Journal of Socio-Informatics

ISSN1882-9171

Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.2, No.1

Sep. 2009[Refereed Papers]
Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided:
An Empirical Study Based on a Local Questionnaire Survey
Masahiro ARIMA, Masahiro FUJITA
Possibilities for Alternative Learning in the ICT Age
Chiaki ISHIDAThe Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online
Community-A Study on the Interpersonal Ties of Korean Cultural Kinship in Terms of
Alumni’s Network and Old-Hometowners’ NetworkYunbok LEE
A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese in
Slovenia
Linda MARUSIC, Atsushi IWAI
A New Set of Staged Criteria to Evaluate the Improvement of Communication
within a Regional Community
Shino NAMIKI
The Informatic Turn-Who Observes the “Infosphere”?
Toru NISHIGAKI, Tadashi TAKENOUCHI
Causal Relationship between Media Use and Information Literacy:
A Three-Wave Panel Study with Junior High School Students
Rei OMI, Akira SAKAMOTO, Nireka ADACHI, Reiko ANDO,
Kumiko AKIYAMA, Fumika KIMURA, Megumi KASHIBUCHI,
Mayumi NAITO, Mieko TAKAHIRA, Katsura SAKAMOTO,
Kanae SUZUKI, Shogo KATO, Takashi SAKAMOTO
A Study of Remote Support by IT Volunteer Group for Senior Citizens
Wei ZHOU, Shigeki YOKOI

Vol.2, No.1

[Invited Paper]
The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,” but rather a Pathway toan Actual Community: Employment and Participation for People with Disabilities
in Japan
Kuniomi SHIBATA

Sep. 2009

The Japan Association for Social Informatics (JASI)The Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies (JSIS)Journal of Socio-Informatics
Vol.2, No.1

Sep. 2009◆CONTENTS◆[Refereed Papers]
Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided:
An Empirical Study Based on a Local Questionnaire Survey

Masahiro ARIMA, Masahiro FUJITA… 3
Possibilities for Alternative Learning in the ICT Age

Chiaki ISHIDA… 19
The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community-A Study on the Interpersonal Ties of Korean Cultural Kinship in Terms of Alumni’s Network and OldHometowners’ Network-

Yunbok LEE… 33
A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese in Slovenia

Linda MARUSIC, Atsushi IWAI… 53
A New Set of Staged Criteria to Evaluate the Improvement of Communication within a Regional
Community

Shino NAMIKI… 69
The Informatic Turn-Who Observes the “Infosphere”?

Toru NISHIGAKI, Tadashi TAKENOUCHI… 81
Causal Relationship between Media Use and Information Literacy:
A Three-Wave Panel Study with Junior High School Students

Rei OMI, Akira SAKAMOTO, Nireka ADACHI, Reiko ANDO, Kumiko AKIYAMA,
Fumika KIMURA, Megumi KASHIBUCHI, Mayumi NAITO, Mieko TAKAHIRA,
Katsura SAKAMOTO, Kanae SUZUKI, Shogo KATO, Takashi SAKAMOTO… 91
A Study of Remote Support by IT Volunteer Group for Senior Citizens

Wei ZHOU, Shigeki YOKOI… 103[Invited Paper]
The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,” but rather a Pathway to an Actual Community:
Employment and Participation for People with Disabilities in Japan

Kuniomi SHIBATA… 115

Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What
Content Should be Provided:
An Empirical Study Based on a Local Questionnaire Survey
Keywords:
Policy Evaluation, Local Informatization, Local Portal Site, Questionnaire, Conjoint Analysis

Masahiro ARIMA, Graduate School of Applied Informatics, University of Hyogo
Masahiro FUJITA, Otemae University

Abstract
The e-Japan Strategy formulated in 2000 considers the establishment of an e-government or e-local governments to be oneof its major projects. Among the themes related to the establishment of e-local governments, the implementation of a new-type
local portal sites has begun to attract all related parties; local governments, private sectors and third sectors as site operators,
and local residents as site users. On the local portal site, administrative information released by local government is provided
together with business information from local private sectors. Local governments are able to cut the operational cost of theirofficial web site by outsourcing its operation, and outsourced operators are able to attract more viewers by enriched site
contents and thus earn more advertisement revenue. Moreover, users will have easier accesses to their target information, as
all relevant information is found on the same portal. Therefore, this seemingly making-every- stakeholders-happy policy will
become popular among local governments in the near future; in fact, some advanced local governments have already started
to implement such a local portal site.
However, there are several issues to be considered: apart from expectations of local governments and web operators, it is
not yet clear which organization is supported as operator of their portal site, or how they would evaluate the method thatprovides administrative information and business information on the same web site. Furthermore, the economic advantages ofthis method have not yet been determined.
The purpose of this research is to examine two of the issues mentioned above: residents’ preference for site operators andcontents provided by applying conjoint analysis. The research was conducted using a questionnaire which was administered to
the residents of Itami City, Hyogo. The survey results indicated that the residents placed the highest value on the combined
provision of customized administrative information and business information. The most cost-effective way at the moment is tore-design the traditional official web sites of local governments, aiming to enhance the residents’ convenience by customizing
the information by users’ demographic attributes. Results also indicated that the residents preferred their local government tooperate the site. We believe that these study results provide basic but valuable suggestions for the gradual establishment oftrue e-local governments.

3

Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided

1. Introduction

ARIMA and FUJITA

monopoly on administrative information. As aresult, local residents and potential out-of-town

The Internet continues to develop as thevisitors have felt inconvenienced, because they are

dominant information infrastructure. Home use offorced to access various web sites or web pages

personal computers continues to rise. This

until they can reach their target information.

evolution in information and communication

The current economic slump and the urgent

technology (ICT) has led to a growing recognitionneed for fiscal reform and regional revitalization,

among local governments and local private sectors:

however, have recently prompted an attempt tothe online provision of such information that isproviderelated to local residents’ daily lives is becoming

information on a single web site; i.e., a local portal

important. Furthermore, information on a region’s

site.

culture, history, and tourist attractions can improveorganizational and fiscal reforms are desperately

residents’ lives and promote local revitalization.

needed, have also started to consider streamlining

Under such circumstances, several ICT-advanced

their oprerations and commercializing parts ofmunicipalities are now considering introducing

theirlocal portal sites. A local portal site, in this paper,

outsourcing government’s operations to private-is an Internet web site that mainly targets local

sector or non-profit organizations has become

residents and potential out-of-town visitors as itsvery popular in Japan, along with the introduction

users. It can be operated by any organization,of reform methods such as the Private Financeincluding

local

Initiative and Public-Private Partnership from New

governments. Through a local portal site, anyone

Public Management. In following this trend, somecan obtain any kind of local information related tomunicipalities have begun to entrust private

the region.

sectors, third sectors (joint corporations invested

businesscompanies

and

both

administrative

Meanwhile,

projects.

local

Under

and

businessgovernments

such

where

circumstances,

We consider local information to consist of two

both by public and private sectors), and even non-types of information. The first type, hereafter

profit organizations to open local portal sites thatcalled administrative information, is information

providereleased by local governments. The second isinformation.

information from local private companies, stores,

definitely exist expectations on part of bothrestaurants, and cooperatives such as a chamber

outsourcees and outsourcers. Outsourcers seek toof commerce or tourism association (hereafter

reduce their cost and to revitalize their local

both

administrative

Behindthisandbusinessmovement,

there

called business information). Regarding the

economy while outsourcees expect to attract more

provision method, providing both administrative

viewers to their sites and thus increase theirinformation and business information is apparently

advertisement revenues.

the best way to improve local residents’ quality ofThis seemingly win-win relationship between

life (QOL) and to attract potential out-of-town

local government and outsourced organizations,visitors to the region. However, each has

however, might raise a number of serious issues.

traditionally been provided separately. That is

First, it is not yet clear what local residents think ofbecause administrative information should be freetheir experiences with having both administrativefrom errors and local governments have held aand business information on a single local web
4

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009site. In other words, it has not yet been clearlysites operated by private information providers,examined what content they prefer to see on theirlocal governments started to open their own

local

official

portalsite.

Second,assuming

that

web

sites,

and

began

to

provideadministrative information is a kind of public asset

administrative information. What characterizes

and must therefore be free from errors, we need tothe trend of this period is, according to thecarefully examine who, or which organizations,survey by Kusase et al. (2001), some large-scale

would be appropriate for the error-free operator ofmunicipalities focused on providing everyday life

local portal sites. Furthermore, the economic

administrative information for their residents. In

value of this new type of local portal site also

contrast, the content of web sites operated byremains to be clarified.

small municipalities tended to be biased toward

This research aims to address these issues by

tourism information, with the intention of attracting

surveying residents’ attitudes toward them using amore out-of-town visitors.

questionnaire. In the following sections we willIn the 2000s, with the prevalence of home

discuss two of the issues mentioned above: 1)

computers and Internet connections, construction

Residents’ assessment of the content of their local

of official web sites and provision of everyday life

portal sites and 2) Residents’ evaluations of theadministrative information has become the main

selection of organizations that operate their local

response of local governments to the e-Japan

portal sites.

strategy. According to the Local Information Policy
Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and2. Brief History and Problems of Local Portal

Communications’ Local Administration Bureau

Sites(2008), all of the 1,811 municipalities have createdweb sites, and of those, 1,579 (87.2%) report

In order to react effectively and efficiently to theaccepting opinions and requests on their web sites

radical changes of the age of ICT, the central(data as of April 1, 2008). Though these statistical

government of Japan has set up a guideline called

figures seem to support the idea that local“e-Japan Strategy.” The prime aim of this strategy

governments have been successful in achieving

is to re-engineer almost all processes andtheprocedures of the central and local governments

informatization, web sites operated by local

through ICT. The ICT-driven reform policy at the

governments still require further improvements.

level of local government can be categorized into

Ho and Iijima (2006) surveyed those web sites

two areas: 1) administrative informatization, which

opened by local governments, classified them into

aims at cost reduction by utilizing ICT orfour groups according to their development stages,

information systems, and 2) local informatization,and concluded that the satisfaction level of each

which orients the improvement of the QOL ofsite’s content varied widely and was not yet

residents and the revitalization of regionalsufficient. Research by Higashiyama et al. (2006)

economies by providing relevant information topointed out that local governments have not yet

stakeholders.

succeeded in grasping the needs of their residents,

In the 1990s, the very beginning of the Internet

goals

of

local

and

administrative

or in re-engineering their internal operationage, following the birth of elementary local portal

processes and procedures.
5

Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided

3. Possibilities of Local Portal Sites

ARIMA and FUJITA

to entrust their local portal sites to outsideorganizations.

