Gender Expression from the Jomon to Yayoi
Periods in Western Japan: A Case Study of Ritual
Tooth Extraction
FUNAHASHI Kyōko1
ABSTRACTThe ritual tooth ablation from Jomon to Yayoi in Japanese archipelago has never been discussed
from the point of view of gender. In this paper, I focused on the relationship between socialorganization and ritual tooth ablation based on the gender viewpoint. In this article, I examined therelationship of a type of tooth ablation at a coming of age and sex diﬀerence, mortuary practices
based on the analysis of human skeletal remains from burial sites located in the western half ofHonsyu and Kyushu islands within Japanese archipelago during the Final Jomon and Early Yayoi
period. Based upon the analysis, I suggest the following: X) between the Final Jomon and the Early
Yayoi periods, tooth ablation custom in terms of gender expression was diﬀerent between Westernand Eastern Japan, and Y) In the same burial site, the meaning of the tooth ablation might bechanged by a diﬀerence of the time. Z) the meaning(s) of tooth ablation, including gender-related
expressions, and its socio-cultural background co-transformed.
KEYWORDS: gender expression, tooth ablation, mortuary practice, moiety, social divisionThis study investigates the way gender and other social divisions were expressed during
the Jomon and Yayoi periods by examining the practice of ritual tooth extraction and its
socio-cultural background. Although until the 1990s there were few studies of ancientsociety in the Japanese archipelago that were conducted from the perspective of “gender,”from the 2000s onward a number of studies pointed to the importance of gender as ananalytical viewpoint (e.g., Matsumoto 2008). However, this perspective has never been
applied in the analysis of ritual tooth ablation to reconstruct prehistoric society during the
Jomon and Yayoi periods in the Japanese archipelago.

Emergence of the “village descent” model of tooth ablation
In early research on ritual tooth ablation in the Jomon and Yayoi periods, gender diﬀerence
had already been identiﬁed as correlating with types of teeth extraction (Hasebe 1919;
Kaneseki 1951). However, that correlation was not argued in terms of its social meaning,
because these studies were conducted before an awareness of the gender viewpoint
1 Faculty of Social & Cultural Studies, Kyushu University, 744 Moto’oka, Nishi Ward, Fukuoka 819–0395,

Japan (funahashi.kyoko.038@m.kyushu-u.ac.jp)
Category: Original Article Received: 15 September 2021; Accepted: 30 October 2021
JAPANESE JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 9 (2022): 145–172

FUNAHASHI Kyōko

emerged.
In the decades after World WarII, especially from the 1970s, the ancient ritual of tooth
ablation came to be studied systematically in terms of the social signiﬁcance of bodymodiﬁcation. Pioneering works aimed to reconstruct kinship organization and post-marital
residential rules through analysis of ritual tooth extraction (Harunari 1973, 1974, 1979, 1980).
As a consequence of such studies, a hypothesis was advanced interpreting diﬀerent typesof tooth ablation as reﬂecting social divisions in accordance with village lines of descent(e.g., Harunari 1995). Because these studies paved the way for reconstructing ancient kinshiporganization and post-marital residential rules in the prehistoric era, subsequent research has
been aﬀected by Harunari’s interpretive model. Although the model led to analysis of therituals and studies focusing intensively on reconstruction of past society, the early ﬁndings ofthe interrelationship between sex diﬀerence and types of ritual tooth ablation (Hasebe 1919;
Kaneseki 1951) were excluded from this research trend. As a result, the ritual has not been
examined in terms of gender perspective (Funahashi 2004, 2010, 2019).

Critical studies on ritual tooth ablation during the Jomon period
Although Harunari’s “village descent hypothesis” had had an impact on research relating
to ritual tooth extraction, several studies emerged to critique the model from both thearchaeological and anthropological viewpoints. Physical anthropological studies, analyzing
genetically inheritable metric and non-metric traits of both teeth and the cranium, did notverify any signiﬁcant kinship relationship with classiﬁcatory variations of tooth ablation(Tanaka and Doi 1988; Hashimoto and Baba 1998; Mori and Oku 1998; Tanaka 2001).
In addition to critical work in physical anthropology, the appropriateness of the “village
descent hypothesis” in reconstructing prehistoric society was reconsidered, and tooth
extraction types were interpreted as reﬂecting moiety based on social-anthropologicaloutcomes (Tanaka 1998). These critiques of the powerful existing hypothesis focused on
kinship relations, but gender perspective was not integrated into them.
Previous research, however, examines the ritual in terms of two aspects: the nature of theritual, through methodological reﬁnements for study of the age at which teeth were ablated,
and the social principles, including gender, reﬂected in tooth ablation (Funahashi 2003, 2006,2010). Although the “village descent hypothesis” was formulated on the speculation that
teeth were extracted during marriage rites (Harunari 1973), the timing of the tooth extraction
during the individual’s lifetime needs to be clariﬁed. Anthropological re-examinations of
the age of tooth extraction in the Jomon and Yayoi periods revealed inconsistency with the“village descent hypothesis” regarding timing of the ritual (Funahashi 2000, 2003). The
results showed that during the Final Jomon period there were two moments of ritual tooth
extraction in each lifetime. The ﬁrst mean age group of teeth modiﬁcation was 13–16 years© Japanese Archaeological Association

