and those with tiny bodies like crickets and ants. There is the mole,about which it is said, “When the mole drinks at the river, he takes no morethan a bellyful,” and there is the tailor bird, of which it is said, “When the
tailor bird builds her nest in the deep woods she uses no more than one
branch.” There are creatures born in water and those who are born on land;
there are feathered families and species with fur; there are those with purple
scales or silken material, or those with red gills and tails.
If we ourselves repent for all the animals, their faith becomes pure andthey abandon their inferior forms; their wisdom shines forth and they again
obtain the reward of being reborn in heaven. They no longer suffer frombeing forced to labor, and they are liberated forever from the sorrow of beingslaughtered and butchered for food. They may wander around as their hearts
desire and freely indulge in pleasures following their own inclinations. They
know no external limitation of eating and drinking. They warble and singspontaneously. They have escaped from their bird cages and ﬁsh baskets andare free from all bondage.
317b

2. Explanation of the Name
According to the Posha lun (ref. T.1546:48a26–b1):
Sheng in the word chusheng (“animal”) means sentient being (zhongsheng),
and chu means domestication and rearing. This means that the conductof such a creature is wild and its nature is dull and ignorant. Such creatures
are unable to be independent and so are domesticated and raised by others.
For this reason they are called animals, i.e., “domesticated beings” (chusheng).
Question: If chusheng refers to those animals that are domesticatedand raised by humans, how can creatures such as dragons, which travel
through the water, land, and sky, be considered to be among those thatare raised by humans and thus called animals?
Answer: The meaning of “rearing” is broad. The term covers the six
heavens as well as the human realm. The places in which creatures that are
not raised by humans live are narrowly limited—only the mountains, ﬁelds,

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and marshes in the human realm. Furthermore, in ancient days dragons
were also raised by humans. Details can be found in the literary and historical
writings. Now, since the overwhelming majority of these creatures are
domesticated and raised by humans, they are all called chusheng.
The Lishi [apitan] lun (T.1644:197c27–28) says:
The Sanskrit name for animals is tiryañc (“one who sidles up” or “a crooked
creature”). The reason is that a being is born in this realm because of slavishly fawning upon people. It is also said that sentient beings in this realm
often hide their bodily activities. Therefore they are called tiryañc.
According to the new Posha lun (T.1545:866c15–867a13):
Animals are called horizontal creatures.
Question: Why is [the realm of animals] called the realm of horizontal
creatures?
Answer: Because the orientation of these creatures is horizontal; theyalso walk sideways and because they walk sideways, their orientation ishorizontal. Therefore, they are called horizontal creatures.
Some say that because these sentient beings committed extremely ignorantevil acts of body, speech, or mind they are reborn in that realm of dark stupidity. Therefore they are called “crooked creatures.” They say that suchcreatures are present everywhere in the ﬁve inferior realms.
In naraka (hell) there are legless animals such as nyaṅkuṭā worms,
two-legged ones such as the iron-beaked bird, four-legged ones such as
the large black dog, and many-legged ones such as centipedes.
In the realm of hungry ghosts there are legless animals such as poisonous snakes; two-legged ones such as crows and hawks; four-legged
ones such as foxes, boars, elephants, and horses; and many-legged ones
such as six-legged creatures and centipedes.
In the three continents in the human realm there are legless animals
such as all the various reptiles, two-legged ones such as wild swans andgeese, four-legged ones such as elephants and horses, and many-legged
ones such as centipedes.
In the continent of Uttarakuru there are two-legged ones such as wildswans and geese and four-legged ones such as elephants and horses, but

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317cthere are no legless or many-legged ones. This is because that continentis a place where creatures receive the karmic reward of freedom from
suffering.
In the heavens of the four heavenly kings and in the thirty-three heavens
there are two-legged animals such as beautiful colored birds, and fourlegged ones such as elephants and horses. As has been explained in theprevious case, there are no others.
In the highest of the four heavens there are only two-legged animals
such as beautiful colored birds; there are no other creatures. This is because
what takes place in the heavenly realms is perfect.
Question: If there are no elephants and horses in some places, what dothe inhabitants use for vehicles? Also, I have heard of elephants and horses
in those heavens. Why do you say there are none?
Answer: Because of the meritorious karmic power of the gods in thoseheavens, they create nonsentient forms of elephants and horses, which
they use as their vehicles and to enjoy themselves.
According to the Loutan jing (ref. Shieryou jing, T.195:146b15–17):
Animals differ from each other. Generally speaking, there are three kinds:ﬁsh, birds, and mammals. Of these three categories, each has many species.
The ﬁsh category has six thousand four hundred species; the bird category
has four thousand ﬁve hundred species; and the mammal category has
two thousand four hundred species.
In this scripture only the overall numbers are listed, not the names of thevarious species .
The Zhengfanian jing (ref. T.721:103b26) gives different numbers ofspecies, saying that there are four billion species. It also does not list thenames [of the various species].
3. Dwelling Places
The new Posha lun (T.1545:867a12–18) says:
Question: Where was the original dwelling place of horizontal creatures?
Answer: Their original dwelling place was in the ocean. Later theydispersed into many realms.

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Question: What do they look like?
Answer: Mostly, they stand sideways. There are also some that standupright, such as the singing and dancing deities known as kiṃnaras, thecorpse-eating ghosts called piśācas, and the xilusuojia.
Question: What language do they speak?
Answer: At the beginning of the kalpa everyone spoke Sanskrit. Later,differences in the time of eating and drinking developed, and sentient
beings were no longer the same as each other. Some creatures slavishly
fawned upon others and deceived each other, and so many languages
appeared. Creatures who cannot use language at all also appeared.
According to the old Posha lun (T.1546:48c6–9, b3–12):
The places in which animals live may be divided into primary and secondary. First, to consider their primary dwelling place, some say that it
is in the darkness between the two areas of the Iron Surrounding Mountains;some say it is in the middle of the ocean; some say it is on an island in a
big river. Second, their secondary dwelling place is in the ﬁve inferior
realms. In the realm of hell there are legless animals such as snakes, twolegged-ones such as crows and doves, and four-legged ones such as dogs.
(Note: Among these some are there because of the real consequences ofkarma, while others are temporary manifestations. They may be in thisform due to either one of these two possibilities.)
In the realm of ghosts there also are legless, two-legged, and four-legged
animals. Namely, among the ghosts with awesome powers are elephants,horses, and camels; among ghosts without awesome powers are only dogs.
Among the asuras (Note: Some say this realm is similar to the realmof ghosts.) and the realm of gods there only are two-legged and fourlegged animals, no other kinds. (Note: In the heavens of the two realmsof desire and form there are animals with karmic causes and those without,i.e., animals that are only temporary manifestations. The situation is thesame as the explanation given above in the case of the gods.)
4. Body Size
According to the Pusa chutai jing (ref. T.384:1050c15–19), ﬁrst, no large
bird is bigger than a garuḍa. The distance between its head and tail is eight251

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318athousand yojanas. Its height is the same. When a garuḍa ﬂies it goes without
stopping from one Mount Sumeru to another. Details are given in the scripture.
Second, among animals none surpasses the dragon in size. According to
the Ahan jing (Chang ahan jing, T.1:143a26–29), in appearance the two dragons
Nanda and Upananda are the largest. They surround Mount Sumeru seventimes. While their heads rest on the mountain top, their tails are in the ocean.
Third, among those with the body of a ﬁsh, none surpasses the great ﬁshmakara. According to the Sifen lü (ref. T.1435:239c18–19), the length of thegreat ﬁsh makara can be three or four hundred yojanas. The biggest is seven
hundred yojanas. According to the Ahan jing its eyes are like the sun and themoon, its nose is like a big mountain, and its mouth is like a large valley.
If one were to follow secular books, Zhuang Zhou (in the Zhuangzi) said
that there is a large bird called Peng. This bird is extremely large. One does
not know how many thousand miles long the back of the great Peng is. When
it is about to ﬂy, it hits the water with a splash that rises three thousand li high.
Its wings are like clouds hanging from the sky and they ﬂutter slowly as thebird goes up. Reaching a height of nine thousand li above the ground, it thenﬂies away. To go from the Northern Ocean to the Southern Ocean it ﬂies
straight for six months without stopping to rest. (Note: This refers to the smallgaruḍa bird mentioned in Buddhist literature. Secular writers are unaware ofthis, so they speak as if there exists in addition a bird called Great Peng).
Secular Chinese books also say that among the large aquatic animals,none is bigger than the turtle Juling. It has the biggest of all animal bodies,and its head lays in Penglai Ocean. The texts do not specify its height andlength. (Note: The description of this turtle does not match a very small
makara ﬁsh, so we cannot discuss in detail the differences in size.)
Zhuang Zhou said that among the small birds, none is smaller than the jiaoming “bird.” This is a type of insect that produces its offspring inside a mosquito’s antennae. It lays its eggs inside the antennae yet, the eggs do not fall.
(Note: This does not go far enough. In Buddhist literature, the sentient
beings who receive the retribution of being reborn as extremely small creaturesare shaped like dust. They can only be seen with a divine eye. Therefore, theBuddhist Vinaya has the following story: The Buddha instructed the monks
to ﬁlter their water before drinking. Śāriputra ﬁltered his water many times
but there were still small insects in the water, so he did not drink any water252

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for seven days and his body became severely dehydrated. When the Buddha
learned of this, he asked Śāriputra, “Why have you become so haggard?”Śāriputra answered, “The Buddha asked us to ﬁlter water before drinking. I
ﬁltered my water many times but I still saw insects with my divine eye. Theygo through the ﬁlter like the minute particles that ﬂoat on the surface of waterin a pot. In order to protect their lives I did not dare to drink the water. Therefore, my body has become emaciated.” The Buddha told Śāriputra, “If one
were to always check with a divine eye, no one would be alive. From now
on, use only your coarse physical eyes to see if the water is clean. If you
cannot see any insects in it with your physical eyes, you can drink it.” Therefore, we know that sentient beings with the retribution of being born as minutebeings ﬁll space everywhere. How could it be that the smallest ones are as
big as tailor birds?)
5. Life Span
According to the Pitan (ref. Za apitanxin lun, T.1552:887c14–15), “In
the realm of animals none has a longer life span than one kalpa, as in thecase of the earth-upholding dragon and the Elāpattra dragon.”
None has a shorter life span than the insect known as the dayﬂy, which
is born in the morning and dies in the evening, its life lasting not even as
long as one day. The life spans of animals that fall between these two extremes
cannot be described in detail here.
According to the Dazhidu lun (T.1509:138c26–139a12):
The Buddha instructed Śāriputra to observe the past and future of a pigeon.
Over a period of eighty thousand kalpas this creature never abandoned
the body of a pigeon. Therefore, we know that the life spans of animals
are extremely long and beyond the limit of what ordinary beings can comprehend.
6. Karmic Causes [for Rebirth]
According to the Yebao chabie jing (T.80:893a13–18):
A living being receives the retribution of rebirth as an animal by committing
the following ten types of [evil] acts: (1) evil deeds of the body, (2) evil
deeds of speech, (3) evil deeds of thought, (4) evil deeds committed out of
greed, (5) evil deeds committed out of anger, (6) evil deeds committed out

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A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden, Volume Iof ignorance, (7) cursing sentient beings, (8) maltreating sentient beings,(9) making an offering of impure objects, and (10) committing adultery.
According to the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:103b20–107a9), the species ofanimals differ from each other. The karmic causes [of rebirth] and the consequences differ for each species. Details can be found in this scripture andare not described here.
According to the Dichi (ref. T.1522:149b1–c14):
If a living being commits any one of the ten evil deeds, he will [be rebornin] the realms of hell, of animals, or of hungry ghosts. Later he will be
reborn as a human being and will still suffer pain from remaining karmic
retribution. (Details are given in other sections.)
7. Retribution
According to the Xianyu jing (Sutra of the Wise and the Ignorant, T.202:444b21–445a4):
Some merchants once hoped to visit another country. These merchants
had a dog. Midway on their journey, the merchants stopped to take a rest.
Thinking that no one was looking, the dog stole some meat. In anger, themerchants hit the dog and broke its leg, and they then went on, abandoning
the animal in the middle of the ﬁeld.
At that time Śāriputra saw the dog with his divine eye. Crippled andhungry, it was greatly distressed and about to die. Putting on his robe andholding his almsbowl, Śāriputra entered the city and begged for food.
After he obtained some food he took it outside the city. Flying to where
the dog was, he offered it the food out of compassion and pity. When the
dog ate the food it revived and was overjoyed. Śāriputra then preached
the profound teaching to the dog. Thereupon the dog died and was reborn
in a brahman’s family in Śrāvastī.
Later, Śāriputra was out walking alone on almsrounds. A brahman saw
him and said, “The Honored One is walking alone, without an attendantnovice.” Śāriputra said, “I have no attending novice. I hear that you havea son. You should give him to me.” The brahman said, “I have a son named
Cunda. He is still too young to fulﬁll such duties but before he is fullygrown I will give him to you.” Later, when the child reached the age of254

Fascicle 6seven years old, the brahman entrusted him to Śāriputra, causing the boy
renounce the householder’s life. Thereupon Śāriputra accepted the child[as his novice attendant]. Just as Śāriputra was about to reach Jetavana
he preached the teaching to the novice, step by step. The latter’s mind
opened up and he understood the teaching, obtaining the reward of arhatship. He was endowed with all superior qualities.
When Cunda ﬁrst attained the Way he contemplated past lives with his
own power of knowledge: what conduct had he performed so that he had
met a holy person and obtained the goal of salvation? He saw that in his previous life he had been a hungry dog. Thanks to the compassion of his master,
he had now obtained a human body and attained the religious goal. Happy
feelings arose deep within him and he said to himself, “Thanks to my master’s
compassion I was delivered from much suffering. I should now dedicate
myself to looking after his needs. I will request to remain his novice [attendant]
and not receive the complete precepts [to become a monk].”
The Buddha said to Ānanda, “In the past age, during the time ofKāśyapa Buddha, Cunda was a young monk with a beautiful voice. He
was very good at chanting verses and people loved to listen to him. There
was an old monk who had a raspy and dull voice, and he could not chantthe sutras. He had obtained arhatship, however, and was endowed withall superior qualities. The youth was proud of his good voice. When hesaw the old monk he had reviled him, saying that his voice was like a dog
barking. The old monk immediately called out to the youth, saying, “Don’t
you know that I have attained arhatship and all the ceremonies have been
performed for me?” When the youth heard this, he was shocked and hishair stood on end. Greatly frightened, he blamed himself and repented
his faults before the old monk. Because of his evil speech, however, he
received the body of a dog for a period of ﬁve hundred kalpas. Because
he renounced the householder’s life and upheld the pure precepts, he has
now been able to meet me and obtain salvation.”
Furthermore, the Dazhidu lun (T.1509:175a20–21) says:
Because of excessive ignorance beings are reborn as insects and birds;
for example, earthworms, dung beetles, crickets, ants, owls, ducks, andhawks.

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Nāgārjuna Bodhisattva said elsewhere that for excessively licentious
desires a being receives the body of a duck.
[Question:] One also receives a duck’s body for excessive ignorance. Are
these two duck’s bodies the same or different?
Answer: Those who are reborn from excessive desire become waterfowl
such as ducks and drakes; those who are reborn due to ignorance are land
birds such as hawks and owls. Some are seen both day and night. Those thatare reborn on account of desire always ﬂy together. Birds that ﬂoat on water
together belong to this category. Some are seen at night but not seen during
the day. Reborn out of ignorance, these creatures always roam around at night.
There are two kinds of owls: those who are reborn from desire are hawk owls;
they are seen during the day and not at night. Those who are reborn fromignorance are horned owls; they are seen at night and not during the day.
Furthermore, the Chang ahan jing (ref. T.1:127b1–128a6) and the Zengahan jing (ref. T.125:646a8–b10) say:
There are four kinds of garuḍa birds: those born from an egg, from awomb, from moisture, and through spontaneous generation. They all previously generously made offerings. Because their minds were lofty theyﬂy high in the sky, but they tormented sentient beings and their minds
became full of anger and pride, and so they were born among these birds.
They have a garland made of wish-fulﬁlling jewels and so they can transform themselves in ten thousand ways and their every need is met. Theirbodies are forty miles in height and their clothes are eighty miles in width.
They weigh two and half ounces. For physical food, they eat turtles andcrocodiles (Note: The Niepan jing, T.374:437b8–9; T.375:678c24–25,
says that they can eat and digest all kinds of ﬁsh, gold and silver, and soforth. The only exception is vajra.) To increase the pleasure of their senseof touch, they wash their clothes. They also marry: two bodies touch eachother and form yin and yang. Their life spans are one world age, thoughsome are shorter.
On the northern shore of the great ocean is a tree called Jiuluozhenma.
Its height is one hundred yojanas and its shade extends ﬁfty yojanas. To
the east of the tree is the palace for the egg-born dragons and the palace
for the egg-born garuḍas. To the south of the tree is the palace for the256Fascicle 6

womb-born dragons and the palace for the womb-born garuḍas. To thewest of the tree is the palace for the moisture-born dragons and the palace
for the moisture-born garuḍas. To the north of the tree is the palace fordragons born through spontaneous generation and the palace for garuḍas
born through spontaneous generation. Each of these palaces is six thousand
yojanas long and wide. Each is decorated as described above. When an
egg-born garuḍa ﬂies down to the ocean it hits the water with its wings
and the water opens up to a depth of two hundred yojanas. The garuḍa
captures egg-born dragons and eats them freely. (Note: The Huayan jing,ref. Dazhidu lun, T.1509:566b18–21, says: This bird eats dragons; if thewind that it stirs with its wings goes into human eyes, it blinds them atonce; therefore this bird does not appear among humans as it fears damaging
human eyes.) The cases of womb-born and moisture-born garuḍas andthose born through spontaneous generation are similar. (Note: The Niepan
jing, T.374:437c1; T.375:679a17–18, says that the only creature garuḍas
cannot eat are those that have received the Three Refuges.)
There was a dragon who was receiving the eight precepts on an importantday of fasting that occurs once every six years. At that time a garuḍa wishedto eat it and carried the dragon in its beak to the top of a great iron tree northof Mount Sumeru. The tree was one hundred and sixty thousand miles inheight. When the garuḍa looked for the dragon’s tail he could not ﬁnd it.
The bird listened to the teaching and also received the ﬁve precepts.
Furthermore, the Guanfo sanmei jing (T.643:15.646b2–17) says:
The king of the garuḍas, named Zhengyin, was happy and lived freeamong numerous species of birds. In this world he ate one dragon kingand ﬁve hundred small dragons each day. In all of the four continents surrounding Mount Sumeru he ate the same number of dragons every day.
He toured around the continents, eating every day, and started all overagain the next day. After eight thousand years the sign of death appeared
and many dragons spat out poison. The garuḍa could not eat [the dragons].
Hungry and afraid, it found no peace and came to Vajra Mountain. The
garuḍa went straight downward from Vajra Mountain and from the edgeof a large body of water proceeded to the edge of a circle of wind. It was
blown by the wind back up to Vajra Mountain. This was repeated seven

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times, and then the garuḍa died. The poison that the bird had eaten caused
the ten jewel mountains to all catch ﬁre at the same time. The dragon kingNanda feared that they might burn down Vajra Mountain so he caused
torrential rainfall with raindrops as big as the axle of a chariot. The ﬂeshof the dead garuḍa completely disappeared and only its mind remained.
It went downward and returned seven times, and then it rested on Vajra
Mountain as before. The dragon king Nanda picked it up and treated it as
if it were a clear jewel. The universal monarch obtained it and treated it
as a wish-fulﬁlling jewel. If a person contemplates the Buddha his mind
becomes like this garuḍa’s mind.
Furthermore the Loutan jing (ref. T.23:288a24–289a16) and the Changahan jing (ref. T.1:127a28–128a8) say:

319b

There are four kinds of dragons. All of them had previously been full ofanger, with dishonest and perverse minds, but they later performed a greatact of giving, as a consequence of which they received their present bodies.
Due to this merit of giving, their palaces are made of seven jewels. (Note:
The location of these palaces is as described above in the section ongaruḍas.) The dragons are forty miles in height, and their clothes are forty
miles long, eighty miles wide, and weigh two and half ounces. They havefull command of supernatural powers. They eat and drink food of a hundred
ﬂavors. After they eat the last mouthful of food they turn into frogs. Ifthey teach their attendants, causing them to make the intention to pursue
the religious path and make offerings to monks, and if they let the dragons
make offerings to monks, the sand does not fall over them and they are
free from many afﬂictions. (Note: They can also transform themselves
into snakes, and then they do not encounter frogs nor garuḍas.) They eat
turtles and crocodiles for physical food. They wash their clothes to increase
the pleasure of the tactile sense. They also marry: two bodies touch eachother and form yin and yang. Their life span is one kalpa, though somehave shorter life spans. They can avoid being eaten by garuḍas. There
are sixteen kinds of dragons: (1) Sāgara, (2) Nanda, (3) Upananda, (4)Elāpattra, (5) Dhṛtarāṣṭra, (6) Shanjian, (7) Alu, (8) Qiejuluo (Kāḷa?), (9)Qiepiluo, (10) Apalāla, (11) Qienou, (12) Quqienou, (13) Anavatapta,(14) Supratiṣṭhita, (15) Yuoshanqiebotou, and (16) Takṣaka.

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The Loutan jing T.23:288b1–b8) and the Huayan jing (ref. Chang ahan
jing, T.1:127b3–5) say:
The dragon king Sāgara lives at the bottom of the ocean to the north of
Mount Sumeru. His palace is seven thousand yojanas long and wide andmade of seven jewels. It is surrounded by seven walls, which are decorated
with balustrades covering them like a net. In the palace garden, groves,and bathing pool many birds sing in harmony. The palace has golden walls
and silver gates. Each gate is two thousand four hundred miles in height
and two thousand two hundred miles wide. They are beautifully painted
in wonderful colors and constantly guarded by ﬁve hundred demons andgods. There it rains according to the dragon king’s wishes. Ordinary dragons
cannot reach the palace of the dragon king nor stay there. The tide fromthe palace ﬂows into the ocean. Its color is that of lapis lazuli.
The Hailongwang jing (T.598:143a12–28) says:
The dragon king said to the Buddha, “From the beginning of the world
age I have lived in the great ocean. From the time of Krakucchanda Buddha
there have not been many wives for me nor many children born to me inthe ocean. Yet, there are many ocean dragons now.” The Buddha told thedragon king, “When someone leaves the householder’s life, following theBuddha’s teaching, and breaks the precepts but does not abandon thecorrect views, he does not fall into hell. When such a person ends his life
span, he is reborn among dragons.” The Buddha told the dragon king, “At
the time of Krakucchanda Buddha, nine billion eight hundred million lay
followers renounced the householder’s life. Those who broke the precepts
were all reborn among dragons. At the time of Kanakamuni Buddha, eightbillion lay followers renounced the householder’s life. Those who broke
the precepts and indulged in their whims without restraint were all rebornamong dragons when their lives ended. At the time of Jiashe (Kāśyapa)
Buddha six billion four hundred million lay followers renounced thehouseholder’s life. Those who violated the precepts were all reborn amongdragons. During my lifetime, ninety-nine billion lay followers will renounce
the householder’s life. Those who ﬁght and revile the scriptures and precepts will be reborn among dragons after their death. Those who have259

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committed these crimes in the past have for this reason already been rebornin the great ocean. This is the reason why there are countless numbers ofdragons in the great ocean. After my death many lay devotees will violate
the precepts and will either be reborn among dragons or fall into hell.
Furthermore, the Senghu jing (T.749:565c13–15; 566c12–18; 571c4–c7)
says:
At that time the World-honored One told the monk Senghu (Saṃgharakṣita),“You saw the dragon king in the great ocean. Having received a dragon’s
body with fangs, shells, ﬁns, and horns, his appearance is fearsome. He isunapproachable because of his bad smell and his ﬁlthiness. Because hehas been born as an animal he cannot practice the teaching of renouncing
the householder’s life. He cannot escape being eaten by the king of garuḍas.
“Dragons sleep a lot by nature. There are ﬁve occasions in which a
dragon cannot hide itself: (1) when it is born, (2) when it dies, (3) when
it performs sexual acts, (4) when it is angry, and (5) when it sleeps.
“There are also four poisonous ﬂaws because of which he cannot act
according to the correct teaching: (1) Because of the ﬂaw of poisonous
speech he cannot live according to the teaching. If he speaks and someone
hears it, the one who heard him speak is harmed. (2) Because of the ﬂaw
of poisonous appearance he cannot live according to the teaching. If someone sees his body he will necessarily harm the one who saw him. (3)Because of the ﬂaw of poisonous breath he cannot live according to theteaching. If he breathes upon someone, the one his breath touches is harmed.
(4) Because of the ﬂaw of poisonous touch, he cannot live according to
the teaching. If someone touches him, the one who touches him is harmed.”319c

8. Cultivation of Merit
The Pusa chutai jing (T.384:1050c5–1051a27) says:
The Buddha told Zhiji Bodhisattva, “Once, for a period of innumerable
world ages, I was a king of the garuḍas. My palace, back garden, andbathing pool were all made of seven jewels. I felt free at heart, just like auniversal monarch. I could go into the ocean and look for dragons for food.
“At that time, in that ocean there was a dragon that had been born
through transformation. On days of fasting it upheld the eight precepts.

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At that time the kings of the garuḍas were eight thousand yojanas inlength. Their right and left wings were each four hundred yojanas long.
I hit the ocean with my wings in order to seize a dragon. Before the wave
ended and the water came back together, I ﬂew out holding the dragon in
my beak. When garuḍas eat a dragon, they swallow it tail ﬁrst. I then proceeded to the great iron tree north of Mount Sumeru, sixty thousand miles
in height. Having arrived there, I wished to eat the dragon I had caught
and looked for its tail but could not ﬁnd it. One day and night later, on
the next day, the dragon showed its tail for the ﬁrst time and said to me,‘I am a dragon born through transformation. If I fail to uphold the teachingof the eight precepts on fasting days, you will immediately perish.’“When I heard this, I repented and said, ‘The power of the Buddha isvery difﬁcult to fathom. I have a palace not far from here. Go there withme and let us enjoy ourselves.’ The dragon then followed me to my palace
and, looking upon it, said, ‘Now these dependents of yours have not heard
the Tathāgata’s teaching of the eight precepts for fasting days. Let me instructthem on the precepts and rites. Then when their life spans are ﬁnished they
can be reborn among humans.’ Then the dragon read aloud all the teachingsof the eight precepts and he preached the following verses at my palace.”
I am a dragon prince.
I cultivated the Buddha’s doctrine for seven thousand world ages.
I had a mind that was as sharp as a needle that can pierce the leavesof a tree.
But I broke a precept and was reborn in the body of a dragon.
My palace is inside the ocean.
It is also made of seven jewels, gems and crystal, clear moonstones,
and gold and silver.
You may follow me there and observe the cultivation of Buddha’s
teaching,
And further increase the foundation of good deeds.
The Buddha’s compassion extends everywhere.
“At that time, the birds heard the dragon’s preaching and received the
instruction of the eight precepts for fasting days. They spoke out spontaneously, ‘From now on until the end of this life span, we will refrain from261

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320akilling as the Buddha taught.’ The dependents of the garuḍa received theThree Refuges and followed the dragon to the ocean palace. There was a
stupa of seven jewels in which the teachings of the buddhas were hidden.
There was also a box of seven jewels ﬁlled with Buddhist scriptures. People
brought offerings, as in heaven. The dragon said to the garuḍa, ‘I havereceived the body of a dragon and my life span in this body, lasting many
world ages, has not yet been exhausted. I have not yet committed killingwhich would disturb my nature as a being who lives in water.’ At that timethe male and female dragons achieved understanding. After their life spans
were completed they all were reborn in the land of Amitābha Buddha.”
9. Pain and Pleasure
According to the scriptures there exist fortunate dragons. Due to their
karmic retribution all pleasures are available to them: wives, concubines,
and performing girls; clothing, food, and drink; elephants, horses, and theseven precious objects. All these are available. They enjoy leisurely pleasure
at will to a much greater degree than do humans. Also in the six heavens ofdesire there are birds and animals, and they enjoy pleasures at will.
On the other hand, there are dragons that have not been greatly blessedwith fortune. Every day they are exposed to hot sands and small insects bitethem. Among humans, animals are whipped, forced to carry light and heavy
burdens, and made to run quickly. There is no freedom for them. They livein the water, on land, or in the sky, but as with insufﬁcient water and grassthey ﬁght and harm each other. Again, in the Iron Surrounding Mountains,
animals of two realms permanently live together in darkness, subject to pain
without relief and they do not enjoy any pleasure even for a brief moment.
We cannot describe their pain in detail.
10. Beautiful and Ugly Appearance
According to the scriptures, people love and treasure dragons, supernaturalhorses, phoenixes, peacocks, parrots, mountain and day pheasants; people
hate to see and are unhappy to hear the sounds of monkeys, mountain dogs,
wolves, tigers, single-horn water buffaloes, venomous and nonvenomous
snakes, owls, and hawks. It is difﬁcult to exhaustively list and describe thegood and bad appearances of all creatures. We know whether creatures arenoble or ignoble. We cannot describe them here in detail.

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Miracle Stories(Note: Seven stories are brieﬂy cited:) In the [Cao] Wei dynasty (220–265
C.E.) a monster appeared during the Huangchu period (220–226 C.E.). A
monster called Jiaguo appeared in the mountains of the Shu region. A bird
monster appeared in the mountains of the Yue region. A sheep monster
appeared in Ji Huanzi’s well. During the Jin dynasty (265–420 C.E.) a dog
monster appeared in the grounds of Huai Yao’s house. A dog monster appeared
during the time of Yi Xin. Monsters were born [of unions] between humanbeings and animals, according to the Record of the Western Regions.
During the Huangchu period of the [Cao] Wei dynasty a man was travelingat night on a horse in an area of small hills. He saw an animal the size of a
rabbit in the middle of the road. Its eyes were like mirrors. It had jumped
over a bank and now blocked the horse’s passage, preventing it from goingahead. Surprised and frightened, the man fell off the horse. The specter thenseized him and the man fainted. After a while he revived. When he revived,
the specter had departed and he did not know where it had gone. Thereupon
he mounted his horse and traveled on for several miles until he met anotherman. After exchanging greetings the ﬁrst man described the strange eventthat had happened to him and said that he was very happy to have foundsome company. The second man said, “I am also traveling alone. I am happy
beyond words to be able to provide company for you. You should go quickly
ahead on your horse. I will follow behind.” So the two men traveled together.
The second man asked, “What did the thing that frightened you look like?”
The ﬁrst man answered, “Its body was like a rabbit and its eyes were likemirrors. It was very ugly.” His traveling companion said, “Just look back atme.” The ﬁrst man looked back and saw that [the man] was again the same
specter, which then jumped on the horse; the man fell on the ground andfainted out of fear. The man’s family found it strange that his horse cameback alone, so they went out looking for him. They found him on the road.
After the night had passed he regained consciousness and described his experiences as above.
On a high mountain in the southwest region of Shu is a creature similar
to a monkey. It is seven feet tall and can walk [upright] like a human being.
[This creature,] called Jiaguo, is good at running and chasing people. It is

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also called Mahua, and sometimes it is called Jueyuan. This creature hides
on the road. When an adult woman passes by, the creature seizes her and takes
her away. People can never ﬁnd where the abducted person has been taken.
When someone passes by this creature, it pulls the person in with a long ropeand no one can escape it. This creature can distinguish men from women bysmell; it takes women but does not touch men. When the creature gets a
woman, it starts a family with her. If the woman is childless she is not allowed
to return for the rest of her life. After ten years her appearance changes andshe resembles the creature. Her mind is also disturbed and she does not wish
to return. If the woman has a child she is sent back home, with the child. The
baby always looks human. If she does not raise the child the mother dies
immediately. For this reason, captured women are afraid and do not dare toabandon the children they have with the creature. When the children grow up
they look no different from any human being. They all have the surname of
Yang. Therefore, now in the southwest region of Shu there are many people
with the surname Yang, and they are all descendants of Jiaguo or Mahua.
Deep in mountains in the land of Yue there is a bird about the size of apigeon, blue in color, called the zhi bird. It cuts a hole in a big tree and makes
a nest that resembles a ﬁve- or six-gallon vessel and with an entrance that isseveral inches in diameter. The nest is decorated all over with [white] clay
with red and white sections. The nest looks like a shooting target made ofanimal skin. When woodcutters see a tree with such a nest, they ﬂee from
it. Sometimes in the dark of night someone does not see the bird. The bird
also knows that the person has not seen it and calls out, “Oh, how extraordinary! Climb up. Climb up tomorrow. Oh, how extraordinary! Climb down.
Climb down tomorrow.” Even if the zhi bird does not let the person leaveand talks and laughs like a human being, one should never cut down the tree.
If an impure and deﬁled person comes to the place, a tiger appears and guards
the area through the night. If the person does not leave the tiger will attack
and hurt them. If you were to look at this bird during the day, its form is thatof an ordinary bird. Listening to it at night, the sound is also that of an ordinary
bird. When pleasure-seekers arrive, these creatures take on human form,
three feet in height, harvest crabs from a creek, and roast them at the newcomers’ ﬁre. The people cannot touch the creatures. The people of Yue callthese birds the ancestors of the priests in the Yue region.

