Int. J. Entomol. Res. 03 (03) 2015. 113-124

Available Online at ESci Journals

International Journal of Entomological Research
ISSN: 2310-3906 (Online), 2310-5119 (Print)
http://www.escijournals.net/IJER

POTENTIAL OF THE WEED ABRUS PRECATORIUS LINNAEUS (FABALES:FABACEAE) FOR CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC: A REVIEW
aRavikash Parsad*, aGilianne Brodie, bCasper Vanderwoude, cSimon Hodgea Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.
b Hawaii Ant Lab, Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, 16 E. Lanikaula St Hilo Hawaii, USA.
c Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Christchurch, New Zealand.

ABSTRACT
Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae) is a woody legume plant that grows in tropical countries and is an invasive weed inother areas. Extracts of this plant have insecticidal properties against several arthropod groups including Coleoptera,
Diptera, Hemiptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera. It also has inhibitory effects against other pests including
fungal plant pathogens, parasitic protozoans and molluscs. Studies that have examined the efficacy of A. precatorius
extracts against invertebrate pests found in the South Pacific region suggest that this plant may be a potential meanfor controlling many important invasive agricultural pests. Harvest and usage of A. precatorius may serve a dual
purpose to restrict weed growth whilst providing material to produce a botanically-derived insecticide.
Keywords: Botanical pesticides; Integrated Pest Management; invasive weeds; plant extracts; South Pacific.
INTRODUCTION
The rosary pea: Abrus precatorius: The leguminous
plant Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae) is a high-climbing,
twining or trailing woody vine that grows in many
tropical areas and is propagated through seeds. The
plant flowers in winter/early spring and the fruits ripen
in late summer. The flowers appear in clusters, shaped
like those of peas, and can be white or tinged with pink,
blue, red or purple. The fruit is a flat oblong pod and has
3-8 shiny hard seeds which are 6-7 mm in diameter(Whistler, 1992). The glossy red seed, which has adistinguishing black spot, is often used in local jewellery,giving the plant one of its common names of ‘rosary pea’(see Table 1). In many parts of the world this species isregarded as an invasive weed, including the USA(Bradely & Gann, 1999; Motooka et al., 2003), Honduras(Holm et al., 1979), Madagascar (Sussman & Rakotozafy,1994) and the Philippines (Madulid et al., 2009). In
Australia, A. precatorius alters the structure of plantcommunities by smothering existing vegetation, both intheground layer and canopy, suppressing the growth__________________________________________________________________* Corresponding Author:
Email: researchravi@yahoo.com© 2015 ESci Journals Publishing. All rights reserved.

113

and regeneration of native species (Hosking et al., 2003;
Randall, 2007). Abrus precatorius occurs in many South
Pacific countries, where it is often considered as nativeor an ancient introduction (Smith, 1985; Whistler, 1992
and Table (1). It has been recorded in New Caledonia(MacKee, 1994), American Samoa (Whistler, 1998),
French Polynesia (Florence et al., 2010), Hawai’i(Motooka et al., 2003; Whistler, 2010), Niue (MacKee,
1994; Space et al., 2004) and many Fijian Islands (Smith,
1985; Ghazanfar et al., 2001; Florence et al. 2010). Abrus
precatorius may disperse to nearby islands via oceanic
dispersal and undocumented populations are likely to bepresent on other islands in the Pacific region (Ghazanfar
et al. 2001).
Abrus precatorius is only one example of a number of
detrimental invasive plants and animals now
widespread throughout the Pacific region. Examples
include: invasive plants such as Sphagnetico latrilobata(the creeping daisy), Spathodea campanulata (African
tulip); vertebrates, including Bufo marinus (the canetoad), Herpestes fuscus (Indian mongoose); andinvertebrates including Anoplolepis gracilipes (theyellow crazy ant), Wasmannia anuropunctata (the little
fire ant) and Coptotermes gestroi (Asian SubterraneanInt. J. Entomol. Res. 03 (03) 2015. 113-124

