81

The Third Relation of Comparative
Literature and East Asian literature
ZHANG Zhejun*

I. The Concept of the Third Relation of Comparative Literature

In over one century since the inception of Comparative Literature, there
have been only two models in the study of literary relationships in theacademic communities at home and abroad, that is, influence study andparallel study, with the former studying the communications among different
literatures, and the latter studying literary phenomena without communications, comparing the differences and similarities of literary phenomena andpointing to general literature. Various theories of Comparative Literature aresometimes applied in the study of literary relations but this does not change
literary relations. Sometimes, influence study and parallel study are combinedin research, with parallel study conducted on the basis of influence study, butsuch study still does not change the nature of the two kinds of relations. The
biggest problem with the study of literary relations is that the two models of
research cannot cover all literary relations, as there are in fact other literary
relations, which will inevitably lead to various problems: with the present
models of literary relation study we cannot study so many literary relations,even though we obviously feel the existence of communications and somesimilar factors between literatures of different countries, and the feasibility of
conducting literary relation study. But influence study cannot be conducted, as
no evidences verifying literary relations can be found, and similar factors
cannot be attributed to the influence relation of specific texts. Once such
similar factors are declared to be resulting from the influence relation of texts,
a predicament of insufficient and unreliable evidences may ensue, and even awrong conclusion may be drawn. If such similar factors are deemed asparallel relations, they do not look like parallel relations, because there arericher similar factors than parallel relations, and it would deviate from facts
	  * ZHANG Zhejun 張哲俊 is professor in school of Chinese Language and Literatureof Beijing Normal University.

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Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 9 2018with a parallel study. The study of literary relations cannot break through its
predicaments because all literary relations are supposed to be either influenceor parallel relations. As parallel relations are in fact no relations, literary
relations are virtually reduced to one influence relation. Such a researchmodel is not consistent with the facts of literary relations, which are not sosimple. As many literary relations do not belong to influence or parallel
relations, the imposition of these two modes to all relations can only produce
numerous errors or lead to the sense of powerlessness on the part ofresearchers. The academic communities, however, still put up with these twomodels for study, as they have no other choice because only influence relations and parallel relations have been found at home and abroad over
100-plus years, and no other literary relation has been discovered.
As a matter of fact, besides relations of influence and parallel relations,
there is a third kind of relation in Comparative Literature, that is, the third
relation, a literary relation completely different from influence relation orparallel relation. The third relation refers to a literary relation which has nocommunicative relation at the literary level but has a communicative relation
arising from the living world, therefore completely different from the influence relation by nature. The nature of the influence relation is the existenceof a communicative relation at the literary level, with the task of influence
study being to restore such a communicative relation. The third relation has
no communicative relation at the literary level, as poets have no direct contact
or the experience of reading the other’s texts. Poets of different countries may
have the third relation even if they do not know the existence of the otherparty. The third relation differs from the parallel relation by nature, as theparallel relation means the existence of similar factors despite the existence ofany communicative relation either at the literary level or in the living world,
but the similar factors are derived from symbiosis. The world of humanexistence always has some similar factors, while similar natural conditions,social environment and social development stage may give rise to similar
phenomena. However, such similar factors are not formed through communication, and the relation among them can only be termed the parallel relation.
The difference between the third relation and the parallel relation is that thesimilar factors in the third relation are not derived from symbiosis, but fromthe communicative relation in the living world. This communicative relation
is not literary communication but communication in the living world. As theliving world in different states and nations is formed through communication,
there are always some similarities, and even a living world community may
be developed. Poets, who live in a living world formed through communication, describe their living world, and similar factors of the living world
formed through communication, thereby naturally having an indirect relation

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83

with the literatures of other states and nations. This indirect relation is thethird relation, established with the living world as an inter-medium, and istherefore concealed, which accounts for its not being discovered until now.
The focus of research on the third relation is the communicative relationin the living world, which must be premised on the restoration of the living
world. If the living world is not restored, it would not be possible to study
the communicative relation in the living world, or understand whether theliving world is developed through communication. This means that the studyof the third relation must be literary archaeology, which means the restorationof the living world in the age when a poet lives through poem clusters. The
living world to a poet means all the environment and events in which helives, which are history for later generations. Therefore, the communicationof the living world is in fact the communicative relations in history, in which
poems, the living world and history are integrated. In this sense, the study ofthe third relation is both literary study and historical study. The historical
study of the third relation does not mean historical background often
mentioned in past literary studies, as historical background exists behind
poems but does not consist in poems per se. The living world of the third
relation does not exist behind the texts of poems but within the texts, whichmeans that the literary study of the third relation converges with historical
study, being both literary study and historical study. The study of the third
relation also looks into the specific conditions giving rise to the texts ofpoems, and therefore sometimes the study of literary archaeology may be faraway from the texts of poems but will finally return to poems per se,
providing historical direct conditions for the study of poetic texts, orproviding a basis of the living world.
Due to its different nature, the construction of the third relation is inevitably different from that of the influence relation or the parallel relation. The
third relation has an inter-media between literatures of different states andnations, that is, the so-called archaeological level, which is the living world
developed through communication and a critical factor for establishing theindirect literary relation. The following is a simple diagram drawn according
to the above description.