As mentioned, we cannot yet conclude that local

Actually some local governments have begun togovernments have successfully improved theirprovide their administrative information throughresidents’ QOL through ICT strategies. In addition

local portal sites managed by private companies,

to administrative and business information,in cities such as Nagano (since February 2006),

everyday life related information communicatedKawasaki (since July 2006), and Itami (sinceand shared by local residents has proven to play an

January 2008). Cases in which the providing ofimportant role in improving regional revitalization

administrative information is outsourced to private

and residents’ QOL. The use of local social

web companies may become commonplace in the

networking services (SNS) has become recognizednear future because while both the outsourcer andas an effective means of sharing such information

outsourcee benefit from such operations,among residents. The Ministry of Internal Affairs

demands of local residents, who want to have easy

and Communications cites the “promotion ofaccesses to their target information, can also be

residents’ participation using ICT” as an effective

satisfied.

thelocal informatization policy, and it recommends

However, there are a number of issues to bethat local SNS be included in local portal sites. The

considered regarding outsourcing. The fairness of“New Guidelines for Promotion of ‘e-Local

the process used to select outsourcees andGovernment’” issued by the Ministry of Internal

whether the credibility of a site’s information can

Affairs and Communications (2007) predicts that a

be assured are questions still open to debate. The

range of groups, including NPOs, communities,

method of provision is another concern. In theand local businesses, will be responsible fortraditional method, residents or users needed toactively participating in the provision of local

search their target information through various

public services through ICT channels.

menu fields by their own efforts; if customized andAccording to a survey conducted by Matsushita(2007),

anlocal

achieved however, it will greatly improve users’

governments are now seeking to introduce portal

convenience, and thus their QOL. Residents willsites that provide both administrative andsimply need to input their basic personal attributes,

business information, with the goal of increasing

such as their age, family composition, and area of

convenience for local residents and revitalizing

residence. Nonetheless, despite the fact that such

local areas. Among the valid responses from 571

a debate has yet to take place, and that a cost-

local governments, 86 (15.1%) local governments

benefit analysis of the customized provision of

had portal sites, and 41 (7.2%) were scheduled to

local information has yet to be attempted, theopen

distribution of administrative information throughone.

increasing

Furthermore,numberamongofautomated provision of local information can be

86

local

governments who opened local portal sites, 29

private channels is already a reality.

local governments (33.7%) ran the sites themselves,and 32 (37.2%) outsourced their operation to NPOs
or other organizations. This indicates that it has
become common practice for local governments
6

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

4. Itami City Residents’ Questionnaire

Internet access at home, and Internet usage.
b) Use of Itamin: Frequency of web site use,

4.1 Survey Outline

reasons for use, level of interest in the

Among the residents of Itami City, where theinformation provided, information they would

private sector-run local portal site “Itamin” (http://

like to see added, and need for local information

itami-city.jp/) was opened in October 2007 on an

besides that about Itami City.

experimental basis, a questionnaire was conductedc) Evaluation of the Local Portal Site: Quantitativeat the time of its full launch on January 26, 2008.

evaluation of the requirements for the operator

Prior to the survey, the municipal office had

and the source of the operator’s trustworthinessinformed their residents of the opening of this new

by applying the evaluation procedure of thelocal portal site through their official information

analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Exposing themagazine, issued twice a month. In addition, they

preference structure for the content provided,

issued a special brochure that explained thethe usage charge, and the type of operator bypurpose, content, and utilization method of theapplying the conjoint analysis method. An

site. It was distributed with their official information

economic assessment of the site by applying

magazine on February 1, 2008, in order to ensure

the contingent valuation method.

that residents were well informed about their new

4.2 Conjoint Analysis

portal.
Through the survey, we aimed to ascertain the

In this research, a conjoint analysis was used tofollowing: how residents felt about their local

analyze the following topics, “evaluation of thegovernment

administrative

combined provision of administrative information

information to a private company for the operation

and business information” and “selection of theof the portal, and how they viewed the fact thatorganization to operate the portal site.” Conjoint

such information was being provided alongside

analysis asks respondents to state their preferences

private-sector business information.

regarding the objects under evaluation, and is aprovidingtheir

The survey was conducted through the following

stated-preference approach. Using a conjoint

procedure: The questionnaire and return envelope

analysis, we can simultaneously estimate thewere inserted in the February 1, 2008 edition of anvalues of each individual attribute of the objects

Itami City information magazine and distributed tobeing evaluated, as well as the conjoint scale.

all households of Itami City, with a request thatSpecifically, conjoint analysis is carried out using

they be returned by post. The questionnaire

the following process: 1) The attributes that makecovered eight pages of A4 sized paper. It stated

up the product or service being evaluated arethat the questionnaire was being conducted indetermined. 2) Special characteristics, called

cooperation with Otemae University’s Fujita

levels, are set for each attribute. 3) The specificLaboratory and the University of Hyogo’s Arimaproduct or service, called a profile, is constructedLaboratory. The contents of the questionnaire

as a combination of separate attribute levels. 4)

included the following items:

The respondent is shown pictures, photographs,
Individual

or statements representing the profiles and is

attributes, method of acquiring local information,

asked to give his or her preference for each profile.

a) Respondent’s

basic

attributes:

7

Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided

ARIMA and FUJITA

5) The assessment value of the level and the(three levels): 1) Free. 2) 150 yen. 3) 300 yen.

importance that respondents assign to each

The 12 question profiles shown in Table 2 were

attribute are evaluated based on respondents’created using JMP statistical analysis software’s

preference data (Ohno, 2000; Katahira, 1987). This

custom plan procedure.

method has mainly been used in the field ofHere, a question may arise over the validity ofmarketing science, but it is also applicable to the

conjoint analysis in our questionnaire. The validity

evaluation of the policies of local governmentsof conjoint analysis becomes higher when

(Arima and Kawamukai, 2009).

respondents well comprehend the attributes andlevels of the target services. In our case, as already

4.3 Preparation of Profiles and Questions

mentioned, a questionnaire was distributed with

When designing questions for the topics ofthe brochure explaining what Itamin, our target

analysis, we prepared the following three attributes

service, was and how to use it. It was included inwith three or four levels, as summarized in Table

the city’s information magazine featuring the1.

launch of the portal. Both the magazine and the(1) Method and content of Information Provision

brochure explained that the site was operated by a(three levels). 1) The local government’s

private sector company, with some concrete

traditional official web site: The user searches

examples showing how administrative information

for desired items of information one afterand private-sector business information wereanother from the site, in the locations thatprovided on the single portal. Furthermore, as

administrative

beenshown in Fig. 2, the questionnaire gave clear

categorized by jurisdictional departments or

explanations with concrete examples of thesections. 2) The customized version of thecontent, the operator, and the operational cost of

traditional official web site: Only administrative

this portal site. After providing these detailed

information is provided, but is customized andexplanations, we presented profiles, and asked thefiltered when the user enters his or her basic

respondents whether or not they were willing topersonal attributes into the system, such asuse them. The questionnaire was designed in thisage, gender, and area of residence. All relevant

way so that both respondents familiar with thepieces of administrative information are thenlocal portal site and respondents with no Internet

automatically searched within the site andexperience could answer the questions based onprovided all at once. 3) The combined provision

good comprehension of the target service.

information

hasof customized administrative and business

Therefore, we understand that we tried to makeinformation: In addition to the administrative

sure that the respondents to our questionnaire

information mentioned in 2) above, relevant

had a good understanding of the portal, and were

customized business information is provided.

able to evaluate properly the 12 profiles presented(2) Organization to operate the web site (fourin the question.

levels). 1) Local government (Itami City), 2)
Third-sector

organization,

3)

4.4 Question Design

Non-profit

organization (NPO), 4) Private company.

Conjoint analysis can be broadly broken down

(3) Monthly Usage Charge for a Local Portal Site

into two methods: choice-based conjoint analysis
8Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Table 1: Attributes and Levels for the Assessment of Local Portal Sites

Figure 1: Examples of the Profiles Used (taken from the first three cards)
Table 2: The 12 Profiles Used in the Questionnaire9Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided

ARIMA and FUJITA

Figure 2: Explanations for the Respondents
Regarding the Attributes and Their Levels for Evaluation
and ratings-based conjoint analysis. Ratings- based

rating method with answers ranging from “veryconjoint analysis can be further sub-divided intogood” to “poor.” The final method was an order-

the “order-rating method,” the “grade-rating

rating method in which respondents put the 12

method,”“paired-comparison-rating

profiles in order according to the level ofmethod.” In this research, we utilized the following

preference. In this paper, we use the data from thisthree methods, based on ease of use, as we werebinary selection method.

attempting

and

our

the

conjoint

analysisusinga5. Survey Results

questionnaire given to members of the public withno experience of answering the questions designed

5.1 Response Biasfor conjoint analysis. The first method used was abinary selection method, in which respondents

According to the 2005 Japanese census, Itami

gave a response of “yes” or “no” to indicate whether

City’s total population was 192,250 (gender ratio:

they would accept and use the displayed profile.

49.0% male, 51.0% female), and it had 72,983

The second method was a 5-point scale grade-households. As many as 78,458 questionnaires
10

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Table 3: Demographic Composition of the Survey Samples*RR=Response Rate
NOTE: Caliculated from the 2005 census data. The number of respondents who did
not fill in their gender is not shown.
were inserted in the Itami City’s information

under, the response rate was low, while amongmagazine for distribution, and 2,426 responses

males in their 60s and over, it was high. Females

were collected by post, representing a response

under 20 also showed a low response rate, butrate of 3.09%. In addition to those received throughfemales in their 30s and 40s had a high rate.

the post, 255 responses were collected through a

We also saw some demographic bias inresidents’ association and a chamber of commerce.

respondents to the binary selection question that

The total number of responses collected was

asked, “Willing to use it or not?” (referring to thetherefore 2,681, giving a response rate of 3.42%.

local portal sites shown in each of the 12 profiles

The responses collected through the residents’presented). This is shown in Table 4. The maleassociation were collected from individual homes

response rate to these questions was low. The

two to three weeks after the questionnaires were

response rate showed a tendency to decrease as

distributed. The questionnaires collected throughage increased among respondents in their 50s andthe chamber of commerce were distributed

above. In addition, rates for those unemployed/

separately from the others, during the chamber’s

students, self-employed, and corporate managers

monthly meeting, and were then collected overwere also low.

the next two weeks when respondents visited theThese biases seem to be caused mainly by thechamber of commerce. The composition of thefact that the questionnaires were distributed not

samples is shown in Table 3.

among all residents or citizens, but rather among

Of the total responses, 42.3% were male (1,133

all households, in which one members of thequestionnaires), and 55.7% were female (1,492

household was asked to answer the questions. The

questionnaires), showing a slight bias toward

low response rate might also have raised thefemale respondents. Among males in their 20s andproblem regarding the reliability of our survey
11Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided

ARIMA and FUJITA

Table 4: Demographic Composition of Respondents to the Conjoint Analysis Question Using the
Binary Selection Method

results.

the representativeness of our survey samples,

In principle, when a bias exists in the samples,

under

the

greaterdifficulty

nowadaysof

we must make a weighted estimation by using thequestionnaire surveying and opinion polling, nosampling ratio’s reciprocal as a reconstruction

survey can avoid a low response rate. Accordingly,

factor, while carrying out the parameter estimation.

we must leave these problems with our samples to

However, we did not perform any adjustments in

be remedied by future research.

this research, because there exists no information
about the population of households in Itami City

5.2 Estimated Preference Structure on Local

and we detected no extreme demographic bias inPortal Sites Using the Binary Logit Model
The Binary Logit Model was applied and theour samples.

residents’ utility function was estimated. In thisAs to the problem with low response rate and12Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

model, whether or not resident i (i = 1 to n, and nutility value was calculated by adding the part-is the number of residents) will accept and use aworth utility values or the partial utility of three

profile presented on a local portal site can be

attributes. Table 5 shows the estimated partial

expressed as follows (Aizaki, 2005):

utility of each level. Reference levels were theU1i = V1i + e1i“traditional web site” for the “method and content