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Ji Huanzi dug a well and obtained an earthenware pot, which contained
a yangma (“sheep-horse”). He asked Confucius, “I dug a well and obtained
a dog. What does this mean?” Confucius said, “From what I have heard, itshould have been a sheep. I heard that the spirits of wood and stones arecalled quqi (“driving crawler”) and wangliang (“mountain spirit”); the spirit
in the water is longmang (“dragon spirit”); and the spirit in the ground iscalled biyang (“beautifully patterned sheep”).
The Xiading zhi says that the water monster Wangxiang looks like a threeyear-old child: its eyes are red; it is black in color; it has large ears, longarms, and red nails. If you catch this creature, you can eat it.
The Wangzi says, “The spirit of wood is ﬂoating light; the spirit of metal
is clear brilliance.”
During the Yuangang period (291–299 C.E.) of the Jin dynasty (265–420
C.E.), in Huai Yao’s house in the Lou district of Wu Commandery, the soundof puppies was suddenly heard. The place over the sound had a small hole,like a hole made by an earthworm. Yao poked into the hole with a stick. The
stick went in for several feet and then struck something. Yao then dug up theplace and found one male and one female puppy. Their eyes had not yet
opened. Their size was that of ordinary dogs. Yao fed the dogs and they ate.
Neighbors all came to see the dogs. An elder said, “These dogs are called Xi
dogs. If one obtains them, his family will prosper.” Because their eyes had
not opened, Yao put the puppies back and covered the surface of the groundwith soil, patting it down so that the spot was ﬂat. When Yao looked for theplace after a while, there was no hole and he could not ﬁnd its exact location.
For many years there was no particular fortune or misfortune in Yao’s family.
During the Daxing period (318–321 C.E.), in the government ofﬁce of Wu
Commandery, two animals, similar to the two dogs described above, were
found. After that the governor, Zhang Mao, was killed by the soldiers of Wuxing.
The Shizi says, “There is a dog in the ground. The dog is called Ground
Wolf. There is a man in the ground. The man is called No Harm.”
The Xiading zhi says, “If one digs the ground and obtains a dog, the dog
is called Gu; if one digs the ground and obtains a pig, the pig is called Xie;
if one digs the ground and obtains a man, the man is called Ju,” Ju is thesame as No Harm mentioned above. All these are natural creatures; we should

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321a

not call them spirits or treat them as if they were monsters. The dogs in the
ground described here have been called by names other than Ground Wolf
but their substance is one and same.
The book Wanbi by the Prince of Huainan says, “The liver of the one
thousand-year-old sheep becomes the minister of the earth (dizai); if a toadobtains gu grass, at that time the toad becomes a quail.” These are all the
products of the transformation of material substance (qi). Cosmic responses
cause these confusing phenomena.
An old woman of the Gaoxin clan lived in a king’s palace. She sufferedfrom an ear disease, and a doctor later treated her, digging out a worm thesize of a silk cocoon from her ear. After the lady left, the doctor placed theworm inside a gourd-shaped fence and covered it with a bowl. Suddenly theworm became a dog with a pattern of ﬁve colors. Therefore, the people called
the dog Panhu (Bowl Gourd), and kept it.
At that time, the barbarous people called Wu were very powerful and frequently invaded the border region. The king sent his generals against theinvaders, but they could not achieve victory and capture the barbarians. So
the king announced publicly that if some able person were to obtain the headof the general of the Wu barbarians, he would be rewarded with one thousand
ounces of gold, a tract of land with ten thousand families, and even the king’s
own young daughter.
Later Panhu came to the palace gate, holding a severed human head. Whenthe king inspected it, the head turned out to be none other than the head of
the general of the Wu barbarians. What should the king do? All the ministers
said, “Panhu is an animal, he should not be given the income of an ofﬁcial,
nor should he be given a wife. Although he has performed a meritorious service, we should give him nothing.”
The young daughter of the king heard this and said to the king, “The great
king offered me to anyone in the realm under heaven. Panhu came holding
the head in his mouth, having removed a harmful enemy for the sake of thestate. Heaven has caused this. How could such a deed be attributed to theintelligence of a dog? The king treats faithfulness to his words as a weighty
matter. The military leader treats his credibility before the people as a weighty
matter. You should not renege on your promise, made clearly to everyone in
the realm under heaven, just for the sake of the insigniﬁcant body of a young

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daughter. That would lead to misfortunes in the state.” The king was afraid
and obeyed her, allowing his young daughter to go with Panhu.
Panhu took the woman to Mount Zhongnan, where the grasses and trees
were dense and there were no traces of human paths. Thereupon, the woman
removed her top robe and took on the appearance of a young servant, carrying
a spear with a single twisted point. Following Panhu, she climbed the mountain, entered the valley, and they ﬁnally stopped at a rock cave. The kingyearned for her and sent people to look for her, but the winds and rains cameand the peaks quaked under the dark clouds. None of those who went [insearch of her] ever found her. In this way, three years or so passed during
which the woman gave birth to six sons and six daughters. After Panhu’s
death their sons and daughters married each other. They wove cloth withwood bark and dyed them with grass seeds. They liked clothing of ﬁve colors,and so they cut and sewed the materials they prepared to wear as clothes.
After a while the woman returned and spoke to the king. The king sent
for the men and women who were the woman’s offspring, and it did not rain
anymore. These people wore loose clothes, spoke a foreign language, anddrank and ate while crouching. They loved the mountain and hated the capitalcity. The king followed their wishes and granted them famous mountains
and wide marshes. He called them the Manyi barbarians.
Manyi barbarians appear ignorant from the outside, but they are intelligent
within. The king granted land to them again and again. Because they wereendowed with an unusual substance from heaven, these creatures were treateddifferently by the ruler. They sold the products of their ﬁelds and were exempt
from government taxation. All the heads of their villages were provided witha seal. They use otter skin for their crowns and live in leisure near water. The
barbarians who presently live in the Liang, Han, Ba, Shu, Wuling, Changshe,
and Lu Jiang regions are their descendants. They mix different kinds of ﬁsh
and meat and sing while banging on buckets, and they sacriﬁce to Panhu
regularly. This custom is preserved even today. Therefore, people say that
the Jigan and Hengrun people are Panhu’s descendants. (All the above six
stories come from the Soushen ji.)
The Record of the Western Regions by Dharma Master Xuanzang (T.2087:
932b18–933a14) says:

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The kingdom of Siṃhala (Note: This is not a kingdom in India but since
it is on the route to India its description is appended.) was originally atreasure island. There are many rare treasures and ghosts and spirits dwellthere. Later there was a king in South India whose daughter visited aneighboring state. She was sent back on an auspicious day but encountereda lion on the road. Her guards abandoned her and ﬂed. The woman was
in a carriage and she accepted the fate of death.
The lion king carried her away on his back. He entered deep mountains
and dark valleys, catching deer and collecting fruit, to provide for her
needs regularly. Months and years later, the woman gave birth to a boy
and a girl. They looked human in appearance but their nature was likethat of animals. When the boy grew up his physical power matched thatof carnivorous animals. While he was still young he displayed human
intelligence. So he asked his mother, “What am I? My father is a wild
animal and my mother is human. As I do not belong to one category, how
am I to marry?” The mother then told her son the events of the past. The
son said, “Humans and animals belong to two different categories of existence. We must escape as soon as possible.” The mother said, “I once tried
to escape but I could not succeed by myself.”
Thereafter the son followed his lion father, climbing mountains frompeak to peak, observing how his father roamed and rested, so that he would
know how to escape from him. Finally, when the father was away he carried his mother on his back and went to a village. The mother said, “Let’sbe careful about the secret and not tell others about your origin. If people
learn our past they will despise us.” In the kingdom of the woman’s father’s
the government was no longer ruled by her family and the ancestral shrine
had been destroyed. So they stayed with a villager. People asked them,“Which is your kingdom?” They said, “We originally were from this kingdom but we have been roaming around in foreign regions. Together we,a son and his mother, have now returned to our home village.” All thepeople took pity on them and gave them food.
When the lion king returned he found his lair empty. He missed hiswife and child and became angry. So he went out into the mountains andvalleys, roaming around the villages and uttering frightening roars. He
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away from their village and let down their guard, he caught and killed
them. Only when they struck drums and blew conch shells, carried arrows
on their backs and held shields, and traveled in groups could they avoid
being harmed.
The king feared that his humane government was being disrupted, andundisciplined hunters wanted to capture the lion. The king himself led
four divisions of soldiers and tried many different strategies, laying
ambushes in forests and bushes and traveling across mountains and valleys.
Yet when the lion roared both people and animals ﬂed in fear. Because
he could not capture the lion, the king made an announcement: “Whoevercatches the lion and removes this pest from the kingdom will be heavily
rewarded and honored with ﬂags.”
When the son heard the king’s announcement he said to his mother,“We have suffered from hunger and cold for a long time. I should respondto the announcement. If I can catch the lion I can provide comfort foryou.” The mother said, “What you say is not right. If it is that lion, even
if it is an animal, it is still your father. How can you commit the eternal
sin of patricide because of life’s hardships?” The son said, “Humans andanimals belong to different species. How could there be ceremonial conduct
and righteousness in this case? We have already disobeyed him. Why
should we change our minds?”
Thereupon, he drew a dagger and went out to respond to the announcement. At this time, thousands of soldiers and horsemen were gathering
together, like clouds or fog. The lion huddled in the forest and nobody
dared to approach him. Because the lion was his former father, however,the son could approach him. The lion became affectionate and forgot hisanger. Thereupon, the son thrust the dagger into the lion’s belly. The lion,
still loving and free from anger, and with his belly cut open and bearing
his pain, died.
The king said, “Who is this man? How extraordinary is this!” He
tempted him with rewards and threatened him with horrifying punishment.
Thereupon, the son described the details of his circumstances. The kingsaid, “This amounts to the crime of patricide! You went so far as to killyour father. How much more willing would you be to kill those who are
not your parents? Animals are difﬁcult to tame and they are easily affected269

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by evil emotions.” The king turned to the others and said, “But this man
has also performed the highly meritorious service of removing the lion
that was harming everyone’s lives. He has committed a crime by terminating
his father’s life. Reward him greatly to match his service. Exile him afar
as punishment for his crime. Then we shall not counter the law of the state
and at the same time we are not reversing my earlier promise of a reward.”
On hearing these words, the people ﬁlled two boats with a great dealof food and supplies. The mother remained in the country and was provided
generously with rewards. The son and the daughter set off in separateboats, drifting along with the waves. The boat carrying the son ﬂoatedinto the ocean and reached the treasure island [of Siṃhala]. Seeing plentiful
rare types of jade, the son settled there. Later, a merchant traveling togather treasures also reached this island. The son killed the merchant andkept his children and women. Thus, the son’s descendants increased, andeventually they established the ranks of ruler and ministers to maintainhierarchical order. They linked the cities [with roads] and built villages,
forming a feudal territory. Because their ancestor had captured a lion, thisancestral feat was used as the name of the state.
The daughter’s boat drifted to Pārṣa. There, bewitched by spirits, shegave birth and raised numerous daughters. The consequence of this is thecurrent Western Country of Big Women. For these reasons, the people ofLion Country (Siṃhala) are dark and base in appearance, with square
jaws and large foreheads. They have a violent temperament and are resistant
to poisoning. This is all because they inherited something of animal nature.
It is also said that these people are often courageous and strong. In the
Buddhist records, if one follows the Qishi jing, in the past ﬁve hundred
female demons lived within an iron city on this treasure island.
Furthermore (ref. Record of the Western Regions, T.2087:870a27–b7),
in a large dragon pond in front of the divine shrine to the north of the city
at the eastern border of the state of Kucha, dragons transformed theirappearance and mated with mares. This led to the birth of the hybrid
dragon horse. They were then tamed and ridden. For this reason, this state
produced many good horses.
We heard the following story from an early gazetteer. Not too long ago,
there was a king, called Suvarṇapuṣpa, who established an enlightened270

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government and who communed with and rode a dragon. When the kingwished to go underground he touched the dragon’s ear with his whip. It
then disappeared into hidden places. The city does not have wells evennow so people used the water of the dragon pond. The dragon changed
his appearance into that of a human being and mated with many women.
The children born from this union were brave and could run as fast as
horses. Through this contamination, all of the people in this state cameto have the dragon seed. Being so strong, they terriﬁed others and they
did not honor the king’s order. Thereupon, the king plotted and brought
in some Turks (Tujue) to murder them. Both young and old were massacred
and there were no survivors. Their city is now deserted and no smoke,which would indicate human communities, is ever seen to rise from there.
(The above two miracles come from the Biography of Dharma Master
Xuanzang.)Compiler’s Comment: I have frequently heard ignorant people of wrong
views say, “There is a difference between noble and humble; humans andanimals differ from each other. How could a human being become an animalor an animal a human being? The teaching of the Buddha is empty and false,
not based on reality.” Why do you hold on to ignorant views and not believe
the sayings of the Buddha? The above examples are described in detail insecular scriptures and histories. If you were to see the phenomenon with yourown eyes, would you still disbelieve it? If one’s conduct is compassionate
and patient, then the outcome will be exactly like that of Zhi, Prince of Chu,
whose chronic diseases were all cured. Or it will be like the case of the Dukeof Song: even though he did not pray, the inauspicious stars disappeared in
the evening. If one’s conduct is evil then the consequence is illustrated byevents such as the following: The Han people poisoned Ruyi, Prince of Zhao,
and a blue dog appeared; the Qi people murdered Pengsheng and the wildboar became the curse. Even short-lived consequences illustrate the principle.
How much more clearly does the relationship between one’s conduct as cause
and good and evil karmic results prove the truthfulness of the principle—
sentient beings rise and fall among different realms of existence and receive
punishments through many eons!

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Chapter Four(continued)
The Six Realms of Rebirth(continued)
6. The Hells(Note: This part has eight sections:) (1) Introduction, (2) Explanation of theName, (3) Karmic Retribution, (4) Duration, (5) The Hell Kings, (6) The Cityof the King of Hell, (7) Karmic Causes [for Rebirth], and (8) Warning Signs.
1. Introduction
Now to come to the hells. The hell realms are dark and difﬁcult, and thepain creatures suffer there is acute and distressing. Forests of swords rise as
high as the sun; the peaks of mountains of swords merge with the sky above.
Boiling cauldrons raise waves; cauldrons of ﬁre go up in ﬂames. Iron citywalls enclose the hells during the day; copper pillars glimmer dully during
the night. These places are ﬁlled with frightened sinners suffering great pain,
screaming and shouting. Prison guards with the heads of oxen, malicious
eyes, and frightful fangs pierce the torsos of the sinners and pound their livers
and hearts. Fiercely burning ﬂames lap at the sinners’ bodies and destroy
their skin completely. Some sinners have their heads and legs ground up andtheir spirits cooked. Their gall bladders are split in pieces and their intestines
are pulled out. Their slaughtered bodies are cut up into pieces [to make] adelicious meal. The pain that sinners suffer in hell is beyond words andthought. Thus, the sinners bob up and down in cauldrons of boiling water;
they look up and down in fear and despair inside furnaces of burning coal.
Their ﬂesh is pierced by spears and swords; their bones are crushed and left
at the side of other old corpses. How could anyone sleep peacefully on aniron bed? How could one get used to staying around copper pillars for a longtime? Because the ﬁre gets into their eyes no tears ﬂow when they cry; because
smoke gets into their mouths they utter no sound when they scream.

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When someone is in such a place very small things can give relief: if heencounters a warm wind in the midst of cold ice, or if he senses cool air inthe midst of a coal ﬁre, he is immediately pleased and happy. Someone in
Avīci Hell suffers excessive bodily pain. The iron wall there is eighty thousand
yojanas long and wide. Explosive sounds cause the sinner to shake; foulsmelling smoke rises up everywhere. The sinner is like a ﬁsh in a frying pan:his fat and blood are burned and scorched. There are no temporary pleasures
here; everything someone touches gives pain. He cannot move or turn around;
he is bound up tightly in chains. He is moved about in every direction: when
the ﬁre that destroys the world at the end of the world age burns in one place,
he is moved to another place; when the world age ends in the second place
he is returned to the ﬁrst place. Cycling [through the hells] in this manner,
he passes through an inﬁnite number of world ages.
If a person makes the vow to cultivate the Buddhist Way and repents all
his past evil deeds, then at the moment he makes this vow the boiling waterin the cauldron becomes clear and pure and the cauldron turns into a ﬂower
pond. The thick smoke rising from the coal furnace becomes an umbrella ofincense smoke. The tall sword trees become a jade forest. The mountains
covered with knives become Vulture Peak. The copper pillars change theircolor and the banner of the Dharma is raised up forever. Steel nets change
forms and a vision of the Pure Land appears. The ox-headed jail guards throw
away their swords and take the Three Refuges. The soldiers in the jail put
down their whips and instead take up the ﬁve precepts. Families in conﬂict
are reconciled peacefully and no longer display angry faces. Creditors are
satisﬁed and there is no one in distress. The sojourner in these hells who has
lost his head and neck becomes whole again because of this change. One
whose bones were crushed into powder and whose muscles were torn into
pieces is restored to his original form due to the vow.
2. Explanation of the Name
Question: Why is this realm called hell (diyu)?
Answer: According to the Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:197c23–27), its Sanskritname is niraya; there is no playful pleasure, no joy, no path to liberation,and no meritorious deeds, and a creature is reborn there because he has not
stopped committing evil deeds. Another explanation is that this realm is the274Fascicle 7

most inferior one in the realm of desire. It is called the negative realm. For
this reason hell is called niraya.
According to the Posha lun (ref. T. 1546:47a17–27), the term “hell”
means “not free.” The sinners there are controlled by the ofﬁcials of hell andare not free. Therefore that place is called hell. The term “hell” also means“not able to love and enjoy.” This is why the place is called hell.
Di (“ground”) in the Chinese word for hell, diyu, means “bottom” (di).
Hell is located at the absolute bottom of all things. This is why the place is
described as the bottom. Yu (“jail”) means “room.” The sinners are conﬁned
in a room and have no freedom. For this reason hell is called diyu. Furthermore, the term for hell in Sanskrit is nir, which marks negation. There is no
way of improving or beneﬁting one’s present and future lives when one isin jail. Therefore, hell is described as negation.
Question: There are many kinds of hells. Some are in the ground, someare above ground, and some are located in the sky. Why are they all called
diyu (“ground jail”)?
Answer: According to old translations, diyu means a narrow space that
does not have access to the ground and the sky. According to the new translation of scriptures and treatises, however, the Sanskrit term for hell is rendered
as naraka (naluojia). This term refers to all places where human beings suffer
excessive pain. This is why it is appropriate to call hell naraka.
For this reason, the new Posha lun (T.1545:865b14–28, c5–16) says:
Question: Why is this realm called naraka?
Answer: There sentient beings do not have happiness, love, tastes,material beneﬁts, or joy. Therefore it is called naraka.
Another view is that sinners have committed excessively violent evil
deeds of body, speech, and mind before they go there, so they go there
and continue to stay there. This is why it is called naraka. Another viewis that sinners go to that realm by falling into it. This is the reason for
calling it naraka. The following verse illustrates this point:
Sinners fall into hellWith their feet up and heads down.
Because they reviled holy men
Who were happily and quietly practicing ascetic deeds.

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Another view explains that nara (naluo) means “man” and ka (jia) means“evil.” Evil people are born there. This is why the realm is called naraka.
Question: Why is the lowest and greatest among all the hells called
No Interruption Hell (Avīci)?
Answer: Sinners in that hell suffer pain constantly. There are no momentsof pleasure interrupting the pain. Therefore it is called No Interruption.
Question: In other hells sinners cannot enjoy singing, dancing, drinking,or eating. Yet it could be thought that they might have these pleasures as
the morally neutral fruit of karmic retribution. If they had such pleasuresin the other hells that would have constituted interruptions, but as a matterof fact denizens of those other hells do not have any interruptions [of pain]in them either. Why are the other hells also not called No Interruption?
Answer: Although in the other hells there are no yishu (vipāka) pleasures, or the karmic retribution of the morally neutral fruit of acts performed
in previous lives (with no further karmic consequences), there are still
the dengliu (niṣyanda) pleasures, or karmic retribution that produces thesame effect continually from passing causes. As the Shishe lun says, “In
Equally Reviving (denghuo) Hell cool breezes sometimes blow and restore
the ﬂesh and blood. Sometimes there is a voice saying ‘denghuo’ andthose sentient beings are suddenly revived.” When the ﬂesh and blood
are thus restored and sentient beings are revived, this hell brings pleasureand joy, so there is an interruption of pain and suffering. Thus this hell is
not called No Interruption.
3. Karmic Retribution
The new Posha lun (T.1545:865c26–866b4) says:
Question: Where are the hells?
Answer: They are mostly below this world.
Question: Why are they said to be “securely standing”?
Answer: According to one view, if you go forty thousand yojanas under
our continent [of Jambudvīpa], you will reach the base of No Interruption
Hell. This hell is twenty thousand yojanas high and twenty thousand
yojanas wide and deep. Located in the nineteen thousand yojanas above
this hell are the other seven hells, called “securely standing”: ﬁrst is theHell of Extreme Heat, above that is the Hell of Heat, above that the Great

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Hell of Screaming, above that the Hell of Screaming, above that the Hellof Gathered Multitude, above that the Hell of Black Rope, and above that
the Equally Reviving Hell. Each of these hells is ten thousand yojanas
wide and deep. Above these hells there remains a space of one thousand
yojanas. Five hundred yojanas of this space is white clay and the otherﬁve hundred yojanas is soil.
According to another view, under the soil there is No Interruption Hellat the center. The other seven hells surround it in the same way that villages
surround a great city today.
Question: If so, how does this accord with what the Shishe lun says?
This text says that this world is six thousand yojanas, or three and a half
yojanas in periphery. Each hell is very large. How can they all be contained
underneath the continent of Jambudvīpa?
Answer: This world is narrow at the top and wide at the bottom, shaped
like a pile of grain, so it can contain all these hells at the bottom. Thus
the scripture says that just as when one enters any of the four seas fromthe shore the sea becomes deeper as one goes in further, so each of thehells has sixteen spheres of increasing intensity. Namely, each hell has
four gates and outside each gate are four spheres of increasing intensity.
First there is the sphere of buried embers, where there are knee-deep
embers buried in ash. Second there is the sphere of corpses and excrement,
which is ﬁlled with corpses and excrement. Third there is the sphere of
sharp swords. In this sphere there are three kinds of difﬁculties. The ﬁrst
is a road of sword blades, where swords are spread with the blade tips
pointing upward to form a road. The second is a forest of sword leaves.
Here all the leaves are as sharp as the blades of swords. The third is theforest of steel needles, made of sixteen-inch-long sharp steel needles.
Although these three kinds [of difﬁculties], such as the road of sword
blades and so on, are distinct they form part of the same steel forest. Therefore they are contained in the same sphere. Fourth there is the sphere ofdangerous water. This sphere is ﬁlled with hot saltwater. Together withthe original hell, there are seventeen spheres. Thus, the eight great hells
with their accompanying spheres add up to one hundred and thirty-six
places. Therefore, the scripture says, “There are one hundred and thirtysix narakas.”

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Thus, the Chang ahan jing (T.1:121b29–125a27) says:
There are altogether eight great hells. Each of these eight great hells has
sixteen smaller hells surrounding it. This conﬁguration is similar to that of
the four realms under heaven, which is surrounded by eighty thousand
realms under heaven. Beyond these eighty thousand realms under heavenis the great ocean. Beyond the ocean is Great Vajra Mountain. Beyond thismountain is another mountain, also called Vajra. (Note: The Loutan jingcalls the latter Great Iron Ring Mountain.) Between these two mountains
are the deities of the sun and moon, but their light does not shine forth. The
eight great hells are (1) Illusory Thought Hell, (2) Black Rope Hell, (3)Crushing Hell, (4) Screaming and Howling Hell, (5) Loud Screaming andHowling Hell, (6) Roasting Hell, (7) Intense Roasting Hell, and (8) No
Interruption Hell. (Note: The Loutan jing and other scriptures give different
names for the hells, due to differences in translation. The general meaningsof the differing translations of the names of the hells are the same.)
The sixteen subsections of the ﬁrst Illusory Thought Hell are as follows.
In this hell sentient beings grow iron claws and when they become angry
at each other, they scratch at each other [with these claws]. Where they
touch the bodies of their opponents, the ﬂesh is torn off and the victims
then think that they have died. This is why this hell is called Illusory
Thought Hell. Then the sentient beings in this hell conceive the thoughtof harming each other. They grab swords and knives and cut and pierce
each other. Their skin splits and their ﬂesh is cut into pieces; their bodies
collapse into a pile on the ground. They then think that they have died, but
cold breezes blow and they subsequently revive. Then they think to themselves, “Now that I have revived the long period of punishment is over. I
am going to leave Illusory Thought Hell.” They fearfully cry out for help.
Suddenly, without realizing what is happening, they arrive at Black
Sand Hell. Hot winds rise violently and blow hot black sand. When thesand touches their bodies it sticks to them, burning their skin and penetrating to their bones. A ﬂame is ignited and the ﬁre spreads all over theirbodies which become singed. Yet the punishment is not over and thesesinners are purposely not allowed to die.
After they have suffered for a long time [in this hell] they leave Black
Sand Hell and reach Boiling Excrement Hell. Here boiling excrement and

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them. If they touch an iron ball, it singes their hands and body. If they takeit into their mouth, everything is burned as it passes from their throat to theirstomach. There are insects with iron mouths in this hell, and these insects
eat their ﬂesh until they reach the bone marrow. This is inﬁnitely painful.
Yet the punishment is not over and the sinners are not allowed to die.
After they have suffered for a long time [in this hell] they leave Boiling
Excrement Hell and reach Iron Nail Hell. The jailors of this hell hit themand make them lie face-down on a hot iron bed. Stretching their bodies
out on the bed, the jailors then nail them down through their hands andfeet. The jailors put ﬁve hundred nails all over their bodies. They are in
great pain and scream but they still do not die.
After they have suffered for a long time [in this hell] they leave Iron
Nail Hell and reach Hunger Hell of Iron. The jailors in this hell put themon a hot iron bed and pour melted copper into their mouths, and as thecopper ﬂows from mouth to stomach it burns everything as it goes down.
Yet their remaining sins are not exhausted and they do not die.
After they have suffered for a long time they leave Hunger Hell andreach Thirst Hell. There they are placed on a hot iron bed and jailors put
hot iron balls in their mouths, which burn their lips and tongues. As theiron balls go down to their stomachs they burn everything. The sinners
cry and scream in great pain.
After they have suffered for a long time they leave Thirst Hell andreach Copper Cauldron Hell. Jailors glare at them with angry eyes, andseizing them by the legs they throw them into a cauldron. As the waterin the cauldron boils, they bob up and down in the water and their bodies
are cooked until they are about to fall apart. They experience all kinds ofpain simultaneously but purposely they are not allowed to die.
After they have suffered for a long time they leave Copper Cauldron
Hell and reach Many Cauldrons Hell. Jailors seize them by the legs andthrow them into a cauldron. As the water in the cauldron boils they bob
up and down in the water and their bodies are cooked until they are about
to fall apart. Then a jailor picks them up with an iron hook and throws
them into another cauldron. They cry and scream in great pain but purposely they are not allowed to die.

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After they have suffered for a long time they leave Many Cauldrons Helland reach Stone Mill Hell. Jailors seize them and hit them, and then theyplace them on a heated stone. They spread out their arms and legs and press
on their bodies with another large heated stone. Then they turn the top stone
and grind up their bodies, crushing the bones and ﬂesh into small pieces.
The pain is excruciating yet they purposely are not allowed to die.
After they have suffered for a long time they leave Stone Mill Helland reach Pus and Blood Hell. Here there is boiling pus and blood everywhere, and as the sinners run from east to west across the blood and pus
it covers their bodies. Their faces are burned and become shapeless. They
also eat the pus and blood, and as they swallow it they experience unbearable pain. Yet purposely they are not allowed to die.
After they have suffered for a long time they leave Pus and Blood Helland reach Measuring Fire Hell. There is a huge ﬁre and the violent ﬂames
press toward them. They must take up a hot iron measuring vessel tomeasure the size of the ﬁre. As they do this, the ﬁre burns their bodies allover and the heat and pain cause excessive suffering. They scream andcry aloud yet they purposely are not allowed to die.
After they have suffered for a long time they leave Measuring Fire
Hell and reach the Ash River. The river of hot ash is ﬁve hundred yojanas
wide and deep. The water mixed with hot ash boils up and a foul smell
permeates everywhere. The sound the river makes is frightening. Everywhere from the bottom to the top of this hell, there are iron spikes placed
both vertically and horizontally. On the banks of Ash River is the Sword
Forest. The branches, ﬂowers, and fruits of the trees in this forest are all
made of knives and swords. The sinners must enter the river and following
the waves they bob up and down in the water as iron spikes pierce theirbodies. As their bodies are pierced blood and pus ﬂow out. They feel pain
all over their bodies yet purposely they are not allowed to die.
Then they come out of the Ash River and climbing up the bank theyreach the Sword Forest. Here they are cut and pierced by the swords andtheir bodies suffer severe injuries. There are also wild dogs and wolves
that attack the sinners and eat their ﬂesh while they are alive. When thesinners climb up a sword tree, the sword blades on the tree are pointed
downward; when they climb down, the sword blades are pointed upward.

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If they raise their hands they are cut off; when they take a step their feetare severed. Their skin and ﬂesh fall off. Only white bones, sinews, andveins remain to connect the skeletons together.
The iron-beaked bird on the sword trees pecks at the sinners’ heads andeats their brains. The sinners scream in pain but purposely they are notallowed to die. Then they return to the Ash River and, pushed by the current
and bobbing up and down in the waves, are pierced by the iron spikes in
the water. They feel pain all over their bodies. Their skin and ﬂesh aredestroyed and lose their original shape; pus and blood ooze out. Only theirskeletons of white bones ﬂoat in the water. When a cool breeze blows thesinners that have been reduced to skeletons immediately stand up. Pulledby the force of their past karma, they suddenly reach Iron Ball Hell without
realizing it. Here there are hot iron balls and the jail guards chase themand make them grab these iron balls. Their hands and feet are burned
beyond shape; their bodies rise up all aﬂame. All kinds of pain are simultaneously experienced, yet purposely they are not allowed to die.
After they have suffered for a long time, they leave Iron Ball Hell andreach Ax Hell. Jail guards seize the sinners and hit them, they place themon a hot iron table and cut off their hands, legs, ears, noses, tongues, andthe rest of their bodies. They scream in extreme pain yet they still are notallowed to die. After they have suffered for a long time they leave Ax Helland reach Wild Dogs and Wolves Hell. Here packs of wild dogs and wolves
come one after the other to attack and tear up the bodies of the sinners. Theirﬂesh falls off and their bones are cracked; pus and blood ooze out. They
feel pain all over their bodies yet they are purposely not allowed to die.
After they have suffered for a long time they leave Wild Dogs andWolves Hell and reach Sword Tree Hell. When the sinners enter the sword
forest a violent windstorm arises and blows the sword leaves down, whichdrop onto the bodies of the sinners. [They are pierced] all over their heads,
faces, and bodies; there is nowhere that is not injured. The iron-beaked
bird pecks at their eyes. The sinners scream wildly in extreme pain but
purposely they are not allowed to die. After they have suffered for a longtime they leave Sword Tree Hell and reach Cold Ice Hell, where icy cold
winds blow over their bodies, freezing them all over and their skin andﬂesh drop off. The sinners scream in pain and then their life ends.

