Threatened birds of Asia

GREATER SPOTTED EAGLE

Aquila clanga
CriticalEndangered
Vulnerable——
C1

There is anecdotal evidence that this species’s small population is declining, at a rate likely to
exceed 10% in three generations, which qualifies it as Vulnerable. It has suffered from extensive
habitat loss and persistent persecution.
DISTRIBUTION The range of the Greater Spotted Eagle (see Remarks 1) is huge. It breeds
from Finland to China and winters from Kenya to Japan. Throughout the twentieth century,
numbers have dwindled and many subpopulations have become extinct, with the result that,
although it remains extremely widespread, its range is now highly fragmented. In this accountattention is focused on the status of the species in the Asian portion of its range.
Outside the Asian region Outside “Asia” as defined here, this raptor occupies a fragmented
range, breeding in Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Belarus, Moldova, Romania,
Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan, and passage or wintering birds occur in small numbers
over a vast area, including central and eastern Europe, northern and eastern Africa, theMiddle East and the Arabian peninsula (Meyburg et al. 1997; also Lõhmus 1998 and Databaseof the Lithuanian Ornithological Society 1999). In northern Afghanistan, a female was shotat Danaghori in May 1937 (Meinertzhagen 1938), and in south-eastern Afghanistan, close to
the Baluchistan (Pakistan) border, it has been found at Kandahar (St. John 1889). Two
specimens were procured from Mishun (Persia) at the end of February 1927 (Capito 1931).
In general the species is uncommon in the arid regions to the west of Pakistan.
Asian region It breeds in eastern Russia and northern mainland China (and apparently
regularly in tiny numbers in Pakistan and north-west India) and it is a passage and/or wintervisitor to Japan, South Korea, mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Pakistan, India, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia,
Singapore and Sumatra in Indonesia.
■ RUSSIA In eastern Russia this is a locally distributed breeding species in the Irkutsk
region, Buryatia, Khabarovsk Territory, Amur region, Jewish Autonomous Region andPrimorye Territory, and is also recorded from Chita region and Yakutia, with a few winteringin Primorye. Records are as follows:■ Krasnoyarsk Ket’ river, western Krasnoyarsk, seen twice within six unspecified years(Moskvitin et al. 1977 in Rogacheva 1992); southern tributaries of the Angara river, found in
subtaiga, undated (Rogacheva 1992); Chuna river basin, rare but regularly seen, undated(Ravkin 1984 in Rogacheva 1992); Kan river, found in subtaiga, undated (Rogacheva 1992);
near the Nizhne-Kitatskiy rapids (Nizhne-Kitat rapids), middle section of the Kazyr river,eastern Sayan mountains, one, 1950s (Kim 1961 in Rogacheva 1992); Minusinsk basin(Minusinsk depression), occasional, but not currently known to breed (Kustov 1981 in
Rogacheva 1992); near Usinskiy (Usinsk), Us depression, immature, June 1982 (Syroechkovski
and Bezborodov 1987 in Rogacheva 1992);■ Irkutsk (where it nests only on the Irkutsk-Cheremkhovo plain, between the Sayan
mountains and the Trans-Siberian railway—but probably also along the Oka, Belaya andKitoy rivers: V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997) upper Lena river, nested in the 1930s (Skalon 1934,
Gagina 1961), possibly still nesting, as it occurs on autumn migration along the south-west
shore of Lake Baikal (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997); Oka river valley, Kuytunskiy district,678

Aquila clanga
immature female collected, August 1959 (Reymers 1966); near Bystraya (Bestraja), Baikal
mountains, September 1913 (female in NHMW); Iya river valley, near Gadaley settlement,
Tulunskiy district, nest with eggs, May 1964 (Sonin and Ryabtsev 1993); lower Unga river (theBratsk reservoir), June 1981, August 1982, August 1983, in an unforested landscape (V. V.
Ryabtsev in litt. 1997); Kuda river, near Irkutsk, June 1981 (Bogorodskiy 1989); near Irkutsk,
September 1927 (specimen in ZMISU), regularly present in Irkut river floodplain in Irkutsk
city limits, summer 1989–1992 (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997), between Irkutsk and Listvyanka,
one seen, June 1988 (J. O’Sullivan in litt. 1999); Irkut river valley, 10 km south-west ofVvedenskoye (Vvedenshchina) village, Shelekhovskiy district, 45 km south-west of Irkutsk,
nest with one chick, July 1990 and single chicks fledged annually, 1990–1992 (V. V. Ryabtsev
in litt. 1997), with nesting on the Irkut river in the 1930s (Skalon 1934, Gagina 1961); lower
Korolok river, Irkutskoye reservoir (Irkutsk reservoir), Angara river, Irkutsk district, 25 km
south-east of Irkutsk, pair frequently seen, May–June 1987–1988, probably nesting until 1991
(V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997), nesting on the Angara river in the 1930s (Skalon 1934, Gagina
1961); Angarsk (“Angara Lesso”), one seen, June 1987 (A. Dean in litt. 1999);■ Buryatia (where it is known to nest in the Tunkinskaya valley in Tunkinskiy district)near Kumora settlement, Severo-Baykal’skiy district, Verkhnyaya Angara river (Uoyan–
Kumora extension of the riverine floodplain), 1–2 seen several times, July 1991, probably
breeding (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997); Barguzinskiy Nature Reserve, Barguzinskiy district,recently fledged juvenile collected, September 1974, probably breeding (Belyaev 1979), thespecies being very rare, but probably nesting, in the Barguzinskaya valley, Barguzinskiy
district (Lyamkin 1977, Elaev et al. 1995); Zabaykal’skiy National Park, Barguzinskiy district,swamps around Arangatuy lake, up to three seen, July 1992, up to two seen, August 1993,
probably breeding (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997); Selenga delta, Kabanskiy district, 2–3 adults
seen annually, 1986–1994, probably breeding (Fefelov 1994), six, June 1991 (G. Ouweneel inlitt. 1999); near Tory settlement, pair seen, August 1991, probably nesting (V. V. Ryabtsev inlitt. 1997); Engarginskoye lake, here presumed to be near to Yengarga, present in the 1930s(Skalon 1936), but not found in August 1991 (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997); Tunka, June 1901
(male in MNHN); 15 km west of Kyren settlement, pair seen, August 1991, probably nesting(V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997); Tokhoy lake, between Ulan-Ude and the Mongolian border,
one seen, June 1991 (G. Ouweneel in litt. 1999);■ Chita Shilka river, near Sretensk, collected, undated (Stegmann 1930); Chikoy river(“Tchikoy river”), collected, April 1896 (Kozlova 1932–1933);■ Yakutia middle reaches of the Tokko river, 20–25 km upstream of its tributary, theTyanya river, central Olekmo-Charskoye (Olekma-Chara) highlands, adult female collected,
September 1963 (Yu. V. Labutin in litt. 1997);■ Khabarovsk near Dudi village, lower Amur, Ul’chskiy district, pair nesting, July 1961
(Kistyakovskiy and Smogorzhevskiy 1973); Simmi river, Bolon’ lake basin, Amurskiy district,c.250 km north-east of Khabarovsk, male collected, June 1959, breeding (Yakhontov 1963);
Katar lake, Amur river, two, May 1991 (G. Ouweneel in litt. 1999); Bol’shekhekhtsirskiy
Nature Reserve, Khabarovskiy district, 30–50 km south-west of Khabarovsk, several records
during the breeding season, undated, probably breeding (Ivanov 1993);■ Amur middle reaches of Khaimkan river, Zeyskiy Nature Reserve, recorded during thebreeding season, undated (Il’yashenko 1986); Khaimkan river valley, breeding season records,
undated (Il’yashenko 1986); Gulik river valley, breeding season records, undated (Il’yashenko
1986); near Kumara, one seen, June, unspecified year (Stegmann 1930); Aleun river mouth,
up to two seen, August, unspecified year (Kostin and Pan’kin 1977); Antonovskoye forest
area, Khinganskiy Nature Reserve, 30 km south of Arkhara settlement, Arkharinskiy district,at least one pair nesting, 1994 and 1995 (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997);■ Jewish Autonomous Region near Bashurovo village, Obluchenskiy district, Amur river,c.170 km upstream of Amurzet village, “apparently a visitor during dispersal” (B. A. Voronov
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in litt. 1998); lower Pompeyevka river (Pompeevka river), Oktyabr’skiy district, c.100 km
upstream of Amurzet, breeding, undated (B. A. Voronov in litt. 1998); Gol’dinskiy island,
Leninskiy district, 20 km upstream of mouth of the Bidzhan river, breeding (B. A. Voronov
in litt. 1998);■ Primorye (where it nests along the valleys of the Ussuri river and the lower reaches of
its tributaries, but present only outside the breeding season on the eastern slopes of the
Sikhote-Alin’ mountains: Shibnev 1989b) lower Bikin river, “very rare” (Shibnev 1989b);
lower and middle Iman river, breeding, eggs and young recorded (Spangenberg 1965);
Russovka settlement, mountains west of Lake Khanka, pair nesting, 1926 (Shul’pin 1936);
Ussuri river, “common” (Maak 1861); Kedrovaya Pad’ Nature Reserve, wintering in small
numbers in and around the reserve (Yu. N. Nazarov in litt. 1998), apparently based on thestatement in Shibnev (1989b) that the species winters in the south of Primorye.
■ MONGOLIA The species is apparently a scarce summer visitor and passage migrant,
presumably breeding in the taiga and/or forest-steppe of northern Mongolia. Records are as
follows: ■ Dzavkhan near Ikh Uul, Tarvagatay mountains, Khangay region, bordered by the
Terkh-gol in the south and the Ideriyn Gol river in the north, seen, July 1994 (Kováts et al.
undated); ■ Arkhangai Ögiy Nuur lake, two juveniles seen, May 1998 (K. Steiof per A.
Bräunlich in litt. 1999); “Khangay region” (not mapped), the Bajan-Ovoo–Jargalant–Khorgo–
Bulgan–Erdenet route, August 1993 (Kováts et al. undated); ■ Bulgan between Hutag-Öndör
(Hutak Undur) and Airkhan Nuur, one adult seen, July 1996 (M. Köpman per A. Bräunlich
in litt. 1999); ■ Tov Khentey mountains (Khentii mountains, Kentai mountains), one collected,
June c.1926, with very worn feathers and therefore unlikely to have bred that year in thevicinity (Kozlova 1932–1933); Bajan Gol valley, near Mandal (western part of Khentey
mountains), adult and juvenile seen, September 1977 (Bankovics et al. 1980); Haraa Gol(Khara river), south-west outskirts of the Khentey mountains, one collected, September 1924
(Kozlova 1932–1933); near Terelja (Tereldsh), one seen, May 1986 (Stephan 1988); 45 km
north of Atar (untraced), one, July 1996 (M. Köpman per A. Bräunlich in litt. 1999);
A record from an unknown province was at “Tumutscheji, northern Mongolia”, of afemale collected in July 1908, originally listed as A. pomarina hastata (Lönnberg 1909), but
apparently referring to this species (P. Sushkin in Kozlova 1932–1933).
■ JAPAN This species is a rare visitor, with records mainly in winter, as follows (by islandand prefecture):
Hokkaido Shiretoko peninsula, 1979 (Morioka et al. 1995);
Honshu ■ Aomori Rokkasho village, June 1975 (Morioka et al. 1995); ■ Miyagi Kahokucho, Monou county, immature female, January 1973 (Morioka et al. 1995); ■ Tokyo unspecified
localities, undated (OSJ 2000); ■ Kanagawa Kurihama coast, Yokosuka city, December 1952
(Morioka et al. 1995); ■ Niigata Echizenhama coast, Maki-cho, Nishikanbara county, juvenile
female, February 1984 (Morioka et al. 1995); ■ Shizuoka unspecified localities, undated (OSJ
2000);
Kyushu ■ Kagoshima Sendai-shi, recorded in three consecutive winters, 1992/1993 to 1994/
1995 (Morioka et al. 1995), at Takae, one seen, winter 1992/1993, adult seen, October–
December 1998 (Birder 99/1, 99/2, 99/3);
Okinawa island, November 1968 (Morioka et al. 1995);
Irabu-jima island, September 1984 (Morioka et al. 1995);
Yonaguni-jima island, November 1987, March 1990, March 1992 (Morioka et al. 1995).
■ KOREA ■ NORTH KOREA There are no confirmed records, but the species possibly(indeed probably) occurs (Tomek 1999).
■ SOUTH KOREA It is a rare winter visitor, with records as follows: ■ Kyonggi andSeoul Pochon (Pochun), female collected, December 1968 (Gore and Won 1971); Imjin River,
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Aquila clanga
Paju city, one found dead (poisoned), February 1997 (Lee Woo-shin in litt. 1997); unspecified
localities, six collected between 1909 and 1934, in January, February, March and December(Austin 1948, Won 1963, Gore and Won 1971), with one obtained in Seoul market presumably
being from this province, December 1924 (immature in YIO); ■ South Kyongsang Maek-to(Maek-do), Kimhae, male collected, December 1963 (Gore and Won 1971); Nakdong estuary,
winter visitor, undated (Woo et al. 1997); ■ South Cholla Haenam, one, February 2000 (N.
Moores in litt. 2000).
■ CHINA ■ MAINLAND CHINA The Greater Spotted Eagle breeds in Heilongjiang, Jilin,
Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang, and is reported to nest in Jiangsu, while outside the breeding
season it is known by scattered records from most of the southern and eastern provinces, as
follows:■ Heilongjiang Wudalianchi city, male collected, June 1937, two males and two females
collected, June–July of an unspecified year (Xu Xueliang in Gao Wei in litt. 1997); Honghe
Nature Reserve, c.20 km north-east of Hong He, four seen, June 1988 (Alström et al. 1988),
one seen, September 1990 (King and Jin Longrong 1992–1993); near Yichun (Ichun), Xiao
Hinggan Ling (Little Chingan) mountains, two collected, July 1956 (Piechocki 1956, Cheng
Tso-hsin 1987); Dailing, one collected, undated (Deppe 1985); Zhalong National Nature
Reserve, Qiqihar city, collected at Qiqihar (Tsitsihar), October 1939 (female in FMNH),
described as a “passage migrant” in a bird list published by the reserve in 1985 (Kennerley1985); near Harbin (Charbin), one collected, October 1924 (Jakowlew 1928, 1929), adultmale and juvenile female collected, September and October in the period 1927–1929 (Meise
1934), October 1936 (female in FMNH), April 1938 (female in CMNH), September 1940
(male in FMNH); Chengchin (untraced), September 1938 (female in FMNH); near Yimianpo(Imjanpo), 140 km south-east of Harbin (Charbin), one seen, undated (Meise 1934);■ Jilin Beidagang, Zhenlai county, 1–2 seen daily, June 1992 (Gao Wei in litt. 1997);
Xianghai National Nature Reserve, immature male collected, May 1992, 3–5 seen daily, May–
July 1992 (Gao Wei in litt. 1997), one seen, May 1994, immature seen, May 1995 (P. Alström,
U. Olsson and D. Zetterström in litt. 2000); Tongyu county (possibly in Xianghai Nature
Reserve), one collected, January 1982 (Liu Mingyu et al. 1988); Changbai Shan, “old records,
but not recorded for at least 20 years” (Zhao Zhengjie 1985);■ Liaoning Wangbaoxiang, Jinzhou city, one collected, November 1985 (Liu Mingyu etal. 1988); Dalian city, female collected, October 1973, male collected, November 1975 (SunShide in Gao Wei in litt. 1997), male and female collected, autumn 1988 (Li Qingwei in Gao
Wei in litt. 1997); Lüshun (Port Arthur), Dalian city, one collected at Laotieshan, October
1914 (N. Kuroda 1918), juvenile female, October 1924, juvenile male, October 1925, female,undated (three specimens in YIO), one collected, September 1973 (Liu Mingyu et al. 1988);■ Inner Mongolia (where it is generally recorded in Hulun Buir, Hinggan and Bayannur
leagues, and Chifeng city: Yang Guisheng and Xing Lianlian 1998) Genhe, Greater Hinggan
mountains, two seen, June 1992 (Lewthwaite 1992); Yiliekede (Irekte), 7 km west of Chingan,
adult female collected, September in the period 1927–1929 (Meise 1934); Bugt (Buchedu),
100 km north-west of Dshalantun, eastern slope of Chingan mountains, adult female andjuvenile male collected, August and October in the period 1927–1929 (Meise 1934); Dalai Hu
National Nature Reserve (Hulun Nur Nature Reserve), male collected, spring 1871
(Przheval’skiy 1877–1878), summer visitor, 1–2 annually in June–September (Wuliji and Liu
Songtao in litt. 1998), June and September 1987 (Xing Lianlian in litt.1997), singles seen at
Hulun Nur and 20 km to the east, August 1990 (King and Jin Longrong 1992–1993); near
marsh at Tumeeji Sum, Jalaid Qi, one seen, April of an unspecified year (Liu Bowen in litt.
1998); Butha Qi (Zalantun, Djalantun), June and September 1939 (two males in FMNH);
Horqin Nature Reserve, 5–6, December 1987–October 1988 (Arongqiqige in litt. 1998), 1–2
seen daily, May 1993 (Gao Wei in litt. 1997);
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■ Xinjiang (where it is resident in the steppes near the Altay Shan and Tien Shan: Yuan
Guoying 1991) Sayram Hu, two adults seen, June 1995 (Hornskov 1995b);■ Tibet Lhasa, two adults seen, March 1987 (Jirle and Kjellen 1987); northern Changdong(Chang Tang), “recorded as a migrant” (Kozlov 1899 in Vaurie 1972);■ Qinghai Xining, two adults seen, March 1987 (Jirle and Kjellen 1987), one seen above
Xining, 2,700 m, April 1988 (Nickel 1988);■ Sichuan Wa Qie, near Songpan, one seen, May 1989 (Alström et al. 1988), subadultseen, May 1991 (Jihmanner and Johansson 1991); Tsao Po, c.25 km south-west of Wenchuan(Wenchwan), 1,520 m, undated (male in AMNH); Jintang county, recorded on migration (LiGuiyuan 1995); Tiao, Kangding county (Tatsienlou), c.1896 (specimen in MNHN); Ya’an
county, recorded on migration (Li Guiyuan 1995); “Golden summit”, Emei Shan, two adults,
March 1987 (Jirle and Kjellen 1987); Longquan mountains (not mapped), 1984–1986 (M.
Rank in litt. 2000);■ Yunnan Gongshan county “and north”, Gaoligongshan region, seen, 1992–1994 (MaShilai et al. 1994); south of Datang, Gaoligongshan region, seen, 1992–1994 (Ma Shilai et al.
1994); Kunming, October 1943 (male in MNHN); Mengzi (“Mengtsu”), January 1911
(specimen in YIO);■ Shanxi Heshun, October 1922 (specimen in UMMZ);■ Hebei Jiao Shan, near Beidaihe, adult seen, September 1994 (Dierschke andHeintzenberg 1994); Qinhuangdao (Chinwangtao), one captured, October 1912, one seen,
October 1913, one probably this species, September 1915 (La Touche 1920–1921); Beidaihe(Pei-tai-ho beach), March 1924 (female in UMMZ), one young male bought from a hawkcatcher, October 1943, eagles possibly of this species seen, November 1943 and October
1944 (twice) (Hemmingsen and Guildal 1968), single migrants seen on four days, April–May
1985 (Williams 1986), one seen, October 1992 (Bradshaw and Rowlands 1992), first-winterseen, November 1993 (J. Bryant per C. Ma in litt. 1998); Shijiutuo (“Happy island”), April
2000 (J. Hornskov in litt. 2000);■ Beijing Xi Shan (Western hills, Western tombs), March 1936, April 1938 (two) (three
specimens in ASCN); Tong Xian county, collected, October 1956, October 1979 (Cai Qikan
in Gao Wei in litt. 1997); Martyrs’ Cemetery, Beijing, “numerous” on passage, late March–early April c.1934, with three collected from a resting flock (which all appeared to be of thisspecies) estimated to total c.200 (Wilder 1934);■ Shandong Hulutou, east bank of Weishan Hu lake (or Nanxihu lake), November 1954
(specimen in ASCN);■ Henan unspecified locality, undated (Cheng Tso-hsin 1987);■ Anhui Tung-liu, common, nineteenth century (Père Heude in La Touche 1925–1934);
unspecified locality, 1922 (specimen in ASCN);■ Jiangsu Yancheng Nature Reserve, Xiangshu, Binghai, Sheyang, Da Feng and Dongtai
counties, breeding resident in the reserve (Wang Hui 1991), two seen, December 1997–January
1998 (Su Hualong et al. 1998); Dafeng Nature Reserve, Dafeng county, one seen, May 1987
(Thouless 1989); near Zhenjiang (Chinkiang), nesting in the hills, nineteenth century (Père
Heude in La Touche 1925–1934), female collected, May 1902, eggs collected, May 1901 and
1902, “in the highest hills in the neighbourhood” (La Touche 1906–1907, specimen in BMNH);■ Shanghai Shanghai, one collected, December 1924, one seen in the Western District of
the city, March 1943 (Sowerby 1943), formerly a winter visitor to the suburbs but not seen inrecent years (Huang Zhengyi et al. 1991);■ Zhejiang Mogan Shan (Mokanshan), undated (Moffett and Gee 1913), not found during
a survey in December 1993 (Zhu Xi and Fan Houde 1995); Jiande county (Kiente Hsien),common, nineteenth century (Père Heude in La Touche 1925–1934); Yunhe county, immature
male collected, undated (Zhuge Yang 1990); Wenzhou city, one collected, undated (Zhuge
Yang 1990);