U2i = V2i + e2iof information provision,” “free” for the “monthly

where U1i is resident i’s utility level attained whenusage charge,” and a “private company” for thehe or she is “willing to use” presented profiles, and“organization to operate the web site.” When we

U2i is resident i’s utility level attained when he orestimated the parameters, the coefficients of theshe is “not willing to use” presented profiles. V1ilevels used as reference levels were set at “0.”and V2i are definite utilities, obtained from “willing

McFadden’s adjusted pseudo-coefficients of theto use” and “not willing to use,” respectively, anddetermination were used to the goodness-of-fit of

e1i and e2i are the probability terms. When thethe entire model, as shown in Table 5. The

difference between the two probability terms isgoodness-of-fit, when estimation was performed

assumed to conform to a logistic distribution, theusing the entire sample, was 0.3276. This is withinprobability of the presented local portal site being

the standard range of 0.2 to 0.4 that is regarded as“used,” Pi, can be formalized with the Binary Logita high goodness-of-fit. In addition, when the

Model using the following formula.

estimation was applied to each attribute group, thePi = exp (V1i) / {exp (V1i) + exp (V2i)}
Whenestimating

with

this

model,

pseudo-coefficients of the determination were
we0.1932 at their lowest, for those aged 70 years andstandardized V2i as “0” and considered each level

above, and 0.4599 at their highest, for thoseof the three attributes shown in the profile to be

employed as freelancers. We can say that these

the primary factors that defined V1i. When

goodnesses-of-fit were tolerable. Incidentally, theestimating the parameter or coefficient of theestimated coefficients for respondents with homeprimary factor that defined the definite utility ofInternet access and for those without it had theV1i, assuming a linear utility function, we appliedsame sign; this fact shows that the residents

the following two methods.

without access to the Internet at home understood1) Results were measured with the binary logit

the meanings of the profiles and responded

model using all response data from all samples

accordingly.

that contained responses to the question asking

5.3 Interpretation of the Estimated Results

if the respondent would accept the 12 profiles
presented.

Fig. 3 shows the values of the coefficient2) Measurements were made using the binary

estimates for each level of each attribute, measured

logit model, which was applied to all responseusing the whole sample on a graph. Thoughdata from those samples with the same attributecaution is required regarding the different scales

values for gender, age, occupation, Internet use

for monthly usage charges and the other two

at home, and experience and interest in Internet

attribute graphs, Fig. 3 shows us that, when the

shopping.

usage charge was made “not free,” it resulted in a

The estimated results are shown in Table 5. The

significantly lower partial utility value.
13

Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided

ARIMA and FUJITA

Table 5: Coefficient Estimates from a Linear Definite Utility Function Via the Binary Logit Model

NOTE: ** denotes significant at the 1% level and * denotes significant at the 5% level.
In our evaluation of the methods and content of

no experience of Internet shopping but were

information provision, the coefficients for ainterested in trying it in the future, we found that

customized version of current an official web site,

the coefficient for “high-quality” information,and those for combined provision of customized

which included both customized administrative

administrative information and relevant businessinformation and relevant business information,

information, were positive, excluding the attribute

was greater than that for “semi high-quality”

groups of freelancer, corporate manager, self-

information, which provided only customized

employed, and those who had experience withadministrative information.

Internet shopping, but were no longer interested

In addition, as can be seen in Fig. 3, the increase

in it. That is to say, we found that the utility value

in the utility level from “semi high-quality”

for the residents could be increased throughinformation to the provision of “high-quality”

providing these two information provision methods

information was somewhat lower than the increase

and content types instead of the traditional method

in utility level from the current method and content

and content. Excluding certain cases, such as theof information to the provision of “semi high-attributes of 40-49 year-olds, third-sector staff,

quality” information. This suggests that, when

specialists, the self-employed, and those who had

considering replacing the current official web site
14

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Figure 3: Estimated Partial Utility of Levels for Each Attributeof a local government that just “displays” theapproximately 25 yen. Similarly, the marginalexisting information, the marginal benefits ofbenefitproviding customized administrative information

customized business information is estimated toalone are greater than the marginal benefits ofbe approximately 8 yen.

providing customized administrative and relevantofadditionallyprovidingrelevant

The evaluation of usage charges showedbusiness information in combination.

negative coefficients for monthly 150 yen and 300

Moreover, as Table 5 shows, the utility value

yen charges in all cases. The absolute value of thedecreased by 1.302 when the monthly usage fee ofcoefficients was found to be greater for 300 yen

150 yen was required, which helps us estimate

than for 150 yen. As the values of the coefficientthat the utility value of “1” is equivalent to 115.2

estimates were all highly significant at the 1% level,yen. Compared to the evaluations for current

it is doubtful that residents would pay to use local

official web sites, the utility value is increased byportal sites, when they can use almost all other

0.214 when the current site was customized for

portal sites free of charge, including those operated

each user. Thus, it is estimated that the marginalby private sectors.

benefit of customizing traditional web sites is

In the evaluation of local government as the15

Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided

ARIMA and FUJITA

organization to operate the portals, the coefficientswere included in the questionnaire for thefor all attribute groups were positive, excluding

residents. Our research suggested that the

respondents in their 30s, specialists, and those

application of conjoint analysis to a survey of

who had Internet shopping experience but wereresidents, using the questionnaire method, wasno longer interested in it. The figures were

not easy, but not impossible either.

significant for both genders, and for respondents

The results of our conjoint analysis clarified theaged 40 years and over, excluding those in theirfollowing:

50s. When viewed by occupation, the figures were

(1) Local residents and users of local portal sites

significant for homemakers and the unemployed/recognize

students. On the other hand, the values of the

hypothetical, yet potentially real, local portal

coefficient

third-sector

sites. One site would provide customizedorganizations were negative in all cases, except foradministrative information, filtered as needed,

the third-sector staff and freelancers, among theand the other would provide both customized

occupation attributes. They also had a lower

administrativeevaluation compared to the portal site operated bycustomized business information. However,a private company. There was not one case where

the questionnaire results also indicates thatthe estimated coefficient of the NPOs wasresidents assigned a higher marginal utility tosignificant, and each level of each attribute varied

thein indicating a positive or negative estimatedgovernment web site than to the addition ofcoefficient. This result implies that residents dorelevant business information. This means thatnot have a clear idea about NPOs as operators ofthe value of local portals can be greatly

local portal sites, and therefore were not able toenhanced simply by providing residents withevaluate them appropriately.

information that is filtered according to theirestimates

of

the

the

positive

value

information

customization

of

in

and

traditional

havingrelated

local

personal attributes, even if the overall content

6. Conclusion

remains the same.
(2) Regarding the selection of organizations to

Out of the various topics concerning local

operate local portal sites, it was found that

informatization, this paper has focused on local

residents placed the highest value on having

portal sites, an area currently receiving attention

the local government be the operator. We

as a tool to streamline administrative tasks and toassume that this preference can be explained

provide residents with convenient informationby their concern for the credibility of theaccess, as well as to facilitate the revitalization ofoperator and for the accuracy of the information

local economies. The purpose of this research wasprovided. This conclusion is strongly supported

to find out what residents expected and desiredby the preliminary analysis using the AHP

from their local portal sites, in terms of its content

method (Fujita and Arima, 2009).

and operator. To achieve that aim, we conducted

In Japan today, we face serious problems related

an empirical analysis using a questionnaire forto information systems and operations conducted

residents. Questions were constructed for a

by public bodies, including the falsification of

conjoint analysis of three attributes, and thesepension records by the Social Insurance Agency.
16

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009
Hierarchy Process to Make Local Community

In light of such alarming trends, we believe that

Effective,”

Studies in Regional

this study has been successful in demonstrating

Management

the necessity of local information being provided

Science, Vol.37, No.4, pp.931-946 (in Japanese withEnglish Abstract).

by local governments, in addition to the

Arima, Masahiro and Hajime Kawamukai (2008),

significance of analyzing residents’ evaluations of“Possibilities and Challenges for Policy Assessment

their local government’s web site, from theBased Conjoint Analysis in Local Government,”

perspective of the credibility of the site’s content

Studies in Regional Science, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 629-

and operator.

648 (in Japanese with English Abstract).

In order to further explore the outcome andFujita, Masahiro, Masahiro Arima and Hajime

policy implications, we plan to continue ourKawamukai (2008), “Residents’ Evaluation of Local

analysis of the Itami survey data and conduct an

Portal Site in Terms of Contents and Providers,”

additional survey in the city to do time series

Proceedings of the Joint Annual Research Meeting

analysis. We will also conduct similar surveys inof the Japan Association for Social Informatics andmunicipalities other than Itami City to support our

the Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies, pp.

conclusion based on this survey.

452-457 (in Japanese with English Abstract).
Fujita,MasahiroandMasahiro

Arima(2009),

Acknowledgements“Residents’ Evaluation of Contents and Providers ofThis research was carried out with the financial

Local Portal Site,” Proceedings of the Asia Pacificsupport of the Special Educational Research Grant

Conference on Information Management 2009

from University of Hyogo in 2007, and the Otemae(APCIM2009), pp. 261-269 (in CD-ROM).

University Special Research Fund 2007. We would like

Ho, Sho and Junichi Iijima (2006), “A Study on Growth

to thank the residents of Itami City for their cooperation

Model of Local Government Web Sites,” Officein completing our survey, and the local government of

automation, Vol. 27. No. 1, pp. 64-71 (in Japanese).

Itami City for granting us permission to include theHigashigawa, Teruhisa, Sadaya Kubo and Tatsumi

questionnaire in their information magazine. We are

Shimadaalso very grateful to Associate Professor Hajime

e-government progress level on local governments,”(2006),“An

empirical

study

of

Kawamukai for his invaluable comments and advice

Journal of Socio Informatics, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 5969 (in Japanese).

during the designing of the questionnaire. Threeanonymous reviewers of this paper gave us very

Kusase, Mio, Hiroyuki Matsui and Eiichi Kameda

valuable comments for its revision. For the cooperation(2001), “A Basic Study on the Public Relations using

and support of all concerned, we would like to express

Internet by Local Government Administration,”

Journal of Socio Informatics, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 5-15

our deepest appreciation.

(in Japanese).
Greene, William H. (2000), Econometric Analysis (4thReferencesEd.), Prentice-Hall.

Aizaki, Hideo (2005), PNougyo-Nouson no Keikaku

Hyouka:Senkouhyoumeihou

niyoruKatahira, Hotaka (1987), Marketing Science, Tokyo

Sekkin,Association for Agricultural and Forrest Statistics

University

Press(in Japanese, ISBN: 978-4541033055).

4130420259).

(inJapanese,

ISBN:

978-

Arima, Masahiro and Hajime Kawamukai (2008),

Kato, Masanobu and Masahiro Arima (2005), “An“Surfacing Local Issues by Applying the Analytic

Evaluation of the Consumer Preferences for Welsh

17

Who Should Operate Local Portal Sites and What Content Should be Provided

ARIMA and FUJITA

Onion ‘Iwatsu’ of Green Onion Type with Conjoint

Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

Analysis: A Case Study of the Road Station ‘Fresh(http://www.

