BPW Parallel session: March 14, 2024

Supporting Single Parents; Especially Women
Fumiko Kambara
Sociologist (Ph. D)
This paper is the transcript of a speech given at a parallel event held on March
14,2024.

Introduction
Hello, everyone. My name is Fumiko Kambara, a sociologist from Japan, and I havebeen researching and studying family issues, especially marital relationships,
domestic violence and single parents, for many years. I look forward to working withyou.
Today, I will be speaking on the topic of “Supporting Single parents; especiallywomen”. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to ask me after finishing
my talk.
Today’ contents are as follows:
1. Situations in Single-Parent Households in Japan.
2. Mechanisms for Impoverishment of Single Parents.
3. Social Exclusion and Tough Lives of Single Parents.
4. What Support is Really Necessary for Single Parents?
5. Need for an Inclusive Social Model.

1. Actual Situation of Single-Parent Households in JapanThe first topic is the actual situation of single-parent households in Japan.
Fig.1.1 shows the average income for various types of households.

1Fig.1.1 Average Income per Household for various Types of Households

36.3 (5,450,000yen)

All Households

52.3 (7,850,000yen)

Households with Children

Single-Father Houeseholds

40.4 (6,060,000yen)

Single-Mother Households

24.9 (3,730,000yen)
0

20

40

60

80

100

$1,000Note: Data from the 2022 National Survey of Living Standards
Below;＄1=150yen (As of February 15, 2024)

The average for households with children is $52.3 thousands (7,850,000 yen). On theother hand, the average for single-mother households is $24.9 thousands (3,730,000yen), which is only about 47% of all households with children.

Fig.1.2 compares child poverty rates in OECD countries.
60.0

48.5

50.0
38.0

40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0

16.3

18.9

9.7
4.9

3.5

5.4

23.723.824.124.5
22.323.423.5

14.1
7.9 8.4

10.2

26.927.127.227.627.6

9.4
5.6

31.031.2

11.1

8.0

7.1

8.7

10.4

13.0

47.7

35.034.1
26.8

22.0
18

13.1

45.645.746.2

33.433.633.934.2

22.7

21.0
14.4

11.7
7.4

25.1

28.429.129.529.5

40.240.341.041.3

42.6 4354.8

49.649.8

12.4

8.5

19.217.9

21.5

20.9
15.3

13.3

14.9

20.921.0
11.4

14.3

14.0

10.5

11.4

Denmark
Finland
IcelandUnited Kingdom
NorwayHungary
LatviaPolandFranceSlovenia
SwedenGreeceRomania
Germany
Ireland
Portugal
Czech Republic
Estonia
Netherlands
Belgium
Austria
TurkeyItaly
Slovakia
IsraelMexicoRussiaLuxembourg
Spain
Australia
Lithuania
Chile
CanadaBulgariaUSA
New Zealand
Korea
Japan
Costa Rica
South Africa
BrazilSwitzerland

0.0

child Poverty rate 2019Child Poverty for single -Parent households rete 2018

Note: Relative poverty in Japan: The Ratio Under 1,270,000 yen (＄8,467) per Person in 2018
Average Salary per Person: 4,430,000 yen (＄29,500) in 2021

https://data.oecd.org/inequality/poverty-rate.htm

2The blue bar shows the general child poverty rate, and the orange bar shows thechild poverty rate for single-parent households.
The red arrow indicates the data for Japan. Japan’s general child poverty rate is
14%, which is around average among OECD countries, but the child poverty rate forsingle-parent households is 48.5%, which is extremely high among OECD countries.
Table1.1 describes an overview of the living conditions of single-parent households inJapan.

