Anti-Doping Regulations and theSignificance of Public Opinion:
an Analysis of Public Opinion in Singapore,
Japan and the UK on Issues of Fairness
and Integrity in Sport

November 2018
(FY2018)
Copyright©JAPAN Anti-Doping Agency | All Rights Reserved.

This research was Commissioned to Loughborough University by the Japan
Anti-Doping Agency as part of the “PLAY TRUE 2020, Sport for Tomorrow”
project. It is intended to promote social science research for anti-doping
activity and the evidence-based education programme.
This paper was prepared by Prof. Barrie Houlihan, Prof. Paul Downward andHarish Kumar, Loughborough University.

Table of content

Executive summary

31.0

Introduction

72.0

Profiles of Singapore, Japan and the United Kingdom

93.0

Public opinion in Singapore, Japan and the UK on
aspects of doping in sport

13

Public opinion on selected ethical issues in sportin Singapore, Japan and the United Kingdom

33

Discussion and conclusions

67

4.0

5.0

References

71

Appendix72

Executive summary
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The analysis of the data from Singapore reinforced rather thanchallenged the conclusions reached in the previous 2017 report on
Japanese and UK public opinion on doping and other ethical issues.
The data indicate more substantial differences in opinion regarding
doping between males and females than between ages although
opposition to doping tends to increase with age.
In Singapore, Japan and the UK the most common bases for
opposition to doping were the values of sport or the spirit of fair playrather than other possibilities such as potential damage to an athlete’shealth. Concern with damage to the athlete’s health received very lowscores in all three countries.
In assessing the qualities needed by elite athletes respondents inSingapore and the UK tended to identify similar qualities (including‘hard work and determination’, ‘respect, justice and fair play’ and‘respecting rules such as anti-doping’). Japanese respondents
identified similar qualities, but gave greater weight to ‘mental strength’and ‘excellent performance ability’.
In assessing the qualities needed by elite athletes by genderSingaporean males and females recorded very similar responses
although Singaporean females (10%) gave greater weight to ‘respect,justice and fair play’ than Singaporean males (8.4%), but even here thedifference was not substantial. Japanese females tended to give
greater weight than Japanese men to affective qualities (including selfanalysis, enjoyment, projection of joy, sincerity and confidence)
whereas Japanese men tended to give greater weight to the personal(instrumental) qualities required for success (including, strong body,performance ability, competition success, strong personality anddecision-making ability). There was a similar pattern among UK males
and females but the contrast was not so pronounced.
There is a high level of consistency in opinion on the ethical issues
within the three countries whether compared by gender, age or thelevel of participation in sport.
When the data from the three countries were analysed by the extent ofparticipation in sport the most striking observation was the lack of
substantial variation in the assessments of fairness of the various
actions between those who participated frequently (once or more aweek or one to three times a month) and those who rarely if ever took
part in sport or sport-related physical activities.

In relation to the ethical issues the results of the analysis of the data wereas follows:‘Taking illegal substance as opponent had done the same’.
•There was considerable consistency of opinion in all three countries
irrespective of the level of participation in sport in terms of athletes
finding this unfair..

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There was little difference in the opinions expressed by Japanesemales and females with 86.1% and 82.5% respectively considering
the action ‘unfair’1. Similarly there was little difference in theopinions expressed by Singaporean males (81.7%) and females(84.2%).
A wider gap was evident between UK males and females withalmost a quarter (23.3%) of UK males considering the action ‘fair’by comparison to only 14.9% of UK females.
While the proportion of Japanese males (86.1%) who considered
the action to be ‘unfair’ was almost 10 percentage points higher
than UK males (76.7%) the pattern was reversed for Japanese(82.5%) and UK (85.1%) females with the latter being slightly more
inclined to consider the action ‘unfair’. The data for Singaporeanmales and females lay almost exactly midway between the figures
for the other two countries.
With regard to changes in opinion with age the pattern in Japan andthe UK both was the same insofar as the proportion of respondents
that considered the action ‘unfair’ increased with age. In Singapore
the proportion considering the action ‘unfair’ was relatively steadyacross the age groups.

‘Taking same PEDS but receiving a longer ban than an athlete inanother sport’.
• Singaporean respondents were slightly more likely to refer totheir own beliefs and values as the reason for considering thisaction ‘unfair’. However, ‘conditions aren’t equal between
athletes’ was the most frequently mentioned reason in all threecountries.
• There was little variation in opinion within the three countries
when data were analysed by watching sport at a venue or
listening to/watching sport on the radio/television.
• A higher proportion of female respondents than male in all three
countries considered the action ‘unfair’ although the differenceswere not great. Differences by age were modest except amongthe 15-19 age group where the Japanese cohort was ten
percentage points less likely to considered the action ‘unfair’than UK respondents and almost 18 percentage points lesslikely than Singaporean respondents.
‘Unable to sleep so take energy drink next morning before competition’.
• In all three countries ‘conditions aren’t equal between athletes’
was the most commonly cited reason for considering the action‘unfair’. However, as with the previous action Singaporean
respondents mentioned ‘against own beliefs and values’ more
frequently than UK respondents and slightly more frequently
than Japanese respondents.
1 In order to avoid extensive repetition in the text the terms ‘fair’ and ‘unfair’incorporate the survey responses ‘very fair’ or ‘very unfair’.