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Aquila clanga■ Fujian Wuyi Shan Nature Reserve, undated (Wu Haohan and Cai Guangxian 1994);
Nankan, Mazu Dao (Matsu) islands (under the administration of Taipei), one recorded,
1995 (CWBF database); Fuzhou (Foochow), female collected, December 1895, male boughtin the market, December 1911 (two specimens in MCZ), February 1896 (in hills near Fuzhou),November 1897, November 1900 (three specimens in BMNH), December 1934 (specimen in
WUCN);■ Jiangxi Yifeng (not mapped), one Aquila eagle thought to be this species seen, November
1992 (Stevens et al. 1993);■ Guangxi unspecified localities, western Guangxi, undated (Cheng Tso-hsin 1987);■ Guangdong Shantou (Swatow), one collected, March 1887, one seen, spring 1888, twoseen, February 1889 (La Touche 1892), “rare” winter visitor, December–February (Streich1903).
■ HONG KONG The species is a regular winter visitor to: Mai Po and Mong Tsengpeninsula, Inner Deep Bay Area, and the northern New Territories, with 3–6 present each
winter between September and April, from 1958 to the present (Hong Kong Bird Reports
1958–1997).
■ TAIWAN The species is a scarce non-breeding visitor, recorded about 10 times eachyear (Houng Kuang-ying in litt. 1997). Records (for the Mazu Dao islands, refer to Fujian
province above) are from: Laomei, Taipei, one, 1998 (CWBF database); Yangmingshan, Taipei,
two, 1995 (CWBF database); Kuanyin Shan, Taipei county, four seen migrating through,April–May 1993 (Lin 1998), three seen, 1995 (CWBF database); Kuantu, Taipei city, one,
1996 (CWBF database); Kueitzukeng (Kueitzukang), Taipei, one, 1997 (CWBF database);
Chungcheng bridge, Taipei city, three, 1995, four, 1996 (CWBF database); Tienliaoyang,
Taipei, one, 1997, one, 1998 (CWBF database); Shihting (Shiting), Taipei, one seen, 1995
(CWBF database); Kengfang, Toucheng town, Ilan county, one seen, 1995 (CWBF database);
Wulai, Taipei, one, 1996, three, 1997 (CWBF database); Chupei, Hsinchu county, one seen,
1994 (CWBF database); Tahu, Ilan county, one seen, 1994 (CWBF database); Chienshih
township, Hsinchu county, one seen, 1994 (CWBF database); Huayuan village, Hsinchu
county, two, 1998 (CWBF database); Chilan, Tatung township, Ilan county, one, 1996 (CWBF
database); Nanchuang, Miaoli county, one, 1997 (CWBF database); Anma Shan, Taichungcounty, two, 1998 (CWBF database); Hsipao primary school, Hualien county, one, 1997
(CWBF database); Mei Feng (Meifung), Nantou county, one seen, 1986, one seen, 1987
(CWBF database); Funglin, Hualien county, one, 1994 (CWBF database); Hsitou, Nantou
county, one, 1988 (CWBF database); Aoku, Chiayi county, one, 1995, four, 1996 (CWBF
database); Fungshan reservoir, Kaohsiung county, one, 1996 (CWBF database); Chuyun Shan,
Kaohsiung, one, 1997 (CWBF database); Tengchihlai (Tengchi), Kaohsiung, one seen, 1988
(CWBF database); Kangshan district, Kaohsiung (Takau), subadult female collected,
December 1929 (Lin Wen-horn 1997), subadult female, November 1930, juvenile female,
December 1933, one, December 1938 (four specimens in YIO).

■ PAKISTAN The species occurs at widespread localities in small numbers, primarily during
winter, but at least occasionally breeding (Hume 1872–1873, Roberts 1991–1992). While Ali
and Ripley (1968–1998) asserted that breeding occurs in Punjab and Baluchistan, there is no
known record of breeding activity from the former province, while the latter lacks suitablewetlands and is “practically devoid of trees”, and is therefore an unlikely breeding ground(Roberts 1991–1992). Ticehurst (1922–1924) was reluctant to accept the breeding status of
this species in Sind, but conceded that “if Rattray found it nesting in Shikarpore in Sind, I
suppose there is no doubt about it”, and breeding of a few pairs was later confirmed (Eates
1937, Roberts 1991–1992). Records are from: ■ North-West Frontier Province Mardan(Mardan lake), Peshawar district, March 1871 (male in BMNH); Kohat, a pair, 1904–1907(Whitehead 1909, 1910–1911); Lachi reedbed, a pair possibly breeding, April and May,
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between 1904 and 1907 (Whitehead 1909, 1910–1911); Chashma barrage, Dera Ismail Khan,
winter visitor, 1990s (Kylänpäa 1997); Dera Ismail Khan district, 1–4 sightings annually along
the Indus, December–March, 1988–1998 (Kylänpää 2000); ■ Baluchistan (see Remarks 2)
Nushki, May, unspecified year (Murray 1887, Christison 1941); Ormara, January 1902
(specimen in BNHS), also apparently in October, unspecified year ([J. W. N. or W. D.]
Cumming in Ticehurst 1926–1927); Siriab (untraced), March, unspecified year (Ticehurst
1926–1927); ■ Sind unspecified localities in every district (Hume 1872–1873, Eates 1937);
Ghauspur (Ghauspur jheel), eight, February 1972 (Koning and Walmsley 1972); near
Shikarpur (Sikharpur, Shikarpore), December 1871 (Hume 1872–1873, female in BMNH),
apparently breeding, March, year unspecified (Baker 1922–1930); Rohri, undated (Brooks
1879); near Mir Kosh, about 10 km from the Indus river in Sukkur district, on the Mahie
canal, pair breeding, March 1931 (Eates 1937), and in the same district near Bogar (Bhagar)
lake (dhand), 8 km west of Sukkur, pair, December 1933 (Eates 1937); Qambar, January
1872 (Hume 1872–1873); Drigh Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, undated (Scott 1989); Larkana,
January 1871 (male in BMNH); Mehar (Mado Mehur), January 1872 (two specimens in
BMNH), this probably being the Mahar valley where breeding was recorded, apparently in
April 1892 (BMNH egg data); near Sehwan, breeding, February 1872 (BMNH egg data);
Manchar lake, “common”, undated (Ali 1928); Sadori lake, undated (Scott 1989); unspecified
locality in Sanghar district, 1938 and 1939 (Roberts 1991–1992); Kotri, 1–2, November 1967
(Mountfort and Poore 1968); Khinjar lake, Thatta district, February 1934 (specimens in
UMMZ); Haleji lake, up to 25 in February 1988, falling to 10 in March 1988 (Hirschfeld etal. 1988); Karachi harbour, one, February 1988 (Hirschfeld et al. 1988); Phoosani lake, Badin
district, February 1972 (Koning and Walmsley 1972); unspecified localities in Sujawal district,breeding, 1930s (Eates 1937, Roberts 1991–1992); c.15 km south of Mirpur Sakro, Thatta
district, breeding, December–January 1984 (Roberts 1991–1992); Indus delta, several birds
overwintering in mangroves of the region, 1980s (Roberts 1991–1992); Mahboub Shah lake,
pair displaying, November, unspecified year (Roberts 1991–1992); Jati, end of November
1963 (Holmes and Wright 1968–1969); Jhelani (untraced), undated (BMNH egg data); Kasim
Wala (untraced), one, October 1966 (Mountfort and Poore 1968); ■ Punjab Islamabad,undated, but presumably in the 1990s (Jackson and Pyhälä 1997); Rawalpindi, April 1926
(male in BMNH); Wazirabad, Gujranwala district, undated (Donald 1918–1921); Keshapur,
here presumed to be Keshopur, February–March 1931 (four specimens in AMNH, FMNH,
MCZ); Gujranwala, undated (Abdulali 1968–1996); Edullwalla, Montgomery district (nowSahiwal district), December 1869 (specimen in BMNH); Lal Suhanra National Park, at Patisarlake (Lal Suhanra), unspecified year (Scott 1989); Jajjah-Abbasian, Bahawalpur, several,
March 1939 (Ali 1941).
■ INDIA The species winters widely in India, especially in northern states but straggling
down to the Palk straits adjacent to Sri Lanka. The species’s breeding status in the country
remains somewhat unclear (see Remarks 3). Historical reports of breeding mentioned below
come from a few broadly scattered sites with no obvious pattern; their authenticity is difficult
to judge (see Remarks 3) but some are doubtless correct. There is only one reliable recent
report of breeding, in Rajasthan (Prakash 1988), the general impression being that it is a“rare and very local breeder” (Grimmett et al. 1998) or that “a few pairs may breed” (Khacher
1995). Records are from:■ Jammu and Kashmir unspecified locality, undated (specimen in AMNH); Bhadarwah(Badarwa), around 1907 (Ward 1906–1908);■ Himachal Pradesh near Katrain (Katraian), Kulu, undated (Whistler 1926b);■ Punjab Gurdaspur district, June 1879 (male in BMNH), “by no means rare” around1915 (Donald 1918–1921), at Gurdaspur lakes, “common”, 1931 (Koelz 1940); Harike Lake
Wildlife Sanctuary, 1981 (Ali et al. 1981), regular, undated (Scott 1989), December 1998
684

Aquila clanga(Ballard et al. 1999); Baggewala, here presumed to be Baghwali, Firozpur district, December
1934 (specimen in BMNH);■ Haryana Ambala, undated (five specimens in MCZ); Parwali lake, Sirsa district, 1933
(Koelz 1940, three specimens in UMMZ); Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary, more than 10 seen,
February 1996 (P. Alström, U. Olsson and D. Zetterström in litt. 2000); Sultanpur National
Park, two, December 1983 (G. Ouweneel in litt. 1999), one, December 1986 (P. Bradbeer inlitt. 1999), one, December 1988 (H. Hendriks in litt. 1999), one, December 1990 (Adriaensen
et al. 1991), “a few”, December 1997 (A. Holcombe in litt. 1999);■ Delhi Delhi, one, February 1983 (A. Dean in litt. 1999); Okhla, February 1990 (Hough
1990), and at this site or nearby on the Yamuna (Jumna) river, 10 seen, January 1992 (P.
Alström, U. Olsson and D. Zetterström in litt. 2000);■ Rajasthan Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary (Tiger Reserve), at Kankwari, one, November
1989 and at Kalighati, one, November 1991 (Sankar et al. 1993); Keoladeo National Park,
Bharatpur, undated (Abdulali 1968–1996), March 1937 (specimen in BMNH), December
1970/January 1971 (Aarestrup et al. 1971), 20, January 1983 (Bult 1983), two, December
1984/January 1985 (Andersen et al. 1986), 30, December 1985 (Naoroji 1990), nesting(unsuccessfully) in 1986 (Prakash 1988), two, February 1988 (J.-C. Kovacs in litt. 1998), 13,
February 1989 (van Groen 1989), “common”, December 1990 (Adriaensen et al. 1991), 35
sightings, February 1995 (P. Alström, U. Olsson and D. Zetterström in litt. 2000), up to 14,
March–June 1996 (D. Dann in litt. 1999), 10, February 1997 (M. Narcy in litt. 1999), up to
30 daily, January 1998 (G. Ouweneel in litt. 1999); Ban Baretta (Bund Baretha), one, March
1997 (P. J. Hines in litt. 1999); in the Jaisalmer area, 1986 (Anon. 1986g), and again in
December 1998 (Ballard et al. 1999); Jodhpur, undated (Hume and Oates 1889–1890); Pichiak
lake, Bilara district, Jodhpur, January 1934 (female in BMNH, Whistler 1938); Ranthambhore
National Park, undated (Cocker 1985), February 1987 (Turin et al. 1987); Ummedganj, Kota,
December 1986 (Kumar 1993);■ Gujarat (see Remarks 3) Hathidhara, Palanpur, male and female, January 1946 (Ali
1954–1955), and at other localities between Deesa (Disa) and Ahmedabad, “not uncommon”,
undated (Brooks 1875b); Pariej, Kaira district, December 1945 (specimen in BNHS, Ali
1954–1955); Nalsarovar (Nalsarovar Sanctuary), one, January 1987 (G. Ouweneel in litt.
1999); Jamnagar, one, January 1987 (G. Ouweneel in litt. 1999);■ Uttar Pradesh Asan barrage, one, January 1994 (Singh 2000), although given as October
1994 by Gandhi and Singh (1995a,b); Dehra Dun, 850 m, October 1936 (male in MCZ); Rajaji
National Park, 1986–1994 (Pandey et al. 1994); Saharanpur, breeding along the Eastern Jumna
canal, June 1867 (BMNH egg data; also Brooks 1879, Hume and Oates 1889–1890); Corbett
National Park, four, January 1983 (G. Ouweneel in litt. 1999), at least two, March 1988 (J.-C.
Kovacs in litt. 1998), one seen, January 1992 (P. Alström, U. Olsson and D. Zetterström in litt.
2000) and Dhikala to Ramnagar, one, December 1990 (Adriaensen et al. 1991); Bijnor, early
1990s (Pasha 1995); Naini Tal, one, February 1983 (A. Dean in litt. 1999), one, February or
March 1987 (Turin et al. 1987); Dudwa National Park, recorded (Scott 1989, Samant et al.
1995, Javed and Rahmani 1998), at Bankey taal, undated (Singh and Singh 1985); Rohilkhand(Rohilkund), pre-1885 (specimen in BMNH); Narora reservoir, Bulandshahr district, frequent,
1980s (Rahmani 1989f); Aligarh, pre-1885 (female in BMNH); “Poniguon”, Mathura (Muttra),November 1892 (female in BMNH); Fategarh (see Remarks 4), February 1871 (male in BMNH),
March 1873 (female in BMNH), January 1876 (two females in BMNH), and at “Gangsee”,
February 1877 (female in OUMNH); at Kitham lake near Agra, one, February 1980 (G. M. B.
Sparks in litt. 2000); 10 km north of Fatehpur (Fategarh), Bara Banki district, one, December
1978 (Bowden 1979); Gonda, pre-1881 (specimen in MNHN), pre-1900 (immature in BMNH);
Rahimabad, Lucknow division, pre-1881 (Reid 1887); Lucknow (and unspecified localities in
Avadh [=Oudh]), “occasionally found”, 1857–1860 (Irby 1861), pre-1880 (specimen in MNHN),
December 1873 and January 1874 (two males in BMNH); Nawabganj Priyadarshani Sanctuary,685