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Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 9 2018
Inter-media relation
Indeterminate relation

Restoration
Foreign text A (or groups of works)

Restoration

Inter-media

Foreign text B (or groups of works)

The archaeological level formed by communication(Living world and historical level)

1. The level of material life (material facts and life facts)
2. The level of conceptual knowledge (general concepts and general knowledge)
3. The level of literary works (plural works and specific works)

There are several terms for inter-media, as it consists of several levels.
The archaeological level is between literary relations, and works are indirectly related via the archaeological level, which is therefore named intermedia. For today’s scholars, inter-media is history that has already vanished,
and the archaeological level that can be presented only through restoration.
For poets, it is the living world and the daily life of the time when they live.
The living world as the archaeological level occupies a central position insuch relations, literary archaeology is restoration and research addressing thearchaeological level, and the third study addresses literary relations developedaround the archaeological level of inter-media.
The archaeological level consists of three sub-levels, the most fundamentalof which consists of material facts and life facts, which may be called thematerial level and the living level. The second level consists of the concept
level and the knowledge level. The third level is the literary level, consistingof similar plural works and specific works. These are three levels existing
beyond selected AB texts, which are closely related to AB texts under study.
Such a structure is artificially separated, as the archaeological level, in fact,
consists of levels of different nature, which requires comprehensive study.
Literary archaeology and the third study as two supporting points are closely
related. It is literary archaeology to recover the living world, and it is still
literary archaeology when the communication between the living worlds oftwo countries is studied, but such a study also addresses the third relation, as
the study is about the communication between two living worlds and theirliterary relations.
The indirect influence relation and the third relation look somehow similar
but are essentially different. The communication of the third relation is notconducted at the literary level but in the living world, which is still a funda-

The Third Relation of Comparative Literature and East Asian literature85

mental difference from the indirect influence relation and also a fundamental
difference from mesology of Comparative Literature. The communication
between literatures and the communication between living worlds belong totwo completely different fields, and therefore have different nature andspecific forms.
The

indirectinfluenceWorks

influence

issuerthird

Various things such as literature
relation:

issuerofinfluence

influenceWorks
recipientofrecorder of influence
The living world of A country

countryofRecipient of influence

Inter-media

The

relation:

The living world of B

Works or groups of works

Inter-media

This simple relation diagram shows that the third relation indeed shares
similar factors with the indirect influence relation, but the two have different
specific forms: the recipient of influence in the influence relation is the poetor the literary work, but in the third relation the poet or the work is not therecipient of influence, the living world is the recipient of influence, while thepoet is only a recorder of the communication between living worlds. In fact,in light of the similarity of similar factors, there are some differences among
the influence relation, the parallel relation and the third relation: the similar
factors of the influence relation have the highest similarity, while those of theparallel relation have the lowest similarity; the similarity of similar factors of
the third relation is between the influence relation and the parallel relation,
lower than that of the influence relation and higher than that of the parallel
relation. The third relation, with characteristics of both the influence relationand the parallelism, seems both related and unrelated. The influence relation,
which is the foundation for the inception of Comparative Literature, is theprimary relation. Parallel study, a development of the study on literary relations, is the secondary relation, established among fields without communicative relations. The third relation, developed from communicative relations at
the level of the living world, is between these two relations, and therefore canbe called the third study. It should be noted that subversive relations ofreverse communication may be found in both the influence relation and thethird relation. In subversive communicative relations, the similarity of similar
factors may become very low or even disappear altogether, leaving only
opposite factors. However, this does not tantamount to the inexistence of the86

Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 9 2018

influence relation or the third relation, because so long as the relation of origin
and development exists there is the influence relation or the third relation.
There is an order of time in the discovery of literary relations, which does
not mean that there is an order of time regarding the facts of literary relations. The third relation does not necessarily follow the influence relation or
the parallel relation, as it may be found where there is no influence relationor parallel relation at all. Sometimes the third relation coexists with the influence relation, which case not only calls for influence studies but also requires
the study on the third relation. The study on the third relation cannot replace
the study on influence or the parallel study, as they are on different literary
relations and do not replace each other. The study on literary relations is not
to simplify facts of literary relations to fewer types of relations, but todiscover more literary relations, thus restoring facts concerning literary relations. Only studies are conducted according to facts of literary relations can
the study on literary relations be truly promoted.

