ETHNIC FOLKWAYS LIBRARY FE 4401./

Recorded in Indian Communities by Willard Rhodes,
lith the cooperation of The United States Office of Indian Affairs
Foreword by Willard Beatty and Rene d'Harnoncourt
Notes by Willard Rhodes

MUSIC OF THE SIOUX AND THE NAVAJORABBIT DANCEPEYOTE CULT SONG
LOVE SONGSUN DANCEOMAHA DANCEFLUTE SOLO
HONORING SONG

Ronald Clyne

RIDING SONGSONG OF HAPPINESSSPINNING SONGCORN GRINDING SONGSQUAW DANCESILVERSMITH SONGNIGHT CHANT(YEIBICHAI DANCE)FOlKW A YS RECORDS FE 4401

SIDE I
Band 1.

Archival Pro' erty
Smithsonian Institution
Office of th Assistant SecrE;taryfor Public Service

RABBIT DANCE Malechorus, Female VOice, Drum
Band 2. (a) PEYOTE CULT DANCE
Male Voice, Water-Drum
Gourd Rattle
Band 2. (b) LOVE SONG Male VoiceBand 3. (a) SUN DANCE
Male Chorus, Eagle-Bone
Whistle, Drum
Band' 3. (b) OMAHA DANCE Male Chorus,
Drum, Bells
Band 4. (a) LOVE SONG (Solo Flute)Band 4. (b) HONORING SONG Mixed
Chorus, Drum
SIDE nBand 1. RIDING SONG Mixed ChorusBand 2. SONG OF HAPPINESSChildren's Chorus, Drum
Harmonica
Band 3. SPINNING DANCE Female VoiceBand 4. SPINNING DANCE Female VoiceBand 5. CORN GRINDING SONG
Female VOice, Basket Drum
Band 6. SQUAW DANCE Male Chorus,
Drum
Band 7. SILVERSMITH'S SONG
Male VOice, Anvil
Band 8. NIGHT CHANT (Yeibichai)Male Chorus, Gourd Rattles

MUSIC OFTHE SIOUXAND
THE NAVAJODESCRIPTIVE NOTES ARE INSIDE POCKET
Library of Congress Catalogue Card No. R 59-72® © 1966 FOLKWAYS RECORDS AND SERVICE CO RP .
43 W. 61 st ST., N.Y.C ., U.S.A . 10023

WARN ING:

UNAUTHORIZED REPRODUCTION OF THISRECORDING IS PROHIBITED BY FEDERAL LAW AND SUBJECTTOCRIMINAL PROSECUTION.

FOlKW A YS RECORDS FE 4401

ETHNIC FOLKWAYS LIBRARY Album No. FE 4401
© 1949, 1953 Folkways Records and Service Corp., 43 W. 61st St. , NYC , USAMUSICof theSIOUXand theNAVAJOForeword by Willard W. Beatty andRene d 'Harnoncourt
Every ethnic' group has developed some form ofmusical or rhythmic expression. Music is an
essential and integral part of the ceremonial life of
all peoples yet it is sometimes difficult for thoseraised in a different tradition to understand and accept musical forms which are unlike those with which
they are familiar.
The music of the American Indians differs considerably from that of any other ethnic group. Though it
possesses a basic similarity in the area north cf
Mexico it presents within this large framework awealth of rhythmic and melodic SUbtleties, nuances
which set apart the musical style of one tribe orgroup from that of another. These differences areplainly evident in the music of the Dakota (Sioux)and Navajo offered in this album. Because of theemphasis which many anthropologists placed on thecollection of old ceremonial forms, many Americans
think of Indian music as something which is dying
out. Actually this is not the case. Throughout theSouthwest Indian ceremonial music is in active andcontinuous use by most of the tribes, and throughout
the Plains area a modern secular music has arisen
which is vigorous and very much alive. New songs
are constantly appearing among the various tribes
and as the troubadours travel from group to group,
visiting rodeos and other Indian gatherings, the more
popular songs are passed from tribe to tribe and will
be heard with minor adaptations around the campfires of tribes which are widely separated geographically.