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GENDER EXPRESSION FROM THE JOMON TO YAYOI PERIODS IN WESTERN JAPANold; among them the youngest case was approximately 11 years of age. The second timingof modiﬁcation was after 20 years of age. Furthermore, in most cases the ﬁrst moment of
extraction is younger than the youngest age of females who had experienced pregnancy
based on analysis of the pre-auricular groove. These results indicate that the initial ritualof tooth extraction during the Final Jomon period was in general conducted on individuals
who had not yet married. Alternatively, taking into account the results for the ﬁrst age group,
initial tooth extraction might have been conducted as part of a ritual of initiation into adultstatus. In this ritual moment for entering adulthood in the society, the teeth were ablated
in accordance with certain social ties such as moiety and gender that operated as dividing/integrating categorical devices within the regional society (Funahashi 2008, 2010). Later,
Harunari changed his “village descent model” to a moiety model (Harunari 2013).
Subsequent to these critical studies, the “village descent model” was tested by several
isotope analyses (Kusaka et al. 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2018; Temple et al. 2011). Amongthem, Sr isotope analysis rejected Harunari’s hypothetical model (Kusaka et al. 2009,2011). Alternatively, typological diﬀerences of tooth ablation were argued to reﬂect various
levels of social segmental units such as “lineage-based subsistence procurement groups”
in terms of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis (Kusaka et al. 2008), and “kinbased descent groups” in terms of metric analysis of crania and ﬁrst molars (Temple et al.
2011). In addition to these arguments, the type diﬀerences of tooth extraction were alsodeﬁned as symbolizing “the kinship of individuals” or “relatedness” in a recent study ofthe chronological reﬁnement by radiocarbon dating (Kusaka et al. 2018).
In contrast to the rich research climate pertaining to ritual tooth ablation during the
Jomon period, there were far fewer studies conducted on the ritual in the Yayoi period,and post-marital residential rules and descent systems were argued to be the basis for thesocial divisions (Harunari 1974; Yamada 1997; Funahashi 2000). In addition to prevailingresearch, a few studies referred to gender as a possible candidate for the social dividing
rule, which was reﬂected in the style of ritual tooth extraction (Funahashi 2006, 2010).
As seen in the above-mentioned research, ritual tooth ablation has been studied in
its relationship to the social order, which might be reﬂected in the diﬀerences of teeth
removal. The main social categories were in particular various kinds or levels of kingroups, which were argued to be associated with tooth extraction. However, to properly
describe the social background expressed in teeth modiﬁcation, it is necessary to consider
the existence of various other social divisions depending on the developmental stage ofeach of the societies (Tanaka 1998). In this sense, the principles of gender should also
be considered as a fundamental axis for dividing and integrating societies. Previously,
the author has researched ritual tooth extraction in the prehistoric Japanese archipelago
from the gender perspective (e.g., Funahashi 2010). In the present study, the meaningsof ritual tooth extraction and their transformation will be reviewed with focus on gender© Japanese Archaeological Association

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FUNAHASHI Kyōko

Table 1.

Materials used in the study
Number of skeletal remains

No. onthe map

Name of site

Phase

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Ikawadu
YoshigoInariyama
Hobi
TsukumoŌtomo
Shinmatchi
Sasai
Kannenokuma
Arita

11

Nishihiratsuka

12

Monden

13

Hara

14

Yshigaura

Final Jomon
Final Jomon
Final Jomon
Final Jomon
Final Jomon
Early Yayoi
Early Yayoi
Early Yayoi
Yayoi
The ﬁrst half ofMiddle Yayoi
The early protion of
Middle Yayoi
The early protion of
Middle Yayoi
The middle and laterof Middle Yayoi
The second half ofMiddle Yayoi

15

Hasakonomiya

16

Syoubaru

17

Kitsunezuka

18

Nishijima

19

Tateiwa20

Yamamura

Male

FemaleUnknown

Total

16
58
12
26
42
5
2
—
25
1

14
38
15
38
37
3
2
3
25
1

2
2
2
2
6
—
—
—
—
—

32
98
29
66
85
8
4
3
50
2

3

3

—

6

3

1

—

4

3

7

1

11

5

6

1

12

The ﬁrst half ofMiddle Yayoi
The ﬁrst half ofMiddle Yayoi

6

—

—

6

4

—

—

4

The ﬁrst half of Middle
and Late Yayoi
The ﬁrst half of Middle
and Late Yayoi
The second half ofMiddle Yayoi
The early protion of
Middle Yayoi

33

20

3

56

1

1

—

2

2

1

—

3

1

—

—

1

248

215

19

482

Total

© Japanese Archaeological Association

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perspective as a kind of social segmenting/integrating principle.

Materials and methods
Data used in the following analysis was skeletal remains found at burial sites of the Final
Jomon period and the Yayoi period.
These burial sites are located in the western half of Honshu and Kyushu islands within
the Japanese archipelago.
The periods of each burial site and skeletal remains are based upon the typochronological system of pottery.
The principal aim of the following analyses is to uncover a principle or rule behind thevarious types of tooth extraction. Methodologically, the research constitutes two goals:ﬁrstly, to reconstruct the nature of the ritual in which teeth were ablated, and secondly,

Figure 1.

Map and location of the sites used in the study© Japanese Archaeological Association

149

FUNAHASHI Kyōko

Figure 2.

Chronological system based on Kobayashi and Hashiguchi© Japanese Archaeological Association

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GENDER EXPRESSION FROM THE JOMON TO YAYOI PERIODS IN WESTERN JAPANto hypothesize the principles or rules that gave rise to the various types of resultant tooth
extraction. The social principles behind the typological variations of tooth ablation relate
to the nature of rites of passage. The timing of ritual tooth extraction was already identiﬁed
as initiation into adult status in the case of this study’s sample (Funahashi 2000, 2003). So,
the present study mainly focuses on the social dividing/integrating principle which wasemphasized by tooth extraction, while partly reconsidering ritual meanings. Taking into
consideration previous ethnographical and osteoarchaeological studies (Funahashi 2003), I
will ﬁrstly construct hypotheses about the social meaning reﬂected in tooth extraction andthen examine the test implications of those hypotheses.
According to several ethnographic examples, initiation rites into adult status subsumed
simultaneous admission into either religious, subsistence, or age groups (Beaglehole 1937;
Evans-Pritchard 1940; Radcliﬀe-Brown 1948; Turnbull 1962, 1965; Venema 1978; Clemmer
1995). These various kinds of sub-groups relied on gender as one of their important dividing
principles. In contrast to these ethnographies, rituals of initiation seen in other ethnographic
cases indicated that the primary social dividing rule was fulﬁlled by kinship groups (e.g.,Firth 1936). Although an ethno-archaeological study shows that kin groupings are scarcely
expressed in the archaeological remains of various mortuary practices, units of kin may havebeen expressed through these spatial sub-groups or divisions (O’Shea 1984).
In regard to these archaeological and ethnographic implications, it is necessary to clarify
what kind of socially segmented units are associated with the variation seen in the types of
tooth extraction. In order to make clear the inter-relationship between the social entity andits reﬂection in the method of tooth ablation, types and frequencies of tooth extraction will