II. Cases of the Third Relation: Willow Garlands and Willow
Wreaths in Chinese and Japanese Poetry

Manyoshu, the earliest waka collection in Japan, incudes nine wakas
describing willow garlands, which refer to circlets made of willow twigs
worn on heads.
1
梅の花咲きたる園の青柳は蘰にすべく成りにけらずや。
梅花开园中，青柳吐新芽。似已可折取，柳蘰饰柔发。

While wintersweet blooms in the garden,
Green willows shoot out buds.
Their twigs appear ready for plucking,
To be made into garlands for soft hair.

SEUNI AHATANO DAIBU, N817
2
梅の花咲きたる園の青柳を蘰にしつつ遊び暮さな。
梅花园中开，青柳可为蘰。
戏柳又戏春，举杯消春宴。

Wintersweet blooms in the garden,
Willows turn green ready for garlands.
Let’s play with willows and spring,
Propose a toast to celebrate our spring feast.

SEUKEN TOSHINO MOMOMURA, N825
1 Ichinosuke Takagi et al ed., Manyoshu, Vol.2, A Collection of Classical Japanese
Literature, Iwanami Shoten, 1962, P.75.
2 Ichinosuke Takagi et al ed., Manyoshu, Vol.2, A Collection of Classical Japanese
Literature, Iwanami Shoten, 1962, P.77.

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春柳蘰に折りし梅の花誰か浮べし酒坏の上に。3
春来遍新柳，折取为柳蘰。何人采梅花，浮于酒杯上。

New willows sprout everywhere in spring,
Their twigs are plucked to make willow garlands.
Who’s also collected a plum blossom,
Which floats in a wine cup.

IKINOSAKUWAN SONSHINOWO TIKATA, N840

「柳を詠む（咏柳）」霜枯れの冬の柳は見る人の蘰にすべく萌えにけるかも。4
寒霜草木枯，浅冬柳芽见。嫩芽已满目，似可为柳蘰。

While vegetation withers under cold frost,
Willow buds appear in early winter.
With tender buds seen everywhere,
Willow twigs seem ready for garlands.
N18465
ももしきの大宮人の蘰ける垂柳は見れど飽かぬかも。
皇城宫中人，
头戴青柳蘰。柳蘰青欲滴，看时永无厌。

People in the palaces of the capital,
Wear garlands made of green willow twigs.
Willow garlands are so tenderly green,That they are never eyesoreN1852「蘰を贈る（赠柳蘰）」A Willow Garland for Beloved
6
大夫が伏し居嘆きて造りたるしだり柳の蘰せ吾妹。
铁石心肠人，仰伏皆叹息。垂柳正青青，
绾柳思吾妹。

I, a person with a heart of steel,Am sighing in every single move.
Weeping willows are green,
I make a garland thinking of my beloved.
N19243 Ichinosuke Takagi et al ed., Manyoshu, Vol.2, A Collection of Classical Japanese
Literature, Iwanami Shoten, 1962, P.79.
4 Ichinosuke Takagi et al ed., Manyoshu, Vol.3, A Collection of Classical Japanese
Literature, Iwanami Shoten, 1962, P.61.
5 Ichinosuke Takagi et al ed., Manyoshu, Vol.3, A Collection of Classical Japanese
Literature, Iwanami Shoten, 1962, P.61.
6 Ichinosuke Takagi et al ed., Manyoshu, Vol.3, A Collection of Classical Japanese
Literature, Iwanami Shoten, 1962, P.75.

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Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 9 20187
しなざかる越の君らとかくしこそ楊蘰き樂しく遊ばめ。
越中诸君聚，如此为柳蘰。
头上戴柳蘰，杯酒且宴乐。

Gentlemen of Koshinaka gathered together,
And made willow garlands for the event.
Wearing garlands on head,
They drank and feasted.

右、郡司已下子弟已上诸人多集此会。因守大伴宿祢家持作此歌也。

Several people from the government offices had a gather-together. Thissong was made when they stayed at the home of Ootomo Sukune.
Ōtomo no Yakamochi, N4071「二月十九日、左大臣橘の家の宴にして、攀ぢ折れる柳の条を見る歌一首（二月十九日、左大臣橘家宴攀折柳条而歌一首）」[The song was composed ata family feast held at the home of the Minister of Left on February 29]
8青柳の上枝攀ぢ取り蘰くは君が屋戸にし千年壽くとそ。
攀折柳枝梢，
绾绕为柳蘰。君祈家业兴，无衰寿千年。