Table1-1 The Living Conditions of Single-Parent Households in Japan in 2021

Actual Living Conditions of Single-Parent
Households in Japan 2021

Mother and Children Household Father and Children Household（1,195,128 Households）（148,711Households）
Bereavement
5.3%

Divorce 79.5%
Unmarried
Mother10.8%

Bereavement
21.3%

Divorce 69.7%
Unmarried Father
1.0%

Current Age of Parent

47.4years old

41.6years old

49.8years old

45.7years old

Age of Youngest Child in Single-Parent Household

12.6years old

11.2years old

13.4years old

12.9years old

Household Composition, Single Parent andChildren Only
Average Number of Household Members

65.9%
3.21persons

Owner-Occupied House Rate

Parents' Regular Employment,
Exective, or Self-Employed Before
Becoming a Single-Parent
Household
Regular Employment, Exective, or
Self-Employed Parent Rate
Irregular Employed Parent of aSingle-Parent Household
Unemployed Parent Rate

64.6%
3.20persons

61.0%
3.27persons

51.5%
3.47persons

69.6%

32.6%

71.9%

64.9%

24.9%

32.6%

94.2%

90.1%

34.2%

48.2%

88.2%

79.5%

44.9%

36.1%

2.7%

6.4%

11.9%

8.9%

2.7%

5.5%

Average Annual Working Income

Divorce
2.40milion yen
2.16milion yen
Unmarried Mother2.09milion yen

Divorce 4.55milion
yen Unmarried
6.16milion yen
Father 3.13milion
yen

Average Annual Household Income
Note：Household with Children 8.135milion yen

Divorce3.63 milion yen
3.71milion yen
Unmarried Mother
4.54milion yen

Divorce
5.74milion yen
7.15milion yen
Unmarried Father
3.96milion yen

Receipt of Child Support Rate

28.1%

Amount of Child Support Received
Child Rupport Allowance Receipt Rate
Parents' Final Education: College,University or
Graduated University

8.7%

50,485yen/month

26,992yen/month

Divorce 71.7%
21.80% Unmarried Mother
75.2%
Divorce12.5％
16.2% Unmarried Mother
11.0％

Dovorce 48.8%
49.40% Unmarried Father
57.2%
Divorce 20.5％
5 Father
43.2% Unmarried
39.7％

Since time is limited, I will present only two points:
First, currently, only 48.2% of divorced and unmarried mothers are employed
regularly, which is just a 15% increase from before they became single parents.
The 48.2% is compared to the 79.5% of single fathers who are in regular3employment, which clearly shows how low this figure is.
As a result, 36% of the single mothers are in non-regular or part-time jobs.
The second is the receipt rate of child support from a separated father is only 28%,
which is very low.
With these figures in mind, I turn to the next topic.

2. Mechanism of Impoverishment of Single Parents
The second topic is the mechanism of impoverishment for single Parents.
Fig.2.1 depicts the typical life course of contemporary Japanese women who become
single parents.

Fig. 2.1 Typical Life Course of Contemporary Japanese Women Becoming
Single with children
14Preservation①Gender Unequal, Male Dominant Society/Gender Role Division Norms/ Modern Family Ideology
Current Work
Regular, Executive, Selfemployed 47.2％

Life Course ofContemporary
JapaneseWomen

3 million yen (＄20,000) orOver 30.5%

Man 96.3％/ Woman 96.9％:2018

Regular: Under 3 million
yen (＄20,000) 25.7％

Man 59.7%/ Woman 53.4％:2022

High School Entrance
University Entrance
Finding Employment

Gender Pay Gap; Man100/ Woman 77.5 ：2021

Marriage

Average Age at First Marriage;
Man 31.0years, Woman 29.4years: 2020

Birth of First Child
Domestic Violence, Economic
reasons, Lover, etc.
Bereavement 5.3%
Unmarried mother 10.8%
Note: “ 2021 National Survey of One-Parent Households”②Continued Employment
After Childbirth 42.6%：2021④Parental Authority Mother 84.1%
Number of Children 1.6
Youngest Child 5 Years Old⑥Child-Support Received 28.1%* No Penalty for Nonpayment

4

Unemployed 9.2%

Reemployment

MaritalConflict③Divorce79.5%⑤Irregular, Part Job 36.6％
Under 2 million yen(＄13,600) 32.8%⑦Insufficient Welfare Measures

1 to 7 are factors related to the impoverishment of single parents.