Figure 3.
records

Rite of passage and its relation with social aspect and resultant osteoarchaeological© Japanese Archaeological Association

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FUNAHASHI Kyōko

be examined in terms of their relationship to various aspects of funerary treatment of thedead: male/female diﬀerence, burial type including reburial, burial goods, and the spatial
sub-groups within a graveyard.
To clarify the principles of social division behind ritual tooth extraction, classiﬁcation of
the extracted teeth is a fundamental point of analysis. During the Final Jomon and Early Yayoi
periods, many teeth were extracted per person at the same rite of passage, such as initiation
into adult status (Funahashi 2003, 2004), and most cases can be classiﬁed into a number oftypes. Both extracting teeth and its consequences are expected to have visual impact not onlyin the ritual context but also in the context of the subsequent ordinary life of the individual
because most of the extracted teeth are frontal, i.e. highly visible ones. Thus, it is useful toclassify the various types of ablated teeth in the same rite in terms of visual similarity forsucceeding estimations of social divisions expressed through the teeth modiﬁcation.

Figure 4.

Two broad categories of the tooth extraction types© Japanese Archaeological Association

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GENDER EXPRESSION FROM THE JOMON TO YAYOI PERIODS IN WESTERN JAPANAs far as variation seen in tooth extraction during the Final Jomon and Early Yayoi
periods is concerned, ablation of mandibular frontal teeth can be a key attribute for visual
categorization into either a wider or narrower vacancy in the lower jaw. According to thisclassiﬁcation reﬂecting the diﬀerence in visual impact, it can be divided into two types:
Type 1 is an extraction of 0 to 4 lower frontal teeth, which creates a narrow or no space
between the remaining teeth; Type 2 is an extraction of 4 to 6 lower frontal adjacent teeth,
which makes a wider space between the remaining teeth. There are a certain number ofindividuals who had not experienced tooth extraction during their sub-adult phase. These
people would have belonged to a social category which did not need to emphasize achange in appearance by the custom of tooth extraction. However, this population might
have been demonstrating the visual eﬀects of coming-of-age rituals or social category
in some other body modiﬁcation (e.g., tattoos or piercings). Concerning these visuallyunchanged types, the non-extracted cases are included in Type 1.
From an archaeological perspective, other mortuary practices will be analyzed inrelation to diﬀerences in tooth ablation. According to Harunari, two groups of diﬀerent
types of tooth extraction correspond to the possession/non-possession of grave goods. The
correlation between these two attributes was thought to suggest social inequality (Harunari1979). To test this argument, burial goods will be examined in terms of their relation to thetypes of tooth extraction.
In addition to these archaeological methods, the physical anthropological method will
be used to eﬀectively estimate the relationship between the variation of tooth ablation andkin groups. For this purpose, tooth crown measurement is employed in the way modiﬁed
by Doi, Tanaka, and Funakoshi (Doi et al. 1986). Tooth crown measurement analysis wasapplied for skeletal samples of several subject sites in which large amounts of humanremains were excavated. However, two factors should be taken into consideration when
applying this analysis to the Jomon sample: the oral health of humans in the Jomon period
and the relatively long duration of use of each burial site. Regarding the ﬁrst factor, heavy
tooth attrition, one of typical and popular dental disease of the period, and AMTL (antemortem tooth loss) including ritual tooth ablation, aﬀected the sample population to nosmall extent. In addition to the ﬁrst factor, PMTL (post-mortem tooth loss) caused byprevious excavations also aﬀected the condition of the samples for analysis of tooth crownmeasurement. Meanwhile, the Q-mode correlation coeﬃcient ranging between −1.0 and 1.0
is used in the analysis of tooth crown measurement for estimating kin relationship between
paired individuals. Based on the modern clinical sample population in which the kin relations
among sample individuals are known, a score of more than 0.5 for the Q-mode correlationcoeﬃcient is thought to be one standard for estimating a positive kin relationship between
two paired individuals. However, if the sample population was buried in a site over long
duration, the outcomes of the Q-mode correlation coeﬃcient can be aﬀected by accidental© Japanese Archaeological Association

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FUNAHASHI Kyōko

resemblance, which means a sample population buried over a long period could include
individuals who accidentally resemble each other in tooth size and proportion but have no
kin relationship. Jomon cemeteries in general were likely to be used over long periods oftime. Therefore, the direct outcome of the Q-mode correlation coeﬃcient scores of paired
individuals have a high risk of including accidental resemblance. To avoid such accidental
issues, the mean value of the Q-mode correlation coeﬃcient is statistically compared withthe modern mean value of the Q-mode correlation coeﬃcient of a non-kin related clinicalpopulation. The result of this signiﬁcant test between each sample population and a modern
clinical mean value is used to evaluate the kin relatedness of each sample population.
This usage of mean values of analytical outcomes requires a certain number ofindividuals who were buried in the same burial site, because the mean value of the Q-mode
correlation coeﬃcient of a small number of individuals is less likely to represent thecharacteristics of the whole sample buried in a speciﬁc graveyard. Further, the outcomeof a signiﬁcant test of mean value of the analysis suggests only that the sample population
includes or does not include a certain amount of kin-related individuals. In this sense theanalysis applying to the Jomon sample is of limited usefulness in estimating any concrete
kin relationship among individuals buried in a cemetery. Because of these factors and othermethodological constraints, only the skeletal samples of the Inariyama shell mound siteyielded a suﬃcient number of (pairs of) individuals to enable the analysis and to estimate
kin relationships. The analytical outcomes of the tooth crown measurements will bemention of this site Inariyama shell mound.
Meanwhile, the age categories used in the analysis are as follows: the sub-adultcategory, which includes individuals from 13 to 20 years of age; adult, from 20 to 40 years;
and mature, from 40 to 60 years.

