慶應義塾
外国語教育研究
第５号

目 次

2008

〈研究論文〉
エッセイライティング分析的評価の修辞面構成要素に関する考察

宮 崎

啓

1

日本語終助詞「よ」の伝達機能に関する考察

キム アンジェラ アジョン

23

藁 谷 郁 美47

― 終助詞「よ」に相当する韓国語文末表現との対照研究 ―携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価― Wortschatz erarbeiten, mitnehmen, teilen ―太 田 達 也
マルコ・ラインデル

テレビ会議を通した文化交流：第一回 UCTP 授業の観察から

横川［室］ 真理子

69

Clyde Henry Lewis,
吉 田 友 子学習者中心の文法指導の効果について

慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター
Keio Research Center for Foreign Language Education

前 原 由 紀115

JOURNALofFOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION
Vol. 05 2008

CONTENTS〈Research Articles〉
Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:

MIYAZAKI, Kei

Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,

Angela A-Jeoung Kim

focusing on ʻ ʼ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean
Der webgestützte Wortschatztrainer für PC und Handy

WARAGAI, Ikumi― selbstständig lernen im Austausch mit anderen

OHTA, Tatsuya
Marco Raindl

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class（2006‑2007）

YOKOKAWA MURO Mariko
Clyde Henry Lewis,
YOSHIDA, Tomoko

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

MAEHARA, Yuki

KEIO RESEARCH CENTER FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION

Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features

Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales
Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features
Kei Miyazaki
Abstract
When using analytic rating scales to assess EFL essay writing, each component of the scale
is usually understood to reflect a single distinct rhetorical features (RF), such as Content
or Organization. However, it is possible for a component to have traits in common withother components in the scale, making scoring of some of these components redundant andtherefore inefficient. The present study examines the construct validity of analytic rating
scales by investigating the interrelationships among the components associated with therhetorical features: Content, Organization, Cohesion, and Voice. 70 essays, written by KeioHigh School students, were scored and analyzed in this study. Multiple regression analyses
were performed to investigate the extent to which scores of Content can be predicted fromthe scores of the other RF. The findings indicate that Voice is the most significant feature
contributing to the prediction of Content scores. The study also illustrates a high correlation
between Organization and Cohesion. It is suggested that basing an analytic rating scale on
two components alone — Content and Organization — is sufficient to provide an accurate
and more efficient assessment of RF in EFL essay writing.

1. Introduction

In assessing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) essay writing, analytic rating schemes
have long been used to assess learners’ writing abilities within a single modality. The analytic
rating scheme separates and weights different features of the learners’ performance on a
writing task and assigns separate scores to each feature. The major advantage of analytic
rating is to give learners feedback and provide useful diagnostic information about learners’
writing abilities (H. Brown, 2004; Hamp-Lyons, 2003; Raimes, 1990; Weigle, 2002). On the1慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

other hand, there are a number of problems associated with the criteria of the scoring scales.
There is little assurance that each analytic scale is used properly without influence fromcriteria of other scales. The results of rating one scale may influence the rating of another(Cohen, 1994).
With regard to the criteria for evaluating writing skills using the analytic rating scale, someresearchers within the language testing field have been paying much attention to the effectof raters on each trait of the rating scales (K. Brown, 2002; Elder et al., 2007; Lumley, 2002;
Schoonen, 2005; Turner & Upshur, 2002). Much research has been conducted to investigate
the potential bias or different interpretations of criteria among raters using the analytic scale.
However, relatively little research has been done on the interrelationships among thecomponents of the analytic rating. Of the few studies that dealt with the components of theanalytic rating, Astika (1993) investigated the extent to which each component of the essay
writing contributed to the total score variance. The study found that Vocabulary accounted
for the largest amount of variance in the total scores. Sawaki’s (2007) study on speaking
assessment, showed high inter-correlations between Vocabulary and Cohesion, indicating thatthe learners with good scores in Cohesion could have received high ratings in Vocabulary as
well. The previous studies above treated all rating scale components including both rhetoricalfeatures (RF), such as Content or Organization, and linguistic features, such as Grammar or
Mechanics (Weigle, 2002).
The present study focuses on RF and examines whether RF components are linked toeach other. More specifically, it investigates the relationships between Content and othercomponents: Organization, Cohesion, and Voice. The reason for this is that Content seems tohave a broad definition which might involve the elements of other components. That is, there
is a possibility that some components should be subsumed within Content. Therefore, thisstudy aims to examine the degree to which RF components contribute to predicting Content
scores, and then reconsider the analytic scoring scales which enable examiners to properly
assess writing ability of EFL learners.
2. Literature Review

Among numerous analytic rating scales that have been used in assessing essay writing
ability in EFL academic contexts, probably the most well-known and widely used scale
is ESL Composition Profile by Jacobs et al. (1981). The Profile, which was one of thefirst attempts to develop an L2 analytic type of scale, is divided into five major writing2Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features

components: Content, Organization, Vocabulary, Language, and Mechanics. Each component
in a level has clear descriptors of the writing proficiency required for that particular level aswell as a numerical scale. Each of the five components in the Profile is weighted differently
with Content receiving the most weight. It seems reasonable to suppose that the weightingsof these components in the Profile reflect the importance of RF (see Appendix A). Anotherexample is a scale which Schoonen (2005) used in his research on the estimation of variancecomponents in the writing scores. In his study, RF components were integrated as a whole:“Content and Organization.”
There are other scales which divide their RF into components such as Content,
Organization, Cohesion, Coherence, and Voice (or Audience). Test in English for Educational

Purposes (TEEP) by Weir (1990), in addition to Content and Organization, provides Cohesion
as one of the RF. In a similar vein, Michigan Merit Exam Persuasive Writing Scoring Guide(Hamp-Lyons, 1997) emphasizes the need for assessing cohesion and logic. Regarding RF,
the Guide sets up three components: Position, Complexity, and Organization. The firsttwo components correspond to the elements of Content, Cohesion, and Coherence. This
scoring guide was established based on Hamp-Lyons’s (1991) study that demonstrated thesignificance of assessment for specific purposes.
Sasaki & Hirose (1999), Spandel & Calham (1993), and Witt (1995), in their research on
analytic scale development, suggest that the element of reader awareness be incorporated into
the components as one of the key factors measuring writing ability. This type of component is,
in most cases, rated on such features as Voice or Audience.

AIMS Six Trait Analytic Writing Rubric Official Scoring Guide (2006) includes all
sorts of RF components: Idea & Content, Organization, Voice, Cohesion, and Fluency(Coherence). This scoring guide is research-based, provides specific information about
learners’ performance, and is supported with classroom instructional activities. Moreover, theguide is designed to provide a consistent scoring method based on recognized characteristics
of effective writing common to all genres.
These studies mentioned above show that analytic scoring scales require raters to judge
the quality of learners’ written language relative to such various types of component. That is,
the analytic scores assigned to the learners’ responses are assumed to reflect the underlying
abilities being measured. However, there are two further points which need to be clarified.
The first point concerns inter-rater reliability: the way a rater interprets the description ofan analytic rating ability may affect scores. The second point concerns construct validity:3

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

whether each analytic scale is a true reflection of the trait being measured can be questioned.
As for the first point, the past decade has witnessed a steady growth in research on interrater reliability on analytic rating. Shi (2001) made scoring comparison in raters with different
language backgrounds, showing that both the native and non-native raters tend to use theirown criteria value. Lumley (2002) and Schoonen (2005) investigated the process by whichraters of ESL learners’ essays make their scoring using an analytic rating scale. The results
showed that the raters appeared to differ in the emphases they give to the various scale
descriptors of each RF component. Kondo-Brown’s (2002) study, in the field of JFL, also
showed that raters were influenced by their own experiences as much as by the variationin quality of learners’ essays. Similarly, Elder et al’s (2007) study, comparing levels of rater
agreement and bias in analytic rating, revealed limited overall gains in inter-rater reliability.
On the other hand, consistency of analytic ratings among raters can be seen in someother research. Bacha (2001) compared holistic rating scores with analytic scores by two
raters. The result showed high correlation between two types of score as well as between
two raters, indicating that a combination of holistic and analytic evaluation is needed tobetter evaluate learners’ essay writing proficiency. One of Turner & Upshur’s (2002) studies,on the process of analytic scale development, demonstrated that inter-rater agreement washigh within empirically different scales and concluded that ratings of scale developers are
not substantially influenced by their interpretations of the scale descriptors. The findings ofthis body of research highlight the need for rater training and more efficient analytic scoring
development.
Regarding the second point: construct validity, little information is available. Nevertheless,several studies have attempted to explore the relationships among components in analytic
rating. McNamara (1990) and Astika (1993) investigated the relationship of analytic rating
scales to an overall score. McNamara’s findings suggest that grammar scale plays the mostimportant role in giving the overall score. In the case of Astika’s study, the multiple regression
analysis indicated that vocabulary scale profoundly influenced the total score. Sawaki (2007)
examined the construct validity of analytic rating scales in terms of speaking ability. From thefindings of her research showing that correlation between Vocabulary and Cohesion was high,she claims there can be overlap of constructs across the analytic scoring scales.
Some researchers propose that new RF components should be incorporated into theanalytic scales. Rogers (2004) attempted to supply a definition of Coherence and investigatedwhether or not Coherence can be regarded as a single measurable component. The result of4Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Featurescomparing Coherence with overall writing quality indicated that it is possible for Coherence
to be scored as an independent component. Sasaki & Hirose (1999), in their L1 Japanese
analytic scale development, compared the ESL Composition Profile with their empiricalscoring scales, asserting that a scale which includes “Reader’s Awareness” (Voice or Audience)
is more valid and reliable in assessing essay writing. Sano (2007) also suggests that the morerhetorical features are emphasized in the EFL setting, the more readers’ awareness should be
included in language production assessment.
Rogers, Sano, and Sasaki & Hirose take the position that a certain number of RF
components should be assessed to provide detailed information about learners’ rhetoricalperformance. Similarly, AIMS (2006) mentioned earlier, has no less than 5 RF traits in theanalytic scale on the belief that “multiple traits allow a high score in one trait to compensate
for a low score in another” (para. 3). However, as Cohen (1994) states, if the results of rating
one component influence the rating another, some components should be eliminated or
modified. Likewise, Weigle (2002) points out that in the general foreign language instructions
on low and intermediate levels, it may be more appropriate to have separate components forlinguistic features, but not appropriate for RF. Polio (2003) also describes that RF is moredifficult to operationalize than linguistic features.
Difficulty in RF scale settings appeared in author’s empirical knowledge. In fact, when
the author was evaluating EFL learners’ essays, the question arose as to the relevancy ofContent to other components of RF. More specifically, the author thought it might bepointed out that the learners who received high scores on Organization, Cohesion, or Voicetended to receive high scores on Content. If elements of Content or any other component
for that matter overlap with elements of other components, a composite score derived fromthe sum of scores in the scales assigned as independent features may lead to an inaccurate
assessment of learners’ writing abilities. In other words, it is possible that scales and criteria
are sometimes improperly grouped. Indeed, as Polio (2003) states, Content is generally amatter of quality, and a kind of “holistic scale assessing the entire piece of writing” (p. 42).
Furthermore, Shi (2001) reports that a large number of raters give weight to Content whenassessing essay writing. In order to compensate for the shortcomings of analytic rating, someresearchers (Bacha, 2001; Hughes, 2003) suggest that a combination of holistic and analytic
evaluation is required to better evaluate learners’ essay writing proficiency. However, due totime-consuming work and considerable burden, the reality is that teachers give feedback tolearners only by calculating a sum total of scores for each component in an analytic scale.

5慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Therefore, the construct validity of analytic rating scales should be further explored with acareful examination of the inter-relationship of rhetorical features.
3. Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to investigate the interrelationships among the components
associated with RF. By considering the previous studies and based on the author’s experiencein EFL essay writing evaluations, it appears highly probable that some RF component scores
overlap with Content scores. Thus, it is assumed that some RF component scores can predict
Content scores. Furthermore, although the previous studies mentioned above have affected
the RF scale settings, the interrelationships among RF components have not yet been
investigated experimentally. Thus, the present study was performed due to evidence showing
the extent to which RF component scores are involved in Content scores. The following
hypothesis and research question were constructed:
HS: Organization, Cohesion, Coherence, or Voice scores can predict the Content scorein essay writing.
RQ: If the hypothesis is supported then, which component score — Organization,
Cohesion, Coherence, or Voice — is the best predictor of the Content score?
4. Definition of Each Component

This research used analytic rating scales containing all common RF components. Content
is defined as the degree to which “ideas and opinions are clear, complete and well developed;
writing is relevant to the topic.” Organization is defined as the degree to which “the structure
suits the topic with a planned opening and closing, and supporting details that enrich thetheme.” Cohesion is defined as “transitions that tie the details together.” Voice consists ofthree elements: “a clear sense of writing to be read, individual way of writing, and effective
message involved in the topic.” The above definitions were adopted from AIMS Six Trait

Analytic Writing Rubric Official Scoring Guide (2006). This scoring guide was chosen
primarily because it has all sorts of RF components and all 5 RF components are scoredwith equal weight. The score is based on the total of the individual component score. This
type of analytic scale was suitable for use in the present research which would examine theinterrelationship of the components. To save scoring time, the original form was slightly

6Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features

revised (see Appendix B). Since the scoring guide mentioned above did not have clear
definitions of Coherence, the author regarded Coherence as “making a series of sentences aconnected set and linking all the meaning.” This definition was cited from the research paper
written by Rogers (2004), who conducted an empirical study to analyze written discourse
according to the principles of coherence.
5. Method
5.1 Participants

The participants in the current study were 74 second-year learners at Keio High School inJapan. Most of them had studied English in Japan, yet a few of them had studied in countries
such as the United States, Singapore, and China. The academic level of the school isrelatively high, and all of the participants, evaluated by their records in the previous semesterand by a common English test, were assigned to the intermediate level group. The common
English test had been conducted in the final term exam period during the 2006 academic
year. Due to the class size issues, these learners were divided into three English classes, withapproximately 25 learners per class. To examine whether these three groups were equivalent inEnglish language proficiency, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted on theirresults from the common English test. The result of the ANOVA showed that the three groups
were not statistically different in terms of their English language proficiency. (F(2, 71) =0.04, p = .96 n.s.).
5.2 Materials

The instruments used in this study were an academic persuasive essay and an analytic
scoring scheme. The prompt prepared for the essay task was one which intended to generate
ideas and give the learners a starting point and direction for writing. The topic of the essay“clothing” was familiar to the learners and thus a relatively easy topic on which to write. The
familiarity of the topic allowed learners to write more detail on the subject thus giving thestudy more in the way of useable data. The prompt and topic used in this study was adopted
from Langan (2007), as follows:
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? “People behave differently
when they wear different clothes.” Do you agree that different clothes influence theway people behave? Use specific examples to support your opinion.

7慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Analytic scoring scales used in the current study had five components: Content,
Organization, Cohesion, Coherence, and Voice. All of these rating scales had five rating
points representing: “Very Poor (1),” “Unsatisfactory(2),” “Moderate(3),” “Good(4),” and“Excellent(5).” Since this research focused only on RF, linguistic features such as Grammar,
Mechanics, and Vocabulary were omitted.
In order to analyze the data and answer the research questions, SPSS 16.0 and Amos 7.0
were utilized. These commonly used statistical analysis software packages provide enoughguidance for researchers to adapt the research design to general educational purpose (Storey,2004).
5.3 Procedure

The persuasive essay writing test was conducted in February 2008. The learners were givena blank sheet of paper and 50 minutes in which to complete the assignment in the classroom.
Eight months prior to this test, from May to early December 2007, the learners had been
exposed to much formal instruction in fundamental essay writing by means of author-createdhandouts. They had been given sufficient opportunities to practice writing skills such as
deciding on a title, using topic sentences, making paragraphs with indentations, organizing
the essay, and including supporting details and specific examples. Moreover, the learners
had been given the analytic scoring scale for their essays in order to understand the way ofassessing their essay writing. Before this study was conducted in February, the learners had
written seven persuasive essays, showing gradual improvement in rhetorical features.
The essay test in February required the learners to write approximately 200 – 250 words on
the topic of “clothing.” They were expected to write an essay that had an introduction, at least
two supporting paragraphs, and a conclusion.
The learners were allowed to use their dictionary so that their abilities as they relate to RF
could be demonstrated in the essay without any detrimental linguistic effects. The course
syllabus of the English class told the learners that the essay writing would be 20 % of theircourse grade. Thus, the learners were all equally motivated.
Each essay was then collected, read, and scored independently by two raters using thesame analytic rating scales mentioned earlier.
5.4 Scoring and Data analyses

The analyses for the essay writing were administered in the following several steps. First,

8

Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features

the number of words in each essay was counted in order to collect valid data in the study.
Since the learners had been required to write at least 200 words in the essay, the essays
comprising less than 200 words were eliminated. This resulted in 70 valid essays. These 70
essays were then scored independently by the author (rater A) and one experienced native
TESOL teacher who works at a Japanese university (rater B).
Next, due to the fact that “rating on writing tests in academic contexts vary considerably”(Hamp-Lyons, 2003, p. 174), inter-rater reliability correlation coefficients were calculatedusing the Pearson correlation coefficient for each component of the essays. The results of theinter-rater reliability and t-test appear in Table 1.

Table 1. Inter-rater Reliability and t-test

Content
Organization
Cohesion
Coherence
Voice

Rater A

Rater B

Mean

Mean

Correlation

t-value

3.129
3.80
3.671
3.013
3.30

3.514
3.820
3.686
3.50
3.343

0.669**
0.733**
0.726**
0.417**
0.747**

1.946
0.698
0.829
3.750**
0.516**p < .01

Content, Organization, Cohesion, and Voice had relatively high agreements (r = 0.67,
0.73, 0.73, and 0.75 respectively) (J. Brown, 1996, p. 153). Coherence, however, showed
less agreement (r = 0. 42). Since the low reliability was not suitable for this study, Coherence
was removed. Additionally, since the mean values of both rater A’s scores and rater B’s scores
would be used in descriptive statistics, a t-test was conducted to examine whether thescores by the two raters were equivalent. Before conducting the t-test, it was ensured that
distribution of scores for the population was approximately normal. According to the t-test,
there was no statistical difference between rater A’s scores and rater B’s scores in Content,
Organization, Cohesion, and Voice. In other words, both raters were consistent in the scoringof these four categories.
Next, inter-correlation between all the components was checked to explore the relationships
among components. At the same time, linearity between the components was examined.
Additionally, Mahalanobis Distances were utilized in order to detect multivariate outliers.
These two analyses were carried out to see whether the assumptions for the subsequent9慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

regression analysis were met.
Finally, a multiple regression analysis was performed in order to see whether it would bepossible to predict the Content score based on the other RF components. Content was set up
as a dependent variable and the other components — Organization, Cohesion, and Voice —were placed as independent variables.
6. Results
6.1 Descriptive Statistics

Table 2 reports the descriptive statistics for the 70 learners for four RF components scoredby two raters. As mentioned earlier, the scores were averaged across two raters. Skewness andKurtosis were within ±2, suggesting that distributions were normal.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Four Rhetorical Feature Components

Content
Organization
Cohesion
Voice

Mean

S.D.

Skew

Kurt

Min

Max

Total

3.32
3.81
3.68
3.32

0.692
0.781
0.692
0.722

−0.441−0.246−0.3360.181

0.019−0.224
0.137
0.077

1.50
2.00
2.00
2.00

4.50
5.00
5.00
5.00

70
70
70
70

Note: Skew = Skewness; Kurt = Kurtosis; Min = Minimum; Max = Maximum (full score = 5.00)

6.2 Inter-correlations

Based on the descriptive statistics, inter-correlations between all the variables were
examined to explore the relationships between variables. Results are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Inter-correlations among Variables by Pearson Correlation CoefﬁcientsContent
Organization
Cohesion
Voice

Content

Organization

Cohesion

Voice

1.00

0.642**
1.00

0.522**
0.827**
1.00

0.769**
0.672**
0.543**
1.00**p < .01

As can be seen in Table 3, the inter-correlation had a moderate margin, ranging from 0.52 to
0.83. Focusing on Content, the results indicate that there was considerably high correlation

10

Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features

between Content and Voice (r = 0.77), suggesting that a learner that obtained high score on
Voice tended to obtain high score on Content as well. Although this result demonstrates thehigh inter-correlations among some scoring components, correlation coefficients do not allow
one to systematically verify the extent to which score of Content can be predicted by othercomponents. Thus, this issue was explored further by means of multiple regression analysis.
As a preliminary step, the linearity of the relationships between the dependent andindependent variables was examined by scatter plot data. The plotted graphs are not shown
here due to space constraints. The results show that the relationships between the dependent
variable and independent variables were all adequately linear.
Furthermore, in order to detect multivariate outliers, Mahalanobis Distance for the four
variables was calculated. The largest distance (8.83) was lower than the x2 value at four
degrees of freedom (18.5). Therefore, it can be said that there were no cases in multivariate
outliers (Molloy & Newfields, 2005).
Finally, it must be noted here that the correlation between Organization and Cohesion was
extremely high. In such a case, the independent variables’ contributions to the dependent
variable overlap, and it is impossible to examine the contribution of each independent variablethrough the results of multiple regression analysis (Sasaki & Hirose, 1999). Thus, it was
expected that either Organization or Cohesion, one of which would be unsuitable for use asa predictor in multiple regression analysis, would have to be excluded from the independent
variable lists.
6.3 Regression Analyses

Following the administration of inter-correlation analysis, multiple regression analyses were
performed based on the average scores of the two raters. Two types of multiple regression
analysis were utilized: standard entry and stepwise selection. In the standard entry multiple
regression, all of the independent variables were entered together into the regression equation
model simultaneously (Table 4). According to the adjusted R-square, about 60 % of thevariation in the dependent variable (Content) can be explained by the regression model withall the three independent variables (F (3, 66) = 35.859, p<.01). Of the three predictors, only
Voice resulted in the highest standardized coefficient with statistically significant t-ratio. This
result indicates that Organization and Cohesion were not appropriate for use in the regression
model. It can be said that since the two predictor variables, Organization and Cohesion, arehighly correlated (r = 0.827), Cohesion adds relatively little in prediction when Organization11

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

is in the regression equation.

Table 4. Standard Entry Multiple Regression Summary for Three Variables Predicting Content
Variable(Constant)
Organization
Cohesion
Voice

B

SEB

β

t

p

VIF

(Multico-index)

0.536
0.204
−0.003
0.589

0.304
0.136
0.135
0.098

0.231
−0.003
0.616

1.964
1.505
−0.023
6.001

0.084
0.137
0.982
0.000**

4.071
3.164
1.827

}

(26.502)

Note: n = 70; R2 = 0.620; ⊿R2 = 0.602; R2 change = 0.620; D.W. = 1.783 **p < .01

A further stepwise selection regression analysis was also performed in order to confirm
whether Organization and Cohesion are superfluous variables in the regression analysis. The
result was the construction of two models. Model 1 summary appears in Table 5 and Table 6.

Table 5. Model 1. Stepwise Multiple Regression Summary for One Variable Predicting Content
Variable

B

SEB(Constant)

0.876

0.252

Voice

0.736

β

0.074

2

2

0.769

PartialPart
Correlation Correlation

t

p

3.473

0.001**

9.919

0.000**

0.769

0.769

2

Note: n = 70; R = 0.591; ⊿R = 0.585; R change = 0.591; D.W. = 1.784 **p < .01 *p < .05

Table 6. Model 1. Stepwise Excluded Variables
VariableβtpPartial Correlation

Organization

0.228

2.239

0.028

0.264

Cohesion

0.148

1.620

0.110

0.194

Note: n = 70; R2= 0.591; ⊿R2= 0.585; D.W. = 1.784 **p < .01

The two predictors: Organization and Cohesion were excluded from Model 1. About 59 % of
the variation in the dependent variable (Content) can be explained by the regression model
1 with one predictor (Voice). According to ANOVA, the regression model with one predictor
was significantly related to the dependent variable (F(1, 68) = 98.382, p<.01). In order toexamine the absolute values of the partial correlations for variables not in the equation,
excluded variables were checked. The beta value associated with Organization is larger

12Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features(β=0.228), indicating Organization would make the greater contribution of the two excluded
predictors. The partial correlation between Organization and Content is 0.264 after the effectof Voice was removed from both Organization and Content. The observed significance levelassociated with Organization is 0.028, which is significant at the 95% level (p<.05). On theother hand, the significance level with Cohesion is 0.110, which is not statistically significant(p>.05). Thus, it would seem likely that Organization is a more suitable second predictor forthe equation.
In Model 2, only Cohesion was excluded. The results are shown in Table 7 and Table 8.

Table 7. Model 2. Stepwise Multiple Regression Summary for Two Variables Predicting Content
Variable(Constant)
Voice
Organization

PartialPart
Correlation Correlation

B

SEB

β

t

p

0.593
0.590
0.202

0.276
0.097
0.090

0.616
0.228

2.152
6.050
2.239

0.035*
0.000**
0.028*

0.594
0.246

0.456
0.169

Note: n = 70; R2= 0.620; ⊿R2= 0.608; R2change = 0.028; D.W. = 1.784 **p < .01 *p < .05

Table 8. Model 2. Stepwise Excluded Variable
VariableβtpPartial Correlation

Cohesion−0.003−0.0230.982−0.003

Note: n = 70; R2= 0.620; ⊿R2= 0.608; D.W. = 1.784 **p < .01 *p < .05

Judging from the data, about 61 % of the variation of Content can be explained by the
regression model with two predictors: Voice and Organization. According to R-square change,
an additional 2.8 % of the variance of Content is contributed by Organization. Part correlation
between Content and Organization after removing the effect of Voice from Organization is0.246. Observed significance level associated with the excluded variable, Cohesion, is 0.982,
which is too large to be accepted (p>.05). As a result, in the stepwise selection regression
analysis, the best regression equation might be one that contains two predictor variables:
Voice and Organization. However, since it was also debatable whether Organization andCohesion have impact on Content, two additional regression analyses were performed
between Content and Organization, and between Content and Cohesion respectively.
The tables of the results are not shown here due to space constraints. As a result of thetwo regression analyses, adjusted R-square showed only 40 % and 26 % for each equation,

13

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

suggesting that Organization and Cohesion are not significant for the entry of the regression
equations.
6.4 Path Analysis

The results clarify that Voice is the best predictor that can account for Content score,
yet there is still not a quite clear evidence as to whether Organization and Cohesion makea strong impact on Content. The vagueness is caused by the fact that Organization wasbarely selected as a predictor in the second multiple regression model; on the other hand,the correlation between Organization and Cohesion is considerably high. This researchis therefore needed, allowing for the rating scale constructions, to accurately verify
the relationships among Content, Organization, and Cohesion. In order to explain therelationships among the three components, a path analysis was performed. In the path model(Figure 1), the rectangles represent observed variables and the circles represent measurement
errors. The arrows and numbers indicate the degree of impact. The coefficients range from−1.00 to 1.00 in the standardized solution. As shown in Table 9, all the coefficients of theregression weights and correlations were significant, indicating that the path model fit thedata properly. The path model demonstrates that there are theoretical directions where theimpact of Cohesion on Organization (0.93) is stronger than that of Organization on Content(0.57).