Willow twigs were plucked from willow branches,
Willow garlands were made by twisting these twigs.
We wish that your family prosper,
And last a thousand years without declining.
Ōtomo no Yakamochi, N4289
Where did the willow garlands in these wakas originate? Sakurai
Mitsusuru deems that they were from the practice of Plucking Willow Twigs
in China. That is to say, she thinks that there is a relation of influence
between songs on willow garlands and Plucking Willow Twigs in China.
		Willow Wreaths and Willow Garlands
In China, from the ancient time, there has been a practice of making
willow twigs into a wreath as a gift for a friend departing for a journeyin the hope that he would come back safe and sound. “Plucking willow
twigs” was one of the topics in “yuefu” ballads of the Han dynasty,
which was a kind of song on farewell played by flutes. Wang Zhihuan, aTang poet wrote a poem entitled “Farewell”:
Willow trees swayed by spring breeze,/Stand by the imperial river
making a green scene./Willow twigs are not easy to pluck recently,/
Because there are too many people bidding farewell.
7 Ichinosuke Takagi et al ed., Manyoshu, Vol.4, A Collection of Classical Japanese
Literature, Iwanami Shoten, 1963, P.269.
8 Ichinosuke Takagi et al ed., Manyoshu, Vol.4, A Collection of Classical Japanese
Literature, Iwanami Shoten, 1963, P.387.

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In China, the character for “willow”（“柳”）is homophonic with thatfor “stay”（“留”）. People pluck willow twigs perhaps they want theirdeparting friends to stay. The character for “wreath”（“环”）is homophonic with that for “return”（“还”）, and so it seems that the making ofwreaths can be interpreted as wishing friends to return soon.9
Sakurai Mitsuru’s explanation is quite popular in the academic communityof Japan. Similar explanations can be found in a dictionary on botany.10
However, before the mid-Tang, no willow wreath or anything like a willow
wreath appeared in any song entitled “Plucking Willow Twigs”, and the term“柳环”（willow wreath）is not found in any ancient literature. Since nothing
like willow garlands appears in songs about plucking willow twigs, what wasgiven in a farewell bid with willow twigs plucked?
A Song on Plucking Willow Twigs

上马不捉鞭，
反折杨柳枝。
蹀坐吹长笛，
愁杀行客儿。
腹中愁不乐，
愿作郎马鞭。
出入擐郎臂，蹀坐郎膝边。

Instead of taking a horsewhip,
He plucked willow twigs before mounting a horse.
He played a long flute while squatting,His sorrows touched travelers.
Full of melancholy in mind, I wish to be your horsewhip.
Then I would be close to your arms
And sit by your knees.11
9 Sakurai Mitsuru, Folklore of Flowers, A Collection of Sakurai Mitsuru’s Works, Vol.9,
Kodansha, 2000, PP.67–68. The same idea can be found in more Japanese academic
works, such as Tomo Yanagida’s The Culture of Willows. This version can also befound in An Annotated Collection of Ballads in the Middle Ages （the AzuchiMomoyama period）. “Willow twigs were plucked and made into wreaths….Willow
twigs were made into wreaths because the Chinese character for “wreath”（“环”）ishomophonic with that for “return”（“还”）, meaning returning soon.” The Culture ofWillows, Tankosha, 1995, P.187
10 “In the Tomb-Sweeping Festival, willow twigs were used to ignite new fire, andwillow twigs were also placed on doors and eaves, or on hair. Similar customs canalso be found in “Plucking Willow Twigs”. When a close friend or relative is about
to depart for a journey, people plucked willow twigs by water and made them intowreaths as gifts. It is said that the Chinese character for “wreath”（“环”）is homophonic with that for “return”（“还”）, so people wished that the traveler would be
blessed by the spiritual power of willow, and also that the traveler would not lose
his soul for the fatigue of travel.”（The Society on Plant Culture ed., An Illustrated
Encyclopedia on Flowers and Trees, Tokyo: Kashiwashobo, 1996, P.458.）
11 [Song] Guo Maoqian ed., Hengchui Ballads in A Collection of Yuefu Songs, Vol.25

90Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia Vol. 9 2018

Before mounting a horse, the man did not take a horsewhip but plucked
willow twigs instead. Thus it can be concluded that he did not hold a willow
wreath, but a willow twig, as only a willow twig could be used as a horsewhip. A poem by Cui Guofu of the Tang dynasty can also prove that willow
twigs instead of willow wreaths were given in a farewell.
Ballad on a Happy Young Man
Cui Guofu遗却珊瑚鞭，
白马娇不行。
章台折杨柳，春日路旁情。

While the coral whip was lost,
The white horse stood still coquettishly.
He plucked willow twigs from wayside,
To bid farewell to beauties in springtide.12
A young man, when bidding farewell with prostitutes, found that he lost
his horsewhip and thus plucked willow twigs as a horsewhip. An ancientJapanese painter illustrated Tang poems. The following is an illustration on
Cui Guofu’s poem.