Threatened birds of Asia
undated (Scott 1989, S. Javed in litt. 1999); Etawah, evidently once very common, with records
from November 1865 (specimen in BMNH), February 1867 (four specimens in BMNH),
February and November 1868 (two females in MCML), February 1869 (three specimens in
BMNH, MCML), 1869 (specimen in BMNH), April 1870 (female in BMNH), January–
March 1871 (six specimens in BMNH), November and December 1871 (two males in BMNH),
January 1872 (three specimens in BMNH), February and March 1872 (two specimens in
BMNH), at Loyah, January 1873 (male in BMNH), January 1876 (female in BMNH), andRahun (Rahan), Etawah district, February 1867 (three specimens in BMNH), March 1868
(male in BMNH), November 1868 (male and female in MCML), February 1870 (male in
BMNH); Jheenjuck jheel, Etawah/Mainpur districts, February 1869 (female in BMNH),
January 1870 (female in BMNH), January and February 1872 (two specimens in BMNH), a
male with enlarged testes, June 1872 (female in BMNH), January 1876 (male in BMNH),
June 1876 (male in NHMW); Kanpur, undated (Grey and Hardwicke 1830–1835); Mainpur(Mainpuri), February 1867 (female in BMNH), March 1871 (male in BMNH), January 1872
(female in BMNH), breeding, April 1867 (BMNH egg data), and at Mainpur canal, January
1872 (male in BMNH); Allahabad, December 1874 (specimen in BMNH); Sukuldeak, Varanasi
district, November 1874 (female in BMNH), December 1874 (male in BMNH); Mughal Sarai(“Mogul Serai”), Bourei jheel, December 1874, pre-1885 (three females in BMNH); Patna
Sanctuary (untraced), recently recorded (Javed et al. 2000);■ Madhya Pradesh Dihaila jheel, Karera Bustard Sanctuary, two, March 1986 (Rahmani
1987c); Bandhavgarh National Park, one seen, March 1994 (P. Alström, U. Olsson and D.
Zetterström in litt. 2000); Sehore, 1908–1910 (Whitehead 1910–1911); Depalpur, Dhar district,January 1882 (specimen in BMNH); Seoni, 1874 (five specimens in BMNH); Raipur, 1871
(male in BMNH), February 1872 (female in BMNH), January and February 1873 (two males
in BMNH), breeding in April 1874 (BMNH egg data), pre-1880 (male in RMNH), pre-1885(female in BMNH);■ Maharashtra (see Remarks 3) Beale lake, Nashik (Nasik) district, December 1949
(Abdulali 1968–1996); Ghoti, Nashik district, December 1957 (female in BNHS, Abdulali
1968–1996); Borivli National Park, Salsette island, one, January 1987 (G. Ouweneel in litt.
1999); Bombay (= Mumbai), January 1939 (male in FMNH); Ekruk (Ekroot) tank, recorded(and believed, presumably erroneously, to breed), undated (Davidson and Wenden 1878),with a “spotted eagle” (presumably this species) visiting Pashan lake near Pune, in winter1986–1987 (Bradbeer 1987);■ Goa larger wetlands in the coastal region (Lainer 1999), including Chorao island, one,
December 1996 (Holt 1997); Ciba Geigy, one, March 1997 (Djerf 1997) and the nearby
Cumbarjua canal, three, February 1997 (Oriental Bird Club Bull. 26 [1997]: 60–66); Carambolinlake, one, January 1996, 1–2 on four dates, December 1996 (Holt 1997); Santa Cruz, one,
December 1996 (Holt 1997);■ Karnataka Londa, one, January–March 1938 (Koelz 1942; also Ali and Ripley 1968–
1998); Kogilu tank (Kogila), near Bangalore, 1–2 in January 1990 (George 1994, Santharam
1999b), and also at Chikkasanne tank, Bangalore district, January 1990 (George 1994);
Rangananthittoo Wildlife Sanctuary, February 1995 (Holt 1995); Lingambudhi lake, on theoutskirts of Mysore, an occasional visitor, undated (Thejaswi et al. 2000); Nagarhole–
Masinagudi, February 1995 (Holt 1995);■ Andhra Pradesh unspecified localities, with fewer than 20 records for the state before
1989 (Taher and Pittie 1989) (very few traced here); Patancheru, Medak district, two, 1998
(Pittie 1998); Secunderabad, 1887 (specimen in BMNH); Pulicat lake, one, January 1998
(Anon. 1998); Mahavir Harin Vanasthali (untraced), undated (Anon. 1988c);■ Kerala Periyar Sanctuary, uncommon, undated (Srivastava et al. 1995);■ Tamil Nadu Madras (= Chennai), two pre-1880 specimens (in BMNH), one possibly
taken in September 1824 (specimen in BMNH); Guindy (Juindy) National Park, January
686

Aquila clanga
1982, November 1982 and March 1990 (Santharam 1999b); Vedanthangal Sanctuary, one in
March 1985 (Santharam 1999b), one in November 1995 (Chandrasekhar 1996), two in
February 1996 (Santharam 1999b); Kaliveli tank, three, winter 1986–1987 (Perennou 1989a),
January and October 1988 (Santharam 1999b); Manali, North Chennai, one, January 1983
(Santharam 1999b); Madura district, lowlands, November–April (one record in July), 1930s(Nichols 1943–1945); Rameswaram island, three sightings, February, July and August, 1929–
1931 (Biddulph 1938), although the summer records seem unlikely;■ Bihar Darbhanga district, December 1907 (male in AMNH); “Rajputtee”, Chupra(Chhapra), Saran district, February 1897 (Abdulali 1968–1996); beside the Ganges between
Bhagalpur and Sultanganj, two seen in February 1999 (A. Mishra in litt. 2000); Topchanchi
lake, one, March 1968 (Gauntlett 1986);■ Orissa Sambalpur, undated (Ball 1878), and elsewhere in Sambalpur district at Rampur,
February 1870 (male in BMNH), and “Bharnu” (illegible), January 1872 (female in BMNH);
Sohillan, here presumed to be Sohela, December 1871 (male in BMNH); Sonapur district,January 1874 (Ball 1878); Bauda (= Boad, Boadzan), January 1872 (two females in BMNH;
also Ball 1878);■ West Bengal (see Remarks 3) Darjeeling, pre-1873 (two specimens in BMNH); Ajay
(Ajoy) river, on the Panagarh–Ilam Bazar road, one, January 1968 (Gauntlett 1986); 13 km
west-north-west of Panagarh, at the DVC Experimental Farm, one, February 1969 (Gauntlett
1986); Barrackpur, January 1866 (specimen in MNHN), and generally fairly common in this
district in winter, undated (Munn 1894); Salt lakes, undated (Anon 1969b);■ Assam (see Remarks 5) Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, many sightings, apparently
resident, 1992–1994 (Choudhury 1995b, 2000c), listed (Sarmah 1996), singles on threeoccasions, February 1998 (Hornbuckle 1998a); Samukjan–Boloma, Panidihing Sanctuary,one, November 1987 (Choudhury 1991); Phokolai beel, one, November 1987 (Choudhury1991); Manas National Park, 1987 (Rahmani et al. 1988; also Anon. 1990b); in Sibsagar
district, one at Doboli chapori, and two at Saragua, December 1987 (Choudhury 1991);
Kaziranga National Park, up to 10, February 1994 (Alström et al. 1994c), one, December
1994 (Martins 1994), 3–4, late March 1996 (K. Kazmierczak in litt. 1998), one, March 1998
(Hornbuckle 1998a), at Sohala jheel, about six, March 1995 (Bishop 1995); Chakrashila
Wildlife Sanctuary, at Dhakra beel, one, undated (Barua 1995a), December 1997–November
1998 (Oriental Bird Club Bull. 32 [2000]: 12); Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, one, November
1997 (Choudhury 2000c), two, February 1998 (Hornbuckle 1998a); Deepor beel, one, February
1994 (Alström et al. 1994c), one January 1996 (Choudhury 2000c); Palasbari, Kamrup
district, November–December 1949 (male and female in UMMZ); Bakri haor, Hailakandi
district, 2–3, October 1989 (Choudhury 2000c); Bordoibam-Bilmukh Sanctuary, one, March
1990 (Choudhury 2000c); Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuary, at Chenimari beel, one, January
1998 (Choudhury 2000c); Darrang district (not mapped), between Kurua and Singri,
three, December 1998 (Choudhury 2000c); Lakhimpur district (not mapped), at Orne chapori,near Matmora, singles in February and November 1990, and at Andharu beel, one, March
1991 (Choudhury 2000c); Orang National Park (not mapped), one, April 1996 (Choudhury
2000c);■ Meghalaya near Shillong, one, February 1998 (Hornbuckle 1998a);■ Manipur Logtak lake, undated (Hume 1888), this record presumably resulting in theeight specimens (in BMNH) labelled “Manipur”, March 1881.
■ NEPAL The species winters in small numbers in lower-lying areas and fairly large numbers
pass through on migration. Breeding is suggested by Ali and Ripley (1968–1998), although
there is no evidence to support this (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). Records are from: Pangsang
pass, 3,850 m, one, October 1980 (Madge and Appleby 1980); Kalopani, upper Kali Gandaki
valley, one, January 1993 (Fourage 1993); Tukche, upper Kali Gandaki valley, one, September
687

Threatened birds of Asia
1973 (Beaman 1973), 2,500 m, adult, February 1983 (Nickel and Trost 1983); Dhangarhi, one
female, January, late 1940s (Rand and Fleming 1957); Hille (Hile), one, January 1989, 2,200 m(Wahlstrom 1989); Birethante, 1,095 m, one, December 1977 (Inskipp and Inskipp 1977); northof Yamdi Khola, north-west of Pokhara, 11, October 1986 (Inskipp and Inskipp 1986a); Pokhara
valley, November 1976, 1977 (Fleming et al. 1984), adult, March 1983 (Nickel and Trost 1983)
and between Latchok and Armala, just north-west of Pokhara, c.40, November 1995 (M.
Rooney in litt. 1999); Chandrakot, 1,550 m, one, December 1982 (Dawson 1983); Naudanda
ridge, one, March 1981 (Mills and Preston 1981); Sheopuri (Shivapuri), Kathmandu valley,
one, November 1993 (Eaden 1993); Gokarna, two, October 1979 (Woodcock 1979); Naubisse,
one, February 1987 (J.-C. Kovacs in litt. 1998); Butwal, one, January 1992 (Mills and Baral
1992); Kathmandu valley, at unspecified localities in Kathmandu valley, undated (Hodgson
1844), one, January 1974 (Madge et al. 1974), one, February 1988 (Smith 1988), and specificallyat Kathmandu, one, January 1988 (Harvey 1988), juvenile at Botnath temple, December 1990
(H. Hendriks in litt. 1999) and Chobar (Chobhar) gorge, three, November 1993 (Eaden 1993),
along Bagmati river, one, January 1996 (Bird Conservation Nepal Newsletter 4, 4 [1996]: 2–3),
also in Nepal valley (= Kathmandu valley), January–February, 1950–1955 (Proud 1955; also
Biswas 1960–1966; see Remarks 3 under Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca); Godavari, one, March
1982 (Nordin and Wallander 1982); Royal Chitwan National Park, undated (Gurung 1983),
one, March 1983 (Madge 1983), one, April 1983 (Alström and Olsson 1983), one, March 1998
(H. Hendriks in litt. 1999), at Sauraha, one, February 1982 (Bensch 1982), one, January 1981(del Nevo and Ewins 1981), at Meghauli, one, February 1983 (Holmstrom 1983), one, March
1986 (S. C. Madge 1986); Lumbini, one, December 1993 (Eaden 1993); Hetauda (Hetauda),
one, March 1986 (Dijmond 1986); between Simara (Simra) and Parwani Prass (Parwanipur),one, January 1981 (Hamon 1981); Ragunthanpur, one, January, late 1940s (Rand and Fleming1957); Ilam, one, March 1989 (McKnight et al. 1989); Hans Pokhari (as “Hans Pokhari Danda”),
one, April 1981 (Mills and Preston 1981); north of Sunsari (Sunischare), undated (Inskipp andInskipp 1991); Mai valley, undated (Halliday and McKnight 1990); Kosi barrage, single birds,
February 1974 (Madge et al. 1974), February 1981 (Porter et al. 1981), March 1982 (Turton
and Speight 1982), December 1984 (Andersen et al. 1986), January 1985 (Calladine 1985),
February 1986 (S. C. Madge 1986), March 1987 (Turin et al. 1987, Stones 1987), one, February
1988 (J.-C. Kovacs in litt. 1998), and three individuals in April 1983 (Alström and Olsson
1983); c.18 km north of Biratnagar, November 1957 (male in FMNH); Bees Hazari Tal (notmapped), undated (H. S. Baral in litt. 1997).
■ BHUTAN This raptor is a rare passage migrant through the country (Inskipp et al. 1999a),with records as follows: Punakha valley, at least four, March 1995 (Bishop 1999a); Pele La,
one, November 1994 (R. P. Martins in litt. 1994); Tongsa, nine adults and one immature
flying north, February 1994, adult, March 1996 (Bishop 1999a); Chendibji Chorten, one,
March 1995 (Bishop 1999a); Paro valley, one, March 1998 (Bishop 1998), although not in
Bishop (1999a); Phuntsholing, in the Torsa valley, at least four adults soaring north, March
1994 (Bishop 1994, 1999a), adult, February 1995 (Holt 1995).
■ BANGLADESH The species has been listed as a (potential) winter visitor throughout thecountry (Rashid 1967; but see Remarks 2 under Manipur Bush-quail Perdicula manipurensis).
Confirmed records are very few: Sunamganj district, in particular at Tangua haor and Pashua
haor, regular winter visitor in small numbers in the 1990s (P. M. Thompson in litt. 2000);
Mymensingh, one, October 1994 (S. J. M. Blaber in litt. 1999); Hail haor, winter visitor, small
numbers, 1990s (Thompson and Johnson 1996); from Dhaka (Dacca) to Sylhet, large numbersof eagles including this species, undated (Simson 1882); Noakhali coast, on islands offshore,
one or two recorded on January waterfowl counts in most years during the 1990s (P. M.
Thompson in litt. 2000); Nalianala, Sundarbans, one, March 1981 (Sarker 1986b, Sarker andSarker 1985a).
688

Aquila clanga■ MYANMAR The evidence available indicates that the species is a winter visitor and passage
migrant to northern and central regions (see Remarks 6), with records as follows: Shwebo
district, eight records, October–March, 1930–1934 (Roseveare 1949); Mongnai, Shan state(“Southern Shan States”), at least one collected, no details given (Bingham and Thompson
1900); Inle lake, several records, including February 1973 (King 1983, Smythies 1986); Paunglin
lake, Minbu district, several, January 1930 (Smith 1942), one, December 1935 (Roseveare
1952); Wan Hat, “cis-Salween, Mawkmai”, Southern Shan States, January 1901 (Bingham
1903, specimen in BMNH); Thayetmyo, pre-1887 (specimen in BMNH), several, undated(Smythies 1986), and listed for “Upper Pegu” (northern Pegu state [=Bago]) by Hume (1875a),a region which at that time included Thayetmyo; Arakan, several, 1943–1945 (Christison etal. 1946); head of the Pegu–Sittang canal, where it meets the Sittang river (i.e. at Myitkyo),
three shot, undated (Oates 1883), these presumably including two E. W. Oates specimens (inBMNH) labelled “Pegu” (taken in March 1875 and pre-1882); Mohingyi Wetland Sanctuary,
one immature, December 1994 (Oriental Bird Club Bull. 21 [1995]: 68–73), December 1996,
January 1998, January 1999, adult and juvenile seen, February 2000, one, February 2001
(SC); Kyagan Kwinbauk Reserve Forest, one, November–December 1982 (Salter 1982) near
Bagan (not mapped), by the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) river, one, February 2001 (SC); Taung
Kan lake (not mapped), Madaya township, three, February 2001 (SC).
■ THAILAND The species occurs primarily in the lower central plains (Pathumthani,
Ayutthaya, Suphanburi, Nakhon Pathom, Chacheongsao, Samut Prakan, Samut Sakhon
and Samut Songkhram provinces, and parts of Chon Buri, Nakhon Nayok, Saraburi,
Prachinburi and Suphanburi provinces), north and central Thailand, south to Setul, close to
the border with Malaysia. Records from most of the country involve winter visitors andpassage migrants, while those from the southern peninsula are probably entirely the latter(P. D. Round in litt. 1998). Deignan (1963) listed the species for the provinces of Chiang
Mai, Nakhon Sawan and Prachuap Khirikhan as well as the Bangkok region. Records are as
follows: Chiang Mai, one, December 1928 (Meyer de Schauensee 1929); Doi Inthanon National
Park, one at Mae Jaem Watershed Station, October 1999 (Bird Conserv. Soc. Thailand Bull.
17, 1 [2000]: 14); Nong Han Kumphawapi, two overwintering, February 1989 (Bangkok Bird
Club Bull. 6, 4 [1989]: 11–12); Yom river, between Sukkothai and Phitsanulok, an occasional
visitor (Scott 1989); Umphang, three together, possibly migrating, September 1988 (D. Oglein litt. 1988), and apparently “very common” at the site in October 1989 (D. Ogle in litt.
1989); Bung Boraphet, one, October 1981 (P. D. Round in litt. 1998), one, October 1982
(P. D. Round in litt. 1998); Nakhon Sawan (Paknampo), junction of Mae Ping and Mae
Nam, January 1924 (female in BMNH); Ban Lung Jorm, Ban Thasadet, Suphan Buri province,
two, November 1990 (Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 8, 1 [1991]: 11–12); Pathumthani bridge, one
immature, November 1988 (Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 4, 12 [1988]: 10–11); Rangsit, one,
December 1988 (Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 5, 1 [1988]: 10); Kamphaeng Saen, Nakhon Pathom,
one first-winter bird at Kasetsart University campus, January 1993 (Bangkok Bird Club Bull.
10, 4 [1993]: 11); Bangkok, November and December 1917 (Williamson 1918), November
1919 (female in BMNH), and at Klong Pho Khao (Klong Pho Tao), near Bangkok, February
1916 (Williamson 1918); Phanom Sarakham, Chachoengsao, one first-year, January 1996
(Bird Conserv. Soc. Thailand Bull. 13, 4 [1996]: 14–15); Inner Gulf of Thailand, between
Samut Sakhon and Samut Songkhram, small passage noted in most years, late October–early November (P. D. Round in litt. 1998); Wat Phai Lom, one, December 1982 (E. Mølgaard
in litt. 1982); Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, 1–3 (usually juveniles/first-years) wintering
annually around the Thung Sam Roi Yot freshwater marsh, also up to five on migration in
November 1989 (Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 6, 4 [1989]: 11–12, Bangkok Bird Club Bull. 6, 12[1989]: 11–12, J. A. Wolstencroft per P. D. Round in litt. 1998), 1995 (Bird Conserv. Soc.
Thailand Bull. 12, 1 [1996]: 12); Prachuap Khirikhan (= Koh Lak), adult female, November689

