Typeset by REVTEX 4 for JASA(A,Y)

Touch and temporal behavior of grand piano actions
Werner Goebl
Austrian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence (OFAI), Freyung 6/6, 1010 Vienna, Austria

Roberto Bresin
Department of Speech, Music, and Hearing (TMH); Royal Institute of Technology (KTH),
Lindstedtsvägen 24, 10044 Stockholm, Sweden

Alexander Galembo
Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences,
M. Toreza av. 44, St. Petersburg 194223, Russia(Dated: May 10, 2005)

This study investigated the temporal behavior of grand piano actions from different manufacturers under different touch conditions and dynamic levels. An experimental setup consistingof accelerometers and a calibrated microphone was used to capture key and hammer movements, as well as the sound signal. Five selected keys were played by pianists with two typesof touch (“pressed touch” versus “struck touch”) over the entire dynamic range. Discretemeasurements were extracted from the accelerometer data for each of the over 2300 recorded
tones (e.g., finger–key, hammer–string, and key bottom contact times, maximum hammer
velocity). Travel times of the hammer (from finger–key to hammer–string) as a function of
maximum hammer velocity varied clearly between the two types of touch, but only slightly
between pianos. A travel time approximation used in earlier work [W. Goebl, J. Acoust.
Soc. Am. 110(1), 563–572 (2001)] derived from a computer-controlled piano was verified.
Constant temporal behavior over type of touch and low compression properties of the partsof the action (reflected in key bottom contact times) were hypothesized to be indicators for
instrumental quality.
PACS numbers: 43.75.Mn, 43.75.St

I.

INTRODUCTION

The universe of expressive music to be played on themodern grand piano1 is produced by sophisticated acceleration of the (usually) 88 keys, none of which travels
through a distance greater than one centimeter, combined with the use of the pedals. The piano action provides the pianist the only point of contact to the strings;
it is therefore both an extremely important as well as ahighly elaborate and complex mechanical interface. It
allows accurate control over the speed at which the hammer arrives at the strings over a vast dynamical range
from the very pianissimo to the ultimate fortissimo. Since
not only the intensity of tone, but also the precise onset
timing of the outcoming sound is crucial to expressive
performance, it can be assumed that trained pianists are
intuitively well acquainted with the temporal behavior ofa piano action, and that they take it into account while
performing expressively.
The piano action functions as follows: The movementof the key is transferred to the hammer via the whippen, on which the jack is positioned so that it touches
the roller (knuckle) of the hammer shank. During a
keystroke, the tail end of the jack is stopped by the escapement dolly (let-off button, jack regulator) causing
the jack to rotate away from the roller, and thus breaking the contact between key and hammer. From thismoment, the hammer travels to the strings with a small
deceleration due to gravitation and friction, strikes them,and rebounds from them (“free flight of the hammer”).
To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

The roller falls back to the repetition lever, while thehammer is caught by the back check. For a fast repetition, the jack slides back under the roller when the
key is only released half-way, and the action is ready for
another stroke. More detailed descriptions of the functionality of grand piano actions can be found in the literature (Askenfelt and Jansson, 1990b; Fletcher and Rossing, 1998, pp. 354–358).
A. Temporal properties of the piano action
Temporal aspects of the piano action have been investigated recently by Askenfelt and Jansson (1990a,b,1991).2 The time interval from the key’s initial position
to key bottom contact ranges from about 25 ms at aforte keystroke (approximately 5 m/s FHV) to 160 ms
at a piano tone (or 1 m/s final hammer velocity FHV,
Askenfelt and Jansson, 1991, p. 2385).3 In a grand piano, the moments of hammer contact (when the hammer
excites the strings) are temporally shifted in comparison
to key bottom contact. Hammer contact occurs 12 ms
before key bottom contact at a piano tone (1 m/s FHV),
but 3 ms after the key bottom contact at a forte attack (5 m/s FHV, Askenfelt and Jansson, 1990a, p. 43).
However, Askenfelt and Jansson (1990a,b, 1991) provided
measurement data solely for a few example keystrokes.
The timing properties of the piano action can be modified by changing the regulation of the action. Modifications, e.g., in the hammer–string distance or in the
let-off distance (the distance of free flight of the hamGoebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

1mer, after the jack is released by the escapement dolly),
alter the timing relation between hammer–string contact
and key bottom contact or the free flight time, respectively (Askenfelt and Jansson, 1990b, p. 57). Greater
hammer mass in the bass range (Conklin, 1996, p. 3287)
influences the hammer–string contact durations (Askenfelt and Jansson, 1990b), but not the timing propertiesof the action.
Data on timing properties of a baby grand piano action were provided by Repp (1996) who worked with a
Yamaha Disklavier (Mark II series, similar to the oneused in the present study) on which the “prelay function” was not working.4 This gave him the opportunity
to measure roughly a grand piano’s travel time characteristics. He measured onset asynchronies at different MIDI
velocities in comparison to a note with a fixed MIDI velocity in the middle register of the keyboard. The time
deviations extended over a range of about 110 ms for
MIDI velocities between 30 and 100 and were fit well by
a quadratic function (Repp, 1996, p. 3920).
A function similar to the Disklavier’s prelay function was obtained from a Bösendorfer SE290 computercontrolled grand piano by Goebl (2001). He accesseddata from an internal memory chip of the SE system that
presumably stored information on the travel time intervals for each of the 97 keys and seven selected FHVs. An
average travel time function (against FHV) was derived
from these data (Goebl, 2001, Fig. 5, p. 568). It was applied to predict the amounts of note onset asynchronies
to be expected at given dynamic differences between thevoices of a chord.
There have been several attempts to model piano
actions (Gillespie, 1994; Gillespie and Cutkosky, 1992;
Hayashi et al., 1999), also for a possible applicationin electronic keyboard instruments (Cadoz et al., 1990;
Van den Berghe et al., 1995). Gillespie and colleagues
developed a virtual keyboard that simulates the haptic
feel of a real grand piano action using motorized keys
(Gillespie, 1994; Gillespie and Cutkosky, 1992). Van den
Berghe et al. (1995) performed measurements on a grandpiano key with two optical sensors for hammer and key
displacement and a strain gauge for key force. Unfortunately, they provided only a single exemplary keystrokeof their data. Hayashi et al. (1999) tested one piano key
on a Yamaha grand piano. The key was hit with a specially developed key actuator able to produce different
acceleration patterns. The displacement of the hammer
was measured with a laser displacement gauge. Theydeveloped a simple model and tested it in two touch conditions (with constant key velocity and constant key acceleration). Their model predicted the measured data forboth conditions accurately.
B. Different types of touch
While physicists and technicians argue that the solefactor that controls the sound and the timbre of the piano is the hammer velocity at which the hammer hits
against the strings (Hart et al., 1934; Seashore, 1937;
White, 1930), it is of extraordinary importance for pianists, how they touch and accelerate the keys. As Ortmann (1929, p. 3) puts it: “The complex problem ofphysiological mechanics as applied to piano technique re2