①

Japan remains a male-dominated society, prioritizing the traditional modern

family model, that is the male breadwinner model, and reinforces gender roledivisions.
This has led to disparities in college enrollment rates and wages between genders
in employment.
After graduating from high school or university, many women find employment.
After a few years, many women get married and eventually have their first child.
② Less than half of women continue working after their first child is born, andapproximately half of them are retired and unemployed, relying on their husbands.
The Japanese government provides tax and pension benefits to women who manage
house chores, childcare, and nursing care.
Even if women are supported by their husbands, there may be no problem if theirhusbands work diligently, have a stable income, and take good care of their families.
However, not all husbands are supportive. Some can be abusive or neglectful,
possibly due to personal issues like gambling, debts, or extramarital affairs. Wivesoften endure these situations, and when they feel in danger, their children startacting strangely, or they can no longer repay their debts, they seek divorce.
③ About 80% of single parents in Japan are divorced.
To add to the divorce situation, about 90% of all divorces in Japan are by agreement.
However, there are many cases of divorce by agreement in name only, that are unfair.
In some cases, divorces are granted without any prospects for life after the divorce.
④

If there were children at the time of divorce, today, the mother has custody ofmore than 80% of the children. Incidentally, Japan has a system of sole custody
after divorce.

⑤ Single parents need to work to earn money, but it is diﬃcult for them to ﬁnd stable,
regular jobs.
5

Fig.2.2 illustrates the trend of the shift to non-regular employment including parttime and contract-based employees since 1980s. The data for women is on the left, andthe data for men is on the right. The green part is the rate of regular employment,
and the orange and brown parts are the rates of non-regular employment. According
to the data from 1985 to 2022, the rate of non-employment has clearly increased for
women than for men.
In Japan, most non-regular employment is unstable and low income.

Fig.2.2 Comparison of Employees (Excluding Executives) by Employment
Status, by GenderFig.2.2 Comparison of Employees (Excluding Executives)by Employment Status, by
Gender
Men

women

1985

1995
2005

2014

53.4

46.6

2022

77.8

22.2

Regular staff and employees
Part-time employees
Others (dispatched workers from worker dispatch offices,
contract workers, temporary workers, others)⑥ As mentioned earlier, more than 70% of separated fathers in Japan don’t pay childsupport. And, the Japanese government is doing nothing to address the situation of
those fathers.
I believe that a child support collection system is urgently needed, but the
government is slow to take action.
However, Japanese society as a whole is indifferent to this situation.
6

⑦

Actually, there are various measures to support single-parent households inJapan.
Fig.2.3 shows policies to support single-parent families in Japan.
However, effective measures are limited.
For example, child support allowance is useful but discriminated. In addition to thestrict income limit, the amount paid is $293(44,000yen) per month for the first child,
which is reduced to $67(10,000yen) for the second child, and then to $40(6,000yen) for
the third child and thereafter.
Regarding support for securing child support, there is only consultation and nocollection.

Fig. 2.3 Measure System of Self-Reliance Support of Single-Parent Families(Since 2002)
Measure System of Self-Reliance Support of Single-Parent Families (Since 2002)

Self-Reliance Promotion Plan (Formulated by Local Governments Basedon the Basic Policy of the National Government)

Support for Childcare
and Daily Life*Counseling and Support
by Parent/ Child SelfReliance Support Staff.
*Dispatch of Helpers,
Priority Admission to
Daycare Centers, etc.
*Support for Children
Through the Children’s Lifeand Learning Support
Program, etc.
*Expansion of Functions ofMaternal and Child Living
Support Facilities, etc.

Support for
Securing Child
Support

Employment Support*Promotion of Employment
Support Through the
Formulation of Programs to
Support the Self-Reliance ofParents, and ThroughCooperation with
Employment Service, etc.

*Promotion of Child
Support Consultation andSupport Center Services.
*Promotion of Child
Support Counseling at
Employment and SelfSupport Centers forSingle-Mother Families,
etc.

*Promotion of the
Employment and SelfSupport Center for Maternaland Child Families.

Financial Support*Provision of Child Support
Allowance.
*Lending of Welfare Funds
for Parents and Children.
*Loans for 12 Types ofWelfare Funds, Such as
Acquisition of Skills for
Employment and Children’s
Schooling.

