Learning strategy use of learners ofChinese as a foreign language in anexchange program
GONG Yang, FrankSSU3, Osaka, Japan
October 15th, 2019

Introduction• Language learning strategies (LLSs) have been examined as one ofcentral issues in language education since the late 1970s (Platsidou,Kantaridou, & Papadopoulou, 2017; Rose et al., 2018; Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975)• The current research mainly examines the identification/descriptionof language learners’ strategy use, relations between strategy useand various variables, and the effect of strategy use on language
learning (Chamot, 2004; Gao, 2006; Macaro, 2006; Rivera-Mills & Plonsky, 2007)

Introduction• Most research on language learning strategies over the past forty
years have been conducted on learning English as a foreign or second
language (O’Malley et al., 1985; Rose et al., 2018; Wharton, 2000)• A significant knowledge loss for the scholar community of language
education in terms of language learning strategies used by learners ofChinese as a foreign or second language (Chu et al., 2015; Jiang & Cohen, 2012; Ma, Gong,
Gao, & Xiang, 2017)

Literature review:Language learning strategies (LLSs)• First taxonomy of strategies emerged by the early 1980s, which
consisted of learners’ thoughts, actions, and social behaviors (Rubin, 1981)• Language learning strategies are “specific actions taken by the learner
to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed,
more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (oxford, 1990, p.8)
• Language learning strategies are active, conscious, chosen, goaloriented, regulating, and for learning languages (Griffiths & Cansiz, 2015)

Literature review:
Language leaning strategies of learning Chinese as aforeign or second language• A tonal language: four tones in standard Chinese Mandarin• A logographic writing system: integral and compound characters(physical structure), stokes• Characters, words, and vocabulary are different concepts• Syntactic relations: word order and functional words• Fundamental challenges in learning Chinese: lacking sound-tographeme correspondence, character identification, word
segmentation, and lexical access (Shen & Jiang, 2013)

Literature review:
Language leaning strategies of learning Chinese as aforeign or second language• Mostly focusing on Chinese character learning strategy (e.g. Grenfell & Harris,2015; Qian, Owen, & Bax, 2018; Shen, 2005, 2010), Chinese reading strategy (e.g. Lee-Thompson,2008), and individual learner variables related to LLSs (e.g. Chu et al., 2015)• Undertaking issues: lacking rigorous theoretical foundations, nosystematic studies yet, and lagging behind in the field of LLSs (Jiang &Cohen, 2012)Research questions• The research is a part of a longitudinal investigation into nativeEnglish-speaker learners’ experiential accounts of learning Chinese asa foreign language over an immersion period in China.
• RQ: What language learning strategies did learners of Chinese as aforeign language use?

Research context• Economic, cultural and political relations between China and New Zealandhave grown over since 1972
• China is one of the most important trading partners for New Zealand• A dramatic increase of Chinese language enrolments in primary schools,
secondary schools, and tertiary institutions in New Zealand from2007-2016 (Ministry of Education, 2016)• The Prime Minister’s Scholarship for Asia (PMSA) program supports New
Zealanders to study in China ranging from six weeks to 24 months

Participants• 15 learners taking part in a six-week exchange program in a university inBeijing, China• From internal class programs and distance class programs in a university in
New Zealand (two programs used the same teaching and learningmaterials and studied at the same pace)• Given limited opportunity of being exposed to Chinese language, listening,speaking, reading and writing ability of Chinese language learners in New
Zealand improved relatively slowly• Low motivation and low confidence in learning

Participants’ profiles• All names are pseudonyms.
No.

NameAge

GenderLanguage level

Study mode

Major

1Carol18Female

Beginner

Internal class

Arts

2

Laura22Female

Intermediate

Distance class

Arts

3

Robert44

Male

Advanced

Distance class

Arts

4

Sandra19FemaleLower intermediate

N/ADesign

5

Deborah23FemaleIntermediate

Distance classChinese & Japanese

6

Allen54

Male

Intermediate

Distance class

Arts

7

Steven28

MaleBeginnerInternal class

Arts

8

Thomas29

Male

Intermediate

Distance class

Arts

9

Lisa

44FemaleIntermediate

Distance class

Arts

10

Jason

31MaleIntermediate

Internal classBusiness

11Richard

51

MaleBeginner

Distance class

Arts

12

Helen24

FemaleBeginner

Distance class

Arts

13

Donald20

MaleBeginnerInternal class

Information science

14Mark45

MaleAdvanced

Distance class

Arts

15

Susan

59

FemaleLower intermediate

Internal class

Linguistics

Data collection• In order to address the research question, the data obtained from weekly
reflective journals and groups interviews• Weekly reflective journals: 86 entries (about one single-spaced
typewritten-page in length), 50,254 words in total, and without edition.
• Group interviews: five participants each time, in English, and lastingaround one hour
• Interview questions: reviewed and assessed by experts first and then pilot
tested with a native-English-speaker student