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If one’s physical bodily acts have not been good and his speech andthought are likewise not good, then a sinner will fall into Illusory Thought
Hell. The prospect of this is so frightening that it makes the hair on one’s
body stand up.
The second great hell is Black Rope Hell , and it is surrounded bysixteen smaller hells, each of which is ﬁve hundred yojanas wide anddeep. Why is this great hell called Black Rope? Here the jailors of hell
seize the sinner, beat him, and place him on a hot iron bed with his body
stretched out. Then they stretch him with hot iron ropes, and following
the pattern of the ropes they cut the sinner with an ax into one hundred
thousand pieces. Then they saw him with a stretched iron rope. Thenthey hang hot iron ropes in all directions, crossing each other at innumerable points. The jailors chase the sinner through these ropes. A windstorm arises and causes the ropes to tangle around the sinner’s body, andthey burn the sinner’s skin and penetrate into his ﬂesh, scorching thebones and boiling the bone marrow. The sinner suffers extreme pain allover his body. The remaining effects of his sins from previous lives are
not exhausted, however, so purposely he is not allowed to die. This is
the reason this hell is called Black Rope. After the sinner has suffered
for a long time he leaves Black Rope hell and reaches Black Sand Hell.
In this manner he goes through different hells until he reaches Cold Ice
Hell, where his life ends. We will not describe all of the hells in detailhere. The sinner suffers great pain in the remaining sixteen hells in amanner similar to the case of Illusory Thought Hell above. Only theseverity of the pain increases. A person falls into Black Rope Hell fromentertaining evil thoughts against his parents, the Buddha, or arhats. The
pain one suffers in that hell is immeasurable.
The third great hell is Pressing and Crushing Hell. This hell also has
sixteen smaller hells surrounding it, each of which is ﬁve hundred yojanas
deep and wide. Why is it called Pressing and Crushing? There are two
great rock mountains facing each other and when a person enters the space
between them, the mountains spontaneously come together, pressing andcrushing his body. When the bones and ﬂesh have been crushed and groundinto small particles, the mountains return to their original places. The
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allowed to die. There is also a huge iron elephant, and its entire body isablaze in ﬂames. It screams and comes running, and stepping upon thesinner it then rolls on top of him. The sinner’s body is crushed and pus andblood ooze out. The sinner howls and wails in pain but he is purposely notallowed to die. Furthermore, the jail guards seize the sinner and make himlie down on a large rock. They then crush his body with another large rock.
Or they put him down on the ground and pound him with an iron pestle.
From head to toe, the skin and ﬂesh are crushed and ground, and pus andooze ﬂow out. He experiences all sorts of pain and yet the remaining effects
of his sins in previous lives are not exhausted so purposely he is not allowed
to die. These are the reasons this hell is called Pressing and Crushing. Afterhe has suffered for a long time, the sinner leaves Pressing and Crushing
Hell and reaches Black Sand Hell and the other hells, ﬁnally arriving at
Cold Ice Hell, where his life ends. A person falls into Pressing and Crushing
Hell for committing the three kinds of evil deeds and failing to performthe three kinds of good deeds. The pain he suffers there is immeasurable.
The fourth great hell is Screaming and Howling Hell. This hell also
has sixteen smaller hells surrounding it, each ﬁve hundred yojanas long
and wide. Why is this hell called Screaming and Howling? The jailors of
this hell seize the sinner and throw him into a large cauldron of boilingwater and it cooks the sinner. The pain is excruciating and the sinner criesout. Then they take the sinner out of the cauldron and throw him into alarge hot pan, in which he is jostled back and forth, as if being stir-fried.
After he has suffered for a long time the sinner leaves Screaming andHowling Hell and reaches the other hells starting with Black Sand andending up at Cold Ice, and then his life ends. A person falls into Screamingand Howling hell for committing evil deeds out of anger and resentment..
The ﬁfth great hell is Loud Screaming and Howling Hell. This hell also
has sixteen smaller hells surrounding it. (Note: The size of this hell is thesame as the earlier ones.) Why is this hell called Loud Screaming and Howling? The jail guards seize the sinner and put him in a large iron pot. The
sinner is in the cauldron for a long time and the boiling water cooks him.
The sinner is then thrown into a large iron pan and jostled back and forth,over and over. The pain is excruciating and the sinner cries and screams
loudly. The remaining effects of the sins he committed in his previous lives

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are not exhausted, however, so he is purposely not allowed to die. For
this reason this hell is called Loud Screaming and Howling. After he has
suffered for a long time the sinner leaves Loud Screaming and Howling
Hell and after going through many hells, he eventually reaches Cold Ice
Hell, where his life ends. A person falls into Loud Screaming and Howling
Hell because he held many heterodox views and was dragged around by
the net of attachments, and committed base acts.
The sixth great hell is Roasting Hell. This hell also has sixteen smaller
hells surrounding it. (Note: The size of this hell the same as the earlier
ones.) Why is this hell called Roasting? The jailors of this hell seize thesinner and put him in an iron city. The city burns, glowing red both insideand outside, and the sinner is roasted. They then attach him to an ironbuilding, which burns, glowing red both inside and outside. They thenthrow him into an iron kiln. The ﬁre burns and the kiln glows red both
inside and outside, and the sinner is roasted. His skin and ﬂesh are scorchedout of shape and he experiences all sorts of pain. The remaining effectsof the sins he committed in his previous lives are not exhausted, however,and he purposely is not allowed to die. For this reason, this hell is called
Roasting. After the sinner has suffered for a long time he leaves Roasting
Hell and after going through many hells he eventually reaches Cold Ice
Hell, where his life ends. A person falls into Roasting Hell because hehas roasted other sentient beings, so he suffers the pain of being roasted
for the duration of a period of a long night.
The seventh great hell is Intense Roasting Hell. This hell also has
sixteen smaller hells surrounding it. (Note: The size of this hell is thesame as the earlier ones.) Why is it called Intense Roasting? It is so called
because the jail guards of this hell seize the sinner and put him in an ironcity, which burns, glowing red both inside and outside. The sinner isroasted; his skin and ﬂesh are scorched out of shape and he experiences
pain all over his body. There is a large ﬁre tunnel containing a brightly
burning ﬁre. At both ends of the tunnel is a large mountain of ﬁre. The
jail guards seize the sinner, pierce him with an iron fork, and put him
upright into the ﬁre, and he roasts in the ﬂames, his skin and ﬂesh scorchedout of shape. The remaining effects of the sins he committed in his previous
lives are not exhausted, however, so purposely he is not allowed to die.

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After he has suffered for a long time he leaves Intense Roasting Hell, andafter going through many hells he reaches Cold Ice Hell, where his life
ends. A person falls into Intense Roasting hell because he has abandoned
doing deeds that produce good karma and has committed evil deeds.
The eighth great hell is No Interruption (Avīci). This hell also has
sixteen smaller hells surrounding it. (Note: The size of this hell is thesame as the earlier ones.) Why is it called Avīci? This term means thatthe [torments of this] hell continue without interruption. Why is it said tohave no interruption? The jail guards of this hell seize the sinner and ﬂay
him from head to toe. Then they bind the sinner’s body with strips of his
own ﬂayed skin and attach the body to a burning vehicle. As the wheelsof the vehicle turn, hitting the hot ground again and again, the body iscrushed and the skin and ﬂesh fall off. The sinner experiences all kindsof pain, yet he is purposely not allowed to die. There is also an iron cityin which ﬁre burns from four directions. The ﬂames from the eastern end
reach the western end, and the ﬂames from the western end reach the eastern end. Similarly, the ﬂames all reach from the southern to the northernends and from top to bottom. The ﬁre burns intensely and advances quickly.
There is no empty space that the ﬁre does not reach. The sinner runs aroundfrom east to west [trying to escape the ﬂames], but his body is burned,
the skin and ﬂesh are scorched and lose their shape, and he feels sharp
and excruciating pain. The sinner experiences all sorts of pain. After hehas been inside the city for a long time, the jail guards open the gates of
the city. The sinner runs toward the gates, ﬂames coming out of all his
joints, but just as he is about to reach the gates they automatically close.
The remaining effects of the sins that the person committed in his previous
lives have not been exhausted, and for this reason he is purposely notallowed to die. Furthermore, in this hell, if a sinner opens his eyes to see,he perceives only unpleasant forms. His ears perceive only unpleasantsounds, his nose only unpleasant smells, his body feels only pain, and his
mind generates only unpleasant thoughts. There is not even a period oftime as brief as it takes to snap one’s ﬁngers when the sinner feels no pain.
Therefore, this hell is called No Interruption. After the sinner has suffered
for a long time he leaves No Interruption Hell, and after going throughthe other hells he ﬁnally reaches Cold Ice Hell, where his life ends. A

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person falls into No Interruption Hell because he repeatedly committed
sinful deeds that led to rebirths in inferior realms. The punishments asinner receives in this hell are beyond measure and description.
These hells are called the eight great hells. In each of them the sinnergoes through sixteen smaller hells and suffers as described above.
Furthermore, the Guanfo sanmei hai jing (T.643:668c4–674a23) says:
Avīci Hell is eight thousand yojanas long and wide. This hell is surroundedby seven iron city walls and covered by seven layers of iron nets. Seven
sections divided into eighteen units surround the hell. There are also sevenlines forests of swords in this hell In the four corners of this hell are fourlarge bronze dogs, forty yojanas long and wide. Their eyes are like ﬂashesof lightning; their fangs are like trees of swords; their teeth are like mountains of swords; their tongues are like steel daggers; the fur all over theirbodies is ablaze with a ﬁerce ﬁre emitting foul-smelling smoke.
There are eighteen jail guards of this hell; their mouths are like themouths of the most hideous demons. Their sixty-four eyes project ironballs. Dog fangs protrude from their mouths, pointing upward to a distanceof four yojanas above their mouths. From the tip of their fangs ﬁre shoots
out and spews forth burning iron carriages. The hoops of the carriage
wheels are ablaze and tongues of the ﬁre form sharp swords and halberds
which set the city of Avīci Hell on ﬁre. As the city burns it glows red likemolten copper. The jail guards of this hell have eight heads and sixty-fourhorns, and ﬁre burns at the tip of their horns. The ﬂames turn into steel,which in turn becomes a wheel of swords. These wheels emerge one after
another between the ﬂames and ﬁll up the city of Avīci Hell.
There are seven iron ﬂags in the city. Fire springs up as if it were boilingand melted iron ﬂows everywhere. On top of the four gates are melting
pots from which molten copper overﬂows, spreading throughout the city.
There are eighty-four thousand iron dragons and snakes between divided
sections. These creatures spit poison into all the ﬁre, and their bodies ﬁll
the entire city. They make howling sounds like thunder and lightning inthe sky, and large iron balls rain down. There are ﬁve hundred demons andﬁfty billion insects. Fire pours from the heads of eighty-four thousand creatures like rain and ﬁlls up Avīci Hell. When the insects descend a ferocious

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ﬁre blazes brilliantly, illuminating eighty-four thousand yojanas above thishell. Above Avīci Hell is a great ocean and the water pours down into thehell, in drops as large as chariot axles that ﬁll the Avīci fortress.
When someone who has killed his father, harmed his mother, or insulted
the six classes of close relatives dies, the bronze dogs transform themselves
into eighteen carriages with jeweled tops and the ﬂames in this hell become
jade women. When he sees these things from a distance, he is delighted
and wants to go there. As the wind breaks up the corpse the sinner feels
extremely cold and says, “I should go get the ﬁre on the carriages.” Whenthe sinner goes to a carriage the burning ﬁre explodes and his life ends
inside the golden carriage. The creatures that he saw as jade women earlier
all take up iron axes and cut up his body. The sinner immediately falls
directly into Avīci Hell, falling like a spinning wheel of ﬁre from thehighest section of the hell down to the lowest. When his body reaches thelowest section, the bronze dogs howl loudly, bite into the bones, and eat
the bone marrow. A hell demon picks up an iron fork and pierces the headof the sinner to pull him up. The ﬂames covering the sinner’s body ﬁll up
Avīci Hell. Yama, the King of Hell, declares in a loud voice, “A stupid
person fated for hell! When you were in the world you were unﬁlial toyour parents and immoral in other ways. This place where you have now
been reborn is call Avīci Hell.”In this way, everything unfolds and the sinner experiences great sufferingthat is beyond description. One day and night of punishment in hell isequivalent to sixty shorter world ages in this world, which is equal to one
great world age. Those who have committed one of the ﬁve grave sinsare punished here for ﬁve world ages. There are also sentient beings who
have committed one of the four grave sins. They may have eaten almsfood
obtained from lay believers under false pretenses, while holding heterodox
views that revile the proper authorities and, out of ignorance about causes
and conditions, they abandoned the study of perfect wisdom (prajñāpāramitā). Or they have destroyed images of the Buddha in any of the ten
directions. Or they may have stolen monastic property. Or they may haveimmorally engaged in licentious acts, coercing and violating nuns who
were upholding precepts of purity, or sisters and other relatives, committing
numerous evil deeds.

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These people’s sins are such that they are punished just before theirlives end in the following ways. For a period of eighty-four thousand great
world ages, they enter the eighteen eastern sections of the hell and arepunished in the manner described above; similarly, in the southern, western,
and northern sections. Their bodies ﬁll Avīci Hell and their four limbs ﬁll
the eighteen sections of hell. Avīci Hell contains eighteen smaller hells
and in each of these smaller hells there are eighteen Cold Ice hells, eighteen
Darkness hells, eighteen Heat hells, eighteen Wheels of Knives hells,
eighteen Wheels of Swords hells, eighteen Carriages on Fire hells, eighteen
Boiling Excrement hells, eighteen Cauldrons of Boiling Water hells, eighteen Ash River hells, ﬁfty billion Forest of Swords hells, ﬁfty billion Forestof Daggers hells, ﬁfty billion Copper Pillar hells, ﬁfty billion Steel Mechanism hells, ﬁfty billion Iron Net hells, eighteen Iron Cave hells, eighteen
Iron Ball hells, eighteen Pointed Stones hells, and eighteen Drinking
Molten Copper hells. Thus in Avīci Hell there are these eighteen hells andwithin each of these hells there are eighteen sub-hells. From the Cold Ice
hell to Drinking Molten Copper hell, altogether there are one hundredand forty-two sub-hells. Each is connected with different past evil deeds,
but those who experience Avīci Hell visit them all.
Again the Qishi jing (T.24:327b2–329b11) says:
The Buddha told the monks, “Inside the large Avīci Hell are sixteen smaller
hells that are subordinate to it and surround it. Each of these is ﬁve hundred
yojanas in size. All sentient beings who are born, or emerge, or live there
are born there because of the fruit of past evil karma. Jailors seize thebodies of the sinners in this hell with both hands and violently throw themon a ground of red-hot iron. Fierce ﬂames immediately rise and spreadquickly, covering the ground. Then the jailors take sharp knives and, starting from the heels and going upward, they cut apart the sinners’ bodies
and remove their muscles. They take the muscles in their hands and pullthem. They pull and pull all the muscles together, all the way up to thesinners’ heads. As they are being pulled the muscles rip through the heart,and the pain the sinners experience is beyond words. After having pulled
out the muscles in this manner, the jailors put the sinners on iron carriages
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ﬂames. Everywhere they go it is empty like a cave. A narrow road of hotiron goes on and on. The carriages follow the will of the guards in helland do not stop even for a short while. Wherever they want the carriages
to go, the carriages go accordingly, and everywhere they go, the jailors
pull out the sinners’ muscles. The jailors never leave the sinners even fora moment and everywhere they go they remove more from the sinners’
bodies, until there is no ﬂesh or blood left in their bodies. The sinners
experience the karmic consequences of all the deeds that they committed
either as a human being or a nonhuman creature.
“As retribution for evil deeds a great ﬁre suddenly appears in the eastern
direction. Glowing bright red, this large and ferocious ﬁre blazes up. The
same thing happens in each of the other directions, in the south, west,
north, in the four intermediate directions, and above and below. The sinners
are surrounded by all these large masses of ﬁre, which gradually comecloser, causing them to experience all sorts of pain. From the eastern walla large ﬂaming ﬁre emerges, immediately shoots toward the western wall,and stays there after reaching it. From the western wall a large ﬂame
emerges and immediately shoots toward the northern wall. From the northern wall a large ﬂame emerges and immediately shoots toward the southernwall. Flames shoot from below to above and from above to below. Horizontal lines of shooting ﬂames touch each other and vertical lines crossover them. The space is ﬁlled with intensely bright light and red-hot heat.
Flames ﬂy and hit each other. At this point the jailors of hell throw thesinners into the middle of these masses of six kinds of ﬂying ﬁre, and thesinners experience extreme pain.
“Still their life does not end. The karmic effects of their evil deeds are
not yet exhausted, so they suffer in the midst of this hell with all its pain.
Because of the consequences of their evil deeds in past lives, sentient
beings in Avīci Hell suffer pain for an inﬁnitely long period of time.
“Then the four gates of hell open again. When the gates open, thesinners hear the sound and see the gates open. Running toward the gates,
they think: ‘Now we will surely be able to get out!’ When a sinner runs
in great speed his body burns, ferociously ablaze. It is as if a person
carrying a torch of dried grass ran against the wind; the ﬂames of the torch
would surely blaze up [and burn the runner]. The sinner stops running

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325cand then resumes running. His body falls into pieces and burns even morebrightly. When he raises his feet, the ﬂesh and blood drop and scatter.
When he is about to put down his feet, the ﬂesh and blood are restored
again. Just as he arrives at the gates of hell, the gates close again. Because
he cannot get out he is mentally tortured and, deranged, falls on the ground.
Fire burns all over his body, ﬁrst burning his skin, then the ﬂesh and bones,
and ﬁnally the ﬁre penetrates to the marrow. As if in a chimney-like empty
tunnel, a great quantity of smoke arises and the ﬁre burns brightly. The
smoke and ﬂames mix and the heat tortures the sinner with redoubled
intensity. The sinner suffers extreme pain in this hell, yet the karmic effects
of his past evil deeds is not yet exhausted and he experiences all the pain
inﬂicted on him there. In this great hell of Avīci a sinner does not haveeven as brief a moment of happiness as the time it takes to snap one’s ﬁngers. In this manner the sinner suffers this pain.”
The World-honored One said to the monks, “You should know that in
the midst of the world there are ten other hells. What are the ten? The ﬁrst
is Arbuda Hell, the second Nirarbuda Hell, the third Aho Hell, the fourth
Huhuva Hell, the ﬁfth Aṭaṭa Hell, the sixth Saugandhika Hell, the seventh
Utpala Hell, the eighth Padma Hell, the ninth Puṇḍarīka Hell, and thetenth Kumuda Hell.
“Due to what causes and conditions is the ﬁrst hell called Arbuda?
Here the bodies of sentient beings are like bubbles (arbuda). For thisreason it is called Arbuda Hell. Again, due to what causes and conditions
is the second hell called Nirarbuda ? Here the bodies of sentient beings
are like chunks of meat. For this reason it is called Nirarbuda Hell. Again,
for what causes and conditions is the third hell called Aho Hell? Here sentient beings are pressed with grave and severe pains, they cry out ‘Aho,
aho.’ The pain is excruciating. Thus, it is called Aho Hell. Again, for whatcauses and conditions is the fourth hell called Huhuva Hell? Here whensentient beings are pressed with the excessive pains of this hell, they cryout, saying ‘Huhuva, huhuva.’ For this reason it is called Huhuva Hell.
Again, for what causes and conditions is the ﬁfth hell called Aṭaṭa Hell?
When sentient beings are pressed with extreme pains in their body, they
can only chant ‘Aṭaṭa, aṭaṭa.’ But the sound that their tongues make does
not come out of their mouths. For this reason it is called Aṭaṭa Hell. Again,

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for what causes and conditions is the sixth hell called Saugandhika Hell?
When sentient beings are in this hell, they see ﬂames of ferocious ﬁre withthe color of the saugandhika ﬂower. For this reason it is called Saugandhika
Hell. Again, for what causes and conditions is the seventh hell called Utpala
Hell? When sentient beings are in this hell, they see ﬂames of ferocious ﬁrewith the color of the blue lotus ﬂower (utpala). For this reason it is called
Utpala Hell. Again, for what causes and conditions is the tenth hell called
Kumuda Hell? When sentient beings are in this hell, they see ﬂames of ferocious ﬁre with the color of the yellow lotus ﬂower (kumuda). For this reason
it is called Kumuda Hell. Again, for what causes and conditions is the ninth
hell called Puṇḍarīka Hell? When sentient beings are in this hell, they see
ﬂames of ferocious ﬁre with the color of the white lotus ﬂower (puṇḍarīka).
For this reason it is called Puṇḍarīka Hell. Again, for what causes and conditions is the eighth hell called Padma Hell? When sentient beings are inthis hell, they see ﬂames of ferocious ﬁre with the color of the red lotus
ﬂower ( padma). For this reason it is called Padma Hell.”Furthermore, according to the Sanfadu lun jing (T.1506:27a16–17), “There
are three hells: the ﬁrst is Hot Hell, the second is Cold Hell, and the third is
Borderland Hell.”
As for the Hot Hell, the Sarvāstivāda school speaks of eight great hells.
The ﬁrst is Repeatedly Reviving Hell (denghuo). It is also called Againrevived Hell (genghuo). Sometimes the jail guards in this hell chant andrevive the sinners. Sometimes a cold wind blows. Although these two conditions differ they both equally revive the sinners. Therefore, this hell iscalled Repeatedly Reviving. The second hell is called Black Rope Hell. Soldiers in this hell ﬁrst bind the sinner with ropes and later cut him up with anax. The third hell is called Gathered Multitude Hell. It is also called Mass
Knocking Hell. This is because two mountains come together and the sinners
are ground against each other at the bottom of the mountains. The fourth iscalled Shouting Hell. It is also called Howling Hell. Here the guards of hell
come and chase the sinners and the sinners shout and run. The ﬁfth hell iscalled Loud Shouting Hell. It is also called Loud Howling Hell. Four large
masses of ﬁre blaze up, and even though the sinner wants to escape there is
no way out. Therefore, it is called Great Howling Hell. The sixth hell is called

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Hot Hell. It is also called Burning Hell. Flaming pieces of iron closely surroundthe sinner and he feels hot surrounded by them. The seventh hell is called
Intense Heat Hell. It is also called Great Burning Hell. A mountain of ﬁrebreaks out and the sinners are roasted on skewers. The eighth hell is called
No Choice Hell. It is also called No Interruption Hell. Once a sinner is throwninto the ﬁre in which he feels pain, there is no moment of pleasure. Since
there is no moment of pleasure, where would there be any room for choice?
These eight hells exist in a layered manner within this world.
According to the Sanfadu lun (T.1506:27b19–21), [within the eight hellsof the Hot Hell] torturers play a prominent role in the ﬁrst two [hells], alimited role in the next three [hells], and no role in the last three [hells].
These eight hells are the main hells. Each of these main hells has sixteen
hells surrounding it, four minor hells on each side of the main hell. Altogether,including the main hell, there are seventeen hells in each case. Eight sets ofseventeen hells make one hundred and thirty-six altogether. Sinners suffer
the pain of heat in these places.
Second, there are also eight kinds of Cold Hell. The ﬁrst is called Arbuda
Hell, so called because the pain of coldness cuts through the ﬂesh and causes
chilblains. The second is called Nirarbuda Hell, so called because a cold
wind blows and chilblains appear all over the body. The third is called Aṭaṭa
Hell, so called because the sinners cannot move their lips; they can only
move their tongues and so they produce the sound aṭaṭa. The fourth is called
Apapa Hell, so called because the sinners there cannot move their tongues;
they can only move their lips and therefore they make the sound apapa. The
ﬁfth is called Ouhou (Aho?) Hell, so called because the sinners can moveneither lips nor tongues, and therefore they make the sound ouhou in theirthroats. The sixth is called Utpala Hell. This term means blue lotus ﬂower,
and the petals of this ﬂower are narrow. This hell is so called because theﬂesh of a sentient being in this hell has ﬁne edges and resembles the utpala
ﬂower opening under the bright sun. The seventh is called Padma Hell. This
term means red lotus ﬂower. It is so called because the ﬂesh of sentient beingsin this hell has rough edges and resembles a padma ﬂower when it is open.
The eighth is called Puṇḍarīka Hell. This term means white lotus ﬂower. It
is so called because the edges of the bones of beings in this hell resemble apuṇḍarīka ﬂower when it is open. The ﬁrst two hells are named in reference292

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to the appearance of the body; the next three hells are named in reference tothe sounds the sinners there make; the last three are named in reference tothe appearance of the wounds they receive there.
The Jushe lun (Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya, T.1559:216a29–b1) says:
In these eight hells sentient beings are oppressed by extreme cold; theirbodies, their sounds, and their wounds manifest unusual changes; therefore,
these hells are given these names.
According to the Sanfadu lun (T.1506.27a19–24), [discussing the eighthells in the Cold Hell,] in the ﬁrst two hells the sinners can scream, in thesecond three hells the sinners cannot scream, and in the last three hells sinners
do not scream.
These eight hells are situated between the continents at the bottom of theIron Ring Mountain and face upward. Sinners suffer the pain of cold temperatures and freezing in these hells.
Third, the Borderland Hell is also of three kinds. According to the Sanfadu
lun (T.1506:28a17–18), the ﬁrst [Borderland Hell] is in the mountains, thesecond is in the water, and the third is in a deserted ﬁeld. Sentient beings
receive different retributions of their previous deeds in these three places.
Here sentient beings are punished by a combination of cold and heat. As
for the length of life, the life span of a sentient being in these places varies.
It is sometimes long and sometimes short.
Furthermore, the Lishi apitan lun (T.1644:173b25–174a9) says:
The World-honored One said, “There is a great hell called ‘Darkness.’
Outside of each world-system there is always one example of this hell.
This hell is always without a cover on top. In this hell sentient beings holdtheir arms up to get their bearings, because they cannot see anything with
their eyes. Although the sun and moon are endowed with great mysterious
powers, their light does not illuminate this place. When the Buddha appears
in the world a great light illumines all directions. This light enables sentient
beings in this hell to see each other. This hell is located between two
mountains outside the Iron Ring Mountains surrounding the world. Thus
it is said to be ‘outside the world-system.’ It is a cold hell. Between themountains there are ten places with different names, beginning with the

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ﬁrst hell, called Arbuda Hell, and ending with the tenth hell, called Padma
Hell. Sentient beings in these hells walk on their sides, and like a lizard
they strain to face upward. Outside the Iron Ring Mountains everyone
walks sideways. The size of their bodies is like that of a bubble (eduo;
arbuda). If a cold wind touches them their bodies break apart, just like aripe fruit when hit by a cold wind. A sinner walking among the reeds hereis burned up by an intense ﬁre. The sound of explosions is heard repeatedly
all over the place, and when the sinners are touched by a cold wind theirbones break and the breaking sound is heard repeatedly throughout theplace. Because of this sound, sentient beings in this hell come to knowof each other’s presence. Many of the sentient beings who die in our world
are reborn in this hell. Cold Ice Hell is located outside of the Iron Ring
Mountains. When sentient beings die in a world other than our own andare to be reborn in Cold Ice Hell, they are reborn outside of the Iron Ring
Mountains of that world. The closest point between the two worlds iseighty thousand yojanas. There is no bottom and no cover above thisspace. The widest point measures sixteen thousand yojanas.”
4. Duration
According to the Qishi jing (T.24:329b11–25):

326c

The Buddha said the following: “Suppose a person measures sesame seeds
with a measuring unit of the state of Kośala and ﬁlls twenty hu measures
without leveling them at the top. Now suppose that someone were to pickup one sesame seed after a hundred years. He does this again after one
hundred years and each time he throws the seed away. Even by the time
the person has thrown away all twenty hu units of sesame seeds in thisway, when compared to the time measurement of hell, one life span inhell will not yet have been exhausted. To calculate roughly with this number, twenty life spans in Arbuda Hell are equivalent to one life span in
Nirarbuda Hell; twenty life spans in Nirarbuda Hell are equivalent to one
life span in Aho Hell; twenty life spans in Aho Hell are equivalent to one
life span in Huhuva Hell; twenty life spans in Huhuva Hell are equivalent
to one life span in Aṭaṭa Hell; twenty life spans in Aṭaṭa Hell are equivalent
to one life span in Saugandhika Hell; twenty life spans in Saugandhika
Hell are equivalent to one life span in Utpala Hell; twenty life spans in

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Utpala Hell are equivalent to one life span in Kumuda Hell; twenty lifespans in Kumuda Hell are equivalent to one life span in Puṇḍarīka Hell;twenty life spans in Puṇḍarīka Hell are equivalent to one life span in
Padma Hell; twenty life spans in Padma Hell are equivalent to one intermediate world age (antarakalpa).
Furthermore, the Naxian biqiu wenfo jing (T.1670:699a17–700a16) says:
The ﬁre in this world is not as hot as the ﬁre in hell. If a person were to put
a small stone on a ﬁre in this world, it would not melt away even if he waiteduntil the end of the day. If he takes a large stone and puts it in the ﬁre ofhell the stone immediately melts away. If a person commits evil deeds heenters hell at death and will not die even after several millions of years.
Various large and small dragons eat sands and stones that melt away [intheir stomachs]; when human beings are pregnant there is a child in theabdomen, yet the child does not melt away there. All these things are dueto the fact that the power of retribution resulting from good and evil deeds
in previous lives determines what will melt away and what will not.
The good and evil deeds a person has committed in previous lives
follow him just as a shadow follows their body. When a person dies heonly loses his body, he does not lose his past deeds. The relationship may
be compared to the situation of writing by the light of a burning ﬁre atnight. Even though the ﬁre burns out by morning, the writing remains.
The effect of the ﬁre lingers long after the ﬁre is gone. The deeds a person
commits in this world linger into a later world. Again, when the ﬁre is
fully ablaze in Padma Hell a sinner even one hundred yojanas away from
it is still roasted; if he is sixty yojanas away, he becomes deaf in both hisears and he does not hear anything. If he is ﬁfty yojanas away, both hiseyes are blinded and he does not see anymore. The monk Kokālika held
evil thoughts in his mind and reviled Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana. Whenhis body disintegrated and his life ended he fell into this Padma Hell.
The Qishi jing (T.24:329b26–c22) says:
Around the place where Padma Hell is located, if a sentient being is one
hundred yojanas away from the hell the ﬂames of the ﬁre there reach him;
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if he is twenty-ﬁve yojanas away his ﬂesh and blood will be scorched anddestroyed. Because those who have renounced the world and practice thereligious path occasionally entertain deﬁled thoughts, tormenting thoughts,
poisonous evil thoughts, unmeritorious thoughts, uncompassionate
thoughts, and impure thoughts, they automatically suffer such calamities.
Conversely, all those who follow the religious path and know only compassionate actions of body, speech, and mind always receive pleasure later on.
At this time the World-honored One uttered the following verse:
People of this world, while they live in this world without eventhinking, make their tongues sharp and biting instruments.
If a person says poisonous evil things, he is in turn weakened andharms his own body.
Not praising what one should praise, wrongly praising what one
should not praise—such is called “causing strife with speech.”
Because of thus causing strife, one does not receive pleasure.
If a person gambles and obtains wealth, this is a minor matter ofworldly strife.
If a person follows the pure religious path nourishes deﬁled thoughts,
this is called major strife and struggle.
For such a person, there are three hundred and sixty thousand
Nirarbuda Hells and ﬁve Arbuda Hells.
Again, that person falls into Padma Hell.
If one reviles a saintly person they reap these consequences.
These consequences arise because that person has committed evil
deeds of speech and thought.
5. The Hell Kings
According to the Wendiyu jing and the Jingdu sanmei jing, hell has altogether one hundred and thrity-four realms. To give the name of the chief ofhells and his dwelling place ﬁrst, King Yama in the past was King Bimbisāra.
During a battle with King Weituosheng, his military strength did not matchthat of his opponent, and therefore he made an oath to become king of thehells. King Bimbisāra’s eighteen assisting ministers led one million soldierswith horns for ears who were easily provoked to anger. These soldiers joined

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in the king’s oath, saying that they would later offer assistance in punishing
the sinners there. King Bimbisāra became the present King Yama; the eighteen
ministers became the present eighteen minor kings of hell; the one million
soldiers became the hell soldiers.
Furthermore, the Chang ahan jing (T.1:126b9–19) says:
To the south of this world is Vajra Mountain. Inside the mountain is thepalace of King Yama. The palace is sixty yojanas long and wide. (Note:
The Wendiyu jing says that the city in hell is three hundred thousand miles
long and wide and made of gold and silver.) Three times during the day
and night a large cauldron spontaneously appears. If the cauldron ends
up inside the palace, the king becomes frightened and throws it outside
the palace. If the cauldron is outside the palace and the king enters thepalace, a huge soldier from hell forces the king to lie down on a hot iron
bed and, forcing open the king’s mouth with a steel hook, pours molten
copper into his mouth. From the throat all the way down, the king’s internalorgans are all scorched and burned beyond recognition. When this is over,the king goes back to enjoying the pleasures of the company of the womenin his court. The ministers who enjoy pleasures with the king are also
treated in the same way.
The Wendiyu jing says:
Eighteen kings rule over the eighteen hells. (1) Jiayan is in charge of Niraya
Hell. (2) Quzun is in charge of Knife Mountain Hell. (3) Feijinshou is incharge of Blowing Sand Hell. (4) Feishi is in charge of Boiling Excrement
Hell. (5) Jiashi is in charge of Black Ear Hell. (6) Gaicuo is in charge ofFire Chariot Hell. (7) Tangwei is in charge of Boiling Water Cauldron Hell.
(8) Tiejiaran is in charge of Iron Floor Hell. (9) Esheng is in charge of Kai
Mountain Hell. (10) Cold Ice Hell (Note: The scripture does not give thename of the king of this hell.) (11) Pijia is in charge of Peeling Skin Hell.
(12) Yaotou is in charge of Animal Hell. (13) Tibo is in charge of Soldierswith Swords Hell. (14) Yida is in charge of Iron Mortar Hell. (15) Yuetou
is in charge of Water Hell. (16) Iron Rods Hell (Note: The scripture does
not give the name of the king of this hell.) (17) Mingshen is in charge ofWorm Hell. (18) Guanshen is in charge of Molten Copper Hell.