Introduction and Notes on the,Recordings
by Willard Rhodes
THE SIOUXOf the many and various tribes of Indians that inhabit North America none has appealed to the imagination of the white man more vividly than the Sioux.
With his trailing war -bonnet of brilliant feathers,
fringed buckskin leggings and shirt, and bow andarrow, the tall, handsomely proportioned Sioux warrior has become the symbol of the American Indian.
His classic profile with its hawk-like nose, so accurately reproduced on the buffalo nickel of our currency, conceals beneath its dignified exterior awarmth of spirit and richness of feeling and thought
which few white men have been privileged to share.
Picturesque as is their physical appearance, it is
the bold, indomitable spirit of this proud and adventurous people that commands our sYmpathy and admiration. It was not alone economic necessity andmenacing pressure of the neighboring hostile Cree;:md Ojibway that prompted the Sioux to leave theirwoodland home at the headwaters of the Mississippi
iate in the seventeenth century and move out onto thetall-grassed plains of the West, where buffalo roamed in large hordes. A pioneering urge and a strong
desire to occupy new land must have been dominantfactors in their westward movement.

The United States Indian Service believes that theAmerican Indian has made a fundamental contribution to both art and music which the American people
can ill afford to neglect. Much has been done in thelast dozen years to arouse the interest of the generalpublic in the arts and crafts of the Indians and muchtime has been spent in the recording of vital modern
Indian music which should prove of interest to many
Americans.
Professor Willard Rhodes of Columbia University
has spent many summers traveling through the IndianService and recording these modern songs. Out of
more than 1000 such recordings we have selected
the recordings of Dakota (Sioux) and Navajo music
which are to be found in this album. We believe thatthese are entire ly representative of the mus ic ofthese two tribes.

The acquisition of the horse from southern tribes
who had acquired this domestic animal indirectlyfrom the exploring Spanish conquistadores of thesixteenth century, effected momentous social andeconomic changes in the life of the Sioux, changes
not unlike those which we as a nation have experienced in the twentieth century with the developmentof cheap automotive transportation. Hunting boundaries were extended and the economy of the Sioux, so
dependent upon the buffalo for food, shelter, andclothing, entered upon a period of prosperity thatwas unprecedented in the history of the tribe.

It is recognized that not everyone will enjoy thesesongs but it is believed that for those who are interested in exploring a musical expression different
from their own these records will prove unusually
rewarding.

2

In the center of the circ Ie (sometimes at the side) agroup of male singers sit or stand around a large
drum which provides the sole accompaniment to theirrhythmic song. Each singer holds in his right handa drum stick with which he forcibly beats the rhythmic
pulse of the music. The song is started by a leader
who sings the opening ph~ase alone. As he approaches
the end of the first phrase the other singers take up
the song, not by joining the leader but by starting thesong anew from the beginning, while the leader finishes his phrase. Upon reaching the end of the opening
phrase the leader joins in the melody with the malechorus and from that point on the song is sung in unison. The women often add their voices to the refrainof the song while dancing but they are never admitted
to the chorus, that being an exclusive activity of themen.

For a long time contacts with white people werelimited to a few explorers and traders who werewelcomed for the attractive trinkets, guns, knives,and cooking pots which they brought as presents andmediums of exchange for furs and buffalo hides. In
1849 the Gold Rush to California brought a continuous stream of immigrants who cut a trail throughthe heart of the Sioux hunting ground. Alarmed by
the menace of the advancing white man and governedby a code of ethics and tradition which the travelers
ill understood, the Indians attacked and pillaged thewagon-trains, often killing and scalping members ofthese parties. The discovery of gold in the Black
Hills and the subsequent influx of soldiers of fortune
who took possession of that territory in violation ofa treaty guaranteeing the Black Hills to the Sioux,
provoked fresh outbreaks. In 1868 a treaty was negotiated by the Government with the Sioux whereby
the latter agreed to cease hostilities and to settle
themselves on a large reservation provided for them.
Adjustment to the new life was difficult and was notaccomplished without bloodshed. Most famous of thebattles during this period was that of the Little Big
Horn River in which General George A. Custer andhis small force of 264 men were completely annihilated by a war party under the renowned chief Sitting
Bull.

The Rabbit Dance songs are the modern love songs of
the Sioux, and though the melodies reveal little or no
influence from the music of Western European culture,
the texts give ample evidence of the impact of white
civilization upon the native culture. The text of thispiece is sung in Dakota, the language of the Sioux, withthe exception of the initial word, "Dearie," which issung in English. This patterned opening is characteristic of many Rabbit Dance Songs. The words, as in the
Omaha Dance Songs, are not introduced until the melody has been set by singing it once through with meaningless syllables. The song is recorded here as sungby Lucy Randall, Paul High Horse, Oliver Standing
Bear and Jonas Quiver under the leadership of Benjamin Sitting Up.