To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

solves itself finally, into one basic question: the variationsof force produced at the key-surface by the player.” And
in order to produce the forces at the key surface that entail a particular desired musical outcome, pianists haveto practice for decades. Over this time period, they develop a tacit tactile knowledge of how piano actions behave under the various physical forces they apply to it.
Thus, an integral part of what pianists perceive from a
piano is the haptic-tactile response of the keys (including particularly key resistance and inertia) in relation to
the physical force they apply and to the acoustical result
they hear (Galembo, 2001).
An article in Nature by Bryan (1913) was the starting point of a lively discussion on piano touch. Bryanputs the “single-variable hypothesis” (the timbre of a piano tone determined solely by FHV) into question withrudimentary experiments performed with a player-piano.
His contribution entailed a discussion of 6 Letters to the
Editor and 3 further replies by Bryan (all to be found in
Nature, Volumes 91–92, 1913).
A first profoundly scientific investigation to this controversy contributed Otto Ortmann from the Peabody
Conservatory of Music in Baltimore (Ortmann, 1925).
He approached the “mystery of touch and tone” at the
piano through physical investigation. With a piece ofsmoked glass mounted on the side of a piano key anda tuning fork, he was able to record and to study key
depression under different stroke conditions. He investigated various kinds of keystrokes (“percussive” versus“non-percussive,” different muscular tensions, and positions of the finger). He found different acceleration patterns for non-percussive (finger rests on the surface of the
key before pressing it) and percussive touch (an alreadymoving finger strikes the key). The latter starts with asudden jerk, thereafter the key velocity decreases for a
moment and increases again. During this period, the finger slightly rebounds from the key (or vice versa), thenre-engages the key and “follows it up” (p. 23). On theother side, the non-percussive touch caused the key toaccelerate gradually.
Ortmann (1925) found that these different types oftouch provide a fundamentally different kind of key control. The percussive touch required precise control of thevery first impact, whereas with non-percussive touch, thekey depression needed to be controlled up to the very
end. “This means that the psychological factors involvedin percussive and non-percussive touches are different”(p. 23). “In non-percussive touches key resistance is asensation, in percussive touches it is essentially an image”(p. 23, footnote 1). His conclusions were that different
ways of touching the keys produced different intensities
of tones, but when the intensity was the same, also thequality of the tone must be the same. “The quality of asound on the piano depends upon its intensity, any one
degree of intensity produces but one quality, and no twodegrees of intensity can produce exactly the same quality” (p. 171).
The discussion was enriched by introducing the aspectof different noises that emerge with varying touch (Báron
and Holló, 1935; Cochran, 1931). Báron and Holló (1935)
distinguished between “Fingergeräusch” (finger noise)that occurs when the finger touches the key (which is abGoebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

sent when the finger velocity is zero as touching the key— in Ortmann’s terminology “non-percussive touch”),“Bodengeräusch” (keybed noise) that emerges when the
key hits the keybed, and “Obere Geräusche” (upper
noises) that develop when the key is released again (e.g.,
the damper hitting the strings). As another (and indeed very prominent) source of noise they mentioned the
pianist’s foot hitting the stage floor (or the pedals) in order to emphasize a fortissimo passage. In a later study,Báron (1958) advocated a broader concept of tone quality, including all kinds of noise (finger–key, action, andhammer–string interaction), which he argued to be included into concepts of tone characterization of different
instruments (Báron, 1958).
More recent studies investigated these different kindsof noise that emerge when the key is struck in different
ways (Askenfelt, 1994; Koornhof and van der Walt, 1994;
Podlesak and Lee, 1988). The hammer–impact noise(“string precursor”) arrives at the bridge immediately
after hammer–string contact (Askenfelt, 1994) and characterizes the “attack thump” of the piano sound without
which it would not be recognized as such (Chaigne andAskenfelt, 1994a,b). This noise is independent of touch
type. The hammer impact noises of the grand piano do
not radiate equally strongly in all directions (Bork et al.,1995). As three dimensional measurements with a twometer Bösendorfer grand piano revealed, increased noiselevels were found horizontally towards the pianist and in
the opposite direction, to the left (viewed from the sitting
pianist), and vertically towards the ceiling.
Before the string precursor, another noise component
could occur: the “touch precursor,” only present when
the key was hit from a certain distance above (“staccato
touch,” Askenfelt, 1994). It precedes the actual tone by
20 to 30 ms and was much weaker than the string precursor (Askenfelt, 1994). Similar results were reported byKoornhof and van der Walt (1994). They called the noise
prior to the sounding tone “early noise” or “accelerationnoise;” it occurs closely in time with finger–key contact.
They performed an informal listening test with four participants. The two types of touch (“staccato touch” withthe early noise and “legato touch”) could be easily identified by the listeners, but not anymore with the earlynoise removed. Unfortunately, no further systematic results were reported (Koornhof and van der Walt, 1994).
In a recent perception study (Goebl et al., 2004), musicians could hardly identify what type of touch piano
tone samples were played when the finger–key noises
were included (only half of them rated significantly better than chance), but not at all, when finger–key noises
were removed from the stimuli. This evidence suggeststhat finger–key noise, which occurs only with a percussive (“struck”) touch, is responsible for pure aural touchrecognition.
The different kinds of touch also produced different
finger–key touch forces (Askenfelt and Jansson, 1992b,
p. 345). A mezzo forte attack played with “staccato
touch” typically has 15 N, very loud such attacks show
peaks up to 50 N (fortissimo), very soft touches go as low
as 8 N (piano). Playing with “legato touch,” finger–key
forces of about one third of those obtained with “staccato touch” are found, usually having a peak when the
To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

key touches the keybed. At a very pianissimo tone, theforce hardly exceeds 0.5 N.
In the piano acoustics literature, there are other waysof categorizing touch, as e.g., Suzuki (2003) who introduced a “hard–soft” antagonism, relying on a professional pianist’s intuition how this distinction is realizedon the piano. However, he did not control for this variable (human factor) in his experiments.
In the present study, two prototypical types of depressing the keys are used based on the criterion of the finger’s
speed when beginning the keystroke. These two types(“struck touch” and “pressed touch”) are identical to thecategories introduced by Askenfelt and Jansson (1991).
However, the terminology was deliberately changed from“legato–staccato” (that was also used in earlier studies
by the authors, i.e., Goebl and Bresin, 2003a,b; Goeblet al., 2003) to “pressed–struck” (Goebl et al., 2004) inorder to draw a clear distinction between terms referring
to touch and those referring to articulation (that is thelength of each tone relative to its nominal value in thescore, thus referring to the connection of tones). Especially in conversations with performing musicians, they
get very quickly confused by “legato–staccato” used ina double sense. Nevertheless, there might be parallels
between these two meanings of “legato–staccato.” E.g.,
articulated and short tones may be more likely playedwith a struck touch and legato tones smoothly overlapping with each other might be more likely played fromthe key surface (pressed touch). However, these parallels
occur only in very typical situations; pianists will haveno difficulty in producing opposite examples, e.g., a shortstaccato tone played with a pressed touch and vice versa.
II.