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The Jingdu sanmei jing says that there are thirty more hells, and each of thesehells has someone in charge. Their names are not listed here in detail. I will list
only the names of ﬁve ofﬁcials: ﬁrst is the ﬁsh ofﬁcial who prohibits killing,
second is the water ofﬁcial who prohibits stealing, third is the iron ofﬁcial who
prohibits licentiousness, fourth is the earth ofﬁcial who prohibits divisive speech,
and ﬁfth is the heavenly ofﬁcial who prohibits drinking alcohol.
The Wendiyu jing says:
To the east, west, south, and north of the city of King Yama are various
hells. The light of the sun and moon shines [on them] but does not illuminate
anything. The light does not shine only in Black Ear Hell. When a person’slife ends he is ﬁrst in an intermediate existence. A sentient being in thisintermediate existence has already gone through the moment of death but
has not yet reached the moment of rebirth. The sinner acquires a body ofintermediate existence and enters the city of Niraya Hell (Note: Niraya
means “densely branched city” or “closed city.”), where sinners gather
together before they receive their punishments. As the cleverly discriminating wind blows, the sinners receive bodies of different sizes according
to the effects of the deeds they committed in their previous lives. If a foulsmelling wind blows, sinners take coarse and ugly forms. If a wind witha good fragrance blows, fortunate people receive ﬁne and subtle bodies.
6. The City of the King of HellAccording to the Qishi jing (T.24:330b9–c22):
Outside of the two Iron Ring Mountains to the south of this world is thepalace of King Yama. The length and width of the residence is exactly six
thousand yojanas. Sevenfold walls, sevenfold balustrades, sevenfold nets
with bells, and, outside of these, sevenfold lines of palm trees surround thecity. Seven jewels produce a beautiful combination of colors. There are gatesin each of the four directions. Each gate has a tower for defense. The palacebuildings, gardens, and ponds are all ﬁlled with many kinds of beautiful fruit.
Fragrant breezes carry distant fragrances, and many birds sing in harmony.
Because the king’s evil deeds in his previous lives resulted in bad consequences, both during the three time periods of the night and the three
periods of the day, red molten copper appears in front of him. The palace

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senses disappear. When the king sees this, he becomes frightened andanxious. His hair stands on end and he immediately leaves the palace. If
he happens to be outside when this happens, he immediately runs inside.
At this time the guardians of hell take hold of the king, and raise him
up high then throw him down onto a red-hot iron ﬂoor. This ﬂoor is ﬁercely
ablaze, glowing red with ﬂames shooting from it. After throwing him onto
the ﬂoor and ordering him to lie down, the guardians of hell then force
open his mouth with an iron instrument and pour molten red copper down
his mouth. At this time King Yama’s lips and mouth are burned, then his
tongue, and ﬁnally his throat are burned. His bowels and intestines aregradually scorched. Going downward, the molten copper eventually passes
out of his body.
At this time the king entertains the following thought: “Any sentient
being who has committed evil deeds of body, speech, and mind receives
this suffering with other sentient beings who have committed similar
deeds. Let me make a vow that from now on I will renounce this body;that I will be reborn only among humans; and that I will follow the teachingof the Buddha and obtain the correct faith and understanding, shave off
my beard and hair, and don a monk’s robe. After I have obtained correct
faith and understanding I will renounce the householder’s life, and afterI have renounced the householder’s life I vow to attain penetrating enlightenment. Then I will have exhausted life and death and will have become
ﬁrm in the pure practice. All that has to be done will have been done. I
shall not have any further births.”
When the king nourishes such a transformative thought, the sevenjewels are restored in the palace where he lives. The palace becomes likethe heavens and the pleasurable objects of the ﬁve senses are fully manifested before the king. Because of the effects of the three good deeds ofbody, speech, and mind that he performed in his previous lives, the kingimmediately enjoys all of these pleasures.
Again, the new Posha lun (T.1545:866b12–c12) says:
Question: Are the guards of hell to be counted among sentient beings or
are they counted among nonsentient beings?

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Answer: The guards of hell who bind sentient beings with iron chains
when they are ﬁrst born in hell and take them to King Yama are themselvescounted among sentient beings. But those who harm sentient beings withvarious instruments of torture are counted among nonsentient beings.
Under the continent of this world (Jambudvīpa) are the great hells;
above the continent of this world also are the borderland hells and theisolated hells. Some hells are in valleys, some are on top of mountains,some are in deserted ﬁelds, and some are in the sky. In the other threecontinents there are only borderland hells and isolated hells; there are no
great hells. Only the people of the continent of this world accomplish
great good deeds. They also commit excessively evil deeds. Other continents are different. This is why the hells are different. Some say that thenorthern Uttarakuru continent lacks the borderland hells, too, and that
this is because it is the place for receiving the effects of pure deeds.
Question: If the other continents have no great hells, where do thosesentient beings who have committed extremely grave sins and cut off theroots for good deeds go to receive the karmic consequences of their deeds?
Answer: They receive them in the great hells beneath the Jambudvīpa
continent.
Question: What is the form of the sentient beings in the hells like?
Answer: Their form is like that of human beings.
Question: What is their language?
Answer: When sentient beings are ﬁrst born there they all speak Sanskrit. Later, when they are tortured, they utter various sounds of pain but
not one word is understandable. There are only the sounds of cutting,piercing, breaking, and splitting.
7. Karmic Causes [for Rebirth]
According to the Shilun jing (T.410:694b26–695a20):
The ﬁve grave sins are the most serious sins. What are these ﬁve? Tointentionally kill one’s father, mother, or an arhat, to destroy the affairsof the harmonious monastic community (sangha) of hearers (śrāvakas),and to maliciously shed the blood of the Buddha—these are called theﬁve grave sins. If one commits any of these grave sins, he may not renounce
the householder’s life and receive the complete precepts. If a person has

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been permitted to renounce the householder’s life and then commits agrave sin, he must be expelled from the monastic community. In the caseof those who have renounced the householder’s life and received the precepts, we should not use whips on them nor bind them in conﬁnement [aspunishment].
There are also four kinds of great sins, which are identical with thefour crimes of the fundamental sins. What are these four? Killing apratyekabuddha—this is called the fundamental sin of killing. Committing
licentious acts with a nun who has attained the status of arhat—this iscalled the fundamental sin of licentiousness. If people have made a giftof their goods or property to the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha and aperson in charge of the property uses it for his own private purpose, thisis called the fundamental sin of theft. If a person who holds heterodox
views does damage to the community of monks, this is called the fundamental sin of damaging the sangha. If someone commits any of these four
fundamental sins, without exception he will not be allowed to renounce
the householder’s life according to the Buddha’s teaching. If he has alreadyrenounced the householder’s life, he will not be allowed to receive thecomplete set of precepts. If he has already received the precepts, he must
be expelled [from the sangha]. Because of the monastic rules pertaining
to those who have renounced the householder’s life, one should not whip,bind in conﬁnement, or take the life of any one who had received the precepts when he commits one of these sins. These are all fundamental sins.
They are not identical with the grave sins.
There are cases where an act is both a fundamental sin and a grave sin.
There are cases where an act is a grave sin but not a fundamental sin.
There are cases where an act is neither a fundamental sin nor a grave sin.
What is the case of an act that is both a grave sin and a fundamental sin?
If a person has renounced the householder’s life, received the complete
precepts, and succeeded in attaining the way of the truth, to cut off thisperson’s life is called both a grave sin and a fundamental sin. The person
who commits such a sin should be expelled according to my rules. Whatis the case of an act that is a fundamental sin but not a grave sin? If aperson renounces the householder’s life according to my teaching but
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or through aborting his fetus when he is reborn among humans in a later
life, this is called a fundamental sin but not a grave sin. A person who
has committed such a sin must not be given a share of the monastic property, food and drink, and ﬂoor mats that offered to any monk as common
beneﬁts.
If a sentient being gives rise to doubt concerning the Buddha, Dharma,and Sangha, yet renounces the householder’s life according to them, or
if seeing others reciting the scriptures interferes with the recitation of evenone verse, this fault is neither a fundamental sin nor a grave sin. These
offenses are said to be extremely evil. They are similar to the grave sins.
In the case of such sentient beings, unless they repent and remove the rootof their sins, we can never allow them to renounce the householder’s life
according to the Buddha’s teaching. If they happen to have renounced thehouseholder’s life or have received the complete precepts, those among
them who do not repent their faults are to be expelled. Why? To not havefaith in the right Dharma, to revile the three vehicles, to harm the Dharmaeye, to wish to terminate the lamp of the teaching, and to cut off the seedof the Three Jewels—these all drastically reduce the possibility of rebirthin the realms of humans or gods and have no beneﬁts. The result [of suchactions] is to fall into inferior realms of existence. The two kinds of people
mentioned above, i.e., those who doubt and those who revile the hearers,
pratyekabuddhas, or the Mahayana, are designated as those who revile
the right Dharma and as those who belittle sages and holy ones. Their lifespans in hell increase. These evil deeds are called major fundamental sins.
What are the fundamental sins contrary to the precepts? If a monkdeliberately commits licentious deeds or kills, or an ordinary person does
not give but only takes, or deliberately commits the sin of lying—if amonk or an ordinary person commits any one of these fundamental sins
they are not allowed to participate in any of the religious ceremonies performed by the monks and they may not take a share of the use of common
property, drinks, food, and bedding belonging to the monastery. However,
the imperial ruler, ministers, and ofﬁcials may not impose the punishmentof whipping and conﬁnement and they may not take the life [of such aperson]. These offenses are called the substance, nature, and appearanceof fundamental sins. Why are they called fundamental sins? If a person

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commits these sins, when his body dissolves at the end of life he falls into
inferior realms of existence. To commit these deeds is the root of [rebirthin] inferior realms. For this reason they are called fundamental sins.
Thus, there are eleven kinds of sins: the ﬁve grave sins, the four major
prohibitions, and the sins committed by sentient beings who either
destroyed the right Dharma or reviled the wise and holy ones. If a person
commits any one of these sins, when his body dissolves at the end of life
he will fall into Avīci Hell. Just as an iron ball, when thrown into space,does not stay there but quickly falls to the ground, so will such a sinnerfall into this hell.
According to the Zhengfanian jing (T.721:74a17–19, b4–7; 75c20–22,
29; 76a17, 21; 77c5–7, 13–14, 27–28):
The suffering in Avīci Hell is one thousand times greater than that in theprevious seven hells. The life span there is one world age. The body grows
as large as ﬁve hundred yojanas tall. Those who have committed four
grave sins are four hundred yojanas tall; those [who have committed]
three grave sins are three hundred yojanas tall; those [who have committed]
two grave sins are two hundred yojanas tall; and those [who have committed] one grave sin are one hundred yojanas tall. When a person who
has committed the ﬁve grave sins is about to die, he screams, loses controlof his bowels, and his breath passes out of his throat. A color not seen
during his lifetime appears on his corpse. His body becomes like that ofan eight-year-old child. King Yama takes a ﬂaming iron net, ties the person’s throat, and binds his hands. The head is held downward and the legs
upward. For a period of two thousand years all such sinners move downward. Often their headdresses burn, full of ﬂames. First the head burns,
then the body burns. When the gods of the six heavens of the realm of
desire smell the air of Avīci Hell, they all disappear. Why? Because thecreatures of Avīci Hell have a strong unpleasant smell.
Furthermore, the Guanfo sanmei hai jing (T.643:669a2–669c25) has thefollowing passage:
The Buddha told Ānanda, “If a sentient being kills their father, harms
their mother, or abuses and humiliates one of their relatives in the sixfold

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classiﬁcation of relations, such sinners, when their life ends, very quickly—
in the time that it takes a powerful man takes to bend and stretch out hisarm—fall directly into Avīci Hell. King Yama, appearing as a phantom,
decrees in a loud voice, ‘Ignorant people bound for hell, while you werein the world you were not ﬁlial to your parents and committed evil andarrogant deeds of lawlessness. The place you are now born in is called
Avīci Hell!’ After saying this, he disappears immediately and is not seen
anymore. At that time the jail guards hurry them around, taking them fromlower to higher sections of hell, going through eighty-four sections [ofthe hells] altogether. Bending their bodies, they pass through these sectionsof hell until they reach the boundary protected by steel nets. It takes anentire day and night to go around Avīci Hell. An entire day and night inthis hell is the equivalent of sixty small world ages, according to the measurement of time in our world. According to the way time is measured inhell, life in Avīci Hell lasts for one great world age.
“If a person has committed the ﬁve grave sins, his punishment will lastfor ﬁve world ages. If a sentient being has violated the four major prohibitions, received a gift of almsfood while guilty of violating the precepts,
reviled the truth by holding heterodox views, been ignorant of causes andconditions, terminated their study of the Perfection of Wisdom, broken
images of the buddhas of the ten directions, stolen common property ofthe monastery, engaged in lawless licentious deeds, raped nuns who were
upholding the precepts, sisters, or other relatives, and yet without repentanceabused and humiliated those who are close to him—if someone has committed these evil deeds their punishment is as follows. At the time of deathwinds as sharp as knives blow and cut up his body; in an instant his body
becomes an iron ﬂower that ﬁlls up the eighteen sections of hell. Eachﬂower has eighty-four thousand petals, and each petal has a head, a body,and arms. Each is located in different sections of the hell. This hell is notlarge and this body is not small. Consequently, the body ﬁlls this great hell
for a period of eight thousand four hundred great world ages.
“When this Niraya Hell disappears, the sinner enters the eighteen sectionsin the eastern direction and is punished in the same manner as before. In thisway he goes through the eighteen sections in the southern, western, andnorthern parts of Avīci Hell. Reviling the Mahayana scriptures, committing304

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the ﬁve grave sins, destroying the monastic community, deﬁling nuns,
cutting off the roots of good deeds—sinners who have committed thesesins acquire a body that ﬁlls Avīci Hell; their four limbs ﬁll the eighteen
sections of hell.
“Sentient beings sent to Avīci Hell burn without interruption. When
the world age is about to end the eastern gate opens. As the sinner looks
out of the eastern gate he sees that a beautiful spring, running water, anda forest of trees bearing ﬂowers and fruit have all appeared. At this sight,
the sinner runs upward from below and when he reaches the top section
he raises a ring of swords with his hands. At that time hot iron balls rain
down from the sky. The sinner runs toward the eastern gate but the gatecloses when he arrives. A demon guard of this hell picks up steel forks
with his hands and pierces the eyes of the sinner. An iron dog tears into
the sinner’s heart. The sinner falls unconscious in convulsions and dies.
After dying, the sinner revives and this time he sees the southern gate
reopen. Yet the situation is the same as before; there is no difference. The
western gate and the northern gate are also the same. In this manner time
passes for half a world age.
“After dying in Avīci Hell the sinner is born in Cold Ice Hell. Afterdying in Cold Ice Hell, the sinner is reborn in Dark Place Hell. For eighty
million years his eyes see nothing. He receives the body of a large worm
and he must crawl on his belly, twisting around. All his sense organs are
dulled in the darkness and he knows and understands nothing. One hundred
thousand foxes and wolves seize the bodies of the sinners and eat them.
When this life ends, the sinner is reborn among animals. For ﬁfty million
lives he receives the bodies of birds and animals. Then he is reborn among
humans but he is blind and deaf and suffers from leprosy and tumors. He
is extremely poor and marked by every sign of decline. After ﬁve hundred
lives in this ignoble form, such a person is reborn among the hungry
ghosts. In the realm of hungry ghosts he encounters good friends who are
great bodhisattvas. They reprimand him, saying, ‘In your former lives
over an inﬁnite number of lifetimes you committed boundless sins. Because
you reviled the teaching and lacked true faith you fell into Avīci Hell andreceived tortures that cannot be described in detail. Now you should giverise to compassion in your mind.’ When the hungry ghost hears these words,

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he praises the name of the Buddha and the power of the Buddha’s love.
Thereupon his life ends [in that realm] and he is reborn in the dwellingplace of the gods of the four directions. Once he has been born in thisrealm, he repents his previous sins and feels a desire for enlightenment
arise within himself. From their compassionate hearts many buddhas emit
light onto such sentient beings and do not abandon such people as this one.
The buddhas assist people like this, just as the Buddha once assisted Rāhula.
With their compassionate eyes and ears they teach him to avoid the hells.”
Therefore, in the Qishi jing (T.24:328b18–329a1), the Buddha says inverse:
If a person does wrong either in physical acts, or through speech, or evenin his own mind,
Then as a result of such an action he is born into inferior realms ofexistence.
In this way he is reborn in the “Reviving” Hell.
It is the most fearful place; it makes your hair stand on end.
After experiencing this hell for millions of years, beyond the possibilityof counting,
The person dies but immediately revives.
Hatred invites hatred and so sentient beings kill one another withoutcease.
If sentient beings cherish evil feelings toward their parents,
Or toward the buddhas, bodhisattvas, and hearers,
They will all fall into Black Rope Hell.
The suffering experienced there is extremely grave and terrible.
Those who mislead others who are practicing correct deeds and cause
them to enter wrong paths,
And those who always destroy good deeds as soon as they see them—Such people also fall into Black Rope Hell.
Double-tongued, evil-mouthed, and constant liars who enjoy committing
the three kinds of grave evil deeds
And who do not cultivate the three roots of good deeds—
These ignorant people will necessarily fall into the great hell of Clashing
and Grinding and suffer punishment for a long time.

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Or if someone kills sheep, horses, cows, or other kinds of animals,
chickens, or pigs,
And even if he kills insects, he will fall into Clashing and Grinding Hell.
If, through the many ways that frighten people in this world,
A person oppresses and tortures sentient beings,
This person will fall into Mortar Mountain HellAnd receive the punishment of being pressed against the ground andpounded.
If because of the bondage of greed, desire, anger, and ignorance,
A person perverts the real truth and makes it into something different,
Judging that which is correct to be wrong and deviating from the norms
and rules,
This person is in turn destined to be harmed by knives and swords.
If someone, relying on his strength, steals from others, taking fromboth the powerful and powerless,
If in these ways such a person commits many oppressive acts,
He is destined to be kicked and stomped upon by an iron elephant.
If someone enjoys killing sentient beings, his body and hands stainedwith blood and with a very evil mind,
If such a person constantly commits such impure deeds,
He will be reborn in Screaming and Howling Hell.
Because they have tormented sentient beings in various ways,
These sinners are roasted and cooked in Screaming and Howling Hell.
Within this hell, furthermore, is the Great Screaming and Howling Hell.
Here are people who are given to ﬂattery and who have crafty minds,
Which are obscured by wrong views as if with a dense forest;
They are bound tighter and tighter by the taut nets of attachment andpulled downward.
Those who commit the most base deeds fall into Great Screaming andHowling Hell.
When a person arrives at the Great Screaming and Howling Hell, aniron city ablaze, his hair stands on end.
There are iron halls and iron buildings there, and those who come andenter these places are completely consumed by ﬁre.

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If those who while performing their worldly duties constantly torment
sentient beings,
They will fall into the place of torture by heat.
They endure torture by heat for an inﬁnitely long time.
Monks and brahmans in the world, parents, superiors, and elders—If people constantly torment such worthies and do not please them,
they will all fall into Heat Hell.
Not having cultivated the pure deeds that lead to rebirth in heaven,always rejecting those who are closest and to be loved;
If people commit these crimes with pleasure, they will enter Heat Hell.
Those who commit evil deeds toward monks and brahmans, and othergood people and parents,
Or who harm other honorable ones, will fall into the place of tortureby heat, where a ﬁre constantly blazes.
Those who constantly commit evil deeds
And have never even for an instant harbored a good thought in theirminds,
These people go directly to Avīci Hell and receive an inﬁnite numberof punishments.
If a person says that the right Dharma is wrong
And various wrong teachings are correct,
And he does not contribute to the good cause—
Such a person will enter Avīci Hell.
Reviving Hell, Black Rope Hell, and the two hells,
If one adds to these such hells as [Clashing and Grinding,] Screamingand Howling, [and Great Screaming and Howling], the number
becomes ﬁve.
With Heat Torture Hell and Great Heat Hell, there are seven hells.
Avīci Hell makes the number eight.
These eight are called the great hells,
Where sinners burn violently and their suffering is intense andunbearable.
A person will be reborn [in these hells] because of the evil deeds hecommitted.
Within each [of the eight great hells] there are also sixteen smaller hells.

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8. Warning Signs
The Qishi jing (T.24:330c25–332a2) says the following:
The Buddha said to the monks, “There are three kinds of heavenly messengers in the world. What are these three? The ﬁrst is old age, the second
is illness, and the third is death.
“If a person is self-indulgent and commits the three kinds of evil deeds
he will be reborn in hell when his body dissolves and life ends. The
guardians of hell come immediately and drive such sentient beings into
King Yama’s presence. They say, ‘Great king, these sentient beings were
unrestrained and self-indulgent when they lived among people in theirprevious lives. They did not make their three acts [of body, speech, andmind] good. Would the great king properly instruct them?’ The king asks
the sinners, ‘When you lived among humans in your previous lives, theﬁrst heavenly messenger instructed and reprimanded you well. How could
you have failed to see him appear in life?’ The sinners answer, ‘Great god,
indeed we did not see him!’“The king says, ‘When you had a human body you should have seen
the following. The decline of old age appeared to you, sometimes in theform of a man and sometimes in the form of a woman, with their teeth
fallen out, white hair, loose and wrinkled skin, and black spots all overtheir body so that it looked like a sesame plant. Their arms were crooked
and their backs were bent and as they walked, crippled, their legs did not
follow the body, which leaned to the left and then to the right. Their necks
were narrow and their skin was loose, hanging down on both sides like a
cow’s jowls. Their lips and mouths were parched, their throats and tongues
dry. Their bodies were bent and weak and their vitality was ebbing. They
gasped when they tried to speak, making a rasping sound like a saw. Faltering, they walked clinging to a stick. The vigorous years of their lives
had declined and their blood and ﬂesh had been reduced to the point ofdrying up; skinny, exhausted and weak, they were ready for the passage
to the next life. Their movements were slow and there was no longer evena trace left of their former vigor. Both body and mind were all atremble.
All their limbs were scrawny and slack, held together only with difﬁculty.
Have you never seen such an apparition?’

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330a“The sinners answered, ‘Great god, we have indeed seen this.’ Thenthe king says, ‘You are slow and ignorant people and have no wisdom.
When you saw such a sight in the past, why did you not think as follows:
I too have ahead of me this inevitable fate (fa) of old age; I have not transcended it yet. I should perform good deeds so that I will be able to enjoy
beneﬁts and pleasure for a long time.’ The people answer, ‘Great god,
indeed we did not think such thoughts because our minds were excessively
self-indulgent and our behavior was undisciplined.’ King Yama then says,‘You are slow and ignorant people and you have not cultivated good deeds.
You should receive all the punishments for undisciplined indulgence.
These painful punishments are not the result of what others did; they are
the results of your actions. The sum total of what you did now returns toyou and you will suffer the consequences.’“At that time King Yama, reprimanding the sinners for the second time,says, ‘Did you people not see the second heavenly messenger appear in
the world?’ They answer, ‘Great god, indeed we did not see him.’ The
king then says, ‘In the past, when you had a human body in the world,
did you not see the following: Whether one has the body of a woman orof a man, the harmony of the four great elements is suddenly disturbed.
Disease enters and clings to the body, causing great pains. Lying in a large
or small bed, the sick person tosses back and forth, soiled with urine andexcrement. He no longer has control of his body. Lying down asleep orsitting up awake, he looks to someone to stay close by and look after him.
He requires others’ assistance to wash, to wipe himself, to hold something,to eat or drink. Have you not seen such a sight?’ The people say, ‘Great
god, indeed we did see this.’“King Yama then tells them, “Ignorant people, when you saw such asight, why did you not think the following: I will also meet such a fate andI have not transcended the fate of disease. I should perform good deeds thatwill enable me to obtain great beneﬁts and pleasure for a long time in the
future.’ The people say, ‘No, indeed we did not think such a thought because
our minds were lazy and our behavior was undisciplined.’ The king tells
the ignorant men, ‘You were lazy and did not perform good deeds. You will
receive these bad retributions not because of what others did. What you did
returns to you and you will thus receive these retributions.’

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Fascicle 7“Then King Yama, reprimanding them for the third time, says, ‘You
slow and ignorant men, when you were human beings in the past did you
not see the third heavenly messenger appear in the world?’ They answer,‘Great god, indeed we did not see him’.
“The king says again, ‘When you were human beings, did you also
not see the following? Whether in the case of a woman or a man, whenlife ends they place the body on a bed and cover it with cloths of manycolors. When the body is to be taken outside the village, it is awesomely
decorated with ﬂags and umbrellas. Relatives surround the corpse, theirhands held aloft, their hair all in disarray. Covering their heads with ashes,
they lament greatly. Wailing ceaselessly, they scream loudly. Striking theirchests in sorrow, they sob in sharp grief. Have you not seen this?’ They
answer, ‘Great god, indeed we saw this.’“Then the king says to them, ‘Ignorant men, when you saw such a sightin the past why did you not think the following thought: We too will die; wehave not been liberated from death. We should now perform good deeds toobtain great beneﬁts for a long time.’ They answer, ‘Great god, indeed we
did not think such thoughts. Why? Because we were undisciplined and indulgent.’ Then King Yama says, ‘You were undisciplined and indulgent and did
not perform good deeds. You created these bad retributions yourself; these
retributions were not created by others. When you receive these retributions
you are receiving the results of your earlier deeds.’ After he instructs andreprimands the sinners with regard to the above three messengers, the kingorders them to be taken away. Thereupon, the guardians of hell seize the sinners by their legs and arms and, holding them with the sinners’ heads downward and their legs up, they throw them far into the midst of the many hells.”
Now, the best way to stop a stream is to cut off its source. The best way
to stop boiling water from boiling is to put out the ﬁre. Why? The source
provides the water; if the source is not cut off the water is never exhausted.
The ﬁre boils the water; If the ﬁre is not extinguished, how could the boilingstop? Therefore, if the source that feeds a spring is cut off, the water dries
up by itself; if the ﬁre that boils the hot water is extinguished, the boilingwill stop by itself. A discussion of these analogies makes us understand theissues at hand better. If one dislikes a result it is best to cut off its cause. If

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one fears suffering, wouldn’t it be best to give up evil deeds? The cause provides the substance for the results. If the cause is not uprooted the result will
not be exhausted. Evil deeds give rise to suffering. If one does not give up
doing evil deeds, how could suffering cease? Therefore, if a person cuts off
the cause the result will never come about, even if the person feels no [revulsion toward the possible result of his acts]. If a wise person gives up doing
evil deeds, suffering disappears even if he never feared [receiving retribution
for his deeds]. Have a hundred noble ones not written books about this inorder to warn us?
The [concluding] verse says:
Having been born, a person returns to death.
When the sun goes down the moon returns.
Someone who has been exiled while very young is easily movedby the evening wind.
He roams around, following changing objects.
An ignorant person loses his way and,
Floating and sinking, falls into a great abyss.
Immediately he falls into the dark place (i.e., hell) and experiences
sharp-pointed weapons for ten thousand ages.
Beings in the six realms of rebirth revolve in the cycle of rebirthin the world and suffer,
Yet the effects of the three types of evil deeds are not yet exhausted.
As they follow this stream of rebirths no one can save them.
In great sorrow, they can only rely on themselves to show pity.
Only by returning to sincerity and meditating on the form of things
Can they learn the empty and false nature of objects.
The ocean of suffering is deep—where would it take us?
We wish to board the ship of perfect wisdom.

Miracle Stories(Note: There are seven stories:) From the Jin dynasty (265–420 C.E.), Layman
Zhao Tai and the monk Zhi Faheng; from the [Later] Zhao dynasty (319–351
C.E.), Layman Shi Changhe; from the [Former] Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.–7
C.E.), the ghost at Hangu Pass, the sound of wailing in the Lu Jiang district,

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and the boiling caldron in Tibet; from the Tang dynasty (618–907 C.E.), Liu
Zhigan serves as a judge in hell.
Jin Dynasty
Zhao Tai, styled Wenhe, was a man from Beiqiu of Qinghe. His grandfather
had been the governor of the capital district. His commandery recommended
Tai for government service as a morally upright person and the government
invited him, but he did not serve. He studied the scriptures a great deal andwas famed for his scholarship in his home district. Later he accepted ofﬁcial
appointments and ended his career as the Grand Master of Palace Leisure.
When Tai was thirty-ﬁve years old he experienced a sudden pain in hisheart and moments later he died. When people lowered his corpse to theground, his heart was still warm and his body bended and stretched whenpeople moved it. The corpse was left there for ten days, and then a soundlike falling rain came from his throat. He suddenly revived and told the following story.
Right after his death, Tai dreamed that a man came and stooped over him
at heart-level. There were two other people riding yellow horses, and these
two servants supported Tai on either side. The path led eastward but he did
not know how many miles they traveled. Then they reached a large city, highand precipitous, which was colored blue and black like zinc. They led Tai tothe city gate and passed through two heavy doors. Inside there were thousandsof tiled houses and also thousands of men and women of all ages standingin lines. Five or six ofﬁcials wearing silk clothes read out names from a listof categories. They were to present these people to the Commandery Governor
according to the categories. Tai’s name was under the twentieth category.
Soon they took Tai and several thousand other men and women to present
them together. The Commandery Governor sat facing westward. After examining the list, he sent Tai south to go through the black gate.
A man wearing red clothes was sitting under a large roof. He called out
the names one by one and asked what they had done in their previous lives:“What sins did you commit? What good deeds did you perform? Clearly,
you should tell the truth. Here we send messengers to the six branches of thegovernment. These messengers remain in the human world and constantly
record good and evil deeds. Their lists include all events without exception.