Figure 1. Path Model.
E1

.19

E2

1

.28

1

.47
Cohesion.93

Organization.57

Content

Table 9. Fit Statistics for Model14x2(df)

GFI

AGFI

RMR

RMSEA

Model 1.029(1)

1.00

.998

.002

.000

Criteria

P > .05

> 0.9

> 0.9

< .05

< 0.1

Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features

7. Discussion

With the hypothesis in the current study, the research dealt with whether Content
score can be predicted by other RF components. This relationship was examined throughthe correlation analysis and the multiple regression analyses. The result showed that thecorrelations between Content and each of the RF components were moderately high,particularly high between Content and Voice (r = 0.769). This result implied that some RFcomponent scores might be good indicators of learners’ Content scores. It then followed themultiple regression analyses. Judging from the adjusted R-Square, about 60 % of Content
score can be explained by the regression models. Therefore, the hypothesis was supported.
A possible explanation for the observed outcomes may lie in the raters’ scoring procedures
and the traits that were rated. Such a fairly good fit to the regression model may be dueto the fact that Content was the final scale the raters scored and Content may have been
seen as the most important scale. The raters’ comments suggest that the raters took a wider,more overall view on Content than on other components. More precisely, both the raters
moved their attention from Organization or Cohesion to Content in ascending rank order ofimportance for each essay. Furthermore, raters’ interpretations of the scale descriptors musthave been a factor affecting the result. Rater B stated that the phrases such as “clear opinion”
and “development of idea” in the Content descriptor can slightly urge the raters to score theessays holistically. Thus, as Cohen (1994) points out, it is probable that Content has several
traits in common with other RF components.
Another suggested explanation for the result pertaining to the hypothesis may relate to thewashback effects of the essay writing test on instruction. That is, the instructional emphasis
underlying the author’s classroom teaching of EFL writing might be reflected in the way the
essay writing test would be scored. In the instructions, the learners were advised to start withtaking their position and establishing a clear opinion before writing. The next step was todevelop and fix the main idea in order to lead their readers through their organized thoughtson the topic. Basically, all these writing processes can be manifest in Content in analytic
rating. However, the processes also include some elements of Organization and Voice. Under
these writing instructions, which had been affected by the writing test evaluation, the learners
believed these writing processes were the best ways to gain good scores. The learners might
have been aware that Content is a part of a comprehensive guide to be rated.
As for the research question — “which of the RF components has unique contribution
to predicting the score of Content?” — it was found, through the standard entry and the15慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

stepwise regression models, that Voice is the most significant. Thus, it seems reasonable
to conclude that Voice is the best predictor in examining learners’ abilities in the area ofContent. An explanation for this finding may be that the definition of Voice overlaps with aconsiderable part of Content. For instance, the expression “a clear sense of writing to be read”
in Voice is closely related to the expression “ideas and opinions are clear” in Content. In thesame way, “effective message involved in the topic” in Voice is indissolubly connected with“relevant to topic” in Content. Moreover, “depending on audience and purpose” in Voice and“well-suited to audience and purpose” in Content are almost the same point of assessment.
With respect to other RF components, Organization turned out to make considerably
smaller contribution (2.8 %) to Content in the stepwise regression model 2. The additional
regression analyses showed that Organization and Cohesion were not significant for the entryof the equations. It reveals that Organization and Cohesion provide only a little predictability
that can account for Content score. Furthermore, the path analysis demonstrates that there
is a stronger relationship between Organization and Cohesion than between Content andOrganization. The interpretation of the finding is that the data from the regression models andthe path model did not actually indicate a significant causal relationship between Content
and Organization. In other words, it appears that Content ability is not substantially reflectedin Organization scores. Although interpretations may be divergent, it is worth pointing out thefact that Organization and Cohesion were highly correlated with each other. As can be seenin Table 4, when Cohesion was entered into the regression model, Organization was not asignificant variable. This occurred because these two components are too intimately related,
as indicated in the multi-collinearity index (26.502 > 15.0). The Variance Inflation Factor
value (VIF) also indicated that multi-collinearity would be a concern for Organization andCohesion. This is not a surprising result because the raters must have scored Organization
partly by checking transition words and because the instructions encouraged the learners
to use many transition words to indicate their organized thoughts. Therefore, it seems
reasonable to suppose that we should emphasize in the discussion the strong relationshipbetween Organization and Cohesion rather than the distant relationship between Content
and Organization.
The above issues concerning the relationships among RF components lead to several
implications for developing analytic rating scales. Two suggestions for analytic scaleconstruction emerge from the findings.
In the first place, RF components should be divided into two categories: “Content” and16Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features“Organization.” Content would be scored including Voice, and Organization would be scoredincluding Cohesion. In this sense, ESL Composition Profile may have been providing thebest possible set of indicators that can be used to assign scales to essay writing assessment.
Concerning the descriptors in the components, it is suggested that a keyword of Voice, suchas “well-suited to audience” should be added in the descriptor in Content. Moreover, “ideas
clearly stated” in Organization should be written in the Content category. (See Appendix A).
Second, it also seems to be the case that we interpret the relationship between Content andOrganization as a remote but slight connection. In this case, another suggestion is that the RFcomponents should be combined as one scale: “Content and Organization.” This suggestion iscompatible with the analytic rating construction used in the research conducted by Schoonen(2005). He defines this component as “the propositional content of the text, as well as theordering and coherence of the propositions and their illocution” (p. 9). This definition is
totally general and broad, but it is reasonable to provide this definition as a RF componentof scoring scales because the definition contains all the keywords to express the elements ofContent, Organization, Cohesion, and Voice.
8. Conclusion

The present study showed that Content could be predicted by other RF components. Morespecifically, it was found that there was a strong relationship between Content and Voice, andlittle relationship between Content and Organization. However, an additional finding, which
was not the original purpose of the study, revealed that Organization and Cohesion werehighly correlated. Conjunctive links between Organization and Cohesion are also pointed out
by Cohen (1994) and Lumley (2002). These empirical and theoretical studies imply that RFcomponents should be divided into two categories: “Content” and “Organization.”
We might not have established requirements for characterizing analytic rating that yields
invariant scales producing consistent writing evaluation. Indeed, “decisions on whichfeatures of the texts are to be scored should be determined by the construct one wants toassess” (Schoonen, 2005, p. 18). However, in part, the traits are intertwined, dependent on
one another regarding rhetorical features. When the composite score of each analytic scalereflects on learners’ grades, the scales should be appropriately constructed and grouped.
Especially within the classroom context, in most cases, one instructor is usually in charge ofthe rating and tends to grade learners on the basis of the sum total of the analytic scoring.
Therefore, construct validity should be carefully considered when designing the elements of17

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

essay writing assessment. In other words, the role of the appropriately grouped components
and their descriptors would make the accurate and more efficient assessment.
Finally, it should be noted that there are at least two limitations in the present study. A
major limitation is that only two raters were used to score the 74 essays. Bachmen (1995) andCarlsen (2003) suggest that inter-rater reliability can be improved by having more than two
raters. Performance could be evaluated with more reliability when essays are scored by greaternumber of raters. Indeed, more research is needed to qualitatively examine the difference inraters’ interpretations of scoring descriptors.
Another limitation is that Coherence in analytic rating scales was excluded from theanalyses. In the present study, rater B gave higher marks in Coherence than rater A. Thisimplies that rater B had a biased view between Coherence and other components, whilerater A tended to draw a clear distinction between them. It may be assumed that Coherence
bears some relevance to Content or Organization ability, as Rogers (2004) points out that“forming consistent topic strings within paragraphs contributes to the overall coherence of
discourse”(p. 144). If Coherence had been included in the independent variables in thepresent study, the results of the analyses might have been different. It may be necessary touse other statistical devices, such as the structural equation modeling (SEM), in order toexamine the interrelationships of RF component skills more accurately.

Acknowledgements
An earlier version of this paper was presented by the author at the 12th Japan Language Testing
Association Annual Conference on September 14, 2008, at Tokiwa University. I would like to express mygratitude to Dax Thomas at Keio High School for proofreading and valuable comments. I am also thankful
to John Pulasky at Tokyo Woman’s Christian University for helping this research.

18

Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features

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Construct Validity of Analytic Rating Scales Used in EFL Essay Writing Assessment:
Reconsidering Components in Rhetorical Features

Appendix A
ESL Composition Profile Descriptors of the rhetorical feature traits (Jacobs, et al., 1981)
Content				 30-27 EXCELLENT TO VERY GOOD
											knowledgeable, substantive, thorough development of thesis, relevant to assigned
topic								 26-22 GOOD TO AVERAGE
											some knowledgeable of subject, adequate range, limited development of thesis,
mostly relevant to assigned topic, but lacks details								 21-17 FAIR TO POOR											Limited knowledgeable of subject, little substance, inadequate development of
topic								 16-13 VERY POOR											Does not show knowledge of subject, non-substantive, not pertinent, not enoughto evaluate
Organization		 20-18 EXCELLENT TO VERY GOOD
											fluent expression, ideas clearly stated / supported, succinct, well-organized,
logical sequencing, cohesive								 26-22 GOOD TO AVERAGE
											somewhat choppy, loosely organized but main ideas stand out, limited support,
logical but incomplete sequencing								 21-17 FAIR TO POOR											Non-fluent, ideas confused or disconnected, lacks logical sequencing anddevelopment								 16-13 VERY POOR											 Does not communicate, no organization, not enough to evaluate
Vocabulary			 20-7 point
Language Use 25-5 point
Mechanics			 5-2 point21

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Appendix B
Revised Version of AIMS Analytic Writing Scoring Scale Descriptors of the Rhetorical Feature Traits
Content:				Ideas and Opinions are clear, complete and well-developed; writing is relevant to the
topic. One clear focus should be apparent but development and details should bethorough, balanced, and well-suited to the audience and purpose.
								 Excellent(5)Good(4)Moderate(3)Unsatisfactory(2)Very Poor(1)Organization:		A well-thought out order of ideas is apparent. The structure suits the topic with aplanned opening and closing, and supporting details that enrich the theme.
								 Excellent(5)Good(4)Moderate(3)Unsatisfactory(2)Very Poor(1)Cohesion:			 Transitions that tie the details together. Paragraphs are logically connected.
								 Excellent(5)Good(4)Moderate(3)Unsatisfactory(2)Very Poor(1)Coherence:			 It makes a series of sentences a connected set and linking all the meaning.
								 Excellent(5)Good(4)Moderate(3)Unsatisfactory(2)Very Poor(1)Voice:					A clear sense of writing to be read, individual way of writing, and effective message
involved in the topic. It should be appropriately written depending on the audience andpurpose.
								 Excellent(5)22Good(4)Moderate(3)Unsatisfactory(2)Very Poor(1)“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean“ I am telling you! This is what I mean! ”:
Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japaneseand its functional equivalents in KoreanAngela A-Jeoung Kim
Abstract
A widely recognised characteristic of spoken Japanese is its frequent use of final-particles,
and among them yo is one of the most commonly used items. This study investigates thedifferences and similarities between Japanese and Korean, with particular reference to the‘assertiveness’ conveyed by the Japanese particle yo and its Korean equivalents. As is generally

recognised, Japanese and Korean share similarities in grammar. However, with respect to theuse of yo, which does not contribute to the propositional content of the utterance, there is
no absolute one-to-one equivalent in Korean. The assertive function served by yo is realisedin Korean by various suffixes. More specifically, with regard to the assertive function of yo,
as a result of the speaker’s assessment of the addressee’s knowledge, this study will showthat yo is used in a wider range of contexts than the corresponding Korean equivalents suchas -e, -maliya, -ko, and -nikka. The analysis focuses on these Korean suffixes as markers
that function in a pragmatically similar way to the way yo does in Japanese. I will argue thatwhat determines the use of the different suffixes in Korean, in the same context where yo isused in Japanese, is the degree of assertiveness conveyed within the organisation of disputein discourse. The data used in this study comprises 522 Japanese expressions containing yo.
They were collected from dialogues in the first 100 pages of four modern Japanese novels.
The Korean is taken from the translations of those novels.
1. Introduction

Spoken Japanese is widely recognised as frequently employing final-particles, among which

yo is one of the most frequently used. According to Makino and Tsutsui (1989: 543, emphasis
added) yo “indicates the speaker’s (fairly) strong conviction or assertion about something that23

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

is assumed to be known only to [her/]him”. Makino and Tsutsui (1989: 543), accordingly list
the English equivalents of yo as “I tell you, I’m telling you, you know, contrary to what you
think”. The examples Makino and Tsutsui (1989) present are adapted below in (1) and (2).
The English translations are as given in the original.
(1)

A: nihongo		 wa		 omoshiroi		 desu				 ka.
Japanese TOP interesting

COP.POLQUE“Is Japanese interesting?”

B: ee, totemo omoshiroi		 desu yo.
yes veryinterestingBEyo“Yes very interesting, I tell you”

(2)

(Makino and Tsutsui 1989: 543-544)

A: ano		 hito			 wa		 sonna		 hon		 o			 kawanai		 deshoo.
that

person TOP suchbook OBJ buy.NEG CJR“He probably won’t buy that sort of book”

B: iie, kaimasu		 yo.
no buy.POL yo“Yes, he’ll buy it (contrary to what you think)”(Makino and Tsutsui 1989: 544)

As such, yo is used when the speaker wants to assert their view in a verbal interaction. With
particular reference to the ‘assertiveness’ conveyed by the Japanese particle yo, the current
study investigates the differences and similarities between Japanese and Korean, by examining
the Japanese particle yo and its Korean equivalents.
As is generally recognised, Japanese and Korean are known to be typologically similar(Strauss 2002) and also known to share structural similarities in morphosyntax and lexicon(Horie 2002). However, with respect to the use of particles such as yo, which does notcontribute to the propositional content of the utterance (Watanabe 1953; Saji 1956), there is
not an absolute one-to-one equivalent in Korean1). In this paper I will attempt to show thatthe assertive function served by yo is realised in Korean by various suffixes, and that what
determines the use of different suffixes is the degree of assertiveness conveyed within theorganisation of dispute in discourse.

24

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean

The analysis will focus on the two interrelated functions of yo. They are (a) yo as a device
for indicating the ‘information state’, and (b) yo as a device for imparting assertiveness. I
use the term ‘information state’ in a broad sense in this paper. Instead of merely referring to
the amount of knowledge the interlocutors have (Schiffrin 1987: 28), I use this term also toinclude the speaker’s assessment of the addressee’s knowledge (Kamio 1994, 1997a, 1997b).
More specifically, I employ the term to refer to the result of the speaker’s judgement: that
there is a ‘knowledge gap’ (Cheng 1987) between the interlocutors.
Takubo (1990 cited in Masuoka 1991) observes that within a conversational discourse
the speaker evaluates the addressee’s degree of knowledge about a particular subject, andaccordingly chooses an appropriate linguistic expression. In spoken Japanese, yo is one of thelinguistic items most frequently used to indicate a particular information state.
This study is organised as follows: I begin with a review of the functions of yo in theliterature, and specify the data and method adopted for this study. I then move on to examplesof the Korean equivalents of yo. I will discuss the Korean suffixes, -e, -maliya, -ko, and -nikka
in that order. That presentation will be followed by a discussion, and then concluding remarks.
2. Functions of ʻyoʼ

In previous studies, the characteristics of yo have been claimed to indicate the knowledge
state, that the speaker has more knowledge than the addressee (Uyeno 1972; Ohso 1986;
Masuoka 1991; Masuoka and Takubo 1992; Kinsui 1993; Maynard 1993, 1997, 2001; Kamio
1994, 1997a, 1997b; Fukushima 1998), and as imparting an assertive nuance (Uyeno 1972;
Mizutani 1984; Martin 1987; Nakano 1991; Saji 1991; Backhouse 1993). Martin (1987: 919)
provides some English translations for yo as being along the lines of ‘I want you to know’,‘Believe (you) me…’, ‘I tell you’, ‘I’d say’, and ‘Let me tell you’. Morita (2002: 228) states that“the use of the final particle yo does not invite negotiation and by so doing advances a stanceof ‘strong authority’ towards one’s interlocutor”. The analysis of Cheng (1987: 96) seems to
subsume the above claims, as she notes that yo is used when the speaker assumes that he/
she has a higher degree of knowledge about an issue, and also when the speaker thinks thatthe addressee needs to know more about the issue. Cheng (1987) goes on to say that theassertive nuance of yo is derived from the addressee’s perception. That is, when the addressee
feels that the information or knowledge marked by yo is ‘unnecessary’ for him/her then theutterance marked by yo would be perceived as assertive. My analysis in this paper is anelaboration of Cheng’s (1987) claim, incorporating the two aspects of yo, i.e. indication of a25慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

knowledge/information state, and the imparting of assertiveness. In particular I examine casesof ‘disputable events’ (Labov and Fanshel 1977: 62, italics in the original) where “the speakeracts in a way that shows he[/she] is aware that someone [the interlocutor] might disagreewith him[/her]. [And,] The most characteristic way of presenting such information is toassert it”. I will show that the assertive nuance, which often accompanies yo, is a result of thecharacteristics of yo that indicates the difference in knowledge between the speaker and theaddressee. I will also demonstrate that the different suffixes that are used in Korean to serve
the function of yo indicate different degrees of assertiveness vis. -e, -maliya, -ko, and -nikka.
3. Methods and data

As I regard the assertiveness of yo as a part of the result of the speaker’s assessment of therespective levels of knowledge and the information state, I have categorised the data according
to the types of utterances in Lyons’s sense (1977: 745). These types include: ‘statements’,‘mands’ 2), and ‘questions’. In this paper, however, I will only deal with the category ‘statements’.
The reason I have excluded ‘mands’ and ‘questions’ is that aside from the function of yo underconsideration in this paper, there is another function of yo recognised as mitigative (Uyeno
1972; Masuoka 1991). The mitigative function of yo is specifically realised in the categoryof ‘mands’ which includes requests and commands and therefore, that category is irrelevant
here3). Moreover, although instances can be found in the data where yo appears in ‘question
type’ utterances, I have categorised them as statements since the presence of yo in those cases
turns the utterances into something other than mere questions. I will explain this point indetail with example (3).
For this study, 612 Japanese expressions containing yo were initially collected from dialogues
in the first 100 pages of four modern novels4). Ninety of those expressions were in the ‘mands’
category and have been excluded for the aforementioned reasons. Therefore, the analysis isbased on the remaining 522 utterances. To examine the Korean equivalents of yo I have used
Korean translations of these novels as they provide an identical context. The translated Korean
versions of the Japanese novels are used as data in order to examine the Korean equivalentsof yo. This genre was chosen as data because yo is often found in spoken expressions that
contain emotions, and specifically, as mentioned above, the speaker’s assertiveness. Novels
provide not only dialogue between the characters of the story, but also descriptions of theemotional states, or internal thoughts, of the characters involved in the verbal interactions.
In addition, those descriptions often include depictions of verbal interaction, and the26

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Koreancorresponding situational information and its development, phenomena which in turn aid thereader in identifying the speaker’s use of yo in the course of the interaction5).
The use of yo is basically determined by context and discourse. Although expressions or
strategies adopted for the translated Korean version may differ slightly from the original
work, both works generally share the identical settings, situations and context. It therefore
reasonable to assume that the translated Korean versions provide the equivalent context anddiscourse as conveyed in the original Japanese novels. It is thus deemed that yo in a particular
context shares the same function as the translated Korean version, and in this regard, they (i.e.

yo in a particular context and its Korean counterpart) can be regarded as equivalents.
4. Korean Equivalents of ʻYoʼIn the following analysis I will first present a table showing the concordance between

yo and the different Korean equivalents. I will then discuss -e, the most commonly foundequivalent Korean suffix, with specific reference to the data. The study then moves on to do
the same for other Korean equivalents of the assertive uses of yo: Here I provide examples of-maliya, and then two other suffixes that express stronger assertiveness, -ko and -nikka6). The
result of the Korean realisation from the data is shown in the table below.
(Table) Realisation of yo in Korean
Realisation-e/a/(i)ya7) (/maliya)-ci-kwu/ko8)-nikkaZero-tey-ketun-kwun-kel-ta (level)-key/kkey-p nita-ney-ci, mwe-ni-ciman
-tela
-kin
-Tag
-sey
-ney (level)-lani-cwuma (level)-se-ta (monologue)
Total

Frequency
314 (17)
55
24
18
16
15
11
10
10
9
8
7
6
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
522

Percentage
60.15 (5.42)
10.54
4.60
3.45
3.07
2.87
2.11
1.92
1.92
1.72
1.53
1.34
1.15
0.57
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.38
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.19
100

27

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

The overall results show an overwhelmingly high percentage of -e (60.15% within which-maliya (-mali + ya) is included. Details of -maliya will be given shortly in 4.1.1.) as thecorresponding Korean expression for yo in Japanese. The dominance of -e is made even more
accentuated by the second most frequently realised suffix -ci, which occurred in only 10.54
percent (1/6 of the frequency for -e). The suffix -e is generally referred to as an infinitive
suffix of a medium politeness level that can be used to manifest the declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and propositive moods in Korean (K. Lee 1987, 1993; H. B. Lee 1989; K. Kim
1993, 1995; H. Sohn 1994; Chang 1996). In what follows I will discuss the assertivenessconveyed by -e and -maliya in their occurrence as equivalents of yo.
4.1 Korean Equivalents of Japanese ʻyoʼ: ʻ-eʼ and ʻ-maliyaʼ
4.1.1 Assertive Function of ʻ-eʼ

The suffix -e has not received a great deal of attention, and is usually only presented as an‘infinitive form’. The exceptions are K. Lee (1993, 1987), and H. S. Lee (1993) who both
point out the assertive nature of the suffix. According to K. Lee (1993:12) -e is “used when
the speaker thinks that there is some resistance on the part of the addressee toward what the
speaker is saying, and the speaker feels it necessary to emphasize what he[/she] is saying”. H.
S. Lee (1993: 141) further explored the informative nature of -e and stated that “imparting apiece of information is communicatively proper only when the information conveyed is a partof the speaker’s knowledge and the speaker assumes that the addressee is not aware of it”. The
informative function of -e as H. S. Lee (1993) has observed, and also the assertive function
claimed by K. Lee (1993) and H. S. Lee (1993) seem to account for the high frequency of thesuffix being used as an equivalent of the particle yo.
Although both studies offer insightful analyses of -e , there is another point closely
associated with the assertive function of -e, which involves the form -maliya9). As mentioned,
the suffix -e renders assertiveness. However, in those cases where the speaker feels the needto project further assertion due to a challenge by or disagreement from the listener to theutterance, -maliya, as an elaborated expression of -e, tends to be used rather than -e by itself
in the same manner10). -maliya is a form derived from the expression -mal + ita: noun [‘talk’] +copula (Payk 2006: 296) which embodies meanings such as “(I) mean…” or “I tell you” (Lukoff
1982; Ihm et al. 2001). The expression -malita is also reported as expressing emphasis (Lukoff
1982; Yonsei Tayhakkyo Hankwukehaktang 1997; Ihm et al. 2001). In contrast, yo can beused in both primary assertion, as well as in further assertion. This is substantiated by the28

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean

examples from the data that I will present below. Let us first examine example (3) which isdrawn from the novel Beautiful Life. This example will show that -e is used as an equivalentof yo in the first instance, but when the speaker is further asserting their opinion with specificdetails (paralleling the second use of yo by the same speaker) -maliya is used instead of -e toexpress what is conveyed by yo in Japanese.
Up until this point in the novel, love has been in the air between Shuji and Kyoko, who ispermanently in a wheelchair due to an illness. Sachi, who is Kyoko’s close friend, knows about
the potential relationship between Shuji and Kyoko. Sachi is frustrated that there has notbeen any development in their relationship, so she tries to encourage Kyoko to do something
about it. Kyoko, on the other hand, has told Sachi that she had decided not to fall in love withanyone. Her reasons are that she does not want to cause the other person in the relationshipto suffer the inconvenience of her being in a wheelchair, and also that she is used to resolving
such feelings within herself. Kyoko has asked Sachi to stop teasing her about Shuji when heis around since she does not want to get hurt11).
(3) (3.1) (J-life: 51)a.			 Sachi:		 Kizutsuku		 kana?
							 be hurt			 I wonderb.			 Kyoko: E?
							 whatc.			 Sachi:		 Wakannai					 jan,		 sore		 wa.		 Kizutsuku		 kadooka							 understand.NEG		 COP that		 TOP be hurt			 whether or not							 wakannai					 jan.
							 understand.NEG		 COPd.  Kyoko: Nani mukininatten		 no yo.
							 what serious.become		 FP yo

29慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

e.  Sachi:		 Dakara					 watashi wa		 kyoko		 ga		 sooyatte		 nannimo suru							 what I mean is		 I				 TOP Kyoko		 SUB as such		 anything		 do							 mae			 kara		 kokoro ni			 futashichau no			 yananda			 yo.
							 before		 from heart		 LOC lid.do.AUX		 NOM		 hate.COP		 yo							 (Sachi’s eyes are starting to fill with tears)
f.			 Sachi:		 Sonna		 koto		 ittetara,			 isshoo,					 koidekinai				 jan.
							 such		 thing say.COND		 one’s lifetime		 love.POT.NEG		 COP							 isshoo					 sukina		 hito			 dekinai				 jan.
							 one’s lifetime		 like			 person do.POT.NEG COP
g.			 Kyoko: Sachi……
							 Sachih.  Sachi:		 Kyoko		 wa		 kireidashi,					 kawaiishi, chotto		 kawatterukedo							 Kyoko		 TOP beautiful.COP.CN cute.CN		 little		 being different.CN							 omoshiroishi,			 watashi,		 kyoko		 no		 koto		 jimandashi.			 Sore							 interesting.CN		 I					 Kyoko		 LK		 thing pride.COP.CN		 that							 nanoni				 itsumo kooiu					 koto			 ni naru to					 sa.
							 even though		 always		 such as this		 thing		 to.become.COND FP							 Hikutsu			 ni nacchau			 kyoko		 ga		 iyananda		 yo.
							 pessimistic		 to.become.AUX Kyoko		 SUB hate.COP		 yo(3.2) (K-life: 42)a.			 Sachi:		 Sangche		 patul		 kka?
							 wound		 receive QUE

30

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Koreanb.			 Kyoko: Ung?
							 whatc.			 Sachi:		 Alswu				 eps		 canha,kuke n.		

							 know.NOM NEG COP.ES that

Sangche patul		 ci, ettel ci

TOP wound		 receive whether or not							 alswu				 eps		 nun		 ke			 canha!
							 know.NOM NEG TOP NOM		 COP.ESd.  Kyoko: Eccayse		 kulehkey cengsaykhamye			 malhay?
							 why				 as such		 in serious manner talk.ee.  Sachi:		 Kulenikka,			 na nun		 kyoko		 ga		 kulenshikulo,			 mwusun							 what I mean is		 I		 TOP Kyoko		 SUB such manner.with some							 il			 haki				 to			 ceney,		 maum		 uy mwun		 ul			 mili							 thing do.NOM even before		 heart		 LK door		 OBJ		 beforehand							 tatapelinun ke			 silhe.
							 close.AUX		 NOM		 hate.e							 (Sachi’s eyes are starting to fill with tears)
f.			 Sachi:		 Kulehkey malhamyen, phyengsayng		 salang		 kathun ke		 hal swu							 as such		 say.COND		 one’s lifetime		 love			 such as NOM do NOM							 eps		 canha.		 Phyengsayng		 cohahanun salam		 to							 NEG COP.ES		 one’s lifetime		 be loved			 person also							 sayngkilswu		 eps		 canha.
							 happen.NOM NEG COP.ES

31

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

g.			 Kyoko: Sachi…
							 Sachih.  Sachi:		 Kyoko		 nun		 yeppuko, kwiyepko, com		 pyelnakin							 Kyoko		 TOP pretty.CN cute.CN		 little different.NOM.CN							 hay to												 docaymiissko,			 nan		

kyoko ka		 calangsulewuntey,

even though interesting.CN I.TOP Kyoko SUB be proud of.CN							 hangsang ilen					 il			 sayngkimyen… pikwul			 hakeytoykomanun							 always			 such as this thing happen.COND pessimistic become.CN.AUX
							 kyoko		 ka		 siltan			 maliya.
							 Kyoko		 SUB hate.CN		 maliyaa.			 Sachi:		 ‘……I wonder if you’d get hurt’b.			 Kyoko: ‘What?’c.			 Sachi:		 ‘You don’t know that. You don’t know whether you’d get hurt or not’d.  Kyoko: ‘What are you being so serious about?’ yo (-e)
e.  Sachi:		 ‘What I mean is……I hate the way you just try to avoid such things							 even before anything happens’ yo (-e)
f.			 Sachi:		 ‘If you say such a thing, then you cannot fall in love for the rest of your							 life, you cannot love anyone for the rest of your life’g.			 Kyoko: ‘Sachi…’
h.  Sachi:		 ‘You are beautiful and cute. Although you are a little odd at times, you							 are interesting and I am proud of you. Despite all that, every time							 something like this happens, you become so pessimistic, and I really							 hate that’ yo (-maliya)
In lines (a) and (c) Kyoko is challenged by Sachi over her refusal to try to love anyone. Kyoko’s
utterance in (d) is marked by yo in Japanese and -e in Korean. As Kyoko was challenged inlines (a) and (c), it is natural that she has noticed the difference between her and Sachi’s32

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean

perceptions. Kyoko’s use of yo at the end of the utterance in line (d) demonstrates such a
difference in their perceptions. Without yo in its present position, the utterance would havesounded as if Kyoko were merely asking a question: nani mukini natten no ‘why are you being
so serious?’ which would have not delivered the nuance it does with yo attached12).
The presence of yo in line (d) shows that this is not merely a neutral question, but thatit implies some pragmatic meaning. The underlying pragmatic meaning here is Kyoko’s
evaluation of Sachi’s unexpected reaction. Kyoko has understood that Sachi is being serious
about the issue. However, instead of simply asking why Sachi is being so serious, Kyoko
challenges Sachi, indicating her (Kyoko’s) own judgement that there is nothing to be serious
about, and that Sachi’s serious tone is unexpected or inappropriate. In line (d) therefore, we
can say that Kyoko is asserting her view toward Sachi. The English meaning of this utterance
would be close to ‘what are you going on about?’ It also seems to be the case that theutterance marked with yo has triggered a counter assertion by Sachi in the following lines (e)and (h).
In line (e), Sachi tries to explain and justify why she is so serious about the issue. Given
that she was challenged by Kyoko about being serious, her utterance may also be interpreted
as a counter assertion. Although it does not appear to be the case that Kyoko is trying tochallenge Sachi in (g), Sachi goes on to explain and justify why she acted in the way she did.
Once again, it is her own feelings that are in question, and therefore she is in the dominantposition with respect to the information marked by yo. Also, this yo-marked utterance contains
more specific and detailed explanations of Sachi’s justification, which in turn, gives a possible
interpretation such as ‘I am telling you this is what I mean’.
In lines (d) and (e), the utterances by Kyoko and Sachi respectively, the suffix -e is usedin Korean. The reason for this is that in both cases the difference in knowledge has led to yo
being used as a challenge and in an assertive manner. However, in line (h) where yo is used by
Sachi, to mark a stronger and elaborated counter assertion, one that provides more detailed
account than her initial assertion, the Korean equivalent of yo is realised as -maliya instead of-e. This shows that -e is not the only equivalent of yo and that -maliya is used in the second
use of yo by the same speaker to provide further assertion. With respect to its status as anequivalent of yo, I now turn to discuss the assertive function of -maliya in comparison to -e.

33慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

4.1.2 Assertive Function of ʻ-maliyaʼ

In the data, 5.42 percent of the translations of yo were the suffix -e in its elaborated form,-maliya. All of those examples are found in a similar context to that of example (3) above. In
other words, -maliya is used for a stronger assertion than the primary assertion marked with-e. Recall that a stronger assertion refers to an instance in which yo is used a second time by
the same speaker. The example below, taken from the novel Norwegian Wood, shows anothercase of -maliya being used in such a context (i.e. as a further assertion after the -e-marked
initial assertion). The protagonist of the novel, Watanabe, shares a dormitory room withanother student. A few days after they have started to share the room, Watanabe decides totalk to him about a problem. The problem is the roommate’s daily routine of radio callisthenics
at 6.30 a.m. Watanabe had tried to talk him into doing the callisthenics somewhere else, but
he refused. Left with no other choices, Watanabe is trying to make a compromise, that he (theroommate) may do his callisthenics in the room as long as he leaves the ‘jumping’ part out.
(4) (4.1) (J-wood: 33)
a.				 Roommate: Cho, chooyaku?		 chooyaku tte		 nan		 dai,				 sore?
										 juh		 jumping			 jumping		 QT		 what COP.FP		 thatb1. 		 Watanabe:		 Chooyaku		 to			 ieba					 chooyaku da		 yo.
										 jumping			 QT		 say.COND		 jumping		 COP yob2.									 Pyonpyon				 tobu yatsu da		 yo.
										 bouncing noise		 jump thing COP yo(4.2) (K-wood: 36)a.				 Roommate: To, toyak			 ila		 ni?		 Kukey		 mwe ni?
										 juh jumping		 QT		 QUE that			 what QUE
b1. 		 Watanabe:		 Toyak			 i			 ttwinun			 ke			 ci		 mwe ya.
										 jumping		 SUB jumping.LK NOM		 LK what e

34

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean

b2.									 Ku		 khwungkhwung ttwinun		 kes			 malya.
										 that		 bouncing noise		 jump.LK		 NOM		 mal(i)yaa.				 Roommate: ‘Juh, jumping? What’s that?’b1. 		 Watanabe:		 ‘Jumping is jumping yo(-e) the thing you do,b2.									 bouncing up and down yo (maliya)’
In line (a), the roommate appears not to know what Watanabe is talking about. Watanabe,
therefore explains what he meant in line (b). He used yo in both utterances, indicating thedifference in their knowledge (i.e. I am telling you). In the first utterance he says ‘jumping
is jumping’, but then realising that it might not have helped the roommate understand what
it really is, he explains it in more detail in the second utterance of the line. Notice that in
Korean, -e was used in the first utterance and -mal(i)ya in the next. This -mal(i)ya is used ina similar way as it was in the example (3) mentioned above; it provides the stronger meaningof ‘I am telling you this is what I mean’, marking the utterance with more specific details to
support and reinforce the initial assertion. I will now consider two other suffixes, -ko and-nikka, which are also used to render stronger assertiveness than -e.
4.2 Korean Equivalents of Japanese ʻyoʼ: ʻ-koʼ and ʻ-nikkaʼ

Along with the expression -maliya, the suffixes -ko and -nikka are also used in instances ofa counter assertion or a stronger assertion in Korean. Both -ko and -nikka, which have been
observed as devices to express ‘pursuing agreement’ (K. H. Kim and Suh 1994) and asserting
the speaker’s own opinion (S. Sohn 1996), occurred in 4.60 percent and 3.45 percent
respectively of examples in the data. The following examples demonstrate that in the casesof yo where there is a stronger assertion or a challenge, in Korean -ko and -nikka are usedinstead of -e. Consider the following example of -ko used in such a context of the novel ‘N.P.’
4.2.1 Assertive Function of ʻ-koʼThis is Sui and Kazami’s first encounter in the novel. Sui, who wants Kazami to go for adrive with her, has shown Kazami her (Sui’s) driver’s license to make Kazami believe that she(Sui) can drive. Kazami, however, is not sure whether she should trust Sui’s driving skills andalso is not very interested in the idea. She has been hesitating when she sees a big dent on
Sui’s car.

35

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号(5) (5.1) (J-NP: 68)
a.  Kazami: Nani yo, ano		 hidoi		 hekomi wa.
							 what yo that		 terrible dent		 TOP			b.  Sui:			 Mukashi,				 butsuketa no yo. Saikin		 janai				 wa yo.
							 a long time ago		 hit.PAST FP yo recent		 COP.NEG		 FP yo(5.2) (K-NP: 68)
a.  Kazami: Ceken				 mwe ya. Wumphwuk		 tuleka		 isscanhayo.
							 that.TOP		 what e		 deeply					 go in		 be.COP.ES.POL
b.  Sui:			 Eysnaley							 pakun keya.		

Yocum il			 i			 anila			ko.

							 a long time ago.TEMP hit.LK NOM.e recent thing SUB		 NEG.COP koa.			 Kazami: ‘What is that terrible dent yo(-e)?’b.  Sui:			 ‘I hit something ages ago yo(-e), it’s not a recent thing yo(-ko)’Kazami declines Sui’s proposal to go for a drive, and is also doubtful of Sui’s driving skill. She
uses yo in her utterance in line (a) to assert her opinion, that is, ‘if you can really drive, how
do you explain that dent?’ Sui does not give ground, and challenges Kazami strongly in line(b), also marking her utterance with yo. This usage of yo is similar to the yo used in previous
examples (3h) and (4b2). Sui in the second utterance tries to provide a stronger reason for
Kazami to act/think in the way that Sui wants her to, in this case trusting her driving skill
and going for a drive with her. In lines (a) and (b) both speakers expect a challenge from theinterlocutor as it is clear to them their knowledge/information does not coincide. In Korean-e was used in Kazami’s utterance, and Sui’s first utterance. However, Sui’s second utterance
in line (b) has been marked with -ko as she is providing additional information to support her
counter assertion towards Kazami’s assertion. I now move on to the example of -nikka to marka stronger assertion in Korean as a counterpart of yo in Japanese.

36

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean

4.2.2 Assertive Function of ʻ-nikkaʼ

The dialogues below are drawn from the novel Coin Locker Babies. In this segment, Hashi,
a thirteen year-old boy, has been hypnotised by Kanae. When asked by Kanae where andhow he was, Hashi told her that he was in Hawaii and that it was very hot. After a few morequestions, Kanae suggests to Hashi to go back to the time when he was a newborn baby, andasks him how it feels.
(6) (6.1) (J-coin: 49-50)
a.			 Hashi:		 Atsui.
							 hotb.  Kanae: E?		 Moo		 hawai		 kara		 wa		 kaetta					 no yo,							 what already Hawaii from TOP return.PAST		 FP yo							 ima, doko		 ni			 iru no?
							 now		 where		 LOC be FPc.			 Hashi:		 Atsukutte		 shini soo da.
							 hot.because die.as if		COPd.  Kanae: Hashi		 kun, moo			 hawai		 kara		 wa		 modottekita				 no yo.
							 Hashi		 title		 already Hawaii from TOP return.AUX.PAST FP yo(6.2) (K-coin: 60)
a.			 Hashi:		 Tewe.
							 Hotb.  Kanae: Un?		 Hawai		 ese		 nun		 pelsse		 tolawasscanh				 a.
							 what Hawaii from TOP already return.PAST.COP e

37

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

							 Cikum eti			 ey			 issci?
							 now			 where		 LOC be.ESc.			 Hashi:		 Tewese			

cwukul		 kes			 katha.

							 hot.because

die				 NOM		 as if.ES

d.  Kanae: Hashi		 kwun,		 hawai		 eyse		 nun		 pelsse		 tolawassta		

nikka.

							 Hashi		 title			 Hawaii from TOP already return.PAST nikkaa.			 Hashi:		 ‘It’s hot’b.  Kanae: ‘What? (I said) you are already back from Hawaii yo(-e), now							 where are you?’c.			 Hashi:		 ‘It’s so hot that it is killing me’
d.  Kanae: ‘Hashi, (I SAID) you are already back from Hawaii yo(-nikka)’
Kanae, who does not know about Hashi’s experience as a newborn baby, that he had beenabandoned inside a coin operated locker, thinks that Hashi is still talking about being hot in
Hawaii as indicated in line (d), ‘(I’m telling you), you are back from Hawaii, (and this is what
I mean)’. Therefore, Kanae perceives Hashi’s utterance in line (a) as a mistake, and entreats
him to go back to his babyhood in his hypnotic state. Due to the unexpected response from
Hashi in line (c), Kanae, once again, strongly tells him that he is supposed to have left Hawaii.
In both of Kanae’s utterances in lines (b) and (d), she uses yo to impart forceful nuance,
and in Korean -e (a) and -nikka are used respectively. This function of stronger assertion,
conveyed with -nikka, is similar to -maliya as shown earlier with the examples (3) and (4) inthat it marks further/stronger assertion than -e, while in Japanese in both cases yo is used.
5. Discussion of the Findings

There are two important points to discuss regarding the findings of this study. Firstly, I
agree with the claim that -e has an assertive function. The fact that -e occurred more thanother suffixes as the equivalent of yo in Japanese is partly due to the assertive function of -e.
However, as I have attempted to show in this paper, it is not only the assertive function of-e which has contributed to such a high percentage of instances of the suffix.; it is also due

38

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean

to one of the interrelated characteristics of -e, namely that -e can also be used as a device
to indicate the ‘information state’. This claim may be supported by the informative functionof -e (H. S. Lee, 1993) noted earlier, that is, it is only logically possible to inform someone
when the speaker assumes or knows that they possess more knowledge/information than
the addressee. -e, therefore, not only has the function of assertion, but also of indicating
the information state, that there is a ‘knowledge gap’ between the interlocutors and that the
speaker has more knowledge than the addressee.
The other noteworthy point regarding the Korean suffixes -maliya, -ko, -nikka, and -ethat I have examined in this paper is that although all of them were found to serve thesame function of yo, that is assertion as a result of difference in knowledge between theinterlocutors, they can be distinguished through their degrees of assertiveness. Indeed, had-e and the other three suffixes been exchanged within the same context of the examples
presented above, the assertive force of the utterance would not have been the same, andwould have sounded unnatural. Even with the three suffixes -maliya, -ko, and -nikka, which
seem to have a relatively similar degree of assertiveness in comparison to -e, there is somedifference in the degree of the speaker’s emotional involvement. Further examples from a
broader database and in-depth analysis of contexts would be useful in order to elucidate
the more specific functions of -maliya, -ko, and -nikka and also to find out the difference
between these suffixes with respect to the speaker’s emotional involvement. For the moment,
however, it seems reasonable to conclude that -maliya, -ko, and -nikka, in emphasizing the
speaker’s self-justification enjoy a stronger function of assertion than the suffix -e alone.
6. Concluding Remarks

In this paper, I have briefly discussed the assertive function of the particle yo in Japaneseand its Korean equivalents, focusing on the suffix -e, which seems to function in a similarmanner as yo as it was used in nearly two thirds of all instances of yo, and other suffixes
that are used to impart a stronger assertion than -e. I am aware that using pseudo-dialogue
is not the most ideal for the analysis of yo and also that the analysis based on the translated
language could limit the validity of findings since translated language is said to display “patterns
which are either restricted to translated text or which occur with a significantly higher orlower frequency in translated text than they do in original” (Backer 1995: 235)13). I therefore
do not intend to state that the findings in this study are exhaustive and would like to further
the current research with an analysis of extended conversational data. Notwithstanding the39慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

shortcomings of the data source, it has been clearly demonstrated that the function of theJapanese particle yo is realised as a variety of suffixes in Korean, rather than one absoluteequivalent, despite the fact that the two languages have similarities in many other aspectsof grammar. More specifically, with respect to the assertive function of yo as a result of the
speaker’s assessment of the addressee’s knowledge, this study has shown that yo is used in a
wider range of contexts than the corresponding Korean equivalents, which is realised mainly
by -e, -maliya, -ko, and -nikka. Within the same context, where yo is used in Japanese it was
found that different suffixes are used in Korean depending on the degree of assertion.

40

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean

Notes1) Elsewhere, I have shown that this is the case with another Japanese particle ne. See A. Kim (2002)

for details.
2) According to Lyons (1977: 746), utterances such as “tell me what he did” (in Japanese the utterance

would have been “kare ga nani o shita no ka oshiete yo” – my translation) belong to the categoryof ‘mands’. According to this definition of ‘mands’ I classified utterances such as the one presented
immediately below in this category.
					 kocchi		 ni			 oide				 yo.
					 here			 LOC come.IMP yo					 “Come this way” (J-wood:19)
Masuoka (1991) considers examples such as these as mitigation.
3) A close examination of the function of yo in the ‘mands’ category in comparison to Korean suffixes

seems to lead to interesting outcomes in its own right. Since this is a broad enough topic by itself, I
will limit my focus on the use of yo in the category of ‘statements’.
4)

The data used in this study are drawn from the following Japanese novels and their translated

versions in Korean. Abbreviations, such as J-wood etc., will be used for convenience to indicate data
source for each example.
J-wood: Murakami, H. (1991). Noruwei no mori-Joo [Norwegian Wood-1]. Up to p. 106. Tokyo:
Kodansha.
K-wood: Murakami, H. trans. Ywu, Y. (1994). Sangsil uy sitay . Up to p. 133. Seoul: Mwunhak
Sasangsa.
J-life: Kitagawa, E. (2000). Byuutifuru raifu [Beautiful Life]. Up to p. 100. Tokyo: Kawakado Shoten.
K-life: Kitagawa, E. trans. Cwungnam tayhakkyo sahoykyoywukwen sukhulin ilpone. (2001).

Byuthiphwul laiphu. Up to p. 82. Taecen: Cwungnam tayhakkyo sahoykyoywukwen sukhulin ilpone.
J-coin: Murakami, R. (1984). Koin lokka beibizu-Joo [Coin Locker Babies-1]. Up to p. 107. Tokyo:
Kodansha.
K-coin: Murakami, R. trans. Kim, U. (1998). Khoin lokhe peyipicu. Up to p. 119. Seoul: Kiwencen.
J-NP: Yoshimoto, B. (1992). N.P. Up to p. 107. Tokyo: Kawakado Shoten.
K-NP: Yoshimoto, B. trans. Kim, N. (1999). N.P. pwukkukcem. Up to p. 103. Seoul: Book Story.
5)

In discussing the validity of data from comics for an analysis of the Japanese marker nan(i),Maynard (2000) also mentions similar reasons.
6) In this study, I will use ‘stronger’ in terms of the degree of assertion, to refer to cases in which thesame speaker used yo for a second time. The relatively ‘stronger’ nuance of the second use of yo canbe justified by acknowledging that the speaker’s use of yo presupposes a difference in knowledge.
The difference in knowledge after the first use of yo implies that the speaker is urged to assert his/her
opinion even further. Furthermore, the examples demonstrate that the utterances marked by yo, which
follow a previous utterance also marked by yo, are usually accompanied by specific details of support

41

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

for the assertion, which in turn reinforces the speaker’s initial assertion. Thus, the repeated use of yo
can be regarded as conveying a ‘stronger’ assertion.
7) -e/a are phonological variants, the selection of which is conditioned by the type of vowel found in

the preceding syllable, i.e. ‘vowel harmony’ rules (H. B. Lee 1989; S. Sohn 1994). These rules specify-a to appear only when the preceding vowel is a or o; otherwise -e is used (S. Sohn 1994: 450). -(i)ya
and ay are also variants of -e/a. -e will be used hereafter as the representative form.
8) -kwu is an allophone of -ko. -ko will be used henceforth as the representative form.
9) Keep in mind that -ya is a variant of -e.
10)Here I am only concerned with the linguistic form employed. It would be possible to use -e, ofcourse, if a facial expression of annoyance, a voice tone that implied the same, or any other prosodic
features appropriate to indicate the same feeling were employed.
11)

Abbreviations: AUX auxiliary verbs; CJR conjecture; CN connective particles; COND conditional;

COP copula; ES ending suffix; FP final particles; IMP imperative; LK linker (linking nominals); LOC
locative; NEG negative morpheme; NOM nominalizer; OBJ object marker; PAST past tense marker;
POL polite marker; POT potential; QT quotative marker; QUE question marker; SUB subject marker;
TEMP temporal marker; TOP topic marker
Romanization
Japanese: Hepburn system (slightly modified: Long vowels are expressed by a succession of two shortvowels aa, ii, uu, ee, and oo, instead of short vowels with superscript diacritics (i.e. a, , u, e, o)).
Korean: Yale system (slightly modified: Instead of using u after bilabials (i.e. p, pp, ph, and m) wu isused (i.e. pwu, ppwu, phwu, and mwu instead of pu, ppu, phu, and mu).
12)

Once again what is under consideration is the effect delivered by the linguistic form only (i.e.

utterances with yo vs. those without yo). If the appropriate prosodic features were adopted to express
the challenge, then the same utterance without yo could engender the same effect. I am also awarethat the sequential position of this particular utterance (as a counter to what is understood as anegative evaluation in a disagreement sequence), and the content (a negative evaluation of the action
performed by the prior utterance) contributed to its likelihood of being interpreted as a ‘challenge’even without yo. However, this does not deny the contribution of yo in producing the effect.
13) I am grateful to one of the anonymous referees (of a different journal) for pointing this out and thereference.

42

“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Jamie Greenbaum from the Australian National University/Peking University
for reading through many versions of this article and providing insightful comments. I also would like tothank Mr. Chad Walker from Yonsei University for helping me with collecting some Korean references
and his suggestions on an earlier draft. Dr. Roald Maliangkay and Dr. Hilofumi Yamamoto from theAustralian National University also provided helpful suggestions on an earlier version of this article andI thank them for it. However, any errors herein are mine. An earlier version of this paper was presented
at the AILA 13th World Congress of Applied Linguistics in Singapore in 2002. I am grateful for the
conference and travel grant from the Faculty of Asian Studies at The Australian National University.

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Seoul: Pakiceng.
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Korean Linguistics 4, N. Akatsuka (ed), 113-129. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
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118-121.
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Academic Press.
Lee, H.B. 1989. Korean Grammar. London: Oxford University Press.
Lee, H.S. 1993. “Cognitive Constraints on Expressing Newly Perceived Information, with Reference to
Epistemic Modal Suffixes in Korean”. Cognitive Linguistics 4: 135-167.
Lee, K. 1987. “Machimkkol uy Uymi Yenkwu” [Meaning of Some Sentence-endings in Korean]. Hangeul[Journal of Korean Language Society] 195: 77-104.
Lee, K. 1993. A Korean Grammar on Semantic-pragmatic Principle. Seoul: Hankwuk Mwunhwasa.
Lukoff, F. 1982. An Introductory Course in Korean. Seoul: Yonsei University Press.
Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics Vol 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Makino, Seiichi and Michio Tsutsui. 1989. A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. Tokyo: The Japan
Times.
Martin, S.E. 1987. A Reference Grammar of Japanese. Rutland: Charles E. Tuttle Company.
Masuoka, T. 1991. Modariti no Bunpoo [The Grammar of Modality]. Tokyo: Kurosio Shuppan.
Masuoka, T. and Takubo, Y. 1992. Kiso Nihongo Bunpoo [Basic Japanese Grammar]. Tokyo: Kurosio
Shuppan.
Maynard, S. 1993. Discourse Modality: Subjectivity, Emotion and Voice in the Japanese Language.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Maynard, S. 1997. Japanese Communication: Language and Thought in Context. Honolulu: Universityof Hawai`i Press.
Maynard, S. 2000. “Speaking for the Unspeakable: Expressive functions of nan(i) in Japanese Discourse”.

Journal of Pragmatics 32: 1209-1239.
Maynard, S. 2001. Koi-suru Futari no ‘Kanjyoo Kotoba’ [‘Emotive Language’ between the Lovers]. Tokyo:
Kurosio Shuppan.
Mizutani, N. 1984. “Kinoo Shinjuku e Eiga o Mi ni Ikimashita ne: Kikite e no Kanshin o Shimesu
Hyoogen no Goyoo to Hiyoo” [You Went to Shinjuku to See a Movie Yesterday, Right?: Incorrect andNon-existing Uses of Expressions that Indicate Interest toward the Hearer]. Nihongogaku [Japanese
Linguistics] 3: 112-115.
Morita, E. 2002. “Stance Marking in the Collaborative Completion of Sentences: Final Particles as
Epistemic Markers in Japanese”. In Japanese/Korean Linguistics 10, N.M. Akatsuka and S. Strauss(eds), 220-233. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Nakano, N. 1991. “Ne/yo no Hataraki ni tsuite” [An analysis of functions of ne and yo]. Yamaguchi

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“I am telling you! This is what I mean!”: Assertion in dialogues in Japanese and Korean novels,
focusing on ‘yo’ in Japanese and its functional equivalents in Korean

Daigaku Kyooiku Gakubu Kenkyuu Ronshuu [Bulletin of the Faculty of Education, Yamaguchi
University] 1: 1-17.
Ohso, M. 1986. “Goyoo Bunseki: Kyoo wa Ii Tenki desu ne. Hai, Soo desu” [Error Analysis: It’s a
Beautiful Day Today, Isn’t It?’ ‘Yes, It Is’]. Nihongogaku [Japanese Linguistics] 5: 91-94.
Payk, P. 2006. Oykwukelose uy Hankwuke Mwunpep Sacen [Korean Grammar as a Foreign Language].
Seoul: Tosecwulpan Hawu.
Saji, K. 1956. “Shuujoshi no Kinoo” [The Function of Sentence-final Particles] Kokugo Kokubun [Japanese
Language and Literature] 26(7): 461-469.
Saji, K. 1991. Nihongo no Bunpoo no Kenkyuu [A Study of Japanese Grammar]. Tokyo: Hitsuji Shoobo.
Schiffrin, D. 1987. Discourse Markers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sohn, H.M. 1994. Korean. London: Routledge.
Sohn, S.O. 1996. “On the Development of Sentence-final Particles in Korean”. In Japanese/Korean

Linguistics 5, N. Akatsuka, S. Iwasaki and S. Strauss (eds), 219-233. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Strauss, S. 2002. “Distinction in Completives: The Relevance of Resistance in Korean V-a/e pelita andV-ko malta and Japanese V-te shimau”. Journal of Pragmatics 34: 143-166.
Takubo, Y. 1990. “Taiwa ni okeru Chishiki Kanri ni tsuite: Taiwa Moderu kara Mita Nihongo no Tokusee”[Information Control in Discourse: Characteristics of Japanese from the Examination of Discourse
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Sakiyama and A. Sato (eds), 785-795. Tokyo: Sanseido.
Uyeno, T. 1972. “Shuujoshi to Sono Shuuhen” [On Japanese Sentence Particles]. Nihongo Kyooiku[Journal of Japanese Language Teaching] 17: 60-76.
Watanabe, M. 1968. “Shuujoshi no Bunpooron teki Ichi” [The Function of Japanese Final Particles].

Kokugogaku [Studies in the Japanese Language] 72: 127-135.
Yonsei Tayhakkyo Hankwukehaktang (ed). 1997. Hankwuke 2 [Korean 2], Seoul: Yonsei Tayhakkyo
Cwulphanpwu.

45

携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳

Multi Record の開発・運用・評価― Wortschatz erarbeiten, mitnehmen, teilen ―

藁

谷

郁

美

太

田

達

也

マルコ・ラインデル
Ausgehend von Überlegungen zu den Bedingungen des Fremdsprachenunterrichts anjapanischen Hochschulen, besonders in Bezug auf das Problem des Wortschatzerwerbs, stellt
der Beitrag den webgestützten Wortschatztrainer Multi Record vor. Dieser wurde als Modell
für eine Lernumgebung konzipiert, die das Bewusstsein der Lernenden für das Problem desselbstständigen Wortschatzlernens vertieft und ihnen durch mediale Flexibilität möglichst
weit entgegenkommt – die Anwendung ist auch vom Handy aus zugänglich. Dem Aufbau
von Multi Record liegt, wie ausgeführt wird, das Verständnis von Wortschatzerwerb als ein
Prozess der Wissenskonstruktion zugrunde. So können die Nutzer eigene, themenbezogene
Wörterbücher zu selbst gewähltem Lernstoff anlegen und selbst entscheiden, welche Datensie in die einzelnen Lerneinheiten aufnehmen. Berücksichtigt wird auch die Bedeutung
des sozialen Lernens: Die Anwendung erlaubt es jedem, die Wörterbücher anderer Nutzer
einzusehen sowie Wörterbücher einer Lernergruppe zur Verfügung zu stellen. So können die
Lerner ihr jeweiliges Vorgehen beim Lernen vergleichen und gegebenenfalls modifizieren –sowie durch eine Auseinandersetzung mit den Einträgen anderer ihr Verständnis einzelner
Lerngegenstände überprüfen. Die Anwendung sieht verschiedene, auch spielerischeÜbungsformen vor, um den gelernten Wortschatz zu wiederholen. Der Beitrag referiert
abschließend die Ergebnisse einer Nutzerbefragung.

１.