Asago’,”

Journalof

Kinki-Chugoku-Shikoku

s-news/2008/

pdf/081031_1_all.pdf, only Japanese version is

Agricultural Research, Vol. 6, pp. 79-87 (inJapanese).

soumu.go.jp/

available).
Matsushita, Tetsuo (2007), “Jichitai no Denshika

Kuriyama, Koichi (1998), Environmental Value andShinchokudo Zenkoku Shiku Chousa,” Nikkei

Valuation Method, Hokkaido University Press (inJapanese, ISBN: 978-4832960113).

Glocal, No. 80, pp. 6-29 (in Japanese).
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

Kuriyama, Koichi and Yasushi Shoji (eds.) (2005),(2007), New Guidelines for Promotion of “e-Local

Environmental Valuation of Recreation: An

Government”, Ministry of Internal Affairs andApplication to the National Park Management,

Communications

Keiso-shobogo.jp/s-news/(inJapanese:

ISBN:

978-

Department,

Local

4326502707).
Local

Information(http://www.

soumu.

2007/pdf/070320_1_bt1. pdf, only Japanese version
Policyis available).

Administration Bureau, Ministry of InternalOhno, Eiji (ed.) (2000), A Practical Approach of

Affairs and Communications (2008), Outline ofEnvironmental Valuation Methods, Keiso-Shobo

Information Manage-ment in Local Governments,(in Japanese, ISBN: 978-4326501939).

18

Possibilities for Alternative Learning in the ICT Age
Keywords:
Education, Media, Alternative, ICT, Communication

Chiaki ISHIDA, Graduate School of Social Sciences, Hitotsubashi University

SummaryThis paper investigates the meaning of ‘media’ and ‘communication’ from the viewpoint of bothsocio-informatics and the sociology of education. In order to connect both fields, I will consider
the role and potential of learning activities in the age of pervasive Information and Communication
Technology (ICT). As a first step in this multidisciplinary challenge, I will compare the usage of
keywords in the both fields, and specify issues arising when we create knowledge in the context
of the modern educational system in Japan.
The paper will give a brief overview of the background of the problems found in Japan’s modern
education system, highlighting the social effects of the so-called meritocracy ideology. It will thenshed light on new possibilities for ICT as a resource for learning by drawing on research basedon the idea of ‘social capital’ as popularized in the work of Robert D. Putnam. The paper will alsopresent a multidisciplinary comparison of ‘media’ and ‘communication’ as keyword that helps
deepen our understanding of spontaneous learning activities, and then highlights a counterperspective to the recent research on ICT covered in the previous section. Drawing on fieldwork
data, the paper will explore ICT-driven changes to learning practices in Japanese society. In
conclusion, it will reconsider learning activities in the context of recent ICT developments. By thistoken this will enable us to reinforce the imperative of a deeper exploration into the meaning of‘media’ and ‘communication’ in contemporary society.

19Possibilities for Alternative Learning in the ICT Age

ISHIDA

1. Introduction

communities within both social science and

The rapid development of Information andtechnology-related disciplines. Amongst the broad

Communication Technology (ICT) enables people

spectrum of academic research, developments in

to communicate with each other more easily thanInternet technology hold important implications

ever before, regardless of time and place. The

for the sociology of education. In particular, ICT

online world is flooded with an enormous volume

and related areas of research present importantof information, and we can now acquire thechallenges

appropriate data or information for our needs by‘information’ and ‘knowledge’ and how these

simply using portal search engines. In this respect,

crucial building blocks are cultivated in theInternet sites can be considered as pages in a newmodern formal educational system.

for

abstract

conceptssuchasand useful encyclopaedia for better knowing ourWith this paper I would like to clarify how and toworld. Additionally, there exist many communities

what extent we can overcome the difficulties

in the online world where people exchange

caused by the social system emerging from theopinions based on their individual interest or

processes of modernization and globalization. In

search for answers to particular problems in their

particular, I focus on the resource of information/

lives. As is widely known, Social Networking

knowledge that a human being requires to live

Services (SNS) are prominent examples of awithin a particular society. With such a broad‘community’ type website, and are noteworthy

scope of analysis it is difficult to develop the

because they have overcome many of the problems

discussion within a single academic field. Rather,

associatedto answer the above question, it is necessary towithanonymity

andcontent

approach the issue from a comprehensive point oftrustworthiness on the Internet.
In addition to SNS, a variety of recently developed

view. In particular, I seek to illuminate the meaning

software has become available with which we canof online learning as an alternative to traditional

easily implement a more customized community

approaches by taking the following steps. First, I

type website, most notably Contents Management

review specific problems frequently occurring

System (CMS) software. Some of these tools arewithin systemized formal education, especially inprovided free of charge. Moreover, such software

Japan. Second, building on this discussion ofallows users to build their own website without

formal education, I will investigate the meaning ofanysoftwarean online space as a new learning space. To betterabetterfocus this interdisciplinary challenge, I concentrateunderstanding of this development, it is necessaryon ‘communication’ and ‘media’ as a means toto examine the social meaning and function of thebuild common points of comparison between two

online world as a subject for academic debate indifferent academic disciplines, namely socio-

Japan. The emergence of an online world has

informatics and the sociology of education. Using

attracted enormous attention as a new field of

this two-stage analysis, I attempt to confirm

academic research. It has given rise to a number

theoretically how our learning activities areof new ways to conceive and generate usefulaffected by authority. After the theoreticalknowledge. Much of this academic work has

discussion exploring the concepts of ‘media’ andconcentrated on analysing the function of online‘communication’, I introduce the case of a

specialized

programming

knowledge

language.

To

of

a

gain

20

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

functioning ICT network dedicated to supporting

ideology has a severity which demands the same

immigrant children in Japan. By analysing

qualities from all children based on the principle ofinteractions taking place on the network, I identify‘self-help’. He also notes that success within the

key characteristics of communication, and point

established Japanese education system seems totowards the possibilities of an alternative learning

be an unreachable goal for those who face

space.

difficulties

that

set

them

apart

from

the

stereotypical student. To achieve success under

2. Meritocracy Ideology in Modern Japanese

this meritocratic ideology, children are forced toSociety

perform

This section presents an overview of debates

homogeneous competence. Each child is expected

critical of aspects of the modern formal educational

to take responsibility for his/her own life bysystem in Japan, which almost all Japanese havemaking an effort to achieve the highest scoreexperienced as both a national duty and an

possible, which is generally measured andindividual right. Post-war Japan is characterized as

evaluated by standards defined in the nationala society that has transcended its system of social

curriculum. Evidence for the power of thisclass determined by birth. This change has been

assumption is being pronounced in the wake of ancompounded

increasing inequality in Japanese society (kakusa

byincreased

individualizationintandemwith

thestandardof

shakai).

amongst the population and the effects ofglobalization, a trend that has been very

Recent mass media attention to one side, it has

pronounced since the mid-1970s. The more people

long been common knowledge within the field of

become accustomed to liberation from fixedsociology of education that the formal education

categories such as social class, gender andsystem strongly affects the redistribution of social

patriarchy in closed groups, the more privatizedclasses.

will people’s perception and recognition tend toconsequences brought on by formal education is

become (Hirota, 2004). In place of socially-fixed

difficult. It can lead to problems in critiquing thecategories, post-war Japan, as in many otheroverarching system. Moreover, the disposition

developed countries, stressed the importance ofand relationship of the education system and its

attaining a high standardized score and entering

practice is not clearly understood by people; they

distinguished high schools, which in turn offeredtend to accept it as axiomatic. At this mostthe greatest chances of entering prestigious

fundamental level, people seldom reflect on theuniversities and all the benefits they potentiallymeaning of the system (Miyajima, 1999). Miyajima

offer. The accompanying social environment and(1999) contends that the axiomatic nature of theworldview, often referred to as Japan’s meritocracy

relationship fosters a tendency for people to blame

ideology, still persists in present day Japaneseparticular inequalities as being determined bysociety.

properties or incomes, rather than acknowledging

However,

identifying

the

kind

of

that many of these inequalities are in fact pre-It is often claimed that the formal educational

determined by academic success.

system serves as the foundation for perpetuating
this system and reinforcing this ideology. Takashi

An individual’s experience within the formal

Miyajima (1999), for instance, points out that thiseducation system heavily influences that person’s
21

Possibilities for Alternative Learning in the ICT Age

ISHIDA

future work and life choices as well as placing

are at a disadvantage, who do not have access torestrictions on human behaviour (Seki, 2002).

enough information resources, or lack the

Keiko Seki (2002) defines this power of restriction

vocabulary to survive in a meritocratic systemas ‘authority’. In every stage in our life-course, we(Seki, 2002).

can observe the presence of power and its

To

show

concern

for

these

negativeinterventions in daily life. Seki asserts that all thecharacteristics inherent in modern Japaneseplaces where human beings grow are also thesociety, I strongly feel the need to reconsider theplaces where one builds the norm of ‘authority’.

sources and the networks of our knowledge andShe claims that ‘authority’ is a device that binds usreflect on their importance. For this, it is imperative

throughout our life, directing our path through life

to analyse the meaning and the process of ourin every process (Seki, 2002). If we resign

learning activity; namely, how we get information

ourselves from the competences prescribed by

and utilize it as knowledge in real life situations.

authority, it means a downfall into the underclass

The effect and the meaning of ICT in Japan is a

(Hirota, 2004).

case in point. This is appropriate because ICT is

The aforementioned discussions unravel an

one alternative tool that allows people to identify

ambivalent situation in contemporary Japanese

information and gain direct knowledge using asociety. That is, we are required to design our own

resource or online interaction that is removed

life-course by ourselves at our own risk. However,from

the procedure of such design is politically induced

compulsory education.

theprescribedauthorities

governingby a hidden authority. This situation clearly has

3. Relationship between Alternative Learningparallels to the work by Zygmunt Bauman (2008),
which stresses that ‘identity’ is what we are

and ICT

required to achieve in modern society. Since theObserving the reality of communicating with

important things in life become concentrated

others in contemporary society, we can identify

around the individual, people no longer pay

many factors and developments that can lead us toattention to others; rather, they hold fears about

anticipate an enhanced role in ICT. This is not justthose who have different values and languages

for communication but establishing a means for(Bauman, 2008). As a result, the ‘others’ beyond

helping people breakthrough their anxiety which

one’s understanding have become an increasing

is related to the unknown ‘other’. The rapid

target for censorship and discrimination. It is

progress of ICT has given rise to such a change inwidely claimed that modern education systems

knowledge creation and usage in contemporary

are highly complex and monolithic for transforming

society.

unknown ‘others’ into someone understandable.