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You should not lie.” [Zhao] Tai answered, “My father and elder brother served
as government ofﬁcials. Both received two thousand gallons (shi) of rice.
Since I was young, I only studied at home and have not served in any ofﬁce.
I have not committed any evil deeds either.”
Thereupon, the man dispatched Tai to serve as an overseer in the Ofﬁceof Waterways, where he supervised more than two thousand men who worked
hard day and night carrying sand to repair riverbanks. Later the man promoted
Tai to Commissioner-in-Chief of the Ofﬁce of Waterways and placed theaffairs of the jail under his charge. They gave Tai horses and soldiers andordered him to visit the various hells for inspection.
The torture in the different hells Tai visited took different forms. In one
case, the tongue of a sinner was pierced with needles and blood completely
covered his body. In another case, people with disheveled hair and without
headdresses, naked and barefooted, were dragged along while guards withlarge sticks prodded them from behind. An iron ﬂoor and copper pillars
burned with blazing ﬂames, making hollow sounds. The people were driven
there and forced to embrace the pillars and lie down on the ﬂoor. When theyrose, they were all burned into shapeless forms, but they were immediately
brought back to life. In still another case, sinners were roasted and cooked
in a ﬂaming stove and a huge cauldron. Heads and bodies were crushed andhad fallen apart, and were roiling around in the water as it boiled. Demonsholding forked spears stood nearby, and three or four hundred people stoodto one side, awaiting their turn to enter the cauldron, crying aloud and embracing each other. Then there was a tree of swords, tall and wide and extending
beyond any visible limit. At its outermost points the trunk, branches, andleaves of the tree were all made of swords. People abused each other andeach climbed the tree, one by one, as if he was delighted to compete withthe others. As they climbed their heads and bodies were cut up into pieces,from a few inches to a foot long.
[Zhao] Tai saw his grandparents and two brothers in this hell, and they
cried when they saw each other. When Tai was going out of the gate of hell,
he saw two people bring a document to the jail ofﬁcial and say, “There arethree people whose family raised banners and burned incense at the temple
in order to remove their sins. They may be released from hell and allowed
to go to a residence of good fortune.” Suddenly Tai saw three people come314

Fascicle 7

out of the gate of hell. Immediately their clothes appeared on their bodies in
perfect order. They went to a gate called the Great Hall of Opening Light.
The threefold gate was illuminated in a bright red color. When they saw thisgate the three people immediately entered the hall. Tai followed them.
Before him Tai saw a great hall, decorated throughout with rare treasures,
shining brilliantly to the observer’s eye. The ﬂoor was made of gold andjade. He saw one supernatural person whose appearance was extraordinarily
awesome and propitious. This man was sitting on a seat and there were manymonks standing in attendance around his seat. Tai saw the Commandery
Governor come and pay respect to the man with humility and reverence. Tai
asked to whom the Commandery Governor had extended reverence and anofﬁcial said, “He is called the World-honored Master Who Saves Humanity.”
After a while all the people in hell were brought out to listen to the scriptures. At that time they were said to be one million and nine thousand in
number. They all came out of hell and entered the city, which was a hundred
miles [wide and long] in size. As they arrived they paid respect to the teachingand sat in large groups. Even if there are shortcomings in a person’s religious
practice he or she can still obtain salvation. For this purpose, the teaching of
the scriptures in hell had been established. Within seven days the people
achieved release from hell in the order determined by whether their deeds
in previous lives had been good or evil. Before Tai came out he saw one
thousand people rise up into space and disappear.
After Tai came out of this hall he saw another city, over two hundred miles[wide and long] in size, called the City of Changing Forms. The people who
had completed the examination in hell enter this city and receive new forms
for rebirth. Entering the city, Tai saw several thousand sections of houses
with clay tiles; each house had rooms and corridors. Right in the middle ofthe city was a brick house with a high ﬂoor and decorated balustrades. The
house had several hundred rooms. The ofﬁcials, matching each case with[the proper] documents, said, “Murderers will become dayﬂies, born in themorning and dying in the evening. Thieves will become pigs and sheep, tobe butchered by people. Sexual offenders will become cranes and deer. Liars
will become owls. Debtors will become camels, oxen, and horses.”
After [Zhao] Tai returned from the inspection tour, the chief of the Ofﬁceof Waterways said to him, “You are the son of a noble family. For what sins

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331bhave you come here?” Tai answered, “My grandfather, father, and brothers
all have a ﬁef that produced two thousand shi of rice. I was selected for service
in government but turned it down. Cultivating my mind and meditating on
good deeds, I did not become deﬁled by various forms of evil deeds.” Thechief said, “You have not committed any sins. That is why you have been
made Commissioner-in-Chief of the Ofﬁce of Waterways. Otherwise, there
would have been no difference between yourself and those who are in hell.”Tai asked the chief, “What must a person do to assure happiness after
death?” The chief said only, “If disciples who honor the Dharma practice it
diligently and uphold the precepts, they obtain the karmic rewards of happiness
and will not be punished.” Tai again asked, “After someone has submitted
himself to the service of the Dharma, can the sins he committed before submitting be removed?” The answer was, “Yes, all sins can be removed.” After
this conversation, the chief opened the sealed box and checked Tai’s years.
There were still thirty years left so he sent Tai back to the human world. As
they parted, the chief said, “You have seen what the punishment for sins inhell is like. You must tell the people in the world about it and encourage themto perform good deeds. The effects of good and evil deeds follow people justlike shadows and echoes. Shouldn’t everyone be careful about them?”
Tai then reported his experience to friends and strangers who visited him.
Fifty or sixty people heard him speak about his experience at one time. Tai
also wrote down his experiences and showed the document to his contemporaries. The time was the thirteenth day of the seventh month of the ﬁfth
year of Taishi (269 C.E.). Then Tai requested a monastery to arrange for alarge celebration on behalf of his grandparents and two brothers. He ordered
all of his descendants to change their faith and honor the Buddhist Dharmaand practice Buddhism diligently. People heard that Tai had died and comeback to life, after seeing many instances of the consequences of good andevil deeds, and they visited him one after another. At that time, the SuperiorGrand Master of the Palace Sun Feng of Wucheng, the Marquis of Guannei
Ho Boping of Changshan, and others, altogether ten people, gathered together
at [Zhao] Tai’s house and questioned him in detail. Everyone was ﬁlled withfear and submitted themselves to the Buddhist Dharma.
The monk Zhi Faheng belonged to the beginning of the rule [of the Jin
dynasty]. He was ill for ten days and then died. Three days later he came

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back to life and told the following story. When he died a man came to takehim away. He saw several places which looked like government residences
but he was not accepted in any of them. Suddenly he saw an iron wheel withsteel claws come around from the western direction. No one was pulling thewheel yet it turned and traveled as fast as the wind. An ofﬁcial called a sinnerand made him stand facing the wheel, and the wheel ran over the sinner. In
this manner the wheel turned repeatedly and crushed several people. The ofﬁcial
called to Faheng, saying, “The man of the Way (i.e., Zhi Faheng) should comeand stand facing the wheel.” Faheng was afraid and, blaming himself, he said,“Because I did not practice diligently I must now face this wheel.” After hespoke these words, the ofﬁcial said to Faheng, “The man of the Way may go.”
Then Faheng looked up and saw that there was a hole in the sky. Without
any sensation, he rose up quickly and his head went through the hole while
his hands touched both sides of the hole. Faheng looked around in the four
directions and saw a palace decorated with seven jewels, occupied by heavenly
beings. Faheng kicked and jumped but could not get up further to reach thepalace. Exhausted, he went down again and returned to where he had been.
The man who had taken Faheng laughed and said, “What did you see thatprevented you from going up?”
Thereupon he handed Faheng over to a boat captain. The captain piloted
the boat and ordered Faheng to operate the rudder. Faheng said, “I cannot
hold the rudder,” but the captain forced him to do so. Several hundred boats
followed [the boat] Faheng was on. Not knowing how to hold the rudder,
Faheng steered the boat into a sandbar. The captain shoved Faheng, saying,“You made a mistake guiding the boat. According to the law you should beexecuted.” Dragging Faheng onto the shore, to the sound of beating drums,
the captain was about to execute Faheng.
Suddenly two ﬁve-colored dragons pushed the boat [off the sandbar] andmade it ﬂoat again. The captain then pardoned Faheng and they continued
traveling northward for about thirty miles. Faheng saw a village and on theriverbank there were tens of thousands of houses. The captain said that thevillage was a refuge. Faheng slipped out and landed on the bank. A large dog
in the village was about to attack him and Faheng was very frightened.
When he looked in the northwest direction he saw a lecture hall, where
many monks had gathered. Hearing the sound of sutras being recited, Faheng

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hurried toward the hall, which had a twelve-step staircase. [Zhi] Faheng
climbed the ﬁrst step and saw the deceased teacher Fazhu sitting on a chair.
Seeing Faheng, he said, “You are my disciple. Why did you come?” Turningand rising toward the staircase, the teacher slapped Faheng in the face witha hand cloth and said, “Do not come up.” Faheng was very anxious to continue
up the staircase and again raised his feet to climb the steps, but Fazhu again
pushed him back down. After the third time Faheng gave up. Faheng thensaw a well on the ﬂat ground, three or four zhang deep and covered completely
with bricks. Faheng thought, “This is a natural well.” A man at the side of
the well said, “If it is not natural, how could it be a well?” Faheng saw Fazhu
deliberately lean and look toward him, and Fazhu said to him, “You should
return by the same route you came on. The dog will not attack you.” Faheng
went back to the riverbank but he did not see the boat on which he had arrived.
He was very thirsty and tried to drink from the river, and thereupon he fell
into the water. Then Faheng revived.
Because of this experience he renounced the householder’s life, upheld
the precepts, and did not eat meat. Diligently practicing day and night, hebecame a monk of superior conduct. Faqiao is a disciple of Faheng.
331c[Later] Zhao Dynasty
Shi Changhe was a native of Gao in the state of Zhao. At the age of nineteen
he became ill and after one month and a few days he died. His family waspoor and could not perform the proper ritual of preserving the body in a
cofﬁn prior to burial. Four days later he revived and told the following story.
As soon as he died Changhe walked in the southeastern direction and saw
two people leading the way. They were ﬁfty paces ahead of him. As he walked
slowly or quickly, they accordingly changed their walking speed, still leading
the way, slowly or quickly, always maintaining the same distance of ﬁfty
paces ahead. On both sides of the road was a thick growth of thorny shrubs.
Each thorn was like the talon of an eagle. He saw a large group of people
running into the thorny shrubs; their bodies were injured and torn and theirblood ﬂowed all over the ground. Seeing Changhe walking on the ﬂat road,they all sighed and said, ‘Only followers of the Buddha can walk in the
middle of the Great Way.’ Further along the road he saw buildings with tiled
roofs. There must have been one thousand rooms.

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There was one very tall building, and in this building a very large man
wearing a ceremonial black jacket was sitting, facing the window. Changhe
paid respects to him. The man above in the watchtower said, “Lord Shi has
arrived. It has been twenty years since we parted.” Changhe then felt as if
he remembered the time of their parting. Among his acquaintances was aman called Mamu Mengcheng. It had been many years since he and his wife
had died. The man above in the watchtower said, “Do you know Mengcheng?”
Changhe said that he did. The man in the watchtower said, “When he wasalive, Mengcheng failed to practice the Buddhist teaching diligently. He is
now serving as a house cleaner for me all the time. Mengcheng’s wife wasdiligent and she now lives in a very pleasant place.” Pointing with the ﬁnger
of one hand to a room in the southwest corner, he said, ‘Mengcheng’s wifeis there.’ Mengcheng’s wife then opened the window and, seeing Changhe,
she asked very politely how he was doing. After inquiring about the welfareof the old and young in her extended family, she said, “When Lord Shi returns,
you should write to me of what you see.” Suddenly Changhe saw Mengcheng
coming from the west of the building, holding a broom and dustpan in his
hands. He also asked for news of his family.
The man above in the watchtower said, “I have heard that ﬁsh and dragons
perform excessively diligently as proof of their faith. What have you practiced?”
Changhe said, “I have not eaten ﬁsh and meat. I have never drunk wine. I
constantly recite the honored scriptures to seek release from illness and pain.”
The man in the watchtower said, “You have not forgotten what has beentaught to you.” He spoke for a long time. and then asked the man in chargeof the complete records, “Examine Lord Shi’s record. Do not make any mistakes.” The man consulted the record and said, “His has more than thirty
more years of life left.” The man in the watchtower said, “Does Lord Shi
wish to return or not?” Changhe answered that he wanted to go back. Thereupon the man above in the watchtower ordered the man in charge of therecords to send him back on a carriage with mounted soldiers and two accompanying ofﬁcials. Changhe paid respects to the man above in the watchtower,
took his leave, boarded the carriage, and returned. Along the road he had
traveled on before, there were again the hostels where ofﬁcials and private
guests were eating and drinking what had been provided for them earlier.

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Suddenly he reached home. He hated the smell of his corpse and did notwish to approach it. While he was standing by the corpse he was pushedfrom behind by his deceased sister and fell on top of the corpse, and thus
revived. The man of the Way Zhi Fashan had not yet renounced the householder’s life at that time. When he heard Changhe’s story he decided to enter
the Way. Fashan lived during the Xianhe period (326–334). (The above threepeople are mentioned in the Mingxiang ji.)332a[Former] Han Dynasty
Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty traveled eastward but had not yet goneover Hangu Pass. On the road there was a creature, several tens of zhang(many hundred feet) in height and shaped like an ox. It had shining blue eyes
and its four feet were buried in the ground. You could not move it even if
you pushed with all your might. All the ofﬁcials were amazed and frightened.
Thereupon Dong Fangshuo requested that they pour wine as an offering.
They poured several tens of hu (hundreds of gallons) [of wine], and the monster then disappeared. The emperor asked the reason for all of this. Dong
Fangshuo answered, “This is called the result of suffering from distressed
qi. This must have been a place of the jail of the Qin ruling house. If not, it
must have been a place where prisoners were gathered together to labor.
Wine causes one to forget distress. Therefore the wine could make the monster
disappear.” The emperor said, “What a knowledgeable scholar!”On the border between the two districts of Wan and Chuangyang in the Lu
Jiang Commandery lived dark blue creatures. These creatures, some larger
and others smaller, lived in the wild mountains and ﬁelds, and sometimes
the sounds of them weeping could be heard. Voices of a group of several
tens of people at most, both male and female, young and old, which soundedjust like the sorrowful wailing of people who have just lost someone, used
to be heard. People who lived nearby would be surprised and go running to
the place where the voices were heard, but they never saw any human beings
there. However, at the place where the weeping voices were heard there
would always be deaths later. If many voices were heard, then a large family
would die there later; if fewer voices were heard, then a small family died
there. (Note: The above two stories come from the Soshen zhuanji.)320

Fascicle 7

The travel record of Wang Xuance relates the following story. In southwestern
Tibet there is a spring. On a ﬂat area very hot water shoots forth, reaching aheight of four or ﬁve feet. If you cook meat in this hot spring it becomes welldone right away. The vapor reaches to heaven, looking like mist. One old
Tibetan says, “Ten years ago the water shot up to the height of over ten zhang(a hundred feet) and spread out all over at the top. A man riding a horse,chasing a deer, came directly to the spring. Since that time the water has not
risen up high any more.” Frequently human skeletons bubble up in the spring.
If you cover the spring with a piece of thick cloth, the cloth rots immediately.
The spring is sometimes called Cauldron Spring [of Hell]. Sixty or seventy
yojanas northwest of this spring is another one, about as hot as this one.
Sometimes the spring shoots up violently, sounding like a clap of thunder.
Many smaller hot springs like this are often found. In China today there aremany hot springs. If we infer from the above cases, these springs in China
are also “cauldron springs.” The reason is as follows. In the Four-part Vinaya
there is this passage:
The Buddha said, “To the north of the city of Rājagṛha there is a hot springthat comes out of hell. The water is very hot when it ﬁrst comes out, butlater as it reaches distant places it becomes cooler. The reason it becomescooler is because other water mixes with it.”
(Note: This story is from the Record of the Western Regions.)
Tang Dynasty
Liu Zhigan of Hetong became a Probationary District Magistrate at the
beginning of the Zhenguan period (627–649 C.E.). One evening he died suddenly. The following morning he revived and told the following story.
At ﬁrst he had been chased by an ofﬁcial of hell and reached a big government building. After seeing Zhigan, the ofﬁcial said, “At the present time
there is a vacancy in one ofﬁcial position. Therefore we have especiallyarranged to appoint you to that position.” Zhigan declined to take the position,
giving his parents’ old age as the reason. Then he described his meritorious
deeds, which should have indicated that he should not yet have died. The
ofﬁcial of the ruler of the hells checked his record and [Liu] Zhigan’s words
were correct. Therefore, the ofﬁcial said, “You are not yet to die. We could

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appoint you as an Acting Administrative Assistant.” Zhigan accepted theposition and, taking leave of the ofﬁcial, he withdrew and went to his ofﬁce.
In the ofﬁce ﬁve administrative assistants were sitting together; Zhigan
was the sixth. This ofﬁce was conducted under a senior ofﬁcial. Each of thethree chambers had a platform. The volume of business was quite heavy.
There was a seat on the western end where there was no administrative assistant, and an ofﬁcial led Zhigan there to take the vacant seat. Many ofﬁcials
brought ofﬁcial documents. Choosing his branch, they left the documentson the desk and withdrew to the bottom of the staircase. Zhigan asked them
why they withdrew. They answered, “The bad air that we carry might distressyou.” They stayed some distance away and answered questions about mattersin the documents. Zhigan read the documents very carefully, and these documents were just like those in the world of living human beings. Then Zhigan
wrote down some legal judgments. After a while food was brought. All theadministrative assistants gathered together to eat. Zhigan also wanted to join
them, but the Other administrative assistants said, “Since you are an Acting
Administrative Assistant you should not eat this food.” Zhigan followed theiradvice and in the end did not eat. At the end of the day an ofﬁcial sent him
back home and Zhigan revived.
Dawn was just breaking in the world of living human beings [as Zhigan
revived]. When the sun went down [at the end of the day] and it became darkin the world of living human beings, the ofﬁcial returned to take Zhigan backto the other world, where another day was just starting. Thus, he learned thatbetween the two worlds days and nights are reversed. Thereafter, Zhigan
ruled on matters of the world of the dead as an Acting Administrative Assistantat night and occupied the position of District Magistrate during the day. Eventually this became his regular pattern.
One winter Zhigan was in the ofﬁce of the world of the dead and stoodup to go to the lavatory. At the western end of the hall he saw a woman, overthirty years in age, handsome in appearance and wearing colorful clothes.
She stood there crying. Zhigan asked her who she was. She answered, “I amthe wife of the Administrator and Director of Granaries of the Xingzhou
region. I was brought here and was separated from my husband. That is thereason for this grief.” [Liu] Zhigan asked an ofﬁcial of the world of the deadabout this, and the ofﬁcial said, “Among those whom the ofﬁce has brought

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here is the one you enquired about.” This conﬁrmed what the woman had said
about her husband. Zhigan then said to the woman, “for a long time I havebeen holding the position of District Magistrate. If your husband happens to
be examined, fortunately my section is not crowded. I will make sure that the
Director of Granaries will not be drawn into this and made to die with you
for no purpose.” The woman said, “I sincerely wish not to draw him into this,but I fear that the ofﬁcials might persecute him.” Zhigan said, “If you do notwish to draw him in, you need not worry about anyone else persecuting him.”
When Zhigan went back to the region, he ﬁrst asked the Director of Granaries whether his wife was ill or not. The Director of Granaries said, “Mywife is young and healthy.” Zhigan then told him what he had seen, describing
her clothes and appearance, and he advised the Director of Granaries to perform meritorious spiritual deeds. The director returned home in a hurry andsaw his wife weaving fabric at her loom, and he did not take Zhigan’s words
seriously. More than ten days later the wife of the Director of Granaries suddenly became ill and died. Frightened, the director then performed meritorious
spiritual deeds and sacriﬁces.
On another occasion two scholars in the Xingzhou region who had passed
the local examinations were going to the capital to be assigned their positions.
They said to Zhigan, “You serve as a judge in the netherworld. Please tellus the positions to which we will be assigned.” Zhigan went to his ofﬁce inthe netherworld and asked a minor secretary about the matter, giving thefamily and personal names of the two candidates. The secretary said, “Theﬁles are sealed in a stone box. After looking into the matter I will be able toreport back to you in two days.” When the time came the secretary gave his
report, describing in detail the names of the positions that the two candidates
were going to obtain later that year. Zhigan told the two people about this.
When they came to the capital and received the appointments, both of thepositions assigned by the Ministry of Personnel were completely different
from those that Zhigan had told them about. The ofﬁcial of the Xingzhou
region heard about this and told Zhigan what had happened. Zhigan later
asked the minor secretary, who checked the ﬁles again and said, “Deﬁnitely
there is no mistake in the results of my earlier investigation.” When the namesof those who received appointments went to the higher ofﬁce of the Chancellery for ﬁnal approval, the Chancellery rejected the recommendations of

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the Ofﬁce of Personnel and revised the two candidates’ assignments. The
new assignments matched the records in the ﬁles in the netherworld. Whenever
Zhigan saw the names, circumstances, and dates of death of his relatives andacquaintances, he reported back to those concerned, who could then perform
meritorious spiritual deeds and avoid painful experiences after death.
After [Liu] Zhigan had served for three years as Acting Administrative
Assistant, the ofﬁcial from his branch in the netherworld came to him andsaid, “We have been able to appoint Li Sihu of the Longzhou region as a regular ofﬁcial to replace you. Do not write any more judgments.” Returning
to the regional ofﬁce in the world of the living, Zhigan therefore told Regional
Inspector Li about what he had learned. Li Defeng sent a man to the Longzhou
region to enquire about the matter. A man called Sihu had died there. The
date of his death matched the time given by the ofﬁcial in the netherworld.
Zhigan’s contact with the netherworld ceased from this time on.
Later the Regional Ofﬁce ordered Zhigan to take prisoners to the capitalcity. When they came to the border of the Fengzhou region, all four of theprisoners escaped. Zhigan was distressed, fearing that they would not be able
to recapture the escaped prisoners. While he stayed in the residence at night,
the old ofﬁcial from the netherworld suddenly appeared and said, “We haveall of the prisoners. One is dead; the other three are in the western valley of
the Southern Mountain. They have all been captured. Please do not trouble
yourself about this matter any more.” After saying these words, the ofﬁcial
took his leave and departed. Zhigan immediately asked the secular ofﬁcials
and soldiers to go to the western valley of the Southern Mountain, and theyfound the four prisoners as predicted. Knowing that they could not escape,the prisoners came out to ﬁght the search party. Zhigan overcame them, killing
one and capturing the other three, just as he had been told would be the case.
At the present time Zhigan is assigned to a post in the south in the Cizhou
region and is in charge of legal matters. Liu Heng, Chief Minister of Splendid
Happiness, told this story to Tang Ling (compiler of the Mingbao ji). Heng
had once been Regional Inspector of Qiongzhou, and on seeing Zhigan hequestioned him directly himself. Royal Scribe Pei Tongjie is also said to haveseen Zhigan. Several people say that they can conﬁrm these facts. (Note:
This story comes from the Mingbao ji, T.2082:801b16–802a12.)324

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Koichi, Shinohara. “Stories of Miraculous Images and Paying Respect to the Three
Jewels: A Discourse on Image Worship in Seventh-Century China,” in Phyllis
Granoff and Koichi Shinohara, eds., Images in Asian Religions: Texts and Contexts,
pp. 180–222. Vancouver/Toronto: UBC Press, 2004.
Teiser, Stephen. “T’ang Buddhist Encyclopedias: A Bibliographical Introduction to Fayüan chu-lin and Chu-ching yao-chi,” T’ang Studies 3 (Winter 1985): 109–128.
Zhou, Shujia, and Puren Su, eds. Fayuan zhulin xiaozhu, 6 vols. Beijing: Zhonghua
shuju, 2003.

325

IndexA
Abhidharma, 32, 69, 90, 95, 96, 97
Abhidharmakośa. See Jushe apidamo
Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya. See Jushe lun
Abhidharma-mahāvibhāśa-sāstra. See
Apidamo da piposha lun; Posha lun
Abhidharma-śāstra, 27, 31, 38
See also Za apitanxin lun/Zaxin lun
Abhidharmasamuccayavyākhyā. See
Duifa lunĀgamas, 95
alms/almsfood/almsrounds, 23, 225, 254,
287, 304
Amitābha, 262
Ānanda, 142, 150, 255, 303
animal(s), 16, 32, 117, 118, 124, 130,
147, 173, 204, 221, 242, 247–271
boar(s)/pig(s), 175, 221, 224, 249, 265,
271, 307, 315
Xie, 265
buffaloes/water buffaloes, 133, 172,
262
camels, 200, 251, 315
cattle/cow(s), 3, 35, 63, 67, 70, 89, 103,
113, 129, 307, 309
deer, 15, 20, 126, 226, 268, 315, 321dog(s), 231, 245, 247, 249, 251, 254,
255, 262, 263, 265–266, 271, 280,
281, 286, 287, 305, 317, 318
Ground Wolf, 265, 266
Gu, 265
Panhu (Bowl Gourd), 266
Xi, 265327

donkey(s), 124–125, 172
elephant(s), 57, 58, 83, 117, 118, 172,
195, 212, 221, 249, 250, 251, 262,
283, 307ﬁsh, 66, 116, 123, 136, 140, 202, 217,
248, 250, 252, 256, 267, 274, 298,
319
four-legged, 250, 251
foxes, 194, 249, 305
frogs/toad, 116, 158, 202, 209, 258, 266
hare/rabbit, 89, 135, 140, 158, 263
hyenas, 172
horse(s), 57, 67, 117, 118, 130, 172,
183, 185, 195, 202, 212, 221, 239,
247, 249, 250, 251, 262, 263, 270,
271, 307, 313, 314, 315, 321
jackals, 247
lizards, 116, 294
legless, 249, 251lion(s), 57, 172, 268–270
many-legged, 249, 250
mole, 248
monkey(s), 262, 263
oxen, 172, 247, 273, 315
sheep, 70, 89, 113, 224, 246, 263, 265,
266, 307, 315
snake(s), 116, 127, 130, 133, 202, 214,
224, 247, 249, 251, 258, 262, 286
tiger(s), 172, 262, 264
turtle(s), 116, 140, 202, 252, 256, 258
Juling, 252
two-legged, 250, 251

Indexanimal(s) (continued):
wolves, 172, 194, 247, 262, 280, 281,
305
See also bird(s); creature(s); insect(s)Anpan jing, 26
Apidamo da piposha lun, 11, 22, 24, 25
See also Posha lun
astronomical:
instruments, 123, 161
theories, huntian and gaitian, 136
See also lunar station(s); star(s)asura(s)/asura king(s), 32, 40, 68, 70,
71, 101, 114, 125, 131, 132, 147, 148,
149, 173, 202–212, 213–215, 251
Bali, 203
Batuo (Bhadrā?), 203
Kharaskandha, 203
Rāhu, 148, 203, 205
Śācī/Śācīrāhu, 106, 120, 203, 204, 205Śambara (Huaman), 203, 205, 207, 208,
210
Vemacitra, 70, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208,
210, 211
Yongjian, 205, 208
Yongyue, 207
See also demigod(s); demon(s)auspicious/auspiciousness, 123, 146,
153, 159, 160, 177, 184, 201, 268
See also inauspicious
Avalokiteśvara, 214

B
Baihutong, 155, 156
Baoying, 177
Baopu Zi, 247
barbarian(s), 187, 199, 201, 266
Bhagavats, 133
Bhāviveka, 214
Biography of Dharma Master Xuanzang,
214, 271

328

Biography of Zhao Tai, 246
bird(s), 58, 62, 64, 85, 101, 107, 118, 125,
129, 132, 192, 207, 217, 227, 248,
250, 251, 252, 255, 256, 257, 258,
259, 261, 262, 263, 264, 298, 305
cātaka, 229
chicken(s)/roosters, 13, 152, 307
cranes, 315
crow(s), 135, 158, 194, 249, 251doves, 251
ducks, 255, 256
eagle, 318
geese, 37, 118, 218, 249
hawks, 249, 255, 256, 262
iron-beaked, 249, 281
jiaoming, 252
kācilindika, 192, 193
magpies, 194
named:
Peng, 50, 248, 252
Red Water, 118
Teaching the Undisciplined, 118
Truth-speaking, 118
Violating Precepts for Proﬁt, 118
owls, 118, 225, 256, 262, 315
parrots, 262
peacocks, 117, 118, 262
pheasant(s), 22, 134, 262
pigeon(s), 247, 253, 264
quail, 266
sparrows, 247
swans, 249
tailor, 248, 253
waterfowl, 118, 256
youwei chanqie, 64zhi, 264
See also animal(s); creature(s)birth(s), 4, 12, 20, 21–22, 45, 47, 59, 64,
72, 77, 78, 82–84, 110, 113, 115, 117,
124, 169, 171, 172, 175, 190, 204,
205, 211, 235, 267, 268, 270, 299

Indexfour kinds of, 7inferior, realm(s) of, 36, 77
birth, aging/old age, illness, and death,45, 85, 196, 309
birth and death, 164, 191
See also birth(s); rebirth(s)Bodhiruci, 182
bodhisattva(s), 49, 74, 89, 108, 140, 145,
151, 152, 165, 167, 168, 305, 306
ﬁnal-body/in the last birth/tenth-stage,57, 59, 94
Book of Changes, 50, 184
Kun section, Wenyan, 177
Shuogua chapter, 158
Xici zhuan chapter, 153
See also YijingBook of Documents, 123
Book of History, “Heavenly Ofﬁces”
chapter, 160
Book of Rites. See Lijibrahman(s), 10, 20, 22, 64, 76, 108, 227,
254–255, 308
buddha(s), 7, 31, 51, 52, 54, 70, 152,
168, 262, 304, 306
light, 112, 306
See also tathāgata(s)Buddha, xiv, 4, 10, 11, 14, 20, 23, 26, 33,
46, 58–59, 60, 61, 70, 75–76, 79, 86,
101, 108, 112, 113, 127, 132, 133, 137,
138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146,
147, 148, 150, 151, 166, 168, 174, 175,
180–181, 195, 209, 212, 218, 223, 225,
233, 242, 243, 252–253, 255, 258, 259,
260, 261–262, 271, 282, 288, 293, 294,
300, 303, 306, 307, 318, 321
image(s), 177, 242, 287
power, 27, 150, 261
teaching(s), 4, 78, 134, 149, 181, 259,
261, 271, 299, 301, 302
See also Honored One/World-honored
One; Tathāgata

Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, xiv, 7,109, 301, 302
See also Three Jewels/Three Refuges
buddhahood, 150
Buddhism, xiv, 4, 176, 177, 182, 242, 316
Buddhist, xiv, 4, 78, 242
canon/scriptures, xiii, xiv, 3, 134, 180,
252, 262
cultivation/practices, xiv, 235
Dharma/teaching(s), 3, 4, 9, 235, 316
literature/records, 243, 270
miracle stories, xiii, xiv
precepts/Vinaya, 79, 252
Way, 243, 274

C
Cai Yin, 4
cakravartin, 7, 18, 22, 56
See also king(s), cakravartin/wheelturning; universal monarch(s)calamity(ies), 34, 39, 42, 43, 46, 49, 136,
174, 176, 184, 187, 199, 235, 240, 296
lesser, 9–24
epidemics, 10–14, 17, 22
famine, 11, 15–18, 22
warfare, 11, 14–15, 17, 18, 22
three great, 9, 24–47, 95, 96
of water, ﬁre, and wind, 10, 32, 34,
37–38, 39, 41, 95, 96–97
Candana, 108
See also god(s), Indra/Śakra/Śakradevānam Indra
Cang Jie, 3Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures Knownin the Great Tang, A, xiii
cave(s), 14, 59, 187, 204, 213, 214, 215,
217, 233, 245, 267, 289
Jin, 59
Shanjin, 59
See also mountain(s)Central Asia, 180

329

IndexCen Zhixiang, 240
Chang ahan jing, 11, 32, 34, 35, 43, 45,
46, 50, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66,
67–68, 69, 70, 74, 79, 82, 92, 104,
110, 112, 113, 137, 142, 146, 149, 204,
205, 210, 252, 256, 258, 259, 278, 297
Changhe, 312, 318–320
Changli, 156
Chen. See Huishao
Chenggong Zhiqiong, 183
Cheng Jing, 239–243
Chengshi lun, 167, 170, 230
chiliocosm, 112
great/greater, 50, 102, 103
middle, 102, 103
small/smaller, 50, 102, 103, 106
China, xiv, 4, 25, 26, 57, 136, 139, 176,
201, 231, 321
Chinese, xiii, 31, 70, 74, 75, 137, 213,
214, 252, 275
Chu, Prince of. See Zhi
Chuan Xianchao, 176, 183
See also Yiqi
Chuchu jing, 142
Chunqiu fanlu, 153
Chunqiu wei:
Ganjingfu chapter, 153
Shuotici chapter, 153
Yangong tu chapter, 158, 197
Yuanmingbao chapter, 158, 159, 160
Ci, 186city(ies)/town/village(s), xiii, 9, 13, 22,
29, 30, 31, 41, 45, 58, 76, 99, 100,
101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 119,
158, 180, 181, 187, 203, 206, 207,
212, 214, 217, 220, 221, 224, 233,
235, 237, 238, 246, 254, 267, 268,
269, 270, 271, 273, 277, 284, 285,
286, 297, 298, 307, 311, 313, 315,
317, 321, 324
Āṭavaṭa, 104