はじめに ― 外国語教育における語彙学習

これまで 日本 の 外国語教育 においては、語彙学習 に 対 して 十分 な 注意 が 払 われてこなかった。語彙学習 の 重要性 を 強調 したり、語彙 テストを 定期的 に 行 ったりすることはあっても、47慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号「学習」 そのものにスポットが 当 てられる 機会 は 少 なく、 そのため 語彙 に 特化 した 学習 の 必要
性 に 対 する 学習者 の 意識 も 決 して 高 いとは 言 えない。１）とりわけ 中学・高校 において 試験対策を重視した英単語リストの暗記といった学習方法が未だ広く行われていることも、このことと関係しているだろう。
視線を日本のドイツ語教育における教材に向けても事情は同様である。多くの教材は、いわゆる学習すべき「基本語彙」をベースに構成されているものの、言語習得的見地に基づいた難易度や進度の設定、意味推測ストラテジーの活性化、語彙拡大のための練習、螺旋構造的な反復構成、といった教授法的な知見の応用はほとんど見られない。つまり、学習すべき語彙について 熟慮 されることはあっても、語彙学習 をどのように 行 うべきか、 といった 学習 ストラテ
ジーの観点からの考慮がされることはほとんどなかったと言ってよいだろう。学習者にとって難しいと思われる単語や初出語には、しばしば日本語訳の記された単語注がつけられ、そのために文脈から語の意味を推測するトレーニングのなされる機会が奪われてしまっている。語彙学習のストラテジーに対するメタ的な意識が促されることもほとんどない。２）しかしながら、語彙学習のストラテジーを活性化させることは、外国語の学習においてきわ
めて重要な課題である。語彙学習が重要であることの論拠としては、次の点が挙げられる。

１）文法を十分に習得したとしても語彙が不十分であれば人と理解し合うことはほとん
ど不可能である。

２）他の言語知識・言語能力と異なり、語彙は「忘れやすい」傾向がある。
３）発話や作文の際、学習者は何度も同じ文法構造に立ち返らざるを得ないが、語彙の場合は一度学習した語を繰り返し学ぶ機会は必ずしも保障されない。３）
加えて、日本の大学のドイツ語授業時間数が比較的少ないことも、授業外の語彙学習に対す
４）る 意識 を 高 めるべきであるとの 主張 につながるだろう。
また、 グローバル 化 の 進 んだ 現代 の

言語教育の果たすべき使命として、外国語を自律的に学習することのできる学習者の育成ということが挙げられる。学習者が、学校を離れたその後の人生において、いつ再び外国語学習と向き合うことになるとも限らないからだ。
このように 決 して 過小評価 すべきでない「語彙学習」 に 対 する 意識 の 変化 を 促 すために、

SFC ドイツ語教材開発研究プロジェクト５）では、携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record（略称 MR）６）を 開発 した。 これは Web 上 でも 携帯電話 でも 利用 することのできる 単語帳 で、教材提供者 が 一方的 に 与 えるのではなく、学習者 が 自 ら 構築 していくタイプのものである。 ま７）た、後 で 詳 しく 紹介 するように、多言語 で 利用可能 であることも 大 きな 特徴 である。
Multi

Record の 開発 によってわれわれは、慶應義塾大学湘南藤沢 キャンパスのドイツ 語学習者 に 実

48

携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

用的な語彙学習支援の手段を提供するとともに、デジタル学習環境が語彙学習に対してどのよ
うな効果を及ぼしうるかを検証することも目指した。

２. Multi Record 開発のコンセプト

SFC ドイツ 語教材開発研究 プロジェクトでは、 これまで 学内外 のドイツ 語学習者向 けにさ
まざまな IT 教材を開発してきた。学習者個人が PC から携帯電話に至るまでさまざまなメディアを所有し外国語学習の手段として利用できるようになった今日、外国語学習教材もできるだ
け多様なメディアで提供することによって、学習者のニーズや嗜好に応えられるような学習環

境の構築が求められていくだろう。また、学習者中心という考え方から出発すると、単にディ
スプレイに現れる課題に学習者が「受動的に」取り組むような教材ばかりでなく、学習者自身が積極的に作り上げていくことのできるようなタイプのものを提供することも重要である。今回新 たに 開発 した Multi Record も、 こうした「学習者中心」 の 学習環境構築 という 理念 に 基づくものである。

２.１. 語彙学習環境の構築
語彙の学習にはさまざまな困難が伴う。まず、覚えなくてはならない項目の数が非常に大きい。単 に 覚 えるべき 単語 の 数 が 多 いというだけでなく、１ つの 単語 についても、意味、綴 り、

発音、品詞、変化、性別 および 複数形（名詞 の 場合）、統語論的情報（ どのような 補足語 を 必要とするか）、コロケーション（どのような語と共起しやすいか）、同義語、反意語、下位概念語、などたくさんのことを覚えなくてはならない。また、一度覚えてもしばらくするとまた忘れやすい、 という 問題 もある。加 えて、 ある 語 や 表現 を 適切 に 用 いることができるためには、
コンテクストの中で学ぶ必要がある。したがって、学習者が自ら体験できるような社会的コン
テクストがない 状況 では、学習 に 困難 が 生 じる。 さらに、語彙 を 学習 することは「退屈 であ８）る」と感じられることも少なくない。

以上のことを考慮すると、語彙学習のためのよりよい環境を構築するにあたっては、次のよ
うな点に留意する必要があると考えられる。

語彙学習の環境は、学習者中心の能動的な学習を促すものであること。
学習者を自律的学習に導くものであること。
社会的学習を可能にするものであること。
飽きずに取り組めるものであること。
多様なメディアで提供され、いろいろな学習スタイルに即したものであること。

49

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

本 プロジェクトで 開発 した Multi Record は、 こうした 学習環境 を 実現 する 方法 のひとつとして、我々が提示するものである。

２.２. 「知識の構築」としての語彙学習
人の「知識」というものは、当然のことながらひとりひとり異なる。たとえ同じ事柄に接したとしても、学習者 A がそれまでに 持 っていた 知識 と 学習者 B の 知識 は 同 じではなく、 またA の 関心 と B の 関心 も 同 じであるはずがない。 したがって、 その 事柄 を 通 して 学 ぶものも 自ずと異なる。このことを単語の学習に置き換えてみよう。学習者 A と B がそれぞれすでに持っている語彙も違えば関心も異なるとすれば、ある授業で同じ単語に触れたとしても、その単語の持つ意味合い（重要度、関心の高さ、メンタルレキシコンにおける分類など）は学習者により 当然異 なる。 こうして、A と B の 頭 の 中 にはそれぞれ 別 の「知識」 の 構築 がなされていく。
つまり、語彙というものは、個々人がすでに持っている知識や体験を土台としながら、興味や関心に応じて、それぞれ別のかたちで「増築」されていくわけである。そこでは、学習者がすでに知っている他の言語に関する知識なども、土台の形成に一役買うだろう。こうしたことを念頭 に、Multi Record の 開発 にあたっては、学習者自身 が 自分 の 興味、関心 やニーズに 応 じ
９）て、自らテーマ別に単語帳を作り上げていくことのできるシステムの実現を目指した。

２.３. 自律学習・協働学習
知識は客観的に把握できるものであり「知識の教授」こそが教育である、とする「客観主義」
的な教育観ではなく、知識は状況に依存するものであるととらえ、学習は社会の中での相互作用を通じておこるものであるとする「構成主義」の学習観では、学習者が主体的に学習活動に
関 わることが 何 よりも 大切 とされる。10）この 考 えに 立 てば、単 に 学習者 が 主体 となって 自 らの単語帳を構築していくだけでなく、他の学習者と情報を交換できるようなバーチャル・コミュ
ニティーを形成することができれば、自律学習のみならず協働学習をも促進する有意義な場を提供 できると 考 えられる。学習者 は Multi Record を 使 って、辞書 を 自 ら 作成 し、 クイズ 機能などさまざまな練習機能で語彙学習を退屈せずに行うことができるだけでなく、同時に他人の作った辞書を閲覧したり、同じ興味を持つ仲間と「コミュニティー」を形成したりすることも可能 となる。特 に、後 で 詳 しく 紹介 する「 コミュニティー 機能」 を 用 いれば、「都市計画」 あ
るいは「環境問題」など特定のテーマで作成した辞書をひとつのグループにまとめることができ、専門学習との橋渡しも実現される。

他の学習者の作成した辞書を閲覧できることにより、学習者にとっては次のことが可能となる。

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携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

１）他の学習者がどのような情報をメモするのか、またどのような語を学ぶのか、などを知ることにより、自分と他人の学習スタイルを比較することができる。

２）他の学習者が各々の語にどのような意味を記しているのかを参考にすることができる。

こうして、授業外 の 時間 にも「 インタラクティブな 交渉 プロセス 」11）が 学習者同士 の 間 に 生じることになる。

２.４. 学習心理学の知見の応用

Multi Record の 開発 にあたっては、近年 の 学習心理学 の 知見 を 取 り 入 れることも 試 みた。
これまでの研究においては、単語リストや単語帳だけを用いた学習法はさほど効果がないとさ
12）
れている。
この 方法 では、個々 の 単語 がばらばらに 学 ばれるため、各単語 の 意味 と 形 だけが学習 されるだけで、語彙学習 に 特有 の 複合的側面 が 考慮 されないからである。Multi Record
では、意味や用法などを記す欄に、あらかじめ用意されたカテゴリーと自由に追加可能なカテゴリーの双方を設け、複合的な機能を備えたデジタル版単語カードの実現を目指した。これにより、学習者が個々の単語をばらばらにではなく複合的な観点から学ぶようにと意識を導くことを試みている。
また、単語知識 はたいていの場合ある特定のテーマ領域に関する知識でもある13）、との認識を考慮し、学習者がテーマごとに自分の辞書を作成できるような機能を備えている。これにより学習者は、語彙の学習にあたってできるだけ語場を意識したメンタル・レキシコンを自ら構築し、意味上のネットワークを形成していくことが促される。14）
さらに、Multi Record は 将来的 にマルチメディア 的 な 機能 の 拡張、例 えば 音声 や 画像 を 付加するといった可能性に対しても開けている。これが実現すれば、複数のチャンネルを経由し15）た効果的な語彙学習を行うためのより良い学習環境が提供されるだろう。

２.５.

フレキシビリティーと学習スタイル

Multi Record は、学習者 の 語彙学習 に 対 する 意識 を 高 めると 同時 に、自分 に 合 った 語彙学
習スタイルの発見を促すものでもある。特に、学習者の多様なメディア嗜好に対応したものとなっている点は、Multi Record の大きな特徴である。

本 プロジェクトではこれまでたびたび、SFC ドイツ 語履修者 を 対象 に、 いつどこでどのよ
うなメディアを 用 いてドイツ 語 を 学習 しているかを 調査 してきた。2008年５月 にドイツ 語初級 クラスの 全履修者 を 対象 に 行 ったアンケート 調査 によると、「語彙学習 の 場所」 では、「自宅（ネット環境）」に次いで「電車・バスなど移動時」を挙げた人が２番目に多かった。また、51

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号「使用 メディア 」 では、「教科書」「CD・DVD」 などと 並 んで「PC」「携帯型 メディアプレー
ヤー」「携帯電話」 と 答 えた 学習者 もおり、使用 メディアはきわめて 多岐 にわたっていることが 明らかになっている。本プロジェクトでは、いつでもどこでも手軽に利用できるフレキシブ
ルなメディアとしての 携帯電話 に 着目 し、 すでに2006年度以来、携帯電話向 けのコンテンツ
16）の 開発 を 行 ってきたが、近年 の 携帯電話 は、 その 画面 の 見 やすさや 大 きさ、 また 表示速度 な

どの 点 で 改善 が 著 しく、今後外国語学習教材 のメディアとしてますます 需要 が 高 まるだろう。

Multi Record は、 この 点 を 考慮 し、PC だけでなく 携帯電話 にも 対応 している。 それに 加 えて、紙媒体 での 学習 を 好 む 学習者 のためにプリントアウトして 学習 できる 機能 も 備 えるなど、多様なスタイルでの学習を可能としていることも大きな特徴である。
３. Multi Record のシステム
以下、Multi Record のシステムの概要を説明する。
３.１.

ソフトウェア・モデル

Multi Record は、Web 上のプログラムとして典型的な「LAMP システム」（Linux, Apache,
MySQL, PHP を 利用 したもの ） に 基 づいている（図１）。 ローカル・ モデルでなくクライア
ントサーバ・ モデルを 採用 したのは、PC や 携帯電話 など 複数 の 端末 によって、 どこでも 利用ができるものにするため、および、自身の辞書データだけでなく他の学習者のデータも閲覧できるものにするためである 。 このモデルを 採用 することにより、後述 のコミュニティー 機能、
インポート機能が実現した。

３.２.

リレーショナル・データベース

Multi Record では、PHP と MySQL を組み合わせることにより、学習者にとっても教材提供者 にとっても、携帯電話 による 安全 かつ 簡単 な 利用 が 可能 となっている。 データはリレー
ショナル・ データベースである MySQL で 保存 されるため、必要 のないデータは 保存 されず、必要なデータのみが追加される仕組みになっている（図２）。

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携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

図１

図２

３.３. Shift JIS
文字 コードは、携帯電話 での 表示 を 可能 とするため、Shift JIS を 採用 した。Shift JIS はア
ラビア語やタイ語などを含めたきわめて多くの言語を表示することが可能なコードであり、これにより PC 上 では、PC の 扱 うすべての 言語 が 表示可能 となっている（図３）。 ただし、携

帯電話では機種やキャリアにより一部の文字の表示が制限される。
３.４. 携帯電話用プログラム
携帯電話用のプログラムと PC 用のプログラムは別々に作成した。携帯電話用のプログラム
は機能を一部限定しているが、これは、携帯電話のメモリやパケット通信料に負担をかけないためである（図４）
。

図３

図４

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慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

３.５. BOX 構造

Multi Record の練習機能には、ライトナー・カステン（Leitner-Kasten）を応用した「BOX構造」 を 用 いている。 このシステムでは、最初 に 登録 された 単語 は 全 て「 レベル １」 となり、練習機能 で 正解 を 重 ねるごとに、 レベルが １段階 ずつ 上 がる。 また、単語 を 間違 えた 場合 には、出題された単語のレベルがひとつ下がる仕組みになっている。練習機能では、低いレベルの単語から優先的に出題されるため、すでに何度も学習した単語が繰り返し出題されないようになっている（図５）
。17）

図５

４. Multi Record の機能
次に、Multi Record の機能について以下に説明する。
４.１. ID 登録
図６ は Multi Record のトップ 画面 である。Multi Record を 初 めて 利用 する 場合 は、 まずPC 上 で ID 登録 を 行 う。 その 後、辞書・単語 を 登録 すると、各種機能 を 利用 できるようにな
る（図７）
。

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携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

図６

図７４.２. 辞書の登録
辞書を作成するには、まずメニューの「単語登録」のページで「新しい辞書を作る」をクリッ
クし、必要事項 を 入力 する。辞書 の 作成 が 完了 したら、 メニューの「単語登録」 からページを開き、作成した辞書の右端にある「登録」ボタンをクリックし、単語の登録を行う（図８）。

登録画面 では 合計 で11の 項目 があるが、 すべての 項目 を 埋 める 必要 はなく、学習者 が 自分 にとって必要な項目を入力すればよいようになっている。

４.３. 「お気に入り」の辞書の登録
学習者が、自分にとっても有用な他人の辞書を「お気に入り」として登録することができる。
登録するには、メニューの「辞書」のページで登録したい辞書を表示し、「お気に入りに登録」というボタンをクリックする。
「 お 気 に 入 り 」 として 登録 すると、 サイトのトップページや、

携帯サイトからも簡単に目的の辞書にアクセスできるようになる（図９）。

図８

図９

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慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

４.４.

インポート機能

本システムの管理者側で制作した辞書については、学習者がその単語リストを自分の辞書の中にまとめて取り込んで登録できるようになっている。これが「インポート機能」である（図『Modelle 2』19）10）。現在 は、SFC ド イ ツ 語研究室 が 制作 し た 共通教材『Modelle 1 neu』18）『Modelle 3』20）の各巻の単語および SFC フランス語研究室の共通教材『Tempo 1』21）の単語を、課 ごとにひとつひとつの 辞書 として 登録 してあり、学習者 が 自由 にインポートできるようになっている。ただし、これらの辞書については、あえて日本語訳欄が空欄となっている。インポートした学習者が自ら必要に応じて意味等を入力できるようにするためである。

図10

４.５.

コミュニティー機能

近年、大学生 の 間 では SNS の 利用者 が 増 えているが、「 コミュニティー 機能」 はこれを 念頭に置いた機能で、自分と同じような関心を持つ他の学習者たちと辞書を共有し、協働しつつ学習することを支援するものである。コミュニティー参加には特に制限はなく、誰でも参加することが可能である。後述する「単語の表示」「単語カード」「４択クイズ」機能は、ここから利用することもできる（図11、図12）。

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携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

図11

図12

４.６. 検索機能「検索機能」 を 用 いると、 キーワードと 合致 する 単語 を 検索 することができる。 キーワードには、意味、単語、ユーザー名、辞書名、言語のいずれかを入力する。すると、データベース

内でキーワードと合致するデータが、図13のようにすべて表示される。例えば「春」と入力す
ると、「春」 という 語 が 意味 や 例文 の 中 で 使用 されている 単語 データが、他人 の 辞書 や 他言語
22）の 辞書 も 含 め、 すべて 表示 される。
この 機能 には、学習者 の 他言語・多言語 に 対 する 関心 を喚起したいという制作者の狙いもある。

図13

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慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

４.７. 練習機能

Multi Record には 豊富 な 練習機能 が 備 わっている。以下 に、 それぞれの 機能 について 説明する。

４.７.１. 単語カードⅠ
この機能はよく見かけられるリング式のカードをイメージしたもので、登録した単語と意味が 交互 に 表示 される。 まず、登録 した 単語 が 図14のように 表示 される。 その 意味 を 頭 の 中 で考 えた 後、「見 る 」 をクリックする。 すると、正解 が 表示 され、考 えていた 答 えが 正 しいものであるかどうかを確認することができる。また、逆に単語を隠して意味を表示することもでき
る。

図14

図15

４.７.２. 単語カードⅡ
これは「単語カードⅠ」と同様、登録した単語と意味が交互に出てくる機能である。表示された 意味 にあった 単語 のつづりをタイピングしたうえで、「 チェック 」 ボタンをクリックすると、正解・不正解についての結果、および登録された内容が表示される（図15）。

４.７.３. 単語テスト

Multi Record では、単語を保存するだけでなく、「単語カードⅡ」と同様、自分の辞書で単語テスト形式の自己チェックをすることができる。図16に示されるように、学習者本人が登録した 単語 が、 ランダムに 一覧表示 される。 この 空欄 に 正 しい 単語 を 入力 し、「 チェック 」 ボタ
ンをクリックすると、図17のように 自分 が 入力 した 単語 の 正誤 が ○×で 表示 され、点数化 される。

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携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

図16

図17

４.７.４. ４択クイズ
他にも、自分の単語帳を使って自己チェックをすることのできる機能として、「４択クイズ」
機能 がある。 これは、登録 された「意味」 から、正 しい 単語 を ４択 で 選 ぶ 仕様 になっている。
図18が示すように、正解・不正解の表示とともに、それぞれの単語の意味が示される。「詳細」
ボタンをクリックすることで、さらにそれぞれの単語の登録内容を見ることもできる。

図18４.８. 辞書の印刷登録した単語と意味をそのままリストとして印刷することも可能である。これは、2008年７月 に 行 った 学習 スタイル 調査 23）においても 裏付 けられたように、電子媒体 と 並 んで 紙媒体 で学習する学習者の割合が比較的高いことを考慮して設けられた機能である。印刷形態は、図19のような「単語 リスト 」 としてだけでなく、短冊型 に 切 り 取 って、 いわゆる 紙版 の「単語帳」として使用するように出力することもできる。

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慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

図19４.９. 携帯電話での利用
携帯電話では、辞書の閲覧、単語の登録、単語カード、４択クイズ機能を利用することができる。図20は、携帯電話用のメニュー画面である。

４.10.

iPhone および iPod touch での利用

Multi Record は、iPhone および iPod touch で 利用 することも 可能 である。iPhone およびiPod touch 用 の 画面 では、画面幅 に 合 わせて 表示画面 が 自動的 に 切 り 替 わるようになっている。図21にその画面を示す。

図20

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図21

携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

５. 評価
本 シ ス テ ム の 評価 を 行 う た め、2008年７月 に ド イ ツ 語学習者 を 対象 に し た 調査 を 実施 した。調査方法は、①アンケート調査：インテンシヴコース（ドイツ語１、２、３、中国語１）、
ベーシックコース（ドイツ語）、その他のクラス（フランス語）、および、②インタヴュー調査（ ドイツ 語各 コース ） の ２種類 である。 なお、① のアンケート 調査 については、現在 も 引 き 続
きデータを収集中であるため、ここでは②のインタヴュー調査による質的調査の結果について取り上げる。
５.１. 調査対象
インタヴュー 調査 の 実施対象者 は 以下 の 通 りである。各 インフォーマント A ～ H（表１）に対して平均約50～60分のインタヴューを行い、それらを録音する方法を採った。音声データ
はスクリプト化したうえで分析・考察に使用した。

表１
インフォーマント

言語レベル
性別
ドイツ語以外に学習している外
国語

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

スキル
セミナー セミナー セミナー
G1
G2
G3
G3
（A1.1） （A1.2） （A2.1） （A2.1） （A2 ⊖ B1） （B2 ⊖） （B2 ⊖） （B2 ⊖）

女
英語

女

女

女

男

英語

英語

英語

英語

イタリア語

女

女

英語
英語
中国語 イタリア語
フランス語
朝鮮語

女
英語

なお、この表２段目の「言語レベル」は、CEFR（Common European Framework of Reference

for Languages／ヨーロッパ共通言語共通枠）に準拠したものである。SFC において提供されている授業との対応関係は、以下のとおりである（括弧内は該当するインフォーマントの数を示す）。

インテンシブ初級１（G1）修了：A1.1（１名）
インテンシブ初級２（G2）修了：A1.2（１名）
インテンシブ初級３（G3）修了：A2.1（２名）
スキルコース修了：A2 ⊖ B1（１名）
セミナー（専門研究）レベル：B2 ⊖ （３名）

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慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

５.２. 調査結果の分析と考察
本調査 から 得 たデータの 分析結果 は、大 きく 分 けて、１．学習 スタイルに 及 ぼす 影響、２．
モティベーションの変化、３．コミュニティー機能を使った学習に対する意識、の３つの観点にまとめることができる。

５.２.１. 学習スタイルに及ぼす影響

Multi Record を 学習者 が 使用 することで、使用前 と 使用後 の 語彙学習 スタイルが 変化 したかどうかを 調査 した。特 にインタヴュー 調査 の 中 でインフォーマント A、B、D、G の 発言 に見られるように、それまで主に紙媒体を使って語彙を学習していたスタイルが、Multi Record
導入後は、紙媒体とデジタル媒体の両方を使い分けるスタイルに変化している。いずれのイン
フォーマントも、デジタル媒体への完全な移行ではなく、紙との併用という形で使い分けている点が特徴として挙げられる。
このことは、Multi Record の 使用 によって 単 に 語彙学習 の 方法 が 変化 しただけでなく、個別の学習者が持つ外国語学習のスタイル全体のコンセプトが変化したことを示す。また、語彙学習 の 方法 を 各自 で 工夫 することによって、特 にこれまで 意識化 されてこなかった 語彙学習
が、意識化され、同時に外国語学習への意識につながってくることが見て取れる。

インフォーマントのインタヴューデータ（抜粋）・「テストの後も復習するようになった。」（B）
・「以前 までは 覚 えているものは 覚 えているけど 忘 れるものもあって、今回、単語 テストをやっていて、「あ、もう忘れてる！」っていう発見ができた」（B）

・「日頃、単語帳 をつくるほうなので［...］反意語 は 表 と 裏 に 書 いて 確認 できる。 これは［...］いままでになかった。
」（A）・「今まで単語帳をつくっていなかったけど、デジタルだとすぐに作れるし便利だと思った。」（D）
・「MR は間違えたものだけをピックアップして繰り返し出題してくれるのでよかった。」（G）

５.２.２.

モティベーションの変化

語彙学習 へのモティベーションがあがることも、特 にインフォーマント F、D から 顕著 にみることができる。
「単調 な 繰 り 返 し 」 というネガティブな 語彙学習 へのイメージが、Multi

Record の 使用 による「単語 が 増 えていく 」体験 を 通 してポジティブな 学習 へと 変化 していったことが窺える。この体験は、語彙学習の態度だけでなく、外国語学習のモティベーションを向上させる重要な要因のひとつとなっていると考えられる。特に、毎回登録する度に増えてい62

携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

く語彙数が、目に見える形で画面に提示される仕様は、学習量の具体的な可視化として学習者の達成感につながる点として評価できる。

インフォーマントのインタヴューデータ（抜粋）・「自分 の 登録 している 単語 が 増 えていくことは 楽 しかった。「 ここまで 覚 えられた！」 という 充実感。」（D）
・「長文・映画 を 雰囲気 ではなく、 ちゃんと 単語 に 注意 を 払 いながら 理解 するようになり 新 しい 発見があり、誤解を正せたところもあった。
」（F）・「 これまでは、 わからない 単語 に 線 を 引 くなどしたりする 程度。全体 の 意味 がわかれば、 わざわざ各単語 の 意味 を 書 いたりしなかった。 この MR を 使 うことによって、単語 レベルでひとつひとつ抽出するので、時間はかかったが、意識的に意味を確実に調べる経験をした。こんなやり方もある
んだな、と思った。
」（F）

５.２.３.

コミュニティー機能を使用した学習に対する意識

Multi Record の「 コ ミ ュ ニ テ ィ ー 機能」 は、自分 の 作成 し た 辞書 を 他人 も 閲覧 で き、同
時 に Web 上 で 自発的 に 共通 のコミュニティーを 形成 できる 点 に 特徴 がある。 しかし、 イン
フォーマント B、C、F のインタヴューデータにも 見 られるように、「他 の 人 の 言語 を 見 ることができる」（原文ママ）「いろいろな活用法を参考にできる」等、ポジティブな面として捉えられる要素もあると同時に、「いきなりコミュニティに入りにくい」「閉鎖的な感じがした」等、この機能の活用には消極的なインフォーマントの意見も見られた。この点で、コミュニティー
の「自発的」形成は、当初予測した学習者の動向とは異なる結果を見ることになった。

インフォーマントのインタヴューデータ（抜粋）・「ノートは自分だけだけど、Web 上だと他の人の言語を見ることができる。」（B）
・「他の人の単語帳を見て、いろいろな活用法を参考にできると思った。」（C）
・「単語テストとして他の人のを見た。誰のかはわからないけど。」（B）
・「他の人が「使いたい」と思えるような辞書を作ろうと常に思って単語を入力していた。」（F）
・「オフで仲良くならないと、オンでいきなりコミュニティに入りにくい。」（F）
・「ちょっと閉鎖的な感じがした。」（F）

63

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

６. 将来の展望
以上述 べたような Multi Record の 開発 と 運用、 および 利用者 の 評価 を 踏 まえ、今後 は 以下のことを段階的に進めていく予定である。

１）多言語への適応・評価
現段階ではドイツ語履修者を中心に実践・評価をとっているが、使用対象を他の言語にも広げた形で評価を取る必要がある。すでに中国語インテンシブコースの一部、フランス語スキルコースの一部で実践されているが、十分なデータを得るには至っていない。現在、フランス語
インテンシブコースで 使用 する 教材 の 語彙 をすべて 既存辞書 として 入力済 みであることから、

今後 は 同 インテンシブコースの 学習者 による 使用評価 データを 得 ることを 予定 している。 また、 この Multi Record は Web 上 で 表示 できる 言語全 てに 対応 しているため、将来的 にはより多様な言語学習者に利用者層を広げていきたいと考えている。

２）上級者の使用・評価
今回 はドイツ 語初級 コースを 中心 に Multi Record の 使用・評価 を 行 った。 しかし、 インテ
ンシブ初級コース１期～３期の学習者に対しては、既に教材の新出単語を既存語彙として登録してあるため、学習者はそれらを必要に応じて「インポート機能」を使って自分の辞書にする
こができる。従って、自分で独自の単語帳を作成する必要性が少ない。同時に、初級コース期間に学習する語彙はすべて基本語彙であるため、何かの分野に特化した語彙集を作る必要もほ
とんど生じない。初級学習者の間でコミュニティー機能があまり使用されなかったのは、このことが原因のひとつであると考えられる。

今後 は、Multi Record の 使用者 の 中 でも、特定 の 専門研究 に 特化 したドイツ 語学習 との 結
びつきの強い学習者に重点を置き、特にコミュニティー機能の使用とその効果について分析していきたいと考える。

３）機能の拡張
今後、以下のような機能の拡張を視野に入れて改良をすすめていく予定である。24）
個々の学習者へのフィードバック機能（学習結果や学習履歴・統計の表示など）
復習の自由設定機能（個々の学習者が復習項目・復習方式を自由に設定）
マルチメディア機能（音声や動画の付加）

４）授業との関連付け

Multi Record は、2008年12月現在、SFC 学内 にのみ 公開 しているが、積極的 な 利用者 の 数

64携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

はまだそれほど 多 くない。 そのため、今後 は 利用者 の 拡大 のための 方策 を 模索 する 必要 がある。利用者の拡大にあたっては、学習者の語彙学習に対するビリーフを相対化させることが鍵となるだろう。すなわち、高校までの英語学習で身につけた一定の語彙習得方法とは違うスト
ラテジーを、各学習者 が Multi Record によって 自 ら 体験 し、 その 効果 を 実感 できれば、新 たな語彙学習ストラテジーの獲得につながると予想される。そのためには、初学者の授業において、 はじめのうちは Multi Record の 使用 をある 程度義務 づける 等 の 運営上 の「仕掛 け 」 が 必

要かもしれない。
また、中・上級 の 学習者 については、「 コミュニティー 機能」 の 使用前提 として 我々 が 当初仮定していた、学習者によるコミュニティーの「自発的」形成が実際は困難であったことから、ある程度授業の中に組み込む形での使用を考えている。特定の専門分野についてドイツ語で授業 を 行 う 場合、Multi Record の 導入 によって 専門用語 に 関 するリサーチを 協働作業 で 行 うことが可能かどうか、また可能であるとすればどのような形で行われていくのかを検証していきたい。

５）授業以外の使用に関する問題点

Multi Record は、現時点 で 一部 の 外国語授業履修者 に 対 してのみ 公開 されている。25）理由は、授業 に 直接関連 した Multi Record の 使用 を 想定 していたためである。将来的 には 利用対

象をより多くの学習者に広げることを目指す。ただし、そのためにはシステム構築およびサイト運営対策の面で生じ得る問題点を解決しなければならない。つまり、今後不特定多数の学習者が本単語帳を使用する状況を想定すると、単語帳登録数の増加および多様性に対し果たして十分対応できるシステムの構築が整っているのかどうかの検証ができていない。そのためには、
今後のデータの蓄積と動作のシミュレーションが必要である。また、運用の面についても、学習者の積極的かつ主体的な活用に任せた場合、管理者側がどの程度まで介入していくのか、その方針と対策が重要となる。この２点を解決したうえで、学習者による、より積極的かつ自発的な Multi Record 使用への可能性を考えていきたい。

65慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

註１）2008年５月27日 に SFC ドイツ 語教材開発研究 プロジェクトが 慶應義塾大学湘南藤沢 キャンパス（以下、SFC） のドイツ 語履修者 を 対象 に 実施 したアンケート 調査 では、「外国語 の 語彙学習 を 行 う 際 にどういった 媒体 を 使用 していますか？

また、 どの 程度利用 していますか？」 という 質問 に 対 し、「単語帳」を挙げた学習者は全体の12％、「単語カード」は４％であった。
２）教材における語彙学習の問題については、Bayerlein（1997）, pp. 155⊖166参照。
３）Bayerlein（1997）, p. 18参照。
４）Bayerlein（1997）, p. 19. 参照。
５）「SFC ドイツ 語教材開発研究 プロジェクト 」 は、慶應義塾大学湘南藤沢 キャンパスのドイツ 語教員 である 藁谷郁美、太田達也、 マルコ・ ラインデルの 合同研究会 に 所属 するメンバーを 母体 とする 研究 プロ
ジェクトである。2008年春学期 のメンバーは、藁谷郁美、太田達也、マルコ・ ラインデル（以上、総合政策学部教員）、鹿久保翼（政策・メディア研究科修士課程）、遠藤忍、工藤翔吾（以上、総合政策学部）、
真野恵理子、成田純一、石井誠、柴洋平、入沢由美、次田尚弘、（以上、環境情報学部）、 ショーン・
ヴェント（訪問研究員）の計13人である。プロジェクトの URL: http://dmode.sfc.keio.ac.jp/（2009年２月現在）本プロジェクトの2007年６月 までの 活動 については、慶應義塾大学大学院政策・メディア研究科 ヒューマンセキュリティとコミュニケーション（HC） プログラム『IT と 学習環境 プロジェクト 中間報告書』（2007年６月）pp. 22⊖49参照。
６）主たる開発者は、本プロジェクトの元メンバーで2008年３月に総合政策学部を卒業した増子宗雄と、同じく元メンバーで2008年３月に環境情報学部を卒業した中西令である。なお、Multi Record についての詳細な報告は、増子宗雄2007年度卒業制作（総合政策学部）『携帯電話対応多言語 web 単語帳「Multi Record」』
を 参照 されたい 。現在 の 更新版 Multi Record Version 2.0 の URL: http://dmode.sfc.keio.ac.jp/ 3fisch/（2009年２月現在）
７）日本 におけるドイツ 語学習者 を 念頭 に 置 いた 語彙 トレーニング 用 ソフトウェアの 評価 については、

Rude（2007）参照。
８）語彙学習に伴う困難については、Tütken（2006）を参照。
９）外国語学習と構築主義については、Wolff（2002）参照。

, pp. 21⊖31参照。
10）久保田賢一（2006）11）Börner（2000）, p. 48.
12）Arendt（1992）, p. 79.
13）Kielhöfer（1994）, p. 213参照。
14）テーマ別に語彙を学習するソフトの有効性については、Rüschoff/ Wolff（1999）, p. 216参照。
15）Kleinschroth（1992）, p. 76参照。
16）2006年度 には、携帯電話 でドイツ 語共通教材 の 動画 スケッチやキーセンテンスを 視聴 できる Mobilin
が、 また2007年度 には 慶應義塾大学湘南藤沢 キャンパス 小檜山賢二研究室 の MobdoM チームとの 共同
プロジェクトで 多言語対応携帯電話 が 開発 された。詳 しくは、『IT と 学習環境 プロジェクト

書』参照。
17）Leitner（1995）, p. 64以下参照。

66

中間報告

携帯電話対応 Web 単語帳 Multi Record の開発・運用・評価

18）平高史也／アンドレアス・ リースラント／藁谷郁美／木村護郎クリストフ／ マルコ・ ラインデル／太田達也（2007）『Modelle 1 neu（モデル１

問題発見のドイツ語改訂版）』三修社

19）アンドレアス・リースラント／藁谷郁美／木村護郎 クリストフ／平高史也（2005）『Modelle 2（モデル２

問題発見のドイツ語）』三修社

20）平高史也／アンドレアス・リースラント／藁谷郁美／木村護郎 クリストフ（2006）『Modelle 3（モデル３

問題発見のドイツ語）』三修社

21）Bérard, Evelyne / Canier, Yves / Lavenne, Christian (1996): TEMPO 1. Didier / Hatier, Paris.
22）同 じ 単語 であっても 学習者 によって 入力情報 に 違 いが 生 じたり、 あるいは 誤 った 情報 が 混在 したりする可能性はつねに存在するが、Multi Record の検索機能やコミュニティー機能、閲覧機能はあくまで学

習者同士の 情報共有・情報交換の 場 を 提供 するものとして位置 づけているため、管理者による修正 は 行
われない。

23）本調査の詳細については、第５章参照。
24）Bayerlein（1997）は、学習心理学 および 教授法的見地 に 基 づいて、語彙練習 ソフトの 備 えるべき 条件
リストを提示している。Bayerlein（1997）, p. 197以下参照。

25）現在公開 しているのは、SFC のドイツ 語 インテンシブコース、 ドイツ 語 ベーシックコース、 フランス 語 インテンシブコース、 フランス 語 スキルコース、 スペイン 語 インテンシブコース、中国語 インテン
シブコースの履修者に対してである。

67

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

参考文献

Arendt, Manfred (1992): Abkehr von der Klagemauer. In: Neusprachliche Mitteilungen, (2/1992), pp. 7581.