AIMS
The present study aimed to collect a large amount of
measurement data from different grand pianos, different
types of touch, and different keys, in order to determine
and provide benchmark functions that may be useful inperformance research as well as in piano pedagogy. The
measurement setup with accelerometers was similar tothat as used by Askenfelt and Jansson (1991). However,in order to obtain a large and reliable data set, the dataprocessing procedure and the reading of discrete values
was automated with purpose-made computer software.
Each of the measured notes was equipped with two accelerometers monitoring key and hammer velocity. Additionally, a microphone recorded the sound of the piano tone. With this setup, various temporal properties
were determined and discussed (travel time, key bottom
time, time of free flight). Moreover, the speed histories ofboth key and hammer revealed essential insights into thefundamentally different nature of the two types of touch
examined in this study.
In a study on tone onset asynchronies in expressive
piano performance (“melody lead,” Goebl, 2001), finger–
key onset times were inferred from the hammer–string
onset times through an approximation of the travel timesof the hammer (from finger–key to hammer–string contact) as a function of FHV. This travel time function was
obtained from data of an internal chip of a Bösendorfer
SE290 reproducing system. The present study additionGoebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

3ally aims to reconsider that approximation.
III. METHOD
A. Material
Three grand pianos by different manufacturers were
investigated in this study. Two of them were computercontrolled pianos, the same as in an earlier study (Goebl
and Bresin, 2003b).
1. Steinway grand piano, (model C, 225 cm, serial number: 516000, built in Hamburg, Germany,in 1989),5 situated at the Dept. of Speech, Music,
and Hearing (TMH) at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, Sweden.
2. Yamaha Disklavier grand piano (DC2IIXG,
173 cm, serial number: 5516392, built in Japan,
approximately 1999), situated at the Dept. of Psychology at the University of Uppsala, Sweden.
3. Bösendorfer computer-controlled grand piano (SE290, 290 cm, internal number: 290–3,
built in Vienna, Austria, 2000), situated at theBösendorfer Company in Vienna.
Immediately before the experiments, the instruments
were tuned, and the piano action and—in the case of thecomputer-controlled pianos—the reproduction unit serviced and regulated. The Steinway grand has been regularly maintained by a piano technician of the Swedish National Radio. At the Disklavier, this procedure was carried out by a specially trained Disklavier piano technician
from the Stockholm “Konserthus.” At the Bösendorfercompany, the company’s SE technician took care of thiswork.
B. Equipment and calibration
The tested keys were equipped with an accelerometeron the key6 and another one on the bottom side at theend of the hammer shank.7 The sound was picked up
by a sound-level meter microphone8 placed about 10 cm
above the strings. The velocities of key and hammer andthe sound signal were recorded on a multichannel DAT
recorder (TEAC RD-200 PCM) with a sampling rate of
10 kHz and 16-bit word length. The data was transferred
to a computer harddisk and analyzed with computer software written for this purpose. The recorded voltages
were transformed to obtain required measures (m/s anddB SPL). The measuring equipment and the calibration
procedure was identical as in Goebl and Bresin (2003b,
p. 2274–75), so we do not repeat further details here.9
C. Procedure
Five keys distributed over the whole range of the keyboard were tested: C1 (MIDI note number 24, 32.7 Hz),G2 (43, 98.0 Hz), C4 (60, 261.6 Hz), C5 (72, 523.3 Hz),and G6 (91, 1568.0 Hz).10 The first two authors served
as pianists to perform the recorded test tones. Eachkey was hit at as many different dynamic levels (hammer velocities) as possible, with two different kinds oftouch: one with the finger resting on the key surface(pressed touch), the other hitting the key from a certain
4

To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

distance above, thus with the finger touching the key already with a certain speed (struck touch). Parallel to theaccelerometer setting, the two computer-controlled grandpianos recorded these test tones with their internal device on computer hard disk (Bösendorfer) or floppy disk
(Disklavier).
For each of the five keys, both players played in bothtypes of touch from 30 to 110 individual tones, so that asufficient amount of data was recorded. In case of the twocomputer-controlled devices (Bösendorfer and Yamaha),the internally recorded file was reproduced by the grandpiano immediately after each recording of a particularkey, and the accelerometer data was recorded again onto
the multi-channel DAT recorder. However, for the sake ofclarity and due to limited space, we restricted this paper
to the human data. For the Steinway, 595 individual
attacks were recorded, for the Yamaha Disklavier 996,
and for the Bösendorfer 756 (not counting the keystrokes
repeated by the reproducing devices).11
D.

Data analysis
In order to analyze the three-channel data files, discrete measurement values had to be extracted from them.
Several instants in time were defined as listed below andautomatically read off with the help of Matlab scripts
prepared by the first author for this purpose. Thismethod allowed to obtain timing data without speciallyhaving to install additional sensors or contacts into the
piano action (as e.g. done by Askenfelt and Jansson,
1990b), only by processing the key and hammer trajectory and the sound information.
The hammer–string contact was defined as the moment of maximum deceleration (minimum acceleration)of the hammer shank (hammer accelerometer) which corresponded well to the physical onset of the sound, andconceptually with the “note on” command in the MIDI
file.12
The finger–key contact was defined to be the moment when the key started to move. It was obtained bya simple threshold procedure applied on the key velocity track. In mathematical terms, it was the moment
when the (slightly smoothed) key acceleration exceededa certain threshold. Finding the correct finger–key point
was not difficult for struck tones; they showed typically avery abrupt initial acceleration. However, automaticallydetermining the right moment for soft pressed tones wasmore difficult and sometimes ambiguous. The threshold was optimized iteratively by hand. It was foundthat softer tones required a smaller threshold than louder
ones; therefore it was coupled to the hammer velocity bya linear function. When the automatic procedure failed,
it failed by several tens of milliseconds—an error easy to
discover in explorative data plots.
The key bottom contact was the instant when the
downwards travel of the key was stopped by the keybed.
This point was defined as the maximum deceleration of
the key (MDK). In some keystrokes, the MDK was not
the actual keybed contact, but a rebound of the key after
the first key bottom contact. For this reason, the time
window of searching MDK was restricted to 7 ms before
and 50 ms after hammer–string contact. The time window was iteratively modified depending on the maximum
Goebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

kb hsfk
Amplitude (−1/+1) Hammer velocity (m/s) Key velocity (m/s)

Amplitude (−1/+1) Hammer velocity (m/s) Key velocity (m/s)

fk
0.5
0

−0.5 hs−fk: 43.8 ms
kb−hs: −2.7 ms

0maxHv: 2.976 m/s

0.2
0.1
0

−0.1

0

2
0
−2

maxHv: 2.975 m/s

0.2
0.1
0

−0.1

−0.2 SPL: 99.32 dB
−50

0.5

−0.5 hs−fk: 24.7 ms
kb−hs: −0.2 ms

2

−2

kb hs

−40

−0.2 SPL: 98.87 dB

−30

−20

−10

0

10

20

−50

Time (ms)

a)