*Distribution of “Child
Support Guidance” andLeaflets, etc.

*Provide Benefits for Skill
Development, etc.

All of the factors 1 to 7 add up to a higher risk of poverty.
Now, around half of all single-parent households in Japan live in poverty.
73Social Exclusion and Tough Lives of Single Parents

Behind the inadequate public measures, there is a social stigma against divorce,
unmarried mothers, and single parents.
That’s to say:
1 The persistence of traditional modern family ideology in Japanese society. A family
consisting a mother, a breadwinner-father, and two kids is the best and happiest.
2 Divorce is seen as undesirable and destructive to the modern family. So, it’s said,“unacceptable and selfish”.
3 Becoming unmarried mother is seen as a betrayal of the modern family. So, it’s said,“shameful”.
Therefore, conservative people who want to protect the traditional modern family
may wonder why it is necessary to provide generous taxpayer support to such single
parents.
4 To add one more point, there may be a fear in society as a whole that more generous
support for single parents will lead to more divorces.

Under these situations, Japanese society excludes single parents and their children,
and as a result, they face tough lives.
Fig.3.1 shows the reality of social exclusion in Japanese society.
The first group’s outer core in light blue represents those who hold various economic,
political, social and cultural rights in Japan and are currently in a majority.
The 2 group in the middle layer in light purple lacks the attributes of the 1 group,
leading to their exclusion from their rights.
They may face restrictions, deprivation, or inaccessibility, resulting in
impoverishment, discrimination, or isolation within their communities, and often livein unstable conditions with little hope for the future.
The outer layer in light grey represents the structure of the whole society thattolerates, neglects, and conceals the social exclusion of the 2 group.
And I would like to emphasize the entity that generates, maintains, and does not
improve such a structure of social exclusion is the current political system as the core.
8

Although NPOs and NGOs in Japan are doing their best to support single-parent
families on the front line, they are still lacking in capabilities.

Fig. 3.1 Aspects of Social Exclusion in Japan; Neglect of Poverty,
Discrimination, and Tough Lives
Politics

EconomyJob Fluidization

Weakening of the
Welfare state

Ⅲ Exclusive Social System

Low Minimum Wage

Irregular, Unstable
Employment
Ⅰ Majority

UnorganizedWorkers

Impoverishment
Neglect of wage
Differential

Limited Social
Priority on
Security
Business
Self-responsibility
Profits
Self-help efforts
Ⅱ Tough Lives

Low-Wages

Regular,LivingSecureComfortably
employment
Outlookon Life
Political
SystemDiscrimination“Standard
Family”

Our
Consciousness
Majority

Belief in “Family”
Male-DominatedSocietyInsecure,
Unstable Living

Cold Treatment

Risk of Sexual
Victimization

Limited Security ofLivelihood Rights
Bad Egalitarianism

Hopelessness
Outsider
Isolation

Indifference
No One Else’s
Business

No Tolerance for
Reliance

Enforcement ofCommunity
Obligation Only

Gender inequality
Individuation

Globalization
Society

CultureLack of Capacities of NPOs and NGOs in Japan

In an exclusive society, single parents experience various tough lives, so their kids.
For example, when wages don’t increase more than their cost of living even if theywork hard, it makes their lives tougher and the sense of hopelessness becomesstronger.
Despite their efforts in work, housework, and raising children, their lives don’t
improve. As they age, they find it tougher to work hard and feel increasingly
exhausted.
Furthermore, if they suffer from multiple problems in their daily lives and have noappropriate person to consult with, they feel a strong sense of oppression.

9

Many wonder why people divorce if it makes life harder. Yet, single parents often saylife after divorce is tough but better than before.
So, I would like to ask the following questions.
Who is responsible for the problem single parents face?
Is divorce a failure in life?
Should children being raised by single parents be pitied?

4 What Support is REALY Necessary for Single Parents?
The topic from here on is support for single parents.
1)

My Personal View on “Separating”

First, here is my personal view on separation.
●“love” is not eternal.

●

It is extremely difficult to repair a broken marriage or drifting-apart relationship.

●

Continuing to endure a broken marriage will not improve the situation, and will
make the lives tougher.