Validation process: Member checking• Member checking was conducted as a validation process to ensure
the trustworthiness of results (Birt et al., 2016; Carlson, 2010; Thomas, 2017)• 86 weekly reflective journal entries and three group interview
transcripts were sent back to and confirmed by the study participantsData analysis• All weekly entries and interview data were coded based on Oxford’s (1990)
taxonomy• Direct: 1) Memory strategies: used to store or retrieve the target language;2) Cognitive strategies: selected by learners to better understand andproduce the new language; and 3) Compensation strategies: chosen bylearners to make up for lack of knowledge of the new language• Indirect: 1) Metacognitive strategies: to regulate learners’ own cognitive
processes; 2) Affective strategies: to help the learner self-regulate
attitudinal and emotional factors; and 3) Social strategies: to improvelearners’ understanding and enhance their production of the target
language through interaction with othersFindings• Participant one: Allen, high and fast achiever• Allen is a CEO of a small company in New Zealand. His company does
business with Chinese companies and he frequently goes to China• In the immersion period, his Chinese language proficiency improved a lot• An account from Allen: “the PMSA programme has provided an in-depth
experience into China culture and society, enhancing my Chinese language
skills and culture experience.”Week Language learning strategies used by Allen1
Direct: Cognitive (1)Example: Having the opportunity to sit back to observe the interactions of our team members with surrounding Chinese people have been very
valuable.
Indirect: Social (2)Example: I can see clearly how important to have good knowledge and understanding of Chinese culture with the correct applications of goodetiquette.
2
Indirect: Metacognitive (2), Social (2)Example: I have made myself a strong determination to live like a student so that I can enjoy the privilege of living in a student life in anenvironment that helps me focus to achieve my goal to improve my Chinese language. (Metacognitive)
3Direct: Memory (2), Cognitive (1), Compensation (1)Example: After the class, I put in a lot of efforts practicing writing new characters. (Memory)
I could only have understood about 70% to 80% of their Chinese. I just guess the rest of them to make sense of the conversation.
(Compensation)
Indirect: Metacognitive (1), Affective (1), Social (2)Example: I have taken every opportunity to be corrected so that I can speak it correctly. I did ask about the methods to remember Chinesecharacters. (Social)
I believe I will make significant gain and improvement in my Chinese. (Affective)
4
Direct: Cognitive (4)Example: There were many technical terms that I had prepared myself earlier so that I could pronounce them correctly.
Indirect: Metacognitive (3)Example: These are the key strategies that I have developed to do my presentation in Chinese. I am looking forward to many practices to comeover the next couple of weeks.
5
Indirect: Social (1)Example: I … should understand the Chinese business culture and above all the Chinese language.
6
Indirect: Metacognitive (1), Social (1)Example: I think I will find the final year easier as I had the opportunity to leap frog my Chinese through the PMSA programme. I will lookforward to another opportunity to apply for the PMSA programme to further enhance my Chinese Language. (Metacognitive)
Absorb the remaining Chinese culture exposure designed by the programme. (Social)

Findings• Participant two: Carol, low achiever• Carol runs an e-commerce business and is a self-employee coffee machine
producer. The coffee machines are manufactured in China• For her, the six-week immersion learning seemed to be a fruitful culturallearning journey• She concluded her learning as “the greatest lesson I’ve learnt through thisexperience has been to become far more accepting, understanding andknowledgeable of other cultures.”Week Language learning strategies used by Carol1
Direct: Cognitive (1)Example: I ordered my meals with complete sentences as opposed to pointing with the expression zhege ‘this’.
Indirect: Metacognitive (3)Example: This was an eye-opening situation for me as I was going to have to quickly improve my speaking skills if I were to get to know mynew roommate!
2

3

Indirect: Social (1)Example: If I go out with my Chinese language partner for a meal once a week or even just eat with her in the canteen, I feel I will be able todevelop a deeper appreciation and knowledge of Chinese food and etiquette. I can use this as an opportunity to learn more about the dishes
and etiquette from a first-hand account, while touching up on my Chinese at the same time!
Direct: Cognitive (1), Compensation (1)Example: I was jotting down everything I heard, taking a stab in the dark as to what the meaning may be. (Cognitive)
Notwithstanding, I am amazed by how much can be clarified by hand signals, pointing and drawing. (Compensation)
Indirect: Metacognitive (1)Example: I am also going to make a conscious effort to look up the vocabulary I am unfamiliar with. I think that this will help me to quickly
get a handle on the classroom terminology.

4

Indirect: Metacognitive (1)Example: I am going to do all I can in my control to make this process (learning Chinese) as fast as possible.