SNS is capable of realizing a connection between

This situation holds some parallels with modern

the offline and online worlds (Harada 2007). For

Japanese society. Seki (2002) insists that we shouldSNS, certainty and reliability makes such massdisentangle this authoritative procedure thatcollaboration possible. This phenomenon refers topersists throughout our life span. It is very difficult

the creation of meaning derived from the total

to make it visible, but the trial of disentangling willaccumulation of ideas or information drawn from acontribute towards finding solutions for those who

mass of users. It can lead to the creation of values
22

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

which are different from the expert assumption ofreciprocity’ among the citizens.

conventional (Shoji et al., 2007). According to

These recent approaches framing research in

Kazuhide Harada (2007), the foundation supporting

the field apply ideas found in the concept of ‘social

this mass-to-mass online interaction has a volunteer

capital’, which was contextualized by Pierre

spirit. This characteristic of large-scale knowledge

Bourdieu (1986) and later popularized by Putnam,

generation is an important development, and one

to an analysis of the relationship between offlinethat bolsters the argument of this paper, because itsociety and ICT. We can better understand somehighlights diversity in principles that lead to an

important aspects of ‘social capital’ with categorizedindividual’s involvement in social action. Putnam

statistical data found in prior research. However, it

presents this way of thinking as being rooted in a

is more important to consider how our lives follow

spirit of mutual aid or what he terms ‘generalized

the existing social structure, including thereciprocity’

Generalized

previously mentioned conception of ‘authority’.

reciprocity stands for co-operation that takes place

Statistical data are prone to overlook elements that

under the conviction that in the future some otherare not included when formulating researchperson will help, and thus can be constituted as avariables. For instance, following Kenichi Suzuki

rather weak tie connecting numerous and small(2002), it is necessary to find the corresponding

groups of members (Putnam, 2001). Putnam goes

aspects from the processes that enable humanfurther by defining this mutual aid relationship as

beings to link and tie themselves to others. Suzuki

being based on reliance and co-operation whereby

argues that we need to recognize the unified,‘generalized reciprocity’ can be seen as a form ofcomprehensive conditions of the fundamentalsocial capital fostering a broad-based civil society

relationships that enable individuals to exist. In

network (Putnam, 2006). Putnam’s theory has had

other words, we need to understand the relationshipa great impact in the circle of sociologists of

between our knowledge and our surroundings byeducation

throwing ourselves into the system itself. Here we(Putnam,and2001).

socio-informatics

specialists,

particularly those working on ICT.

can see a similarity to the work of Toru Nishigaki

These academic debates apart, we can see(2003b) who contends that we need to analyse thesimilar objectives that have emerged in community-

process of creating information or human society

building policies by the government. The Cabinet

by entering and working in the system, not justOffice of the Japanese government recently

observing from outside the system. These works

published a report about social capital in Japan

enable us to recognize the need to connect thebased on a statistical analysis by drawing on

distinct intellectual powers that exist among

Putnam’s theory (Naikakufu, 2003). This kind of

academics in humanities, social sciences andresearch has stimulated further policy-oriented

engineering. The rapid development of ICT now

research, which in turn has heavily influenced

offers us an opportunity for a common denominatorlocal government activities. According to theto connect these separate academic fields, andinvestigation of the Shoji research group, local

gives us the ability to take a comprehensive

SNS have mushroomed from only 2 in 2004 to overapproach (Nishigaki, 2003b). This paradigm shift

200 by 2006 (Shoji et al., 2007). This indicates thatwill affect epistemological discussions about the

local governments are trying to build ‘generalized

world and the way in which we think about
23

Possibilities for Alternative Learning in the ICT Age

ISHIDAknowledge. Just as we can observe a paradigm

suggests that communication media is realized byshift caused indirectly by the emergence of ICT,

language, letters, publication or electronic media,

the means of education and the learning processes

whereas symbolically generalized media includes

itselfmoney, authority, truth or love (Luhmann, 1993).

must

also

becometheobjectofreconsideration.

From a sociological perspective of education,

As a first step towards reconsidering theSatoshi Tanaka (2004) argues that society, as aconcepts of the intellect and learning processes, I

man-made system, was designed to deal withwill review the meaning of keywords such ascomplicated environments and to transform the‘media’underpin

unknowable into something that is real anddiscussions of how society is being affected byand‘communication’thatknowable, which consists of distinct elements. In

ICT. In the next section, I shall situate ICT in an

this sense, ‘media’ is a device that directs humanarray of theoretical arguments in socio-informatics

being’s communication towards possessing aand the sociology of education.

particular meaning. In this context, we canunderstand that the ‘media’ which Tanaka

4. Key Ideas as a Disciplinary Bridge
Takehiko

Daikokutheor equipment of ICT, but rather holds parallels

axiomatic nature of debates that juxtaposes media

with Luhmann’s notion of ‘communication media’.

andtechnology

socio-informatics

Tanaka (2004) also contends that we can interpret‘media’ into a subject or a code that makes

focus on analysis contents available on the Internet

something distinct from others. In this latterand on ideas of IT literacy. Daikoku instead

context, we use ‘media’ to grasp our environment

suggests the need to understand media as aand use it to adjust our perceptions in order toconcept

particularform a stable self identity. It is through this process

communication paradigm, which in itself is athat we can decrease anxiety surrounding the

product of historical semantics and existing

unknowns and the unknown ‘other’ with media

conceptual frameworks. Daikoku places emphasis(Luhmann,on the need to think inter-subjectively, andLuhmann’s media theory by Daikoku and Tanaka

highlights

inter-physicalin an ICT context is particularly useful tocommunication that takes place in our lives. On

understand the ability of ‘media’ as a means of

this basis, Daikoku refers to Niklas Luhmann’s

decreasing our chaotic condition.

theacriticized

perspective. For him, these debates lay too much

that

from

(2003)

mentioned is not simply the language, informationaccompanies

importanceaof1990).

The

re-interpretationof(1993) definition of ‘media’ as a device that

In a similar vein, Shigetaka Imai (2004) said we

generalizes order from within the chaos of

could consider Aries’ (1980) notion of a ‘child’ as acommunication which would otherwise remain

form of ‘media’. He positions this as characteristic

anarchic, dispersive and accidental had we let itof modern society, which has removed children

lie. It is from this process that high level structuresfrom the labour force, arguing that the notion of

emerge, which enables us to see that ‘media’‘child’ did not even exist before the 17th century.

directs our choices and motivations. Luhmann

Consequently, it is possible to argue that humanclassifies ‘media’ into communication media andanxiety over the ‘other’ was conceived differently,

symbolically generalized media. His classification

and went through different stages of development
24

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

according to the norms of the day. However, afterin other words non material existence – werethe modern education system came into existence,

deeply connected with our physical and material

education became a social system whereby theexistence (Masamura, 2003).

child undergoes an indoctrination process toInformation can be considered to possess both aestablish the modes and norms of humanmaterial and non-material existence (Masamura,behaviour. Moreover, this is a process that instils

2003), as we can control personalized information

expectations for appropriate ways of life. On the

beyond our physical existence in the networking

basis of Aries’ definition, we are able to widen thesociety. As a result, the role of human beings hasconcept of ‘media’ not just to children but all

become less fixed and less affected by social

human beings, as we are all objects affected bycategories than ever before. This change may

authority’s ability to form the code of knowledge.

translate into the overarching objectives ofThis is especially true in a post-industrial society

communication and media such as formal

which encourages lifelong learning, and that theeducation systems, which are less able to carryoperation of a system framing people’s identity isout their function of structuring communication,

presented as gaining ‘knowledge’ (Tanaka, 2004).

identities and the notions of what constitutes an

Although Luhmann clearly explained thatappropriate life.

‘media’ has the power to reduce our chaos, he also

Shigemitsu Arai (1998) notes that the Internet isadmits the dual contingencies in the act of

not resemble an encyclopaedia but rather a sphere.

‘communication’ that can possibly affect theThus, users not only create and communicate theirauthenticity of communicative intention. One ofown free will as well as take positions where theysuch contingencies is the possibility that people

are not merely students who receive information

have the intent to decide their behaviour depending

passively, but more importantly act as independent

on the other’s attitude. The other is that either orparticipants. Arai also mentions that this kind ofboth may misunderstand when they interpret theinteraction

other’s words or behaviour (Luhmann, 1993). In

monopolizing information. Be that as it may, how

an era of ICT-mediated communication, the effects

then should human beings treat and utilize

of such contingencies will be even more

‘information’ in contemporary society and continue

pronounced. For instance, Masamura (2003) notes

doing so in the future? More specifically, how canthat ICT has positioned movement beyond time

we communicate with others in a way that is freeand place, thereby dramatically changing our life

from the structures of an all-pervasive authority?

conditions. Moreover, this movement is forming a

And how can the use of communication ability to

new semantic pattern. Consequently, an individual’s

gain knowledge actually resolve problems in ourmeaning has become more complicated than everlife? In the next section, I shall prove these claims

before. He also insists that the concept ofby focusing on a particular case in which people‘information’ is not a phenomenon particular to theuse the Internet as an alternative communication

ICT age, but has long been important in the

media in Japan.

prevents

professionals

fromcreation of human society. Prior to the emergence

5. Possibilities with ICT in Practiceof the networking society(1), mental activity such

To highlight the potential of an alternative

as recognition or the understanding of language –25

Possibilities for Alternative Learning in the ICT Age

ISHIDA

dynamic communication environment, I will draw

2008 the total expanded to over 700 memberson the data from fieldwork with Group A, a network

throughout Japan(2). Group A consists of a wideof support groups serving the needs of immigrant

range of members. For an analytical purpose,children. Before explaining the details of Group A,

however, I establish the following dominant

I will review the diversification in the backgroundparticipant categories drawing on the suppliedof people living in Japan.

data profiles: 35% participate as voluntary members

The number of immigrant children in Japan has

or staff of either paid- or unpaid staff of the non-dramatically increased since 1990 due to revisions

profit sector, 26% identified as university or juniorin the Japanese Immigration Law. The registrationcollege students, and 26% are school teachersof all immigrants in Japan, both temporary andranging from primary school to higher education(3).

permanent, increased by 45.2% between 1997 andNinety-six per cent of the members live in Japan.

2007, making up the total immigrant population

With the remaining 4% have different cultural

2,152,973 (Immigration Bureau of Japan, 1997–

backgrounds. The members help immigrant2007). The increasing diversity of the Japanesechildren cope with the difficulties that they face inpopulation in terms of citizens’ countries of origin

their daily life. This mailing list is not anonymous,is also reflected in as the experience of immigrant

and members reveal personal information such as

children. There are many children from abroad

their real name and profession. The members

who are unable to speak Japanese and faceexchange their opinions in order to solve thedifficulties in adapting to Japanese schools because

problems they face. Despite such mutual help,of their differing cultural backgrounds. Many

there are sometimes few irresponsible statements

schools have responded to the increasing number

given in the mailing list.

of immigrant children by creating special classes

Since the establishment of the mailing list infor them, which include multicultural and1997, over 9,000 emails have been exchanged.

intercultural education. Such programmes are

Having become a member of Group A in 2006, I

normally conducted by teachers and academics

have classified the mailing list interaction into

who try to provide genuine support and help toseveral categories. The analysis of this information

children with special needs. However, it must be

indicates that approximately 30% of postings

acknowledged that the Japanese public school

concern news derived from mass media reporting

education system was created on the assumptionof issues related to immigrant children or thethat pupils and students can speak Japanese.

introduction

Hence this presents major challenges to non-handbooks; another 30% of postings concern

Japanese speakers.

reporting, opinions or enquiries related to dailyofvarioustextbooks/teacher’sGroup A is an example of a dynamic information

support activities; and another 22% deals with news

environment for supporting immigrant children,and reports for symposiums, forums or training

in this case a mailing list network. The network ofcourses for volunteers being held in various

Group A has multiplied rapidly since the network

prefectures. In addition, the Group A networkcommenced operating in late 1997. Starting withmanager has confirmed an exponential increase in

only about 20 members, it had by 1999 grown tothe volume of traffic especially for event invitation

approximately 100 members and by the end of

in recent years. This rapid growth is an indicator
26

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009of the growing awareness of the reality ofgreat disparity in geographical distribution of themulticultural diversity of children in Japan, aimmigrant population. Immigrants are concentratedchange that has also been reflected in increased

in metropolitan cities and local cities in proximity

mass-media

to manufacturing industries. Even amongst theattention,

and

its

broad

acknowledgement as an important public issue.