Spatio-temporal variation of tooth ablation and association withother archaeological phenomena
The types of tooth extraction correlate with sex diﬀerences in several sites located in thewestern part of Honshu Island and the Tokai area during the Final Jomon period. Clear
correlations were observed both in the Tsukumo and Hobi sites.

Final Jomon period

The Tsukumo site is located in western Japan and the Hobi site is located in the Tokai area
which is the intermediate area between western and eastern Japan. The results of both sites
indicate that Type 1 (narrow type) tooth extraction is seen more frequently in males thanin females. Type 2 (wider type) is observed in a reverse pattern. The other three sites, theYoshigo, Ikawazu, and Inariyama sites, which are all located in the Tokai region, show a© Japanese Archaeological Association

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GENDER EXPRESSION FROM THE JOMON TO YAYOI PERIODS IN WESTERN JAPANless obvious relationship between sex diﬀerence and types of tooth extraction. Similarly,
negative or less clear results can be seen in the Sanganji site, which is even further to theeast in Honshu Island (Funahashi 2010).
Besides the interrelationship of sex diﬀerence, archaeological evidence was provided tocorrelate with the type diﬀerences of tooth ablation. According to Harunari (Harunari 1979,1980), in the Tokai area the types of extracted teeth correlated with spatially segmented
sub-groups within burial areas, with the reburied individuals, and with burial goods. It isdiﬃcult to identify any clear burial subgroups or distributional clusters of speciﬁc types of
tooth ablation at the Yoshigo and the Tsukumo shell mound sites. Within the excavated areaof the Inariyama shell mound, however, graves or skeletal remains were clustered in threespatial subgroups. Although the spatial segmented clusters as seen at the Inariyama site were
not conﬁgured, buried individuals of the same types of tooth extraction constituted spatial
clusters within the Ikawazu shell mound burial area. Therefore, the results of the latter two

Figure 5. Result of correlation between the tooth ablation types and sexual diﬀerence in the Final
Jomon Period
Light gray: male Dark gray: female. 1: Inariyama site, 2: Yoshigo site, 3: Hobi site, 4: Ikawazu
site, 5: Tsukumo site. Results of chi suquare test: 3. Hobi site: P<0.05, 5. Tsukumo site: P<0.001© Japanese Archaeological Association

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FUNAHASHI Kyōko

Figure 6.
area

Spatial distribution of two diﬀerent tooth extraction types in the Inariyama site burial

Inariyama sites and the Ikawazu shell mound are discussed below.
The burial area of the Inariyama site can be divided into three sub-groups in terms of thespatial distribution of skeletal remains. A signiﬁcant test of the mean value of the Q-mode
correlation coeﬃcient with that of the clinical control group indicated negative results invarious teeth combinations because of insuﬃciency of the sample quantity. However, highaverage values of the Q-mode correlation coeﬃcient observed in the kin-related modern
control group are seen in plural teeth combinations in two areas of the Inariyama site: L
P1P2M1M2, and L P1P2 in the middle segment grave area: UL P1P2M1M2, UL P1P2M1,
UL P1M1, and L P1P2M1M2 in the south segment (Table 2). Taking into account all of
the insuﬃcient sample conditions, the resultant negative outcomes of signiﬁcant tests,
and the multiple high values of the Q-mode correlation coeﬃcient seen in several teeth
combinations, a certain number of kin-related individuals might be buried in each spatiallysegmental subgroup.
Furthermore, these three spatially segmented units diﬀered in dominant types of teeth© Japanese Archaeological Association

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—

10 0.344—

FemaleType 1

Type 2

157

M

45 0.210

69 0.206*

Uncle/aunt–nephew/
niece

Cousins

0.262

0.304

31 0.318** 0.29

Sibling,
grandparents–
grandchildren

0.343

SD

—

—

—

—

—

3 0.250—

69 0.206*

0.262

0.304

31 0.318** 0.29

33 0.290** 0.318

45 0.210

M

SD

—

—

—

—

—

3 0.319—

34 0.202

0.355

46 0.231* 0.307

43 0.295* 0.45

46 0.318** 0.451

0.181

—

0.243

—

0.243

0.163

M

73

56

45

52

0.222** 0.424

0.268*** 0.401

0.315*** 0.41

0.295

0.167

M

U P1P2M1

3

6

—

10

73

56

45

52

21

3

10

—

0.222** 0.424

0.268*** 0.401

0.315*** 0.41

61

29

28

23

0.447

SD

0.460

0.300* 0.391

0.365* 0.404

0.445

0.229

M

L P1P2

0.263

6

10

38

46

29

52

0.538

0.648

0.626

0.244

0.522

0.551

0.545

0.429

0.667

0.621

SD

0.160

0.547

0.397** 0.557

0.348*

0.106

0.118

0.595

0.078

6 − 0.233

28

15 − 0.145

15

91

Pair

0.410 200

0.136

0.261

—

0.402** 0.24

0.190

0.167

0.475

0.341

—

0.396* 0.256

0.390

0.396* 0.256

0.138

6 − 0.139

21

66

M

L P1P2M1M2
Pair

0.443 200

0.417

0.483

—

0.479

0.825

0.479

0.515

SD

0.219** 0.436

0.019

0.027

0.034

—

0.295

3 − 0.309

10

45

Pair

0.443 200

0.219** 0.436

0.019

0.365

0.344

—

0.345

—

0.345

0.394

SD

U P1P2M1M2

3 − 0.019

6

—

10

—

10

36

Pair

0.392 200

—

0.463

—

10 0.421* 0.345—

10 0.421* 0.345

21 0.324* 0.381

Pair

U and L P1M1

0.348 200 0.112

—

0.296

—

10 0.422** 0.270—

10 0.422** 0.270

21 0.255

Pair

0.348 200 0.114

33 0.290** 0.318

200 0.114

—

0.300

—

0.283

—

0.283

0.325

SD

Parent–child

Unrelated——

3 0.210—Middle group

South group

21 0.344—

21 0.131

M

Male

Pair

Total

Category

U and L P1P2M1

Q-mode correlation coeﬃcients of the tooth crown measurements at the Inariyama site and modern non-kin population

Combination U and L P1P2M1M2

Table 2.