Termites). All are associated with degradation of natural
biological diversity and ecosystem functioning andecosystems, agricultural impacts and economic costs due
thought by many to be the second leading factor, after
to control efforts (Olson, 2006; Daigneault & Brown,
habitat destruction, in biodiversity loss and species
2013) and productivity losses (Fasi et al., 2013).
endangerment worldwide (Wilson, 2002) including
Invasive species are considered a major global threat to
Oceania (Pyke et al., 2008; Kingsford et al., 2009).
Table 1. Common names for Abrus precatorius in the South Pacific.
Location
Common names
Reference
General / S Asia
Gunja
Anand et al., 2010
Jequerity
Choudhari et al., 2011
Rosary Pea
Cook Islands
Kirikiri rangi
Whistler, 1992
Pitipiti’o
GISD, 2010
Uiui
Fiji
Lele
Whistler, 1992
Leredamu
Thaman et al., 2007
Diri damu
Qiri damu
Danimana
Guam
Kulales halom tano
Whistler, 1992
Hawai’i
Pukiawe lei
Whistler, 1992
Niue
Matakamea
Whistler, 1992
mata’ila
GISD, 2010
pomea
pomea mataila
Samoa
Fuefue laulili’i
GISD, 2010
Matamoso
Tonga
Moho
Whistler, 1992
Matamoho
GISD, 2010
Control of invasive and pest species: The primarymethods for control of many invasive species depend inpart on the use of synthetic herbicides or toxins, as
they are generally effective and economic over large
areas. Similarly, in agricultural systems, conventional
chemical pest control methods can be highly effective,
both in terms of reducing the intensity and occurrenceof pests and diseases, and ultimately producing low
cost agricultural commodities for consumers (Pimentel,2009). However, there is a general consensus among
environmentalists that the rate at which synthetic
herbicides and insecticides are currently being appliedis unsustainable, with a wide array of negative impacts
associated with their use (Igbedioh, 1991). For
example, insecticides can have direct negative impacts
on human health, as well as reducing populations ofbeneficial biota such as predatory insects andpollinators (Brown, 1978; Ware, 1980). The
manufacture of synthetic pesticides is often heavily
reliant on derivatives of petro-chemicals, and indirect114

environmental impacts due to pollution can occur atsites distant from the actual locality of product use.
Another major problem associated with incorrect use
of pesticides is the evolution of resistant populations oftargetpests,
subsequently
requiringhigherconcentrations of chemicals to be used or more potent
toxins to be developed (Georghiou, 1986; Mallet, 1989;
Denholm & Rowland, 1992). With respect to the control
of invasive plants such as A. precatorius, alternatives tochemical control of invasive and agricultural weeds arecontinually being sought. These include methods suchas super heating or steam ‘injection’ of agriculturalsoils, the introduction of biocontrol organisms such as
herbivorous insects to reduce plant biomass andphysical removal of the plant and propagules by handor mechanical means (Holt, 2009).
Botanically-derived plant protection products:
Historically, many plant-derived chemicals such as
nicotine and pyrethrins have been used as the basis for
new insecticides in conventional pest control.

Int. J. Entomol. Res. 03 (03) 2015. 113-124

Table 2. Summary of pest arthropods tested for susceptibility to tissue extracts or products derived from Abrus precatorius.
Species
Plant part /compounds
Reference
Insecta

Coleoptera

DipteraHemiptera

Isoptera

Lepidoptera

Orthoptera
Arachnida Ixodida
Trombidiformes

115

Orange Blister Beetle
Mylabris pustulata

Petroleum ether extracts ofseed(proteins)

Johri et al ., 2004

Rice Weevil
Sitophyllus oryza

Isolated abrins

Satyasree, 1999

Oriental Fruit Fly
Bactrocera dorsalis

Crude ethanol extracts(Plant part not given)