••Singapore, UK and Japanese females had broadly similar
opinions, but UK males (77.3%) were more likely to assess theaction as ‘fair’ than Japanese males (66.5%) or Singaporeanmales (66.7%).
UK respondents were more likely than Singaporean andJapanese respondents to assess the action as ‘fair’ across thefirst three age groups. It was only among the 60-79 age groupthat the proportion considering the action ‘fair’ was similar
across the three countries (between 63.2% and 66.9%).

‘Access to latest technology and now winning’.
• Overall opinion is similar with around one-third of the respondents
in each country (Singapore 32.2%, Japan 38.9% and UK 35.8%)
considering the action ‘unfair’.
• In all three countries the extent of participation in sport and physicalexercise has little impact on the pattern of responses. Equality ofconditions between athletes is the dominant justification for
considering the action ‘unfair’ in all three countries. Singapore tends
to follow the pattern of opinion evident in both Japan and the UK
although mention of ‘against the norms and values of sport’declines with the decrease in sport participation.
• In all three countries the dominant reason is one that is not specificto sport but applicable to a broad range of social/businesssituations.
‘Had laser eye surgery and now winning’.
• There was a strong opinion in all three countries that the action was‘fair’ (86.0% in Singapore, 86.8% in Japan and 95% in UK).
• A larger proportion of both UK men and women and UK
respondents from all age groups than Singaporean and Japanese
respondents considered the action to be ‘fair’.
• In both Japan and the UK the proportion assessing the action as‘fair’ increased with age, but in Singapore the proportion
considering the action ‘fair’ remained broadly the same across age
groups.
• Those that considered the action ‘unfair’ gave ‘conditions aren’t
equal between athletes’ as their main reason.
‘Lose preliminary round intentionally to avoid tough opponent’.
• A substantially higher proportion of Japanese respondents (41.6%)
than either Singaporean (32.7%) or UK (29.6%) considered this action
to be ‘fair’.
• The gap was widest among females with 37% of Japanese femalesconsidering the action to be ‘fair’ in contrast with 21.1% of UK females
and 26.8% of Singaporean females.
• Males in all three countries were more likely than females to assess
this action as ‘fair’.
• Singaporean and UK respondents were more likely to refer to ‘own
beliefs and values’ as the reason for their decision than Japanese••respondents. This reason was more common in the UK in response tothis issue than in response to most of the previous issues perhaps
suggesting a mix of sporting and broader social values informed theirassessment.
Among the Japanese respondents reference to ‘disrespecting’ theopponent was a more common reason than among Singaporean andUK respondents perhaps indicating the importance of demonstrating
respect in Japanese society.
As with previous issues the extent of participation in sport or whether
sport was watched seemed not to impact the source of the assessment
about unfairness.

‘Intentionally put opponent at a disadvantage’.
• The UK respondents are much more likely than either theSingaporean or Japanese respondents to assess this action as‘fair’.
• The highest proportion assessing the action as ‘fair’ was from UK
males (65%)• Among those who considered the action ‘unfair’ the most common
reason was ‘against the norms and ethics of sport’ although ‘against
own beliefs and values’ was a prominent reason given by
respondents in Singapore and the UK.
Not objecting to a wrong call by a referee that is in your favour• The pattern of responses in Singapore and the UK was very similar.
The larger proportion of respondents referring to one’s ‘own beliefs andvalues’ might be explained by the ease of transferring the action toother social or work contexts. However, a sport-related reason (‘againstthe norms and ethics of sport’) was also frequently mentioned in bothcountries.
‘Make fun of rival during competition’.
• Japan and the UK produced very similar set of responses with 69%
and 71% respectively considering the action ‘unfair’. A higher
proportion of respondents in Singapore (80.7%) considered the action‘unfair’.
• Male respondents in all three countries were more likely than female
respondents to assess the action as ‘fair’.
• The level of involvement in sport (participating, watching orviewing/listening) had little impact on the assessment of the issues.
• Although the prominence varies between Singapore, Japan and the UK
all three countries emphasised ‘respect’ in their assessment. Japanese
respondents mention a non-sport/social reason (relationship withothers) whereas Singapore and the UK respondents gave greater
weight to the sport-related reason - ‘respect’ for competitors.