GENDER EXPRESSION FROM THE JOMON TO YAYOI PERIODS IN WESTERN JAPAN© Japanese Archaeological Association

FUNAHASHI Kyōko

evulsion. In the most northern sub-group, the majority of the extracted tooth patterns are
Type 2, and in the adjacent intermediate sub-group, Type 1 becomes dominant. The mostsouthern area includes both Types 1 and 2.
The existence of the two diﬀerent types in the southernmost area could be divided into
two diﬀerent chronological phases. Recent study has revealed that most of the Inariyama
burial site was laid out in two phases: 12 individuals in Phase 1 (3060–2760 BP), and 15
in Phase 2 (2600–2380 BP). In addition to these main phases, two individuals were buried
during the succeeding latest phase (Kusaka et al. 2018). Although both Type 1 and Type
2 tooth extraction styles were seen in the southernmost burial sub-group of this site, thesetwo diﬀerent types of ritual tooth ablation belonged to two diﬀerent phases according to
the result of recent radiocarbon dating: only Type 2 is observed in Phase 1, and Type 1
emerged in Phase 2.
The chronological data of Kusaka et al. (2018) indicates that the constitution of types of
tooth ablation were diﬀerent in Phase 1 and Phase 2. Although not all individuals with ritual
tooth ablation were included, this data enables us to reconstruct the diachronic trajectory of
tooth extraction types. The wider type of tooth ablation was the predominant type during
Phase 1. After this phase, both the wider and narrower types were seen and these visuallydiﬀerent types correlate with gender diﬀerence (Figure 8). Seven of the nine samples of Type
1 tooth extraction were male. Meanwhile, all four samples of Type 2 extraction were female.
In the Ikawazu site, the types of tooth ablation were also distributed spatially in diﬀerent
areas as in the Inariyama site.
Type 1 is the predominant type among the skeletal remains unearthed from excavatedareas in the 1980s. In contrast to this result, Type 2 is the dominant variation fromother areas excavated in 1936, 1937, and 1959 under the initiative of Suzuki (1960).
Furthermore, a secondary multi-individual burial which commingled 13 skeletal remains
gives important information to examine the nature of the tooth extraction in this region.
Among the 13 human remains, ritual tooth extractions were observed in eight adultsamples and all of them have the same kind of tooth ablation, Type 1. As mentioned
previously, physical anthropological studies revealed that kin-relationships were indicatedin many pairs of diﬀerent teeth combinations among nine individuals found at thissecondary burial (Tanaka and Doi 1988).
In addition to the spatial distribution of burials in a cemetery, grave goods were also
examined in terms of their interrelationship with the tooth extraction types. Many burial
goods had been excavated in the Yoshigo and Tsukumo sites. In the two sites, the presenceor absence of burial goods correlated with the sex, but not with the types of extracted teeth.
Although Harunari showed that the types of tooth ablation had correlation with thepossession of burial goods (Harunari 1973), the statistical test conﬁrmed only the relation
between the possession of grave goods and sexual division as signiﬁcant.
© Japanese Archaeological Association

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Figure 7. Excavated area of the Ikawazu site
The number on the ﬁgure indicates years of the excavations and the number of skeletal remains.
The area of 1980’ excavations keeps at distance 20 m from area of the excavation in 1936, 1937, and1959 by Suzuki (Figure is originated from Harunari 1988 with modiﬁcations).

Figure 8. Correlation between types of tooth ablation and diﬀerent distributional area in the
Ikawazu site
Results of chi square test: P<0.001

Yayoi period

Ritual tooth extraction after the Jomon period was observed in the northern Kyushu area inthe Early Yayoi period. Not only the types of teeth ablated, but also the nature of the rituals© Japanese Archaeological Association

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Figure 9. Correlation of possession of grave goods and sex, and types of tooth ablation
1. Correlation of tooth extraction types and possessions of grave goods in the Yoshigo site.
2. Correlation of the gender diﬀerence and possessions of grave goods in the Yoshigo site. 3.
Correlation of tooth extraction types and possessions of grave goods in the Tsukumo site. 4.
Correlation of the gender diﬀerence and possessions of grave goods in the Tsukumo site. Resultsof chi square test. Possessions of grave goods in the Yoshigo site *gender: P<0.05. Possessions ofgrave goods in the Tsukumo site *gender: P<0.05.

Figure 10. Variation in the kinds and the number of ritual tooth extraction during the Yayoi Period
1: Comparison of the kinds of extracted teeh, 2: Comparison of the number of extracted teeth.
N=the number of extracted teeth

was similar to those observed during the Jomon period.
The types of tooth extraction correlated with sex diﬀerences.
Type 2 was seen more frequently in females and Type 1 more in males. This indicates asimilar relationship between sex and the types of tooth extraction as seen in the two sites of
Tsukumo and Hobi during the preceding Final Jomon period.