−40

−30

−20

−10

0

10

20

Time (ms)b)

FIG. 1. Two forte keystrokes (C4, 60) played on the Yamaha grand piano with a pressed touch (left) and struck touch (right).
The top panels show key velocity, the middle panel hammer velocity, and the bottom panel the amplitude of the sound signal.
Both keystrokes exhibit similar MHVs and peak sound levels. Finger–key contact time (“fk”), hammer–string contact (“hs”),
and key bottom contact (“kb”) are indicated by vertical lines.

hammer velocity until the correct instant was found. The
indicator MDK was especially clear and non-ambiguouswhen the key was depressed in a range of medium intensity (see Fig. 1).
The maximum hammer velocity (MHV, in meters
per second) was the maximum value in the hammer velocity track before hammer–string contact.
The escapement point was defined as being the instant after which the hammer travels freely (with no further acceleration) towards the strings. It was approximated by fitting a line onto the hammer velocity track
between the point of MHV and hammer–string contact.
The slope of this line was set to the theoretical deceleration caused by gravity (−9.81 m/s2 ), disregarding any
influence of friction. This instant in time was measurable
only at soft and very soft touches. At MHVs exceeding
approximately 1.5 m/s, it virtually coincided with themoment of MHV.
To inspect the recorded key and hammer velocity
tracks and the sound signal, an interactive tool was created in order to display one keystroke at a time in threepanels, one above the other. The user could click to thenext and the previous keystroke, zoom in and out, andchange the display from velocity to acceleration or displacement. Screen shots of this tool are shown below (seeFig. 1). The data was checked and inspected for errors
with the help of this tool.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this section, measurement results of the three investigated pianos are presented and compared. Recall
that these data apply to specific instruments and deTo appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

pend strongly on their regulation so that generalization
to other instruments of the same brands may be problematic.
A.

Two types of touch
The recorded three-channel data of two example
keystrokes performed on the Yamaha grand piano areplotted in Fig. 1. They both exhibit an almost identicalMHV (2.976 and 2.975 m/s, respectively) and a similar
peak sound level (99.32 and 98.87 dB, resp.).13 In musical terms this corresponds roughly to a forte dynamic.
The first keystroke (Fig. 1a) was played from the key witha “pressed touch.” From the beginning of the keystroke,
the key velocity increases gradually; the hammer velocity grows in parallel. The hammer reaches its maximum velocity immediately before it arrives at the strings.
Hammer–string contact is characterized by a very sudden deceleration (Fig. 1, indicated by vertical solid lines).
Key bottom contact shows a slightly less abrupt deceleration and occurs immediately before hammer–string contact. On the other hand, the keystroke produced with a“struck touch” (Fig. 1b) shows a very sudden jerk at the
beginning of the key movement that has no correspondence in the hammer movement, but can be seen in theaudio data (“touch precursor”).14 The hammer starts its
travel to the strings with a delay of several milliseconds.
It receives a first, larger acceleration by this initial blow
applied to the key; later the key “catches up” (Ortmann,
1925, p. 23) and brings the hammer to its final speed.
The whole striking procedure needs roughly 20 ms lesstime with a “struck touch” compared to the “pressed
touch,” both with almost identical intensities.
Goebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

5

Pressed

Pressed
4 f

1 mp

3
0.5

2
1

0

0
−1

−1
0

0.1
0.2
Struck

0.3

1 mp

0.5
0

−0.5

Hammer velocity (m/s)

Hammer velocity (m/s)−0.5mHvB = 1.151
mHvY = 1.160
mHvS = 1.145

mHvB = 4.130
mHvY = 4.151
mHvS = 4.119

−2
−3
0

0.25
0.5
Struck

0.75

4 f
3
2
1

mHvB = 1.180
mHvY = 1.149
mHvS = 1.176

0−1mHvB = 3.506
mHvY = 3.455
mHvS = 3.512

−2

−1

−3
0

0.1
0.2
0.3
Key velocity (m/s)

FIG. 2. Touch trajectories of mezzo-piano keystrokes at theC5 (72) on three pianos played with pressed touch (upper
panel) and struck touch (lower). Upward-pointing triangles
denote the escapement point, diamonds hammer–string contact, and downward-pointing triangles key bottom contact
times. Small filled circles are plotted on the trajectories in
2-ms intervals to indicate time.

B. Relation between key and hammer movement
In order to demonstrate the behavior of the hammer
in relation to the key movement under two touch conditions, so-called “touch trajectories” of pressed and struck
keystrokes are plotted in Figs. 2–4. These plots depict the
progression of hammer velocity against key velocity fromfinger–key contact to key bottom or hammer–string contact (depending on which of these two points was later).
Each panel compares keystrokes with almost identical
MHV values played at the C5 on all three pianos. Marked
on the trajectories are escapement point (upward trian6

To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

0
0.25
0.5
Key velocity (m/s)

0.75

FIG. 3. Touch trajectories of forte keystrokes at the C5 (72)on three pianos played with pressed touch (upper panel) andstruck touch (lower). Symbols and axes proportions as inFig. 2.

gle), hammer–string contact (diamond), and key bottom
contact (downward triangle), as well as elapsing time
(filled circles every 2 ms). Fig. 2 contains mezzo-piano
keystrokes, Fig. 3 forte, and Fig. 4 fortissimo, which can
only be achieved with a struck touch.
The pressed keystrokes develop fairly linearly until theescapement point (top panels in Figs. 2 and 3). The average slope of this part of the trajectory for all recordedpressed tones is 5.6 for Steinway and Yamaha, and 5.3
for the Bösendorfer. In the softer pressed example (Fig. 2top), the key–bottom occurs after hammer–string contact(the trajectories drop at the right before going leftwards),
while at the forte example (Fig. 3 top) the key–bottom isGoebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

Pressed
mHvB = 6.868
mHvY = 6.781
mHvS = 6.777

ff
Hammer velocity (m/s)

8
6
4
2

Mean correlation coefficients

StruckStruck

1

1

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0

S

Y

B

0

G6 (91)C5 (72)C4 (60)G2 (43)C1 (24)S

Y

B

FIG. 5. Mean correlation coefficients of the touch trajectories(key and hammer velocity histories from finger–key throughthe escapement point) by touch (panels), piano (x axes: Steinway, Yamaha, Bösendorfer), and pitch (marker shape). Error
bars denote 95% confidence intervals.