Threatened birds of Asia

The distribution of Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga (map opposite): (1) Ket’ river; (2) Angara river;(3) Chuna river; (4) Kan river; (5) Nizhne-Kitatskiy rapids; (6) Minusinsk Basin; (7) Usinskiy; (8) Lena river; (9) Oka
river; (10) Bystraya; (11) Gadaley; (12) Unga river; (13) Kuda river; (14) Irkutsk; (15) Vvedenskoye; (16) Irkutskoye
reservoir; (17) Angarsk; (18) Kumora; (19) Barguzinskiy Nature Reserve; (20) Arangatuy lake; (21) Selengadelta; (22) Tory; (23) Yengarga; (24) Tunka; (25) Kyren; (26) Tokhoy lake; (27) Sretensk; (28) Chikoy river;(29) Tyanya river; (30) Dudi; (31) Simmi river; (32) Katar lake; (33) Bol’shekhekhtsirskiy Nature Reserve;(34) Zeyskiy Nature Reserve; (35) Khaimkan river; (36) Gulik river; (37) Kumara; (38) Aleun river mouth;(39) Khinganskiy Nature Reserve; (40) Bashurovo village; (41) lower Pompeyevka river; (42) Bidzhan river;(43) Bikin river; (44) Iman river; (45) Russovka; (46) Ussuri river; (47) Kedrovaya Pad’ Nature Reserve; (48) Ikh
Uul; (49) Ögiy Nuur; (50) Hutag-Öndör; (51) Khentey mountains; (52) Mandal; (53) Haraa Gol; (54) Terelja;(55) Shiretoko peninsula; (56) Rokkasho; (57) Kahoku-cho; (58) unspecified localities; (59) Kurihama;(60) Echizenhama; (61) Shizuoka; (62) Sendai-shi; (63) Okinawa island; (64) Irabu-jima; (65) Yonaguni-jima;(66) Pochon; (67) Paju city; (68) Maek-to; (69) Nakdong estuary; (70) Haenam; (71) Wudalianchi city; (72) Honghe
Nature Reserve; (73) Yichun; (74) Dailing; (75) Zhalong National Nature Reserve; (76) Harbin; (77) Yimianpo;(78) Zhenlai county; (79) Xianghai National Nature Reserve; (80) Tongyu county; (81) Changbai Shan;(82) Jinzhou city; (83) Dalian city; (84) Lüshun; (85) Genhe; (86) Yiliekede; (87) Bugt; (88) Dalai Hu National
Nature Reserve; (89) Butha Qi; (90) Jalaid Qi; (91) Horqin Nature Reserve; (92) Sayram Hu; (93) Lhasa;(94) Changdong; (95) Xining; (96) Songpan; (97) Wenchuan; (98) Jintang county; (99) Kangding county;(100) Ya’an county; (101) Emei Shan; (102) Gongshan county; (103) Datang; (104) Kunming; (105) Mengzi;(106) Heshun; (107) Jiao Shan; (108) Qinhuangdao; (109) Beidaihe; (110) Shijiutuo; (111) Xi Shan; (112) Tong
Xian county; (113) Beijing; (114) Weishan Hu; (115) Henan; (116) Tung-liu; (117) Yancheng Nature Reserve;(118) Dafeng Nature Reserve; (119) Zhenjiang; (120) Shanghai; (121) Mogan Shan; (122) Jiande county;(123) Yunhe county; (124) Wenzhou city; (125) Wuyi Shan Nature Reserve; (126) Mazu Dao; (127) Fuzhou;(128) Guangxi; (129) Shantou; (130) Mai Po; (131) Mong Tseng; (132) New Territories; (133) Laomei;(134) Yangmingshan; (135) Kuanyin Shan; (136) Kuantu; (137) Kueitzukeng; (138) Chungcheng Bridge;(139) Tienliaoyang; (140) Shihting; (141) Kengfang; (142) Wulai; (143) Chupei; (144) Tahu; (145) Chienshih;(146) Huayuan; (147) Chilan; (148) Nanchuang; (149) Anma Shan; (150) Hsipao; (151) Mei Feng; (152) Hualiencounty; (153) Hsitou; (154) Aoku; (155) Kaohsiung county; (156) Chuyun Shan; (157) Tengchihlai; (158) Kangshan
district; (159) Mardan; (160) Kohat; (161) Lachi; (162) Chashma barrage; (163) Dera Ismail Khan district;(164) Nushki; (165) Ormara; (166) Ghauspur; (167) Shikarpur; (168) Rohri; (169) Sukkur district; (170) Qambar;(171) Drigh Lake Wildlife Sanctuary; (172) Larkana; (173) Mehar; (174) Sehwan; (175) Manchar lake;(176) Sadori lake; (177) Sanghar district; (178) Kotri; (179) Khinjar lake; (180) Haleji lake; (181) Karachi harbour;(182) Phoosani lake; (183) Sujawal district; (184) Mirpur Sakro; (185) Indus delta; (186) Mahboub Shah lake;(187) Jati; (188) Islamabad; (189) Rawalpindi; (190) Wazirabad; (191) Keshopur; (192) Gujranwala; (193) Sahiwal
district; (194) Lal Suhanra National Park; (195) Jajjah-Abbasian; (196) Bhadarwah; (197) Katrain; (198) Gurdaspur
district; (199) Harike Lake Wildlife Sanctuary; (200) Baghwali; (201) Ambala; (202) Sirsa district; (203) Bhindawas
Wildlife Sanctuary; (204) Sultanpur National Park; (205) Delhi; (206) Okhla; (207) Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary;(208) Keoladeo National Park; (209) Ban Baretta; (210) Jaisalmer; (211) Jodhpur; (212) Bilara district;(213) Ranthambhore National Park; (214) Ummedganj; (215) Palanpur; (216) Ahmedabad; (217) Pariej;(218) Nalsarovar; (219) Jamnagar; (220) Asan barrage; (221) Dehra Dun; (222) Rajaji National Park;(223) Saharanpur; (224) Corbett National Park; (225) Bijnor; (226) Naini Tal; (227) Dudwa National Park;(228) Rohilkhand; (229) Narora; (230) Aligarh; (231) Mathura; (232) Fatehgarh; (233) Agra; (234) Fatehpur;(235) Gonda; (236) Rahimabad; (237) Lucknow; (238) Nawabganj Priyadarshani Sanctuary; (239) Etawah;(240) Jheenjuck jheel; (241) Kanpur; (242) Mainpur; (243) Allahabad; (244) Varanasi district; (245) Mughal Sarai;(246) Karera Bustard Sanctuary; (247) Bandhavgarh National Park; (248) Sehore; (249) Depalpur; (250) Seoni;(251) Raipur; (252) Beale lake; (253) Ghoti; (254) Borivli National Park; (255) Bombay; (256) Ekruk; (257) Choraoisland; (258) Ciba Geigy; (259) Carambolim lake; (260) Santa Cruz; (261) Londa; (262) Bangalore;(263) Rangananthittoo Wildlife Sanctuary; (264) Mysore; (265) Nagarhole; (266) Patancheru; (267) Secunderabad;(268) Pulicat lake; (269) Periyar Sanctuary; (270) Madras; (271) Guindy National Park; (272) Vedanthangal
Sanctuary; (273) Kaliveli tank; (274) Manali; (275) Madura district; (276) Rameswaram island; (277) Darbhanga
district; (278) Chupra; (279) Bhagalpur; (280) Topchanchi lake; (281) Sambalpur; (282) Sohela; (283) Sonapur
district; (284) Bauda; (285) Darjeeling; (286) Ajay river; (287) Panagarh; (288) Barrackpur; (289) Salt lakes;(290) Dibru-Saikhowa National Park; (291) Panidihing Sanctuary; (292) Phokolai beel; (293) Manas National
Park; (294) Sibsagar district; (295) Kaziranga National Park; (296) Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary; (297) Pobitora
Wildlife Sanctuary; (298) Deepor beel; (299) Palasbari; (300) Shillong; (301) Logtak lake; (302) Pangsang pass;(303) Kalopani; (304) Tukche; (305) Dhangarhi; (306) Hille; (307) Birethante; (308) Yamdi Khola; (309) Pokhara
valley; (310) Chandrakot; (311) Naudanda ridge; (312) Sheopuri; (313) Gokarna; (314) Naubisse; (315) Butwal;(316) Kathmandu valley; (317) Godavari; (318) Royal Chitwan National Park; (319) Lumbini; (320) Hetauda;(321) Simara; (322) Ragunthanpur; (323) Ilam; (324) Hans Pokhari; (325) Sunsari; (326) Mai valley;(327) Kosi barrage; (328) Biratnagar; (329) Punakha valley; (330) Pele La; (331) Tongsa; (332) Chendibji Chorten;(333) Paro valley; (334) Phuntsholing; (335) Tangua hoar; (336) Mymensingh; (337) Pashua haor; (338) Hail
haor; (339) Dhaka; (340) Noakhali coast; (341) Nalianala; (342) Shwebo district; (343) Mongnai; (344) Inle lake;(345) Paunglin lake; (346) Wan Hat; (347) Thayetmyo; (348) Arakan; (349) Myitkyo; (350) Mohingyi Wetland
Wildlife Sanctuary; (351) Kyagan Kwinbauk Reserve Forest; (352) Chiang Mai; (353) Doi Inthanon National690

Aquila clanga
1914 (specimen in NRM, Gyldenstolpe 1916), this record probably repeated by Williamson(1918) and Chasen (1939a); Thale Noi, wintering birds said to be present during winter 1975/
1976 (Storer 1977); Satul, one adult, December 1973 (Medway and Wells 1976); Nong Kok(not mapped), February 1938 (Morioka and Yang 1996).
■ LAOS The species appears to be a rare passage migrant (doubtless largely overlooked),possibly wintering in small numbers. Records are from: Phou Chomvoy, Bolikhamxai, in the
proposed northern extension to Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA, one flying north with othermigrating raptors, April 1997 (Tobias 1997); Xe Banghiang, Savannakhet, one in riverside
forest, 1944 or 1945 (David-Beaulieu 1949–1950).
Unconfirmed records are as follows: Lak Xao, near Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA, a groupof four Aquila eagles probably this species flying north, April 1997 (Tobias 1997); Nakai
plateau, Khammouane, probable sightings of single birds, February 1990 (Salter 1993), and
2
1

RUSSIA

4
6 5

164

165

13 8
14
15 10
18
12
16
11
19
17 21
20
26
28
52
50
51
48
53
54
49

29

9

36
34
35
38
37
30
72
22
88
39 40 32 31
86 89 7173
23
42
75
87
33
24
74 41
90
25
45 444378
5577
107 91MONGOLIA 111 108 79 80 76
46
47
109
82
112
56
81
113
60
83 66
CHINA
57
110 84
67 69
95
106
114
58
68
117
61 59
96
70
118
115
119
100 9798
120 121 62
93
116
99
101
122
124
123
125
63
129
64
128
7

92

3

27

85

A
130
131
132

PACIFICOCEAN

B
INDIAN
OCEAN

C

Park; (354) Nong Han Kumphawapi; (355) Yom river; (356) Umphang; (357) Bung Boraphet; (358) Nakhon
Sawan; (359) Suphan Buri province; (360) Pathumthani bridge; (361) Rangsit; (362) Kamphaeng Saen;(363) Bangkok; (364) Phanom Sarakham; (365) Samut Sakhon; (366) Wat Phai Lom; (367) Khao Sam Roi Yot
National Park; (368) Prachuap Khirikhan; (369) Thale Noi; (370) Satul; (371) Phou Chomvoy; (372) Xe Banghiang;(373) Ang Trapeang Thmor Reserve; (374) Kralagn district; (375) Tonle Sap lake; (376) Kompong Thom;(377) Kruos Kraoum; (378) Veal Renh; (379) Ta Phin; (380) O Quy Ho; (381) Son Tay; (382) Hanoi; (383) Hai
Duong; (384) Ba Na Nature Reserve; (385) Thu Dau Mot; (386) Ho Chi Minh City; (387) Tram Chim Nature
Reserve; (388) U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve; (389) Perlis; (390) Ulu Dedap; (391) Gunung Jerai; (392) Bedong;(393) Bukit Larut; (394) Seberang Perak; (395) Kota Setia; (396) Sekinchan; (397) Bukit Tunku; (398) Jeram;(399) Serdang; (400) Melaka; (401) Cape Rachado; (402) Bukit Beruang; (403) Batang Tiga ricefields;(404) Jason bay; (405) Senoko; (406) Kranji reservoir; (407) Ponggol; (408) Seletar; (409) Serangoon;(410) Tanjung Murai; (411) Mount Faber; (412) Sentosa island; (413) Sungai Simpangagas; (414) Pulau
Alanggantang; (415) Sungai Benawang; (416) Sungai Sembilang; (417) Banyuasin estuary.
Historical (pre-1950)
Fairly recent (1950–1979)
Recent (1980–present)
Undated691

Threatened birds of Asia
at Ban Sop-On, April 1994 (Evans and Timmins 1998); Savannakhet province, apparently
rare, undated (David-Beaulieu 1949–1950).
■ CAMBODIA A fairly large wintering population was once present and, although a dramatic
decline is evident, the species still occurs in small numbers north of Tonle Sap lake, in coastal
regions and probably much more widely than the following records suggest: Ang Trapeang
Thmor Reserve, Banteay Meanchay, one, December 1998 (F. Goes verbally 1999) and one
possible, March 1998 (T. Mundkur verbally 1998), one individual regular, winter 1999/2000(Goes 2000b); Kralagn district, Siem Reap, one, March 1999 (F. Goes verbally 1999); Tonle
Sap lake, Siem Reap, common, 1920s (Delacour 1928), and more recently at Prek Spot, one,The distribution of Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga (map A below): (65) Yonaguni-jima; (126) Mazu
Dao; (127) Fuzhou; (133) Laomei; (134) Yangmingshan; (135) Kuanyin Shan; (136) Kuantu; (137) Kueitzukeng;(138) Chungcheng Bridge; (139) Tienliaoyang; (140) Shihting; (141) Kengfang; (142) Wulai; (143) Chupei;(144) Tahu; (145) Chienshih; (146) Huayuan; (147) Chilan; (148) Nanchuang; (149) Anma Shan; (150) Hsipao;(151) Mei Feng; (152) Hualien county; (153) Hsitou; (154) Aoku; (155) Kaohsiung county; (156) Chuyun Shan;(157) Tengchihlai; (158) Kangshan district.
(map B opposite): (159) Mardan; (160) Kohat; (161) Lachi; (162) Chashma barrage; (163) Dera Ismail Khan
district; (164) Nushki; (165) Ormara; (166) Ghauspur; (167) Shikarpur; (168) Rohri; (169) Sukkur district;(170) Qambar; (171) Drigh Lake Wildlife Sanctuary; (172) Larkana; (173) Mehar; (174) Sehwan; (175) Manchar
lake; (176) Sadori lake; (177) Sanghar district; (178) Kotri; (179) Khinjar lake; (180) Haleji lake; (181) Karachi
harbour; (182) Phoosani lake; (183) Sujawal district; (184) Mirpur Sakro; (185) Indus delta; (186) Mahboub Shahlake; (187) Jati; (188) Islamabad; (189) Rawalpindi; (190) Wazirabad; (191) Keshopur; (192) Gujranwala;(193) Sahiwal district; (194) Lal Suhanra National Park; (195) Jajjah-Abbasian; (196) Bhadarwah; (197) Katrain;(198) Gurdaspur district; (199) Harike Lake Wildlife Sanctuary; (200) Baghwali; (201) Ambala; (202) Sirsa district;(203) Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary; (204) Sultanpur National Park; (205) Delhi; (206) Okhla; (207) Sariska
Wildlife Sanctuary; (208) Keoladeo National Park; (209) Ban Baretta; (210) Jaisalmer; (211) Jodhpur;(212) Bilara district; (213) Ranthambhore National Park; (214) Ummedganj; (215) Palanpur; (216) Ahmedabad;(217) Pariej; (218) Nalsarovar; (219) Jamnagar; (220) Asan barrage; (221) Dehra Dun; (222) Rajaji National Park;(223) Saharanpur; (224) Corbett National Park; (225) Bijnor; (226) Naini Tal; (227) Dudwa National Park;(228) Rohilkhand; (229) Narora; (230) Aligarh; (231) Mathura; (232) Fatehgarh; (233) Agra; (234) Fatehpur;(235) Gonda; (236) Rahimabad; (237) Lucknow; (238) Nawabganj Priyadarshani Sanctuary; (239) Etawah;(240) Jheenjuck jheel; (241) Kanpur; (242) Mainpur; (243) Allahabad; (244) Varanasi district; (245) Mughal Sarai;(246) Karera Bustard Sanctuary; (247) Bandhavgarh National Park; (248) Sehore; (249) Depalpur; (250) Seoni;(251) Raipur; (252) Beale lake; (253) Ghoti; (254) Borivli National Park; (255) Bombay; (256) Ekruk; (257) Choraoisland; (258) Ciba Geigy; (259) Carambolim lake; (260) Santa Cruz; (261) Londa; (262) Bangalore;(263) Rangananthittoo Wildlife Sanctuary;(264) Mysore; (265) Nagarhole; (266) Patancheru;
CHINAA(267) Secunderabad; (268) Pulicat lake; (269) Periyar
126
127
Sanctuary; (270) Madras; (271) Guindy National
FUJIAN
Park; (272) Vedanthangal Sanctuary; (273) Kaliveli
134
tank; (274) Manali; (275) Madura district;
136 133 138(276) Rameswaram island; (277) Darbhanga district;
140
135
139
(278) Chupra; (279) Bhagalpur; (280) Topchanchi
137
142
143
lake; (281) Sambalpur; (282) Sohela; (283) Sonapur
141
145
district; (284) Bauda; (285) Darjeeling; (286) Ajay
144
65
146
147
river; (287) Panagarh; (288) Barrackpur; (289) Salt
148
150
lakes; (302) Pangsang pass; (303) Kalopani;
149(304) Tukche; (305) Dhangarhi; (306) Hille;
151
153(307) Birethante; (308) Yamdi Khola; (309) Pokhara
154
152
valley; (310) Chandrakot; (311) Naudanda ridge;
TAIWAN(312) Sheopuri; (313) Gokarna; (314) Naubisse;
PACIFIC(315) Butwal; (316) Kathmandu valley;
155
156
OCEAN
(317) Godavari; (318) Royal Chitwan National Park;
158
157(319) Lumbini; (320) Hetauda; (321) Simara;(322) Ragunthanpur; (323) Ilam; (324) Hans Pokhari;
SOUTH(325) Sunsari; (326) Mai valley; (327) Kosi barrage;
CHINA(328) Biratnagar.
Historical (pre-1950) Fairly recent (1950–1979)
Recent (1980–present)
Undated