However, there are “desirable” and “undesirable divorces”. Undesirable divorces canlead to tough lives after divorce.
2)

Conditions for Easier Life after Divorce

Therefore, the following are conditions that can reduce the toughness of lives after
divorce.
●

The ability to make a living (job, child support, savings, etc.).

●

A house with low cost (preferably one that does not cost much in rent).

●

Support for childcare and housework.

●

Friends or NPOs that understand the situation of single parents.

●

Ensure to have concrete agreement with spouses.
However, don’t talk to the husband alone!

●

Gather information on welfare measures for single-parent family.

●Life after divorce seems better than life before divorce – freedom, dignity, decisionmaking, stability, etc.
10

3)

Our Messages to Single Parents

So, let’s send our messages to single parents:● Acknowledge that “you became single parent”.
● Be confident in your power and courage.
● Look forward, not backward.
● Feel entitled and take pride. Anyone has rights to live their own life, escapepoverty, and live happy life.
● Don’t strain yourself too much! Your tough lives are not your faults. You havealready done enough.
● Don’t be ashamed of relying on others! Take courage!
● Connect with supporters close at hand!
● Take care of your health.
● Don’t feel sorry for your children. They are not unhappy!
So, here are our roles.
● To advise married women to leave from unrestorable marriage.
● To appeal for the dispelling of the negative image of divorce, unmarried mother,and single-parent family from society.
● It is essential to review gendered social norms and provide gender equality
education.
It is important to change this current social system.
I believe that gender equality education is crucial, especially in teaching children
and youth about equal partnerships.
Fig.4.4 shows a gender-equal relationship with a partner when one agent becomes awife or a parent.
It does not matter whether this agent A or this agent B is male or female.

11

Fig.4.1 Gender Equal Relationship between Intimate Agents
One Agent Becomes a Wife, a Parent
Husband-wife relationshipas a Family member

Workplace
Kids
Agent
B

Agent
A

SocialMovement

Husband and Wife as a Couple
Relationship
Husband and Wife as Agents

4)

What Means by “Support” Single Parents?

I believe that it is important to support the empowerment of single-parent family as
a way to support them.
● Affirm becoming single parents (after divorce or unmarried) as one’s independent
choice.
● Eliminate discrimination and prejudice against single parents.
---- Respect for diversity of families and individual lifestyles.
● Assure the fundamental human rights for single parents and their children to livein peace.
● Recognize social exclusion for single-parent family.
---Don’t take it as “self-responsibility” issue.
● Promote notion of “fairness” to seek public assistance.
● Shift concept of “self-reliance” in Japan.
--- “Self-reliance” has to be backed up by “support-support relationship” (not by
self-help).
--- Supporters are also empowered!
12

I would like to emphasize that supporting the empowerment of single parents
means supporting them to be agents to realize an Inclusive society.

5 Need for an Inclusive Social Model
Fig.5.1 shows the model of an inclusive society that we are aiming for.
It is a society where everyone’s rights to live in peace are guaranteed, diversity ishonored, equal relationships are fostered, and everyone can live with hope.

Fig.5.1 A social Model that is Inclusive of Single Parents and their Children
EconomyJob Fluidization
Basic Income
Stabilization of
Employment

Ⅱ actual state

Equal Pay for Workof Equal Value

Gender Equality

Ⅰ ideals

Guaranteeing
Rights to Life

StableEmployment

Nobody Gets Left Behind

Secure andStable Living

Realizationof Life

Support for
Hope

Democratic Policy
Making

Civil
Society

Diversefamilies

Respect for
Individual

Respect fordiversity

MutualEmpowerment

Equal
Relationships

Diverse waysof life
Individuation

Weakening of the
Welfare state

Priority on social
security

Eliminating Poverty

Support for
Self-reliance

PolicyⅢ measures

Support for Diversity

OpenrelationshipSupport for childrearing

Loose Ties

CultureOur goal is a society of citizens, by citizens, and for citizens.
There is still much to be done.
Thank you so much.

13

Opportunities
for Intra-and Intergenerational Exchange

Globalization

21
Society