areas of higher concentration, there is diversity in

When considering new learning possibilities for

immigrant profiles such as nationality, occupation

ICT, the fact that nearly one-third of all

and cultural background. For this reason thecommunication between the members is taken up

Japanese government has found it difficult to buildwith daily support activities is significant. To bettera consensus of policy or even gain a basic

understand this development, it is instructive tounderstanding of the problems faced by immigrant

divide the interaction into categories based onchildren (Kajita, 1992). Under such circumstances,

their degree of urgency. Issues which require

some remarkable actions to overcome theseurgent help predominantly concern qualification

challenges have emerged as a result of concerted

or countermeasures to prevent entries to Japaneseinitiatives by citizens at the local level (Kajita,schools. Time is a crucial factor for children whose

1992). These actions have given birth of many

Japanese ability is so weak that they are likely tovoluntary groups serving the needs of immigrants

fall behind in academic achievement. Therefore,in each area(4). Although it must be understoodthe supporter’s network needs to generate ideasthat these workers often face difficulties in

immediately so that the immigrant children cannegotiating with local government officials, school

survive in Japan’s meritocratic system. This

teachers

explains the first example that I am bringing here,

volunteers are regarded as non-professional andwhere various ideas were gathered from nationwide

their efforts are consequently often devalued orwhen a South American child was not qualified tomarginalized. However, with Group A, this scenario

enter Japanese school. To collect information as tois far less likely to occur because the process of

how to qualify such children for entry in Japanese

formulating enquiries and discussing solutions

school requires a quick and meaningful response.

commonly transcends the members, offline

In this case (Case 1), over 10 opinions andposition, and discussion is focused on an open-

information gathered from the Tokai and Kanto

ended, informal debate of how to deal with the

districts as well as abroad for the child who cameproblems.

and

other

professionals

becausefrom South America. The shorter duration of

Furthermore, rather than trying to deal witheducation at primary and secondly schools in theireach problem when it arises, Group A has anothercountries made it difficult for the child to seek

characteristic in its interaction that adds context

admission from any universities in Japan. To solveand depth to the problems faced by immigrant

this problem, an alternative idea was put forward.

children and the wider community. These

It was also suggested to negotiate directly with the

problems, which are considered by Group A as

universities, particularly private ones, as they

part of broader social issues, are a representative

increasingly face challenges to survive due to thefeature of this network, a point that can be

declining birth-rate in Japan.

illustrated with two examples dealing with politicalissues. These examples concern the depth of

In addition to the declining birth-rate, there is a27

Possibilities for Alternative Learning in the ICT Age

ISHIDAsupport for immigrants at schools that differ fromdetermines their low performance in the Japanese

prefecture to prefecture in Japan. In these examples

standardized test, this can influence the local(Case 2), the number of lower-ranked high schools

government’s

has attracted attention from certain sections of thefundamentally naïve to the social context of suchnetwork. From Prefecture X, one member

data. With regard to the standardized test, it wasdemonstrated statistical evidence which pointed

reported in this network that some schools did notout that there are many such schools in Prefecturereport the scores of immigrant children as public

Y. He insisted that Prefecture Y has an attitude todata, being fearful of lowering their school rank

provide institutional support for those who are

and prestige.

education

policywhichisenthusiastic but lacked Japanese skills. He further

These examples illustrate the importance of thesuggested that the local attitude found in Prefecture

issues surrounding immigrant children that are

Y contributed to a decrease in the number of drop-

currently debated. They provide a clue to accountouts. However, against this posted opinion, afor the serious attitude of various supporters of themember living in Prefecture Y responded that thisnetwork. Moreover, these support activities arewould not always be the case. Private organizations

closely linked to the broader discussion as to how

and voluntary workers were persevering andwe can live together with those who have different

supporting immigrant children in such schools,

cultural backgrounds and when to provide

whereas their schools had not dealt with this issue

appropriate information and action to them, rather

as yet. This case demonstrates that official statistics

thanalone cannot reveal the reason behind theJapanese society. Networks such as Group A raise

willingness of many lower-ranked high schools in

issues of tolerance for different cultures and not

Prefecture Y to admit immigrant children.

rejecting demands and resistance from minority

forcefully

integrating

immigrants

into

There have been a number of discussions in thegroups and individuals as being unrealistic. The

network, which centred on why these kinds oflatter is a highly political conundrum, and one thatdifferences occur between each prefecture. These

enables the majority to resign themselves to thediscussions are supported by abundant information

realities and difficulties of providing effective

and evidence drawn from the members’ activities.

solutions(5). Such an attitude of resignation only

The third example (Case 3) is symbolic of theserves to preserve the existing meritocratic
educational system.

contemporary Japanese educational environment
where greater emphasis is placed on achieving

The online interactions and debates of Group A

high scores in standardized tests. This is a criticalare very dense. This means that initiating a topic

issue as it is intricately connected to the survival ofwith an opinion or enquiry quickly generates

some low-ranked schools, which are at risk of

responses that touch upon issues and problems of

being closed due to the dwindling birth rate inother members who are facing similar problems.

Japan. As Kajita (1992) notes, the overwhelming

Through various discussions, the quality ofcharacteristic of immigration in Japan is that the

information/ knowledge improves. This sometimes

immigrant population is concentrated in specifictriggers solutions that offline interaction alone

areas. Given that the difference of cultural

could not have solved (Case 1). Not only does abackgrounds

network such as Group A offer potential solutions

amongstimmigrantchildren28

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

to difficult problems in the offline world, it also

implicitly justified in present day Japan.

provides some hints to better reflect on the

6. Conclusion

inflexibilities of the existing system within abroader context (Cases 2 and 3). In addition,

In this paper, I have described alternative

because the interaction is less likely to be affected

learning activities based on an ICT network, whichby members’ social positions or authoritative

address areas that the modern educational system

relationships, it can transcend problems inherent

is lacking in focus. From the cases above, thein the offline world. For this reason, Group A

network of Group A can be considered as symbolic

becomes a relativizing space, where people are notand significant for the following reasons. Itsforced to obey taken-for-granted norms and values

members exchange their opinions in an open-

absolutely. This is a crucial point, and one of theended manner, without sticking to their social

strongest indicators that such networks offer an

position too much. This takes place in a semi-

inclusive alternative for problem-solving between

dynamic communication environment that can bereflected immediately in their offline support

numerous and diverse actors.
Applying the discussion from Sections 1 to 4 in

activities. Another important meaning is thatthe case of immigrant children in Japan, thethrough the mailing list, people acquire information

Japanese educational system is not capable offrom various people as ‘media’, and incorporate

carrying out its function of decreasing the chaos

this knowledge into their offline practice, andof communication. In other words, it has not

become a form of intermediary ‘media’ themselves.

considered immigrant children as an effective

This alternative form of communication is in‘media’, and thereby failed to give them chances tocontrast to the formal educational system in Japanacquire Japan’s social norms. For this reason,

which is not ready to assist the socially weak inimmigrant children exist in a marginal position

facilitating their access to information. It is

within Japanese society. However, following theintermediate people and voluntary groups that

discussion in Section 4, we take note of the dual

they need as media. It is thus important to unite

contingencies

communication

the supporters as media and ICT network as media

between people. Under such circumstances, we

provides alternative processes. In this sense, thehave to struggle and also create relationship withwide and weak network generated using ICT has‘others’ that have a different cultural background.

an alternative meaning in the terms put forward

This can lead to a reinvigoration of communication

by Putnam. Both the ICT network itself, in thispractices for Japanese society as a whole, andcase Group A as a whole, and the individual

challenge the fears that arise from the unknown

members themselves, can act as resources for‘other’.

marginalized people, i.e. immigrants.

whichhinderFrom this perspective, we are encouraged to

As Albert Melucci (1997) suggests, bothenvisage the possibilities of alternative knowledge

supporters and immigrants might be considered

generation that are emerging out of the semi-

as ‘nomads’ in contemporary society, since ‘now’

dynamic communication environment createdand ‘here’ is a stage of their disputes in which they

with ICT. Considering such an environment allows

co-operate together by using various networks

us to reflect on the meritocratic ideology that isthat are beyond time and place. He also mentions
29

Possibilities for Alternative Learning in the ICT Age

ISHIDA

that there are fused movements under the surface

Notes

of water that occur before collective action. In this(1) According to Nishigaki (2003a), we now exist in aprocess information plays the most important‘networking society’ and not an ‘information

casual role. The network can be considered as asociety’. ‘Information society’ existed in theform of social capital for non-formal learning

1960s-1980s when researchers analysed how

activities that hold possibilities to break through incomputerization was affecting the industrialized

difficult situations. This type of learning activity,

society. On the other hand, ‘networking society’

employing a wider range of ICT networks, presents

refers to a type of society in which non-experts inan opportunity to create alternative meanings,

computer science utilize a personal computer or

which possess a different aspect and perspective

any micro-processor implanted device to edit digitalto that found in the modern educational system.

data and exchange information with others.

New technology creates new social spaces that

(2) This figure includes the former members. Thus,

offer different perspectives and a break from what

the total number of existing members would

we have previously experienced. Thus, we need todecrease to approximately 600. I calculated theinvestigate and better understand the actual

number from the email title, searching related

conditions and effects of these changes in a

keywords to the self-introduction.

substantial and methodological manner. Although(3) The rate of occupation was calculated as multiple

our understanding should be informed by more

answers (N=2945).

than pure interest, it is necessary that we also go(4) Lists of voluntary groups are available fromdeeper to ponder our will or reason, and reconsider

websites of the associations in the field of

how we can try to learn about our world based oninternational co-operation and cultural exchange inmedia and communication from an epistemic point

each prefecture. They have laid the foundation forof view.

the growth of non-profit organizations in this field

It must be noted here that an action by which wein Japan. For example, in the prefecture where I

try to know or inform ‘others’ is a ‘learning

reside contains the fi fth largest immigrant

process’. Therefore I would like to reiterate thepopulation in Japan, and there are approximately

need to reconsider the meaning and interpretation

131 voluntary groups.

of ‘media’ and ‘communication’. Coming to terms(5) I owe this point to Professor Izumi Yamada (Hoseiwith the problems inherent in a meritocratic

University) who presented a paper for the Advanced

society in an era of individualization and

Lecture Series for Japanese Language Volunteers

globalization requires a due reconsideration of theon 28 February 2009.

role of learning activities through communication
with ‘others’ and the outside the world. As

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learning activities, there is an important role to be

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Networking, Toyokanshuppansha, pp. 208-214.

activities.

Ariès Philippe, 1980, ‘Kodomo’ no Tanjyo: Ansyan
rejimuki no Kodomo to Kazokuseikatu, Translatedby30

Mitsunobu

Sugiyama,

Emiko

Sugiyama,

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Misuzushobo, Tokyo.

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Bauman Zygmunt, 2008, Community: Anzen to Jiyu no
Senjyo,TranslatedbyTomoyuki

Shakaijyohogaku

Okui,

e,

Paradigm

toshitenoShakaijyohogaku, Waseda Daigaku Shuppanbu,

Chikumashobo, Tokyo.

Tokyo, pp. 21-67.