Today the United States Office of Indian Affairs ismaking remarkable progress in helping the Indians
to become economically self-supporting and selfgoverning, thereby regaining a measure of their old
freedom and independence. A modern program ofeducation is preparing the Indian to deal with the
problems of living in his own community. Day Schools
established on the reservations serve not only the
Indian youth but also the adult community in assisting the individual in his adjustment to a rapidly changing world. The cultural traditions and heritage of the
Indian, so long frowned upon by the missionary andsuppressed by the Government, are now being evaluated and reinterpreted in terms of modern living.
After years of painful maladjustment and slow cultural death. the Indian is mustering his own native resources and strength to build for himself a futurethat in creative richness of life and freedom of spirit
will approach the glories of his past.

Dearie, I think the best of you,
But you are bad.
You fool me again and again.
Give me back that picture,
Then I will live away from you.
SIDE I, Band 2(a): PEYOTE CULT SONG (Malevoice, water-drum, gourd rattle). The Peyote Cult,or Native American Church, represents a curious
blending of Christian symbolism and beliefs withrituals and practices of native Indian religions. During the past century the religion has spread fromtribe to tribe, adjusting its practice to the cultureof the various tribes while adhering to a central coreof belief and ceremony. At the night-long meetingsof the Cult, the central feature of the service is theceremonial eating of the peyote, the seed pod of acactus imported from the Southwest which the Indians
identify with the Supreme Being. The ecstatic trance
induced by eating the peyote is supplemented by the
hypnotic music which plays such an important role inthe ceremony. The peyote songs, always sung by anindividual singer, never by a group, are accompanied
by a small gourd rattle which the singer shakes in a
rapid-tempo of regular pulsatic:1ns while a drummer
squate before him and marks the rhythm on a specially prepared water drum. Four being the sacred number' the songs are sung in sets of four, each song
being sung four times. A few repeated hearings ofpeyote music suffices to impress the listener with thedistinct vocal technique, melodic style and structuralform which set these songs apart from other Indianmusic.

SIDE I, Band 1: RABBIT DANCE (Male chorus, female voice, drum). The Rabbit Dance is a Modernsocial dance which was introduced on the Sioux reservation sometime during the past fifty years. The
popularity which it enjoyed at its inception, comparable to the initial success of some of our own passing
dance fads, is explained by the fact that this is thefirst dance in which Sioux men and women danced together as couples.
Dancing is a favorite recreation of the Sioux and any
meeting or social gathering may be made the occasion
for a dance. Round and round a circle the couples
dance with a shuffling step, two steps forward and one
hesitating step backward. Weatherbeaten grandfathers
and grandmothers, giggling adolescent girls, courting
youths, and babies scarcely past the toddling stage
join in the hypnotic, undulating rhythm of the moving
circle as it rises and falls with the insisten~, repetitive beat of the drum.

3

SIDE I, Band 2(b): LOVE SONG (Male vOice). Lovesongs were sung by young 'men as an act of courtship. The words were of a personal nature and theaura of association which surrounded them carrieda very special message to the Indian girl for whomthey were sung. Among the stylistic features which
distinguish these solo songs are the slow tempo, thenasal timbre of the voice, and the absence of strong
accents and pulsating tone so predomi.1ant in m'usic of
the Plains area.
SIDE I, Band 3(a): SUN DANCE (Male chorus, eaglebone whistle, drum). The traditional tribal religionof the Sioux was given its fullest expression in the Sun
Dance, an elaborate ceremony which was held eachyear at the full moon of mid-summer. From far andnear the bands and family groups of the tribe assembled to witness the fulfillment of vows made by theirmembers to Wakantanka (Great Mysterious) and enjoy the social life which accompanied this annual rite.
Vows varied in degree from mere fasting and dancing
to self-torture effected by thrusting through the fleshof the chest skewers which were attached by cords tothe sacred pole, then dancing until the weight of the
body tore the flesh thereby freeing the dancer. With
the government prohibition of the Sun Dance in 1881
the final chapter of the old Sioux culture was completed. In the period of acculturation which followed theSioux, after a brief and tragic essay with the nativistic
Ghost Dance religion, turned to Christianity and the
Peyote Cult, seeking therein the spiritual support andmeaning which their old religion had furnished them.
The Sun Dance Song recorded here opens with an introduction in slow tempo accompanied by a tremolo rollin the drum which leads to the more rhythmic dance.
A whistle made of the wing-bone of an eagle, formerly blown by the dancers, is heard in the second section of the song.
SIDE I, Band 3(b): OMAHA DANCE (Male chorus, drum,
bells). The Omaha Dance, so widely diffused throughthe tribes of great plains, has lost its functionalism
and become a social dance. Formerly restricted towarrior members of the society it is today a vehicle
for brilliantly costumed dancers who not only find emotional release in their exhibitionistic and individualstic dancing but provide entertainment for the onlookers. Bells attached to the legs and ankles of thedancers, an essential part of their costumes, supply
an exciting rhythmic accompaniment to the song. The
Omaha song in this album was inspired by the recent
World War II in which so many Indians of all tribes
gave their lives.
From across the ocean
The Japanese came charging.
The President wanted our he lp
So the Sioux boys went over there.