692

SEA

Aquila clanga

B
159
160
161
162
163

188
189

JAMMU & KASHMIR

196

191 190198

HIMACHAL
PRADESH

199
193

CHINA

197

192
PUNJABPAKISTAN

220
221
222
223
224
302
225
226 NEPAL
303
307-309205
228
305
94 316-317
306 304
203
206
310
227
312
229
204
314
315
313
230 232
231
207
235
236
323 285320
319 318
208-209 233 239
322 325
311
321
324
238
237
213
240 241
327 328
278
246
242
243
277 279 326
214
234
244 245
201

200
194

202

195
167 166
169
170
RAJASTHAN
171
210
173 172 168
174 176
211 212
175
177
178
180
179
183
182
181
215
187
GUJARAT
186
216
184-185
218
217
219

BIHAR

247
249

248

288

MADHYA PRADESH

289

250

INDIA

281

282
283

284

MAHARASHTRA

252

ARABIAN
SEA

286
287

251

254

280

ORISSA

253
255
256

266

267

ANDHRA PRADESH

257
260
259

261
258
KARNATAKA

262
263
264
265

268
271
272
273

270

BAY
OF
BENGALTAMIL NADU

274

KERALA

269

275
276

INDIAN OCEAN

693

Threatened birds of Asia
January/February 2000 (Goes 2000b); Kompong Thom, January 1928 (male in BMNH, female
in MNHN); Kruos Kraoum, Stung Sen district, Kompong Thom province, one, March 2000
(Cambodia Bird News 4 [2000]: 34–38); Veal Renh, Sihanoukville (= Kompong Som), one,
January 1997 (F. R. Lambert and J. C. Eames verbally 1998); Preah Vihear province (notmapped), at least five individuals on at least four dates in early 2001 (P. Davidson in litt. 2001).
■ VIETNAM The species evidently occurs sparsely as a passage migrant and winter visitor in
the south, with records as follows: Ta Phin, 4 km from Hoang Lien Nature Reserve, Lao Cai,
seven on migration, October–November 1997 (Eames and Tordoff in prep.); O Quy Ho, near
Hoang Lien Nature Reserve, Lao Cai, nine on migration, October 1997 (Oriental Bird Club
Bull. 27 [1998]: 61–66, Eames and Tordoff in prep.); Son Tay, Ha Tay, listed for the area (VoQuy 1975); Hanoi, one on migration in company of Oriental Honey-buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus
and Grey-faced Buzzard Butastur indicus, October 1997 (Oriental Bird Club Bull. 27 [1998]:
61–66); between Hai Duong and Hai Phong, one mobbed by Black Kites Milvus migrans,
March 1958 (Fischer 1961), one, early 1980s (Stusák and Vo Quy 1986); Ba Na Nature Reserve,
several records, February–March 1994 (Ghazoul et al. 1994); Thu Dau Mot, Binh Duong,
listed for the area (Vo Quy 1975); Ho Chi Minh City (= Saigon), listed for the area (Vo Quy
1975); Tram Chim Nature Reserve, Dong Thap, one present, March 1988 (Scott 1988), January
1988, January 1989, January and February 1990, between January and March 1992, between
February and April 1993 (Anon. 1993c), February 1994, February 1997 (Eames and Tordoff
in prep.); U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve, Kien Giang, one, February 1997 (Oriental Bird
Club Bull. 26 [1997]: 60–66, Safford et al. in press), one, April 1999 (R. J. Safford in litt. 1999).
■ MALAYSIA The species is a scarce winter visitor to Peninsular Malaysia, occurring in
Kedah, mainland Penang, Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan (Wells 1984), then more recently
Melaka (Wells 1990a) and Johor (Wells 1990c), with specific records as follows: Tasek Timah–
Tasoh, Perlis, one (per M. Kohler in litt. 1999); Ulu Dedap, Perak, one juvenile, November
1996 (Enggang December 1996–January 1997); Gunung Jerai, Kedah, one subadult, December
1979 (Wells 1984); Bedong, Kedah, two, December 1983 (Wells 1990a); Bukit Larut (= MaxwellHill), one, March, 1965–1970 (Medway and Wells 1976); Seberang Perak, mainland Penang(= Province Wellesley), one, March, 1965–1970 (Medway and Wells 1976), 1980s (Wells
1999); Kota Setia paddyfields, one, March 1997 (Enggang April 1997); Sekinchan, Selangor,
around the Projek Barat Laut Selangor (PBLS) ricefields, three, November 1981 (Wells 1986),
The distribution of Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga (map C opposite): (93) Lhasa; (99) Kangding
county; (100) Ya’an county; (101) Emei Shan; (102) Gongshan county; (103) Datang; (104) Kunming;(105) Mengzi; (116) Tung-liu; (125) Wuyi Shan Nature Reserve; (128) Guangxi; (129) Shantou; (130) Mai Po;(131) Mong Tseng; (132) New Territories; (329) Punakha valley; (330) Pele La; (331) Tongsa; (332) Chendibji
Chorten; (333) Paro valley; (334) Phuntsholing; (335) Tangua hoar; (336) Mymensingh; (337) Pashua haor;(338) Hail haor; (339) Dhaka; (340) Noakhali coast; (341) Nalianala; (342) Shwebo district; (343) Mongnai;(344) Inle lake; (345) Paunglin lake; (346) Wan Hat; (347) Thayetmyo; (348) Arakan; (349) Myitkyo; (350) Mohingyi
Wetland Wildlife Sanctuary; (351) Kyagan Kwinbauk Reserve Forest; (352) Chiang Mai; (353) Doi Inthanon
National Park; (354) Nong Han Kumphawapi; (355) Yom river; (356) Umphang; (357) Bung Boraphet;(358) Nakhon Sawan; (359) Suphan Buri province; (360) Pathumthani bridge; (361) Rangsit; (362) Kamphaeng
Saen; (363) Bangkok; (364) Phanom Sarakham; (365) Samut Sakhon; (366) Wat Phai Lom; (367) Khao Sam Roi
Yot National Park; (368) Prachuap Khirikhan; (369) Thale Noi; (370) Satul; (371) Phou Chomvoy; (372) Xe
Banghiang; (373) Ang Trapeang Thmor Reserve; (374) Kralagn district; (375) Tonle Sap lake; (376) Kompong
Thom; (377) Kruos Kraoum; (378) Veal Renh; (379) Ta Phin; (380) O Quy Ho; (381) Son Tay; (382) Hanoi;(383) Hai Duong; (384) Ba Na Nature Reserve; (385) Thu Dau Mot; (386) Ho Chi Minh City; (387) Tram Chim
Nature Reserve; (388) U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve; (389) Perlis; (390) Ulu Dedap; (391) Gunung Jerai;(392) Bedong; (393) Bukit Larut; (394) Seberang Perak; (395) Kota Setia; (396) Sekinchan; (397) Bukit Tunku;(398) Jeram; (399) Serdang; (400) Melaka; (401) Cape Rachado; (402) Bukit Beruang; (403) Batang Tiga ricefields;(404) Jason bay; (405) Senoko; (406) Kranji reservoir; (407) Ponggol; (408) Seletar; (409) Serangoon;(410) Tanjung Murai; (411) Mount Faber; (412) Sentosa island; (413) Sungai Simpangagas; (414) Pulau
Alanggantang; (415) Sungai Benawang; (416) Sungai Sembilang; (417) Banyuasin estuary.
Historical (pre-1950)
Fairly recent (1950–1979)
Recent (1980–present)
Undated694

Aquila clanga

CHINA

93

333

290

332
331 293

102

291
299

292

295
297

296

294

103

298
335
300

336

341

C

SICHUAN

330
329

334

100
101

99

337
339
338

104
301
128
105

YUNNAN

342

340

GUANGXIMYANMAR
345

379

380

383

381

343
344

382

346

LAOS

347
352
348
349

371

353

350

354

355

372
356
351

357

THAILAND

358
359
360
361
362
364
365
363
366

384

373

CAMBODIA

374

367
368

376

375
377

VIETNAM378

385
387 386
388

369

SOUTH
CHINA
SEA

370
389

INDIAN
OCEAN

391 390
MALACCA 392

STRAIT

393
394
MALAYSIA
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402 405 404
403 406
407-409410
411-412

SUMATRA(INDONESIA)413 414415
416 417695

Threatened birds of Asia
four or more seen, January 1983 (Wells 1990a), two adults, January 1985, one, February
1985, one, December 1985 (Wells 1990b), soaring flocks of nine and ten, March 1986, with
2–3 others perched nearby (Wells 1990c), up to six, January–February 1987, two juveniles,
March 1987 (Wells 1990c), November 1988 (Enggang 1989, 1), juvenile, November 1996
(Enggang December 1996–January 1997); Bukit Tunku (Kenny estate), Kuala Lumpur,
irregularly, 1992–1996 (Enggang February–March 1997); Jeram, Selangor, March, 1965–
1970 (Medway and Wells 1976); Serdang, Selangor, one adult, April–May 1979 (Wells 1984);
Melaka (Malacca), three flying over, January 1998 (Suara Enggang November–December
1998); Cape Rachado (Tanjung Tuan), Melaka, 1–2 flying in off the sea, February 1966
(Medway and Nisbet 1968); Bukit Beruang, Melaka, one, December 1982 (Wells 1990a);
Batang Tiga ricefields, Melaka, three immatures, November 1996, immature, January 1997,
one, February 1997 (Enggang April 1997), eight, January 1997 (Suara Enggang May–June1997), two, October 1997 (Suara Enggang November–December 1997), six immatures, andunconfirmed report of up to 14, January 1998 (Suara Enggang March–April 1998), 2–4,
November–December 1998 (Suara Enggang November–December 1998); Jason bay, Johor,
immature, March 1986 (Wells 1990c).
An unconfirmed record is from Bukit Gasing, Selangor, three, probably this species,
May 1985 (Wells 1990b).
■ SINGAPORE The species is a scarce non-breeding visitor likely to be found throughout
the island (Lim and Gardner 1997), with the following records: unspecified locality, one
immature, autumn 1936 (Chasen 1939a; also Morioka and Yang 1996); Senoko, 1–2,
November–December 1987 (Wells 1990c); Kranji reservoir, one, December 1983 (Wells 1990a),juvenile, December 1986 (Wells 1990c), 1–2, November–December 1987 (Wells 1990c);
Ponggol grassland, up to eight, November–December 1989 (Oriental Bird Club Bull. 11 [1990]:
40–48, Wells 1999); Seletar (Selatar East), 1–2, November–December 1987 (Wells 1990c);
Serangoon, one, November 1981 (Wells 1986), 1–2, November–December 1987 (Wells 1990c),
five, 1991 (Wells 1999); Tanjung Murai, four, November–December 1978, remained to
February 1979, one, November 1979 (Wells 1984), one, January 1981, and four, November
1981 (Wells 1986); Mount Faber, October 1986 (Wells 1990c); Sentosa island, 1–2, November–
December 1987 (Wells 1990c).
■ INDONESIA The species is a scarce non-breeding visitor, recorded only on Sumatra, andapparently only in the period 1988–1989:
Sumatra ■ South Sumatra Sungai Simpangagas, immature and adult seen, April 1989
(Verheugt et al. 1993); Pulau Alanggantang, one, April 1989 (Verheugt et al. 1993); Sungai
Benawang, one, April 1989 (Verheugt et al. 1993); Sungai Sembilang, two in March 1989 andone in April 1989 (Verheugt et al. 1993); near the Banyuasin estuary, four, December 1988
(Verheugt et al. 1993).
POPULATION The global population of the Greater Spotted Eagle is probably less than
10,000 mature individuals, with Russia holding 2,800–3,000 pairs, and the European
population probably no more than 900 pairs (Meyburg et al. in press). Numbers have declinedin the western half of its range and in some parts of Asia, but long-term trends are difficult toassess owing to identification problems (Meyburg et al. in press; see Remarks 1). Details of
the species’s Asian population are given below by country.
Russia Eastern Russia The species has declined significantly in the past few decades, andbecome extinct as a breeding bird in many former localities. It was, for example, locallycommon in southern central Siberia at the start of the twentieth century, becoming rare
there by the 1940s and 1950s, and it is now very rare and extinct in many formerly occupied
areas (Rogacheva 1992). It was “not rare” at some sites in Transbaykalia in the early twentiethcentury (Stegmann 1930). In Irkutsk region, it used to nest in the Angara, Irkut and upper
696

Aquila clanga
Lena river valleys including in forest-steppe along the Angara in the 1930s (Skalon 1934, Gagina
1961); at the end of the nineteenth century it was believed to nest in south Baikal (Taczanowski
1891–1893). It is now very rare in the forest-steppes along the Angara, and probably nests
neither there nor in south Baikal (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). It is currently known to nest
only on the Irkutsk-Cheremkhovo plain (c.4,000 km2), where the population is estimated at
no more than 20 pairs, and it is considered unlikely that the entire breeding population of the
Irkutsk region exceeds 40 pairs (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). In recent years, this species has
been recorded near Irkutsk during the summer months at localities unsuitable for nesting,such as the Irkut river floodplain, the lower Unga river and the Kuda river, implying that
there are now insufficient nesting territories available (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997).
In Buryatia it is generally rare, including in the Tunkinskaya valley in Tunkinskiy district,
where three pairs were recently recorded along a 60 km section of the valley (V. V. Ryabtsev inlitt. 1997). The population may be little more than 40 pairs, but there are insufficient data to
indicate whether a significant decline in numbers has occurred (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997).
In the Amur region surveys for this species in 1968–1972 in the southern half of the
Zeya–Bureya plain and the south-eastern edge of the Amur–Zeya plateau found it to be
widespread but nowhere numerous, and it was absent from the deforested central plains; it
was commonest in the Arkhar lowlands in the south-east, but even in the optimal breeding
habitats, the riverine forests on the lower Bureya river, only 6–11 breeding pairs were foundat a density of 1.3–2.7 pairs per 100 km2 (Pan’kin 1974, 1977a,b,c). It was also considered“common” on the Aleun river, where there were nine sightings along a 120 km stretch of theriver (Kostin and Pan’kin 1977).
In Primorye it was described as “common” on the Ussuri river by Maak (1861). Fieldworkin the late 1930s and in the 1950s revealed a “very considerable” breeding population on thelower reaches of the Iman river, while the species was becoming rare along the middle reaches(Spangenberg 1965). It is “very rare” on the lower reaches of the Bikin river (Nazarov in litt.
1997). A few winter in and around “Kedrovaya Pad’” Nature Reserve (Shibnev 1989).
Mongolia The species appears to be scarce in Mongolia (see Distribution), but it
presumably breeds.
Japan and South Korea It is a rare visitor, mainly in winter (see Distribution).
China It is almost certainly greatly under-recorded in mainland China (see Remarks 1),
and its abundance there is poorly understood. It is considered “rare” in its breeding range innorth-east China (Liu Mingyu et al. 1988). Outside the breeding season it is known by scattered
records from most of the southern and eastern provinces and on Taiwan (see Distribution).
At Beidaihe in Hebei it was described as “not rare” on passage by Hemmingsen (1951), and
it is currently considered “scarce to uncommon” in spring, and “uncommon” in autumn(Beidaihe Bird Society 1992). There is some evidence that a decline has taken place in thenumber of wintering birds. Styan (1891) described it as “not uncommon” along the Yangtze,both in the hills and among the reedbeds where wintering wildfowl swarm. On the lower
Yangtze La Touche (1925–1934) considered it “common enough in the marshes and reedbeds
along the river and on the hills”. Wilder and Hubbard (1924) reported that “judging fromthe number of specimens brought in, this is the most common of our eagles” in Hebei (Chihli),
while Wilder (1934) described a remarkable concentration of c.200 in a resting flock (threecollected, and all apparently this species) at Martyrs’ Cemetery, Beijing, in late March–early
April c.1934. This eagle is now only recorded in very small numbers in these areas. In Hong
Kong, however, the number of wintering individuals increased between the 1960s and the1990s, and is now stable, possibly because hunting was banned there in the late 1960s, but
perhaps because of habitat loss in other areas (HKBWS in litt. 1997). On Taiwan, there arec.10 records each year (Houng Kuang-ying in litt. 1997).
Pakistan Hume (1872–1873) considered the Greater Spotted Eagle “by far the commonest
eagle in Sind”, with “scores to be met with in the neighbourhood of every large piece of697