5

Indirect: Metacognitive (1), Social (1)Example: I think the solution in regard to my personal development lies in regularly watching Chinese television as this will not only improve
my insight into Chinese current affairs particularly concerning business which is invaluable to the bilateral trade relationship between New
Zealand and China, but at the same time I can improve my language skills. This will be invaluable as without being immersed in the culture
you have limited exposure to Chinese spoken language.
Indirect: Metacognitive (1), Social (1)Example: One strategy that I am going to implement is to read the Chinese news on a weekly basis. (Metacognitive)
Throughout my time in Beijing I have interacted with many other cultures all whom have diversified beliefs and values. (Social)

6Findings• Participant three: Deborah, medium achiever• Deborah has a double major in Chinese and Japanese.
• The immersion learning made her more motivated in Chinese
language learning, and she expressed “One thing is for sure: mymotivation to study Chinese is stronger than ever!”

Week
1

Language learning strategies used by Deborah
Direct: Memory (1), Compensation (1)Example: I prefer this to using apps like Quizlet or Memrise (digital flashcard apps) because for me it is easier to learn words in context − to see how and when they are used. (Memory)
Through a mixture of Chinese, English and hand gestures, I eventually figured out that I had to use a computer to find the book’s title and number, write it down and give it to thelibrarian. (Compensation)
Indirect: Metacognitive (4), Social (1)Example: I have been studying Japanese for around 8 years and often find myself measuring my Chinese ability against my Japanese ability. I feel that the area in which my Chinese
needs the most work is vocabulary. (Metacognitive)
I think that learning about culture in this way has also given me a bit of insight into the mindset of Chinese people. (Social)2

Direct: Cognitive (2)Example:I’ve decided to work on learning the names of some of the basic ingredients. For breakfast, I have already mastered roubao ‘pork bun’ and jidan ‘egg’.
Indirect: Affective (1)Example:There were smarter ways I could get more confident at ordering food (in Chinese).

3

Direct: Cognitive (1)Example: If I am eventually able to get confident in this setting, I feel that it would make conversation in a casual setting a lot easier.
Indirect: Metacognitive (2)Example: There is a huge difference between recognising and creating a good sentence, and between thinking and verbalising. I think another problem I have is that, being an introvert, I
find speaking in front of people very unnerving, even if it is just my classmates.

4

Direct: Cognitive (1)Example: For example, the other day on the subway I wanted to ask a man if his young son wanted my seat. What I ended up saying translates roughly as ‘does he want to sit?’. I spoke
slowly and clearly as I would in the classroom.
Indirect: Metacognitive (1)Example:To get more confidence in this area I have set two goals for the next couple of weeks.

5

Indirect: Metacognitive (1), Social (2)Example:The main one is that I definitely want to be able to use Chinese in future work. (Metacognitive)
I guess my biggest realisation is that cultural learning can come from anywhere, even where you least expect it. (Social)Direct: Cognitive (1)Example: I had a great chat with one of our taxi drivers and even though there was quite a bit I didn’t understand.
Indirect: Metacognitive (2)Example: I think that it can be really hard to make genuine connections with people in a new language which you may not have much mastery of, but when it happens it’s a real
milestone.

6Findings• Allen (high achiever): Direct: 9 (36%) and Indirect: 16 (64%);• Carol (low achiever): Direct: 3 (23%) and Indirect: 10 (77%);• Deborah (medium achiever): Direct: 7 (33%) and Indirect: 14(67%).
• Overall, much more indirect LLSs (68%) were used thandirect LLSs did (32%)

Findings• LLSs use diversity: Allen (25)>Deborah (21)>Carol (10)• Direct: Cognitive (14)>Memory (3)=Compensation (3)• Indirect: Metacognitive (24)>Social (14)>Affective (2)Discussion• Participating learners with different goals demonstrated different
preferences and priorities in using language learning strategies, which
is line with Macaro’s (2006) statement that learning strategies
comprises “a goal, a situation, and a mental action” (p. 332).
• Language learning strategy use seemed to be a dynamic and complex
process (Winke & Abbuhl, 2007), and the learners generally
consciously regulated its use on the basis of learning content,learning progress and learning goals.

Discussion• Direct strategies seemed to contribute more to language proficiencyimprovement. In line with Carson and Longhini (2002), the total ofindirect strategies used was higher than the total of direct strategies,
with the most frequently used strategies being those in themetacognitive groups. The affective group was the least used one.

Conclusion• Chinese language teachers need to pay attention to the differences ofstudent LLSs use in different learning phases.
• Chinese language teachers should pay more attention to LLSs use
repertoire of different students in order to provide more specific andeffective facilitations in terms of Chinese learning.
• Chinese language teachers can consider to relieve students’ learningpressure and courage them appropriately with regard to the scarce ofaffective LLSs use.

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• Many thanks• frankgong@um.edu.mo