Bauman Zygmunt, 2001, Liquid Modernity: Ekijouka

Melucci Albert, 1997, Gendai ni Ikiru Yubokuminsuru Syakai, Translated by Norimasa Morita,(Nomads) – Atarashii Kokyo Kukan no Sosyutu ni

Otsukishoten, Tokyo.

Mukete, Translated by Yasushi Yamanouchi,

Beck Ulrich, 2005, Grobaruka no Shakaigaku:

Iwanamishoten, Tokyo.

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Miyajima Takashi, 1999, Bunka to Fubyodo, Yuhikaku,

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Kokubunsya, Tokyo.

Naikakufu,

2003,

Sosharu

Kyapitaru–Yutakana

Bourdieu Pierre, 1986, ‘The Forms of Capital’, in J.

Ningenkankei to Shimin Katsudo tono Kojunkan

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Shiza;

N.Lumann

Shakai

Shisutemuron

Shiso No951, Iwanamishoten, Tokyo, pp. 5-22.

noNishigaki Toru, 2003, ‘Jyohokagaku’ kara ‘Jyohogaku’Mediaronteki Iso, Shiso No951, Iwanami Shoten,e, Paradigm toshite no Shakaijyohogaku, Waseda

Tokyo, pp. 23-47.

Daigaku Shuppanbu, Tokyo, pp.1-20.

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Chikara, Asahi Shinbunsha, Tokyo.

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Junichi Kawata, NTT Shuppan, Tokyo

Iwanamishoten, Tokyo.

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Community no Hokai to Saisei, Translated by

System?, Luhmann on Education and Human-

Yasufumi Shibauchi, Kashiwasyobo, Tokyo.

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Seki Keiko, 2002, Kenryoku to Ningenkeisei, Body

Tokyo. pp. 207-225.

Educational no Shisoken, Toshindo, Tokyo, pp. 27-

Immigrant Bureau of Japan, 1997-2007, Statistics on

44.

the Foreigners Registered in Japan, Okurasyo

Shoji Masahiko, Miura Shinya, Suko Yoshihiko, Wasaki

Insatsukyoku, Tokyo.

Hiroshi, 2007, Chiki SNS–Social Networking

Kajita Takamichi, 2001, Kokusaika kara Grobaruka eService–Saizensen; Web2.0 Jidai no Machiokoshi–Shakaigaku ha do Taio subekika, Kajita Takamichi,

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Body Educational no Shisoken, Toshindo, Tokyo,

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Niklas,

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Keisosyobo, Tokyo. pp. 1-32

31

Can

We

EducateHuman-Beings?,

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced
by the Spread of the Online Community-A Study on the Interpersonal Ties of Korean Cultural Kinship in
Terms of Alumni’s Network and Old-Hometowners’ NetworkKeywords:

alumni’s network, old-hometowners’ network, online community, constructivism perspective, yeongo (緣故), social capital, Japan, Korea.

Yunbok LEE, Chungnam National University

Abstract
Despite Korea’s high economic growth, its traditional interpersonal relationships continue toplay a significant role, especially in terms of cultural kinship among urban immigrants. Reflecting
the current unique character of Korea’s social structure, online communities have rapidly
developed, populated by existing alumni associations and hometown-rooted associations. Relatedcase studies show that the spread of online communities has influenced the evolvement of alumni
associations and interpersonal relations of urban immigrants into the extensive alumni’s network,
vocational cooperation network, and old-hometowners’ network.

33

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community

LEE[Korea’s evolvement of social relationships

1. Introduction

founded on online communities, and their
1.1 Question

characteristics]

This paper purposes to analyze the constitutional

In Korea, the growth of BBS online communities

development and implicational evolvement ofhas been exceptional since Internet service began.

social relationships resulting from the online

Research by Endo (2008) revealed that 39.6% of

propagation of communities, such as the alumni’s

Internet users in Korea are BBS members (2002),

network and old-hometowners’ network, whichsurpassing even the USA (21.0% in 2000) and Japan(1)

play instrumental roles in Korean society .

(20.5% in 2002, 12.4% in 2000, and 18.5% in 2001).

[Japan’s evolvement of social relationships

based on real-world interpersonal relations. The

founded on online communities, and theirprocess began in the earliest stage of Internet

characteristics]

service and spread through the evolution of BBS-

Korea has developed unique online communities

In 1999, 2channel (2ch, hereinafter) began

based online communities. The first online

providing Internet service in Japan. Today, 2ch iscommunity site by an alumni association, “I-love-

touted as the largest Internet forum in the world.

school (母校 sarang),” was started in September

2ch Internet users are anonymous-strangers in the

1999; membership had expanded to 10,000,000 byreal world; by March 2001, the number of viewers

May 2001. Unlike yubitoma of Japan, I-love-school

had exceeded that of asahi.com (Hagiwara, 2004).

is open to posting and has a complete list of alumni

Actually, the local Bulletin Board System (BBS),

information in the form of a roll call. The sitea pc-to-pc online community based on real-world

topped Korea’s 10 best hit items in 2000 of Samsunginterpersonal relations, had predated Internet

Economic Research Institute for being the engine

service and was supported by the government(2).

in the spread of Internet service in the country(3).

In 1995, an alumni association site named

In May 1999, Daum Café service, a club-type“yubitoma” surfaced as an online community

online community service, entered the scene. It

founded on real-world interpersonal relationships.

has maintained the highest ranking in user views

Since then, yubitoma has kept growing, with its

since its opening day. Daum Café can be comparedmembership reaching 3,700,000 by February

to 2ch in that both of them evolved in online

2009. The site is unique its pre-censorship on

space.

posting. The members post their messages on

In February 2002, Suh Yijong from Seoul

their school board, then they are e-mailed to both

National University pointed out that “... thethe school board manager and the yubitoma staff

characteristics of Korea’s Internet communities ...

in charge. The items can be posted on the main

above all, reflect real-world communities of social

community board only if both the school board

relations such as peer groups, blood lineage,

manager and yubitoma give their approval (Cho,vocation, friendship, pen pals, etc. This category2001). Yubitoma’s official site domain is “yubitoma.

has as many as 350,000 cyber communities. The

or. jp.”second category is composed of 129,000 alumni
sites and 112,000 school sites, and the third, 43,000
religious sites. Together, the three categories
34

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

exceed 600,000 sites and take the better half ...”

capital in terms of alumni’s network and old(Suh Yijong, p.41, 2002)

hometowners’ network, both of which stemmed
from yeongo.

And according to NIA’s Internet White Paper,
most of the major community sites reflect “yeongo

Why are major portions of Korea’s online(緣故; the three major Korean traditional ties),”

communities related to alumni associations andwhich consists of blood, academic, and regional

hometown-rooted associations? (Research Topic 1)
What is the unique mechanism influencing the(4)ties (Table 1) .
The NIA’s survey categorized the distribution ofevolution of Korea’s social relationships into online

communities in Daum, Freechal, Cyworld, andcommunities? (Research Topic 2)

SayClub into yeongo (緣故), information, andTo find the answer to the first question, theenjoyment. Daum has 57.41% of yeongo, 18.82% ofcharacteristics of alumni’s network and old-

information, and 23.77% of enjoyment. Freechal

hometowners’ network in Korean society will behas 63.30% of yeongo, 20.80% of information, andcarefully researched and compared to those of

15.90% of enjoyment. Cyworld has 65.90% ofJapan.

yeongo, 15.79% of information, and 18.31% of

To answer the second question, the method ofenjoyment. SayClub has 65.90% of yeongo, 11.72%

participation observation will be used in twoof information, and 27.58% of enjoyment (NIA

representative

p.112, 2004).

department alumni’s online community and “S”

cases

(“S”

University’s“O”

Most community sites in Korea are characterizedcity’s hometown-rooted online community). Thisby online communities based on real-world

study will look specifically into the online

interpersonal relations, which is peculiar todevelopment of instrumental ties of social

Koreans. The phenomenon is interpreted in thisinfluence, such as the alumni’s network, vocational

study’s constructivism perspective as a modern

cooperation

concept of Korea’s unique instrumentally-social

network.

network,andold-hometowners’

Table1. Distribution of online communities in major Internet Portal Sites of Korea

Source: National Information Society Agency (2004), White Paper Internet KOREA 2004, p. 112

1.2 Typology in evolving social relationships

according to perspectives, effects, and values. We

into the online space

could expect arguments concerning the media to

Discussion on the typology in evolving social

be divided into 2 general categories: optimistic

relationships into the online space can varyand pessimistic. Optimists view the migration of35

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community

LEE

social relationships to the Internet as a new

online community, which is supposedly a better

creative space for the exchange of ideas, andand richer version of “Bessyo,” a real place. Somepublic talks in new roles and forms of self-

people have expressed a desire to experience life

expression (Rheingold, 1993); pessimists point out

in Fusion Nagaike. (Asaoka, 2006).

that the enlargement of online space results in the

Therefore, Korean society is also considered

personalization and atomization of the members,

susceptible to the evolvement of social relationshipand weakens social ties, integrity, and solidarity

carried out in online space, since Internet service(Holmes, 1997).

is already widespread and fully developed in

On

the

other

hand,

the

constructivism

Korea.

perspective, influenced by Benedict Anderson’s

Benedict Anderson, in his constructivism

concept of “imagined community,” regards online

perspective, tried to redefine the concept of aspace and real-world space not as separate entities,

community as “imagined,” which is clearly

but as interactive ones.

expressed in his definition of the nation as “anBenedict Anderson, an anthropologist, states:

imagined political community.” He also pointed“In an anthropological spirit, then, I propose theout the fact that the spread of printing media, such

following definition of the nation: it is an imagined

as newspapers and magazines, plays a key role inpolitical community, and imagined as boththe process of transforming a modern nation into

inherently limited and sovereign. It is imagined

an imagined community.

because the members of even the smallest nation

Now comes the era of Internet service, the newwill never know most of their fellow members,

powerful interactive medium with a face-turning

meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds

difference in function from newspapers and otherof each lives the image of their communion

journals. The Internet is expected to greatly affect(Anderson, 1983).”

not

only

the

reformation

of

the

national

The sudden presence of Internet media ofconsciousness

but

topological importance as regards their sociallyinterpersonal

relationships

constructive function-to enable individuals tochanges in an individual’s imagining process.

also

the

evolvement

throughofdynamic

communicate transcendently, ignoring time andThis study wants to employ the constructivism

space-has been and will be influencing on not only

perspective in looking at the two new social-

local

network factors, alumni’s network and old-or

globalsociety,butinterpersonal

hometowners’ network, which will influence therelationships as well.
I suggest that studies on the practical Internet

evolvement of the interpersonal network. The

users’ recognition of social constructivism functions

focus will be on Korean people in the Peninsula, as

should first be performed on subjects, such asa collective model of the remarkable full-fledged

online communities, which evolved from real-world

spread in the provision of Internet service.

social communities due to the availability of Internet

1.3 Comments on precedent studies

service.
Recently, this opinion has been strongly backed

Many online communities are based on real-by the case of “Fusion Nagaike” in Japan. Fusion

world interpersonal relations, such as alumni

Nagaike is an imaginary place created by a certain

associations and hometown-rooted associations-a36

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

circumstance that has been singled out as uniquely

by literary circles. Even the high-ranking officials

Korean. However, major studies often analyze only

from the yangban (兩班: scholar-official) classthe characteristics of online communities as new

were not automatically bestowed their posts andsocial phenomena. Having examined the studies

privileges. Each one had to pass the Guagueo (科by NIA and Professor Suh Yijong, we feel a