0
0

0.4
0.8
1.2
Key velocity (m/s)

FIG. 4. Touch trajectories of fortissimo keystrokes at the C5(72) on three pianos played with struck touch. Symbols andaxes proportions as in Fig. 2.

before hammer–string (trajectory moves left before dropping downwards). The exception here is the keystroke at
the Steinway, at which the key–bottom contact is stillafter hammer–string contact (though the time differenceis negligible) and therefore the trajectory still drops first.
Struck tones show very different trajectories (bottom
panels in Figs. 2–4). They deviate clearly from the diagonal; the initial acceleration of the key pushes the trajectories rightwards, before the hammer starts to move.
After this first blow, the key stops for a moment and reaccelerates again, while the hammer still gets faster. Thispattern is quite consistent across pianos and intensities(see Figs. 2 and 3). However, at very loud keystrokes thesecond acceleration of the key does not occur anymore(Fig. 4) so that the whole keystroke consists of one strong
impulse and the acceleration of the hammer during retardation of the key (diagonal trajectory to the upper
right). The exception is the Steinway which still exhibitsa second key acceleration phase.
The struck touches compared here display almost identical MHVs (bottom panels Figs. 2–4). However, theeffort spent for the keystrokes does not appear to be similarly identical: the initial blow (maximum key velocity) at the Bösendorfer is larger than at the other pianos
for all three intensities; relatively the most in Fig. 2. Alarger initial amplitude to the right denotes a larger energy loss in a keystroke due to compression of the partsin the action (e.g., cushions, dunnage) and bending of
the key and hammer shank. Therefore, the Bösendorferaction exhibits the largest degree of compression (especially with soft tones) and the Steinway the least. To
draw more profound conclusions from this finding, measurements on the touch form would have to be performedthat include monitoring of finger speed and force applied
to the key. However, the present data suggests that the
To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

Bösendorfer requires more playing effort at struck touchforms to achieve the same dynamic level than the twoother pianos.
In order to quantify the transformation effectivity ofa keystroke, the correlation coefficient between the key
and hammer velocity track (starting from finger–key contact until the escapement point) was introduced. The
mean correlation coefficients for touch, pianos, and key
are each plotted separately in Fig. 5. As this measure determines linearity between key and hammer movement,
it may serve as a “touch index,” distinguishing clearly
between the two types of touch. It turned out that allpressed touches display coefficients beyond approx. 0.6
and struck ones below that value. In this sense, pressed
touch is a more effective way of transforming finger force
into hammer velocity than playing with a struck touch.
Moreover, this index may also hold for a measure oftone control for the pianist. With a struck touch, theaction decompresses after compression (relaxing of compressed cushions, bent key, and the hammer shank). At
very loud keystrokes, this must be the reason of the highacceleration of the hammer (the key decelerates clearly
while the hammer accelerates up to 7–8 m/s, see Fig. 3).
Therefore by striking a key, the tone intensity is controlled through the initial key or finger velocity; by pressing a key, the tone intensity is controlled through the key
or finger velocity until the escapement of the jack (“earlyversus late impulse,” cf. Askenfelt and Jansson, 1991).
C. Travel time
The time interval between finger–key contact andhammer–string contact is defined here as the travel
time.15 The travel times of all recorded tones are plotted in Fig. 6 against MHV separately for the three grandpianos (different panels), different types of touch (fillingof symbols), and different keys (denoted by symbol).
Some very basic observations can be drawn from thisfigure. The two pianists were able to produce muchhigher MHVs on all three pianos with a struck attack(almost 8 m/s), whereas with a pressed tone, the MHVs
hardly exceeded 5 m/s. There was a small trend towards higher hammer velocities at higher pitches (due tosmaller hammer mass, see Conklin, 1996). The highest
Goebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

7

STEINWAY C
ttpr = 98.57 × HV
ttst = 65.19 × HV −0.7268

250

Travel time (ms)

YAMAHA DISKLAVIER−0.7147

BÖSENDORFER SE290−0.5959

ttpr = 89.41 × HV
ttst = 57.43 × HV −0.7748

250

200

200

200

150

150

150

100

100

100

50

50

50

0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0

0

1

2

3

4

5

pr st

250

6

7

8

0

G6 (91)C5 (72)C4 (60)G2 (43)C1 (24)
ttpr = 89.96 × HV −0.5595
ttst = 58.39 × HV −0.7377

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Maximum hammer velocity (m/s)
FIG. 6. Travel time (from finger–key to hammer–string contact) against MHV for the three grand pianos (three panels),
different types of touch (pressed and struck ), and different keys (from C1 to G6, see legend). The two types of touch (“pr” and“st”) were approximated by power functions (see legends).

velocities on the Yamaha and the Steinway were obtainedat the G6, but at the middle C on the Bösendorfer. The
lowest investigated key (C1) showed slightly lower MHVs
by comparison to the fastest attacks (loudest attacks on
the Steinway: C1: 6.8 m/s versus G6: 7.5 m/s, on the
Yamaha: C1: 6.4 m/s versus G6: 7.8 m/s, and on theBösendorfer: C1: 6.0 m/s versus G6: 6.6 m/s and C4:
7.6 m/s). The variability between the intensity distributions of the keys could be due to the fact that the tones
were played by human performers.
The travel times ranged from 20 ms to around 200 ms(up to 230 ms on the Steinway) and depicted clearly different patterns for the two types of touch. The travel
time curves were independent of pitch although lower
keys have much greater hammer mass than in the highregister (Conklin, 1996).
The data plotted in Fig. 6 were approximated by power
curves of the form tt = a × HV b separately for each typeof touch (“pr,” “st”) and each of the three pianos. The
results of these curve interpolations are shown in the legends of Fig. 6. Struck touch needed less time to transport
the hammer to the strings than a pressed touch whichsmoothly accelerated the key (and thus the hammer).
The travel times were more spread out when the tones
were pressed, indicating that there was a more flexible
control of touch in this way of actuating the keys (alsoreflected by the lower R2 values of the curve fits). On
the Steinway, the struck data showed higher variability,
almost similar to the pressed data.
The present data were generally congruent with findings by Askenfelt and Jansson (1991) and Hayashi et al.
(1999). The travel time approximations used in Goebl(2001, tt = 89.16 × HV −0.570 ) were very similar to thecurve fit of the Bösendorfer’s pressed data. The impactof this updated travel time function on the melody lead
predictions was rather negligible; it is discussed elsewhere(Goebl, 2003, p. 74 onwards).
8

To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

D.