Threatened birds of Asia
water”, such that “every clump of tamarisk trees standing well out into the water … wasalmost certain to be crowned by one of these black-looking eagles”. Hume (1872–1873) also
ascertained from local people that it “regularly breeds” during April–May, a fact that, despite
being doubted by Ticehurst (1922–1924), was later found to be at least occasionally true (e.g.
Eates 1937, Roberts 1991–1992). Ticehurst (1922–1924) did not discuss the abundance of thespecies in Sind, but gave the impression that he never saw the numbers reported by Hume(1872–1873), and certainly by the 1930s the species was “no longer as abundant” in Sind
(Eates 1937). Nevertheless, it was still the commonest wintering eagle in the state at this time
(Eates 1937), and remained “common” into the 1960s (Holmes and Wright 1968). It is still
the most likely large raptor to be encountered around large waterbodies, albeit in small
numbers (Roberts 1991–1992).
Along the Indus valley in five winter visits, Koning (1976) encountered this species on
204 occasions (out of 442 large eagles sighted). Currently, it is not uncommon, mainly aroundthe larger lakes of Sind and Punjab, where up to six individuals can be seen in the sky at one
time (Roberts et al. 1986, Roberts 1991–1992), although the population is clearly very muchsmaller than it was in the nineteenth century. The species has been recorded infrequently
from North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan in recent years, although it appears to
be a regular visitor in small numbers (1–4 annually in Dera Ismail Khan district) to theformer (Kylänpää 2000).
A few pairs remain to breed in Sind, at least in the better-forested areas of the Eastern
Narra canal and the Indus river (Roberts 1991–1992). Although it has also been said tobreed in Baluchistan and Punjab (Ali and Ripley 1968–1998), there is no known record ofbreeding in the former, while the latter lacks suitable wetland habitat and is practically devoidof trees such that the species is very unlikely to nest there (Roberts 1991–1992).
India Historical The Greater Spotted Eagle was once a common winter visitor to much ofnorthern India, but rarer in the south, although it was once “tolerably common” along India’s
southern coasts (Jerdon 1862–1864). In Manipur Hume (1888) found it to be common (“twenty
in a morning”) at Logtak lake. Blyth (1863) stated that it was “common” in the Sundarbans(West Bengal, and Bangladesh) and found “abundantly” in the Himalayas (although there
was then considerable confusion over the identification of Aquila eagles, and thus perhaps
some error was involved). It was “common” around the Gardaspur lakes in Punjab (Koelz
1940). In Uttar Pradesh it was common in all suitable habitat in the Etawah and Mainpur
districts in the mid-nineteenth century (Anderson 1872a), while around Lucknow it was “ascommon as any species of eagle” apart from the Tawny A. rapax (Reid 1887), or “fairly
common” and probably breeding (Jesse 1902–1903). It was “not uncommon” in northern
Gujarat (Butler 1875–1877). In Maharashtra it was considered an uncommon migrant(Abdulali 1981), with Davidson and Wenden (1878) encountering the species “several times”
in the Deccan. It occurred throughout Gujarat, Maharashtra and much of central India(then encompassed by the “Bombay Presidency”) where it was reported to breed (Barnes
1885; but see Remarks 3). Around Sehore, Madhya Pradesh, it was “not uncommon about
the jheels” (Whitehead 1911). In the “Madras Presidency” (at sites now largely in Orissa andAndhra Pradesh), Koelz (1948) found it “rare”, collecting only one individual between January
and March 1937.
Recent After a noticeable sharp decline in the populations of all large raptors in India(Akhtar 1976, Samant et al. 1995, A. Prasad in litt. 2000), it is now generally “uncommon” inthe north and “rare” in the peninsula (Grimmett et al. 1998). Having been “apparently moreabundant” in Assam, the population is now “declining alarmingly” (Choudhury 2000c).
Whistler and Kinnear (1931–1937) could trace no post-Jerdon records from coastal Andhra
Pradesh, while Ali and Ripley (1968–1998) concluded that there had been a considerable
decline in the region, listing no recent records from the “Carnatic” coast. In fact it still occurs
in the far south in winter, but in much reduced numbers (“it no longer appears to be698

Aquila clanga
common”), Santharam (1999b) tracing 11 records in Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the 1980s
and 1990s. In Gujarat it has become scarce in recent times (Khacher 1996). Only in Goa andat Bharatpur does it appear to be still (locally) common. In Goa up to four have been seen
per day in the 1990s, and the estimated total winter population is c.50 (P. Willoughby in litt.
1999), although Lainer (1999) considered it a “scarce winter visitor in very small numbers”
to the state. In Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur), Rajasthan, it was common in 1983,
when 20 were recorded (Bult 1983), again in 1985 when 30 were counted (Naoroji 1990), andit was still common there in the 1990s, with as many as 35 reported (see Distribution). It is
likely, however, that the high density of individuals at this protected site is the result of alack of alternative refuges (A. R. Rahmani in litt. 2000).
Nepal The wintering population has been put at only 60 birds (H. S. Baral verbally 1998).
However, numbers seem to be declining and fewer birds were recorded in the 1990s than in
the 1980s (H. S. Baral verbally 1998, C. Inskipp and T. P. Inskipp verbally 1998).
Bangladesh The species is now a “rare” winter visitor (Khan 1982), although it wasprobably much commoner in the nineteenth century, as Simson (1882) reported that “on avoyage… from Dacca [=Dhaka] to Sylhet one cannot fail to be struck with the large numberof eagles seen near the fishing-villages”; he identified the Greater Spotted Eagle amongst
these, without mentioning what proportion of overall numbers it made up. More recently,
during observations along 3,290 km of waterway in the Sundarbans, only one individual wasrecorded (Sarker 1986b), although this area is generally too forested for the species(P. M. Thompson in litt. 2000). Harvey (1990) suggested that it was a scarce but regular
winter visitor, and seen in Bangladesh by many observers during the 1980s. However, in the
1990s, probably fewer than 20 individuals regularly wintered around the haors of the northeast (Thompson and Johnson 1996, P. M. Thompson in litt. 1997), and indeed the country’s
total wintering population is unlikely to be much higher than 20.
Myanmar The species once wintered in “small numbers” (Oates 1883; also Hume 1888,
Smythies 1986), but its current status is poorly known and there are few recent records. The
fact that Roseveare (1949) spent four years (1930–1934) in Shwebo district and encountered
the species eight times suggests that it was fairly regular there; but he saw it only once in his
two and a half years in Minbu district (Roseveare 1952). Five or six birds were encounteredin the central dry zone in less than one month in February 2001 (SC).
Thailand An old December specimen from Chiang Mai (Meyer de Schauensee 1929) suggeststhat the species may have wintered, at least formerly, in the marshes of the Mae Ping valley(P. D. Round in litt. 1999). However, this was the only definite record for northern Thailand
despite a considerable amount of ornithological work in the region (Deignan 1945). By theend of the twentieth century it was an annual winter visitor to the country in small numbers(10–100 birds in total), usually with only one or two birds at any site, distributed at very low
density over a wide area (P. D. Round in litt. 1998). Three individuals were seen at Um Phangin October 1988 and the species was described as “very common” there in October 1989,
suggesting that several birds might winter in the area (D. Ogle in litt. 1989). The absence ofrecent records from north-east Thailand may be an artifact of observer coverage; there are anumber of wetlands and paddy basins which may support a few birds (P. D. Round in litt.
1998), although hunting is rife in the area and in adjoining Laos (J. W. Duckworth in litt.
1999). While wintering individuals should be expected in the extensive lake Songkhla basin(Wells 1999), and indeed have previously occurred (Storer 1977), there are no recent records.
Laos There are very few records from the country. David-Beaulieu (1949–1950) did,
however, remark that Aquila eagles were relatively common in southern provinces, but that
he was unsure of their identity (see also Population: Laos under Imperial Eagle). It seems
likely that these were in large part wintering Greater Spotted Eagles, small numbers of whichstill occur in the country, at least on migration, presumably moving to and from wintering
grounds in Cambodia, Thailand or Malaysia.
699

Threatened birds of Asia
Cambodia It was apparently abundant on the plains and marshes of central and northwest Cambodia in the 1920s (Delacour 1928, 1929b). Even in the 1960s, Thomas (1964)
commented that it was “remarkably common for so large a bird” in this area; he alsomentioned seeing “four in one morning over the flooded fields at kilometer 42 on the Saigonroad” (probably in Prey Veng province). During the twentieth century the species underwent
a spectacular decline in the country, its status changing from “common” in the 1960s to“rare” in the 1990s (C. M. Poole in litt. 1999). Sightings of at least five in the open deciduous
forest of Preah Vihear province, northern Cambodia, in 2001, suggest that the area may still
support an important population (P. Davidson in litt. 2001).
Vietnam Although there are no confirmed early reports from southern regions, it wasthought probably to occur (Delacour 1929b), and eagles seen by David-Beaulieu (1944) near
Pleiku might possibly have been this species (see Population: Laos under Imperial Eagle).
The species is currently a passage migrant and winter visitor to the country in very small
numbers (see Distribution).
Peninsular Malaysia Until the 1960s very few Aquila eagles of any species were observed
and it is thought that the arrival of the Greater Spotted Eagle as a regular winter visitor,
particularly during the 1980s and early 1990s, was a response to temporarily high foodavailability in newly opened-up land (see Food); peak numbers involved 10–30 individuals,
but in the latter half of the 1990s this declined to only a handful (Wells 1999).
Singapore In parallel with Malaysia, numbers rose to a peak of 10–20 in the 1980s, butthen fell, with no confirmed reports after the early 1990s (Wells 1999).
ECOLOGY Extensive details of foraging and breeding ecology in the western portion of therange of the Greater Spotted Eagle are published elsewhere (e.g. Cramp and Simmons 1980);
facts relevant to the Asian region are given below.
Habitat In Europe and Central Asia the species occurs in lowland forests near wetlands,
nesting in tall trees; it hunts over swamps, wet meadows (Meyburg et al. in press) and, in
Estonia, over extensively managed agricultural land (A. Lõhmus in litt. 1999). During
migration and in winter, a variety of open habitats are visited, including deserts, shrubland,
wetlands and mangroves (Meyburg et al. in press). Details of its ecology in the Asian part ofits range are given below.
In its breeding range in eastern Russia, the Greater Spotted Eagle is found in lowland
primary forests, almost always near water. In East Siberia and the Russian Far East, it nests
near wetlands, including riverine floodplains, lakes and swamps, in the forest and foreststeppe zones (Sonin and Ryabtsev 1993, V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). The fact that rodents
are apparently its favoured food in the Central Asian breeding grounds (Rogacheva 1992)
suggests that it is far from exclusively linked to wetlands in this region, but that it is a relatively
open-country species.
Outside the breeding season, it favours open lowlands (Baker 1922–1930, Grimmett etal. 1998), although it has been observed on passage at 3,850 m in Nepal (Baral et al. 1996).
Most notably, it is strongly linked to wetlands (even more so than in the breeding season),being a “marsh-loving bird” (Anderson 1872a) usually found near “large marshes, jheels
and canals” in the Indian subcontinent (Ripley 1982). In Pakistan it frequents well-wateredand fairly well-wooded tracts (e.g. riverine forest) where rivers, perennial canals, swamps orlakes provide it with plentiful prey (Eates 1937, Roberts 1991–1992). A few birds spend thewinter in mangroves of the Indus delta (Roberts 1991–1992). In Bangladesh it frequents
reed-fringed lagoons in the north-east of the country (P. M. Thompson in litt. 1998). In
Thailand it is likewise “evidently partial to moist, half swampy tracts of country” (Williamson
1918). It seldom inhabits drier areas, although in Cambodia it has been recorded winteringin the “park-like” country of the centre and north, a huge region of very open, sandy,
deciduous forest with scattered pools (Delacour 1929b). Similarly, in India, it has been found700

Aquila clanga
near Jodhpur in “comparatively arid districts” (Hume and Oates 1889–1890). In Malaysia it
seems to favour open, bare, dry paddyland (free of interspersed orchards and housing) between
cultivation phases, again preying largely on rodents (Wells 1999), and most records in
Singapore have been in November–December, when the favoured paddy-stubble habitat is
not extensive on the mainland (Wells 1990c). It has also been recorded at a large municipal
tip (Wells 1999), and sometimes frequents colonies of large waterbirds on which it preys, andmay roost in or near such colonies (Naoroji 1990). It is, at least locally, “not a very shy bird”(Brooks 1875b), often encountered singly, but also frequently in pairs or small groups(Roseveare 1949, Wells 1999).
Food This species is carnivorous. In the breeding range in eastern Russia, Siberian suslik
Citellus undulatus is an important source of food when the young animals emerge from theirburrows and are easily caught, but other mammals are important components of the diet,including young musk-rats Ondatra zibetica, voles Microtus fortis and M. maximoviczi andother rodents, plus amphibians, including frogs Rana; two analyses of pellets showed that36% and 80% of the diet respectively was composed of birds, including young ducks, Mallard
Anas platyrhynchos and Common Teal A. crecca, Schrenck’s Bittern Ixobrychus eurythmus
and Band-bellied Crake Porzana paykullii (Pan’kin 1972, V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). In
China its diet includes a variety of mammals, birds, fish, amphibians and reptiles (Gao Wei
in litt. 1997).
Outside the breeding season, birds tend to congregate around shallow wetlands, at theedge of which individuals can often be seen perched on stakes, low bushes or small trees,
presumably resting and searching for prey (Hume 1872–1873, 1888, Brooks 1875b, Roberts
1991–1992). Hume (1872–1873) “generally found them subsisting almost exclusively on frogs”
in Pakistan, and indeed amphibians appear to make up the bulk of the diet in many regions(Hume 1875a, Barnes 1885, Eates 1937). Eates (1937) found the remains of one common
frog species Hoplobatrachus tigerina at a nest in Sind. Birds in Selangor, Malaysia, wereobserved hunting from perches and even walking in search of frogs (Wells 1990c).
They will also, however, “take waterfowl and fish when the opportunity occurs” (Eates 1937),
along with most other vertebrate prey of suitable size. They have been seen to “strike at, andonce or twice actually carry away, snipe and other small water birds” that were wounded(Hume 1872–1873), and often carry off wounded ducks “with great audacity” (Ali and Ripley
1968–1998). Eates (1937) found the remains of Purple Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio and a
Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto on and under a nest in Sind, as well as an unidentified“mud fish”. In addition, chameleons, Calotes lizards, Common Coot Fulica atra, Rufous
Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda and White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis (complete
head and bill in the stomach of one individual) have been recorded in the diet (Ali 1941,
1954–1955, Ali and Ripley 1968–1998). Ali and Ripley (1968–1998) stated that the usual
method for hunting birds such as coots is to swoop low and repeatedly over a flock, focusing
on one individual that dives to escape, until it eventually pounces on it immediately after itreaches the surface; an individual in Rajasthan was watched catching a Common Moorhen
Gallinula chloropus by suddenly dropping into reeds (Kumar 1993). One in the Bangkok area
was seen eating a Black-crowned Night-heron Nycticorax nycticorax (Bangkok Bird Club
Bull. 10, 4 [1993]: 11). In Hong Kong, it feeds mainly on birds, which it actively hunts (HKBWS
in litt. 1997). In Sind Hume (1872–1873) “twice shot them in the act of devouring fish”,
something he had not seen them do during many observations in India; these birds had
probably pirated fish from other carnivores or found them moribund. Donald (1918–1921)
shot an individual carrying a mole cricket, proving that it sometimes takes very small prey.
In Keoladeo National Park, India, it has frequently been observed devouring eggs andnestlings, including many Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala chicks; for example, one juvenile
Imperial Eagle and two juvenile Greater Spotted Eagles consumed 38 clutches of Purple Heron
Ardea purpurea and Grey Heron A. cinerea in one season, such that heronry breeding success701