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Figure 11. Correlation between sex diﬀerence and types of extracted teeth in the Early Yayoi
Period of the Northern Kyushu area
Results of chi square test: P<0.001

Discussion
As shown in previous studies, typical types of tooth ablation were conducted during
Coming-of-age rituals from the Final Jomon period to the Early Yayoi period (e.g.,
Funahashi 2003, 2004, 2010). At the same time, in spite of the ritual commonality, spatiotemporal variability in the reﬂected social entity was also observed. These dynamics ofritual tooth ablation and its expression of certain social categories in each regional society
had an interrelationship with each contemporary social transformation (e.g., Funahashi
2008, 2010). Meanwhile, ethnographic research has supplied much information showingthat kin groups played an essential role in the initiation rite (Radcliﬀe-Brown 1964;
Evans-Pritchard 1985, 1997). Furthermore, in some ethnographic cases, initiation into
adulthood was managed by division based on gender (Beaglehole 1937; Griaule 1938;
Turnbull 1965).
Hence, the following discusses the interrelationship of the types of tooth extraction
and social divisions or social categories including gender diﬀerences as a crucial social
category in prehistoric society. The following will discuss continuity and transformation in
the relationships between types of tooth ablation as reﬂected in the social context.

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Social division reﬂected in the tooth extraction
Kinship based social divisionThis section examines social divisions reﬂected in tooth extraction. Firstly, during the Final
Jomon period of eastern Japan, types of extracted teeth correspond to diﬀerences of spatial
sub-groups or location in burial sites. Multi-individual reburial graves included many
relatives, as seen in those burials in the Ikawazu sites (Harunari 1979, 1980; Funahashi2010). These preceding studies concluded that the extracted tooth types reﬂect sodalities
such as moiety, which consisted of segmental kin-related social units (Harunari 2013;
Funahashi 2010). However, recent chronological re-examination indicates that wider types
dominated the practice of tooth ablation during Phase 1 at the Inariyama site. According
to Kusaka et al. (2018, p. 385), this result was thought to be negative evidence forinterpreting the types of tooth extraction as a reﬂection of moiety.
According to the result of tooth crown measurement analysis, it was estimated that
there are a certain number of kin-related individuals in each burial subgroup within the
Inariyama site. Therefore, the burial subgroup might be made up of social groups such asa lineage or a subclan. In other words, one possible dividing principle of burial subgroup
was estimated to be based on kinship sodality (Service 1979). On the other hand, spatial
distribution of diﬀerent types of tooth ablation necessitates reconsideration in accordancewith the recent outcomes of C14 dating of skeletal remains. The results indicate a wider
type (type 2) of tooth ablation spread through the subgroups represented in the excavatedarea of the Inariyama site during phase 1. Although a previous study estimated that thetwo diﬀerent types of tooth ablation (type 1; narrower, type 2; wider) coexisted and two
diﬀerent types conﬁgured spatially diﬀerent clusters during the usage of the cemetery(Funahashi 2008), the resultant chronological division of the skeletal remains in the phase
1 and phase 2 uncovered that during the phase 1 wider type of tooth ablation distributed
over the subgroups. According to this distributional pattern seen in the phase 1, typeof ritual tooth ablation might diﬀerentiate the social group under which three mortuarysubgroups were subsumed. Each of these burial subgroups was possibly used by diﬀerent
social groups based on kinship sodality such as lineages and/or segment of clans according
to abovementioned results of tooth crown measurement analysis. Integrating these twoanalytical outcomes, one type of tooth ablation subsumed social groups which wereconstituted by several lineages or segmental units of clans.
On the basis of the above examination, moiety might be the most likely social groups
which coincides with the above social characteristics. The dualistic nature of typevariations of wider/narrower division seen in the tooth ablation is consistent with thecharacteristics of the moiety as potential social group reﬂected in the diﬀerence of the
tooth ablation types. Furthermore, these dualistic type division of the ritual tooth ablation
did not correlate with the possession of grave good. This negative interrelationship of© Japanese Archaeological Association

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GENDER EXPRESSION FROM THE JOMON TO YAYOI PERIODS IN WESTERN JAPANthe two types of tooth ablation and possession of grave goods suggests the binary socialgroups were not based on certain kind of disparity. These characteristics are also comfort
with the moiety as an estimated social entity reﬂected in the binary division of the types of
tooth ablation. Furthermore, it is clear that diﬀerent types of tooth ablation distributed in
diﬀerent area in the Ikawazu site; in the north-western area type 2 dominated the variationof tooth ablation; type 1 of tooth ablation were mainly distributed in the south-eastern areaof the site. Whereas tooth crown measurements analysis revealed that not a few numbersof relative were included among the human remains found at the same excavation area at1984 (Doi and Tanaka 1988). Therefore, despite of the unclearness of the spatial subgroups
within the Ikawazu cemetery, it is likely that several burial subgroups might be originallyconﬁgurated by diﬀerent social groups which included many relatives. Meanwhile, eachtype of tooth ablation distributed over wider area (as north-western area and south-easternarea) than the expected spatial area of segmental units/subgroup within cemetery. Thismight suggest that each of the binary types of ritual tooth ablation subsumed several
numbers of segmental grave units.
What is the background of asymmetrical domination of one type of tooth ablation during
Phase 1 in Inariyama site? Spatial constitution came to be segmented with binary divisionin some cases in the circular conﬁgurated settlements in the Jomon period. Among thesetypical Jomon settlements, there are spatially asymmetrical binary segments that composeda circular settlement. Furthermore, some settlement sites constituted only a segmental unitthat is presumed to be a half part of the settlement (ex., Taniguchi 2005). Asymmetricaldomination of one type of tooth ablation during Phase 1 indicates a certain instability
and dynamic in the social groups partly corresponding to conditions seen in the spatialorganization of settlements. However, because the past excavation did not reveal the entire
burial site, the possibility should be taken into account that the grounds could extend into
surrounding areas, in which other types of tooth ablation, the narrower type in Phase 1,
could be found to dominate and constitute the other half of the cemetery. In these senses
the evidence seen in Phase 1 of the Inariyama site is not enough to reject the previous
account of the tooth ablation as reﬂecting moiety.