SIDE I, Band 4(a): LOVE SONG (Solo flute). The
flute was used for love charming and serenading.
This instrument has become a museum relic of thepoast and its rarity among North American Indians
today suggests that it may never have been as common
in their musical culture as is generally believed. The
technique of flute making and flute playing, more involved and intricate than that of drum making anddrum playing as practiced by the Indians, would tend
to limit the instrument to a small group of specialized musicians. The great flute makers and flute
players are gone. and we are especially fortunate
in preserving in this album one of the flute me lodies
played by John Coloff. The melody here presented
has also been recorded as a love song with words.
The upward interval of a sixth, the regular phrases,
and the words, reflecting the influence of whiteculture, leads one to date the song in the last half ofthe nineteenth century.
SIDE I, Band 4(b): HONORING SONG (Mixed chorus,drum). This song may be heard throughout the year
at any social gathering on the reservation. Since
generosity is one of the four cardinal virtues recognized and stressed in the Sioux culture, public giving has become an institutionalized form for acquiring social prestige. Any act of generosity or bravery,
either on a personal or social level, will prompt thesinging of the Honoring Song as a token of publicrecognition.

basis of their economy. The weaving of rugs and themaking of silver jewelry, two crafts in which theyexce 1, account for little more than 10 percent of theNavajo income. The people want to rise from theirpresent condition of poverty, unsanitary housing andliving, acute sickness and ignorance. They want tobecome better ranchers, better farmers, better offreservation workers, and better citizens in general.
Through their leaders, they are demanding that theGovernment live up to its promise under the Treatyof 1868. (Report of J. A. Krug, Secretary of theInterior, March 1948).
Despite the hostile conditions that plague them, theNavajos have not lost hope. Sustained by their native religion which pervades their everyday living,
they have demonstrated by their steadily increasing
population growth a tremendous vi tality and a will
to live. Historical perspective leads one to predictthat the NaYajos, with proper treatment from theGovernment, will meet the pre6ent crisis successfully, adjust themselves to changing conditions, andbuild for themselves a future that is consonant with
the ideals and beauty of their past.

THE NAVAJOThe Navajo, numbering approximately 62, 000, is
the largest Indian tribe in the United States today.
Living on a sixteen million acre reservation thatspreads over the desert, dry mesas, and waterless
mountains of northeastern Arizona, northwestern
New Mexico, and the southeast corner of Utah, theNavajos are one of the most vital and colorful ethnic
groups in this country. Theirs is a colorful land,magnificent in its vast panoramas of sky and land,
its fantastic rock formations, forbidding canyons,bright desert flowers, and wind-weathered pinyontrees. But it is a land in which the elements of nature conspire to resist and defy man in his effort towrest a living from its soil.

SIDE II, Band 1: RIDING SONG (Mixed chorus).
Until recent years the horse was the sole means oftraversing the great distances of the reservation.
This song and others of its type are sung while riding horseback to protect the rider from evil spirits
which may assail him. Witchcraft is a constantsource of social uneasiness and mutual suspiciousness.

Contrary to the popular belief that the Indians are adying race, the Navajos have increased in numbers
four-fold during the eighty years since they enteredinto a treaty with the United States of America. Thisphenomenal growth has created critical problems
which the government must solve in the immediate
future if it is to fulfill its obligations to the Dine("The People" as the Navajos call themselves). An
erosion cycle begun in 18eO and still in progress has
ravaged the land until it can no longer support thetribe. In its semi-arid, impoverished condition thirty acres of land are required to support one sheep,
one hundred and fifty for a horse. Under ideal conditions' after the land has been reclaimed, it is estimated that the present reservation can support a
population of no more than 35, 000. This means thatmany Navajos must leave the reservation and maketheir way in an alien society for which they are illprepared.