Threatened birds of Asia
was nil (Naoroji 1990). In Malaysia it has been recorded taking nestling waterbirds such asrails and bitterns killed or exposed during harvest or harrowing (Wells 1999).
Finally, “it does not disdain carrion” (Barnes 1885). In Malaysia, it commonly devours
poisoned rats (mainly Rattus argentiventer) in open paddyland, and indeed the short-lived
boom in numbers of the eagle in the Peninsula in winter in the 1980s was probably promptedby availability of dead rats when poison was (temporarily) the major form of pest control in
the newly developed rice-paddies (Wells 1999). In Myanmar “the stomach of a one-leggedbird in very bad condition contained a bandicoot, which he had probably picked up dead”(Hume 1875a), while in Sind Eates (1937) found one queuing to feed on the carcass of acamel being eaten by vultures. These eagles are also occasionally kleptoparasitic, forcing
Black Kites Milvus migrans to relinquish food items (Wells 1990c).
Breeding In eastern Russia nesting takes place between May and August: eggs (clutch size
one or two) are laid in mid-May and hatch in mid- to late June; newly hatched chicks were
found in a nest in mid-June, and a c.30-day-old chick was found in a nest in mid-July, theyoung fledging in about mid-August (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). In China, nests are built
from early May, eggs (one to three) are laid in mid-May, the incubation period is 41–44 days,
and the chicks fledge at 45–47 days (Gao Wei in litt. 1997). In the Indian subcontinent (including
Pakistan) breeding usually occurs in March–June (Barnes 1885, 1888–1891, Hume and Oates
1889–1890, Eates 1937, Ali and Ripley 1968–1998, Prakash 1988, Roberts 1991–1992, BMNH
egg data). However, Roberts (1991–1992) found hatchlings in December near Mirpur Sakroand saw a displaying male in early November in Thatta district, indicating that nesting may
occur during the cold season (also see Remarks 3). The clutch consists of 1–2 eggs (Barnes
1888–1891, Hume and Oates 1889–1890, Roberts 1991–1992) and the incubation period isapparently 42–44 days, with a fledging period of up to 65 days (Brown and Amadon 1968).
In eastern Russia, the species usually breeds in forest close to wetland habitats such as
riverine floodplains, lakes and swamps, with nests in larch, pine, aspen, birch and willow
trees, 4.5–12 m above the ground (Sonin and Ryabtsev 1993, V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997; see
Remarks 7). In China it nests on high mountain rock-faces or tall trees, but will do so on the
ground in steppes; it usually builds its own nest, but also utilises old ones of other birds ofprey or of Black-billed Magpie Pica pica (Gao Wei in litt. 1997) (the latter presumably as thebase for a larger structure). A nest in Jiangsu was on a ledge on a precipitous hillside (LaTouche 1906–1907). In Pakistan nests of this eagle were large platforms of sticks built on topof trees (e.g. Acacia nilotica [=arabica], Mangifera indicus), either those growing on the banksof irrigation channels in areas subject to seasonal inundation and rich in waterfowl, fishes
and amphibia, or in well-wooded areas not far from lakes; a nest placed 7.5 m up an Acacia
nilotica (babul) in Sind was a large construction of sticks lined sparingly with dried grass andassorted stems (Eates 1937, Roberts 1991–1992). J. Davidson also found nests alongwatercourses in India, but stated that the species nested “in a fork, not near the top of thetree” (Barnes 1888–1891). Four nests reportedly found by C. H. T. Marshall (in Hume andOates 1889–1890) in Uttar Pradesh were all sited in Dalbergia sissoo (“sheesum”) trees along
a canal. The nest recently described in Keoladeo National Park was c.14 m up a Mitragyna
parvifolia (Prakash 1988).
Migration The movements of the eastern populations of Greater Spotted Eagle are notwell understood, but most birds appear to move from the main breeding areas in North-East
Asia to winter further south in southern China and South and South-East Asia. Birds arrivein the nesting areas in eastern Russia in mid-April, the earliest record being on 15 April(V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997), and leave in September–October, a concentration of birds onsouthward migration having been observed (mainly in late September) on the south-western
shore of Lake Baikal, where there is a mass autumn migration of birds of prey (Ryabtsev etal. 1991). The species is also mainly a summer visitor to north-east China, arriving in early to
mid-April and departing from early to mid-October (Gao Wei in litt. 1997). In Taiwan it is702

Aquila clanga
mainly a passage migrant in spring and autumn, but a few winter, most of the birds observed
there being in immature plumage (Houng Kuang-ying in litt. 1997). In Pakistan, northern
India and Nepal east through Bangladesh to Myanmar, a small resident population is
augmented in winter by migrants from the north (Ali and Ripley 1968–1998, Ripley 1982).
Although Hume (1872–1873) stated that the species was a “permanent resident” in Sind
where it “regularly breeds”, the majority of individuals seen in Pakistan in the late twentiethcentury were migratory, disappearing in summer, probably to their Russian breeding grounds(Roberts 1991–1992). In November 1963, a “small scale migration” was occurring at Jati,
Sind (Holmes and Wright 1968–1969), presumably involving southbound migrants. In Dera
Ismail Khan district extreme dates recorded in the 1990s were 13 December to 28 March(Kylänpää 2000). In Tamil Nadu most records were between 15 November and 15 April(Nichols 1943–1945). The species is presumably erroneously listed as resident at Asan barrage,
Uttar Pradesh (Gandhi and Singh 1995a,b), Punjab, India (Singh 1993) and in the Sundarbans
of Bangladesh (see Khacher 1995b). It winters in Bangladesh between November and March(Millin 1987) and in Myanmar between October and March (Roseveare 1949, 1952), while in
Thailand records span from 6 October to March or April, although most are in midwinter,and the latest spring record from Khao Sam Roi Yot is 17 April 1995 (P. D. Round in litt.
1998). In Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, most early records are believed to be of passage
migrants (Medway and Wells 1976) although wintering has been regularly recorded recently
with extreme dates of mid-October and 5 May (Lim Aun Tiah 1998, Wells 1999). The species
seems to be highly mobile in this area, apparently following the staggered sequence of therice harvest from north to south (Wells 1999). A northbound migrant was seen passing throughLaos during April alongside small numbers of Grey-faced Buzzard, Pied Harriers Circus
melanoleucos and accipiters (Tobias 1997), and in Vietnam the species has been recorded on
migration with large numbers of raptors, including Amur Falcon Falco amurensis and Greyfaced Buzzard (A. W. Tordoff verbally 2000).
THREATS In Europe, Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, key threats are disturbance,
habitat destruction and hunting, and suitable habitat mosaics have been lost as a result ofafforestation and wetland drainage (Meyburg et al. in press). In eastern Europe, declines
have resulted from agricultural intensification and abandonment of traditional floodplain
management (A. Lõhmus in litt. 1999). Birds are intolerant of permanent human presence intheir breeding territories and will abandon them as a result of disturbance; forestry operations
are a major source of such disturbance, and shooting is a serious threat in Belarus, Poland,
Russia and the Mediterranean, together with deliberate and accidental poisoning acrossmuch of its range (Meyburg et al. in press). In Asia the main threats to this species are
declines in the availability of habitat and prey (see Karpowicz 1985, Scott 1989), and thesecentral issues are influenced by secondary factors such as disturbance, hunting and pollution.
In all these cases, the scale of threat is magnified by the large home ranges of individuals(and, therefore, the large size of breeding territories), and the highly migratory nature of thespecies, factors that eliminate the possibility of conserving viable breeding populations withinprotected areas, and that reduce the efficacy of the protected area approach in general.
Habitat loss Russia The preferred habitats of the species in central Siberia are those thathave been most extensively altered by human activities in the region (Rogacheva 1992). In its
breeding range in eastern Russia, for example, a large area of suitable wetland habitat waslost in the Irkutsk region when the Angara barrages were constructed in the 1950s and 1960s;
wetland loss is now less rapid in the area, but still continues, and in the past few years has
resulted in breeding territories being abandoned along the Korolok and Irkut rivers (V. V.
Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). Drainage has also considerably reduced the area of wetland habitats
in the Tunkinskaya and Barguzin valleys: in the former it is estimated that the area of wetlands
was reduced to 50% of its original extent or less by “soil-improvement” between 1960 and703

Threatened birds of Asia
1980 (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). The ploughing of steppes has reduced the area of habitat
suitable for hunting, and the numbers of an important prey species, Siberian suslik; moreover,spring fires damage vast areas of forest almost annually (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997), thereby
degrading the eagle’s nesting habitat (B. A. Voronov in litt. 1997).
China Deforestation and the drainage of wetland habitats are likely to be serious threatsin the Chinese breeding range (see Table 1), and habitat loss is probably the most important
threat to this species in Hong Kong (HKBWS in litt. 1997).
Table 1. Changes in the extent of natural habitats in the “mixed coniferous forest zone” of north-east
China. The data in this table are reproduced from MacKinnon et al. (1996), and show the estimated areas(both original and remaining in km2) of presumably suitable habitats within this species’s known breeding
range, and the area of each habitat estimated within existing protected areas. However, it is important tonote that this only gives an indication of the extent of reduction of presumed habitats, as there is no informationon the time-scale over which they have been lost, and this species does not necessarily occur throughout
each habitat in this part of China.
HabitatOriginal

Remaining%

Protected%

coniferous/broadleaf mixed forest
cold coniferous forest
deciduous broadleaf forest
temperate coniferous forest

46,073
188,662
289,652
10,85527,34987,457
157,696
4,342

59
46
54
40

1,500
3,428
4,016
65

3.3
1.8
1.4
0.6

Pakistan Koning (1976) noted the dramatic decline in raptors in Pakistan and pointed to“deforestation, drainage of marshes, land use and the use of pesticides” as the fundamental
causes. Until the late nineteenth century, the Indus river overflowed its banks every year,
flooding enormous areas and thus providing the habitat necessary for this species, butconstruction of “hundreds of miles of bunds and extensive canal systems” between the 1870s
and late 1930s prevented extensive flooding, reducing the wetlands, along with the eagle’s
prey and consequently its population (Eates 1937). At present, construction of a huge systemof irrigation canals and large storage reservoirs upstream of the barrages appears to havecompensated in part for the loss of original wetland habitat (see Showler and Davidson
1999, and Threats under Jerdon’s Babbler Chrysomma altirostre). However, diversion ofwater from rivers for irrigation in winter may affect prey distribution, and this factor,
exacerbated by ever-increasing population pressure on land in Pakistan (Savage 1972),
threatens to reduce raptor populations further. Details of threats to wetlands in Pakistan
appear under Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris.
India The decline of the species in India is attributed to “altering ecological conditions,natural or man-made”, and in particular to reclamation of wetlands (Ali and Ripley 1968–
1998). On a small scale, local people cut canals to drain water from wetlands, substantiallyreducing the amount of habitat available for waterbirds (Choudhury 1991), and on a larger
scale huge areas of wetland were converted to agriculture and industry or settled by people
during the twentieth century (Scott 1989). For example, Logtak lake in Manipur was once avery important site for waterbirds, but at least 40 km2 of peripheral habitat was reclaimed
for rice cultivation, and severe deforestation of the catchment resulted in increased siltation,
while Dihaila jheel in Madhya Pradesh is threatened by similar peripheral intensive land use,siltation, overfishing and heavy grazing (Scott 1989). Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes
infestation is also a problem on many wetlands in northern India and some form of control,
preferably mechanical rather than biological, needs to be exercised to preserve them (Scott1989). Harike lake in Punjab, for example, became clogged with this aquatic plant (Ali et al.
1981, Singh 1992): in 1980 only 40% of the lake was covered with it, while over 70% of thelake was covered in 1989, and 75% in 1994 (Scott 1989, Ladhar et al. 1994). This site also
suffers from siltation and is feared to be drying out and becoming unsuitable for wildlife (Aliet al. 1981, Scott 1989, Singh 1992). Deforestation and erosion of the catchment has accelerated
704

Aquila clanga
this process dramatically and, at current rates of shrinkage, the wetland will disappear in thenext century (Ladhar et al. 1994). Cattle-grazing is “rampant” in most Indian protectedareas and around most wetlands, and this factor is reducing the extent of habitat suitable forthis species (Scott 1989, Samant et al. 1995). These problems attend many Indian wetlands,
especially those in the north (Scott 1989); further accounts of relevant threats appear inequivalent sections under Pallas’s Fish-eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Sarus Crane Grus
antigone (with particular reference to Keoladeo and Sultanpur National Parks) and Baer’s
Pochard Aythya baeri (with reference to Deepor beel and other Assamese wetlands).
Nepal Loss of habitat is considered to be one of the main problems faced by this species
in Nepal (H. S. Baral in litt. 1998); see Threats under Pallas’s Fish-eagle.
Bangladesh Massive human population expansion in the twenty-first century (110 million
inhabitants in 1990 apparently destined to double by 2020) will undoubtedly exert hugepressure on wetlands and their resources in Bangladesh, with potentially disastrous effects
on their associated fauna (Wallace 1993). An account of threats to the Sundarbans appears
under Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus, while threats to wetlands in the Haor basin are
outlined under Pallas’s Fish-eagle and Baer’s Pochard.
Myanmar The drainage and development of wetlands is posing a considerable threat tothe species in a country that once boasted huge areas of undisturbed suitable habitat (Scott1989). Inle lake is silting up rapidly and most lowland areas are overrun with people, factors
that, added to the recurrent security problems that have curtailed attempts to survey wetlandsin the area, do not bode well for the prospects for wetland conservation in the country (Scott1989).
Thailand Natural or undisturbed wetlands are now in short supply in the country,
rendering it generally unsuitable for this eagle (see Threats under Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus
philippensis, White-shouldered Ibis Pseudibis davisoni and Baer’s Pochard). The central plainsof Thailand were once a vast expanse of low marshy country, but this has long been turned
into an urban sprawl with patches of paddyland, much of which is now converted to otherforms of arable agriculture; similarly, the area of northern Thailand from which records ofthis species derive has changed greatly in recent years owing to drainage, urbanisation andthe intensification of agriculture, involving a swing away from paddy in favour of dry arable
crops, such as tobacco, soya, etc. (Round et al. 1988, P. D. Round in litt. 1998). The freshwater
marsh in Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, one of the few regular wintering sites in the
country, has suffered greatly from “massive illegal encroachment” and disruption ofhydrology: plantations of casuarinas, eucalyptus and coconut palms have been establishedaround the margins of the area, while major prawn farms have been set up in its centre,
pumping salt or brackish water into previously freshwater areas (Parr 1991, P. D. Round inlitt. 1998). As this encroachment continues apace, wetland areas in and around the park facea bleak future: community support for the area is suppressed by the activities of wealthy
landlords, and there is little political resolve to facilitate the management process (Parr et al.
1993b, Oriental Bird Club Bull. 26 [1997]: 15–21).
Vietnam Accounts of past and future problems facing wetlands in the country appear
under Lesser Adjutant and Sarus Crane.
Peninsular Malaysia Most wetland habitats in the country have been converted to intensive
agriculture, or are heavily disturbed (DWNPPM 1987, Wells 1999).
Shortage of prey While quantification of this threat is lacking, intensive exploitation of
wetlands throughout the Asian wintering range of this species has undoubtedly reduced
populations of prey species such as reptiles, amphibians and wildfowl (see Scott 1989). India
In India the decline in wildfowl numbers owing to their over-exploitation has presumably
reduced food resources for this raptor (see equivalent section under Pallas’s Fish-eagle) (Aliet al. 1981, Scott 1989, Singh 1992). Nepal Shortage of prey is considered to be one of themain problems faced by this species in Nepal (H. S. Baral in litt. 1998). Myanmar At Inle
705

Threatened birds of Asia
lake the large human population subjects migratory wildfowl, which are apparently brought
to the markets in basketfuls, to intense hunting and trapping (Scott 1989), and this ispresumably reducing the availability of prey for the eagle there. Malaysia Post-harvest pest
control led to large numbers of dead rats being available in Malaysia during the 1980s, andthis apparently caused a rise in the number of wintering Greater Spotted Eagles in the country(Wells 1999). After a switch away from poisons to modification of rat breeding habitat andbiological controls, numbers declined again (Wells 1999). Singapore Recent changes in farming
techniques eliminated food sources and probably brought about a decline in the wintering
population (Wells 1999).
Disturbance Regular human presence in breeding territories of this species is highly
detrimental as pairs tend to abandon them (Meyburg et al. in press). Unfortunately, wetlands
in much of Asia are intensively utilised by people, especially in the wintering range (seeKarpowicz 1985, Scott 1989), and even at this season the effects are doubtless negative.
Russia Human disturbance is a significant threat to the species in eastern Russia, and in themost disturbed areas it is thought to lead to increased predation of nests by crows (V. V.
Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). Many nesting and hunting areas used by this species are popularplaces for recreational activities, fishing, haymaking, cattle-grazing and the construction ofsummer houses; for example, a pair stopped nesting near the Korolok river following theconstruction of a group of chalets close to the floodplain (V. A. Dugintsov in litt. 1997, V. V.
Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). India The huge rise in the human population has led to Indian wetlands
becoming increasingly overrun with fishermen, hunters and general human traffic, and thisin turn has led to increased disturbance and hunting and a diminution of habitat quality (Aliet al. 1981, Scott 1989, Singh 1992). At many Indian wetlands (e.g. Harike lake, Dihaila jheel
and Deepor beel) 24-hour fishing causes (or until very recently caused) much disturbance(Scott 1989, Barman et al. 1995; see Threats under Pallas’s Fish-eagle). Bangladesh As thearea of wetland in the country shrinks owing to drainage, and as human population levels
rapidly rise (see Threats under Lesser Adjutant), suitable habitat for this species suffers
increasing disturbance (Scott 1989, P. M. Thompson in litt. 1998).
Persecution This eagle, in common with most other large raptors, is threatened by heavy
persecution throughout much of its Asian range. The pressure is especially intense in theSouth-East Asian wintering grounds, and as a result the species has become scarce in that
region (P. D. Round in litt. 1998, Duckworth et al. 1999). Russia The wetlands in its breeding
range in eastern Russia are subject to heavy hunting pressure, even inside Tunkinskiy National
Park (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997); some accessible nests have been deliberately destroyedand eagles shot (Shibnev 1989, V. A. Dugintsov in litt. 1997). In central Siberia eggs arestolen and nests destroyed (Rogacheva 1992). China Illegal hunting is a problem in China(Gao Wei in litt. 1997). Pakistan The high level of hunting is a threat to wetland fauna inPakistan, and affects large raptors (see Ali 1928, 1936, Koning 1976, Scott 1989). India The
species is at least occasionally hunted in its wintering range (e.g. Choudhury 2000c); an
individual was killed in Gujarat with a “boomerang” (Brooks 1875b). Harike lake is threatened
by wildlife poachers (Singh 1992). Bangladesh Eagles are occasionally persecuted byleaseholders of wetlands in the north-east of the country, where they are regarded as huntersof fish and wildfowl and thus vermin (P. M. Thompson in litt. 2000). Myanmar Uncontrolled
hunting along with the drainage and development of wetlands is posing a considerable threat
to this species in Myanmar (Scott 1989; also see Threats under White-winged Duck Cairina
scutulata). Thailand In common with most other large birds, it is at risk from a continued
high level of hunting and direct persecution (P. D. Round in litt. 1998; see Threats underGreater Adjutant Leptoptilos dubius). A local farmer at Suphanburi, who on his own initiative
protects a breeding colony of cormorants, night-herons and egrets, has destroyed or captured
a number of Greater Spotted Eagles in the past, because they “ate his birds” (P. D. Round inlitt. 1998). Local people frequently hunt wildlife in the area around Khao Sam Roi Yot
706