Bayerlein, Oliver (1997): Erwerb und Vermittlung von Wortschatz. Ein Beitrag zur Verbesserung desUnterrichts in Deutsch als Fremdsprache an japanischen Hochschulen. München.
Börner, Wolfgang (2000 ): Didaktik und Methodik der Wortschatzarbeit. Bestandsaufnahme und
Perspektiven. In: Kühn, Peter (Hrsg.): Wortschatzarbeit in der Diskussion. Hildesheim u.a.
Kielhöfer, Bernd (1994): Wörter lernen, behalten und erinnern. In: Neusprachliche Mitteilungen, (4/1994),
pp. 211-220.
Kleinschroth, Robert (1992): Sprachenlernen. Der Schlüssel zur richtigen Technik. Reinbek bei Hamburg.
Leitner, Sebastian (1995): So lernt man lernen. (12. Auflage). Freiburg.
Rüschoff, Bernd/Wolff, Dieter (1999): Fremdsprachenlernen in der Wissensgesellschaft. Zum Einsatz derneuen Technologien in Schule und Unterricht. Ismaning.
Rude, Markus (2007): Wortschatzerwerb aus linguistischer, psychologischer und informationstechnologischer
Perspektive und Implikationen für das Fremdsprachenlernen. In: Deutschunterricht in Japan 12, pp.
85-95.

Tütken, Gisela (2006): Wortschatzarbeit im Deutsch-als-Fremdsprache-Unterricht an der Hochschule
im Ausland – aber wie? Ein Vorschlag: Beispiel Japan. In: Informationen Deutsch als Fremdsprache(6/2006), pp. 501-543.
Wolff, Dieter ( 2002 ): Fremdsprachen als Konstruktion. Grundlagen für eine konstruktivistische
Fremdsprachendidaktik. Frankfurt am Main u. a.
久保田賢一（2006）：『構成主義パラダイムと学習環境デザイン』（関西大学出版部）
慶應義塾大学大学院政策・ メディア 研究科 ヒューマンセキュリティとコミュニケーション（HC） プログ
ラム『IT と学習環境プロジェクト

中間報告書』（2007年６月）

増子宗雄（2007）：『携帯電話対応多言語 web 単語帳「Multi Record」』2007年度慶應義塾大学総合政策学
部卒業制作

68

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

Learning Cultural Interaction
Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)
Mariko Muro Yokokawa1)
Clyde Lewis
Tomoko Yoshida
Abstract
During the Fall term of the 2006-2007 academic year, a teleconferencing class called“Broadening Perspectives: Understanding Culture Through Photography” (henceforth referred
to as UCTP) was held between Emery Secondary School in California and Reitaku University
and Keio University in Japan.
Analysis of the photographs the students chose for the four areas selected for discussion—Self-Introduction, Family, Friendship, and My Culture— as well as of their interactionsin class showed that although the students began with differing concepts of the “Self” anddifferent ways of expressing themselves and understanding others, they eventually developed
sensitivity towards their own cultural assumptions and towards potential misunderstanding
between cultures.
Teleconferencing provides a unique opportunity for students who otherwise would nothave had the chance to “meet” across the Pacific. Face-to-face meeting and actual exposure
to each other’s cultures could have developed the friendships they began to develop as well
as deepened cross-cultural understanding. However, the UCTP class has shown that the newtechnology born in the past decade can provide a novel type of interaction, one that could noteven have been imagined before the dawn of the Internet Age.

Ⅰ. Introduction

During the Fall term of the 2006-2007 academic year, the first teleconferencing class
was held between Emery Secondary School in California and Reitaku University and Keio69慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

University in Japan. The title of this experimental class was “Broadening Perspectives:
Understanding Culture Through Photography” (henceforth referred to as UCTP). The
students from each campus uploaded digital photographs on the four themes of Selfintroduction, Family, Happiness, and My Culture and discussed each photograph throughteleconferencing during the weekly sessions2).
The present study is based on the following: the photographs and descriptions, transcriptsof the sessions, and observations of all but one of the seven 2-hour sessions. The purpose wasto observe the interactions over the internet and attempt to answer the following questions:
How did the relationships among the students develop over the course of the sessions? Could
friendships and a sense of closeness develop through teleconferencing? Further, how did thestudents develop cultural awareness, both of each other and of their own culture? Finally, did
the students develop a “UCTP subculture” in the process, fully comprehensible to only theparticipants?
A brief description of the project will be followed by a section on methodology and a review
of observational studies of schools in both the United States and Japan. A description of
the site is followed by an analysis of the photographs used during the UCTP sessions anddescriptions and analyses of the interactions between the students. A discussion on thebenefits and limitations of cultural interaction over the internet and an analysis of the findings
sums up the paper.
A. Background of the Project
Below is a brief description of the three educational institutions chosen for the UCTP
classes, followed by a short outline of the class and its members:
Reitaku University is located in Chiba Prefecture, which is just west of Tokyo. The group
there was coordinated by Eriko Machi, Professor of the English Department and Clyde
Lewis, English Language Lounge Coordinator. Keio University held the UCTP classes at
its Hiyoshi campus, just outside of the city of Tokyo. The group at Keio was led by Tomoko
Yoshida, Michael Ainge, and Kenichi Kuradate.
Emery Secondary School is located in Emeryville on the east side of San Francisco Bay
in California, and like many of the schools in this area, has students from a wide variety ofsocioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds. The group at Emery was led by Mark Davis, Mary
Esther Augustine, and Donovan Moretz. Readers are referred to Lewis et al. (2007) andLewis et al. (2008) for more detailed descriptions of the schools and the UCTP program in70

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
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general.
A total of nineteen students, six from Emery and Keio and seven from Reitaku, participatedin this program, which continued for seven sessions. They are listed in Table A below:
Table A
Emery (identified as “E”)

Reitaku (as “R”)

Keio (as “K”)

Maurice
Lucia
Hanan
GG
Lien
Alex

Asuka
Yone
Taz
Shizu
Chi
Masa
Melo

Momoko
Shoko
Tami
Hiro
Oka
Sae
(Yuko--Student Assistant)

The students from each campus uploaded digital photographs with descriptions and thereasons for choosing them (on the four themes of Self-introduction, Family, Happiness, and My
Culture) onto the Broadening Perspectives webpage (http://flang.keio.ac.jp/uctp/index.html).
These photographs were discussed during the joint teleconferencing classes 3). During thecourse of the term, the students were randomly assigned to groups, with at least one member
from each campus, and worked together over the Internet to produce a photo essay book
(Emery, Reitaku, and Keio, 2006) at the end of the term, which was distributed to all thestudents and others in the three institutions.
The UCTP webpage includes the following: the course syllabus, faculty photos andshort biographies, student team assignments, students’ uploaded photographs (pass-key
encrypted), Broadening Perspectives’ Bulletin Board (BPB) (pass-key encrypted), participatingorganizations’ links, and a chat room. Students could comment on each other’s photos,
decide on a time to meet in the chat room for conversations, or post announcements on the
program’s message board to “meet” on the net outside of class (Lewis, et al. 2007).

B. Method
1. Method used in present study
To more fully understand how students developed through the UCTP class, we decided to
study them from a variety of angles using several different methods. First, to examine whether

71慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

the students’ intercultural sensitivity changed, we administered Bennett’s Intercultural
Development Inventory (Bennett and Hammer, 1998, 2001) as well as short essay questions
before and after the class (See Machi et al., 2008 for a detailed discussion). Second, to better
understand how students felt after the class, we conducted and analyzed focus groups withstudents from each site after the termination of the sessions (Manuscript in preparation).
As the first study focused on changes before and after the classes were conducted, while thesecond study interviewed students after the classes were over, we felt that a third study thatobserved the process of their interaction with each other over the entire set of sessions wasnecessary. This study fills this gap.
Observational methods are suitable for studying heretofore unexamined sites and groups
to discover what is actually going on, and to discover what questions might be further
investigated. Since the class observed was the first UCTP class, observational methods weredeemed appropriate for studying the process of its development.
The present study will first analyze the pictures that the students selected to discuss inclass. It will then concentrate on analyzing the communication between the students during
the teleconferencing class sessions. The students at the Hiyoshi campus of Keio University
were observed directly, and the students from the two other campuses were observed on thescreens in the Keio classroom during the Fall term of 2006-2007. Notes taken at six of theseven 2-hour sessions, based on methods developed by Spindler (1955, 1963, 1974, 1982,
1987), as well as transcripts of the sessions (totaling 66 pages) will be used, along with thephoto essay published by the students (Emery, Reitaku, and Keio, 2006) and the informationon the UCTP webpage.
2. Ethnography as a method for observing classes
Observational studies have traditionally been conducted in the field of anthropology,
studying the lives of peoples from remote societies that had not yet been studied, living withthem and participating in their lives over several years. Since the middle of the 20th century
the methods used in anthropology have come to be employed in studying less traditional sites,such as schools and classrooms in industrialized societies (Muro-Yokokawa, 1998).
George and Louise Spindler and their students have pioneered in applying ethnographic
methods to educational settings (Spindler, 1987, pp. 78-84). The books they have edited(George Spindler, 1955, 1963, 1974, 1982, 1987; Spindler and Spindler, 1987, 1994)
include (in addition to observational case studies by various writers) chapters devoted to the72

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
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methodology of observational research--particularly in Doing the Ethnography of Schooling(Spindler, 1982)--(See Muro-Yokokawa, 1998 for more details). The present study is basedon methods learned through the Spindlers’ classes at Stanford University as well as fromtheir books. Other books on qualitative methods include those by Glaser & Strauss (1967),
Schatzman & Strauss (1973), Johnson (1975), Agar (1980), Bogdan & Biklen (1982), Louis(1982) and van Willigen & Dewait (1985), and Emerson (2001).
Of particular interest to the present study are observational studies conducted at
educational institutions involving the two cultures that the UCTP participants come from.
Many ethnographic studies of schools in the United States and Canada, particularly ofminority schools or of the academically disadvantaged, have been conducted since the 1960s.
Some of these studies have been on Native American schools (King, 1967; Wolcott,1967;
Erikson and Mohatt, 1982), others on African-American Schools (Rosenfeld, 1971;
McDermott, 1974; Rist, 1979 ), and others on the academically or socially-disadvantagedof all ethnic groups (Everhart, 1982; Wilcox, 1982; Cusick, 1983; Page, 1987) or on white
minorities such as the Amish and the Hutterites (Hostetler, 1971; 1974).
There have also been a number of observational and anthropological studies on theadjustment of Japanese children at schools in the U.S., including Minoura’s study on
Japanese children in Los Angeles (1980), that of Farkas on the children of the Japanese
car manufacturers in Ohio (1983), and Muro’s study of Japanese children in schools in the
Washington, D.C. metropolitan area (1988).
On the other side of the Pacific, ethnographic studies on schools in Japan include those on
15 kindergartens (Catherine Lewis, 1984), pre-schools and elementary schools (Catherine
Lewis, 1995), an elementary school (Cummings, 1980), a junior high school (Singleton,
1967), and five high schools (Rohlen, 1983). For more details on how observational studies ona smaller scale are conducted, readers are referred to Muro-Yokokawa (1998).
The current study applies observational methods to a teleconferencing class. Although only
one of the groups could be observed directly, the other two groups could be seen and heard
on the screen. It is hoped that further studies from the viewpoint of the other two campuses
can provide different angles on the project as a whole.
Ⅱ. Description of Site and Activities

A. The Classroom in Keio, and Reitaku and Emery through the screens
The classroom used for UCTP at Keio’s Hiyoshi campus is a light, airy room surrounded on73慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

two sides by tall windows that let in a lot of natural light. In the center there is a long whitetable, which is actually a semi-circle connected to an oblong table. The students sit aroundthis table on the orange, red, blue, turquoise, green and yellow chairs that surround the table.
They are dressed in shirts, sweaters, and parkas. Various faculty members and technical staff
sit a little apart from the table. Towards the left of the table, the transcriber types rapidly on
her keyboard. In front of them to the left is a large screen that shows the students from all
three campuses and another screen that shows “net meeting”, with transcripts by Yuko, thestudent assistant.
The students at Reitaku are sitting in a semi-circle a little distance from a round table infront of them. The students in Emery are also sitting in a semi-circle, with no table in the
middle, sometimes glancing at the screen a little to the left of them. (This changed in thelater sessions as more space became available.) The students at Emery appear to be sitting up
straighter compared to the students in Japan, who often lean forward or sprawl on the table,
partly out of an attempt to hear the exchange over the internet more clearly.
B. Interactions with the other campuses
The students at Keio speak towards the microphone on the table, while looking at thestudents from the other two campuses on the screen. When they want to speak with someone
on the other campuses, they call out that person’s name and throw a yellow ball at the screen.
Someone at that campus throws a similar yellow ball at the person named, thereby giving theillusion that the ball crossed the ocean and fell into the lap of the respondent:
EXAMPLE
Momo: Alex, what do you think about this dish? (Throws ball at screen)(Ball is thrown to Alex)
Alex: I think the food in my restaurant is much better!
Most sessions began at 9:00 AM Saturday, Tokyo time, which is 5pm Friday in California,
and continued for about 2 hours. In the beginning, all the students from one campus
introduced each of their pictures on the theme under discussion, after which the students on
the other campuses (and sometimes at their own campus) asked questions or made comments
before moving on to explanations at the next campus. In the later sessions students from eachof the three campuses took turns introducing their picture, to prevent students from only one

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campus from talking at length at any one time. All four of the themes were discussed in thisway.
Let us look at how one of the sessions start:
Beginning of Week 3:
Machi-sensei can you see this [net meeting]? Can you please connect with us assoon as your Polycom is up?
Machi: Yes, I can type in. Net meeting is working.
Third week of Broadening Perspectives:
Now that we have started to know each other a little bit, I think it’s a good idea tostart to change how we do things.
This week: we will start with Lien, ok this is for ~~ (throws ball)At this point, Lien starts to talk about her picture for the week.
(Transcript, Week 3)
Before we look at the exchange between the students, let us see what photographs thestudents chose to illustrate each of the four themes.
Ⅲ. The Photographs

A. Descriptions of the Pictures
Each of the students was asked to submit a digital photograph with explanations on
the following four themes: Self Introduction, Family, Happiness, and My Culture4). The
photographs will be analyzed below by topic (See Appendix 1):① Self Introduction

Emery — Of the six pictures, three (G.G., Lucia, Maurice) are pictures of theindividual introducing him/herself, and one of them is a simple portrait with no othersignificant objects included. The other three pictures (Lien, Alex, Hanan) are picturesof objects or places, with two of the pictures showing personal creations [a painting(Lien) and a computer (Alex)] by the individuals concerned. There are no pictures ofgroups.

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慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Reitaku — Of the seven pictures, only two (Masa, Chii) are pictures of individuals,
and both of them are doing something. The one other picture with people in it is agroup picture of a sports team (Yone), but the individual concerned is not identified.
The other four pictures (Melo, Shizu, Asuka, Taz) are pictures of objects and places
without people, two of them of food (Melo, Azuka).
Keio — Of the six pictures, two are of individuals (Hiro, Tami), both surroundedby objects that identify their activities. The three pictures of groups (Yuko, Sae, Okachan) are all of sports teams, and only in one case (Yuko) is the individual specifically
identified. The other two pictures are of places (Shoko’s university) and objects(equipment from Momoko’s favorite sports).
② Family

Emery Of the six pictures, four (G.G.,Hanan, Alex, Lucia) are group pictures, two(G.G.,Hanan) of extended families and two (Alex, Lucia) of nuclear families. The one
picture of a baby (Lien) represents the whole family, again an extended family. The one
remaining picture (of Alex’s dining table) is symbolic.
Reitaku Of the seven pictures, only two (Chii, Asuka) show either group or
representative pictures of their family of birth (extended family). A symbolic picture(Melo) of a bunch of grapes with hands reaching out represents a nuclear family. The
other four (Masa, Shizu, Taz, Yone) pictures are all of “families” that are not related byblood, either of an adopted host family (Masa), or of groups of friends brought together
by proximity (Shizu, Taz, Yone).
Keio Only one (Momoko) picture shows all the members of an extended family. Of
the remaining pictures, three (Oka-chan, Yuko, Sae) are of pairs of siblings representing
the whole nuclear family. The other three are of objects connecting the family (Hiro’s
television, Shoko’s cell phone, and Tami’s letters).
③ Happiness:

Emery Of the six pictures, three (Hanan, Lien, Alex) deal with or actually show
family members, and two (Maurice, G.G.) are related to friends. Only one (Lucia)

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deals with a personal interest, shopping.
Reitaku The pictures are most varied here. Of the two (Aska, Masa) that deal withfamily, one (Aska) is of the family of birth, and one (Masa) of a host family. Of the two(Chii, Melo) that deal with friends, one is of the friendship with a student from Emery.
There is also one composite picture of multiple photographs (Taz), and one (Yone) of
personal interest (food).
Keio Of the six pictures, only two (Hiro, Sae) show any people, and both are doing
something (Hiro eating, Sae walking). The other four (Tami, Shoko, Oka-chan,
Momoko) pictures show examples of personal interests or hobbies (Tami’s collectionof antiques, Shoko’s tea ceremony building, Oka-chan’s violin, Momoko’s bath.) All six
pictures center on the individual rather than on friends or family.
④ My Culture:

Emery Of the three (Lucia, Lien, G.G.) dealing with traditional themes, two (Lien,G.G.) were of religious activities. On the other hand, one (Hanan) deals with modern,global culture (technology), and one with the individual (Maurice). The last one (Alex)is a composite picture of the new subculture born from the interactions inside the
UCTP class.
Reitaku There is also one (Melo) composite picture of the new subculture bornfrom the interactions within the UCTP class at Reitaku. The other pictures are split
between introducing modern culture and traditional culture. The three (Aska, Yone,
Masa) dealing with modern culture introduce trends currently popular in other parts of
the world—“Otaku” culture, manga, and Japanese fashion. The three (Taz. Chii, Shizu)
dealing with traditional culture introduce elements considered “typically Japanese”—
mochi, kimonos, and tatami rooms.
Keio The six pictures here include only one (Sae) example from “traditional”
culture—rice in its many manifestations. There is also one (Tami) photo of friends
from many cultures. The other four (Hiro, Momoko, Oka-chan, Shoko) deal with
culture more on the level of everyday life—sleeping on the train (Hiro), using cell77慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

phones (Momoko), ecological consciousness (Oka-chan), and interest in brand namefashions (Shoko).
B. Common themes and Differences— Comparisons and Contrasts
1. Differing concepts of the “Self”
The clearest difference appeared among the first set of pictures, “Self Introduction”.
First, the explanations accompanying the pictures from Emery are generally on a positivenote, pointing out the strong points of each individual:− “I took a picture of a painting I am most proud of.” (Lien)− …my avid participation in both school and church…two is always better than one.”(Maurice)
“This is a huge accomplishment for me…” (Alex)“…I can say that I’m a really gregarious person, hardy, and a very very funny one” (G.G.)
“I love learning new things and am happy that I have the chance to explore otherpeoples’ culture in the world.” (Lucia)
Second, the focus of the pictures from Emery is on the individual. In other words,
introducing the “self” is equated with introducing the “individual”. The comments above
introduce individual personalities and accomplishments. The answer to the question of“Self-Identity” is assumed to be that of the personality and individuality that resides within aparticular person.
On the other hand, in introductions of the “Self”, students from both Japanese schools do
not necessarily focus on the individual. Although two pictures each from both Reitaku and
Keio are of individuals, the focus is on what they do or where they belong, rather than on
their personalities or achievements:− “I like traveling…other cultures help me grow as a person, and inspire me to study
foreign languages.” (Masa-R)− “I am a senior in the English Department at Reitaku University. I belong to theDance Club. I have been dancing for 4 years.” (Chii-R)− “[These are]…reference books that I used to prepare for entrance exams [that]
represent my high school days…comic books which represent my childhood…[and]78Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
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CDs which represent me now.” (Hiro-K)− “I’m a freshman and major in Business and Commerce…I like traveling abroad so I
can experience differences in culture and religion.” (Tami-K)[All quotes are from Emery, Reitaku, and Keio, 2006]
Further, four of the pictures from Japan introducing “Self”( one from Reitaku and three
from Keio) are group pictures; further, only one of the comments on the group pictures
specifically identifies the individual concerned. The individual is not even in the other six
pictures —or any people, for that matter. They are all pictures of objects or places. There wasonly one such picture (Hanan’s picture of her neighborhood) from Emery.
In a book entitled Japanese Sense of Self, Rosenberger quotes the following passage on how
the Western assumption that “self” is synonymous with the “individual” does not hold with theJapanese concept of the self:
The study of Japanese concepts of self helps us as Western-trained scholars tounderstand the self as firmly embedded in the culturally constructed world. The very
word for self in Japanese, jibun, implies that self is not an essentiality apart from thesocial realm. Jibun literally means “self part”—a part of a larger whole that consists ofgroups and relationships. Jibun is always valued in relation to that larger whole.
(Dumont, 1970, as quoted in Rosenberger, 1992)
The questions from Emery to the Japanese students reveal the contrasting concepts ofthe self. The students from Emery ask questions of individual preference (“What do you likebest?”) or try to fill in details of daily habits and routines by asking specific questions thatdifferentiate the individual from the sum of his activities and affiliations:− “What do you like best in your university?”− “So you love nature? Does your major in college prepare you to work in nature?”− “Who’s your favorite artist?”− “Do you ever drink out of the cups or are they for decoration?”− “Do you have trouble sleeping because you drink so much coffee?”− “Which of those items in the picture most represents yourself?”(Transcript of Week 2)

79慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

2. Similarities across Cultures, Differences within Cultures
The pictures chosen for “Family” and “Happiness” sometimes show more similarities acrosscultures rather than within cultures. For example, three of the seven pictures of “Family” from
Emery were of extended families or representatives of extended families. Both of the picturesof blood-related families from Reitaku were of extended families.
On the other hand, all the pictures from Keio, whether of the family, representatives of thefamily, or representative objects, are of nuclear families, with the exception of one photographwhich also includes a grandmother.
The dining table—“a place where family members can come together and talk and ‘hangout’”— chosen by Maurice from Emery, is very similar in symbolic meaning to the bunchof grapes chosen by Melo of Reitaku—“we always eat grapes when we talk and watch TV.”
Regarding “Happiness”, the theme of food was common to all three campuses, and both
Reitaku and Emery students included “family” and “friends” as important to their happiness.
All six of the students from Keio, however, chose pictures of interests, daily pleasures(bathing, eating) or hobbies that gave them individual happiness rather than anything directly
related to family or friends. Also, it was interesting that four of the seven students at Reitaku
chose people that were not related to them by blood as “Family”. The reason many of themgave was that they were currently not living with their family of birth.
One of the differences across cultures was that the Emery students often defined whatfamily means to them, while the Reitaku students only did this when explaining why theychose people not related to them by blood:Emery− “The word FAMILY means to me something and someone who you can rely on andtrust.” (G.G.)− “She shows that family is about unconditional love and care.” (Lien)		

Vs.

Reitaku− “But they are like a real family. You cannot imagine how close they are.” (Masa)− “We all share common feeling [sic], such as sadness, happiness, sometimes anger.
“It is not too much to say ‘This is my family in Tokyo.’”(Taz)− “Since we live together, we help each other. They are very important to me and they
are like my sisters.” (Shizu)(All quotes are from Emery, Reitaku, and Keio, 2006)

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Another difference is that Japanese students talk more about what the family does together(four out of seven at Reitaku, three out of six at Keio)—for example, eat grapes, watch TV,
go out to restaurants, or visit family graves together. Although two of the six Emery students
do mention activities their families do together, it is not central to their definition of family.
Rosenberger (1992) has this to say about the importance of material objects in connecting themultiplicity of selves in Japan:
Multiplicity of selves also emerges in relations with material objects. Objects areinvested with cultural meanings and therefore their use helps construct various aspectsof selves and social relations…this idea [is extended] into different arrangements ofnature—cherry blossoms around a temple or urban greenery—that also constitutevarious interactions of self and society. (p. 15)
3. The Different Ways of Understanding “Culture”
The students showed a wide variety of ways of interpreting the concept of “culture”. Amongthe students at Emery, two chose religious themes—a Hindu temple and a Buddhist shrine
honoring ancestors. Although the latter is very similar to the family shrines in many Japanese
homes, none of the Japanese chose this or any other religious theme as representative of hisor her culture.
The others at Emery included one on African clothes, which represent the tradition of theland where Lucia was born, one on the future culture of technology, and one that dealt withthe constantly changing and unpredictable nature of life. There was also one, by Alex, on
the composite subculture that the students from the three campuses had built together. It
became the cover of the photo book the students put together at the end of the term (Emery,
Reitaku, and Keio, 2006).
There was also one picture from Reitaku of a video screen showing the three campuses
which represents the composite subculture born from interaction within the UCTP class.
The other pictures split evenly between “traditional” Japanese culture—mochi, kimonos, andtatami rooms—and modern versions of Japanese culture—maid cafes and otaku, manga, andmen’s fashion magazines. Both appear to manifest a certain self-consciousness about what
foreigners might consider to be “Japanese culture”. Further, the explanations of traditional
culture often revealed difficulty in explaining traditional Japanese objects and practices tothose not familiar with them:81慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号− We have Tatami mat for flooring and Shoji for sub-window. (Shizu)− For example, we have Kimono, Yukata, and Hakama for both men and for women.
The clothes which people are wearing in the picture is the Hakama. We wear the
Hakama especially in the graduation ceremony. (Chii)
Both explanations repeat Japanese words without defining them, though more details were
given when describing the pictures during the sessions. Contrast this with the descriptionof Hakama by Yuko, who lived in the United States until high school. It shows a more metacultural awareness of such terms viewed from the outside:− The (navy) clothes I’m wearing is called “hakama.” It looks like a skirt but it’s actually
really billowy pants (Yuko)
The pictures from Keio take a different approach and are more tied to culture as seenin everyday life—sleeping on the train, using cell phones, shopping for brand name bags,
and becoming aware of ecology. Even the picture dealing with rice explains how its various
derivations have become a part of Japanese food products. This approach may stem from thefact that most of the students had experience abroad and/or had taken classes in culture andcommunication.
Ⅳ. Interactions on Culture

The discussions over the internet showed that over time the students developed a better
understanding of each other’s culture. There were, however, certain cultural elements thatremained difficult to understand or to explain. Usually it was more difficult for the American
students to understand Japanese culture than the other way around. In most part this was
because American culture and businesses have permeated all parts of the world, so thatJapanese students were already familiar with McDonald’s or Hip Hop music. The Japanese
students are also older and more widely traveled, and many of them have lived in the UnitedStates. Japanese students may also have asked for less clarification, as they are more reluctant
to ask questions, often assuming that it is either their own lack of English ability or their lackof knowledge which is to blame (Muro, 2000).