Illustration by Katsushika Hokusai on “Ballad on a Happy Young Men”13

This is an illustration by Katsushika Hokusai in Selections of Illustrated
Tang Poems（1793）. The young man held willow twigs in hand instead of awillow circlet. There is a perplexing problem with Katsushika Hokusai’s（Book II）
, Zhonghua Book Company, 1979, P.370.
12 Zaqu Lyrics, in The Complete Collection of Tang Poems, Vol.24（Book II）, ZhonghuaBook Company, P.327.
13 Edited and annotated by Kobayashi Shinbei and Takai Ranzan, and drawn by Kitao
Shigemasa and Katsushika Hokusai et al, Selections of Illustrated Tang Poems,
1996, PP.680–681（This is a copy of its first version in 1793）.

The Third Relation of Comparative Literature and East Asian literature91

illustration: according to the custom of “Plucking Willow Twigs”, one willow
twig should be given; but instead of one, the young man held more than one
in hand. Many poems are about giving one twig, which prove that it iscustomary practice to give one willow twig.
Plucking Willow Twigs
Zhang Hu

凝碧池边敛翠眉，景阳楼下绾青丝。
那胜妃子朝元阁，玉手和烟弄一枝。

Waving willow branches on the Blue Jade Pond imitate frowningbrows,
Or turn into fine and soft black hair under the Sunny Scene Pavilion.
How can they emulate an imperial concubine by the Sage Worshipping
Tower,
Who is fondling a misty willow twig in her jade hands?14
This poem is about a lady plucking a willow twig as a gift for her beloved.
Zhang Jiuling’s “Plucking Willow Twigs”, “One willow twig is not a precious
gift, it only stands for spring in my hometown.”15 Yang Juyuan’s “In Reply to
Scholar Lian’s Plucking Willow Twig Song”, “Willow trees by the riverside
are like green misty silk,/I curbed my horse, requesting my friend of a willow
twig.”16 “Plucking Willow Twigs” of Wen Yanbo in the Song dynasty, “WhenI see a wild goose from outside the Great Wall,/I would send you anotherwillow twig of the spring.”17 Wang Shen’s “Lyric on Willow Twigs”, “Thewillow tree sprouts its misty silky branches/Drooping heavy like snowy
brooms./The most romantic thing in the world is no other than the willow
tree, as a willow twig is always eagerly given in farewell.”18 Since one
willow twig was presented as a gift in farewell, why does the young man in
Katsushika Hokusai’s illustration hold more than one twig? Was it because
Katsushika Hokusai didn’t know the custom of plucking a willow twig in
14 Poems of Zhang Hu in The Complete Collection of Tang Poems, Vol.511（Book VIII）,
Zhonghua Book Company, 1999, P.5880.
15 [Song] Li Fang et al ed., Finest Blossoms in the Garden of Literature, Vol.280（BookII）, Zhonghua Book Company, 1966, P.1030.
16 [Ming] Cao Xuequan ed., Shicang’s Anthology of Poetry﹒ Mid-Tang 18, Vol.64, The
Complete Library of the Four Treasuries at Wenjin Chamber, Vol.464, The
Commercial Press, 2005, P.102.
17 [Song] Chen Si ed., A Collection of Works by Celebrities in the Song Dynasty, Vol.7,
The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries at Wenjin Chamber, Vol.455, The
Commercial Press, 2005, P.466.
18 [Song] Wang Xin, A Collection of Wang Shen’s Works, Vol.3, The Complete Libraryof the Four Treasuries at Wenjin Chamber, Vol.393, The Commercial Press, 2005,
P.645.