Key bottom time

Fig. 7 displays the key bottom contact times relative tohammer–string contact (tkbrel = tkb − ths ). Negative values indicate key bottom contacts before hammer–string
contact, positive values key bottom contacts after thehammer hits the strings (see overview display in Fig. 9).
The keybed was reached by the key up to 35 ms after
hammer–string contact in very soft tones (up to 39 ms
at the Bösendorfer) and as early as 4 ms before in verystrong keystrokes. This finding coincides with Askenfelt
and Jansson (1990a,b)’s results, but since much softer
tones were measured in the present study (as low as
0.1 m/s), the key bottom times extended more after
hammer–string contact.
Key bottom contact times varied with the type oftouch. Keys played with a pressed touch tended to reach
the keybed earlier than keys hit in a struck manner. Thiswas especially evident for the Bösendorfer and for the
Yamaha, but not for the Steinway. Askenfelt and Jansson(1992b, p. 345) stated that the interval between key bottom and hammer–string contact varies only marginally
between “legato” and “staccato touch.” They obviously
refer with this statement to one of their earlier studies(Askenfelt and Jansson, 1990b), where the investigatedgrand piano was also a Steinway grand piano.16
Power functions were fitted to the data as depicted inFig. 7, separately for the two types of touch and the different pianos (see legends). Since the data to fit contains
also negative values on the y axis, power functions of theform kbt = a × HV b + c were used. The data spread out
more than in the travel time curves (reflected in smaller
R2 values) and showed considerable differences between
types of touch, except for this Steinway, where touch did
not divide the data visibly. This finding suggests thatstruck keystrokes tend to compress the parts of the action more than pressed ones that this behavior was leastat the Steinway piano.
Goebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

STEINWAY C

YAMAHA DISKLAVIER

40

40−0.4158

kbtpr = 19.09 × HV
−12.30kbtst = 59.57 × HV −0.1131 −51.19

35

Key bottom time (ms)BÖSENDORFER SE29040−0.3936pr st

kbtpr = 14.63 × HV
−11.05
kbtst = 10.15 × HV −0.6825 −3.74

35

35

30

30

30

25

25

25

20

20

20

15

15

15

10

10

10

5

5

5

0

0

0

−5

−5

−5

−10

−10

−10

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

G6 (91)C5 (72)C4 (60)G2 (43)C1 (24)
kbtpr = 11.59 × HV −0.4497 −9.98
kbtst = 13.96 × HV −0.3559 −10.15

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Maximum hammer velocity (m/s)
FIG. 7. Key bottom time relative to hammer–string contact against MHV. Negative key bottom values denote instants
preceding hammer–string contact. Legends list power curve fits of the data separately for pressed touch (“kbtpr ”) and struck
touch (“kbtst ”).

E.

Escapement point
Shortly before the hammer crown arrives at the strings,
the tail end of the jack gets pushed away from under
the roller by the escapement dolly and the pianist loses
physical contact with and thus control over the hammer,
which is then moving freely along a circular path to thestrings. This measurement point was comparatively difficult to extract automatically from the data, since atmany keystrokes this point was not obvious at all. The
higher the hammer velocities, the more it tends to coincide with the instant of MHV. Only at soft and very soft
dynamics, the hammer might reach its maximum speed
considerably earlier than the jack is escaped.
An example of a very soft keystroke is displayed inFig. 8. In addition to the display in Fig. 1, the point
To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

fk
Amplitude (−1/+1) Hammer velocity (m/s) Key velocity (m/s)

Askenfelt and Jansson (1990b) considered key bottom
times as being sensed with the fingertips by pianists andthus as being important for the vibrotactile feedback inpiano playing. Temporal asynchronies of the order of
30 ms are in principle beyond the temporal order threshold (Hirsh, 1959), so at very soft keystrokes key bottom
contact and hammer–string contact could be perceived as
two separate events by the pianists. But for the majorityof keystrokes these time differences are not perceptually
distinguishable; however, they may be perceived subconsciously and perhaps as part of the response behavior of aparticular piano. Especially, the different key bottom behavior for the different kinds of touch might be judged by
the pianists as part of the response behavior of the action(Askenfelt and Jansson, 1992b). Hammer–string contact
occurs earlier relative to key bottom contact when the
key was struck compared to when it was pressed. Fora pianist, a struck touch produces a tone earlier than apressed touch with comparable intensity, both relative to
key bottom contact and relative to finger–key contact,
and thus may be perceived as being louder and more direct.

hs kb

0.05

0
hs−fk: 126.9 ms−0.05 kb−hs: 15.3 ms
0.5
Vmax

ep

0

−0.5
0.01

maxHv: 0.338 m/s

0

SPL: 72.32 dB
−0.01
−150
−100

−50

0

50

Time (ms)FIG. 8. A struck pianissimo keystroke at C2 (24) playedon the Steinway grand piano. Additionally indicated are thepoint of MHV (“Vmax”) and the estimated escapement point(“ep”). The skewed line in the middle panel denotes expected
deceleration according to gravity.

of MHV (“Vmax”) and the escapement point (“ep”) aresketched, as well as the line of gravity fitted in the hammer track between escapement point and hammer–string
contact. At this pianissimo tone, the hammer reaches
its maximum speed quite soon after the begin of the
keystroke (after 31.9 ms), travels another 78.7 ms withconnection to the jack, and decelerates approximately by
Goebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

9TABLE I. Power curve approximations of the form fft = a ×
HV b for the free-flight time data, separately for pressed andstruck touches and the three pianos.
fft =Steinway
YamahaBösendorfer

Pressed1.63 × HV −1.403
2.78 × HV −1.266
3.21 × HV −1.353

Struck
3.04 × HV −1.581
5.27 × HV −1.384
4.32 × HV −1.404

8
7
6

Steinway C
Yamaha Disklavier
Bösendorfer SE290

Pressed touch
Key bottom

Maximum hammer velocity (m/s)

54Finger−key

3

Esc. Point

2
1
−200

−175

−150

−125

−100

−75

−50

−25

0

25

−50

−25

0

25

8
7

Struck touch

6
5
4
3
2
1
−200

−175

−150

−125

−100

−75

Time relative to hammer−string contact (ms)FIG. 9. Temporal properties of three grand piano actions.
Power curve approximations for the three pianos (line style),
the two types of touch (panels), and for finger–key (left), escapement point (middle), and key bottom times (right) relative to hammer–string contact.

the three tested piano actions (line style) against time(in seconds) relative to the hammer–string contact. The
temporal differences between extremes in intensity werelargest for the finger–key times and smallest for key bottom times (both relative to hammer–string contact). The
differences of the curves between the pianos by different
manufacturers were small compared to the differences introduced through the type of touch. The finger–key curveof this Steinway action was the left-most except for loudpressed tones. Also our Steinway’s key bottom curve was
the right-most of the three actions. Thus, the Steinway
action needed more time for the attack process than theother two pianos, except for very loud pressed tones. At
the free flight time approximation, the Steinway showed
the shortest of all tested actions.
These data apply only to the tested instruments andtemporal behavior changes considerably with regulation(especially key–bottom contact and the time of free flight,
see Askenfelt and Jansson, 1990b; Dietz, 1968). We do
not know how different the temporal behavior of other instruments of these three manufacturers will be. Changes
in regulation (hammer–string distance, let-off distance)
resulted in changes of the key–bottom timing and thetime interval of the hammer’s free flight, respectively, of
up to 5 ms (for a medium intensity, see Askenfelt andJansson, 1990b, pp. 56–57). The differences between piano actions in the present data are approximately of thesame order.18
It can be concluded that the temporal behavior of thetested piano actions by different manufacturers were similar. However, no definitive conclusions can be drawn
whether or not these (comparably small) differences in
temporal behavior were crucial for the pianist’s estimation of the piano’s quality and whether they apply also
to other instruments of these manufacturers.
V.

gravity for a period of 16.3 ms.
F.