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A. Questions that revealed a lack of understanding the whole picture
Especially in the beginning, there were questions that revealed that the students from
Emery did not understand exactly what the Japanese students were talking about:
Melo-R5):	Onigiri is a rice ball and Japanese people always eat it as a meal or a snack.
I eat it almost everyday…
		 It’s made of salmon, rice, and dried seaweed.
		 …
Q-Emery: What do you like to put in the onigiri?
A: Iwanori. Dried Seaweed.
Q: Is iwanori sweet?
A: No, it’s not sweet, it’s salty.
Q:	Can you eat that without seafood? Because I don’t like anything that comesfrom the ocean.
A: You can put anything you want in it.
Q: Do you guys have hot sauce? (tabasco) Do you eat rice with hot sauce?
(Transcript from Week 2)
The questions about seaweed revealed that the students were really not familiar with its
taste, or did not understand that onigiri is essentially a rice ball. Although the question about
using hot sauce on rice seems strange by Japanese standards, hot sauces are often eaten with
Mexican rice or gumbo in the United States.
It would have been more helpful to provide an analogy in the beginning to something intheir culture—“They are quick, convenient things to eat, like hot dogs or hamburgers.”—
rather than let the discussion get side tracked into the merits and tastes of seaweed. Although
this is missing in the transcript, one of the Emery students eventually provided such ananalogy.
Another example is that of the meaning of cherry blossoms in Japan. This is how Taz from
Reitaku began to introduce himself:− “There are many cherry blossoms in Shizuoka and it is very beautiful in the spring.
When I see these cherry blossoms, I recognize that I’m Japanese.”(Transcript, Week 2)

83慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Although the Emery students did not pursue this point, there have been examples of cases
when the cultural meaning of cherry blossoms and cherry blossom-viewing was totally lost
to non-Japanese. In the Japanese version of his book on intercultural communication, John
Condon (1980) described how he showed a picture of cherry blossom-viewing to a class ofAmerican students and asked them to point out what was significant. The most common
answer was “Shoes!”. Why were there shoes outside, lined up by the mat? I have showeda picture of cherry blossom viewing in class to international students and gotten a similar
response. To them, the cherry blossoms are part of the background, just as they would be inJapan when the flowers are replaced with leaves a few weeks later.
B. Detailed explanations vs. explanations in context/comparisonsSome detailed cultural explanations have no meaning if they are not explained outsideof the context in which they appear. For example, flooding the Emery students with details
about the special foods eaten in Japan during New Year’s (Osechi) is only meaningful if theyknow of the significance of New Year’s in Japan (someone did point this out later in a different
context) and have some idea of how the colorful and elaborate foods are arranged in a lacquer
box:
Osechi explanation
Maurice-E: What do you usually eat on New Year’s Day in Japan?
Chi-R:	With just my family, my mother, dad and brother we eat osechi. Traditional
dish that we eat in the New Year. We call it osechi ryouri.
		It’s in a box. There’s like shrimp, beans. There’s meaning for everything
you eat. Some bring happiness. Some bring longevity. So we eat that on
New Year’s.
Lein-E: Do you have special decorations for New Year’s?
Chi-R:	Yes, we put bamboo in front of the house. Actually pine? Decorated pinebranches in front of the house--in front of the door.

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		Most of the cars put [on] a rope ... a special decorative rope. It’s hard to
explain this in words.

(Transcript, Week 4)

On the other hand, the Japanese students often did not pursue things that they did not fully
understand. For example, when there was a discussion on baseball, it appeared that Hiro from
Keio (and perhaps some of the other Japanese) did not immediately understand what “World
Series” meant; yet neither he nor the other Japanese students asked any questions and let thediscussion go on:
Q: We’re getting ready to start the World Series here.
A: Let’s enjoy the World Series. (Transcript, Week 2)This partly stems from a difference in styles of explaining and asking questions. Americans
try to clarify things step by step (Sakamoto, 2004, p. 49-50), while Japanese are more apt
to listen quietly to the end. In With Respect to the Japanese Condon (1984) includes thefollowing complaints (from a 10-item list) that Japanese often make of American patterns ofcommunication:
1. Americans talk too much “they seem uncomfortable with silence and as a result
chatter on about meaningless things.”
2. Americans don’t listen enough “They seem too eager to raise questions and put forth
their own ideas before hearing out what is to be said.”
3. A mericans are too direct in asking questions, giving opinions, and poking fun (p. 37)
The corollary reaction of Americans to the reluctance of Japanese to ask questions or clarify
points is expressed as:
1. The Japanese are so polite and so cautious that we never know what they arethinking “Some Japanese ask probing questions, but most just listen quietly, nodding
and seeming to agree.
2. The Japanese use vague words and ambiguous expressions so that it is hard to know

where they stand. (Condon, 1984, p. 38)85

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

C. Disadvantages of Interaction over the Internet
Especially during the first few UCTP sessions, problems with internet connection often
disrupted the discussions. Sometimes the two Japanese institutions were connected witheach other, but Emery was disconnected, or only one of the schools would be connected with
Emery. Even when connected, the sound quality would sometimes be poor, or the images
stilted or hard to see. This made communication especially difficult, particularly for those
speaking in a foreign language, as many of the non-verbal and paralinguistic cues were also
cut off.
Even when the connections are relatively good, it is hard to read facial expressions anddetect changing tones of voice through the screen; those who are not clear verbally are placed
at a disadvantage when talking through the screens. This made communication difficult
especially for the Japanese, who were already speaking in a language that was not native tothem and also rely more on non-verbal communication to begin with:…in many ways, Japanese prefer nonverbal messages to those expressed in words.
Americans, on the other hand, place much more trust in words than on fleeting
impressions…in one, spoken words are not so highly prized and are not necessarily to
be taken at face value. In the other, verbal messages are central and people are held
accountable for what they say. (Condon, 1984, p. 45)
D. Ability to see the other’s perspective—“Emery, do you know…”
As the weeks went by, however, the Japanese students in particular began to see theimportance of clarifying cultural customs, either by explaining or demonstrating what they
were trying to describe. Questions such as “Emery, do you know x...?” and “Emery, do you
understand?” “Should we demonstrate?” became more frequent, as can be seen from this
discussion on Japanese comics:
Sae-K: Do you read girl’s comics?
Yone-R: I like “Fushigi Yugi”. It’s a little old...
		 *Emery, do you know “One Piece” or “Naruto “or “Dragon Ball”?
		 Do you know “One Piece”?
Maurice-E: Yeah! I know that!

86(Transcript, Week 7)

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

Instead of trying to explain everything in words, sometimes it was easier just to demonstrate.
For example, when Shoko-K was talking about tea ceremonies, a question came up about how
people sit on tatami mats in Japan. Hiro-K demonstrated by sitting on the table, legs folded(Transcript, Week 4).
Similarly, when Taz from Reitaku explained how to make mochi (pounded rice cakes), Hirofrom Keio again offered to demonstrate, using an umbrella as the mallet or pounder:
Taz-R: This is a picture of making mochi. In the winter we make mochi.
		Mochi is steamed rice made into a rice cake. This is the traditional way
to make mochi, but now not many Japanese people make mochi this way.
Recently, we make mochi by machine…
*Chi-R: Can you imagine what these are Emery? Have you ever ate [sic] mochi?
Alex-E: No, I’ve never.
*Hiro-K: I’ll demonstrate it. *with SAE*
Tomoko: Thank you Hiro! You can sit down.

(Transcript, Week 8)

E. Cultural Understanding and Misunderstanding
1. Culture in the abstract vs. “living” culture
As was mentioned in the section on pictures of “My Culture”, students interpreted the term
“culture” in various ways. Some gave examples from “culture” in more static, traditional forms
such as religion or New Year foods, while others gave more personal, current examples fromdaily life.
When talking about culture with people who are not familiar with that culture, there are
two tendencies that seem to appear. One is to tailor the cultural example to what the students
feel “foreigners” think is “typical” of that culture—Mt. Fuji, kimonos, cherry blossoms, or the
more modern equivalents of manga or high tech goods. The other is to go into minute detail
trying to explain traditional objects or practices, often using terms that are in themselves
confusing to the other side:− “…we eat osechi. Traditional dish that we eat in the New year’s.
− We call it osechi ryouri.”− “We have a tatami mat for the floor and a shoji for the window.”

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2. Placing cultural elements in context
Some elements cause misunderstanding because the same things are interpreted differently
by people of different cultures. Other cultural elements can only be understood wheninterpreted into the context of one’s own culture. Photographs, that by their very nature often
include unintended features and items, can give birth to interesting discussions that reveal
these differing interpretations and provide opportunities to re-state the unfamiliar elements interms of one’s own culture.
In the following example, the specific color of the jackets the students from Reitaku wore
appeared to be salient to the Emery students, but for a different reason than for the Japanese
students:
Taz-R:	I am a member of the school festival committee and this picture shows themembers of my Department…
*Q-E: Why are you all wearing blue jackets?
A:	I don’t know. When I entered the university, [or] from when the school festival
started, the jacket has been blue.
*Q: Is blue your school color?
A:	No, the General Affairs Department’s is blue, other Departments are different
colors…
Q: What is the school color?
A: Green.
Q: What is Emery’s school color?
A: Blue and Gold.

(Transcript of Week 3)

The Emery students also tried to provide analogies from their own culture (homecoming,
pep rally) to try to understand what a “school festival” is in Japan:
Q: Emery, do you have a school festival?
*A:	No, we don’t. But a pep rally is almost like a school festival. Homecoming
is also like one. This is when people come together to have a competition
to choose the King. Homecoming is also like a place where classes cometogether and unify and show school spirit. It gets students excited aboutschool. It’s a chance for alumni to come back, too.

88(Transcript of Week 3)

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
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Since school colors are a significant cultural morpheme in the United States, the question
from Emery about the color of jackets revealed that they thought the color itself (blue) had
some significance, while the Japanese students probably did not see significance in the color
per se, but rather saw wearing the same color (any color) as a symbol of group unity. School
festivals are similarly understood in the context of Homecoming and pep rallies, with which
the students from Emery are familiar.
3. Forming their own Subculture/Friendships
Towards the end of the 8-week sessions, the students in the UCTP program began todevelop a consciousness of forming their own subculture, a set of shared experiences, anda form of friendship across the screens. The students from Reitaku and Keio had occasion
to meet each other in person both during and after the program, and appeared to feel likethey were instant friends when they did.6) Although we know only of Melo from Reitaku who
actually visited Emery, some of the students keep contact over MySpace and Facebook.
a) Conscious Expressions of a Shared Subculture
Melo chose a photograph of herself at Emery with Alex for the “Happiness” section. She
and Alex also created different composite pictures for their “Culture” section. Alex took
a picture of all the sweets that the Japanese students had sent, and labeled the picture“TOMODACHI” [Friends]. Melo took a picture of a composite screen showing the three
screens from all three campuses to express her “Culture”.
b) Inside Jokes and Allusions to the Past:
As the weeks went by, the students also began to share past experiences and jokes among
themselves. The Japanese bathtub Momoko from Keio chose for her “Happiness” picture
generated a lot of discussion and explanations:
MOMOKO-K:	My happiest time is when I’m taking a bath. I love taking a bath.
Everyday I’m in the bathtub for about an hour. Sometimes it’s morethan an hour when I feel really relaxed. In there, I think about manythings like what did I do today? What am I gonna do tomorrow?
Sometimes about my life. I also read magazines. You see the lid? I put
the lid on the bath and then put the magazine on top of it to read the89慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

magazine.
		 …..
Q-E:	Is the pillow soft? [the pink hearted-shaped pillow on the edge of thebathtub]
A: The pillow is very soft and feels good.
Q: Do you use candles to take baths?
A: No. Do you?
Aska-R: Yes. I use candles with a nice smell.
		 …..
		~Comparison with American bath tubs: Deeper bath tub in Japan. It
also looks smaller. Twice the depth.
Gigi-E: Do you talk to yourself?
		 …..
A:	I think in Japan we wash our body and faces and hair and then go into
the bath. We usually take our time. About a half hour or an hour in thebath tub. Everybody goes into the same bath tub so we have to keep it
clean. There’s a big difference.
Q: How do you keep the water hot?
A:	We can keep the water hot automatically, when we press the button,
the machine works and keeps the water hot. A heating system in thebathtub.
(Abbreviated version, from Transcript, Week 6)
Later on, when Hiro from Keio said something about how the trains and buses in the
United States were not as safe as those in Japan, there was an allusion to the Japanesebathtubs from Emery:Hiro-K: Which is more dangerous, using buses or using the subway?
*Emery:	Bus. I don’t see the danger of sleeping on a train. It’s more dangerous tosleep in a bathtub than on a train. [Emphasis mine](Transcript, Week 7)
Another inside joke that surfaced later was generated by the picture that Hiro posted

90

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)of himself sleeping on the train in the section of “My Culture”. Here is how the original
conversation went:
Hiro:	…. I think one of the most original factor[s] is that Japan is still very
peaceful. In Europe and the US I heard that it's incredible to sleep on the
train. That's why I think this represents Japanese culture well.
		 …..
Q: Who took this picture?
A (Hiro): My friend took it for me. I really appreciate her cooperation.
		 *HER?! at 11pm at night?*
Q: How long have you known her?
A (Hiro):	Actually I’m talking about Japanese culture and not about my personal life.
Please comment about my picture.
		*Hiro will become a great politician, not mentioning his personal life and[sic] all*

(Transcript, Week 6)

The following week, the topic of the mysterious female photographer came up again inconnection with Maurice’s photograph from Emery and was picked up by Melo and Aska
from Reitaku and Oka and Hiro from Keio. Note that this conversation transverses all three
campuses:
Maurice-E: [I don’t want to jump], Not right now...
		 it’s to show that I'm spontaneous.
Oka&Hiro-K: Who took the picture? (You are today’s victim...)Hiro-K: Last class, she was really just my friend.
Melo-R: It’s ok. Take it easy.
Aska-R: Why are you so upset?
Hiro-K: Nothing!

(Transcript, Week 7-- Last week)c) Shared objects—the yellow ball, snacks, gifts
As is discussed in some detail in Lewis, et al. (2007, p. 4-5), the students had opportunities
to share objects in the real world as well as in the virtual world. The yellow balls mentioned
above gave the illusion that the three campuses were within ball-throwing distance. The

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慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

students also had a chance to share snacks from the other side of the Pacific while observing
each other taste the unfamiliar snacks they had sent to the other side. In addition, at
Christmas time students from each of the campuses sent gifts to students in the other two
campuses, and opened them on screen. In this way, they were able to share more than what
the two senses-- of sight and sound-- allowed over the screens, and were able to add a senseof reality to their virtual experiences.
The question of whether similar results can be replicated is discussed in the section below:
Ⅴ. The Benefits and Limits of Cultural Interaction over the Net

A. Advantages
One of the many advantages of this kind of class is that it gives those who might otherwise
not have had the chance the opportunity to interact and become familiar with one anotherin an educational setting, enabling them to ask questions that may have gone unasked andunanswered. For example, after the first day of class, some students from Reitaku (Japan)
were surprised to learn that all of the students from Emery Secondary school were fromdifferent ethnic backgrounds. Teleconferencing allowed the participants to make observations
that they would have been unable to had the class been between pen pals or strictly based one-mails.
When the students from Keio University and Reitaku University first met in person, theysaid they felt as though they had known one another for a long time, since they had been
meeting and chatting with each other every week through teleconferencing. They were able
to openly express their opinions and ideas from the beginning, which is unusual in the moreformal atmosphere of Japan.
The structure of this class (e.g. videoconferencing, intercultural, led by instructors) allowed
participants to overcome some of the difficulties associated with meeting new people,
especially those from an unfamiliar culture. Although the students were from “separate”
cultures, they were able to overcome their initial nervousness and better understand thatpeople can see and understand the world through multiple perspectives.
Another advantage was that since all three groups were in their home culture, none of
the groups had the cultural advantage of surrounding everyone else with their own culture,
as would have been the case had the class been held entirely in either Japan or the UnitedStates. Teleconferencing can provide a neutral third culture within which discussions can be
held.

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Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
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B. Limitations
While there are many advantages to a class like UCTP, there are also limitations. While notbeing hosted by either culture provided a more neutral cultural milieu, the setting also madetime and distance the two biggest obstacles to smoother communication. The students from
Emery Secondary (California) were by and large excluded from actually meeting the Japanese
students face-to-face (with the exception of Melo, who traveled to California to meet Alex).
Although a sense of familiarity grew from socialization during the teleconferencing class,it did limit some of the benefits which could be gained from face –to-face meetings. Had thestudents been given the opportunity to meet each other outside of class, the friendships thatwere established during class could have been strengthened.
Although the students from Keio University and Reitaku University were both in Japan, thetwo-hour distance between the two campuses made meeting each other difficult, even though
the instructors did organize events at midway locations off campus. For the Emery Secondary
School students, distance would prove even more of a hindrance, as students would have had
to pay for an airplane flight, hotel, and other expenses.
Conversations outside of class could have helped the Emery Secondary School students tobetter understand some of the things discussed in class (e.g. mochi making). Communication
through sight and sound alone can be limiting, especially when the sound quality or images
were not always clear.
During the semester that UCTP was conducted, California was 16 hours behind Japan,
which made gathering the students difficult. Students in Japan were expected to be at theschool at 9 am on a Saturday, while the American students had to wait until 5 pm Friday
night. In addition, differences in academic calendars, daylight savings time changing in the
middle of the course, as well as holidays and school festivals disrupted the schedule.

Conclusion
Through observing the students in the UCTP class from their first session to their last, aunified “class” seemed to emerge from what originally were three separate groups of students
on three separate screens. What at first seemed like a group of six young people at Keio seatedaround a table anxiously leaning towards a screen trying to discern the sounds of varying
quality, gradually evolved into an exchange of jokes and explanations going back and forthamong students at the three campuses. Even though they were, in fact, only connected by thescreens in front of them, they appeared to become members of a single class.

93慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

In that sense, “real” relationships did seem to develop among the members of this far-flungclass. Without the benefits of the internet and the framework provided by this class, it isunlikely that the six high school students from a suburb of San Francisco would have ended
up in the same class as college students from the Tokyo metropolitan area.
In fact, it was almost as unlikely that underclassmen from the southern end of the greater
Tokyo Metropolitan area would ever have met upperclassmen on the far western end of thearea, separated as they were by over two hours of travel by public transportation. In addition,in age-conscious Japan, the upperclassmen at Reitaku and the freshmen and sophomores at
Keio were unlikely to form friendships under other circumstances, or even be in the sameclassroom.7)
After their seven sessions together, the people on the other end of the screen were no longer“the American kids”, but became Alex, Maurice, Lucia, G.G., Lien, and Hanan. Similarly,“the Reitaku students” became Asuka, Melo, Masa, Shizu,, Taz, Chii, and Yone. The same
was presumably true of their feelings towards the Keio students. When the students from thetwo Japanese universities met in person, they acted like old friends. After Melo visited Emeryand became friends with Alex, they both chose composite pictures representing their UCTP
experience as “My Culture”.
The above examples show that teleconferencing provides opportunities to meet and interact
with people who they would otherwise not meet, and also show that such contact helps
to break down the initial barriers when meeting in person. The same examples also show,
however, that face to face contact appears necessary for the relationship to develop further.
It would be interesting to see how the students would feel if they were to meet each other inperson for the first time after several years have passed.
From the point of view of cultural awareness, particularly self-consciousness about one’s
own culture, the benefits were more apparent. The analysis of the photographs they selectedin the four areas—Self-Introduction, Family, Friendship, and My Culture—and of the
discussions that developed over these photographs showed that although they began withbasic differences in concepts of the “Self” as well as with different approaches to expressing
themselves and understanding others, the students from the three campuses eventuallybecame more sensitive towards potential cultural misunderstanding.
Instead of assuming that the Emery students understood words and concepts that they
themselves were already familiar with, the Japanese students started asking “Emery, doyou understand?” far more often in the later sessions. The Emery students in turn began to94

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

provide analogies that tried to put unfamiliar events like Japanese school festivals into thecontext of events they were already familiar with. It is hoped that the ongoing study based on
post-session focus groups will reveal how the students themselves felt about becoming moreculturally aware.
Towards the end of the sessions, the students started to share inside jokes and allusions
as well as the sweets and presents from each other that they were able to share on-screen.
Had the class continued a while longer and the students had the opportunity to meet eachother in person, these shared experiences might have developed into what might be called a“UCTP subculture”. In fact, Alex from Emery and Melo from Reitaku—who did meet eachother and become friends--both posted different composite pictures symbolizing their UCTP
experience as their “My Culture” photograph. Again it will be interesting to see how thestudents themselves felt about the UCTP experience as the beginning of the formation of a
new subculture.
Face-to-face meeting and actual exposure to each other’s cultures could have developed
their friendships and deepened cultural understanding. However, the UCTP class has shownthat the new technology born in the past decade can provide a novel type of interaction that
could not even have been conceived of before the start of the Internet Age.

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慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Acknowledgements
UCTP was part of the Keio Research Center for Foreign Language Education’s Action Oriented
Plurilingual Language Learning Project (AOP), funded by the “Academic Frontier” Project for Private
Universities which matched a fund subsidy from MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Scienceand Technology), 2006. Special thanks are extended to the support provided by the faculty and staff
at the three institutions, and to the students for their enthusiasm, insight, and inspiration. This study
would not have been possible without them, particularly the thorough transcripts provided by the student
assistant, Yuko Hirose.

Notes1) Corresponding Author
2) The sessions were usually held every Saturday Tokyo time (Friday, California time), but vacations andother breaks interrupted the schedule several times.
3)

Professor Michael Ainge suggested this method of using photography for cultural learning after

attending the workshop Using Photography in Intercultural Communication Teaching and Training,facilitated by Dr. John Condon and Dr. Miguel Gandert at the Summer Institute for Intercultural
Communication, from July 31st –August 4th 2006.
4) The students interpreted what each of these terms meant to them, including “My Culture”.
5)

The student’s school is identified by “E” for Emery, “R” for Reitaku, and “K” for Keio. (“Melo-R”

means “Melo from Reitaku”)
6) A study on interviews of the students in this program is in progress. The findings should be able totell us what they felt about their friendship and how they felt and acted when they first met “off net”.
7) In fact, Keio has two separate campuses for students in the same department, one for the freshmen

and sophomores and another for the juniors and seniors. This pattern is fairly common among the older
universities.

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Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
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99慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

APPENDIX 1: LAYOUT OF PICTURES AND EXPLANATIONSSELF INTRODUCTION
Emery

Individual

Keio

G.G.

Masa

Hiro

This is a picture of me. Well i reallyknow dont what to say but i can saythat im a really gregarious person,
hardy, and a very very funny one. I
just love to laugh and play, and havea good time with my family andfriends. =) GG

Hi guys. I’m Masanori Yanagisaki.
Just call me Masa. This is the
picture I took in New York. I liketraveling. I have been to Boston,
New York, Thailand, and Cambodia.
Other culture makes me grow up,
and inspires me to study foreign
language. If you know good place tovisit, please tell me

The right pile are reference books
and textbooks used for the entrance
exam which represents my recent
high school days. The center pile
are comic books which represents
my childhood. The left pile are CDs
which represents me now.

Lucia

Chii

Tami

My name is Lucia Fallah. This
picture represents who I am, what
I do, my social life, and my abilityof how I see different things around
me. I love getting to know people
and learning about what makes
them unique. I love learning newthings and am happy that I havethe chance to explore other peoples
culture in the world.

Hi, everybody. I’m Chii.Nice tomeet you all! I am senior in English
department in Reitaku. I belong toDance circle. I have been dancing
for 4 years. What I proud of myself
is my excellent white teeth!!

Hi! My name is Misato Takanishi.
Please call me Tami.

Maurice
In this picture I am holding twotrombones. One I play at school andthe other I play at church. This picture
also symbolizes my avid participationin both school and church...two isalways better than one.

100

ReitakuLearning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

Group

Yone

Yuko

Hey guys. I’m Yone, a senior in the
English Department at Reitaku
University. My favorite hobby isvolleyball. I’ve been playing volleyballfor ten years. It is impossible for me
to live without volleyball.

Sorry for the late introduction! I
will be helping this class as Ms.
Tomoko’s assistant and possibly as aparticipant. Last week’s session was
great and I’m excited how things will
unfold in the next two months:) My
name is Yuko and this is a picture ofme doing Japanese Archery. I grew
up in America and moved back here
at the beginnig of high school. I wasin this club for 3 years of high school,
and the people in the club and thesport itself taught me many things(some of my teammates you can see
in the background). It was the firsttime that I was truly able to enjoy
Japanese traditional culture first handand it’s one of my favorite hobbies.
*The (navy) clothes I’m wearing iscalled “hakama.” It looks like a skirt
but it’s actually really billowy pants.

No group pictures
for Emery

Sae
This is my team mates. I’m in thecenter wearing Micky Mouse T’shirt.
I play basketball.

Oka-chanHello everyone! I’m Nozomi Oka.
Please call me “OKA-chan”. I’mreally excited that I can join in thisprogram. I’m going to explain my
picture. I am a cheerdancer. I started
it when I was in high school. My
team was very strong and we got
the first prize in high school teem
division and the grandchampion of
all divisions in a big competition in
Japan. Then we were recommeded toparticipate in the competition in the
U.S. And we got the first prize andgrandchampion again! This picture
was took in Orland, Florida. I love
all team mates. Now I still continue
dancing as a member of OG team.

101慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Lien
I took a picture of a painting I madethis year that I am most proud of.
It describes my love for painting
and drawing. Painting and drawing
during my spare time has been ahobby of mine since before I canremember. It helps me stay content
and it is a really good way to express
my feelings. I wouldn’t know abetter way to spend my time but
painting.

Melo
I am onigiri.

MomokoI played handball for 5 years at middle
school and high school in japan. I
was a goalie and enjoyed playing itwith all the team mates. When I wasseventeen I went to michigan as an
exchanges student and there I playedvolleyball and softball. I was also amember of the girls’ basketball teamand helped them keep scorebooks
and other things. Now I play tennis atuniversity. Since i played only sportsthat require no instrument, it is hardfor me to use the racket... but I haveto use it anyway! :)Objects

102

Alex

Shizu

Shoko

I chose the picture that I did
because it has a lot of sentimental
value to me. The computer, monitor
and accessories are the first that
I purchased on my own. Not only
did I buy my computer but I built
it from the ground up. This ishuge accomplishment for me, I
wouldn’t have learned it without
the opportunities that I was given. I
chose this angle of a picture because
there is Aztec face in the backgroundwhich to me symbolizes where I
came from. As a Mexican American
I am very proud of my ancestry.
The,” Your computer sucks” sticker
because I am very competitive inlife. I wont settle for less, mostof the time. Everything there hassomething to do with who I am.

Hello everyone I am Shizu from
Reitaku. This picture represents
me. It means 2 things. First, I love
travel. Second, I love coffee. I havebeen California, Las Vegas, Seattle
and Canada. I got a black tumbler
from San Francisco, white cups withlid from Seattle, another 3 from
Vegas. I drink coffee every morning.
it makes me awake. Whenever I
use this cup to drink coffee, i canremember my good travel memory.

Hi! Im Shoko Kimura andsophomore at Keio University.
Please call me Shoko. I took thispicture in my university. I likestrolling and my house is near fromkeio. So I often see this scene. It
makes me a little happy:) I walk
thinking many things such as myfriends, family, future and, myself.

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

Hanan

Asuka

Hello my name is Hanan Ali and thereason I chose this picture because
is because I feel like the communitythat I live is composed of people
from different cultures.

Hello. My name is Asuka (Askar)
Abe, senior year student of Reitaku
University. One of my hobbies
are cooking, as you can see in thispicture, some of the dishes are
Traditional Japanese. I also likehaving home parties. These dishes
are for a party last weekend.

Objects

Taz
Hello, again. My name is Tatsuhiro
Yoshida, a student of Reitaku Uni.
Everyone call me “Taz” in the
University, call me Taz. I was bornin Shizuoka, which is famous for
Mt. Fuji. In spring, I can see thebeautiful flower of the cherry tree.
When I see the cherry blossom, I
recognized that I am Japanese.

FAMILY
Emery

Extended

Reitaku

Keio

G.G.

Chii

MomokoThis is a picture of me and someof my family members. The word
FAMILY means to me is something
and someone who you can rely on
and trust.

the picture was taken in therestaurant when my family and thecousin’s family had a celebration
party for the new year. I live withparents and a brother. We love to goout and eat dinner often. I love myfamily. the time having dinner withthem is the most comfortable time,and it makes me feel very relaxed.