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farewell? However, with a careful examination of the young man in theillustration, we can see that he holds four willow twigs in hand, and there are
four prostitutes, one twig for one person. The living world of plucking
willow twigs in farewell is restored in the above, according to which we cansee that the songs on willow garlands in Manyoshu have no relation of influence with the Chinese practice of plucking willow twigs. Such a study on therelation of influence is not correct.
Things like willow garlands also appeared in this literary history of China,that is, willow circlets described in poems and essays, but they were notnamed willow wreaths.
Ode on Willow Circlets[Yuan] Wang Yun
While warm mist floats, by the green willow bridge, willow twigs areplucked to make soft circlets.
All the spring angst and heat are cast into the depth of the blue waves.
By a wild brook, a group of beauties in golden silk dresses sing songs
and wear green jade circlets.
All ill luck flows away with water, with only spring scenes revisit ourwine goblets.
Let me ask how long will spring stay? One fifth of spring has passed,
and peach blossoms float farther and farther away with water in morning
breeze.
Where are they going to send the spring sorrows? Go to the east of
Hunan with a ring of clear shadow.
Walking along the spring brook, I’m happy to have a companion. Let’s
drink a cup by the riverside.
…19
This poem is about the mood of wearing willow circlets on the 3rd dayof the 3rd lunar month（known as Double Third Festival）, and mentions willow
circlets several times. The significance of willow circlets lies in its supposed
function of removing illness, which is not unrelated with life worship.
Several other poems of Wang Yun mention willow circlets. For example, in“Three Poems in Reply”, “Willow circlets shimmer in the wind and ride on
ripples,/Blisses come from afar to offer peace of time.”20 Also, in “A Poem
19 [Yuan] Wang Yun, A Collection of Wang Yun’s Poems, Vol.77, The Complete Libraryof the Four Treasuries at Wenjin Chamber, Vol.401, The Commercial Press, 2005,
P.321.
20 [Yuan] Wang Yun, A Collection of Wang Yun’s Poems, Vol.18, The Complete Libraryof the Four Treasuries at Wenjin Chamber, Vol.401, The Commercial Press, 2005,
P.75.

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Composed on the Double Third Festival in the Lin’s Garden”, “Everyone
wore a willow circlet to ward off evil spirits,/Offsetting white hair unlike
blooming branches.”21 Wang Yun elaborated on the customs of the Double
Third Festival in “A Party for Warding off Evil Spirits”, “It happened to be ayear of serpent, another year of prosperity. Therefore, I invited two or three
good friends to have a party at the Lin’s garden. All things were properly andsincerely handled. As an old routine, each person prepared a pot of wine, abunch of flowers, several coins and one willow twig circlet, and colorful
clothes were preferred. All other supplies were prepared by the garden owner.
With orchids in hand, we attempted to restore the story taking place at theOrchid Pavilion by drinking wine and composing poems.”22 Wang Yun had
several gatherings with his friends at the Lin’s Garden, and each time, theyplucked willow twigs to make circlets.
Obviously, there are some similar factors between the songs on willow
garlands in Manyoshu and Wang Yun’s poems on willow circlets: First, thesongs on willow garlands in Manyoshu are mostly about banquets, with 817,
825, 840, 4071 and 4289 being all about banquets. If No. 4238 is included,
there are 6 in total, accounting for two-thirds of the total number of wakas
about willow garlands. Wang Yun’s poems on willow circlets are also all
related to banquets. Obviously the two are similar in this regard. Second,
No.1846 and 1852 wakas are about the joy of spring, which is also a main
topic found in Wang Yun’s poems. No. 1924 is about the joy of spring andalso the love between men and women. Wang Yun’s poems do not describesuch love, but the expression of love between men and women was actuallyan activity in the Double Third Festival, and it is normal to find such expressions in songs of willow garlands. Third, of the nine wakas on willow
garlands, none is about farewell, which is a very prominent characteristic. If
these wakas were influenced by China’s “Plucking Willow Twigs”, contents
on farewell should be found. But no such content is found, and this meansthat these wakas are not related to China’s “Plucking Willow Twigs”.
The above similarities seem to suffice to prove the relation of influence
between the songs on willow garlands in Japan and the poems on willow
circlets in China. However, the similarity between these two kinds of poems
is far from that constituting the relation of influence, as there is no similar
trace between any wordings of the songs on willow garlands and the poems
21 [Yuan] Wang Yun, A Collection of Wang Yun’s Poems, Vol.18, The Complete Libraryof the Four Treasuries at Wenjin Chamber, Vol.401, The Commercial Press, 2005,
P.75.
22 [Yuan] Wang Yun, A Collection of Wang Yun’s Poems, Vol.70, The Complete Libraryof the Four Treasuries at Wenjin Chamber, Vol.401, The Commercial Press, 2005,
P.294.