Aquila clanga
National Park (Scott 1989, Parr et al. 1993b). Laos Shooting of birds is ubiquitous in the
country (Thewlis et al. 1998, Duckworth et al. 1999). Various species of raptor are hunted,
primarily for food, and both dead and live specimens, the latter often kept as pets, are tradedin urban markets (Baird 1993). In addition, the claws of raptors are used in traditional
medicine (Martin 1992). Vietnam Hunting is a serious problem in the country; see Threats
under Vietnamese Pheasant Lophura hatinhensis.
Pollution Although direct data showing the effects on aquatic ecosystems of high dosesof toxic chemicals and pesticides are scant in Asia, the position of this raptor high in thefood chain suggests that it is very likely to suffer—either through reduced prey populations
or an accumulation of poisons, or both—from the widespread and liberal application ofagricultural chemicals (e.g. persistent organochlorines) in the region (see equivalent sections
under White-winged Duck, Pallas’s Fish-eagle and Imperial Eagle). Russia A major part ofthe breeding range of the Greater Spotted Eagle in eastern Russia, the Irkutsk-Cheremkhovo
plain, is affected by aerial pollution from the industrial complexes around Irkutsk city, and
it is very likely that the birds are affected by these industrial toxins (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt.
1997). In central Siberia rodents, apparently the principal prey of the species, often carry
toxic pesticides (Rogacheva 1992). China Pollution is also likely to affect this species in China,
and it is possible that it is sometimes poisoned by baits put out to control rodents (Gao Wei
in litt. 1997). Pakistan Koning (1976) considered the use of pesticides to be one of thefundamental causes of the large declines in raptors reported in Pakistan. India In DibruSaikhowa National Park in Assam, thiodan, dieldrin and other pesticides are used in winterto kill fish, presumably with detrimental effects on wetland ecosystems (Choudhury 1995).
The wetlands at Bharatpur are threatened by contamination with industrial effluents andthe run-off of pesticides from nearby farmland (see Muralidharan 1992, Ramachandran andVijayan 1994). Logtak lake in Manipur is threatened by inflow of domestic sewage, pesticides
and fertilisers, which are causing rapid eutrophication (Scott 1989). Nepal The effect ofpesticides is thought to be one of the main problems faced by this species in Nepal (H. S. Baralin litt. 1998). Myanmar Although the problem of pollution might be widespread in Myanmar,
the only detail available is that the discharge of effluent into Inle lake is becoming potentiallyhazardous to the aquatic ecosystem (Scott 1989). Thailand In Thailand DDT and dieldrin,
two infamous persistent toxic chemicals, were found in water samples collected from protectedareas (Nakhasathien and Stewart-Cox 1990, Green 1992), and the use of these pesticides, aswell as fertilisers, is thought to be excessive (P. D. Round in litt. 1998). Malaysia The species’s
propensity to consume poisoned rats might have led to secondary poisoning, although thiswas not directly proven (Wells 1999).
MEASURES TAKEN In Europe, the Greater Spotted Eagle is legally protected in Belarus,
Estonia, France, Greece, Latvia, Poland, Romania and Russia (Meyburg et al. in press).
Protected zones around breeding sites have been established in Poland and are proposed in
Estonia (Lõhmus in litt. 1999). Many wintering localities in Greece are Ramsar sites, buteffective protection remains problematic; an International Lesser and Greater Spotted Eagle
Working Group has been established, and a draft international action plan was produced in
1997, while a national plan has been produced in Estonia (Meyburg et al. in press). In Asia,
some protection is afforded to this species by legislation, protected areas, habitat protection
measures and conservation education.
Legislation The Greater Spotter Eagle is listed on Appendix I of the CMS (BonnConvention, for which see Boere 1991). It is also listed on Appendix II of CITES. In Russia
it is listed as threatened in the national Red Data Book (Kolosov 1983), and in the regional
Red Data Books for Irkutsk and Buryatia (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). It is a nationallyprotected species (second class) in China (Conservation Division, Ministry of Forestry of
China 1994), India (Schedule I of the Wildlife Act 1972 [as “Accipitridae”], and a protected707

Threatened birds of Asia
species (category II–1) in both North Korea (despite the fact that there are no confirmed
records: see Distribution) and South Korea. In Myanmar eagles are protected as a group(Wildlife Act 1984). In Thailand it is nominally protected under WARPA, but this law isseldom enforced (P. D. Round in litt. 1998).
Protected areas It should be noted that the Greater Spotted Eagle is highly mobile andtherefore its occurrence in many protected areas is intermittent or based on single records
only. It should be borne in mind, therefore, that the following list of protected areas fromwhich it has been recorded probably contains many sites that will contribute little to its
conservation. Russia In eastern Russia, large areas of breeding and feeding habitat of thisspecies are inside Tunkinskiy and Zabaykalskiy National Parks and Kabanskiy Republic
Game Reserve (the Selenga delta, Buryatia), and pairs also probably nest in Pribaykal’skiy
National Park and Barguzinskiy Nature Reserve (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). However,this measure currently affords limited protection to the eagle, as its habitats inside all threenational parks are under pressure from recreational and agricultural activities (V. V. Ryabtsev
in litt. 1997). In Khabarovsk, Bolon’skiy Reserve is being established (centred on Lake Bolon’,
where this species nests) (B. A. Voronov in litt. 1997). It has also occurred at
Bol’shekhekhtsirskiy, Kedrovaya Pad’, Khinganskiy and Zeyskiy Nature Reserves. China It
is recorded from several protected areas in China, including Zhalong National Nature Reservein Heilongjiang, Xianghai Nature Reserve in Jilin, Horqin and Dalai Hu Nature Reserves inInner Mongolia, Yancheng and Da Feng Reserves in Jiangsu, and Wuyi Shan Nature Reservein Fujian, and it regularly winters in Mai Po Nature Reserve in Hong Kong (see Distribution).
Pakistan It has occurred at Drigh Lake Wildlife Sanctuary and Lal Suhanra National Park.
India Small numbers have been recorded in the following national parks: Bandhavgarh,
Borivli, Corbett, Dibru-Saikhowa, Dudhwa, Guindy, Kaziranga, Keoladeo, Manas, Orang,
Rajaji, Ranthambore and Sultanpur. It has occurred in Bhindawas, Bordoibam-Bilmukh,
Burhachapori, Chakrashila, Harike Lake, Rangananthitoo, Sariska and Pobitora Wildlife
Sanctuaries, and Deepor Beel, Nawabganj Priyadarshani, Panidihing, Patna andVedanthangal Sanctuaries; in Goa, the Salim Ali Sanctuary (1.8 km2) situated on Choraoisland is possibly of benefit to the species (Lainer 1999, P. Willoughby in litt. 1999), and a“safe haven” is also provided by the Ciba-Geigy factory reserve (Lainer 1999). Measurestaken at Harike Lake Wildfowl Sanctuary include the erection of a fence around the wetland,
manual clearance of water hyacinth after the failure of biological controls, and rewards
offered for information leading to the prosecution of poachers (Singh 1992). Dihaila jheellies at least partly in the Karera Bustard Sanctuary (but see Measures Taken under Great
Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps). The species has been listed for many other protected sites
by Samant et al. (1995), but these records are treated as unconfirmed (see Remarks 1). Nepal
It has occurred in Royal Chitwan National Park. Bangladesh Hail haor has been proposed
as a waterbird sanctuary in the past, but still receives no official protection; Tangua haorand Hakaluki haor are apparently to be proposed as Ramsar sites by the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests (P. M. Thompson in litt. 2000). A management plan for Tangua
haor was drafted in 1996–1997 as part of the national conservation strategy, but has notbeen implemented; indeed, the district administration and ministry of land have recentlyleased out fishing rights in Tangua haor after an earlier agreement to withhold permits pending
the conservation strategy (Bangladeshi newspaper report per P. M. Thompson in litt. 2000).
No measures have been taken in the coastal chars frequented by this species (P. M. Thompson
in litt. 2000). Details of conservation measures in the Sundarbans appear in the equivalent
section under Lesser Adjutant. Myanmar Records have come from Mohingyi Wetland
Sanctuary, with one or two individuals apparently regular in winter. Thailand This eagle has
been recorded on passage in Doi Inthanon National Park and it usually winters in Khao
Sam Roi Yot National Park. The inclusion (since c.1983) of a major part of the Thung Sam
Roi Yot freshwater marsh within the boundary of this protected area has unfortunately
708

Aquila clanga
been ignored by park chiefs, who are either intimidated by or in active collusion with influential
local business interests (Parr et al. 1993b). A campaign to save the national park wasundertaken in 1991 with funds provided by the Oriental Bird Club (Parr et al. 1993; see also
Oriental Bird Club Bull. 26 [1997]: 15–21). Cambodia The species has been seen at the newly
established Ang Trapeang Thmor Reserve. Vietnam Wintering birds visit Ba Na, Tram Chimand U Minh Thoung Nature Reserves, the latter two being in the Mekong delta region.
MEASURES PROPOSED In Europe, an improvement in the conservation status of thisspecies is anticipated to follow: protecting important breeding areas; maintaining wet meadowsby traditional methods; regulating forestry activities to minimise disturbance; prudent
guarding of nests in May–June to prevent disturbance; stopping illegal shooting; investigating
lead poisoning from ingestion of prey; raising awareness of local people on the importanceof conserving the species; and surveying the range and population of both this and Lesser
Spotted Eagle A. pomarina, especially where the two appear to overlap; a full account ofthese and other plans in the western portion of the range is given by Meyburg et al. (1997).
Initiatives and proposals in the Asian range, relating to protected areas, habitat protection,
research and conservation education, are detailed below.
Control of pollution and persecution While bans on keeping this species in captivity andselling its skins in Russia have been called for (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997), and enforced
legal protection from hunting and poisoning is urged in Laos (Duckworth et al. 1999), suchmeasures should be implemented throughout its range. Furthermore, efforts should be
mounted to suppress illegal hunting of wildlife in Thailand (Scott 1989). Similarly, newinitiatives are needed throughout its range to minimise the quantity and toxicity of agriculturalchemicals and industrial effluents.
Protected areas Apart from the almost universal need to strengthen the institutions
responsible for site protection (see Measures Proposed under White-winged Duck), thefollowing measures are necessary. Russia In eastern Russia improved protection of nests ofthis species inside Tunkinskiy, Zabaykal’skiy and Pribaykal’skiy National Parks is needed,and should be achieved by establishing “protecting zones” around the nest sites (V. V.
Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). Two new protected areas should be established for this (and other)
species in Buryatia, in the Barguzinskaya valley (a nature reserve or game reserve) and the
Uoyan–Kumora extension to the Verkhnyaya Angara riverine floodplain (a game reserve)(V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). The creation of new protected areas for the conservation ofthis species and their habitats is also necessary in Khabarovsk, Amur and Primorye (Shibnev
1989, Y. N. Nazarov in litt. 1997, B. A. Voronov in litt. 1997). India Strict protection of large
wetland reserves is a priority. Some sites deserve sanctuary status, such as Namora reservoir
in Uttar Pradesh (Rahmani 1989f, S. Javed in litt. 1999) and Carambolin lake in Goa (Lainer1999). Dihaila jheel in the erstwhile Karera Bustard Sanctuary (see Measures Proposed underGreat Indian Bustard) might qualify for Ramsar status, and a suite of activities, such as thecontrol of grazing and water use, acquisition by the Forestry Department and developmentof tourist and research facilities, has been proposed by Rahmani (1987c) with a view toconserving this site properly. Protection of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries in Assamshould be strengthened (Choudhury 2000c). Measures proposed at Keoladeo National Park
(currently the most important single site for the species in its Asian wintering range) are
outlined under Sarus Crane. Bangladesh The freshwater marshes in the Haor basin of
Bangladesh should be protected (Rashid 1993; see equivalent section under Pallas’s Fisheagle). Myanmar Inle lake has been proposed as a wildlife sanctuary (Scott 1989, Lwin 1995).
A system of wetland reserves needs to be incorporated into the national framework ofprotected areas (Lwin 1995). Thailand Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, including theentire freshwater marsh, should be nominated as a Ramsar site and increased pressure puton the government to find ways to manage it sustainably (Scott 1989, Parr et al. 1993b). The
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Threatened birds of Asia
central plain of Thailand should be zoned for land-use purposes so as to limit urban sprawl(P. D. Round in litt. 1998). Laos The protected-area system in Laos is heavily weighted
towards forested areas, and provides poor coverage for open-country taxa such as this eagle.
For this reason, it is particularly urgent to declare the Dong Khantung area in the far south
as an NBCA: it contains many wetlands and areas of open “park-like” forest suitable for the
species (J. W. Duckworth in litt. 2000; see equivalent section under Sarus Crane). Cambodia
Further wetland and grassland protected areas are required in Cambodia to support thisspecies and other threatened birds in northern Cambodia (see equivalent section under GiantIbis Thaumatibis gigantea and Bengal Florican Houbaropsis bengalensis). Vietnam Additional
protected areas are required in the Mekong delta region (Buckton et al. 1999). Proposals forTram Chim Nature Reserve and U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve appear under Sarus Crane
and White-shouldered Ibis Pseudibis davisoni.
Research Research is required into the effects of industrial pollution on this species andits habitats in the Irkutsk region and elsewhere (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). Surveys inmany range countries should clarify the current breeding and non-breeding distributions of
the species (see, e.g. Rashid 1993); key sites need regular visits or standardised counts so thattrends in status can be tracked. Another major component of research activity should be theinvestigation of the species’s ecology and threats in the nesting and wintering grounds. Russia
The nest sites in the Irkutsk-Cheremkhovo plain in need to be located, with the aim ofdetermining new areas suitable as nature reserves; an inventory of nest-sites would allow theregular monitoring of breeding success (V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997). The distribution of thespecies is poorly known in the Khabarovsk, Amur and Primorye regions, and similar surveys
are required there (V. A. Dugintsov in litt. 1997, B. A. Voronov in litt. 1997).
Education Publicity campaigns and the distribution of literature in important areas forthis species could be used to try to control hunting, habitat loss, pollution, pesticide use andother threats, including eastern Russia (V. A. Dugintsov in litt. 1997, V. V. Ryabtsev in litt.
1997), the Indus valley of Pakistan (see Koning 1976), the Haor basin and Sundarbans ofBangladesh (P. M. Thompson in litt. 1999), and rural areas of Thailand. In Laos the poster
campaign run by CPAWM/WCS, which focused on raising awareness of the role of raptors
in controlling crop pests, should be continued for several years (Duckworth et al. 1999). In
northern Cambodia the species and its conservation should be incorporated into ongoingeducation schemes, alongside similar initiatives for Bengal Florican and large waterbirds(see relevant accounts).
REMARKS (1) The identification of this and other Aquila eagles is sometimes difficult (see,e.g., Harris et al. 1989), and it is some sight records (and even some specimen records) listed
in under Distribution may have involved misidentifications. Where uncertainty appeared toexist, records have been omitted; as, in general, are early records of breeding merely basedon egg data (see Remarks 3). Related to this is the confusion of early taxonomy andnomenclature of Aquila eagles (particularly rapax, nipalensis, heliaca, clanga and pomarina),a factor leading to many mistaken reports and puzzling publications. For example, although
A. naevia sometimes = A. pomarina (Lesser Spotted Eagle; see, e.g., Seebohm 1882, Ticehurst
1922–1924), A. naevia also often = A. clanga (see, e.g., Hume 1872–1873, Brooks 1873, 1875b)
and thus the early record of these forms is strewn with pitfalls. Again, any ambiguous historical
records are omitted (the aquatic habitat favoured by true clanga in the non-breeding season
was a helpful guide to the likely validity of some). More recently, A. clanga was listed formany Indian protected areas by Samant et al. (1995), possibly hypothetically. While many ofthese records might be accurate, they are not supported by evidence and several are clearly inerror; all are therefore omitted. (2) Although Roberts (1991–1992) stated that the species
had not been observed in Baluchistan, there appear to be a few acceptable records. (3) Several
scattered breeding reports in the Indian subcontinent were listed by Hume and Oates (1889–
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1890) and Baker (1922–1930, 1932–1935), many of which, given the problems in identificationof Aquila eagles in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are here treated as
unconfirmed. Breeding may have taken place in Gujarat (as with Pallas’s Fish-eagle Haliaeetus
leucoryphus: see relevant account); this is suggested by the fact the female of a pair collected
there by Ali (1954–1955) had enlarged ovaries (in January, matching some breeding dates innearby Sind; see also Dharmakumarsinhji 1954). In Maharashtra, a breeding record fromthe Satpuras, “Khandesh”, April 1884 (BMNH egg data; and presumably the Tapti valley
breeding record in April of an unspecified year mentioned by Barnes 1888–1891), is omitted
here. Other breeding records (or possibly the same record) from near Siliguri and in the terai
of “Sikkim” (both present-day West Bengal) (Brooks 1879, Hume and Oates 1889–1890) aretreated as unconfirmed. (4) Many towns of this name are found in Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Bihar, and thus it is difficult to ascertain where all the“Futtegurh” specimens were collected. However, A. Anderson (a collector of some of theabove specimens) worked for a time at Fategarh on the Ganges in the early 1870s, so it isassumed that some, if not all, the specimens listed come from that particular region.
(5) Records given by Choudhury (2000c) were received too late to include in the mapping
process. (6) Although two birds seen in July 1879 at Kamaulai, Tenasserim (Taninthayi),
southern Myanmar, were thought to be this species (Bingham 1879a), they were probably
misidentified given the season; Tenasserim is given as part of the range of the species by
Smythies (1986), probably on the basis of this discounted record. (7) In one case, the nesttree fell down before the eggs hatched, but the two eggs were unharmed and hatched on the
ground, and one chick was successfully fledged; this success was probably a result of thehigh water level in the surrounding swamps, which helped protect the nest contents from thearea’s numerous potential predators, e.g. badger Meles meles, racoon-dog Nyctereutes
procyonoides and fox Vulpes vulpes (Sonin and Ryabtsev 1993, V. V. Ryabtsev in litt. 1997).

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