SIDE II, Band 2: SONG OF HAPPINESS (Children's
chorus, drum, harmonica). This song was sung by
the women to sustain the morale and hope of themen during the confinement of the Navajo at Fort
Sumner following their capitulation to Kit Carson in
1864. It is recorded here as sung by a group of
Junior High School children at Fort Wingate Indian
School. One of the bOYS, having discovered that hecould play this native melody on his harmonica,
joined the drummer in supplying an instrumental accompaniment to the song.
SIDE 11, Bands 3 and 4: SPINNING DANCE (Female
voice). The Spinning Dance is an old social dance inwhich the dancers spin circles within circles. The
two songs presented here are sung by Julia Deal
whose voice is one of the loveliest on the reservation. Though most of the ceremonial singing is doneby the men, women have been and still are chanters.
They find great enjoyment in informal singing as
they follow their daily routine of home life.

The shocking inadequacy of educational facilities isplainly stated in the Report of J. A. Krug, Secretary of the Interior, March, 1948: "In its Treaty of1868 with the Navajo Tribe, the United States agreed
to provide a schoolhouse and teacher for each 30
Navajo children. Yet today there are 24, 000 Navajo
children of school age ( 6 - 18 years) with total
facilities available for not more than 7, 500."

SIDE II, Band 5: CORN GRINDING SONG (Female
voice, basket drum). In maintaining his harmonious relation to the forces of the universe, the mostcommonplace acts of daily living assume a cosmic
significance for the Navajo. Every man and woman
knows and performs rituals, prayers, and songs ofa personal nature. They may be directed to the planting of corn, the increase and care of sheep andhorses, trading, and for general good hope. It is in
this category that the Corn Grinding Songs belong.
Before beginning the grinding of the corn, white

While adhering tenaciously to their native religion
and way of life, the Navajos have managed to adopt
much of the technology of white culture. Agriculture,
livestock (mostly sheep), and wage-work form the5corn meal was offered to the gods, and was ceremonially thrown or sprinkled on the heads, front, back,sides and top, of the singer and the persons grinding.
The Corn Grinding Songs are becoming rapidly obsolete and rare, as corn meal, once so laboriously
ground, is disappearing from the domestic economy
to be replaced by white flour from the trader's store.

SIDE II, Band 7: SILVERSMITH'S SONG (Male voice,anvil). This song is sung by Ambrose Roan Horse,
one of the master silversmiths of the Navajo. He always works with a song in his heart, and often it isvoiced to the accompaniment of his anyil. The song
and its use is another example of the oneness of
Navajo culture.

SIDE II, Band 6: SQUAW DANCE (Male chorus,drum). The Squaw Dance was once an incidental element of the War Ceremony, a chant whose function
was the purification of those who had been defiled bycontact with the enemy. Today the ceremonial isused as a curative chant for those whose sickness isbelieved to result from contact with non-Navajos,
and the Squaw Dance has become the chief attraction,
drawing great crowds who travel long distances toparticipate in the social life that attends the event.
This dance serves a social function not unlike that ofthe debutante ball or "coming-out" party in whitesociety, for it is here that girls of marriageable age
are brought to meet prospective husbands. The girls,
often with coaching and urging from their mothers,choose their partners for the dance from among theeligible young men, and it is customary for the man
to pay the girl for the dance.

SIDE II, Band 8: NIGHT CHANT (Male chorus, gourd
rattles). Navajo religion is an elaborate highly developed complex of beliefs, mythology, rituals, songs,
and prayers, which pervades every aspect of Navajo
life. It is through the living of their religion, and thecareful observance and practice of fixed rituals andceremonials that The People maintain a harmonious
relation~hip with the mysterious forces of the universe and gain a sense of security. There are thirtyfive major ceremonials, generally referred to as
chants, most of which are directed toward curing
sickness. These ceremonials, varying in length fromtwo to nine days, are conducted by a medicine man
known as a Singer. It is believed that the ceremonials
and the esoteric lore of the Singer have been transmitted through an unbroken succession of Singers
from the gods who gave ceremonial power to thefirst Navajos.

The music of the Squaw Dance, like all other Indianmusic, is peculiarly perfect for the function for which
it is intended. Without the natural setting of thesesongs much of their beauty is lost. A cool summernight in a pine forest, high in the mountains of
Arizona, the picturesque circle of dancers whichsurrounds a huge bonfire, the outer circle of campfires with horses and wagons, and automobiles andtrucks'of every description, make one acutely sensitive to the strange beauty of this music.