It’s a meal cooked in a pot, whichis called “nabe” in Japanese. In thepot, we boil vegetables, meat, rice
cake, and even fish. Since we put
only one pot on the table, we needto get closer to get the food from thepot. On weekdays, we usually don’t
have dinner all together because
we come home at a different time.
But on weekends, we stay home
at a dinner time and have dinner
together. This meal is good for us
because it makes it easier to talk.

103慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Extended
HananThis picture was taken at my aunt’s
wedding in Cannada two years ago. As
you can see my sisters and cousinsare
all excited to be apart of the wedding
we helped plan all summer.

NuclearAlex

No pictures ofNo pictures ofnuclear families

nuclear families

This is a picture of my family at our
Family Restaurant. We enjoy eating
mexican food. We always dedicate
one day for family. No matter what.
This is very important to us.

Representatives

Lucia

Asuka

Oka-chanThis is a picture of my family. My
dad was on his way to work andmy little sister head was cut off,
because of the way my dad took the
picture.

WHEN?? This was taken in family
reunion in one summer some years
ago. WHERE?? In my house.
WHAT Are We Wearing? YUKATA.
This is traditional Japanese cloth like
KIMONO. Kimono is too hot to wear
in summer. We try to have family
reunion with our relatives twice ayear in summer and in the New
Year in my house. My grandfather
and my father are both first son who
maintain the place where our family
and roots were started. Not many
people can success to gather every
family reunion because some live
far and some are always busy. In thispicture, we were ready to visit at agrave to pay our respect. In family
reunion, most important thing isvisiting our fathers’ graves. Even if
they are passed away, we often show
our respect in this opportunity. In my
family, I’ve been always taught that
thanks to our fathers, we are here
now since when I was young. We
think our roots are very important.

Hello, everyone. I’m sorry that I
couldn’t come last week. I went
to Beijing, China, and joinedinternational program as my club
activity. Beijing University students
showed us around there, and
we also talked about Sino-Japan
relations a lot. Those days werereally wonderful!! Well, this is the
picture of my brother and me. I'm
not sure how old I was, but when
I was little, my family went tosomewhere every weekends. I love
my family, and my brother. He tookcare about me very much. For me,
Family is my treasure.

(Extended)104

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

Lien

Yuko

Hi everyone! This is my neice,
Allison(and my mom and dad in
the background). She is the newest
addition to my family. She is threemonths old. Everyone loves togather around her. She shows thatfamily is about unconditional loveand care.

This is a picture of me and my sistercelebrating her birthday. No matter
how busy my family is, we celebrate
each other’s birthdays or celebrate
each other’s success on special
occasions. Not only my parents andsibling, but my grandparents andcousins all wish each other happy
birthday. Also, people who are likefamily to me, like family friends
or really close friends celebratebirthdays together so that is why
this picture reminds me of family.

(Extended)

Representatives

Sae
This photo is the picture hung in
the living room. My parents asked
their favorite illustrator to paint a
picture imagined from their favorite
photos. It’s my sister and me.

(All Nuclear)

Symbolic

Maurice

Melo

Hiro

This represents a place where family
members can come together andtalk and “hang out” with each other.

hi, I am melo the crazy guy fromreitaku. do everybody remember
me? The pic is represent my family
that our favorite fruit is grapes, wealways eat grapes when we talk andwatch TV. I love my family even if
my father is bald (don’t tell to myfather he will mad) lol

This is my old fashioned TV. WhenI was young, all my family watchedthis television at the same time,
because we have only this TV. This
type of TV, which still has channels.

105慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Shoko
I live alone now. But whenever I
am so happy or depressed, I callmy mother. She is one of the closet
people to me. By the way, my motherbought me the right key ring when
we went to see “kabuki”.

Symbolic

Tami
Hi there!! the last lesson wasbad for sound and image. But
I could enjoyed so much! I am
looking forward to seeing everyone
again(^-^*)/^^ Well, next theme isabout family. I chose this picture
because now I can’t live with myfamily together, so sometimes mymom and grandmother send me
letters. I treasure these letters!!

Masa

Non-related

106

No pictures of
non-related families

Hi, everyone. I posted a pic aboutfamily, but it disappeared from web.
I don’t know why. I post again. Thisis the picture to represent family.
This is the my family when I was inAmerica as an exchange student. As
you know, they are just old motherand little boy. Little boy is anadopted child from Paraguay. But,
they are like real family. You cannot
imagine how close they are!

No pictures of
non-related families

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

Shizu
they all are my sisters!! actually, they
are my friends in dormitory. I cannot
live with my family because myuniversity is far away from my home
town so that I live in dormitory now.
I met them in the dormitory. Since
we live together, We help eachother. When i was sick, they took
me to the hospital and cooked foodfor me. they are very important me
and they are like my sisters.

Taz

Non-related

No pictures of
non-related families

Family... I think family means
not only kindred people, but also
people around me. My family is in
Shizuoka(my hometown), so I live
all by myself now, actually I do nothave family now. But there are great
people around me. I am belong to aschool festival committee, and I am
secretary-general in the commitee.
In the general affairs department,
there are 43 people are warking
with me. I have spent 3 years inthis committee, and the members
are all the world to me now. We all
share the common feeling, suchas sadness, happiness, sometimes
anger. Common hardship knitted us
together. It is not too much to say“This is another family in Tokyo”

No pictures of
non-related families

Yone
This picture represents my friends
at St.Martin University in America.
The friends in the picture were likemy family because most of time we
spend the time together. and whensomeone got a trouble, we helped
out one another.

107慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

HAPPINESS
Emery

Family

Hanan

Aska

This picture represents happiness tome because it shows my little sistersmiling on her first carousel ride.

This picture describes my happiness.
Please do not get confused as afamily topic picture. Being withmy family is the happiness for me.
Almost it’s been 6 years since I
moved from my home, since thenI started strongly feel that having
opportunity of being with my family
is my happiness. Thank you.

Lien

(Host/Adopted)Masa

Hello everyone, for this week’s
theme, happiness, I chose a pictureof my family members. This picture
is of my three sisters and my twonieces on Halloween at the mall.
I love spending time with them.
Happiness to me means enjoying
something you do or being aroundpeople that you can laugh with.

I’m sorry for I missed a couple ofclasses. I’m afraid it’s too late to posta pic about happiness. I was backto America where I used to study.
I met old friends again. Of course,
I visited my family in America.
Mother are always yelling against
a little boy. He still dilly-dally... I
felt happiness when I saw a boy isalready bigger than his mother.

Alex
This picture was taken last night
when me and my dad went toa boxing match in San Jose HP
Pavilion. It was my first time going
to one of these, It was definitely agood time.

108

ReitakuKeio

No pictures of families

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

Maurice

Chii

This place brings me happinessbecause whenever I go here I know
I’ll get a good healthy nutritious
bean burrito meal!

I have lots of happiness. For example,
hanging out with my friends, playing
with my lovely dogs, when I’m eating
chocolate mint ice cream. However,
the greatest happiness is dancing. I
have practicing girls-hip-hop dancing
for about four years. I think I am
much more brighten up when I’mdancing than usual. I would like totry other kinds of dances (ex; Hula,
African, and flamenco) in the future.

Friends

Personal

G.G.

Melo (With Alex of Emery)

This is a picture of my friend Ravnit
and me on wacky tacky day. We were
having a little bit too much fun anddecided to take crazy pictures andmy friend Karishma took the picture.

This picture describes my happiness.
Alex spent one day to accompany us.
We had lunch and shopping. I had avery enjoyable time. Alex: thank you
for everything.

No pictures of friends

Lucia

Shizu

Hiro

This is my happiness picture. Whatmakes me happy is shopping andtrying on new clothes. I love newclothes.

I am very happy to eat!! I like all kindof food, Japanese, American, Indian,Thai, Chinese etc. Especially. I love
sweets:) This picture was taken in
the cafe. Can you see the big parfait?
It is so delicious. it is for 6 people so
I share with my friends, of course.

These colorful cubes are--somebody
may know--“Sushi” Actually, I like a
lot of various food, but sushi is oneof my favorite dishes! As you know, I
don’t eat to live, I live to eat, so....

Sae
I love the sunny day. I go for a walkand refresh myself.

109

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Objects/
Interests

110

Taz

Tami

was at a loss an answer “myhappiness” actually I do not haveexact happiness. I do not mean ido not have happiness, but I think
there are a lot of happiness around
me. I am happy when I see myfamily, friends, happy to sleep,eat.... Everything I experienced
in the past and future can be may
happiness. I can not dicide what myhappiness is... because I always feel“happiness”. it was really difficult totake a photo about happiness. this isa picture taken in my room. I alipped
many photos on the wall! I think thisis a compilation of my hapinesswell, sorry to be late(>_<;) i lovecollecting antique. when i was a
junior high school student i began
to collect and now there are many
antique in my room. the mostfavorite antique is a camel sand art
in a bottle. it is so beautiful art!!!!!

Shoko
I can be refreshed after I take a tea
ceremony lesson. This is a teacher’shouse.

No pictures of objects

Yone

Oka-chanWhat’s up guys! This is Yosuke
from Reitaku University. These twovolleyballs in this picture are myprecious things, like a treasure. As I
mentioned earlier, I really love to playvolleyball. The ball on the right isnormal one to play in a gym. And theone the left is for beach volleyball.
I’m curious how many of you haveheard about beach volleyball. Onlyin the summer season, I’m able toplay beach volleyball in a beach. It’sso much fun that you have to predict
how the ball will move depends on
wind. Whenever I see a volleyball,
I can’t help reaching my hand andtouching it. I cannot tell how I’m
excited and happy when I playvolleyball. That’s why I chose thispicture to represent my “happiness.”

My happiness is the music. I lovesinging songs, playing violin or
piano, listening to the music. I takethe orchestra class, which you canbe a member of orchestra with otherclassmates. I play the violin. I’ve
played it since when i was 3 or 4
years old. When I play it, I feel sohappy!

MomokoWhen I heard this week’s topic, allI could think of was this picture...
yes, I feel very happy when I am
taking a bath. It makes me refreshed
and relaxed.

Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

MY CULTURE
Emery

Reitaku

Keio

Lucia

Taz

Sae

This is a picture of clothes thatpeople wear in Africa. Most people
wear these kind of clothes foroccasions like weddings, parties,
church, and funerals. Today mostpeople try to wear jeans and other
different clothes or materials asmuch as possible. These clothes
were given to me by my best auntthat I ever had. She gave them to
me to wear to church.

New year season in Japan, we aremaking Mochi!!(but, not every
family) Mochi is rice cake. The
picture is very traditional way tomaking Mochi. In the picture,
A man spound steamed rice into
rice cake... I don’t know who heis....hahaha We pound boiled ricein a mortar to make rice cakes. In
Reitaku university, it is taradition
to make mochi in this way, and themochis are served for students andprofessors. In my parent’s home, we
make Mochi by a machine.

I can’t live without rice. Rice isimportant crop in Japan. It is
processed to many products, rice
wine, rice vinegar, rice flour, ricecake and so on.

Traditional

Lien(Religious)

Chii

This is a picture of me honoring by
grandfather, who passed away a few
years ago. I am burning an incense
as a way to honor him. It is believedthat our ancestors will protect ourfamily from danger and harm as longas you honor and show respect tothem in the after life. Respect is avery important thing in my culture. I
think it is important to all cultures.

I love Japanese culture. Especiallythat we have traditional special
clothes to wear in the special day.
For example, we have Kimono,
Yukata, and Hakama for both men
and for women. The close whichpeople wearing on the pictureis Hakama. we wear Hakama
especially in the graduation
ceremony. But we wear it just in thegraduation ceremony of University. I
had been looking forward to wearing
Hakama since I was high school
student. I think it is very pretty. This
year(in next March), I’m going towear Hakama. I’m very very sad tograduate University, but I’m happy
that I can wear it finally.

111

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Traditional

Modern/G.G.(Religious)

Shizu

This is a picture were i go pray inmy temple. GG

This is traditional Japanese room.
most of houses have this kind ofroom. We have Tatami mat for
flooring and Shoji for sub-window.
U can see the table at the left sideof the picture. we sit on the tatami
mat so Japanese table is very low.

Hanan

Aska

This image represents culture tome because through technology wecreate a new type of culture, whichis universal.

hello. we have a cafe called “maidcafe”. it is now becoming very
popular and famous in japan.
women wearing maid cloth serves
drinks for you in that caffe. in thecafe, they treat you as if you are amaster. i think it is becoming a partof japanese culture!

(Everyday)

Everyday

112

Masa

MomokoThis is a fashion magazine for men,
not for women. In Japan, even men
take care of their looks or what
they’re wearing too much! I mean
“too much”. You can see a lot offashion magazines for men. I can’t
find such a kind of book in America.
On the other hand, there are few
magazines for muscle. Everythinsis different between America andJapan. That made me suprised.

I think Americans know a lot about
Japan these days. Sure we havegreat electricity! We have washlet(the toilet which washes you after
you use a toilet), and many othergreat things! Especially it is known
that cell phones are spread even toelementary school kids. But do you
know what exactly we use it for? I'll
explain it tomorrow! ;)Learning Cultural Interaction Through Teleconferencing:
Observations of the First UCTP Class (2006-2007)

Yone
Though I believe everyone know
about it, but for someone who don’tknow about manga, I gotta tell you
about it in detail. Manga is one of amajor representative thing of Japan.
plus it is spereading and getting
popular all over the world. However,in my opinion, it isn’s just a thing
to read. Manga is something you
can really get into. it sometimes
encourages you, sometimes makes
you laugh, and even sometimes makeyou think deeply about something.
some of the Japanese adults tend toregard manga as a negative thing forchildren, but I definitely recommend
for people all over the world to readand feel it, at least, once. Oops!!! I
almost forgot to talk about the photo.
The manga’s titles are, from the left
side, “One Piece”, “Hellsing”, and“Naruto(my favorite one).” Although
there is more i wanna talk about, atlast, I’d like to say that, if you wanna
learn and know about Japan, theeasiest way to do that is to t take alook at Manga. And one more thing
to tell, I’m not the one who is called“Otaku( オタク).” Just wanted tomake sure. Thanks.

Modern/EverydayIndividual

No pictures of individuals

Oka-chanEco-friendly lifestyle

Shoko
I love fashion and brand goods! I
cant buy these brand bags, but likereading fashion magazines.

HiroThis picture is the scean of mysleeping in the train, but it represents
my culture. It represents the peaceof Japan. The peace is one of our
features of my culture.

No pictures of individuals

Maurice
Well ive been working on this forquite some time, i think the image isself explanitory. I hope you all enjoy it.

113慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Tami

Friends

No pictures of friends

well, maybe many Japanese students
talk about Japan, so I want to talkabout India!! I went to India thistwo weeks and i made many friends
who came from various countries.
This picture was taken at Indian
party. many different cultural people
wore Indian clothes and did a party.
I wore sari!!!

Composite/

No composite/

Subculture

Alex

Melo

Subculture pictures

Well ive been working on this forquite some time, i think the image isself explanitory. I hope you all enjoyit.

This picture is represent my culture.

114

No pictures of friends

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHINGTHE EFFECTIVENESS OFLEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING
Yuki Maehara
Abstract
English instructions in Japanese classrooms have usually been conducted using “teachercentered” approaches, especially when teachers adopt the deductive method. This research
was conducted in order to determine the effectiveness of using a learner-centered approach ingrammar teaching and also to consider whether this kind of approach is useful in promoting
learner autonomy. This small-scale study involved 161 first-grade students at a private highschool in the metropolitan Tokyo area. The students were divided into two groups: one groupstudied grammar deductively; the other inductively. After the pilot study, the groups were
switched. The effectiveness of both the teaching methods was measured by three identicalgrammar tests. In addition to the grammar tests, pre- and post-surveys were conducted.
As a result of the grammar tests, no significant difference was found between the students
who learned grammar deductively and those who learned inductively. The analysis of thesurveys indicated that the favorable rating for the inductive approach significantly increased.
The favorable rating for the deductive approach stayed almost the same. The students may
have become more open to the idea that both the inductive and deductive approaches were
useful in learning grammar. Furthermore, some students’ comments indicated that they haverealized the importance of using different approaches depending on the type of grammar
item. In conclusion, pedagogical suggestions for grammar teaching and learner autonomy aresuggested.

1. INTRODUCTION

It is assumed that promoting learner autonomy is essential when teaching grammar in thelanguage classroom. Nowadays language teaching is viewed with a broader educational value
than merely developing learners’ linguistic and communicative skills. That is, cultivating115慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

learners who can use the language is not sufficient. Promoting learner autonomy in language
learning entails rather holistic goals because learning is based on the belief that all learners
are part of their own society (Kohone et al., 2001). In order to prepare for a rapidly changing
world, autonomous learning will be vital for learners to live independently in a globalizedsociety (Cotterall, 1995). van Lier (1996) states that “students can not be independent unlesstheir classroom experiences contribute to developing autonomy” (p. 80).
1.1 BackgroundIn general, grammar classes in Japan are traditionally teacher-centered (Celce-Murcia &Hills, 1988; Mochizuki, 2001) and students think of such classes as quite normal. Students
conceive knowledge as something transmitted by the teacher rather than discovered by thelearner (Littlewood, 1999; Nakata, 2007; Usuki, 1999). However, not all Japanese students
are satisfied with being passive learners any more. The following are excerpts written by two
3rd grade senior high school students (aged 17-18 years old) from my writing class in 2007.
For ethical considerations, permission to use parts of their essays in this paper was obtained
from the students. These excerpts illustrate what students thought about Japanese classroom
and teaching practice.
Excerpt 1: When I went to Australia and England and took classes with the students
there, I saw many students communicate with teachers and friends in a friendly
atmosphere. In Japan, there are just lectures. I mean teachers are speaking all the timeand students are just listening and writing down from the blackboard. I found manydifferent points of learning style and it made me consider what education should be inJapan.
This student compared the different learning styles of students in Japan and other countries
she had experienced.
Excerpt 2: In the school, many teachers only read textbooks or handouts now. These
classes are very boring. Teachers should conduct more interesting classes.
This student thought that teachers should devise better ways of teaching in classroom.

116THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

1.2 Hypothesis

These students do not think teacher-centered instruction is beneficial for them and wish
for more learner-centered classes. A learner-centered classroom is defined as one in which
students are given “increasing responsibility for their own learning process” (McCombs &Whisler, 1997, p. 65). To be more specific, it is to provide students with learning opportunities
to think for themselves. Edwards (2004) introduces an action research process for theteachers who aim at learner-centered grammar teaching; the teachers who want to encourage
their students to find out a grammatical rule for themselves come up with a principle thatstudents should learn inductively.
In order to promote learner autonomy and encourage students to think for themselves,teacher-centered instruction should be modified. The alternative way should include a
discovery work in which students work out the rules for themselves. This paper is based onlearner-centered classroom principles and the inductive approach to teaching grammar withan end aim of improving language learning and promoting learner autonomy.
In line with the discussion above, this paper explores the following hypothesis.
Students can learn more effectively when they actively participate in the lesson bydiscovering the rules for themselves instead of being passively instructed by theteacher. Consequently, students can develop learner autonomy by being more active intheir learning process in the language classroom.
2. LITERATURE REVIEWIn this section, theoretical background related to this research is examined through aliterature review.
2.1 Learner Autonomy

The autonomy in language learning originated from the establishment of Centerede

Recherches et d’Applications en Langues (CRAPEL) in France in the early 1970s. The firstself-access center was founded in CRAPEL under the provision of providing adult learners
with authentic texts and counseling. Dam (1995) and her colleagues conducted an experiment
implementing learner autonomy in a secondary school in Denmark. This experiment wassignificant because it contributed not only to later classroom innovations but also to a shift117慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

in notion on learner autonomy from individual issues to collaboration and negotiation in aclassroom setting.
The central concept of learner autonomy is defined as “the ability to take charge of one’s
own learning” (Holec, 1981, p. 3). It is more specifically defined as “playing an active rolein learning” (Lee, 1998, p. 282). One of the other prominent factors of learner autonomy is“learner choice”. Littlejohn (1985) claims that learner choice should be introduced more into
the classroom as learners have no choice over what and how to learn. Introducing learnerchoice in areas such as grammatical items to be studied and the study approach may bringsignificant benefit. Woods (1997) views learner choice from a different aspect. Learnerchoice, the other side of the coin to teacher’s choice, might provide interesting insight into
learning. Implementing learner choice into classroom practice is likely to become a newconcept of strategy research. For instance, which strategy or approach learners prefer to use
in learning a certain grammatical item can be examined.
The concept of learner autonomy is closely associated with the concept of the learnercentered classroom. Lamb and Nunan (2001) define learner-centered classrooms as those inwhich learners are actively involved in their own learning and the decision-making process.
The process starts with learners’ awareness about preferred learning styles and approaches.
The learner-centered approach does not mean leaving learners alone without teacher’s
support. Instead, the teacher’s role is even more significant than that in teacher-centeredinstruction (Tudor, 1993). It implies that teachers who envisage adopting a learner-centeredapproach need to think carefully about the implication in terms of the extra work andresponsibility. A learner-centered approach demands teachers to design an appropriate task,
to monitor the activity, and to encourage students to interact with each other to complete
the task. With the increased importance of the teacher’s role, the shift from a teachercentered classroom to a learner-centered classroom requires gradual introduction and careful
preparation. The teacher should ensure that learners are able to adopt the new approach(Dickinson, 1987).
According to Dam and Legenhausen (1999), evaluation in autonomous language learning
involving linguistic and other outcomes combines internal and external assessments. Internal
assessment consists of surveys, learners’ self-reflections, and teacher-learner talk. External

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

assessment comprises such tests as grammar, vocabulary, and discourse structure. In theautonomous classroom, learners are stimulated to develop capacity of critical reflection on
their learning process; thus the focus is more on internal than external assessment.
2.2 Grammar teaching

There are basically two ways in which learners achieve understanding of a rule: thedeductive (rule-driven) way and the inductive (rule-discovery) path. In the deductive
approach, the grammar rules are simply presented by a teacher. In the inductive approach,on the other hand, the learner first studies examples given by the teacher and work the rules
out for themselves. The deductive approach is closely associated with the 3Ps, which consistsof a three-part teaching paradigm: Presentation, Practice, and Production (Skehan, 1998, p.
93). In the presentation stage, the teacher uses a deductive approach with grammar explicitly
introduced. In the practice stage, learners go on to apply the rules through manipulation of
examples. In the production stage, learners are required to produce sentences by applying therules they have learned. The 3Ps is a relatively easy sequence for teachers to organize and touse with the whole class in a “one-directional view of language teaching” (ibid). One of theadvantages of the deductive approach is that it is time-saving (Gollin, 1998; Hatori, 1996;
Iino and Shimizu, 1985). A lesson proceeds smoothly according to the sequences determinedby a teacher and finishes just as he or she plans. As a result, a large number of teachers andteacher trainees use the 3Ps to teach new language forms (Bruton, 2002; Cregg, 1999; Foster,
1999; Harmer, 2000; Weschler, 1997).
However, some second language acquisition (SLA) researchers claim that the 3P sequence
does not reflect principles of effective SLA (Lewis, 1996; Lightbown & Spada, 1999; Skehan,
1998; Willis & Willis, 1996). Lewis (1996) claims, “Any paradigm based on, or remotely
resembling, Present-Practice-Produce (the 3Ps) is wholly unsatisfactory, failing, as it does notreflect either the nature of language or the nature of learning” (p. 11). This means language
learning is not simply linear in its development. Even if a learner can use a particular grammar
form accurately at one stage, the learner may fail to produce the same form at another stage.
According to Ellis (1993), the instruction a teacher provides will not necessarily be processedby a learner in the way the teacher intended. What is learned is rather controlled by thelearner, not the teacher. Lewis claims that the 3Ps goes against the nature of language learning
for these reasons. Another disadvantage of the deductive approach is weak retention: “as soon119慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

as we introduce it, we weaken the impression which the word makes on the mind” (Below
1984, cited in Richards & Rogers, 2001, p. 41). Because knowledge is simply transmitted,
it does not involve a problem-solving sequence in the learner’s brain. Unless students are
actually engaged in the meaning, they often do not remember what they have been taught inclass.
On the other hand, the inductive approach is regarded as a means to enhance the memoryof learners. Cognitive research has shown that discovering rather than being taught underlying
rules favorably affects retention (Shaffer, 1989). For example, the theory of interlanguage
is based on natural language acquisition, and the inductive approach easily conforms tointerlanguage development (Leech, 1994; Brown, 2001). Selinker (1972), the first researcher
to use the term interlanguage, suggests that second language (L2) learners pass through acertain stage of development in the process of reaching native level of competence (cited inLightbown & Spada, 1999, p. 74). Other researchers (Brown, 2000; Ellis, 1985; Rutherford,
1987) argue that the concept of interlanguage is a useful model for demonstrating howlearners use their first language to bridge towards the L2.
The inductive approach also promotes the cognitive ability of learning. The processes
learners utilize when forming and testing hypotheses about the L2 grammar are believed tobe central to the ultimate acquisition of language (Ellis, 2002). The process helps the learnerdevelop the skill to investigate and explore language autonomously. Harmer (2001) names
the inductive approach “discovery learning” and points out that discovery learning may not besuitable for all learners because there are two types of learners in SLA: analytical and holistic.
Analytical learners extract rules from examples and test hypotheses, while holistic learners
learn best by doing little or no analysis; instead they learn by exposure to large chunks oflanguage in meaningful contexts (Celce-Murcia, 1988). Therefore, discovery learning may not
be suitable for holistic learners, but suitable for analytical learners. Children tend to prefera holistic approach, so the inductive approach may not be suitable for very young learners.
Teachers should take learner variables into consideration. Every learner has different learning
strategies or styles and not all learners take a single approach.
2.3 Target Grammar items

When determining a suitable approach to teach grammar, contrastive analysis (CA) is120

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

indispensable. Contrastive analysis can help predict learning difficulty by identifying thedifferences between the native language (L1) and the target language (Ellis, 1985). Fischer(1979) created “Language Transfer Principle (LTP)” in order to make the best of students’ L1knowledge in teaching grammar. In Fischer’s LTP, for teaching structures which are similar
to or simpler than those of the L1 (known as positive transfer), the inductive approach ishighly effective and L1 competence will work to maximize positive transfer. On the other
hand, when teaching structures which are more complex than those in the L1 (known as
negative transfer), the deductive approach is recommended. In these cases, the instructor
avoids referring to the L1 in order to prevent negative transfer and confusion. Fischer (ibid)
concludes that the most effective way of teaching and learning grammar is through the use ofboth approaches depending on the structures focused on.
The target grammar items used in the present research were simple future will and begoing to, and verbs followed by to to-infinitive and gerund. These two items were basicallytaught in line with the definitions in the textbook Grammar in Use Intermediate (Murphy& Smalzer, 2000). For the pilot study, the grammar item chosen was simple future, be goingto and will. In the participants’ first language (L1) Japanese, be going to and will have little
difference in meaning. The students were expected to distinguish be going to and will incontext. According to Quirk et al. (1985), definitions of simple future are as follows: “ willis the closest approximation to a colorless, neutral future it covers a range of meaning withmodal coloring, from prediction to volition, while be going to is associated with the present
and often leads to the assumption that it indicates the proximity of the future event” (pp.
213-214). In the textbook, be going to is used when a speaker has already decided, and willis used when a speaker decides to do something at the time of speaking (Murphy & Smalzer,
2000, p. 44).
For the experiment, the target grammar item chosen was verbs followed by to-infinitive andgerund. This is one of the major problems for Japanese students. In the Japanese verb system,
the main verb is always followed by the subordinate verb in the same form. The goal of theinitial query was to explore better ways to approach this problem rather than simply encouragerote memorization. Some researchers suggest (Bollinger, 1968 as cited in Celce-Murcia &Larsen-Freeman, 1983, p. 434; Palmer 1965, pp. 176-192) an underlying semantic principle;
the to-infinitive very often expresses something “hypothetical, future, unfilled”, while the121慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

gerund typically expresses something “real, vivid, fulfilled”. This principle explains why verbs
like want and hope take only the infinitive. Willis et al. (1997) suggest that the differences
between the gerund as simultaneous and to-infinitive as subsequent to the established timereference is helpful when explaining the difference (p. 72). In the textbook, deny stealing anddecide to steal were used as examples. For the former, a person denies doing something after/
while he or she did it; for the latter, a person decides to do something before he or she does it(Murphy & Smalzer, 2000, p. 106). The target grammar items both in the pilot study and theexperiment did not contain any complex grammar structures, so they were considered to besuitable to adopt for the inductive way of teaching.
2.4 Previous studies

The following is a brief summary of previous studies comparing the relative benefits of thedeductive and inductive approaches in grammar teaching.
Shaffer (1989) investigated the deductive and the inductive approaches using different
instructors, one Spanish and two French teachers. In the inductive learning process, students
were required to express orally what they had learned about the rule in the lesson. It was
effective for these instructors to confirm learners’ understanding of the rule. The inductive
approach was thought to be unsuitable for complex structures or, at least too difficult for
weak learners. However, Shaffer’s research findings suggested that the inductive approach
worked efficiently for both the hardest structure and the weakest learners. Furthermore, theinductive approach enhanced active participation by students. Shaffer suggested that teachers
incorporate both inductive and deductive approaches into their classroom in a meaningfulcontext.
Fotos (1993) reported on a study designed to investigate the relative effectiveness of
direct and indirect grammar instruction. She found that both options resulted in statisticallysignificant effects in understanding the rule for dative alternation in two groups of college
level Japanese students. Fotos also demonstrated that the explicit knowledge gained fromdiscovery tasks helped to promote learners’ increased awareness of the target structures.
This research had limitations because the instructors Fotos used in this investigation did notensure that the discovery grammar task had been carried out properly (cited in Ellis, 2002, p.
165). It means that the instructors could not confirm whether each student had succeeded in122THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

discovering the target structure for him/herself. This fact may reflect an inherent limitationof discovery tasks; discovery tasks require considerable expertise and care on the part of the
instructor.
Erlam’s (2003) study was conducted on three classes of secondary school students(approximately 14 years of age) in New Zealand. It compared the effectiveness of thedeductive and inductive approaches by using the measures of both comprehension andproduction. As a result, it revealed a significant advantage for the deductive instruction group.
This result contrasted with Shaffer’s study (1989), which reported a trend in favor of inductive
instruction by high school learners. Further study is needed to investigate to what extent age
factor influenced students’ performance.
Cole, Haight, and Herron (2007) conducted research on teaching eight grammar structures
to college level students learning French. Pre- and post-test and immediate post-thetreatment quiz were designed to assess the long- and short-term gains for each condition.
Results indicated that the guided inductive approaches had both short-term and long-term
effects. The researchers concluded that the guided inductive approach was appropriate toteach grammar to beginner-level college students.
3. METHOD
3.1 ParticipantsParticipants were 161 first-grade high school students with an intermediate level in English.
They belonged to six homeroom classes (A-F) and each class consisted of 25 - 29 students.
They were divided into two groups based on their homeroom: Group 1 (N= 83) and Group
2 (N= 78). They used Grammar in Use Intermediate, Second Edition (Murphy & Smalzer,
2000) as the main textbook. Grammar in Use is one of the largest selling textbooks to theworld-wide English as a Second Language (ESL) market, according to marketing experts(Lesikin, 2001, p. 280). The grammar class was taught by me twice a week. Besides grammar,
they took reading and speaking classes taught by other teachers twice a week respectively.
3.2 Procedure

The first survey was given to explore students’ initial perception about the inductive anddeductive approaches at the beginning of this research. Before the pilot study, the students

123慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

in both groups took a common grammar test. Preliminary analysis was conducted in order
to assess the possible variability in grammar knowledge between the students in Group 1
and Group 2. The general teaching procedure consisted of two parts: the pilot study andthe experiment (Table 1). In the pilot study students in Group 1 learned grammar in the
deductive approach; Group 2 learned in the inductive approach. After a week, the post
test was administered. The experiment was conducted by switching the two groups; thedeductive approach Group 2 and the inductive Group 1. Three identical grammar tests wereadministered one week before and one week after and one month after the experiment. The
final survey was given in order to examine how students’ perception about the inductive anddeductive approaches had changed by the end of the research.