Nakawiroat et al., 2007

Malaria mosquito
Culexquinque fasciatus

Methanol extracts of seeds

Muthukrishnan et al., 1997
Sakthivadivel & Daniel, 2008
Nazar et al., 2009

Malaria mosquito
Culexquinque fasciatus

Petroleum ether extract of leaves Manimegalai et al., 2011

Mosquito
Culex vistiavi

Ether extracts of seeds

Bagavan & Rahuman, 2011

Malaria mosquito
Anopheles vagus

Ether extracts of seeds

Bagavan & Rahuman, 2011

Encephalitis Mosquito
Armigeres subalbatus

Ether extracts of seeds

Bagavan & Rahuman, 2011

MealybugMaconellicoccus hirsutus

Abrine isolated from seeds

Anitha et al., 1999

Painted bug
Bagrada cruciferarum

Petroleum ether extracts of seeds Johri et al., 2004

Cowpea aphid
Aphis craccivora

Petroleum ether extract of seeds Dimetry & Abdalla, 1988a

Asian termite
Coptotermes gestroi

Methanol extracts of leaves

Setiawan et al., 2009

Asian termite
Coptotermes gestroi

Methanol and water extracts
of seed and leaf

Prasad et al., 2015

White Cabbage Butterfly Petroleum ether extracts
Pieris brassicaeof seed (proteins)

Johri et al ., 2004

Diamondback Moth
Plutella xylostella

Crude extracts of seeds

Sinchaisiri et al ., 1990

Rice Moth
Corcyra cephalonica

Isolated abrins

Satyasree, 1999

Greater Wax Moth
Galleria mellonella

Ethanolic extracts of seeds

Talat, 2007

Cotton leafworm mothSpodoptera littoralis

Petroleum ether, ethanol, water
extracts of seeds

Dimetry &Abdalla, 1988b

Grasshoppers
Poecilo cerapicta

Aqueous extracts of seeds

Desai, 1966 & 1971

Ticks
Boophilus microplus

Crude ethanol extracts of seed

Chungsamarnyart et al.,1988

Spider mites
Tetranychus urticae

Petroleum ether extracts of
seeds

Reda et al., 1989 &1990
Dimetry et al., 1999 & 1992

Int. J. Entomol. Res. 03 (03) 2015. 113-124

More recently attention has focused on developing
insecticides and repellents from plants already used bytraditional farmers, such as neem (Azadirachta indica)(Patel & Chauhan, 2013) and species of pepper Piper(peppers) (Scott et al., 2003; Gulzar et al., 2013). These‘biorational’ insecticides are considered moreenvironmentally sound as they tend to have a narrower
range of target species, are less toxic to the people
applying the products, and often rapidly degrade undernatural conditions (Wiesbrook, 2004).
Hoddle (2004) suggested there may be scope to control
invasive species in a sustainable fashion if they offer somebeneficial products or ‘services’. Numerous investigations
report efficacy of extracts or plant-derived compounds on
invertebrate crop pest and vectors of human and animal
diseases (Desai et al., 1966; Kaushik & Khanna, 1992).
Some allelopathic weed species have already been
evaluated for their direct use in pest management or for
development of natural herbicides (Duke et al. 2000;
Kong et al. 2006; Macias et al. 2007). Thus, if one
nuisance plant species could be harvested and utilized insome manner that contributes to the control of someother pest species, a reduction in the abundance of bothproblem species could be achieved.
This review investigates the potential for A. precatorius
or its extracts for use as a botanical pesticide for control
of invertebrate pest species. Studies of toxins,
pharmaceuticals and other bioactive compounds derived
from A. precatorius have been conducted for over 120
years (Stillmark, 1888; Anand et al., 2010; Choudari etal., 2011; Bhatia et al., 2013). A wide range of bioactive
compounds have been isolated from this plant including
alkaloids, quinones, and saponins (Ghosal & Dutta, 1971;
Dimtery et al., 1992; Xiao et al., 2012; Hata et al., 2013).
Review of the Biocidal properties of Abrus
precatorius against invertebrate pests:
Insecta: Coleoptera: Several Coleopteran species areserious pests of stored grain products. Kardinan and
Wikardi (1997) reported that A. precatorius root powder
caused significant mortality of Sitophilus spp., withresidual toxicity lasting up to two months. Similarly,
Satyasree (1999) showed that a, p and y-abrins isolated
from A. precatorius caused up to 100% mortality in therice weevil Sitophilus oryzae. Petroleum ether extractsof the seed protein of A. precatorius caused 100%
antifeedant effects in the orange blister beetle Mylabris
pustulata (Johri et al. 2004). However, Babu et al. (1999)
reported that A. precatorius caused no inhibition of the116