Gender diﬀerences

The two diﬀerent types of tooth extraction corresponded with sex diﬀerences both inwestern Japan in the Final Jomon period and in the northern Kyushu area in the Early
Yayoi period. However, the correlation is not so rigid, because there are females who havemale types of tooth extraction and vice versa. Furthermore, these deviating individuals
were treated in the ordinary way in terms of various mortuary practices. In this sense, thetypes of extracted teeth have a moderate correlation with sex diﬀerences. This kind ofinter-relationship can be considered to reﬂect not biological diﬀerences but social division© Japanese Archaeological Association

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by gender.
There are many ethnographic cases of initiation into adult status which coincide withbecoming a member of religious, political, and occupational groups, and so on. In ageneral sense, initiation into the various social groups requires the cultural maturity ofeach person as a necessary condition (e.g., Gennep 1969). Taking into consideration thetendency seen in the ethnographic examples, it can be understood that tooth extraction in aritual context for initiation into adulthood simultaneously reﬂects the achievement of social
division by gender or status.

Regional diﬀerences in social division reﬂected in tooth extraction

As mentioned above, the ritual nature of tooth ablation was postulated to be an initiation
ritual for becoming an adult member of society. Rites of passage that included tooth
extraction covered a wide area from eastern to western Japan. Although the nature of theritual was common over a large area, social memberships reﬂected in the types of tooth
ablation are diﬀerent in the two areas. In the eastern part of the Japanese archipelago,
the types of tooth extraction reﬂect kinship membership; in the western part, they reﬂect
gender division. In between the two areas, both kinship membership and gender divisionwere reﬂected in the types of ritual tooth extraction among the adjacent sites.
Looking at the situation of the Tokai area in detail, including the latest dating of the
Inariyama shell mound in the Tokai region (Kusaka et al. 2018), both patterns of tooth
extraction existed. Diﬀerent types of tooth extraction corresponded with kinship as seen in
the Ikawazu and in Phase 1 of the Inariyama sites. In contrast, in the Hobi site and in Phase
2 of the Inariyama site, the gender division correlated with the type diﬀerences.
This co-existence of either kinship or gender principles in the ritual tooth extraction
indicates the characteristics of the transitional geographical circumstances of this area.
To summarize, it can be stated that people used the same technique of tooth extraction for
expressing diﬀerent principles of social division in diﬀerent areas during the Final Jomon
period. These diﬀerences indicate a relative diﬀerence in signiﬁcance or importance ofeach social division emphasized in each area.
That being so, what is the reason for the kind of geographical diﬀerence that occurred
between eastern and western Japan? One of the possibilities may be the diﬀerent degreeof evaluation of or social value placed on descent images of, which were supported bysegmented kinship organizations. These diﬀerent attitudes toward the descent system
resulted in the diﬀerences in social categories reﬂected in ritual tooth extraction in eacharea. Meanwhile, the intermediate situation of the Tokai area can be seen in various otherarchaeological artefacts such as pottery, magical goods, and ornaments from the Lateand Final Jomon periods (e.g., Shitara 1992). Furthermore, this intermingled state wasobserved in the mortuary treatment of the dead as multi-individual reburial graves (in© Japanese Archaeological Association

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GENDER EXPRESSION FROM THE JOMON TO YAYOI PERIODS IN WESTERN JAPANthe Ikawazu site), which were widely distributed in eastern Japan but were uncommon
in western Japan. Yamada pointed out that reburial graves appear to represent ancestor
worship, because this type of secondary burial emerged with the disruption of the largescale sedentary settlement system into small-scale, less sedentary settlements (Yamada
1995). From the middle of the Jomon period onward, regional society had developedin its segmentation into various sodalities more systematically in eastern Japan than in
the western part of the archipelago (Tanaka 1998). Under the social dynamics of easternJapan, clan or clanship increasingly became an important kinship sodality for dividing or
integrating regional society. In this context, socially signiﬁcant principles of kinship cameto be reﬂected in the context of ritual initiation into adult status. In the case of westernJapan, gender was a required category of social division used as a device for consolidating
regional societies. The mechanism and driving forces for causing these spatial diﬀerences
seen in the dynamics of the social system will need to be studied further.

Temporal transformation of gender expression and its social context

Other than the regional variability of social reﬂection, diachronic changes of gender
expression in ritual tooth extraction were becoming clear in the Inariyama site. According
to a recent study, the greater part of this site constituted two phases and the foodprocurement system was thought to have shifted to more intensively rely upon marine
resources in the course of climate change (Kusaka et al. 2018). In accordance with thetransition from Phase 1 to Phase 2, the social principles expressed in tooth ablation
changed from kinship to gender division. These outcomes indicate that social sodality
other than kinship became more important following the climate change.
After the change of climate, Phase 2 of the Inariyama site is the time when the newly
introduced cultural package partly accompanying human migration diﬀused from thenorthern Kyushu area to Honshu Island. The new cultural complex was associated with
the new subsistence technology of paddy ﬁeld agriculture, which had been brought fromthe Korean Peninsula. The cultural diﬀusion that took place over the western part of
the archipelago might have brought about the emergence of gender expression in ritual
tooth extraction in the Tōkai region. As mentioned above, several ethnographic examples
have shown how initiation rites into adult status subsumed simultaneous admission
into either religious, subsistence, or age groups (Beaglehole 1937; Evans-Pritchard
1940; Radcliﬀe-Brown 1948; Turnbull 1962, 1965; Venema 1978; Clemmer 1995). As
seen in the ritual tooth ablation of the Northern Kyushu area, ritual reﬂection of genderdivision across the kinship sodality was probably associated with the organization of thesubsistence group. When the cultural information based on the paddy ﬁeld agriculturecomplex was accepted from the Northern Kyushu area, part of the population of the Tōkai
region continued the ritual of tooth ablation and maintained the existing type variations of© Japanese Archaeological Association