The Night Chant, popularly known as the Yeibichai(Grandfather of the Gods) is an important nine day
ceremony which may not be performed until after the
first killing frost. It is at this ceremony th.at boys andgirls are initiated into the ceremonial life of the tribeby two masked dancers who impersonate the Grandfathers of the Monsters and Female Divinity. On thelast night of the ceremony which is open to the public,
Yeibichai appears with a company of masked gods anddances. After a wierd, unearthly call of the gods, thedancers shake their rattles with a sweeping movementfrom the ground to their heads, then whirl to the opposite direction and repeat the rattling. Following
this formalized introduction, the dancers begin theirrhythmic dance and song, accompanying themselveswith the rattles. The hypnotic power of this music
is cumulative as an endless profusion of Yeibichai
songs follow one another throughout the night. Danceteams which have spent weeks and months in preparJttion for the ceremony compete with one another not
only in the excellence of their singing and dancing,but in the introduction of new Yeibichai songs. The
seemingly meaningless syllables of the songs are notwithout significance for the Navajos.

The Navajo distinguish between the old and new Squaw
Dance songs. The songs recorded here are old ones.
Squaw Dance songs are short and after a few repetitions it is usual for some leader to start another song.
Thus the songs enchain themselves into fortuitous
cycles which are not fixed and in which there is noorganic relationship between songs. The Squaw Dance,
because of its social and secular character, offers
song-makers an opportunity in creative activity andoriginality which is denied them in most of the ceremonial music where great stress is placed on theaccuracy of performance of chants as they were received from the gOds.

In comparing the Navajo Yeibichai Dance with theSioux Omaha Dance one notes that the former isstrictly formalized, the work of an ensemble, whereas the latter is highly individualistic and frenetic,
providing for a large measure of originality on thepart of each dancer. The vocal technique and mannerof singing of the two tribes vary greatly. A distinctive feature of the Yeibichai songs is the dextrous alternation between normal singing voice and falsetto,
which contrary to popular belief is rather rare in
American Indian music. These particular melodies
tend to employ even wider intetwals than Plainstunes, displaying almost acrobatic feats in bounding
back and forth between octaves, while the continual
down-trend, so conspicuous in the Plains, is here
conteracted by the bold upward leaps. (Helen M.
Roberts, Musical Areas in Aboriginal America)

6

READING LIST
SIOUX
Densmore, Frances. Teton Sioux Music. Bureauof American Ethnology, Bull. 61. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1918.
Hyde, George. Red Cloud's Folk. Norman:
University of Of Oklahoma Press, 1937.
MacGregor, Gordon. Warriors Without Weapons :A Study of the Society and Personality of thePine Ridge Sioux. Chicago : University of
Chicago Press, 1946.
Rhodes, Willard. On the War Path, 1942 : A Studyof Sioux War Song in World War II. Modern
Music, Vol. Y:..X No.3, 1943.
Standing Bear, Luther. My People the Sioux.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1928.
Wissler, Clark. North American Indian of thePlains. Handbook Series, No.1, New York:
American Museum of Natural History, 1934.
NAVAJO
Adair, John. The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths.
Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1944.
Dyke, Walter. Son of Old Man Hat: A Navajo
Autobiography. New York. Harcourt, Brace
and Company, 1938.
Herzog, George. Speech-melody in Primitive
Music. Musical Quarterly. October, 1934.
Kluckhohn, Clyde, and Leighton, Dorothea. The
Navajo. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press, 1946.

LaFarge, Oliver. Laughing Boy. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1929.
Leighton, Alexander H. and Leighton, Dorothea C.
The Navajo Door. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press, 1944.
Reichard, Gladys A. Navajo Religion: A Study inSymbolism. New York: Bollingen Series,
Pantheon Books Inc.
Reichard, Glayds A. Navajo Shepherd and Weaver .
New York: J. J. Augustin, 1936.
Prayer: the Compulsive Word. New York:J. J. Augustin, 1944.
Roberts, Helen H. Musical Areas in Aboriginal
North America. Yale University Publications in
Anthropology. No. 12. New Haven Yale University Press, 1936.
Sanchez, George 1. The People. A Study of the Navajos. Lawrence, Kansas: Haskell Institute Print
Shop, 1948.
U. S. Department of the Interior. The Navajo. Report of J. A. Krug, Secretary of the Interior.
A Long-range Program for Navajo Rehabilitation, 1948.

Photos - Harry Tschopik Jr.
Willard Rhodes and theU. S. Indian Bureau
Edit or - Harold Courla nder
Production Director - Moses AschFor Add it ion a I I n form a t ion Abo u t;::::::::::••••••FOLKWAYS

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