Table 1. Teaching procedure
Pilot Study

Deductive (Group 1)
Inductive (Group 2)

Post test(after a week)↓

Pre-test(a week before)

The experiment

Deductive (Group 2)

Post-test(after a week)

Inductive (Group 1)

DelayedPost-test(after a month)3.2.1 Preliminary analysis

The students in both groups took a grammar test in order to assess the possible variability
in grammar knowledge between groups. This examination consisted of 50-60 questions
concerning the target grammar items they had learnt in previous lessons. The total meanscore (out of 100) of students in each group was calculated and compared (see Table 2).
Furthermore a t-test was performed to determine if there were any statistically significant
differences in the test between groups.

Table 2. Grammar test results(N = 161)
Group

mean score

S.D

skewnesskurtosis

numberGroup 171.28916.359−0.6762.779

83Group 271.02516.899−0.6302.531

78
p > 0.05

124

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

The result of the t-test indicated that there was no statistically significant difference forstudents’ performances on this test (t=0.0992, p=0.921> 0.05). This means the students inGroup 1 and Group 2 had no significant variability in grammar knowledge before starting thepilot study.
3.2.2 The Pilot Study

For the pilot study, the target grammar item chosen was simple future, be going to and will.
The students were expected to distinguish to use be going to and will in the context. The
lesson was preceded as follows (Table 3):

Table 3: Lesson Procedure in the pilot study
Deductive

Inductive

Step 1.

The semantic difference between be going toand will was explained explicitly presenting
example sentences.

The example sentences were presented first,
and students were encouraged to figure out
the difference in a pair.

Step 2.

Students of both groups practice questions in the text (Grammar in Use, 2000, p. 45).

Step 3.

Students of both groups were given a certain situation and asked to produce sentences while
paying attention to the difference between be going to and will.

This procedure took two lessons in a week. The inductive group took longer time in Step 1,
whilst practicing questions was conducted more quickly than the deductive group.
3.2.3 The Experiment

The experiment was conducted by switching the two groups. For the experiment, thetarget grammar item chosen was verbs followed by to-infinitive and gerund. In the pilot
study, a handout was not given, and it was difficult to confirm that each student realized thesemantic difference between will and be going to. To improve this, the handout (Appendix
1) was provided to the students in the experiment. Thirteen out of the sixteen sentenceswere taken from the students’ reading textbook “Client” (Grisham, 2000). They had alreadyfinished reading the textbook and seen the sentences in a meaningful context. The lesson waspreceded as follows (Table 4):125慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Table 4: Lesson Procedure in the experiment
Deductive

Inductive

Step 1.

From the beginning the teacher divided
verbs into two categories depending on theverbs followed by to-infinitive and gerund.
The teacher explained the time sequence
between the main verb and verbs followed by
to-infinitive and gerund.

The example sentences were presented in a
handout. Students were asked to divide theverbs into two categories in a pair or a small
group. Then they were asked to focus on thetime sequence between the main verb andthe subordinate verbs.

Step 2.

Students practiced questions in the text
(Grammar in Use, 2000, p.101, p.103).

Students were asked to produce sentences
while paying attention to the difference
between the verbs followed by to- infinitiveand gerund.

Step 3.

Students were asked to produce sentences
while paying attention to the difference
between the verbs followed by to-infinitiveand gerund.

Students practiced questions in the text
(Grammar in Use, 2000, p.101, p.103).

In the experiment, the inductive group produced sentences using the verbs before practicing
questions so that the inductive group students could apply the verbs in their writing.
3.3 Data Collection

Besides grammar tests, two surveys were administered at the beginning and end of theresearch. The first survey (Appendix 2) administered was a modified version of a survey foundin Lightbown and Spada (1999, xv). Four-point Likert scale questions were used. Students
were asked to indicate whether they strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree witheach statement. Each response was then given a score from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly

disagree). Neutral response (3) was not included. The number of students giving each
response was counted and the mean score calculated. This indicated the average extent towhich the students agreed with the statement. The surveys were all written in English, but
Japanese translation and explanation were given to avoid misunderstanding. The final survey(Appendix 3) was administered in the same way as the first one using four-point Likert scalequestions, which consisted of both closed- and open-ended questions, and invited students toevaluate the deductive and inductive approaches in their own words.

126

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

4. RESULTS
4.1 Grammar tests
4.1.1 The Pilot Study

A post-test was conducted in the pilot study. The measure contained 10 multiple-choiceitems and the possible scores ranged from 0 to 10 points (Appendix 4). The total mean scorefor both groups was calculated and compared (Table 5).

Table 5. Post-test results( N = 156)
Group

mean score

S.D

skewnesskurtosis

numberGroup 1

5.561

1.475

−0.4060.416

81Group 2

5.237

1.64

−0.206−0.56775
p > 0.05

A statistical analysis using the t-test showed no significant difference in the post-test between
Group 1 and Group 2.
4.1.2 The ExperimentThree sets of identical grammar test (pre-test, post-test, delayed post-test) were conductedin the experiment. The verbs which could be followed by both to-infinitive and gerund (e.g.
begin, start, hate, continue) were intentionally excluded from the test item. The measurecontained 12 multiple choice questions and possible test scores ranged from 0 to 12 points(Appendix 5). The total mean score for both groups was calculated and compared. The resultsof each test are shown in Table 6 and summarized in Table 7 and Figure 1.

Table 6. Pre-test results(N = 156)
Group

mean score

S.D

skewnesskurtosis

numberGroup 1

8.27

1.475

−0.4060.416

81Group 2

8.17

1.64

−0.206−0.56775127

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Table 6. Post-test results(N = 156)
Group

mean score

S.D

skewnesskurtosis

numberGroup 1

9.29

1.475

−0.4060.416

81Group 2

9.77

1.64

−0.206−0.56775

Table 6. Delayed post-test results(N = 156)
Group

mean score

S.D

skewnesskurtosis

numberGroup 1

9.36

1.475

−0.4060.416

81Group 2

9.57

1.64

−0.206−0.56775

Table 7. Summary of results(N = 156)
Group

Deductive (Group 2)
Mean

Inductive (Group 1)
Meant-valuep-value

Pre-test

8.17

8.27

0.590

0.555

Post-test

9.77

9.29

-0.951

0.342

Delayed post-test

9.57

9.36

0.391

0.696
p > 0.05

Mean score

10
9.5
9
Inductive

8.5

Deductive

8
7.5
7
1
Pre-test2

Post-test Delayed post-test

Figure 1.

1283

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

As can be seen in Figure 1, the test scores from the deductive and the inductive approaches
to teaching grammar were comparable. Statistical analyses using the t-test and a Welch-test
indicated clearly that there was no significant difference between Group 1 and Group 2 inthe pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test.
4.2 The Surveys
4.2.1 Quantitative Analysis

In the first and the final surveys, responses to the questions concerning the deductive
and the inductive approaches were calculated to obtain an overall mean. Questions for each
student were calculated based on the four scale statements concerning the deductive andthe inductive approach by students in Group 1 and 2, and were added separately to obtainan aggregate score for each approach. These were divided by the number of students andaveraged to attain a mean response. A t-test was also performed to determine if there were
statistically significant differences between responses. The mean scores supporting thedeductive (Q1) and inductive approach (Q2) in the first survey and those of the deductive (Q1)and the inductive approach (Q2) in the final survey were compared (Table 8).

Table 8: A Comparison of Deductive and Inductive Approaches in the ﬁrst and the ﬁnal survey
QuestionsQ1. DeductiveFirst survey
Teachers should present grammatical rules first.
Final survey
I prefer teacher presents grammatical points and rules first.
Q2. InductiveFirst survey
Learners should discover the grammatical rules by themselves.
Final survey
I like to discover the grammatical rules by ourselves.

Mean

%

3.96

76.6

3.93

86.0

2.60

32.3

3.23

61.3

The first survey N= 158 The final survey N= 150

The subjects of the questions in the first and the final surveys were different, because thestudents had experienced the inductive approach. In order to respect the identity of learners,
the subject “I” was used. The mean score (3.96) to Q1 in the first survey demonstrates that129

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

students preferred the deductive approach to the inductive approach at the beginning of thisproject. The mean score (2.60) to Q2 in the first survey indicates that the number of students
who supported the inductive approach was lower than that of the neutral score (3.0). While
conducting the survey, several students asked what the teaching style meant. In in-classdiscussion and teacher observation, it was clear that the majority of the students were notfamiliar with the inductive approach. The difference in mean score between the deductive
and the inductive narrowed, from 1.36 in the first survey to 0.7 in the final survey. The meanscore concerning the deductive stayed almost the same, 3.96 in the first survey to 3.93 in the
final survey. However, the mean score concerning the inductive approach increased from 2.60
in the first survey to 3.23 in the final survey. Figure 2 presents an overview of the mean scoresof the deductive and inductive approaches in the first and final surveys.

Mean score

5
4
3

Inductive
Deductive

2
1
0
1

2

1 = the ﬁrst survey

2 = the ﬁnal survey

Figure 2. Mean scores of the deductive and the inductive in ﬁrst and ﬁnal survey
The results of a Welch-test indicated no significant increase in the mean scores of thedeductive group between the first and final survey (p-value= 0.165 > 0.05), while there wasa significant increase in the mean scores of the inductive between the first and final survey(***p-value= 0.0000218 < 0.05). The score indicated that the number of the students who
supported the inductive approach increased significantly, but was still lower than that of thedeductive approach.

130THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

4.2.2 Qualitative Analysis

The students’ view of both approaches was revealed in more detail in their responses tothe two open-ended questions. Firstly, the students’ positive feedback towards the inductive
approach is given. The most common responses given by the students who supported theinductive approach were that they enjoyed learning inductively rather than being instructedby a teacher. Examples of such comments included:
Learning the rule in a group was interesting and I enjoyed it.
The learning was fresh and I want to try it again.
These positive comments coincide with Littlejohn’s (1985, p. 254) view that one positive
outcome of autonomous learning is that learners have an increased interest in learning.
Group work was seen by students to be a strong point of the inductive approach. A number ofstudents liked the opportunity to work with peers. Examples of such comments included:Group work enhanced understanding grammar.
We could share opinions and try to complete the task together.
Another positive feature of the inductive approach was more active participation. One of themain principles of learner autonomy is “playing an active role in learning” (Lee, 1998, p. 282).
The following comments indicated that learning in the inductive approach contributed toenhancing students’ involvement in learning:
We could be involved in learning process and learn the strategy.
I was able to participate in a lesson better.
These positive comments back up the increase of the mean score (+0.63) of the inductive
approach in the final survey. On the other hand, the mean score (3.93) of the deductive
approach was still slightly higher than that of the inductive approach (3.23). Some students
who kept positive attitudes towards the deductive approach seemed to hold the perceptionthat a teacher is one who transmits the knowledge. This can be seen in the following remarksby students:131慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

We can not learn grammar unless the teacher instructs.
Unless teacher teaches us, we can not get what we do not know.
In the next set of comments, some students indicated that they learned to choose different
approaches depending on the grammar items being learnt.
Depending on the grammar item, discovering work helps us understand the rule.
Learning simple grammar items is suitable for the inductive approach as it does notinclude complex structures.
When grammatical points are complicated, I prefer teacher’s instruction, butsometimes we should discover grammatical points through our discussion.
Some students pointed out that learning a simple grammar item which does not include
complex structures was suitable for the inductive approach. They proposed to incorporate avariety of approaches depending on the grammar item.
5. DISCUSSION

The hypothesis that students learn grammar more effectively when they actively participate
in the lesson was not supported by the results of this research. The positive effect for the
students who learned under the inductive approach did not appear in the results of the threegrammar tests. There are arguably two reasons why the results were not in accordance withthe hypothesis. Firstly, the selection of target grammar items was not appropriate or notsuitable for teaching in the inductive approach. In the pilot study, the simple future will andbe going to were selected and discovery work was focused on the distinction of using them inthe context. These two items were defined as will for spontaneous decisions and be going tofor premeditated decision. In Japanese translation, there is no clear semantic difference, nor
is there in English in some cases. For the experiment, the grammar item chosen was verbs
followed by to-infinitive and gerund. The discovery work was focused on the distinction oftime sequence between the main verb and the subordinate verb. In Japanese verb orientation,
the main verb is always followed by the subordinate verb in the same form and there is no
distinction. Therefore, in both the pilot study and the experiment, such a distinction might132

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

have been perceived as being insignificant in the target language (TL) for the Japanese
students whose L1 does not make a clear semantic difference between the two. To conclude
this first point, insignificant distinction between the meanings of structures in students’ L1
tends to be treated as insignificant when students learn the equivalent structures in TL.
Contrastive analysis (CA) should be taken more into consideration when choosing grammar
items to use in the inductive approach. Further study is needed to determine whether
different choices of grammar item produce different results.
Secondly, the lessons proceeded in accordance with the 3Ps, and only the presentation
stage was conducted differently; deductively and inductively. In the practice and production
stages, students in both groups did drills and produced the sentences traditionally withteacher-centered instruction. In these stages, students did not play an active role in thelearning process. The results of this research indicated that there was no significant differencein the grammar test scores even when the teacher took different approaches in the firstpresentation stage. In future research, the two later stages need to be modified gradually sothat the learners can take more initiative in practice and production as well. In the learnercentered classroom, the responsibility for learning is transferred to the students from theteacher. As Dickinson (1987) points out, the shift from a teacher-centered classroom to alearner-centered one should be taken gradually and carefully in the experimental design in the
future research.
The limitations of this research include the small number of students with the samelanguage level and at the same age in one private high school. Another weakness is thatparticipants were not randomly selected. Harmer (2001) states that only a certain type oflearner benefits from the inductive approach and Celce-Murcia (1988) points out analytic
learners are suitable for the inductive approach. Further study is required to investigate thekinds of learners that are the most suited to the inductive approach to teaching grammar.
It is also necessary to determine which factors influence the results and to what degree.
The age factor of the participants needs to be properly considered either as a reason for thepartial failure of the hypothesis or as a possible reason for the results reported here. Anotherlimitation of this research is that students in both groups have experienced the inductive
approach only once. It is necessary to implement the both the inductive and deductive
approaches over a longer period and compare the result of effectiveness in the long term.

133慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

6. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONSThe hypothesis was not clearly proved by the results of grammar tests; however the test
results showed that both the inductive and deductive approaches were effective for the
students to study grammar. Moreover, the analysis of pre- and post-survey revealed that thefavoring rating for the inductive approach significantly increased. The students might havebecome more open to the idea that both the inductive and deductive approaches were useful.
Furthermore, students’ comments indicated that they were able to be involved in the learning
process more actively, which is one of the prominent aspects of learner autonomy. The resultsof this study also suggest that a combination of external assessment (test scores) and internal
assessment (survey and surveys) provides an effective means of investigating the deductive
and inductive approaches to teaching grammar and of the evaluation of the promotion oflearner autonomy. Further research is required to compare the two kinds of data and findcorrelations between them.
The findings of this research suggest the possibility of involving learners in the decisionmaking process. This not only develops learner autonomy, but also improves teaching practice.
Some students in this research commented that “Simple grammar items are suitable for the
inductive approach. However, this approach is not suitable for complex structures.” Learnerperceptions such as these, expressed through experiencing the inductive lesson provide aninteresting insight into the learning of grammar. The choice of learning style is one that can be
negotiated and developed by the teacher and learners together, which is likely to inform a new
way of teaching and learning language. Students can indicate their preference as to whichgrammatical items are suitable for the inductive approach, and which they feel are moresuited to the deductive approach. Teachers can then refer and apply students’ choices to theirteaching practice. Learner choice is one of the key elements in developing learner autonomy.
Integrating the promotion of learner autonomy into grammar teaching might shed a little lighton a number of questions in SLA research. Grammar teaching and learner autonomy are still
not considered to be linked by many teachers. However, the results of this research suggestthat grammar teaching and learner autonomy can be combined and that doing this can bringabout improvement in both areas. Furthermore, the promotion of learner autonomy should
not be confined to grammar teaching, but rather applied in a wide range of language learning
contexts. The image held by some teachers that the deductive approach is teacher-centered,whilst the inductive approach is learner-centered, may be an oversimplification. It would be

134THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

possible for the deductive approach to be learner-centered if it reflects students’ perceptions
and meets their expectations. Similarly, the inductive approach could be teacher-centeredif the teacher imposes a learning style on students without sufficient consideration of theirprevious learning experience or their needs in terms of learner development. Further researchshould focus on investigating the relationship between students’ preferred learning styles
and improvement in their proficiency level. There should be a particular emphasis on weaklearners, as observations for this study showed these students to be especially interested in
new kinds of lessons. These students were also likely to be the ones who have yet to discover
their most effective learning strategy. Therefore, by making them reflect on their own learning
through not only tests, but also surveys, it is hoped that they will become better learners.

135慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

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Bruton, A. (2002). From taking purposes to purposing tasks. ELT Journal, 56(3), 280-288.
Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1983). The grammar book: an ESL/EFL teacher’s course.
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Celce-Murcia, M. & Hilles, S. (1988). Techniques and resources in teaching grammar. White Plains,
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Appendix 1: Handout for the experimentGrammar in use Unit 50.51
1. Devide the verbs into two categories and find the common rule.
1. “Mark, please, let’s go,” said Ricky, and began to cry.
2. Mark took the bottle and pretended to drink.

P3

P3

3. Now he wants to kill me because I know about the body.
4. He hates flying, so his car was fitted with…..

p9

5. He hopes to arrive in Memphis by midnight.

P9P4

6. He spent many pleasant moments watching video of himself.
7. Greenway continued touching and talking.

P12

P15

8. Greenway looked at Ricky and decided to tell the truth.
9. She had started drinking heavily and taking drugs.

P36

10. The hospital promised to keep guards at the door.

P39

11. I’ve agreed to see him in court this afternoon.

P17

P43

12. I will ask the guard to bring him here to see you now.

P43

13. ….when he again refused to answer the judge’s question.

P50

14. We enjoyed talking with you.
15. They finished cleaning the room.
16. The doctor advised me to take a rest.
No.1-13 from “The Client” Penguin Readers

Common rule

Common rule139

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Appendix 2: The ﬁrst survey sheet
Background Survey1) Teachers should present grammatical rules first, and the learners should then practice examples tohelp them learn the rules.
Strongly agree

Agree

DisagreeStrongly disagree2) L earners should discover the grammatical rules for and by themselves using the samples presented byteachers.
Strongly agree

Agree

DisagreeStrongly disagree

3) The most important factor in second language acquisition success is learners’ motivation.
Strongly agree

Agree

DisagreeStrongly disagree4) Teachers should lecture rather than allow learners to interact with each other.
Strongly agree

Agree

DisagreeStrongly disagree5) When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example in groups or pair activity), they learn
effectively from each other.
Strongly agree

Agree

DisagreeStrongly disagree

DisagreeStrongly disagree6) Learning grammar is useful for writing.
Strongly agree

140

Agree

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

Appendix 3: The ﬁnal survey sheet
The Final Survey
1) I prefer teacher presents grammatical points and rules at first.
Strongly agree

Agree

DisagreeStrongly disagree

Please write the specific reason why you think so;2) I like to discover some rules or concepts through a task in pairs or a group before teacher summarizes
them.
Strongly agree

Agree

DisagreeStrongly disagree

Please write the specific reason why you think so;

Please write freely about this grammar class.

*Thank you very much!

141慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号

Appendix 4: Post-test in Pilot study
Choose the correct form.

(10 pts.)

1) A: Hello. May I speak to Alice?
B: Just a minute. I (am going to/ will) get her.
2) A: Why are you bringing a brush and the paints?
B: I (am going to/ will) paint my room.
3) A: Oh, I just realized that I forgot my dictionary.
B: Don’t worry. I (am going to/ will) lend my electric dictionary.
4) A: Do you need a ride to the station?
B: No, thanks. Paul (is going to/ will) take me.
5) A: My car has broken down and I need a ride to my office tomorrow.
B: No problem. I (are going to/ will) pick you up in the morning.
6) A: Are you going on a trip this summer?
B: My wife has arranged everything. We (are going / will go) to Australia to ski.
7) A: We need the reserved tickets for a movie tonight.
B: I didn’t know that. OK, I (am going to/ will) get the tickets at Ticket Pino this afternoon.
8) Her parents have changed their minds. They (are not going to/ won’t) get divorced.
9) A: Do you know Annie is engaged?
B: No. Really? I (am going to/ will) call her and celebrate it tonight.
10) A: Can I stay with you next Monday?
B: Sorry, I can’t put you up on the day. One of my friends (is coming/ will come) from New York on
the night.

/10

142

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER-CENTERED GRAMMAR TEACHING

Appendix 5: Pre-test, Post-test, and Delayed post-test in the Experiment
Choose the correct form.

(12pts.)1. I enjoyed (swim/ to swim/ swimming) in the pool.
2. I hope (see/ to see/ seeing) you very soon.
3. He refuses (speak/ to speak/ speaking) to the police.
4. They agreed (see/ to see/ seeing) him in the court.
5. She has finished (do/ to do/ doing) her homework.
6. My teacher advised me (go/ to go/ going) study abroad.
7. I want (buy/ to buy/ buying) the new sport car.
8. She pretended (drink/ to drink/ drinking) beer.
9. She decided (tell/ to tell/ telling) the truth.
10. They promised (keep/ to keep/ keeping) the guards at the door.
11. We spent an hour (eat/ to eat/ eating) dinner.
12. I will ask the guard (bring/ to bring/ bringing) her here.

/12

143

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145

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147

Regulations for Contributions to the Journal of Foreign Language Education
1. S
 ubmissions to the journal are accepted from full and part-time faculty members of the
Keio University system.
2. Contributions include research articles, survey/practical articles, and research notes.
3. Abstract:a. The title and a 800～1000 character abstract both written in Japanese must be
attached when the paper is written in Japanese.
b. The title and a 150～200 words abstract both written in a European language mustbe attached when the paper is written in a European language.
c. The title and a 800～1000 character abstract both written in Japanese must be attachedwhen the paper is written in any language other than Japanese or a European language.
d. The title and a 150～200 word abstract both written in English must be attachedwhen a paper is submitted concerning Japanese Language Education.
4. Format specifications:
The typescript should be typed in horizontal format, A4-size. It should not exceed 10.5 point.
If written in Japanese, please use Minchotai font. If written in a European language
Times, Times New Roman, or Century should be used.
The number of pages for typed papers, including references and charts, should notexceed the number given below:
a. Research Articles and Survey/Practical Articles
・The number of pages for papers (A4, 1200 characters per page) in Japanese
should not exceed 16～20 pages (20000～24000 characters).
・The number of pages for papers in European language on A4 should not exceed
30～35 pages (7000～8000 words, double-spaced).
・The number of pages for papers (A4, 1200 characters per page) other than inJapanese or a European language should not exceed 16～20 pages (20000～
24000 characters).
b. Research Notes
・The number of pages for research notes (A4, 1200 characters per page) inJapanese should not exceed 8 pages (10000 characters).
・The number of pages for research notes in European language on A4 should notexceed 15 pages (3500 words, double-spaced).

148

・The number of pages for research notes (A4, 1200 characters per page) in
languages other than Japanese or any European language should not exceed 8
pages (10000 characters).
5. Language:No particular language is stipulated.
6. Application form:
・Submitted papers etc. should be accompanied by an application form.
・Contributors are able to download the application form on the Keio Research Center
for Foreign Language Education website.
7. Other formats:・Other formats should follow either APA or MLA.
・Notes should be at the end of papers.
8. Judgment:
Papers submitted will be judged by an Editorial Committee.
Contributors will receive notification of publication in December.
9. Printer’s proofs:
Printer’s proofs will be provided two times. Further revisions cannot be accepted after
the first revised proof.
10. Copyright
Papers will be made available for the public to view on the Keio Research Center for
Foreign Language Education website.
If a contributor borrows from another author’s work/data, the contributor must obtainthat author’s consent concerning the copyright of photographs and/or illustrations, etc.,
before the publication of the paper, normally at the first proof stage. The copyright andpublishing rights of papers published will be held by the Editorial Committee. This
includes the right to republish the paper. If a contributor wishes to republish their paper
elsewhere they should inform the Editorial Committee, which in turn will obtain thecontributor’s consent in the event that it republishes the abstract of the paper.
11. Deadline and enclosure:The deadline for submission is September 2008.
Manuscripts:
Contributors should submit three sets of the manuscript on A4.
Submitted papers, etc., should be accompanied by e-mail, FD, CD-R or flash memory, etc.

14912. Addressee:
Office of Journal of Foreign Language Education
Mita Office
Keio Research Center for Foreign Language Education
2-15-45 Mita, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8345 Japan
13. Contact Us:
Mita Office
Keio Research Center for Foreign Language Education
2-15-45 Mita, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8345 Japan
tel: + 81-3-5427-1592 ext.22301
E-mail: flang-kiyo@adst.keio.ac.jp

150

執筆者紹介宮崎啓………………… 慶應義塾高等学校 教諭

キム アンジェラ アジョン………

慶應義塾大学
日本語・日本文化教育センター専任講師
慶應義塾大学 総合政策学部

藁

谷

郁

美

…………………

太

田

達

也

………………… 慶應義塾大学 総合政策学部准教授

マルコ・ラインデル……………

兼 政策 ･ メディア研究科准教授

慶應義塾大学
総合政策学部訪問講師
慶應義塾大学 法学部 ･ 商学部……………… 国際センター・外国語教育研究センター

横川［室］ 真理子

非常勤講師

Clyde Henry Lewis……………

慶應義塾大学
文学部 ･ 経済学部非常勤講師

吉

田

友

子

………………… 慶應義塾大学 商学部准教授

前

原

由

紀

…………………

慶應義塾湘南藤沢中 ･ 高等部
有期教諭

151

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これまでの査読者（アイウエオ順）『慶應義塾 外国語教育研究』編集委員
文 学 部

法 学 部

商 学 部
理工学部

齋
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優 治
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総合政策学部重 松淳（委員長）
外国語教育研究センター
倉 舘 健 一高等学校 宮 崎
啓
事 務 局

城
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杉

慶應義塾 外国語教育研究 第５号
平成21年 3 月31日 発行
発 行 人

境

印 刷 所

有限会社

一

三

発 行 所

慶應義塾大学外国語教育研究センター

梅沢印刷所

東京都港区三田 ₂ ⊖₁₅⊖₄₅
電話 03 ⊖ 5427 ⊖ 1601

市
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政
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明
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