Free flight of the hammer
The time interval from the escapement point until
hammer–string contact is called here “the free flight of
the hammer.”17 The individual data points are not plotted here due to space limitations, but they were fitted
by power curves separately for the type of touch. The
formulas are provided in Table I. The free flight of thehammer ranges from almost zero at louder tones up to
20 ms at very soft keystrokes, with some outliers up toaround 40 ms at the Yamaha piano (struck touch). Generally, pressed touches exhibit shorter free flight times
than struck touches. This finding coincides with theabove stated proposition that a pressed touch provides
generally a better control over the tones than a struck
touch. Of all three actions, the Steinway action showed
the shortest free flight times (see Fig. 9).
G. Comparison among tested pianos
In Fig. 9, all power curve approximations reported
above (Figs. 6, 7, and Table I) are plotted in a single
display, separately for the type of touch (panels) and10

To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

GENERAL DISCUSSION
This study provides benchmark data on the temporal
properties of three different grand pianos under two touchconditions (pressed and struck touch). Prototypical functions were obtained for travel time, key bottom time,
and the time of the hammer’s free flight by fitting power
curves to measured data. The temporal properties varied
considerably between type of touch, only marginally between pianos, and not at all between the different tested
keys. The latter was not surprising, since piano technicians generally aim to adjust a grand piano action sothat all keys show similar and consistent behavior over
the whole range of the keyboard.
Different kinds of actuating the keys produced different ranges of hammer velocity. Very soft tones could only
be achieved with a pressed touch (minimum 0.18 m/s or
50.0 dB–pSPL) and the extremely loud attacks only witha struck touch (maximum 6.8 m/s or 110.4 dB–pSPL).
Playing from the keys (pressed) did not allow MHVs beyond around 4 m/s, thus for some very loud intensities
hitting the keys from above was the only possible means.
The free flight times were shorter for pressed touch thanfor struck touch which suggests a better tone control forthe pianist when playing with pressed touch. Moreover,depressing a key caused less touch noise than striking a
Goebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

key which is commonly regarded as a desired aesthetic
target in piano playing and teaching (cf. e.g., Gát, 1965).
The two types of touch (in the present terminology
pressed and struck touch) do represent two poles of a variety of possible ways to actuate a piano key (i.e., lateacceleration versus early, hesitating in between, or accelerating directly at the escapement point). It must
be assumed that a professional pianist will (even unconsciously) be able to produce many different shadesof touch between pressed and struck.
The travel times and the key bottom times changed
considerably with intensity of key depression. A soft
tone may take over 200 ms longer from the first actuation by the pianist’s finger to sound production compared to a very sudden fortissimo attack. Moreover,travel times and key bottom times changed considerablywith touch. A struck tone needed around 30–40 ms lessfrom finger–key to hammer–string than a pressed tone
with a similar MHV. These findings were not surprising(since they follow a very basic physical law), but the performing artist has to anticipate these changes in temporal behavior while playing in order to achieve the desired
expressive timing of the played tones. The pianist not
only has to estimate before playing a tone, how long the
keystroke will take for what desired dynamic level, butalso for what intended way of actuating the key. These
complex temporal interactions between touch, intensity
and the tone onset are dealt with and applied by the
pianist unconsciously; they are established over years ofintensive practising and extensive self-listening. Immediately, musical situations come to mind in which loudchords tend to come early with pianists at beginning orintermediate level; or that crescendo passages tend toaccelerate in tempo as well, because each keystroke isperformed with a harder blow and thus quicker in orderto achieve the crescendo, but the time intervals between
finger activity were not correspondingly increased.
A keystroke starts for the pianist kinesthetically with
finger–key contact (the acceleration impulse by thefinger)19 and ends at key bottom, but it starts aurally for
pianist and audience at (or immediately after) hammer–
string contact. Typical intensities (at an intermediatelevel) in expressive piano performances (i.e., as measured
in Goebl, 2001) fall between 40 and 60 MIDI velocity
units (0.7 to 1.25 m/s) and thus typical travel times are
between 80 and 108 ms, thus varying as much as about
30 ms. At such keystrokes, the key bottom times are
between 3.5 and 0.5 ms before hammer–string contact,
thus a range of the order of 3 ms. It can be assumed herethat with such moderate intensity levels (and a default
touch which is likely to be pressed rather than struck),the changes in travel times due to varying intensity might
not be directly relevant for the player since they are small
and at the threshold of perceivability. Nevertheless, they
are sufficiently large to produce the typical melody lead
(Goebl, 2001).
At that typical dynamic range, key bottom times areeven more unlikely to be perceived by the pianist separately from the sound (hammer–string), since those temporal differences are there of the order of a few milliseconds. However, the differences between key bottom andhammer–string can be up to 40 ms in extreme cases which
To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

is of the order of or just beyond just noticeable differences for perceiving two separate events (Askenfelt andJansson, 1992b, p. 345). Also as Figure 9 made visually evident, the travel times were far larger than thetime differences of the other readings (escapement point,
hammer–string contact, key bottom contact), so it canbe assumed that the pianist (especially in the dynamic
middle range) only senses two points in time: the startof the keystroke (finger–key) and its end which coincides
with the beginning of the sound.
Conceptually, the key bottom contact has to be after
hammer–string contact. If it were the other way round,no soft tones could be played at all. The fact that key
bottom contact moves towards and beyond (that is before) hammer–string contact with increasing hammer velocity (cf. Fig. 7) was due to the bending of the hammer
shank and the compression of various parts in the action (i.e., cushions, dunnage) and a later unbending anddecompression of those. The three actions showed different behavior as to when the key bottom line crossed
the hammer–string line with changing hammer velocity (Fig. 9). According to the power curve approximations of the data (Fig. 7), the Bösendorfer’s crossed at
1.4 m/s (pr) and 2.5 m/s (st), the Yamaha’s at 2 m/s(pr) and 4.3 m/s (st), and the Steinway’s at 3 m/s (pr)and 3.8 m/s (st). If we considered these values to bea measure of compressivity of the action, the Steinway
would be the least compressive action (of the three), andthe Bösendorfer the most for pressed touches. At struck
touches, the Yamaha showed the least compressive behavior. A smaller compression behavior might be considered a criterion for the subjective quality of a piano
action (see discussion further below). However, further
investigation would be necessary to verify this hypothesis (e.g., measuring static compression behavior of theinvestigated keys).
Furthermore, senso-motoric feedback is considered anutmost important factor for pianists not only for judging
the action’s response, but also to judge the piano’s tone
(Galembo, 1982, 2001). In an extended perception experiment, Galembo (1982) asked a dozen professors from theLeningrad Conservatory of Music to rate the instrumental quality of three grand pianos under different conditions. The participants agreed that the Hamburg Steinway grand piano was superior, followed by the Bechstein
grand piano, while the lowest quality judgment received a
grand piano from the Leningrad piano factory. In different discrimination tasks, the participants were not able
to distinguish between the instruments (although all indicated to be able to) only by listening to them whenplayed by some other person behind a curtain. But they
could very well discriminate between instruments when
they played on them blindly or deaf-blindly (Galembo,
1982, 2001). This study implied that the hapto-sensorial
feedback of the piano action to the playing pianist is crucial for the estimation of the instrumental quality.
Another important factor altering the hapto-sensorial
feedback sensed by the pianist is the room acoustics(Bolzinger, 1995; Galembo, 1987). A piano action mightfeel easily to handle in a room with reverberant acoustic, while the same action feels intractable and tiring ina room without any reverberation. Similarly, the timGoebl et al.: Piano Action Temporal Behavior