seed beetle Callusobruchis maculatus under laboratory
conditions. A. precatorius extracts may show efficacy
against other coleopteran pest species in the Pacificregion such as Sitophilus oryzae (the rice weevil) and S.
zeamais (the maize weevil) which are widely distributedin the South Pacific (Hidayat et al. 1996). According to
the Pacific Islands Pest List Database (2015), Sitophilus
oryzae and S. zeamais are found in Fiji, Tonga and Guam,
where they cause damage to a range of important
agricultural crops, inlcuding cassava (Manhihot
esculenta), cashew (Anacardium occidentale), Job’s tears(Coix lachryma-jobi), nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), rice
(Oryza sativa), beans (Phaseolus sp.), sugar cane
(Saccharum officinarum), kola (Sorghum halepense) andmaize (Zea mays).
Insecta: Diptera: Bactrocera dorsalis (the Oriental fruitfly) poses a serious threat to the horticultural sector.
Nakawiroat et al. (2007) demonstrated that A.
precatorius crude methanol extracts caused reduced
hatching and complete mortality at 24 hours for various
life stages after topical application. Bactrocera dorsalis isfound in French Polynesia on crops such as Anonamucricata (soursoup), Averrhoa carambola (star fruit),
Carica papaya (papaya), Citrus maxima (pomelo), Citrus
sinensis (orange), Mangifera indica (mango), Musa sp.
(banana and plantain), Persia Americana (avocado) and
Pisidium guajava (guava). Further, Kriticos et al. (2007)
determined that B. dorsalis could persist throughout
most of the central Pacific, and that parts of New Zealandcould become substantially more climatically suitable,
increasing the likelihood of successful establishment of
this species.
In addition to agricultural pests, studies have also
demonstrated the toxicity of A. precatorius against other
Diptera such as mosquitoes. Muthukrishnan et al. (1997)
reported that methanol extracts of A. precatorius seeds
showed significant larvicidal and growth regulation
against the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus, even atvery low concentrations. Sakthivadivel and Daniel(2008) also showed that A. precatorius demonstrated
mild larvicidal activity against 4th instar larvae of C.
quinquefasciatus, Anopheles stephensi and Aedes aegypti.
Nazar et al. (2009) in their study of 100 Indian plant
extracts, reported that shoot extracts of A. precatorius
produced the highest larvicidal activity against C.
quinquefasciatus. Similarly, a study by Manimegalai et al.
(2011) demonstrated that petroleum ether extract of A.
precatorius leaves caused a mortality of 77% in larvae of