330

Campā, 45
Cengcheng, 180
Chang’an, xiii, 179, 236, 237, 238
City of Changing Forms, 315
City of Great Peace, 199
City of the King of Hell, 298
Dhṛtarāṣṭra, 104Gavāṃpati, 104
Kapila (Vaiśāli), 58
Kāśī, 26, 31
Mopodi, 207
Nanyang, 245
Rājagṛha, 321
Song, 158Śrāvastī, 151, 254
Sudarśana, 99, 104, 105, 107Viṣāṇā, 104
Wan, 246, 320
Zhouluo, 104clan(s)/tribe(s), 124, 126, 127, 128, 129,
130, 136, 191, 199, 201, 245, 266
Chu, 61
Diaozhi, 136
Fan, 61
Gaoxin, 266
Han, 61
Hengrun, 267
Hu, 61, 136, 240
Jigan, 267
Jingren, 201
Lu, 61
Ma, 245
Manyi, 267
Qi, 271
Qiang, 61Śākya, 191
Turks (Tujue), 271
Xiongnu, 136
Wei, 237
Wu, 266
Yang, 264

IndexYi, 61, 136
Yue, 61
Zhao, 241cloud(s), 36, 40, 41, 63, 123, 125, 134,
141, 145–146, 147, 148, 149, 1760,
161, 179, 184, 193, 203, 210, 233,
252, 267, 269
blue, 158, 187
ﬁve-colored, 146, 158
four kinds, 146
black, 146, 158red, 146, 158
white, 146, 158
yellow, 146
Collected Records of Three Jewels Miracles, xiii
Collected Summaries of All Scriptures,xiii, xiv
Collection for the Propagation and
Clariﬁcation of Buddhism, 5commandery/district(s)/region(s), 4, 16,
37, 65, 103, 107, 136, 238, 240, 241,
242, 243, 244, 266, 268, 313, 323
Anding, 245
Ba, 267
Bingzhou, Wenshui district, 134
Changshan, 316
Changshe, 267
Changshui, 157
Chengdu, 185
Chiyang, 202
Cizhou, 324
Dangqu, Xiangchang, 200
Dongguan, Cengchen, 180
Eastern Commandery/Gate/Suburb,
127, 153, 183
Fenguan, Qinling, 181
Fengzhou, 324
Fenzhou, 134, 182
Guanghan, 180
Guangling, 238

Han, 267
Handan, 239, 240
Hetong, 321
Hongnong, 240
Jiangling, 240
Jiangnan, 181
Liang, 267
Liangzhou, 180
Liaodong, 202
Linchuan, 234, 244
Lintao, 199, 201, 202
Longxi, 3Longzhou, 324
Loufan, 240
Lu Jiang, 267, 312, 320
Wan and Chuangyang districts, 320
Qi, 177
Qibei, 183, 185
Qinghe, Beiqiu, 313
Qiongzhou, 324
Shu, 185, 263, 264, 267
Toba, 177Wu, 136, 177, 198, 265
Lou district, 265
Wuchang, 177
Wucheng, 316
Wujiao, 135
Wuling, 267
Wuxing, 247, 265
Xiang, 239
Xiangwu, 199
Xiangyang, 177
Xingzhou, 322, 323
Yue, 263, 264
Zhao, 239, 240, 241, 242, 271, 318
See also kingdom(s)/state(s)compassion/compassionate, 4, 7, 15, 17,
18, 19, 20, 45, 123, 128, 131, 174,
254, 255, 261, 271, 296, 305, 306
consciousness(es), 9, 27, 77, 116, 117,
167, 185, 186, 238, 263

331

IndexConfucian(s), 50, 135, 136, 158, 239
Confucius, 50, 156–157, 197, 200, 201,265
continent(s), 23, 3, 34, 41, 60–61, 63, 65,
66, 69, 70, 71, 111, 114, 115, 116,
132, 140, 143, 144, 192, 201, 249–
250, 257, 276, 277, 293, 300
eight smaller/subcontinent(s), 41, 42,
189
Cāmara, 69, 189
Cāmarāvarā/Faluozhemoluo, 69, 189
Deha, 66, 189
Kurava, 65, 189
Kauravā, 65, 189
Śāṭha, 67, 189
Suhe/Videha, 66, 189
Uttaramantriṇas, 67, 189
four (great), 41, 42, 49, 51, 59, 61–69,
102–103, 114–115, 123, 138–139,
141, 142, 189, 257
Aparagodāniya, 60, 66–67, 69, 70, 75,
113, 115, 140, 143, 187, 189, 190
Jambudvīpa, 11, 12, 15, 16, 22, 33, 56,
57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67–
69, 70–71, 72, 75, 86 87, 111, 113,
114, 115, 116, 120, 140, 143, 144,
149, 187, 192, 219, 276, 277, 300
Pūrvavideha, 60, 65–66, 69, 70, 71,
74, 113, 141, 143, 187, 189
Uttarakuru, 23, 60, 61–65, 69, 70, 71,
75, 94, 113, 114, 141, 143, 187,
189, 190, 192, 249, 300
nine, 135, 136, 217
corpse(s), 64, 67, 121, 168, 225, 230,
251, 273, 277, 287, 303, 311, 313, 320
creature(s), 66, 84, 116, 121, 124, 187,
203, 204, 217, 218, 222–226, 229,
231, 237, 238, 239, 245, 247, 248–
251, 252, 253, 256, 257, 262, 263–
265, 267, 273, 274, 286, 287, 289,
303, 320

332

mythical:makara, 252
phoenixes, 262
qilin, 155
windhorses, 123
yangma (“sheep-horse”), 265
See also animal(s); bird(s); insect(s)Cui Hong, 245
Cui Shu, 186
Cunda, 254–255

D
Dabaoji jing, Pusazang hui. See Pusazang jing
Da fangdeng daji nianfo sanmei jing, 150
Da fangdeng daj jiing pusa nianfo sanmei fen. See Da fangdeng daji nianfo
sanmei jing
Daji jing, 123, 126, 131, 132
Dajiyi shenzhou jing, 119
Daoism/Daoist, 50, 184, 239, 243
See also qi; yin and yang
Daoshi, xiii–xv, 4–5, 7, 23, 29
Daoxuan, xiii, xiv
Dasheng apidamo zajilun. See Duifa lun
Datang neidian lu. See Catalogue of
Buddhist Scriptures Known in the
Great Tang, A
Datang xiyu ji. See Record of the Western
Kingdoms
Dazhidu lun, 10, 30, 74, 75, 76, 82, 87,
104, 112, 119, 166, 209, 229, 253,
255, 257
See also Zhidu lun
Dazhuangyan lun, 194deed(s), 21, 76, 78, 170, 207, 266, 285,
289, 293, 295, 298, 299, 300, 303,
306, 311, 312
ascetic/pure, 275, 300, 308
of body, speech, and mind/thought, 189,
219, 253, 275, 299

Indexevil, 12, 16, 23, 76, 109, 121, 147, 169,
170, 177, 218, 219, 220, 235–236,
253, 274, 275, 283, 285, 287, 288,
289, 299, 300, 302, 304, 308, 312,
313, 314, 315, 316
ten, 7, 13–14, 20, 34, 170, 229
three kinds of, 283, 306, 309, 312
four karmic, 77
good, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 76, 77,
78, 82, 83, 109, 126, 165, 166, 169,
171, 172, 176, 177, 192, 203, 207,
218, 229, 230, 234, 239, 261, 283,
295, 299, 300, 305, 306, 310, 311,
313, 315, 316
ten, 32, 45, 64, 65, 77, 235, 254
impure/licentious/sinful, 21, 224, 286,
302, 304, 307
meritorious, 20, 22, 108, 211, 236, 237,
238, 274, 321, 323, 324
virtuous, seven kinds of, 76deﬁlement(s), 4, 7, 16, 116
deity(ies), 26, 32, 42, 59, 61, 72, 76, 79,
83, 84, 85, 110, 115, 124, 126, 127,
138, 139, 150, 163, 166, 173, 175,
182, 183, 184, 204, 210, 214, 233,
251, 278
Master of Baolang Zi, 181
Moduo, 102
See also god(s)delusion(s), 163, 175, 177
demigod(s), 32, 100, 141
See also asura(s); yakṣa(s)demon(s), 108, 109, 113, 163, 189, 203,
204–205, 211, 212, 213, 225, 234,
259, 286, 287, 305, 314
asura, 202–215
Loud Sounds, 205
female, 124, 270
Donkey God, 124
See also asura(s); monster(s); yakṣa(s)desire(s), 3, 7, 19, 21, 32, 39, 52, 63, 64,
66, 67, 69, 82, 83, 98, 107, 112, 115,
138, 171, 179, 191, 197, 219, 224,
248, 256, 262, 307
ﬁve, 137, 193, 197
four kinds of, 51–52
licentious/sexual, 13, 22, 45, 51, 66, 67,
124, 149, 168, 187, 256
See also three realms, desiredeva. See god(s)Devadatta, 10dhāraṇī. See spell(s), vajra
Dharma, 7, 9, 22, 43, 101, 103, 108, 109,
116, 166, 167, 169, 176, 203, 222,
227, 274, 316
eye, 302
right/supreme/true, 14, 16, 170, 176,
203, 226, 302, 303, 308
Dharma King, 50
See also Buddhadhyāna. See meditation(s)/meditative
state(s)disciple(s), 180, 181, 239, 316, 318
Dīrghāgama. See Chang ahan jing
Dishuoshu, 156
Divine Secretaries of the Five Realms, 243
diviner(s)/divination(s), 3, 7, 10, 148–149
Diwang shiji, 152
Dixi pu, 152
Dong Fangshuo, 320
dragon(s)/dragon king(s), 3, 57, 58, 63,
75, 114, 117, 118, 119, 124, 125, 131,
132, 133, 134, 147–148, 149, 151,
160, 161, 178, 197, 209, 210, 217,
248, 249, 252, 256, 257, 258–262,
265, 270–271, 286, 295, 317, 319
Alu, 258
Anavatapta, 58, 258
Apalāla, 258
Dhṛtarāṣṭra, 258

333

Indexdragon(s)/dragon king(s) (continued):earth-upholding, 93, 253
Elāpattra, 253, 258
Nanda, 210, 252, 258
Qiejuluo (Kāḷa?), 258
Qienou, 258
Qiepiluo, 258
Quqienou, 258
Sāgara, 124, 258, 259
Shanjian, 258
Supratiṣṭhita, 258
Takṣaka, 258
Upananda, 210, 252, 258
Yuoshanqiebotou, 258
dream(s), 4, 7, 145, 176, 183, 197, 235
Duifa lun, 11, 25, 38
dynasty/period:
Cao Wei, 263
Former Han, 312, 320
Han, 4, 136, 320
Jin, 176, 177, 180, 240, 263, 265, 312,
313, 316
Later Zhao, 312, 318
Liang, 176, 182, 185
Northern Wei, 176, 177, 181
Northern Zhou, 177
Qin, 199, 201–202, 320
Song, 134, 176, 180, 234, 235
Tang, 4, 54, 134, 213, 234, 239, 313, 321
Wei, 136, 176, 182, 183, 247
Western Jin, 240
See also kingdom(s)/state(s)Eearthquake(s), 151
emptiness, 50, 74, 77, 95, 163
enlightenment, 151, 167, 207, 299, 306
path of, 9seat of, 151
supreme/true, 3, 188, 191

334

Erya, 154, 159, 160evil(s), 7, 14, 16, 23, 45, 108, 109, 123,
124, 125, 126, 164, 177, 188, 196,
217, 224, 229, 239, 244, 255, 270,
276, 296, 302, 306, 307, 315
act(s)/conduct/deed(s), 12, 16, 23, 77,
109, 121, 147, 169–170, 177, 207,
218, 219, 224, 226, 229, 230, 235,
236, 249, 230, 235, 236, 249, 253–
254, 271, 274, 275, 283, 285, 287,
295, 296, 298, 299, 300, 302, 304,
308, 312, 313, 314, 316
past, 274, 288, 290, 289
ten, 7, 13–14, 20, 34, 170, 207, 229,
253–254three kinds of, 21, 229, 283, 306, 309,
312
desire for, 19, 21
emotions/feelings/intentions/thoughts,
211, 270, 282, 295, 296, 306
ghosts, 12, 15, 16, 199, 200
karma/karmic consequences, results,
retribution, 176, 177, 221, 227, 271,
288
realms, 171
teachings, 19, 21, 34
views, 14, 21, 163
Evil One. See Māra
Extended Collection of Writings for
Spreading and Illuminating the Way,
xiii

F
Facai, 181
Fajubiyu jing, 168
Faqiao, 318
Faxian, 180
Fayuan, 181
Fayuan zhulin, xiii, xv, 126, 177
See also Forest of Pearls from theDharma Garden, AIndex

female, 44, 45, 46, 64, 82, 84, 92, 114,
115, 116, 119, 159, 201, 205, 215,
244, 262, 265, 320
deity(ies), 83, 84, 110, 115
demon(s), 124, 270
See also gender; women
Fenbie gongde lun, 147, 230
Fenquan, 181
ﬁlial, 7, 187, 238, 304
First Emperor of Qin, 199, 201
ﬁve signs of decline, 164, 170–171, 172,
173–174
ﬂower(s), 5, 7, 56, 62, 63, 83, 101, 107,
113, 125, 128, 137, 140, 163, 174,
182, 184, 203, 204, 206, 221, 225,
230, 274, 280, 292, 304, 305
crown(s)/headdress, 106, 133, 174, 175,
195
garland(s), 3, 223
mandāra, 230
saugandhika, 291
seats, 164vārṣika, 62
See also lotus(es)Fo banniyuan jing, 150
food, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 22, 24, 36, 46,
51, 62, 63, 64, 69, 72, 75, 76, 80, 81,
82, 106, 115, 116, 117, 120, 141, 167,
183, 184, 190, 194, 199, 202, 208, 209,
218, 219, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 227,
228, 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 240, 241,
243, 248, 254, 256, 258, 260, 262, 268,
270, 302, 304, 322
alcohol/wine, 7, 44, 128, 149, 172, 183,
184, 200, 203, 204, 222, 240, 298,
319, 320
beans, 116, 127, 128, 129
candies, 124
cream, 53
earth cakes, 46
ﬁsh, 66, 267, 319

four kinds of, 116–117
fruit(s), 7, 62, 107, 109, 125, 126, 129,
131, 194, 206, 213, 237, 268, 280,
294, 298, 305
bimba, 127
coconuts, 237
dates, 120, 121
ﬁg, 129
harītakī, 22
melons, 136
ghee, 20, 23, 24, 44, 82, 126, 129, 130
ginger, 237
grain(s), 16, 17, 45, 62, 63, 66, 106,
113, 123, 128, 129, 214, 277barley, 116, 128, 129, 130
ﬁve kinds of, 113, 200
millet, 11, 16, 17, 20, 24, 128
rice/rice ﬂour, gruel, powder, 16, 17,
23, 44, 45, 46, 53, 62, 63, 66, 82,
106, 116, 127, 128, 129, 130, 218,
314, 316
wheat, 17, 89
gruel, 127, 238
heavenly/gods’/of the gods, 63, 84,
116–117, 209
khādanīya, 117sudhā, 116
herbs, 124
honey, 20, 24, 43, 44, 56, 127, 128,
129, 171, 187
juice, 82, 129, 218, 231, 234
meat, 7, 67, 116, 126, 128, 129, 130,
140, 200, 223, 254, 267, 290, 318,
319, 321
milk, 53, 63, 64, 83, 124, 127, 128
oil, 20, 24
roots, 126, 129, 211
salt, 20, 24, 37, 167
sesame, 127, 130, 294, 309
sugarcane, 20, 24

335

Indexforest(s), 82, 105, 107, 127, 130, 213,
214, 234, 269, 273, 274, 277, 280,
281, 286, 305, 307
See also tree(s)forest-dweller, 237
Forest of Pearls from the Dharma garden, A, xiii–xiv, 3, 5, 7
See also Fayuan zhulin
four heavenly kings/rulers of the fourheavens, 26, 71, 72, 74, 79, 82, 85,
86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 99, 104, 108–109,
111, 112, 113–114, 115, 116,119, 121,
132, 172, 250
cities of, 99, 104Āṭavaṭa, 104Dhṛtarāṣṭra, 104Gavāṃpati, 104
Sudarśana, 99, 104, 105, 107Visāṇā, 104
Zhouluo, 104Dhṛtarāṣṭra, 74, 104, 108, 119Vaiśravaṇa, 75, 104, 108, 119Virūḍhaka, 75, 104, 108, 119
Virūpākṣa, 104, 108, 119
four modes of conduct (walking, standing, sitting, and lying down), 167
Four Noble Truths, 113
Four-part Vinaya, 321
fragrance(s)/perfume(s), 62, 64, 80, 83,
84, 107, 125, 140, 182, 192, 208, 298
See also incense
Fu fazang jing, 23, 93, 194

Ggandharva(s), 59, 74, 119, 128, 130, 133,
205, 211, 230
Gao, 318
Gantong, 177
Gaoseng, 177
See also Liang gaoseng zhuan; Tanggaoseng zhuan

336

garden(s), 3, 7, 63, 100–102, 107, 116,
168, 206, 212, 213, 259, 260, 298
Attractive, 206
Auspicious Happiness, 206
Caitraratha/Chariot Garden, 100, 107
Delight and Joy, 206Parūṣakavana/Roughness Garden, 100,
101, 107Miśrakāvaṇa/Mixed Grove Garden, 100,
107
Nandana/Pleasure Grove Garden, 100,
101, 107
Utmost Joy, 206garuḍa(s), 58, 68, 71, 114, 151, 251–
252, 256–258, 260–262
king, Zhengyin, 257
Gāthā-sūtra, 204
Geliang zhuan, 160
gem(s)/gemstones, 4, 107, 261
See also jewel(s)gender, 92, 119
See also female; womenghost(s), 75, 163, 179, 199–200, 204,
211, 212, 217–234, 235–237, 239–
247, 251, 268, 312
corpse-eating, 251
evil, 12, 15, 16, 199, 200
Huangfu, 200
kumbhāṇḍa, 75, 119, 218
xilusuojia, 251
See also hungry ghost(s); kumbhāṇḍa(s);piśāca(s); spirit(s)god(s), 13, 25, 29, 30, 33, 36, 38, 40, 42–
45, 59, 62, 63, 71–72, 75, 82–86, 89–
94, 96–121, 124–132, 134, 137, 138,
147, 148, 150, 151, 163–164, 165–
167, 170, 171–176, 179, 180, 189,
194, 196, 203–206, 209–213, 215,
219–221, 230–232, 243, 244, 250,
251, 269, 302, 303, 306, 309–310
Akaniṣṭhabhavana, 112

IndexBrahmā/Mahābrahmā, 10, 40, 42, 120,
129, 132, 178
Brahmakāyika, 10
earth, 59
Fenglong, 217
ﬁre, 59, 126, 127, 129, 217
Fushe, 130
Guangyin, 205
Huilu, 217
Indra/Śakra/Śakra-devānam Indra, 50,
75–76, 85, 90, 104, 105, 106, 107–108, 109, 119–120, 125, 128, 129,
172, 174, 204, 205, 210, 212
Karoṭapāṇi, 99
Lieque, 217
Mahāsammata, 124Maheśvara, 112
Mālādhara, 99
Māra, 40
Moduoluo, 128
Sadāmatta, 99
Shapilidi, 128of the sun, moon, and stars, 26, 99,
126, 127, 137–139, 210
Suyāma, 75
thirty-three/of the Thirty-three Heavens,
86, 92, 99, 101, 104, 105, 108, 109,
111, 112, 114
Tuoluonu, 130Viṣṇu, 129
water, 59, 126, 129, 217
wind, 59
Yama, 42, 99, 130, 166, 167
See also four heavenly kings/rulers of
the four heavens
goddess(es), 106, 183
good/goodness, 10, 13, 20, 45, 74, 75,
101, 108, 109, 110, 118, 124, 125,
131, 132, 161, 164, 176, 177, 186,
194, 196, 237, 282, 308, 315

acts/deeds, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21–22, 32,
45, 64, 65, 76–77, 78, 82, 83, 109,
126, 165, 166, 169, 171, 172, 176,
177, 203, 207, 218, 229, 230, 235,
236, 239, 261, 283, 295, 299, 300,
305, 306, 309, 310, 311, 313, 316
consequences/karma/results/retribution/rewards, 177, 221, 227, 228,
271, 285, 308
dharmas, 15, 17
fortune, 136, 180, 244, 314
friends, 7, 230, 305
memory, 70, 71, 189
rebirth(s), 9, 109
statements/teachings/words, 13, 101,
123, 127
Goose King, 167
Great One/Great Ultimate, 153
See also One, theGreat Sage, 23, 49, 82, 136, 174, 182, 243
See also Buddha
Great Vehicle, 4, 74, 91, 99, 203
See also Mahayana
Great Wall, 202
Great Way, 50, 318
See also Way, theGuanfo sanmei jing, 34, 35, 211, 230,
257
Guanfo sanmei hai jing, 205, 286, 303
Guang hongming ji. See Extended Collection of Writings for Spreading andIlluminating the Way
Guangya, 154
Guannei, Marquis of, Ho Boping, 316
Guanzi, 202
Guan Ziyang, 157
Guo Jingchun, 154
Guo Pu, 159, 160
Guoyü, 200
Gusu, Great Count of, 217
Guttila, 79–80, 81–82

337

IndexH
Hailongwang jing, 259
hall(s):, 58, 186, 203, 307, 315, 317–318,
322
Great Hall of Opening Light, 315
Hall of Good Conduct, 164Hall of Good Dharma/Teaching (Sudharmasabhā), 83, 101, 107, 108,
109, 210, 212
Hall of Seven Leaves, 210
Moheyan Hall, 185
Sudarśana Hall, 104
Vaijayanta, 100, 106
See also palace(s)Hanshi waizhuan, 245
He, 186
heaven(s), 4, 9, 10, 15, 17, 22, 30, 32, 34,
36, 37, 40, 42–45, 47, 49, 50, 54, 61,
64–67, 72–75, 77–80, 82–85, 89–91,
94, 95, 97–104, 106, 108–119, 121,
125, 126, 134–136, 142, 150, 152–
155, 157–159, 163–165, 167–173,
175, 178, 183, 185, 189, 197, 199,
200, 203, 211, 213, 215, 220, 221,228–230, 235, 242–245, 248, 250,
262, 266, 267, 278, 299, 308, 321
Anabhraka/Fuqing, 86, 90
Anāgāmiphala, 164
Brahmā, 35, 36, 40, 41, 42, 50, 53, 75,
78, 125, 164, 171, 178of the formless realm, 72, 77, 97, 98,
99, 117, 163, 164
Heaven of Nonexistence/Nothingness(Akiṃcanyāyatana), 73, 85, 94, 98,
164
Heaven of Inﬁnite Consciousness/
Unbounded Consciousness(Vijñānānantyāyatana), 73, 85, 94,
97–98, 116, 164
Heaven of Inﬁnite Space/Empty Space/

338

Unbounded Emptiness (Ākāśānantyāyatana), 73, 85, 94, 97–98, 164
Heaven of Neither Thought Nor Nothought (Naivasaṃjñānāsamjñāyatana), 73, 74, 85, 94, 98, 164,
170, 171
four, 60, 61, 90, 192, 204, 210, 211, 250
Indra/Śakra, 90, 120, 125, 148
Māra, 41, 91, 114of the realm of desire, 30, 32, 33, 35,
40, 50, 72, 77, 78, 84, 87, 90, 91,
112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120,
163–164, 170, 181, 210, 251, 262,
303
Changfangyi (Sadāmatta?), 72
Chihuaman (Mālādhāra?), 72
of the four heavenly kings/four rulers,
72, 164
Ganshou (Karoṭapāṇi?), 72
Heaven of Pleasures Produced by
Others/Paranirmitavaśavartin, 32,
40, 41, 43, 72, 75, 79, 85, 86, 90,
91, 92, 93, 99, 102, 114, 115, 164,
172
Heaven of Self-produced Pleasures/
Nirmāṇarati, 41, 71, 72, 75, 79, 85,
86, 90, 91, 92, 93, 99, 114, 115, 164of the sun, moon, and stars, 72
Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods/
Trāyastriṃśa, 41, 68, 71, 72, 79,
82, 83, 85, 90, 91, 92, 100, 101,
104, 105, 108, 109, 111, 114, 118,
119, 120, 121, 164, 175, 206, 208,
210, 212Tuṣita Heaven, 41, 62, 71, 72, 75, 79,
85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 99, 114,
115, 151, 164, 220
Yama Heaven, 40, 41–42, 71, 72, 79,
85, 85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 102, 111,
114, 115, 118, 120, 121, 167

Indexof the realm of form, 39, 53, 50, 77, 94,
100, 120, 121, 164, 166, 168, 170,251Ābhāsvara, 32, 33, 36, 38, 42, 43, 45,
73, 85, 86, 90, 93, 96, 146, 164Abṛha, 73, 85, 86, 90, 93, 164
Apramāṇābha, 73, 86, 90, 93, 96
Apramāṇaśubha, 73
Akaniṣṭha, 73, 85, 86, 90, 96, 86, 87,
89, 90, 94, 99, 102, 103, 121Asaṃjñika/Heaven of No-thought, 73,
85, 86, 90, 93, 94, 163
Atapa, 73, 86, 90, 94, 164
Brahmakāyika, 72, 85, 90, 93, 96, 102,
103
Brahmapurohita, 42, 72, 90, 93, 96,164Bṛhatphala, 32, 73, 85, 86, 90, 93, 164
Fuai, 73, 93
Mahābrahmā, 42, 72, 73, 90, 93, 94,
96, 111Parīttābha, 73, 90, 93, 96, 103
Parīttaśubha, 73, 86, 90, 93, 96
Punyaprasava, 73, 86, 90, 93Śubhakṛtsna (Bianjing), 32, 38, 73,
85, 86, 90, 93, 96, 117, 164, 166
Sudarśaṇa, 73, 85, 86, 90, 94, 164Sudṛśa, 73, 85, 86, 90, 164Śuddhāvāsa, 39, 43, 73
Heaven:Gate of, 178, 181
Son of, 243
heavenly, 62, 78, 82, 92, 106, 107, 118,
138, 146, 157, 183, 184, 192, 200, 230
being(s), 80, 81, 111, 178, 317
cloth, 31, 107emperor, 76, 152
food (sudhā), 84, 116–117
garments/robes, 84, 91, 221, 232
gold, 104, 137

kings (four), 18, 26, 71, 72, 74–75, 79,
82, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 99, 108–
109, 111, 112, 113–114, 115, 116,
119, 120, 121, 132, 172, 250
light, 44, 142
maiden(s), 79–82, 83, 84, 105, 119, 120,
138, 171, 172, 173, 179, 183messenger(s), 309, 310, 311
ofﬁcial, 239, 298
palace(s), 34, 40, 42, 79, 100, 186, 229
realm(s), 33, 37, 39, 43, 94, 104, 111,
163, 221, 250
sage(s), 131, 132, 133
silver, 138, 140
Heavenly Ofﬁce, 243
Heavenly Ruler, 140, 243hell(s)/hell realm(s), 10, 32, 33, 34, 36,
42, 43, 73, 86, 116, 163, 164, 169,
171, 172, 173, 224, 225, 228, 229,
237, 238, 242, 251, 254, 259, 260,
273–300, 302–309, 311, 312, 313
Again-revived Hell/Equally Reviving
Hell/Repeatedly Reviving Hell/Revivifying Hell, 92–93, 276, 277,
291, 306, 308
Aho/Ouhou Hell, 290, 292, 294
Animal Hell, 297
Apapa Hell, 292
Arbuda Hell, 290, 292, 294, 296
Ash River, 280, 288
Aṭaṭa Hell, 290, 292, 294
Avīci/Hell of Incessant Punishment/No
Choice Hell/No Interruption Hell, 9,35, 43, 86, 93, 95, 170, 274, 276,
277, 278, 285–290, 292, 303, 304–
305, 308
Ax Hell, 281
Black Ear Hell, 297, 298
Black Rope Hell/Hell of Black Rope,92, 277, 278, 282, 291, 306, 308

339

Indexhell(s)/hell realm(s) (continued):Black Sand Hell, 278, 282, 283
Blowing Sand Hell, 297
Boiling Excrement Hell, 278, 279, 288,
297
Boiling Water Cauldron Hell/Cauldronsof Boiling Water, 288, 297
Borderland Hell, 291, 293
Burning Hell/Heat Hell/Hell of
Heat/Heat Torture Hell/Hot Hell,93, 276, 278, 288, 291, 292, 308
Carriages on Fire/Fire Chariot Hell, 288,
297
Clashing and Grinding Hell/CrushingHell/Mortar Mountain Hell/Pressing
and Crushing Hell, 292–283, 306,
307, 308
Cold Hell, 291, 292–293
Cold Ice Hell, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285,
288, 294, 297, 305
Copper Cauldron Hell, 279
Copper Pillar, 288
Darkness/Dark Place Hell, 288, 293, 305
Drinking Molten Copper/Molten CopperHell, 288, 297
eight great, 35, 61, 278–286, 292–293
Forest of Daggers, 288
Forest of Swords/Sword Forest, 280, 288
Gathered Multitude Hell/Hell of Gathered Multitude/Mass Knocking
Hell, 277, 291
Great Burning Hell/Great Heat Hell/
Hell of Extreme Heat/Intense HeatHell, 276, 292, 308
Great Hell of Screaming/Great Howling
Hell/Great Screaming Hell/Great
Screaming and Howling Hell, 277,
278, 291
Hell of Screaming/Howling Hell/Screaming Hell/Screaming and

340

Howling Hell/Shouting Hell, 93,
173, 277, 278, 283, 291, 307
Huhuva Hell, 290, 294
Hunger Hell of Iron, 279
Illusory Thought Hell, 278, 282
Intense Roasting Hell/Roasting Hell,
284–285
Iron Ball Hell, 281, 288
Iron Cave, 288
Iron Floor Hell, 297
Iron Mortar Hell, 297
Iron Nail Hell, 279
Iron Net, 288
Iron Rods Hell, 297
Kai Mountain Hell, 297
Knife Mountain Hell, 297
Kumuda Hell, 20, 291, 295
Loud Howling Hell/Loud Screamingand Howling Hell/Loud Shouting
Hell, 93, 277, 278, 283–284, 291,
307, 308
Many Cauldrons Hell, 279, 280
Measuring Fire Hell, 280
Multiple Heat Hell, 93
Multiple Punishment Hell, 92
Nirarbuda Hell, 290, 294, 296
Niraya Hell, 297, 298, 304
Padma Hell, 290, 291, 292, 294, 295,
296
Peeling Skin Hell, 297
Pointed Stones, 288
Puṇḍarīka Hell, 290, 291, 292, 295
Pus and Blood Hell, 280
Saugandhika Hell, 290, 291, 294
Soldiers with Swords Hell, 297
Steel Mechanism, 288
Stone Mill Hell, 280
Sword Tree Hell, 281
Thirst Hell, 279
Utpala Hell, 290, 291, 292, 294–295

IndexWater Hell, 297
Wheels of Knives, 288
Wheels of Swords, 288
Wild Dogs and Wolves Hell, 281
Worm Hell, 297
hell king(s), 273, 296–298
Esheng, 297
Feijinshou, 297
Feishi , 297
Gaicuo, 297
Guanshen, 297
Jiashi, 297
Jiayan, 297
Mingshen, 297
Pijia, 297
Quzun, 297
Tangwei, 297
Tibo, 297
Tiejiaran, 297
Yaotou, 297
Yida, 297
Yuetou, 297
See also King of Hell
Helian, 177
Hetu, 152
Hetu wei:
Ditongji chapter, 158, 159
Kuadixiang chapter, 158
Longyu chapter, 198
Shikai chapter, 158, 160
Yuban chapter, 198
holy:
beings, 60, 73, 151, 165, 255
knowledge/scriptures/teaching, 9, 22,
28, 31, 125, 169
men/person, 255, 275
ones, 32, 175, 302, 303
path, 125, 132
holy language. See Sanskrit
Honei, 235