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on willow circlets, and it is difficult to ascertain the influence relation at the
textual level. If it is deemed that no influence relation exists between the two,
how should the above similarities be explained? The study on literary relations is therefore in a predicament. However, there is a completely objective
factor, which can fully prove the inexistence of any influence relation. That is,
as Wang Yun was a poet of the Yuan dynasty, it was impossible for Manyoshu
to be influenced by his poems. After the mid-Tang, willow circlets used at the
Double Third Festival were used for farewell. Liu Yuxi（772–842）wrote inhis “Poems on Willow Twigs（7）”, “By the imperial path, willow branches
droop to the ground by blue gates, like a thousand gold threads and ten
thousand silk laces. Now I make a true love knot with willow twigs, knowing
not whether the traveler understands my attachment.”23 Zhang Qiao’s “To My
Friend of Weiyang”, “I coiled up willow twigs by the river of farewell,/As
my friend will take a journey across numerous mountains and rivers.”24 The
word “coil” means that willow twigs were made into circlets. Bai Juyi’s“Eight Lyrics on Willow Twigs （6）”, “Twigs were peeled and coiled into
silver shapes,/Leaves were rolled to make music of flutes.”25 Su Xiaoxiao
plucked willow twigs, peeled off their green skin, coiled them into a ringshaped circlet, and wore it on her head. Therefore, Bai Juyi said “silver ring
shapes”. Willow circlets started to be used in the practice of plucking willow
twigs after the mid-Tang, but it was impossible to have any influence relation
with the songs on willow garlands in Manyoshu, because songs on plucking
willow twigs in the mid-Tang were also later than Manyoshu, unable to exert
any influence on Manyoshu.
Since the songs on willow garlands in Manyoshu are unlikely to have any
influence relation with poems on willow circlets in China, are they of aparallel relation? The similarity of the two is not very high, and it seems thatthey have a parallel relation. However, the songs on willow garlands and thepoems on willow circlets are both on willow coils which are completely thesame, both of them were used in banquets and expressed the joy of spring.
Their similarity is therefore higher than that of the parallel relation, and thetwo do not seem to have a parallel relation. In fact, the third relation may
exist between the two. That is to say, Japanese singers brought willow circlets
used at the Double Third Festival of China to Japan, and Japanese singers
described willow circlets. Hence the appearance of songs on willow garlands
23 Poems of Liu Yuxi in The Complete Collection of Tang Poems, Vol.365（Book XI）,
Zhonghua Book Company, October 1992, P.4113.
24 Poems of Zhang Qiao in The Complete Collection of Tang Poems, Vol.639（Book
XIX）, Zhonghua Book Company, October 1992, P.7329.
25 Xie Siwei, An Annotated Collection of Bai Juyi’s Poems, Vol.31（Book V）, ZhonghuaBook Company, 2006, P.2418.

The Third Relation of Comparative Literature and East Asian literature95

in Manyoshu. Chinese poets described willow circlets in the living world ofChina. As a result, similar things appeared in Chinese and Japanese poems. A
similar living world was produced through communication, and the third
relation occurred. Then did any communication occur in the living world?
One of the conditions of communication was that willow circlets appeared in
China earlier than Manyoshu of Japan. The earliest record on wearing willow
circlets at the Double Third Festival in the history of China was made in the
fourth year of Jinglong period in the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang
（710）. Duan Chengshi of Tang recorded in Youyang Essays, “On the 3rd dayof the 3rd lunar month, courtiers were given circlets made of fine willow
twigs, which were said to be able to ward off scorpions and other poisonous
insects.”26 This is a creditable documentary record of the Tang dynasty. The
record in Book of Tang is more comprehensive:
In spring of the fourth year…in the 3rd month, the emperor arrived at theWei Pavilion, held a banquet, and gave ministers willow circlets to ward
off evil spirits.27
On the Double Third Festival of the fourth year of Jinglong period, abanquet on a winding stream was held, during which Emperor Zhongzong ofTang gave his ministers willow circlets. From then on, it became a customary
practice for the emperor to give willow circlets on the Double Third Festival
every year. New Book of Tang records, “Only the prime minister and the grandsecretary could accompany the emperor in his banquets and outings. In
spring, the emperor arrived at the Liyuan Garden and the Weishui River, andgave fine willow twig circlets to ward off evil spirits; in summer, the emperor
held a banquet at a vinery and gave red cherries; in autumn, the emperor
ascended the Ci’en Temple, while a monk presented chrysanthemum wine
praying for longevity.”28 In spring, the emperor visited the Weishui River
together with his prime minister and the grand secretary, held a banquet
along the winding river and gave his ministers willow circlets for the purposeof warding off evil spirits.
Then when were willow circlets of Tang introduced to Japan? The earliest
description of willow garlands in Manyoshu was found in “32 Poems on the
Plum Blossom Banquet” made in the second year of Tianping period（730）.
The earliest record on wearing willow circlet in China was found in the
26 [Tang] Duan Chengshi, Royalty of Youyang Essays, The Complete Library of theFour Treasuries at Wenjin Chamber, Vol.1047, P.639.
27 “Emperor Zhongzong” in “Biographic Sketches of Emperors No. 7”, Book of Tang,
Zhonghua Book Company, 1997, P.57.
28 “Wen Yizhong”, “Collected Biographies No.127”, New Book of Tang, Vol.202,
Zhonghua Book Company, 1997, P.1468.