Int. J. Entomol. Res. 03 (03) 2015. 113-124

C. quinquefasciatus, but that exposure to petroleum ether
and chloroform seed extracts resulted in 100%
mortality. An earlier study by Khalsa et al. (1964)
contradicts the above findings, stating that the plant was
not toxic to Culex pipiens (house mosquitos) or Musca
domestica (the common house fly).
Culex quinquefasciatus is a principal vector of human
lymphatic filariasis, several encephalitides (includingWest Nile virus), avian malaria, and poxvirus (Fonseca
et al. 2006). In addition to these primary healthconcerns, this mosquito may contribute to asecondary economic loss in small island nations of the
Caribbean, Pacific and Indian Ocean by acting as a‘nuisance biter’ at tourist sites. Also, the vector of
avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum and Avipoxvirus,
C. quinquefasciatus could have significant ecologicalimpact on island avifaunas, including those of Pacificislands such as Hawaii, Galapagos and New Zealand(Bataille et al., 2009; LaPointe et al., 2012). This
biting behaviour has implications for island resorts,such as those found around Fiji, where negative
feedback from tourists can rapidly cause a loss intourist numbers (Gretzel & Yoo, 2008).
Insecta: Hemiptera: Anitha et al. (1999) showed thatabrine isolated from A. precatorius seeds caused a dose
dependent depletion of free and bound sugars in the
mealy bug Maconellicoccus hirsutus in India. They
concluded that application of abrine could cause asubstantial reduction in the population density of M.
hirsutus. Dimetry and Abdalla (1988b) attributed
antifeedant effects of petroleum ether extracts of A.
precatorius for another important crop pest, Aphis
craccivora (the cowpea aphid).
Maconellicoccus hirsutus is present in a number of Pacificisland countries, such as Papua New Guinea, theSolomon Islands, Tuvalu, Tonga, Palau, New Caledonia,
and Guam. It is affects Ananas comosus (pineapple),
Tectona grandis (teak), Theobroma cacao (cocoa), Vitis
vinifera (grape) and Gossypium barbadense (Sea Island
cotton). Aphis craccivora is a very widespread pest, andis present in the Cook Islands, Tonga, Guam, theFederated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, Nauru, Fiji
Islands, Australia and New Zealand. Although thisspecies primarily utilizes legume hosts, it has beenrecorded on a wide range of crop plants, for example:
Phaseolus sp. (beans), Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea),
Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Mangifera indica(mango), Artocarpus communis (breadfruit), Citrus limon

117(lemon), Cucumis sativus (cucumber), Citrullus vulgaris(watermelon), Solanum tuberosum (potato) andColocasia esculenta (taro) (Pacific Island Pest List
Database, 2015).
Insecta: Isoptera: In Fiji, interest in termites increased
dramatically after the exotic Asian Subterranean
Termite, Coptotermes gestroi, was detected in late 2009,
causing damage to homes, schools and vegetation in
Lautoka. According to the Biosecurity Authority of Fiji
(Malo, 2011), between late-2009 to mid-2011 the Fiji
government spent more than $3 million FJD to control C.
gestroi termites which damaged housing structures,
school buildings and vegetation in Lautoka. Setiawan etal. (2009) reported that A. precatorius leaf extracts were
non-repellent and could cause 100% mortality in thetermite Coptotermes gestroi in 12 days. Subsequently,
Prasad et al. (2015) reported that methanol extracts ofleaf and seeds at concentrations as low as 1% w/v
caused mortality of C. gestroi within 4 days, and thatconcentrated methanol extracts could cause 100%
mortality within 24 hours.
Insecta: Lepidoptera: Extracts of A. precatorius show
efficacy against a number of lepidopteran pest species.
Dimetry and Abdalla (1988a) reported that petroleum
ether, ethanol and water extracts inhibited feeding in
Spodoptera littoralis (the cotton leafworm), causing
decreased larval body weight and lower adult fecundity.
Sinchaisri et al. (1990) demonstrated that of the 43 plant
extracts bioassayed in vitro, crude extracts of A.
precatorius seeds were highly effective against Plutellaxylostella (the diamondback moth) with 80-100%
mortality of larvae. Satyasree (1999) found that abrins
isolated from A. precatorius produced 100% mortality ofCorcyra cephalonica larvae (the rice moth). Similarly,
ethanolic extracts of A. precatorius caused 95-100%
mortality of Galleria mellonella (the greater wax moth)(Zaitoun, 2007). Johri et al. (2004) reported that
petroleum ether extracts of A. precatorius resulted in
antifeedant effects against Pieris brassicae (the cabbage
white butterfly).
Plutella xylostella is present in a number of Pacificcountries, including Papua New Guinea, the Solomon
Islands, American Samoa, Tonga, Samoa, Palau, Niue,
New Caledonia, Guam, French Polynesia, the Cook
Islands, Nauru, Vanuatu and the Fiji Islands. It causes
damage to a wide range of brassica species, as well
Nasturtium schlechteri (Highland cress), Allium cepa
(onion) and Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (waterInt. J. Entomol. Res. 03 (03) 2015. 113-124