Hongming, 177
Honored One/World-honored One, 10, 23,
26, 60, 75, 79, 108, 174, 190, 254,
260, 290, 293, 296
See also Buddha
householder(s), 132, 151, 192, 215, 223,
236, 237, 255, 259, 260, 299–302,
318, 320
See also lay, believers/devotees/followers; layman/laypeople
Huainan, Prince of, 266
Huainan Zi, 158
Huangfu Shian, 152
Huan Tan, 157
Huayan jing, 52, 257, 259
Huai Yao, 263, 265
Huilu. See god(s), ﬁre
Huishao, 176, 185–186
Huiwei, 176, 179–180
Huiyuan, 160
hungry ghost(s), 32, 33, 43, 71, 93, 169,
173, 204, 206, 218, 219, 220, 222,
228, 229, 230, 233, 249, 254, 305
thirty-six kinds, 222–226
See also ghost(s); preta(s)Iillness(es), 7, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 63, 68,
83, 95, 149, 176, 177, 181, 190, 192,
196, 241, 242, 243, 319
See also birth, aging/old age, illness,and deathimmortal(s)/immortality, 5, 117, 124, 181,
182, 183, 184
inauspicious, 153, 184, 271
See also auspicious/auspiciousness
incense, 7, 106, 160, 178, 192, 212, 223,
274, 314
See also fragrance(s)/perfume(s);offering(s)341IndexIndia/Indian, xiii, xiv, 25, 31, 199, 268
Central, 84, 213, 215
South, 214, 268
insect(s), 252, 253, 255, 262, 279, 286,
307
ants, 4, 248, 255
centipedes, 249
crickets, 248, 255
dayﬂy/ﬁreﬂy/ﬂies, 62, 84, 112, 113, 253,315
dung beetles, 255
lice, 89mosquito(es), 62, 84, 252
scorpion(s), 129, 130, 247
wasps, 247
worms, 136, 305
earthworms, 168nyaṅkuṭā, 249
silkworm(s), 196
See also animal(s); creature(s)Jjade woman/women, 183–185, 208, 287
Beautiful Forest, 208
Fragrances, 208
Shadowlike, 208
Superior Virtue, 208
Zhiqiong, 185
Japan, 201
jewel(s)/jeweled/jewelry, 4, 5, 10, 35, 40,
41, 43, 62, 66, 67, 68, 70, 82, 84, 100,
104, 105, 106, 107, 117, 123, 137,
172, 173, 195, 197, 201, 247, 258, 287
agate, 40
crystal, 40, 41, 54, 57, 104, 261
diamond(s), 41, 53, 61, 199
gold, 40, 53, 54, 68, 80, 81, 100, 104,
105, 137, 149, 161, 206, 241, 242,
256, 261, 266, 297, 315
Jambūnada, 68, 137342

jade, 3, 50, 54, 57, 66, 67, 138,
161,164, 211, 270, 274, 315
lapis lazuli, 40, 104, 106, 259
moonstones, 261
maṇi/wish-fulﬁlling, 17, 62, 63, 105,
113, 256, 258
musāragalva shells, 40
pearls, 40, 201, 212
silver, 40, 54, 57. 104, 138, 149, 206,
256, 259, 261, 297
vaiḍūrya, 178, 183
See also gem(s); seven jewels/precious
materials
Jeweled Tower, 4Ji Huanzi, 263, 265
Jian’an, Prince of, 176
Jiang, Lord, 247
Jiashe. See Kāśyapa
Jingdu sanmei jing, 296, 298
Jingling, Prince of. See Wenxuan
Jinglu yixiang, 177
Jinguangming jing, 53
Jingyi, 177
Ji shenzhou sanbao gantong lu. See
Collected Records of Three Jewels
MiraclesJiuding ji, 247
Ji Zi, 217
Jotika, 193
Jushe apidamo, 11
Jushe lun, 95, 293
Jyotirasa, 124KKaliṅga, 148
kalpa(s), 9–16, 24–25, 29–31, 34, 35, 37,
43, 93, 131, 136, 209, 251, 253, 255,
258
of abiding, 15, 24, 30, 31
of absence, 30, 31
antara-, 24, 29–30, 42, 43, 95, 295

Indexof arising, 10–11
asaṃkhya, 9, 30
of destruction, 10, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32–34,
36, 39of formation, 11, 24, 29, 30, 31, 40–43,
44
greater/large/major, 9–10, 14, 24, 29,
30, 31, 38, 43
lesser/minor, 9–11, 14, 15, 30, 31
See also world age(s)Kanakamuni, 259
Kangju (Sogdiana), 200–201
karma, 33, 35, 39, 47, 52, 53, 70, 71, 84,
101, 112, 164, 171, 172, 227, 228,
251, 281, 285, 288
karmic, 46, 59, 77, 227, 228, 236
cause(s), 7, 72, 73, 76, 161, 165, 186,
190, 202, 207–208, 217, 227, 228,
229, 247, 251, 253, 254, 273, 300
conditions, 12, 15, 16, 33, 148, 180, 220
consequences/effect(s)/results, 14, 33,
38, 76, 109, 152, 163, 167, 169,
171, 172, 173, 176, 188, 204, 207,
271, 276, 289, 290, 300
power(s), 36, 39, 42, 134, 250
retribution(s), 10, 23, 24, 36, 99, 112,
120, 147, 166, 169, 220, 221, 235,
254, 262, 273, 276
reward(s), 73, 107, 228, 229, 250, 316
Kāśyapa, 255, 259
Kauśika, 76, 212
See also god(s), Indra/Śakra/Śakradevānām Indrakiṃnaras, 251king(s), 12, 18–19, 31, 46, 51, 74, 120,
124, 132, 137, 177, 188, 191, 192,
194–195, 196–197, 198, 199, 212,
217, 221, 224, 266–267, 268–269,
297Aśoka, 23
Bimbisāra, 296–297

cakravartin/wheel-turning, 7, 18
Liao, 198
Mūrdhajarāja, 18–19Śaṅkha, 22
Suvarṇapuṣpa, 270–271
Udayana, 194
Weituosheng, 296
Wen, 136
See also asura(s)/asura king(s);dragon(s)/dragon king(s); fourheavenly kings/rulers of the fourheavens; hell king(s)King of Hell, 224, 273, 287, 298
See also god(s), Yama
kingdom(s)/state(s), 12, 13, 14, 18, 61,
133, 135, 160, 161, 187, 191, 193, 195,
107, 199, 200–201, 202, 203, 213, 217,
240, 241, 266, 267, 268–270, 271
Anduobojilena, 133
Campa, 213
Cheli, 199
Cīna (China), 26
Dhanakataka, 214Han, 267, 271
Hu, 240
Gandhāra, 133
Great Qin/Qin, 198, 200, 201
Jiaobusha, 133
Jiaoyao, 200, 201
Kosalā, 79, 81, 82, 294
Kucha, 270Kuśinagara, 175
Longbo, 198
Magadha, 215
Nasheluo, 133
Poloujia, 133
Shuluna, 133Siṃhala, 268
Suraṣṭra, 133Tang, 213
Tiao, 198

343

Indexkingdom(s)/state(s) (continued):
Vaideha, 133Vaiśālī, 175
Wei, 182
Yangqiemoqietuo, 133
Zhao, 318
Zhongqin, 198
See also dynasty/period
Kokālika, 295
Krakucchanda, 259
kṣatriya(s), 18, 46, 133
kumbhāṇḍa(s), 75, 119, 218

L
Laozi, 244
lay, 81
believers/devotees/followers, 259, 260,
287
layman/laypeople, 54, 215
Liang gaoseng zhuan, 180, 186
Liang ji, 198
Li Dan, 234, 238–239
Li Defeng, 324
Lieyi zhuan, 246
Liezi, 152, 156, 201
lightning, 47, 83, 123, 147, 148, 160, 161,
177, 193, 195, 205, 217, 218, 286
See also thunderLiji, “Sacriﬁce” chapter, 245
Lion Country, 270
See also kingdom(s)/state(s), Siṃhala
lion seat, 107
Lishi apitan lun, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 43,
59, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 85, 91,
95, 104, 106, 107, 111, 113, 114, 141,
142, 143, 150, 165, 188, 203, 218,
249, 274, 293
Lishi jing, 53, 69
Li Sihu, 324
Litong, 152
Liu Heng, 324

344

Liu Zhigan, 313, 321–324
Li Xun, 154, 159
Li Yan, 3
lotus(es), 83, 166, 174, 186, 203, 211, 212
blue/utpala, 55, 291, 292
red/padma, 55, 291, 292
white/puṇḍarīka, 55, 291, 292
yellow/kumuda, 55, 291
See also ﬂower(s)Lotus Sutra, 49
Loutan jing, 29, 30, 44, 50, 53, 61, 65,
70, 103, 110, 133, 164, 250, 258, 259,
278
Lü Guang, 198
lunar station(s), 25, 123–124, 125, 126–
133, 135–136, 145, 151, 198
seven, of the Eastern Gate, 126–127
Bi (Rohiṇī), 126, 130
Gui (Puṣya), 127
Jing (Punarvasu), 127
Liu (Aśleṣā), 127
Mao (Kṛttikā), 126, 131, 136, 198
Shen (Ārdrā), 126, 130
Zi (Mṛgaśira), 126
seven, of the Northern Gate, 129–130
Bi (Uttarabhadrapadā), 130
Kui (Revatī), 130
Lou (Aśvinī), 130
Shi (Pūrvabhadrapadā), 130
Xuxing (Dhaniṣṭhā), 129
Wei (Bharaṇī), 130, 131
Wei (Śatabhiṣā), 130
seven, of the Southern Gate, 127–128
Di (Viśākhā), 128, 130
Gang (Svātī), 128
Jue (Citrā), 128
Qixing (Maghā), 127
Yi (Uttaraphalgunī), 127
Zhang (Pūrvaphālgunī), 127
Zhen (Hastā), 128

Indexseven, of the Western Gate, 128–129
Dou (Uttarāṣādhā), 129, 130, 198
Fang (Anurādhā), 128
Ji (Pūrvāṣādhā), 129
Niu (Abhijit), 129
Nü (Śravaṇā), 129
Wei (Mūlā), 129
Xin (Jyeṣṭhā), 128
See also moon; star(s); star mansion(s)Lunheng, 155, 157, 158
Lun women, 176, 180–181
Luoshu zhenyaodu, 155

M
Madhyamāgama. See Zhong ahan jing
Maghavā, 76
See also god(s), Śakra/Śakra-devānām
Indramagic/magical, 7, 101, 136, 224
Mahāmaudgalyāyana/Maudgalyāyana,
106, 175, 295
Mahayana, 4, 50, 302, 304
See also Great Vehicle
Maitreya, 214
Mamu Mengcheng, 319
Māndhāta, 188māra(s), 40, 114, 226
Māra, 41, 85, 91, 110, 114, 151, 163, 226
marriage, 66, 67, 69, 72, 114
See also desire(s); sexualMātali, 221
Ma Zhou, 244
medicine(s), 12, 125
meditation(s)/meditative state(s), 33, 38,
74, 77, 78, 97, 98, 111, 112, 116, 117,
119, 124, 179, 180, 186, 230
four, 74, 102, 167
ﬁrst, 30, 33, 39, 72, 73, 94, 95, 96,
102, 103, 117, 120
fourth, 37, 39, 40, 43, 73, 102

second, 30, 32, 33, 37, 39, 73, 95, 96,
102, 103
third, 37, 39, 73, 95, 96, 97, 102, 117
no-thought, 73, 77
merit(s)/meritorious, 7, 23, 36, 39, 42,
43, 45, 49, 70, 80, 81, 82, 84, 106,
109, 110, 117, 118, 124, 125, 131,
152, 170, 212, 224, 227, 239, 243,
247, 258, 260
acts/deeds/service/work(s), 7, 20, 22,108, 192, 211, 218, 223, 224, 236,
237, 238, 266, 270, 274, 321, 323,
324
power(s), 94, 111–112, 124, 250
Ming, Emperor, 4Mingbao ji, 239, 244, 324
Mingbao shiyi, 177
Mingseng, 177
Mingxiang/Mingxiang ji, 177, 179, 181,
320
miracle(s)/miracle stories, xiii, xiv, 176,
181, 186, 197, 213, 234, 236, 239,
244, 245, 263, 271, 312
Molianna, 148monastery(ies)/temple(s), xiii, 7, 9, 173,
177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 185,
214, 215, 237, 242, 255, 302, 304,
314, 316
Anpusi, 186
Longyuansi, 185, 186
Lingwei Temple, 235
Mahābodhi Temple, 134
Nālanda Monastery, 215
Nanlin Temple, 235
Ximingsi, xiii, 4, 7
Xuanzhongsi, 181, 182
Yanxingsi, 180
monastic(s), xiii, xiv, 4, 9, 54, 180, 302
community/order, 7, 166, 300, 301, 305
discipline/rules, 180, 301
See also monk(s); nun(s)345Indexmonk(s), xiii, 7, 10, 22, 23, 26, 46, 58, 59,
61, 70, 75–76, 78, 79, 81, 86, 101, 108,
112, 113, 137, 138, 142, 143, 144, 146,
147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 160, 168, 177,
179, 180, 181, 185, 186, 209, 222, 223,
227, 230, 235, 236, 237–238, 252, 255,
258, 260, 288, 290, 295, 301, 302, 308,
309, 312, 315, 316, 317, 318
novice/student, 178, 237, 254, 255robe, 223, 299
See also monastic(s)monster(s), 205, 234, 263, 266, 320
Jiaguo, 263, 264
qingji, 202
Wangxiang, 265
See also demon(s)moon(s), 7, 25, 26, 28, 36, 43, 44, 46–47,
50, 51, 54, 72, 84, 92, 112, 123, 124,
125, 126–131, 132, 135, 138–139, 140,
142, 143–144, 145, 149, 150, 153, 155,
156, 157, 158, 161, 177, 209–210, 211,
220, 245, 252, 278, 293, 298, 312
deity/god, 41, 61, 99, 126, 138–139
full, 28, 66, 67, 86, 144, 190, 235
half-, 66, 190
palace, 123, 138–140
See also lunar mansion(s)mountain(s), 3, 20, 34, 35, 41, 42, 49, 50,
54–55, 56, 58–59, 61, 62, 64, 67, 72,
87, 99, 100, 103, 104, 111, 119, 136,
140, 141, 142, 151, 160, 178, 179, 181,
182, 187, 200, 203, 204, 206, 208, 210,
213, 214, 215, 217, 219, 220, 226, 229,
230, 233, 234, 237, 244, 245, 248, 252,
258, 262, 263, 264, 267, 268, 269, 273,
274, 278, 282, 284, 286, 291, 292, 293,
297, 300, 320
Black Mountain/Seven Black Mountains, 58
Cakravāḍaparvata/Mount Cakravāḍa,55, 59, 60, 103, 111, 140346

Five Peaks/ﬁve sacred mountains, 201,
231
Fragrant Hill (Gandhamādana)/FragrantMountain (Gandhagiri), 56, 58, 211
Golden Wall, 56Great Snow Mountain/Himalayas/
Snow Mountain (Himavat), 56, 58,
124, 125, 132
Great Iron Ring Mountain/Great Surrounding Mountain Range/Iron Ring
Mountains/Iron (Surrounding)
Mountain(s), 41, 50, 51, 55, 220,
251, 262, 278, 293, 294, 298
Great Vajra Mountain/Vajra Mountain,
257, 258, 278, 297
Hangu Pass, 312, 320
Mount Aśvakarna, 55, 140
Mount Beishan, 182
Mount Hua, 3, 187
Mount Īṣādhara, 54, 140
Mount Jishi, 57
Mount Jiuyi, 201
Mount Khadiraka, 54, 140
Mount Kunlun, 158, 198
Mount Lu, 160
Mount Nimindhara, 55, 140
Mount Pingyao, 182
Mount Song, 3, 187
Mount Sudarśana, 55, 140
Mount Songgao, 237, 238
Mount Sumeru, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42, 44,
50, 51, 54, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 70,
85, 99, 100, 102, 103, 132, 140,
142, 179, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208,
210, 212, 252, 257, 259, 261
Mount Tai, 240, 241, 242, 243, 247
Mount Vinataka, 55, 140
Mount Wutai, 181
Mount Yu, 185
Mount Yuchanna, 56

IndexMount Yugaṃdhara/Yugaṃdhara
Mountains, 35, 54, 55 104, 140
Mount Zhongnan, 267
Round Hill, 153
Southern Mountain, 324
Treasure Mountain, 56
Vulture Peak, 274
See also cave(s)Mouxiuluntuo, 167
music, 58, 63, 105, 107, 173, 178, 182,
211, 217

Nnāga. See dragon(s)Nāgārjuna, 256
naraka. See hell(s)Narāyana, 53
Naxian biqiu wenfo jing, 295
Nengren. See Śākyamuni
netherworld, 323, 324
See also hell(s)Niepan jing, 74, 168, 170, 171, 195, 256,
257
See also Nirvana Sutra
Nimi, 221
Nirvana Sutra, 49, 78, 163, 197
See also Niepan jing
non-Buddhist(s), 73, 146, 147, 152, 163,
234
nun(s), 78, 81, 180, 181, 186, 287, 301,
304, 305
See also monastic(s)Oocean(s)/sea(s), 22, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42,
44, 50, 51, 54, 55, 57, 59–60, 61, 63,
103, 135, 136, 140, 142, 148, 179,
192, 200, 203, 204–205, 206, 207,
208, 210, 212, 220, 224, 233, 250,
251, 252, 256, 257, 259, 260, 261,
262, 270, 277, 278, 287

four great, 35, 192, 208, 212
Eastern Ocean, 56
Northern Ocean/North Sea, 56, 57, 252
Southern Ocean/South Sea, 56, 57, 252Western Ocean, 56
Nimindhara, 60
Penglai Ocean, 252
Sumeru Ocean, 140
Yuchanna, 56
offering(s), 23, 107, 126, 127, 128, 129,
130, 237, 240, 254, 320
One, the, 153, 244
See also Great One/Great Ultimate
Original Goodness, 123
Original Substance, 152
See also Primal Beginnings, Commencement, Material, Simplicity

Ppalace(s), 41, 71, 80, 81, 83, 85, 101,
105, 106, 110, 111, 137, 138, 140,
142, 163, 164, 182, 192, 195, 198,
210, 213, 215, 256, 257, 259, 260,
261, 262, 266, 297, 298–299, 317
Anavatapta, 58
asura/demigod, 141, 148, 203, 207,
213, 214, 215
Brahmā, 34, 40, 42
heavenly, 40, 42, 79, 100, 186, 229
Indra/Śakra, 106, 107, 164
Māra, 85, 110
moon, 123, 138–140
Shemopoti, 206
Sudarśana, 100
sun, 34, 123, 137–138, 140, 144
Vaijayanta, 100, 105
Yama, 42, 297, 298
See also hall(s)Pañcaśikha, 104Pārṣa, 270

347

Indexpassion(s), 187, 188, 196
See also desire(s)path(s), 49, 113, 123, 306
correct, 5, 121of enlightenment/liberation, 9, 274
holy/religious, 125, 132, 215, 258, 296
Peacock King, 167
Pei Tongjie, 324
Pengsheng, 271
Perfection of Wisdom scriptures, 119, 304
Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, 144, 163,
177, 178, 212
Piṇḍola-Bhāradvāja, 23, 194, 196
Pintoulutuluoshe wei Youtuoyanwang
shuo jing, 194, 196piśāca(s), 74, 251
Pitan lun, 69, 164, 170, 253
See also Za apitanxin lun/Zaxin lun
Piyeposhenrenwen jing/Piyeshawen jing,82
poison/poisoned/poisonous, 23, 62, 171,
191, 214, 225, 226, 244, 247, 249,
257, 258, 260, 270, 271, 286, 296, 301
See also three poisons
Polishe, 137pond(s), 56, 57, 62, 101, 105, 107, 116,
173, 186, 190, 192, 202, 206, 212,
213, 225, 228, 248, 270, 271, 274, 298
Anavatapta Pond, 56, 62
Citra Pond, 107
Nandana Pond, 107Pāruṣakavana Pond, 107
Posha lun, 11, 72, 75, 90, 95, 97, 98,
102, 115, 118, 165, 173, 188, 189,
203, 204, 205, 218, 219, 220, 221,
228, 231, 232, 233, 248, 249, 250,
251, 275, 276, 299
See also Apidamo da piposha lun
practice(s), xiv, 4, 7, 77, 97, 115, 140,
182, 213, 237, 239, 315, 316

348

bodhisattva, 140
ﬁve kinds of, 74
meditative/of meditation, 97, 98, 179
pure, 149, 228, 299
prajñāpāramitā. See wisdom, perfect
Prajñapti-śāstra, 25
pratyekabuddha(s), 74, 167, 208, 301, 302
precept(s), 4, 7, 13, 22, 78, 79, 112, 118,
121, 149, 172, 179, 204, 211, 223,
236, 237, 255, 259, 260, 261, 287,
301, 302, 304, 316, 318
complete, 4, 255, 300, 301, 302
eight, 108, 239, 257, 260, 261
ﬁve, 172, 257, 274
lay, 81
pure, 222, 255
preta(s), 32, 71, 75, 218–219
See also hungry ghost(s)Primal Beginnings, Commencement,
Material, Simplicity, 152–153
Primary Substance. See Original SubstancePuraṃdara, 76
See also god(s), Indra/Śakra/Śakradevānām IndraPurāṇa, 150
Pure Land, 121, 137, 182, 193, 274
Pusa chutai jing, 27, 251, 260
Pusa cong doushutian jiangshen mutaishuo guangpu jing. See Pusa chutaijing
Pusazang jing, 52, 190
pūtana, 75

Q
qi, 135, 154, 157, 158, 159, 244, 245,
266, 320
See also Daoism/Daoist
Qifu group, 161
Qingling jing, 247

Index

Qishi jing, 11, 40, 41, 50, 54, 58, 66, 68,
70, 84, 91, 101, 106, 110, 113, 114,
116, 117, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142,
143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 206,
270, 288, 294, 295, 298, 306, 309
Qishi yinben jing, 110, 113, 114, 116
quietude, 15, 17, 168, 169, 185
Qu Jian, 245

R
Rāhula, 306
rain/rainfall, 4, 7, 12, 15, 16, 17, 34, 35,
36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 52, 62, 63, 123,
131, 141, 147, 148–149, 160, 217,
218, 229, 244, 250, 267, 286, 313
three kinds, of the asuras, dragons,
gods, 147–148
rākṣasa(s), 75, 151, 218rākṣasī. See demon(s), female
realm(s), 4, 22, 32, 34, 39, 43, 44, 45, 49,
50, 51, 57, 58, 59, 61, 72, 77, 85, 96,
97, 98, 108, 109, 111, 114, 118, 125,
146, 148, 163, 164–165, 167, 168,
169, 170, 171, 173, 178, 188, 189,
196, 202, 218, 219, 221, 222, 226,
227, 228, 236, 243, 249, 250, 251,
262, 271, 274, 275, 306
four heavenly/under Heaven, 54, 60, 61,
65, 66, 67, 126, 189, 192, 197, 204,
211, 221, 244, 266, 278
evil, 170, 171, 172
heavenly, 33, 37, 39, 43, 94, 163, 250
higher/superior, 13, 50, 53, 78, 109,
111, 125, 167, 218inferior/lower, 36, 39, 43, 50, 77, 78,
104, 111, 169, 175, 218, 229, 243,
247, 249, 251, 286, 302, 303, 306
six, 7, 10, 49, 76–77, 121, 163, 164–
165, 176, 188, 206, 217, 242, 243,
273, 312

animals, 32, 33, 43, 93, 169, 172,173, 229, 237, 249, 253, 254
asura(s), 32, 202, 207, 208god(s), 204, 206, 251, 302
hell(s), 43, 169, 228, 229, 237, 251,
254, 273, 274–275, 276, 296
human, 32, 33, 43, 94, 186, 187–188,
189, 190, 193, 228, 232, 235, 236,
243, 248, 249, 302
hungry ghost(s), 32, 33, 43, 109, 169,
173, 204, 206, 218–219, 222, 229,
232, 236, 237, 243, 249, 251, 254,
305
See also three realms
rebirth(s), 9, 32, 74, 77, 78, 80, 84, 99,
163, 164, 169, 173, 188, 202, 207–
208, 217, 222, 228, 229–230, 232,
236, 247, 253–254, 273, 298, 300,
302, 308, 312, 315
inferior, 78, 286, 303
six realms of, 10, 121, 163–165, 206,
217, 242, 273, 312
three/three realms of, 109, 170, 196
See also birth and death
Recorder Zhao, 241–242
Record of the Western Regions, 25, 28, 31,
56, 140, 213, 214, 263, 267, 270, 321
relic(s), 7, 177
Renwang jing, 26, 146
retribution(s), 7, 78, 112, 121, 165, 169,
172, 176, 177, 178, 179, 222, 223–
226, 228, 229, 232, 237, 238, 239,
240, 247, 252, 253, 254, 289, 293,
295, 310, 311, 312
karmic, 10, 23, 24, 36, 99, 112, 120,
147, 166, 169, 220, 221, 235, 254,
262, 273, 276
river(s)/spring(s), 14, 34, 36, 43, 47, 49,
56, 57, 62, 119, 134, 135, 140–141,
142, 182, 192, 208, 228, 231, 233,
248, 251, 280, 305, 311, 318, 321

349

Indexriver(s)/spring(s) (continued):Black Spring, 158
Bocha River, 56Cakṣu River, 57
Cauldron Spring of Hell, 321
Earthly River, 134
Elephant’s Mouth, 56
Ganges River, 4, 56, 57, 78, 136
Guitang Gorge, 135
Han River, 3
Heavenly River/Yemaluo, 134
Ho River, 136
Horse’s Mouth, 56
Jiang River, 3, 136, 181, 182
Lion’s Mouth, 56
Oxen Mouth, 56
Red Spring, 158
Sindhu River, 56, 57
Śīta River, 56, 57
Weilü Deeps, 135
White Spring, 158
Yangzi River, 135, 238
Yellow River, 57, 135, 240
Yellow Spring, 158
Zhejiang River, 181
Roshui, 187
Ruyi, 271

Ssacriﬁce(s), 7, 140, 153, 180, 223, 227,
267, 323
sage(s), 42, 124, 125, 126, 131, 132, 302
Donkey-lipped Sage/Kharoṣṭhī, 125–
126, 131–132
emperor/king, 5, 31
heavenly, 131, 132, 133
Large-headed Sage, 213
Qieli, 132
Scorpion Sage, 128
See also Great Sage

350Śākyamuni, 31, 51
See also Buddha
Sanbao zhengying, 177
Sanfadu lun (jing), 291, 292, 293
sangha, 22, 300, 301
See also Buddha, Dharma, and SanghaSaṃgharakṣita. See Senghu
Sanskrit, 75, 84, 165, 180, 190, 203, 206,
221, 249, 251, 274, 275, 300
Sanwu liji, 152
Saoshen, 177Śāriputra, 52, 53, 175, 252, 253, 254–255,
295
scripture(s), xiv, 3, 4, 11, 17, 31, 50, 58,
70, 76, 77, 82, 84, 91, 103, 117, 120,
121, 132, 134, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152,
166, 167, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181,
189, 192, 193, 197, 203, 206, 207, 208,
209, 211, 212, 215, 218, 220, 230, 232,
235, 250, 252, 254, 259, 262, 275, 277,
278, 297, 302, 313, 315, 319
Buddhist, xiii, 3, 134, 180, 262
Mahayana, 50, 304
Perfection of Wisdom, 119
non-Buddhist/secular, 50, 153, 182, 239,
271
See also sutra(s); treatise(s)Scripture of Placing the Sun, the Moon,
the Year, and the Time Units. See Zhi
riyue nianshi jingself, 163, 168, 244
Senghan, 235–236
Senghu, 260
Senghu jing, 260
Sengqi lü, 27
Sengyou, 5sense(s), 3, 102, 116, 117, 192, 208, 256,
258, 299
object(s), 3
organ(s), 33, 68, 116, 138, 174, 193, 305

Indexseven jewels/precious materials, 22, 40,
41, 54, 55, 56, 59, 62, 99, 100, 138,
164, 186, 192, 193, 206, 207, 209, 233,
258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 298, 299, 317
See also jewel(s)sexual, 114, 115, 224, 260, 315
conduct, immoral/licentiousness, 78, 79,
172, 173
desire(s), 13, 22, 45, 51, 66, 67, 124, 168
See also desire(s); marriage
Shang Chen, 187
Shangshu, 156
Shanjie jing, 78
Shansheng youposai jing, 219
Shefu luohan jing, 175
Shengji guixin, 177
Shenyi jing, 199, 200, 245
Shibiku valley, 181
Shi Chong, 246
Shidi lun, 229
Shieryou jing, 250
Shiguang, 176, 177–179
Shi guang zhan, 159, 160
Shiji. See Book of History
Shiliuguo Chunqiu, “The Record of theFormer Liang” chapter, 245
Shilun jing, 300
Shiming. See Lü Guang
Shiming, 160
Shishe lun, 218, 276, 277
Shi wei:Hanshenwu chapter, 200
Tuiducai chapter, 158
Shizi, 265
Shizu, 180
See also Lun women
Shoulengyan jing, 235
shrine(s), 182, 217, 218, 226, 227, 242,
247, 268, 270
Shun. See You Yu

Shunzhengli lun, 32, 37, 42, 46, 51, 59,
65, 66, 67, 69, 82, 84, 92, 94, 100,
103, 111, 226
Shuowen, 160
Shuwang benji, 200
Siddhārtha, 4
See also Buddha
Sifen lü, 149, 252
Sifenlü jieben, 78
śīla. See precept(s)sin(s), 23, 146, 163, 172, 173, 175, 186,
217, 218, 220, 237, 269, 279, 282,
283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 301–303,
305, 306, 313, 314, 315–316
fundamental, 301–302, 303
grave, 287, 300, 301–302, 303
ﬁve, 287, 300, 303, 304, 305
sinner(s), 9, 238, 273–276, 278–295, 297,
298, 303–305, 307–311, 314, 317
six perfections, 7skandhas, 25, 116
Sogdiana. See Kangju
Song, Duke of, 271
Song Dingbo, 245
Song gaoseng zhuan, xiii
Song Jun, 158
Soshen zhuanji, 320
Sousheng ji, 185, 202, 244, 245
spell(s), 3, 42, 212, 214, 215
vajra, 214
spirit(s), 163, 176, 200, 202, 205, 217–
218, 219, 223, 243–244, 245, 265–266,
268, 270
altar, 177, 178, 181, 235
See also ghost(s)spiritual, 78, 115, 132, 176, 211, 227,
323, 324
cultivation, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 79,
81, 115, 182, 218, 236
Square Marsh, 153351

IndexŚroṇakoṭikarṇa, 233
star(s), 25, 36, 46, 72, 99, 123–130, 132–
136, 142, 157, 158, 161, 212, 245, 271
Milky Way, 135
Sheti, 152
See also lunar station(s); moon(s); starmansion(s); sun(s)star mansion(s), 131–132, 133, 134
eight larger, 131, 132
Chenxing (Mercury), 131
Heluohouxing, 131
moon, 131
Suixing (Jupiter), 46–47, 127, 131, 152
sun, 131
Taiboxing (Venus), 131
Yinghuoxing (Mars), 131
Zhenxing (Saturn), 131
smaller, 131, 132
See also lunar station(s); moon(s);star(s); sun(s)stream-winner(s) (srota-āpanna), 74
stupa(s), 4, 7, 64, 137, 180, 262
suchness, 3
suffering, 7, 10, 39, 47, 49, 58, 113, 124,
163, 164, 167–171, 186, 190, 193–
197, 203, 224, 237, 250, 255, 276,
280, 287, 299, 303, 306, 308, 312, 320
eight kinds of, 187
ten situations of, 190–191
Sui Renqian, 234, 239–243
Sujā, 76Sujāṃpati, 76
See also god(s), Śakra/Śakra-devānām
Indrasun(s), 4, 7, 25, 26, 28, 34–35, 36, 41,
43, 44, 47, 50, 51, 54, 57, 61, 72, 92,
99, 112, 123–127, 131, 132, 135,
137–138, 139, 140–145, 149, 150,
153, 155–158, 159, 161, 177, 194,203, 205, 209–210, 220, 245, 252,
273, 278, 292, 293, 298, 312, 322