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ablation. However, they modiﬁed the prevailing principles and social meaning reﬂectedin ritual tooth ablation in accordance with the newly arrived subsistence system from thewestern part of the archipelago. Gender was one of the important social divisions, as seenin the correlation between grave goods and gender in the Yoshigo site, that may have been
one of the factors that prompted the change in social divisions reﬂected in tooth ablation.
Meanwhile, this change in social categories expressed in tooth ablation might be a
result of the change in subsistence strategy. Food dependence on marine resources wasindicated to be intensiﬁed from Phase 1 to Phase 2 in the Inariyama site (Kusaka et al.
2018). Transformation of the subsistence system in response to climate change might have
led to or forced the reorganization and/or reintegration of existing social groups. These
two factors of cultural diﬀusion and subsistence transition during and after the climatechange might not be exclusive, but rather integrated and interrelated factors contributing
to the shift of the social categories expressed in tooth ablation. The sample sites for the
Final Jomon Period were burial sites, which were the resultant conﬁguration of longterm usage. The social meaning of tooth ablation could have ﬂuctuated through the long
duration of utilization of burial sites in locations other than the Inariyama site. Clariﬁcationof the transformation of the social meanings of tooth ablation may be enabled by morecomprehensive/inclusive application of the result of recent C14 dating of Jomon skeletal
remains (e.g., Kusaka et al. 2018).
In contrast to this transformation, the ritual continuity reﬂected in social categories was
also observed in the western part of the archipelago. The focal point is the succession ofgender expression in the types of tooth ablation, which occurred from the Final Jomon
period to the Early Yayoi period in western Japan. Since the early 1900s, many scholars
have discussed the cultural transition from the Jomon to Yayoi periods. The Yayoi culture
was based on the preceding Jomon culture, while integrating new cultural inﬂuences fromthe Korean Peninsula (e.g., Mori 1966). Although the cultural transformation occurredat the beginning of the Yayoi period (ﬁfth to sixth centuries BC) with the acceptance ofthe cultural knowledge centered on paddy-ﬁeld agriculture, gender division continued tobe reﬂected in ritual tooth extraction until the beginning of the Middle Yayoi period (ﬁrst
century BC). Meanwhile, tooth ablation in the Korean Peninsula was not conducted in thecontext of the initiation ritual but in the context of mourning during the parallel period of
the beginning of the Yayoi Period (Funahashi 2010).
Why did the indigenous people of the Japanese archipelago not accept the custom of
tooth ablation as a new element from the Korean Peninsula expressing mourning? And
why did they maintain the reﬂection of gender division in the types of extracted teeth
during initiation rites? What was the trigger for transformation of the meaning of ritual
tooth extraction at the transition from the Early to Middle Yayoi periods?
One of the key factors in examining these questions may be the demographic change© Japanese Archaeological Association

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GENDER EXPRESSION FROM THE JOMON TO YAYOI PERIODS IN WESTERN JAPANthat occurred at about the same time. One possible factor inducing the transformation ofritual tooth ablation might be the population expansion that occurred during the Middle
Yayoi period, rather than it being the immediate eﬀect of the introduction of paddy
ﬁeld agriculture at the beginning of the Yayoi period. Estimations of the signiﬁcant
increase in population in this transitional period have been made through investigationof rice paddy sites, settlements (Hashiguchi 1985; Tanaka and Ozawa 2000), and theincrease of burials (Nakahashi 1993) of northern Kyushu. According to Tanaka, under
the circumstances of this population increase and the coincident acceptance of various
eﬀects newly arriving from the Korean Peninsula in this transitional period of northern
Kyushu, each clan expanded its scale in increasingly segmented sub-units (Tanaka 2000).
In this context, transformation of the tribal social organization occurred at the beginningof the Middle Yayoi period (Tanaka 2000). With detailed reconstruction of the formation
processes of jar burial grounds and the accompanying mortuary practices, the society of
the northern Kyushu area underwent social stratiﬁcation during the Middle Yayoi period
and consequently transformed from a tribal to a chiefdom society in the Late Yayoi period(Mizoguchi 1998, 2001, 2002; Tanaka 2000).
Taking into account these previous studies, the social divisions reﬂected in theinitiation rites did not change directly from the impact of cultural diﬀusion including theimplementation of paddy ﬁeld agriculture and the integration of human immigrants at the
beginning of the Yayoi period in Northern Kyushu, but rather transformed in accordancewith the social reorganization and increasing complexity resulting from population
expansion after the transition from the Early to the Middle Yayoi periods.

Conclusion
The above discussion illustrates one potential gender perspective for reconstructing pastsocieties. At the same time, it is obvious that the spatial variations and temporal changes
in ritual tooth extraction have to be contextualized in each socio-cultural system in order
to interpret what they signiﬁed. The spatiotemporal variability seen in gender expression
as seen in the case study of tooth extraction reﬂects (1) the relativity of social signiﬁcanceof the gender category in each social context and (2) the gender category as one of theconstituents within the social system as a whole. Therefore—as many archaeologists
have already pointed out by using the gender category—in this study, it is recognized thatgender is one of the most important social divisions contributing to the reconstruction ofprehistoric society; further, the social role of the gender category is not stable.

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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Professors, the late Tanaka Yoshiyuki, Mizoguchi Kōji, Iwanaga
Shōzō, Nakahashi Takahiro, Satō Renya, Miyamoto Kazuo, Tsujita Jun’ichirō, andIshikawa Takeshi as well as the research fellows and graduate students at Kyushu
University for their advice. I would also like to thank Pro. Matsumoto Naoko and Pro.
Mitsumoto Jun for providing me the opportunity to write this paper. And I thank theanonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions. This study was
supported by KAKENHI of Grants-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) (JP24720354) and
Grants-in-Aid for Challenging Research (JP18K18529).

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