cress). Corcyra cephalonica is present in New Caledonia
and the Fiji Islands where it damages Triticum aestivum(wheat) and Cocos nucifera (coconut) (Pacific Island Pest
List Database, 2015).
Insecta: Orthoptera: Desai et al. (1966 & 1971) showedthat aqueous extracts of A. precatorius seeds were toxic
to Poecilocera picta (grasshoppers) and suggested themechanisms of this toxicity appeared to include
disruption of mitosis and meiosis processes. A numberof orthopterans cause general crop damage to foliage
and leaves in Pacific countries: for example, Eumossula
gracilis (coconut tree hopper), Valanga irregularis (giant
grasshopper), Locusta migratoria (migratory locust) and
Gryllotalpa africana (mole crickets) (French, 2006;
Evenhuis, 2007). Additionally, Graeffea crouanii (thecoconut stick-insect) is also a pest in this region during
sporadic outbreaks, such as that observed in the Fijian
Island of Taveuni in the 1960s (Paine, 1968).
Arachnida: Ixodida: Chungsamarnyart et al. (1988)
investigated 44 species of plants for larvicidal activity
against Boophilus microplus (the cattle tick) and foundthat a 10% dilution of a crude-extract of A. precatorius
seed caused 95-100% mortality in nymphs of thisspecies. Boophilus microplus is a major pest of cattle intropical and sub-tropical agro-systems, where it appears
to quickly adapt to new environments and recurrently
develops resistances to pesticides used in tick-control
and it appears in Northern Australia and the PacificIsland country of New Caledonia (Beugnet &Chardonnet, 1995; Frisch, 1999; Chevillon et al., 2007).
Arachnida: Trombidiformes: Reda et al. (1989 &
1990) demonstrated that petroleum ether extract of A.
precatorius seeds, and the alkaloids found in these
extracts, acted as a deterrent and reduced the
reproductive potential of Tetranychus urticae (redspider mite) in Egypt. Working on the same mitespecies, Dimetry et al. (1990) found that coumarin, βamyrin and a mixture of sterols isolated frompetroleum ether extract of A. precatorius seeds caused
a significant reduction in fecundity and the viability ofeggs of T. urticae. Subsequently, Dimetry et al. (1992)
suggested that the most efficient alkaloid isolated fromseeds was hypaphorine which elongated the preoviposition period, significantly shortened theoviposition period and reduced the fecundity of the T.
urticae females.
In a South Pacific context, T. urticae is present in New
Caledonia and the Cook Islands, where it damages

118

numerous crops, such as Brassica sp. (mustard),
Citrullus lanatus (water melon), Cucurbita sp. (squash),
Daucus carota (carrot), Lactuca sativa (lettuce),
Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Mangifera indica(mango), Manihot esculenta (cassava), Musa sp.
(banana) and Carica papaya (papaya) (Pacific Island
Pest List Database, 2015).
Other beneficial properties of Abrus precatorius:
Lymnaea acuminate (the fresh water snail) is the hostfor Schistosoma worms which cause schistosomiasis incattle. Abrin and glycyrrhizic acid in A. precatorius
seed and root affect the nervous tissue of these snails
causing mortality as shown by studies conducted inIndia (Singh & Singh, 1999 & 2000; Bhide et al., 2008).
Plant pathogens, such as the fungi Colletotrichum
capsici and C. falcatum, cause leaf blight on pepper
and red rot in sugarcane respectively. Theyexperience reduced mycelial growth and incidence ofdisease is reduced when host plants are treated with
A. precatorius extracts as shown by studies in India(Kumaran & Balasubramanian, 2003; Jayakumar et al.,2007). Colletotrichum capsici affects Capsicum annum(pepper) in New Caledonia, French Polynesia andWallis and Futuna and has also been recorded as apathogen in American Samoa (Kohler et al., 1997;
Brooks, 2002). Anti-parasitic activity has also been
demonstrated for Abrus precatorius extracts. Ethyl
acetate and methanol extracts of A. precatorius inhibit
the protozoans Plasmodium falciparum (which is thevector for malaria) and Leishmania donovani (whichcauses leishmaniasis or black fever) in Africa(Bagavan et al., 2011; Hata et al., 2013). Plasmodium
falciparum is a very important parasite in the Pacificsince it has been documented as a major cause ofmalaria in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Papua
New Guinea (Kere et al., 1993; Lum et al., 2005; Chanet al. 2012; Chan et al. 2015). Leishmania donovani isalso an important disease affecting domestic animals
in Pacific Islands, including Fiji (Brioudes et al., 2014).
The protist Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, which istransmitted by tsetse flies (Glossina spp) and causes
trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) is also strongly
inhibited by A. precatorius extract shown by studies
in Africa (Hata et al., 2013). Contrary to the effects
against protozoa, Ibrahim (1992) indicated that A.
precatorius may not be effective as an anthelminthic
as it had no inhibitory effect on the nematode
Caenorhabditis elegans in Sudan.