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fourth year of Jinglong period in the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang

（710）
. From 710 to 730, the eighth Japanese mission to Tang came toChang’an from the first to the second years of Yanglao period（717–718）.

The main members of the mission included Tajihi no Agatamori, Abe no
Yasumaro, Kibi no Makibi, Genbo, Ōtomo no Yamamori, Fujiwara no
Umakai and Shinsei etc. Among the eighth mission, the most noteworthy
person was Yamanoue no Okura, who also participated in the Plum Blossom
Banquet. It was said that the preface to the “32 Poems on the Plum Blossom
Banquet” was written by Yamanoue no Okura. Even though this was uncertain, it was doubtless that Yamanoue no Okura attended the Plum Blossom
Banquet, as the No. 818 waka at the Banquet was written by him. Yamanoueno Okura visited Chang’an of the Tang dynasty and also appeared at the Plum
Blossom Banquet, which showed that the information of wearing willow
circlets at a banquet should be transferred by him. Yamanoue no Okura, who
was accomplished in Chinese culture, should be interested in learning how
the Tang court spent the Double Third Festival. He learned the practice ofministers wearing willow circlets and drinking in Chang’an and brought thisinformation to Japan. In this way, willow garlands started to appear in
Manyoshu. Based on this inference, it can be ascertained that due to thecommunication between the living worlds of China and Japan, willow
garlands and songs on willow garlands appeared at banquets, and via willow
garlands and willow circlets, the third relation occurred between Chinese andJapanese poems.
The similar factors in the third relation originate from the communication
between living worlds, and therefore it is impossible to find any evidence ofcommunication at the literary level to prove the influence relation, which is adifficulty encountered in the study of the third relation by the influence relation, and also a challenge for today’s academic community. The third relation
is open, because the communicative factors between living worlds are open,
living worlds are also open, and any poet can freely describe a living world
and its communicative factors. Therefore, the relation among poets is open
and loose, unlike the influence relation, which is close. Only when we stickto empirical study can we restore the living world, and then move towards
literary archaeology and the third relation.

III. The Significance of the Third Relation

The making of concepts is now popular in the academic community, as
if new results can be obtained by making concepts. However, most newly
made concepts are old concepts restructured, not differing much from old
concepts in actual contents. Such making of concepts with only superficial
change does not have any great significance. In fact, the making of concepts

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must be premised on the discovery of new facts; without discovery of any
new concept, it is not necessary to make a concept. New facts, which were
never discovered and studied, do not have names, and call for the making ofconcepts for naming for the convenience of study. The third relation is aconcept created on the basis of discovering the third comparative literary
relation, and therefore marks new targets of study and symbolizes the expansion of new fields of study for literary relations. The discovery and researchon the third relation have major new significance:
First, the third relation is ubiquitous instead of being exceptional cases,
and is therefore of general significance to the study of literary relations. The
communicative relations in the living world are more diversified and extensive than those at the literary level, exerting a comprehensive influence onliterary relations. If the third relation was not discovered, the study on literary
relations would surely be affected. The third relation failed to be truly
recognized by researchers because it was concealed. Since the modern times,
literature and history have been completely separated, with literary
researchers studying literature only and historians studying history only. Only
when we return to the original facts of literary relations can we discover thethird relation beyond the influence relation and the parallel relation. Scholars
should be ready to discard all concepts and theories to return to the originalstate for primitive investigation so as to discover facts and truths covered byconcepts and theories.
Second, the living world is included into the scope of research of literary
relations, which not only expands the scope of research of literary relations
but also restore the study of literary relations to the essential level of literature. The restriction of research to the influence relation of texts by giving up
the essential relation between literature and the living world goes against thenature of poetry. For this reason, Rene Wellek criticized the study on influence relations as the study on literature trade. The study on the third relation
can avoid the crisis of Comparative Literature pointed out by Wellek andbring the study on literary relations back to the genuine state of poetry, whichis the fundamental direction for the study on literary relations.
Third, the construction of the third study calls for a re-examination of thehistory of the influence study and parallel study. Given only influence relations, many case studies could only be determined as influence relations orparallel relations. Upon a new study after the discovery of the third relation,
what were determined as influence relations or parallel relations are notnecessarily influence or parallel relations. This is true with the influence
relation between the songs on willow garlands of Japan and the Chinese
practice of plucking willow twigs. With a new study at the level of the living
world, it is discovered that no influence relation at the literary level existed

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between the songs on willow garlands of Japan and the Chinese practice ofplucking willow twigs, and that there was only the third relation between thesongs on willow garlands and the poems on willow circlets. The third relation offers a more reliable and scientific approach of research, able to take thestudy on literary relations to a broader field of comprehensive study.