352

deity/god, 126–127, 137, 138
palace(s), 34, 41, 123, 137–138, 139,
140, 144
seven, 34–37
See also moon(s); star(s); star mansion(s)Sun En, 247
Sun Feng, 316
Sun Hao, 177
supernatural, 7, 150, 262
being(s)/person, 11, 12, 15, 16, 119,
146, 150, 210, 211, 212, 315
powers, 13, 36, 44, 72, 110–112, 150,
151, 209, 224, 258
ﬁve, 166
sutra(s), 115, 207, 255, 317
See also scripture(s); treatise(s)Sutra of the Wise and the Ignorant. See
Xianyu jing
Sutra on Contemplation, 182

T
Taiqiu, 185
Tang Ling, 324
Tang gaoseng zhuan, 182, 186
Tanhu, 178
Tanjian, 178
Tanluan, 176, 181–182
Tanshuang, 238
Tao Hongjing, 181
tathāgata(s), 52
See also buddha(s)Tathāgata, 28, 78, 112, 261
See also Buddha
thunder, 47, 123, 134, 146–147, 148,
159–160, 161, 193, 205, 217, 245,
286, 321
See also lightning
teaching(s), 3–4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 19, 21, 22,
33, 58, 60, 65, 72, 74, 78, 118, 134,
149, 180, 181, 182, 186, 203, 208,
212, 218, 235, 239, 242, 243, 245,

Index255, 257, 259, 260, 261, 262, 271,
299, 301, 302, 305, 315, 319
correct/good/superior, 11, 13, 32, 34,
81, 127, 136, 176, 226, 260
decline of, 23, 176
evil/wrong, 19, 21, 34, 308
ﬁvefold, 4
heterodox, 176, 226holy, 9, 22, 28, 125
non-Buddhist, 146, 147, 163
profound, 4, 5, 254
See also Dharma
ten evil deeds, 13–14, 34, 229, 254
ten good deeds, 32, 45, 64, 65, 77, 235
Thousand Eyes (Sahāsrākṣa), 76
See also god(s), Śakra/Śakra-devānām
Indra
Three Jewels/Three Refuges, xiv, 109,
175, 203, 215, 257, 262, 274, 302
See also Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha
three poisons (greed, anger, and ignorance), 14, 16, 187, 197
three realms, 7, 10, 12, 49, 51–52, 73,
77, 89, 94, 121, 168, 169, 170, 171,
176, 182, 196, 197
desire, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 40, 50, 51,
52, 72, 74, 77, 78, 84, 87, 90, 91,
99, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,
116, 117, 119, 120, 125, 142, 163,
164, 170, 181, 210, 251, 275, 303
form, 25, 26, 33, 34, 39, 43, 50, 51, 52,
72, 77, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 99, 100,
102, 103, 110, 122, 115, 116, 117,
119, 120, 121, 163, 164, 166, 167,
168, 169, 170, 221, 251
formless, 25, 51, 52, 72, 73, 77, 90, 94,
97, 98, 99, 117, 164, 167, 169, 170
See also realm(s)Tibet, 313, 321
Tili, 76
See also god(s), Śakra/Śakra-devānām
Indra

treatise(s), 17, 69, 86, 89, 91, 118, 119,167, 214, 275
See also scripture(s); sutra(s)tree(s), 14, 16, 18, 35, 56, 62, 63, 67, 68,
102, 105, 107, 114, 119, 136, 140,
146, 147, 157, 159, 168, 186, 187,
201, 206, 213, 225–226, 230, 233,
256–257, 261, 264, 267, 274, 280,
305, 314
Āmra, 61“bent back,” 62, 63
Huadu, 68
iron, 257, 261
jambu (rose apple)/Jambu, 55, 67–68,
140
Jialanfu, 65
Jinti (tiduka), 66
Jiuluozhenma, 256
Julishanpoluo, 68
mulberry, 136
palm, 234, 298
pārijātaka/Pārijātaka Kovidāra, 102,
206
pine, 187
Shanjin, 68
sword, 280–281, 286, 314
tāla, 206, 226
See also forest(s)Tripiṭaka, 4, 182
truth(s), 3, 7, 19, 23, 50, 59, 74, 98, 109,
113, 174, 176, 177, 196, 243, 301,
304, 307, 313
See also Four Noble Truths
Two Principles, Four Images, and Eight
Trigrams, 153
See also yin and yangU
unﬁlial/unﬁliality, 7, 20, 287
See also ﬁlial

353

Indexuniversal monarch(s), 22, 56, 57, 89,
188, 191, 192, 193, 221, 258, 260
See also cakravartin; king(s), cakravartin/wheel-turningVvajra, 53, 59, 210, 256
samādhi, 59
spell, 214
Vajrapāṇi, 100, 214
Vāsava, 76
See also god(s), Śakra/Śakra-devānām
Indraview(s)/viewpoint, 11, 50, 78, 94, 105,
115, 136, 173, 189, 193, 206, 219,
220, 221, 222, 229, 275, 276, 277
correct, 32, 259
deluded/evil/mistaken/wrong, 7, 11, 14,
16, 19, 21, 59, 73, 163, 172, 187,
191, 193, 271, 307
heretical, 229
heterodox, 149, 170, 284, 287, 301, 304
Vinaya, 252Viśākhā, 112vow(s), 7, 57, 187, 203, 208, 210, 212,
214, 218, 236, 274, 299

W
Waiguo tu, 200, 201
Wanbi, 266
Wang Hu, 234, 236–238
Wang Man, 202
Wang Meng, 198
Wangsheng lun, 192
Wang Xuance, 137, 213–214, 321
Wangzi, 265
water of eight merits/qualities, 51, 63, 101
Way, the, 5, 7, 109, 150, 167, 176, 188,
191, 196, 212, 230, 236, 237, 243,
255, 274, 317, 320
See also Great Way

354

Wei Kun, 244
Wei Lang, 181
Weilue, 201
Weizhi, 199
Wenben, 240–244
Wendiyu jing, 296, 297, 298
Wenshi jing, 78
Wenxuan, 176, 234, 235–236
Western Capital, 134
Western Country of Big Women, 270
Western Region, 139, 141
See also India
Western Suburb, 153
White Feet, 237
wind(s), 10, 32, 34, 36, 37–38, 39, 40–
41, 42, 43, 52, 53, 58, 94, 95, 96, 97,
141, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150–151,
158, 180, 192, 193, 194, 201, 217,
218, 225, 244, 245, 257, 267, 274,
278, 281, 287, 289, 291, 292, 294,
298, 304, 312, 317
Anapiluo, 40
baofeng (“violent wind”), 159
black, 34, 44, 142
ﬁve kinds of, 137, 138
adaptive turbulent, 137
dwelling, 137
future, 137
holding, 137
Poluohejia, 137
fenlun (“burning wheel”), 159
fuyao (“whirlwind”), 159
guleng (“valley wind”), 159
jingfeng (“auspicious wind”), 159
kaifeng (“happy wind”), 159
liangfeng (“cool wind”), 159
mai (“dust wind”), 159
piaofeng (“tornado”)/turning wind, 159
taifeng (“great wind”), 159
Vilambā, 150
Wind of Grand Peace, 159

Indexyi (“cloudy wind”), 159
See also windstorm; wind wheel(s)windstorm, 160, 281, 282
wind wheel(s), 37, 42
four, 40, 52–53“holding,” 40“ﬁrmly holding,” 40“not falling,” 40“safely holding,” 40Narāyaṇa, 53
Qulai, 52
Ulubojia, 52
Vairambhaka, 52
Wheel of Cloud, 52
Zhanbojia, 52
Zhoubian, 53
wisdom, 39, 43, 52, 53, 74, 97, 98, 131,
173, 186, 187, 188, 203, 248, 310
perfect, 287, 312
women, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 20, 22, 32, 62,
63, 64, 83, 101, 109, 114, 115, 120,
132, 137, 176, 181, 199, 201, 215,
222, 246, 264, 267, 270, 271, 297, 313
See also female; gender; jadewoman/women
world(s), 3, 4, 11, 14, 16, 18, 23, 24, 30,
32–34, 35, 36–37, 38, 41–42, 43, 44,
45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 63, 85, 91,
94, 102, 103, 108, 109, 117, 121, 132,
133, 136, 138, 142, 144, 146, 149,
151, 152, 154, 168, 174, 183, 188,
189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195,
210, 218, 219, 220, 221, 225, 238,
239, 244, 257, 274, 276, 277, 287,
290, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297,
298, 300, 304, 307, 308, 309, 310,
311, 312, 3131, 316, 322, 324
sahā, 9, 31, 51, 85, 132
world age(s), 4, 7, 9, 69, 73, 93–94, 95–
98, 115, 125, 126, 136, 137, 138, 142,
146, 164, 176, 191, 205, 209, 219,

221, 256, 259, 260, 261, 262, 274,
287, 288, 295, 303, 304, 305
See also kalpa(s)world-system(s), 51, 52, 293
threefold thousand-, 34, 35, 36, 51, 52,
53, 54worldly, 20, 30, 50, 74, 78, 79, 101, 109,
136, 145, 169, 178, 183, 239, 296, 308
Wu, Emperor, 136, 320
Wudaoku jing, 220, 230
Wudao zhangju jing, 220
Wuling, Prince, 240, 242
Wuxing zhuan, Hongfan, 199
Wuyue chunqiu, 198
Wu Zixu, 198

X
Xiading zhi, 265
Xiang, Prince, 200
Xiangchang, 200
Xianhu, 176, 180
Xianshou, 190, 191
Xianyu jing, 254
Xiaojing, 155
Xiao Ziliang. See Wenxuan
Xiaozu, 235–236
Xiguo zhuan. See Record of the Western
Regions
Xiguoxing zhuan, 137, 177
Xihe, 181
Xinlun, 157
Xiupiluo, 108
Xiyu zhuan, Weilue, 200
Xuanwu Gate, 244
Xuanyan, 177
Xuanyun. See Daoshi
Xuanzang, 215, 267
Xumi xiangtu shan jing, 134
Xuzheng, 156355

IndexYyakṣa(s), 26, 41, 75, 85, 100, 109, 119,
125, 132, 141, 212
Yamen, 181
Yanling, 217
Yanshi jiaxun, Guixin chapter, 134
Yebao chabie jing, 77, 190, 207, 229, 253
Yijing, Shuogua chapter, 158, 159
See also Book of Changes
yin and yang, 25, 123, 135, 141, 152,
153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160,
244, 245, 256, 258
See also Daoism/Daoist
Yingquan, 185
Ying Shifeng, 185
Yingyang, 239
Yiqi, 183–185
See also Chuan Xianchao
Yi wei, Jilantu chapter, 159, 160
Yiyuan, 160
Yogacārabhūmi. See Yüqie/Yüqie
lun/Yüqieshidi lun
Youming/Youming lu, 177, 247
Youposai jing, 230
You Yu, 5
Yuanhun, 177
Yuchuan Wenming, 217
Yueyi, 212
Yülan, 245
Yupoyi jingxing famen jing, 112
Yüqie/Yüqie lun/Yüqieshidi lun, 11, 17,
23, 36, 134, 140, 228
Yuwen family, 177Z
Za ahan jing, 29, 75, 79, 106, 208
Za apitanxin lun/Zaxin lun, 35, 38, 39,
69, 89, 90, 92, 94, 253
See also Abhidharma-śāstra; Pitan lun
Zabaozang jing, 32, 138356

Zaiwo, 245
Zaodiandi jing, 65
Za piyu jing, 208
Zengyi ahan jing/Zengyi jing, 44, 45,
133, 149, 151, 209
Zhang Mao, 265
Zhang Mosheng, 185
Zhang Qian Zhan, 152
Zhang Qing, 245
Zhangriyue. See asura(s)/asura king(s),RāhuZhang Xiaojing, 134
Zhangxin, 178–180
Zhao, Prince of. See Ruyi
Zhao Tai, 246–247, 312, 313–316
Zhengfanian jing, 78, 79, 90, 118, 120,
166, 171, 172, 204, 207, 208, 209,
222, 229, 231, 250, 254, 303
Zhengshi lun, 169
Zheng Xianzhi, 239
Zhi, 271
Zhidu lun, 27, 52, 142, 144, 151, 169,
170
See also Dazhidu lun
Zhi Faheng, 312, 316–318
Zhi Fashan, 177-178, 320
Zhiji, 260
Zhi riyue nianshi jing, 131
Zhong ahan jing, 11, 18, 45, 75
Zhongsi. See Li Yan
Zhou, Duke of, 50
Zhuangyan lun, 233
Zhuang Zhou, 252
Zhuangzi, 3Zhuangzi, 50, 252
Zhu Falan, 4Zhujing yaoji. See Collected Summaries
of All Scriptures
Zishi sanmei jing, 51
Zou Yan, 136
Zuo zhuan, 159

BDK English Tripiṭaka
(First Series)
Abbreviations
Ch.: ChineseSkt.: Sanskrit
Jp.: JapaneseEng.: Published title
Title

Taishō No.

Ch. Chang ahan jing (長阿含經)Skt. Dīrghāgama
Eng. The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses(Volume I, 2015)
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses(Volume II, 2016)
The Canonical Book of the Buddha’s Lengthy Discourses(Volume III, 2018)

1

Ch. Zhong ahan jing (中阿含經)Skt. Madhyamāgama
Eng. The Madhyama Āgama (Middle-length Discourses)(Volume I, 2013)26

Ch. Dasheng bensheng xindi guan jing (大乘本生心地觀經)

159

Ch. Fo suoxing zan (佛所行讃)
Skt. Buddhacarita
Eng. Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha’s Acts (2009)

192

Ch. Zabao zang jing (雜寶藏經)Eng. The Storehouse of Sundry Valuables (1994)

203

Ch. Faju piyu jing (法句譬喩經)Eng. The Scriptural Text: Verses of the Doctrine, with Parables (1999)

211

Ch. Xiaopin banruo boluomi jing (小品般若波羅蜜經)Skt. Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-sutra

227

357

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Ch. Jingang banruo boluomi jing (金剛般若波羅蜜經)Skt. Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitā-sutra235

Ch. Daluo jingang bukong zhenshi sanmoye jing
(大樂金剛不空眞實三麼耶經)Skt. Adhyardhaśatikā-prajñāpāramitā-sutraEng. The Sutra of the Vow of Fulﬁlling the Great Perpetual
Enjoyment and Beneﬁting All Sentient Beings Without
Exception (in Esoteric Texts, 2015)

243

Ch. Renwang banruo boluomi jing (仁王般若波羅蜜經)Skt. *Kāruṇikārājā-prajñāpāramitā-sutra

245

Ch. Banruo boluomiduo xin jing (般若波羅蜜多心經)
Skt. Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya-sutra

251

Ch. Miaofa lianhua jing (妙法蓮華經)Skt. Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sutraEng. The Lotus Sutra (Revised Second Edition, 2007)

262

Ch. Wuliangyi jing (無量義經)Eng. The Inﬁnite Meanings Sutra (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)

276

Ch. Guan Puxian pusa xingfa jing (觀普賢菩薩行法經)Eng. The Sutra Expounded by the Buddha on Practice of the Way
through Contemplation of the Bodhisattva All-embracing
Goodness (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)

277

Ch. Dafangguang fo huayan jing (大方廣佛華嚴經)Skt. Avataṃsaka-sutra

279

Ch. Shengman shizihou yisheng defang bianfang guang jing
(勝鬘師子吼一乘大方便方廣經)Skt. Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanāda-sutraEng. The Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion’s Roar (2004)

353

Ch. Wuliangshou jing (無量壽經)Skt. Sukhāvatīvyūha
Eng. The Larger Sutra on Amitāyus (in The Three Pure Land Sutras,
Revised Second Edition, 2003)

360

Ch. Guan wuliangshou fo jing (觀無量壽佛經)Skt. *Amitāyurdhyāna-sutraEng. The Sutra on Contemplation of Amitāyus(in The Three Pure Land Sutras, Revised Second Edition, 2003)

365

358

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Ch. Amituo jing (阿彌陀經)Skt. Sukhāvatīvyūha
Eng. The Smaller Sutra on Amitāyus (in The Three Pure Land Sutras,
Revised Second Edition, 2003)

366

Ch. Da banniepan jing (大般涅槃經)
Skt. Mahāparinirvana-sutraEng. The Nirvana Sutra (Volume I, 2013)

374

Ch. Fochuibo niepan lüeshuo jiaojie jing (佛垂般涅槃略説教誡經)Eng. The Bequeathed Teaching Sutra (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

389

Ch. Dizang pusa benyuan jing (地藏菩薩本願經)Skt. *Kṣitigarbhapraṇidhāna-sutra

412

Ch. Banzhou sanmei jing (般舟三昧經)Skt. Pratyutpanna-buddhasammukhāvasthita-samādhi-sutraEng. The Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sutra (1998)

418

Ch. Yaoshi liuli guang rulai benyuan gongde jing(藥師琉璃光如來本願功徳經)Skt. Bhaiṣajyaguru-vaiḍūrya-prabhāsa-pūrvapraṇidhāna-viśeṣavistara
Eng. The Scripture of Master of Medicine, Beryl RadianceTathāgata (2018)

450

Ch. Mile xiasheng chengfo jing (彌勒下生成佛經)Skt. *Maitreyavyākaraṇa
Eng. The Sutra that Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha
and His Enlightenment (2016)

454

Ch. Wenshushili wen jing (文殊師利問經)Skt. *Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā
Eng. The Sutra of Mañjuśrī’s Questions (2016)

468

Ch. Weimojie suoshuo jing (維摩詰所説經)Skt. Vimalakīrtinirdeśa-sutraEng. The Vimalakīrti Sutra (2004)

475

Ch. Yueshangnü jing (月上女經)Skt. Candrottarādārikā-paripṛcchā
Eng. The Sutra of the Girl Candrottarā (2018)

480

Ch. Zuochan sanmei jing (坐禪三昧經)Eng. The Sutra on the Concentration of Sitting Meditation (2009)

614

359

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Ch. Damoduoluo chan jing (達磨多羅禪經)618

Ch. Yuedeng sanmei jing (月燈三昧經)Skt. Samādhirāja-candrapradīpa-sutra

639

Ch. Shoulengyan sanmei jing (首楞嚴三昧經)Skt. Śūraṅgamasamādhi-sutraEng. The Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sutra (1998)

642

Ch. Jinguang ming zuishengwang jing (金光明最勝王經)Skt. Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sutra

665

Ch. Dasheng rulengqie jing (大乘入楞伽經)Skt. Laṅkāvatāra-sutra

672

Ch. Jie shenmi jing (解深密經)Skt. Saṃdhinirmocana-sutraEng. The Scripture on the Explication of Underlying Meaning (2000)

676

Ch. Yulanpen jing (盂蘭盆經)Skt. *Ullambana-sutraEng. The Ullambana Sutra (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

685

Ch. Sishierzhang jing (四十二章經)Eng. The Sutra of Forty-two Sections (in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

784

Ch. Dafangguang yuanjue xiuduoluo liaoyi jing
(大方廣圓覺修多羅了義經)Eng. The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

842

Ch. Da Biluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing848
(大毘盧遮那成佛神變加持經)Skt. Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi-vikurvitādhiṣṭhāna-vaipulyasūtrendrarājanāma-dharmaparyāyaEng. The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sutra (2005)
Ch. Jinggangding yiqie rulai zhenshi she dasheng xianzheng dajiao
wang jing (金剛頂一切如來眞實攝大乘現證大教王經)865
Skt. Sarvatathāgata-tattvasaṃgraha-mahāyānā-bhisamaya-mahākalparāja
Eng. The Adamantine Pinnacle Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)
Ch. Suxidi jieluo jing (蘇悉地羯囉經)
Skt. Susiddhikara-mahātantra-sādhanopāyika-paṭala
Eng. The Susiddhikara Sutra (in Two Esoteric Sutras, 2001)

360

893

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Ch. Modengqie jing (摩登伽經)
Skt. *Mātaṅgī-sutraEng. The Mātaṅga Sutra (in Esoteric Texts, 2015)

1300

Ch. Mohe sengqi lü (摩訶僧祇律)
Skt. *Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya

1425

Ch. Sifen lü (四分律)
Skt. *Dharmaguptaka-vinaya

1428

Ch. Shanjianlü piposha (善見律毘婆沙)
Pāli Samantapāsādikā

1462

Ch. Fanwang jing (梵網經)Skt. *Brahmajāla-sutraEng. The Brahmā’s Net Sutra (2017)

1484

Ch. Youposaijie jing (優婆塞戒經)
Skt. Upāsakaśīla-sutraEng. The Sutra on Upāsaka Precepts (1994)

1488

Ch. Miaofa lianhua jing youbotishe (妙法蓮華經憂波提舍)
1519
Skt. Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-upadeśa
Eng. The Commentary on the Lotus Sutra (in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)
Ch. Shizha biposha lun (十住毘婆沙論)
Skt. *Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā

1521

Ch. Fodijing lun (佛地經論)Skt. *Buddhabhūmisutra-śāstra
Eng. The Interpretation of the Buddha Land (2002)

1530

Ch. Apidamojushe lun (阿毘達磨倶舍論)
Skt. Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya

1558

Ch. Zhonglun (中論)Skt. Madhyamaka-śāstra

1564

Ch. Yüqie shidilun (瑜伽師地論)
Skt. Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra

1579

Ch. Cheng weishi lun (成唯識論)
Eng. Demonstration of Consciousness Only(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999)

1585

361

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Ch. Weishi sanshilun song (唯識三十論頌)Skt. Triṃśikā
Eng. The Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999)

1586

Ch. Weishi ershi lun (唯識二十論)
Skt. ViṃśatikāEng. The Treatise in Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only(in Three Texts on Consciousness Only, 1999)

1590

Ch. She dasheng lun (攝大乘論)
1593
Skt. MahāyānasaṃgrahaEng. The Summary of the Great Vehicle (Revised Second Edition, 2003)
Ch. Bian zhongbian lun (辯中邊論)
Skt. Madhyāntavibhāga

1600

Ch. Dasheng zhuangyanjing lun (大乘莊嚴經論)
Skt. Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra

1604

Ch. Dasheng chengye lun (大乘成業論)
Skt. Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa
Eng. A Mahayana Demonstration on the Theme of Action (in Three
Short Treatises by Vasubandhu, Sengzhao, and Zongmi, 2017)

1609

Ch. Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun (究竟一乘寳性論)
Skt. Ratnagotravibhāga-mahāyānottaratantra-śāstra

1611

Ch. Yinming ruzheng li lun (因明入正理論)
Skt. Nyāyapraveśa

1630

Ch. Dasheng ji pusa xue lun (大乘集菩薩學論)
Skt. Śikṣāsamuccaya

1636

Ch. Jingangzhen lun (金剛針論)
Skt. Vajrasūcī

1642

Ch. Zhang suozhi lun (彰所知論)
Eng. The Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable (2004)

1645

Ch. Putixing jing (菩提行經)Skt. Bodhicaryāvatāra

1662

Ch. Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun(金剛頂瑜伽中發阿耨多羅三藐三菩提心論)
Eng. The Bodhicitta Śāstra (in Esoteric Texts, 2015)

1665

362

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Ch. Dasheng qixin lun (大乘起信論)
Skt. *Mahāyānaśraddhotpāda-śāstra
Eng. The Awakening of Faith (2005)

1666

Ch. Shimoheyan lun (釋摩訶衍論)

1668

Ch. Naxian biqiu jing (那先比丘經)Pāli Milindapañhā

1670

Ch. Banruo boluomiduo xin jing yuzan (般若波羅蜜多心經幽賛)Eng. A Comprehensive Commentary on the Heart Sutra(Prajñāpāramitā-hṛdaya-sutra) (2001)

1710

Ch. Miaofalianhua jing xuanyi (妙法蓮華經玄義)

1716

Ch. Guan wuliangshou fo jing shu (觀無量壽佛經疏)

1753

Ch. Sanlun xuanyi (三論玄義)

1852

Ch. Dasheng xuan lun (大乘玄論)

1853

Ch. Zhao lun (肇論)Eng. Essays of Sengzhao (in Three Short Treatises by Vasubandhu,
Sengzhao, and Zongmi, 2017)

1858

Ch. Huayan yisheng jiaoyi fenqi zhang (華嚴一乘教義分齊章)

1866

Ch. Yuanren lun (原人論)Eng. Treatise on the Origin of Humanity (in Three Short Treatises
by Vasubandhu, Sengzhao, and Zongmi, 2017)

1886

Ch. Mohe zhiguan (摩訶止觀)1911

Ch. Xiuxi zhiguan zuochan fayao (修習止觀坐禪法要)

1915

Ch. Tiantai sijiao yi (天台四教儀)Eng. A Guide to the Tiantai Fourfold Teachings(in Tiantai Lotus Texts, 2013)

1931

Ch. Guoqing bai lu (國清百録)

1934

Ch. Zhenzhou Linji Huizhao chanshi wulu (鎭州臨濟慧照禪師語録)
Eng. The Recorded Sayings of Linji (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)

1985

Ch. Foguo Yuanwu chanshi biyan lu (佛果圜悟禪師碧巖録)
Eng. The Blue Cliff Record (1998)

2003

Ch. Wumen guan (無門關)Eng. Wumen’s Gate (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)

2005

363

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Ch. Liuzu dashi fabao tan jing (六祖大師法寶壇經)Eng. The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch (2000)

2008

Ch. Xinxin ming (信心銘)Eng. The Faith-Mind Maxim (in Three Chan Classics, 1999)2010

Ch. Huangboshan Duanji chanshi chuanxin fayao(黄檗山斷際禪師傳心法要)
Eng. Essentials of the Transmission of Mind (in Zen Texts, 2005)

2012A

Ch. Yongjia Zhengdao ge (永嘉證道歌)2014

Ch. Chixiu Baizhang qinggui (勅修百丈清規)
Eng. The Baizhang Zen Monastic Regulations (2007)

2025

Ch. Yibuzonglun lun (異部宗輪論)
Skt. Samayabhedoparacanacakra
Eng. The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines (2004)

2031

Ch. Ayuwang jing (阿育王經)Skt. AśokāvadānaEng. The Biographical Scripture of King Aśoka (1993)

2043

Ch. Maming pusa zhuan (馬鳴菩薩傳)Eng. The Life of Aśvaghoṣa Bodhisattva(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

2046

Ch. Longshu pusa zhuan (龍樹菩薩傳)Eng. The Life of Nāgārjuna Bodhisattva(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

2047

Ch. Posoupandou fashi zhuan (婆藪槃豆法師傳)
Eng. Biography of Dharma Master Vasubandhu(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

2049

Ch. Datang Daciensi Zanzang fashi zhuan (大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳) 2053
Eng. A Biography of the Tripiṭaka Master of the Great Ci’en
Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty (1995)
Ch. Gaoseng zhuan (高僧傳)2059

Ch. Biqiuni zhuan (比丘尼傳)
Eng. Biographies of Buddhist Nuns
(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

2063

364

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Ch. Gaoseng Faxian zhuan (高僧法顯傳)Eng. The Journey of the Eminent Monk Faxian(in Lives of Great Monks and Nuns, 2002)

2085

Ch. Datang xiyu ji (大唐西域記)
Eng. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions (1996)

2087

Ch. Youfangjichao: Tangdaheshangdongzheng zhuan(遊方記抄: 唐大和上東征傳)

2089-(7)

Ch. Hongming ji (弘明集)Eng. The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcationof Buddhism (Volume I, 2015)
The Collection for the Propagation and Clariﬁcationof Buddhism (Volume II, 2017)

2102

Ch. Fayuan zhulin (法苑珠林)
Eng. A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden (Volume I, 2019)

2122

Ch. Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan (南海寄歸内法傳)
Eng. Buddhist Monastic Traditions of Southern Asia (2000)

2125

Ch. Fanyu zaming (梵語雑名)

2135

Jp. Shōmangyō gisho (勝鬘經義疏)Eng. Prince Shōtoku’s Commentary on the Śrīmālā Sutra (2011)

2185

Jp. Yuimakyō gisho (維摩經義疏)Eng. The Expository Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sutra (2012)

2186

Jp.

Hokke gisho (法華義疏)

2187

Jp.

Hannya shingyō hiken (般若心經秘鍵)

2203

Jp.

Daijō hossō kenjin shō (大乘法相研神章)

2309

Jp.

Kanjin kakumu shō (觀心覺夢鈔)2312

Jp. Risshū kōyō (律宗綱要)
Eng. The Essentials of the Vinaya Tradition (1995)

2348

Jp. Tendai hokke shūgi shū (天台法華宗義集)
Eng. The Collected Teachings of the Tendai Lotus School (1995)

2366

Jp.

Kenkairon (顯戒論)

2376

Jp.

Sange gakushō shiki (山家學生式)

2377

365

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Jp. Hizōhōyaku (秘藏寶鑰)Eng. The Precious Key to the Secret Treasury (in Shingon Texts, 2004)

2426

Jp. Benkenmitsu nikyō ron (辨顯密二教論)
Eng. On the Differences between the Exoteric and Esoteric
Teachings (in Shingon Texts, 2004)

2427

Jp. Sokushin jōbutsu gi (即身成佛義)Eng. The Meaning of Becoming a Buddha in This Very Body
(in Shingon Texts, 2004)

2428

Jp. Shōji jissōgi (聲字實相義)
2429
Eng. The Meanings of Sound, Sign, and Reality (in Shingon Texts, 2004)
Jp. Unjigi (吽字義)Eng. The Meanings of the Word Hūṃ (in Shingon Texts, 2004)

2430

Jp. Gorin kuji myōhimitsu shaku (五輪九字明秘密釋)Eng. The Illuminating Secret Commentary on the Five Cakras
and the Nine Syllables (in Shingon Texts, 2004)

2514

Jp. Mitsugonin hotsuro sange mon (密嚴院發露懺悔文)Eng. The Mitsugonin Confession (in Shingon Texts, 2004)

2527

Jp. Kōzen gokoku ron (興禪護國論)
Eng. A Treatise on Letting Zen Flourish to Protect the State(in Zen Texts, 2005)

2543

Jp. Fukan zazengi (普勧坐禪儀)Eng. A Universal Recommendation for True Zazen(in Zen Texts, 2005)

2580

Jp. Shōbōgenzō (正法眼藏)Eng. Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume I, 2007)
Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume II, 2008)
Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume III, 2008)
Shōbōgenzō: The True Dharma-eye Treasury (Volume IV, 2008)

2582

Jp. Zazen yōjin ki (坐禪用心記)Eng. Advice on the Practice of Zazen (in Zen Texts, 2005)

2586

Jp. Senchaku hongan nenbutsu shū (選擇本願念佛集)
Eng. Senchaku Hongan Nembutsu Shū: A Collection of Passages
on the Nembutsu Chosen in the Original Vow (1997)

2608

366

BDK English Tripiṭaka

Title

Taishō No.

Jp. Kenjōdo shinjitsu kyōgyō shōmon rui (顯淨土眞實教行証文類)
Eng. Kyōgyōshinshō: On Teaching, Practice, Faith, andEnlightenment (2003)

2646

Jp. Tannishō (歎異抄)Eng. Tannishō: Passages Deploring Deviations of Faith (1996)

2661

Jp. Rennyo shōnin ofumi (蓮如上人御文)Eng. Rennyo Shōnin Ofumi: The Letters of Rennyo (1996)

2668

Jp.

2682

Ōjōyōshū (往生要集)

Jp. Risshō ankoku ron (立正安國論)
Eng. Risshōankokuron or The Treatise on the Establishmentof the Orthodox Teaching and the Peace of the Nation(in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)

2688

Jp. Kaimokushō (開目抄)Eng. Kaimokushō or Liberation from Blindness (2000)

2689

Jp. Kanjin honzon shō (觀心本尊抄)
Eng. Kanjinhonzonshō or The Most Venerable One Revealed
by Introspecting Our Minds for the First Time at the
Beginning of the Fifth of the Five Five Hundred-year Ages(in Two Nichiren Texts, 2003)

2692

Ch. Fumu enzhong jing (父母恩重經)
Eng. The Sutra on the Profundity of Filial Love(in Apocryphal Scriptures, 2005)

2887

Jp. Hasshūkōyō (八宗綱要)
Eng. The Essentials of the Eight Traditions (1994)

extracanonicalJp.

extracanonicalSangō shīki (三教指帰)Jp. Mappō tōmyō ki (末法燈明記)
Eng. The Candle of the Latter Dharma (1994)

extracanonicalJp.

extracanonicalJūshichijō kenpō (十七條憲法)367