Int. J. Entomol. Res. 03 (03) 2015. 113-124

Potential environmental impacts and non-target
effects of A. precatorius: Although botanical pesticides
are generally considered more ‘environmentallyfriendly’ than their synthetic counterparts, the use of
botanicals still requires careful consideration if negativeenvironmental impacts are to be minimized. Abrin is ahighly toxic ribosome-inhibiting agent in humans, with afatal dose of ≈0.11g/kg when ingested but only
≈0.01g/kg when inhaled (Saxena et al., 2013). Cases ofA. precatorius poisoning usually occur from handlingleaves or seeds, or from contact poisoning by wearing
jewellery made from the seeds. There is currently noknown antidote to abrin poisoning, suggesting there
could be health concern issues if wide-spread spraying
of extracts was to be carried out, or if food crops were
contaminated.
For some time there has been a push to advocate forms
of integrated pest management (IPM) for control ofproblematic insects and weeds. In many IPM systems,
chemical treatments are used in collaboration with othercontrol methods, such as the use of crop rotation to
avoid build-up of pests, mechanical barriers such asmesh covers and the use of naturally-occurring or
released predatory arthropods as biocontrol agents(LaBrecque, 1981; Sandler, 2010; Merfield et al., 2015).
The use of insecticides still has a role in IPM, but theiruse is reduced so as to maximize inhibition of the target
species but minimize the impact on non-target beneficial
species, such as predators and pollinators.
Abrus precatorius extracts can cause significant mortalityof some of these beneficial insects, for example, in thebraconid wasp Cotesia flavipes, which is a parasitoid ofmany species of pest lepidopteran larvae and is often
used as a classical biocontrol agent (Reddy & Srikanth,
1996), and of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) which is theprimary pollinating species of many crops worldwide(Zaitoun, 2007).
Thus the timing, location and methods of application of
A. precatorius products would need carefulconsideration before they were to be used as a general
insecticide.
CONCLUSIONS
Reviewing the literature on the toxic effects of A.
precatorius derivatives against invertebrate pest species
indicates that many of the important groups of insect
pests in the Pacific region (e.g. mosquitoes, aphids andtermites) are susceptible to A. precatorius, and that there
is potential for their control by biorational pesticides

119developed from this plant. Due to the invasive nature ofA. precatorius, and its negative effects on native flora, thedeliberate cultivation of A. precatorius in new areas
should not be promoted. Additionally, overuse of A.
precatorius has led to it becoming endangered in someparts of its natural range (Mwine et al., 2011) and, as A.
precatorius is considered native in many South Pacificcountries (Smith,1985), its complete eradication is also
not being proposed. We suggest that a sustainable
harvest of A. precatorius leaves and seed for use in the
manufacture of botanical insecticides would lead to anatural reduction in the biomass of the plant without theneed of chemical herbicides, helping restrict its spreadto new areas and would likely be of benefit to the local
flora that was freed of the smothering effect of this plant.
We recommend that additional research into theviability, development and production of effective
insecticides from A. precatorius is carried out, and thatthe potential advantages that this could produce in theSouth Pacific, in terms of reduced use of synthetics
pesticides, chemical-free control of a problem weed, and,not least, economic benefit to the local communities
involved, should be further evaluated.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank the University of the South
Pacific Research Office for funding this research as partof the MSc research of Ravikash Prasad.
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