11bre of that instrument might be judged differently withchanging room acoustics. A pianist is usually not able toseparate the influences of room acoustics from propertiesof the instrument and directly attributes room acoustics
to instrumental properties (Galembo, 1987, 2001).
The reported temporal properties of the piano actions
were derived from isolated piano tones (without pedal)
such as they rarely occur in piano performances. For a
new keystroke, the key does not necessarily have to comeback to its resting position, but, due to the double repeating feature of modern grand piano actions, the hammer
is captured by the check and the repetition lever stopped
by the drop screw (Askenfelt and Jansson, 1990b). Whenthe key is released approximately half way (of the approximately 10 mm touch depth), the jack is able to resile back underneath the roller and another keystroke canbe performed. This occurs usually some 2–4 mm below
the key surface. For such keystrokes, the key can travel
only 6–8 mm, so the travel times can be expected to be
shorter than with a pressed touch from the key’s resting
position. Also for such repeated keystrokes, it would be
impossible to calculate or to determine a finger–key contact point in time. The study of such repeated keystrokes
has to remain for future investigation.
An interesting issue with respect to the reported datais whether there is a relationship between the actions’temporal properties and the instrumental quality of thetested grand pianos. The authors’ personal opinion as pianists was that from the three investigated grand pianos
in this study the Steinway grand piano was qualitatively
superior to the other two (in terms of the actions’ responsiveness), although the Bösendorfer was a high-standard
concert grand piano as well. The small Yamaha baby
grand was the least interesting instrument also due to its
size. However, all pianos were on a mechanically highstandard and they were well maintained and tuned. It is
assumed here that one of the most important features ofa “good” piano is a precise and responsive action.
In the data reported above, some differences between
the pianos could be observed that might influence thesubjective judgment of instrumental quality and that
support the authors’ subjective preference for the Steinway. The Steinway showed (1) much less difference in key
bottom times due to touch than the other two pianos; (2)late crossing of the key bottom approximations and thehammer–string contact line, indicating a low compressivity of the parts of the action; (3) shorter time intervalsof free flight (already almost zero at keystrokes with a
MHV of more than 1.5 m/s, while for the Bösendorfer
it was around 2.5 m/s, for the Yamaha above 3 m/s).
Moreover, the Yamaha showed many very early hammer
velocity maxima at velocities between about 1 and 2 m/s,
the Bösendorfer some, the Steinway almost none.
Although further evaluative investigations would be required to be able to state more conclusively any hypotheses on the relation of temporal behavior of grand piano
actions and instrumental quality, it seems likely that a
constant behavior over type of touch and late hammer
velocity maxima are crucial for precise touch control anda subjective positive appreciation of instrumental quality.
12

To appear in J. Acoust. Soc. Am.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by a START ResearchPrize by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF project No.
Y99-INF), by the city of Vienna (project “Interfaces toMusic”), and by the European Union [Marie Curie Fellowship, HPMT-GH-00-00119-02, the Sounding Object
project (SOb), IST-2000-25287, and the MOSART IHP
network, HPRN-CT-2000-00115]. The Wenner-Gren
Foundation provided a visiting professorship grant to thethird author during 2001/02. The OFAI acknowledges
basic financial support by the Austrian Federal Ministries
for Education, Science, and Culture and for Transport,
Innovation, and Technology. Special thanks to Anders
Askenfelt, Erik Jansson, Simon Dixon, Friedrich Lachnit and the Bösendorfer company, Tore Persson, Alf
Gabrielsson, and two anonymous reviewers for essential
help during the experiments and valuable comments on
earlier versions of this manuscript.
1 The term “modern grand piano” refers to what is nowadays commonly used by pianists in concert halls. However, it is not modern
anymore, because, e.g., the Steinway model D grand was developedand introduced already in the second half of the 19th century andhas remained essentially unchanged since then.
2 The first three paragraphs are taken from Goebl (2001) and repeated here for the sake of completeness.
3 Askenfelt and Jansson (1990b) measured the C4 on a Hamburg
Steinway & Sons grand piano, model B (211 cm).
4 The “prelay function” compensates for the different travel timesof the action at different hammer velocities. In order to prevent
timing distortions in reproduction, the MIDI input is delayed by
500 ms. The solenoids (the linear motors moving the keys) are thenactivated earlier for softer notes than for louder notes, according
to a pre-programmed function.
5 This particular piano was used in Askenfelt and Jansson (1992a).
6 Brüel & Kjær Accelerometer type 4393 (2.4 g).
7 Brüel & Kjær ENDEVCO Accelerometer Model 22 (0.14 g).
8 Brüel & Kjær Sound Level Calibrator Type 4230.
9 In order to account for the differences in radius between the accelerometer placement on the hammer shank and the actual striking point at the hammer crown, the hammer velocity data wascorrected for that (resulting in values increased by 14%). This
correction was not applied in Goebl and Bresin (2003b).
10 Only three keys were tested at the Steinway piano (C1, C5, G6).
11 The recordings were done between May 2001 and January 2002.
12 This measurement was also used to find the individual attacks ina recorded file. All accelerations below a certain value were taken
as onsets. The very rare silent attacks were not captured with thisprocedure, as well as some very soft attacks.
13 The peak sound level was calculated by taking the maximum of
the sound energy (max. RMS with a 10-ms sliding window).
14 The intensity of the touch precursor depends strongly on the way
a particular keystroke was played. It is possible to produce loudstruck tones without clearly visible touch precursors (see also Goeblet al., 2004).
15 This terminology might be misleading, because “time” refers to apoint in time, although in this case a time duration is meant. Terms
like “travel time” or “time of free flight” were used according to
the term “rise time” that is commonly used in acoustic literature(see, e.g., Truax, 1978).
16 Askenfelt and Jansson (1990b) used a Steinway Model B, serial
number 443001, built in Hamburg 1975.
17 In Goebl et al. (2003) the time interval between the points of MHV
and hammer–string contacts are plotted under the label “free flightof the hammer.” We consider the present data display (escapement
through hammer–string contact) to be more appropriate.
18 Note that all three pianos were maintained and regulated by professional technicians before the measurement so that all pianos werein concert condition before the tests.
19 Certainly the performing pianist may in some cases hear thefinger–key noise as well.

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