挙: imperial examinations) to become an official

compelling need to clarify background information

and, as such, get paid with farmland cultivationand explanations on Korea’s unique evolvement indues.
In time, the number of successful candidates

online space. No other studies have tried to

exceeded the available office appointments, andquestion the scenario.

suddenly, academic cliques began competing to be

2. Reviews on Korea’s social relationship after

the ruling clique in bureaucratic circles (Yi Sungthe rapid growth of its economy

Mu, 1998). The tendency to form cliques out of
academic ties started and developed during the

2.1 Alumni’s network in Korean society
Takingaconstructivism

approach

Choson Dynasty, and seems to have continued alltothe way to the present. As Lee Jeong-Kyu

interpersonal networks, this paper goes over thecommented in his study, “... We see that forming

characteristics of Korean society, focusing on

factions and cliques revives badly in many aacademic and regional ties (two of the three major

department in the Korean society. ... These

traditional ties) in comparison with those of Japan.

yangbans in the history successfully descended
their political power and socio-economic profits[Bureaucracy based on literary circles, and theonce acquired by means of building up thecliquey development of the bureaucratic

educational background that belonged to acircles]prevailing academic clique, which has been deeply

Japan had not imposed imperial examinations

engraved on Korean people’s minds with the highsince Daimyo (大名), a Japanese feudal lord,appreciation of instrumental value of education.”practically ruled his land by the hereditary(Lee Jeong-Kyu, pp.88–89, 2003)(5)succession of power. As a result, literacy had noplace in military cliques as a means of social[Popularization of Higher Education andachievement. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868,

Generalization of Tendency to Form Academic

Japan started to form academic leagues founded

Cliques]

on a modern education system. However, these

The rate of higher education can be used an

leagues only indicate what courses are prevalentindex to show the importance of education inin the different areas of society. Professor Sonoda

Korean society. After the year 2000, when Internetof the College of Education of Kyoto University

service had reached optimal expansion, Korea’s(1987) considered the academic leagues as merely

higher education rate overtook that of Japan(6).

the result of effective modern education, not theJapan had 50.0% in 1980, 53.7% in 1990, 64.7% in

cliquey banding together to maintain academic ties.

1995, 70.5% in 2000, and 72.9% in 2003. Korea had

On the other hand, the Choson Dynasty of

27.2% in 1980, 33.2% in 1990, 51.4% in 1995, 68.0% in
2000, and 79.7% in 2003 (Kim, 2005).

Korea had a bureaucratic government supported
37

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community

LEE

Higher education and munjung (門中, Korean

to blood lines. With the country’s high economic

paternal lineage) had been traditionally considered

growth after World War II, “restrictions” wereby the upper class (yangban) as the most important

further loosened up. The concept of “family

factors in Korean kinship congregation. Therefore,

identity” in modern Japan’s family transition allows

it can be concluded that with the rapid

even individuals who legally belong to the same

popularization of higher education in 1990s, thefamily to consider their own blood ties as different

academic cliquey tendency was revived andfrom each other (Ueno, 1994).
Thanks to munjung, Koreans do not cease totransformed into a rigid social network, which thispaper calls alumni’s network.

maintain proper relationships with their kin, even

Rapid economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s,

after they have left their native land. One

and democratization in the late 1980s have

explanation for this tradition is that munjung

reinforced regional ties related to the hometown

represents the equivalent of an altar ceremony forto create a social network, which this paper calls

their clan ancestors. Koreans can never be cut off

old-hometowners’ network. This network canfrom their roots; specifically, the hometown hill of

apparently be traced to the traditional kinshipkindred tombs. Immigrants are often called

congregation culture and urban hometown-rooted(region-) saram-which translates as “a person fromassociations on the one hand, and to the first

his native place”-because they are regarded aspresidential election (1987) held in 30 years, on

mentally and regionally inseparable from their

the other.

hometown (Ito, p.170, 1987).

2.2 Old-hometowners’ network in Korean society[Rapid Urbanization and the Development of[Munjung: behind the development of oldhometowners’ network]

Hometown-rooted Urban Associations]Korea owes much of the development of old-

hometowners’ network to the formation of

While China lifted the marriage ban between
the same surnames and family origins in 1931,

hometown-rooted

associations

of

urban

Korea set it up in 1957 (clause 1, article 801, Civil

immigrants, accompanied by rapid urbanization.

Code), and it remains in place.(7)In 1960, only 28% of the population lived in cities;

This aspect of the Korean cultural transition was

The percentage had increased to 33.3% by 1966

introduced by the ruling class in relation to

and 43.3%, by 1970. In 1975, the rate had jumped to

munjung as yangban’s kinship congregation. The

48.8% due to inflows of young laborers, aged 15-19

status system of the yangban class and the lower

years.

classes is no longer enforced, but the yangban

Associations were formed naturally by urban

kinship culture still functions, and with a wider

settlers of the same rural origin, a condition thatrange

was considerably interrelated with the regional

at

that.

conceptualized

Professor
thetendency

LeeandKwang-Kyu
calleditpolitical“Yangbanization” (Lee Kwang-Kyu, p.47, 1997).

affairsat

theirhometowns.

Since

emigrants were disinclined to cut their kinship ties

Japanese culture is a complete contrast. Cousins

with the residents of their hometowns, they took

are regarded as out-of-family ties and are, therefore,

developments in their places of origin quite

allowed to marry; no special meaning is attachedseriously.
38

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

were

from Kumamoto; and Ooura, from Kagoshima

started on the initiative of hometown school

Manyhometown-rooted

associations(Sonoda, pp.97-98, 1987). It can be said, therefore,

alumni, which, to urban immigrants, signifies thatthat the Yamaguchi (Choshu-han) clique has not

old-hometowners’ network can include alumni’s

been formed based on hometown origin.

network.

Japan’s high growth is said to have spurred therelatively active formation of the Kenjinkai (similar[Campaign for Presidency and the Aggravation

to Korean town or province associations). However,of Regionalism]

Kenjinkai tend to dissipate as immigrants adapt to

The democratization in the late 1980s is deemedcity life (Ito, 2002).

to have strengthened the instrumental function of

2.3 Positive data

the old-hometowners’ network as an interpersonal
network. In the 1987 presidential election-the first

The difference between Korean and Japanesein 30 years-over 90% of the total votes for one of theconcepts of social networks is confirmed by related

candidates

thestudies. For example, NHK research on overall

agricultural province of Jeol-la. Another candidate

interpersonal relations with kinship, neighborhood,garnered more than 70% in Gyeong-sang, hisand workplace companions has revealed that, forprovince. This phenomenon is observed in

the past 30 years, the number of people who wantcongressional elections as well (Ryo Young-Bu,

full association has been dwindling, while the2001).

number of those who want formal or partial

came

from

his

hometown,

old-association has increased (NHK 2004). At thehometowners’ network due to the concept ofsame time, Japanese teenagers’ associations ofmunjung (Korean kinship), hometown-rooted

firm friends have multiplied, increasing at an

associations based on rapid urbanization, and theaverage of 2.8 in 1980, 2.9 in 1985, and 3.1 in 1990

1987 presidential elections. Most urban immigrants(Hasimoto, 1998).

Korea

has

recentlydeveloped

theshare both their current regional community

On the other hand, notwithstanding highnetwork and old-hometowners’ network.

economic growth (in the late 1980s), the traditional

Meanwhile, the Japanese version of Korea’s old-interrelationship still plays an important role inhometowners’ network may offer a glimpse at

Korea. According to Korea Sociological Association

Japan’s provincial cliques (藩閥). The “Yamaguchi(1990), the younger the generation is, the stronger(Choshu-han)” clique is a representative Japanese

the tendency.

case similar to Korea’s old-hometowners’ network

This study analyzes what is more likely tothat is referred to in this paper. Yamaguchi

succeed in Korean society. The results are: 66.4%,(Choshu-han) comprises the Ito and Yamagata

effort; 22.8%, yeongo; 6.2%, talent; 2.8%, destiny;(8)cliques . The Ito Keymen circle has no Yamaguchi

and 1.3%, other factors. Thus, it is clear thatorigins. Inoue was from Kumamoto; Suematu,

instrumental ties and a person’s efforts arefrom Hukuoka; and Kaneko, from Hukuoka. Of

considered very important. In the percentage

the Yamagata clique, only one of the key men,

distribution by generation, the yeongo factor was

Sirone, hailed from Yamaguchi. The rest camehigh among respondents over forty years oldfrom elsewhere: Hirata, from Miyazaky; Kiyoura,(17.2%), and even higher among those under thirty
39

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community

LEE

years old (26.1%). The trend in Korea runs counterinterpersonally-relatedtodeveloping in line with the spread of online

theweakeningofJapan’s

traditional

interrelationships.

networkhas

beencommunities.

The same situation has also been proved by a

3. Case study of online community as alumni’s

comparative research on social consciousness. A

network

study by Japan’s Bukkyo University (2001) on thekind of association that Japanese siblings want

3.1 Overview of “S” university’s “O” department

between themselves after social independence

alumni’s online community

revealed that 39.65% hoped for full association and46.6%, for partial association. In sharp contrast,“S” university’s “O” department specializes in

83.2% of their Korean counterparts wanted fullthe study of all the communication phenomena inassociation.

relation to human beings. The students were all of

The dissimilarity between the two countries also

5 in 1975, the year the department was established.

occurred in the desired interpersonal relationshipThe number of students reached the maximum of

betweensocial45 at one point, but is now down to about 30

independence. In Japan, 59.9% of the respondents

because the entrance quota has been limited byhoped for formal association; 17.9%, partial

government policy. As of 2005, the department’s

association; and 20.1%, full association. In Korea,

alumni numbered 620. Graduates who have the

13.0% of the respondents wanted formal association;

1990s’ entrance-codes are members of an online

33.5%, partial association; and a remarkable 52.3%,

community in Cyworld Club; the community has afull association.

stratified structure of different alumni codes. The

collegecompanions

after

The results do not necessarily connote thatcase study focused on the 1998-alumni online

Korean society is a crony society. For instance,

activities and reviewed the characteristics of thehereditary assemblymen commonly exist in Japan,

evolvement of social relationships into the online

but are very rare in Korea. This implies that, inspace.

Korea, it is almost unthinkable that a father will

3.2 Evolvement of the social relationships ofpass on his social network to his son, whose own

1998-entrance-coded alumni

social network will be much more meaningful to(1) Establishment of their own online communityhim (the son) throughout his life (Hattori, 2004).

The

Remarkably, both the USA and Japan evolve

Cyworld

onlinecommunityfor

their discussion on social relations as social capital,

1998-entrance-coded alumni was started by Y. Kim

usually focusing on community interpersonalin October 2004, 7 years after his batch enteredrelationships such as volunteers’ associations, andthe college. He was their student-representative.

seldom on blood and academic ties. The “we”

He notified his alumni that he had opened anconcept in Korea refers to blood, academic, oronline community, and all the members joined it.

regional ties, which are developing into the old-(2) Development as a means of sustaining

hometowners’ network, and functions as personaland social capital (Lew Seok-Choon, 2002) . The

social congregation after marriage

following

In January 2005, one member named T. Yoo

(9)

case

studies

depict

how

this
40

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

posted the news of his marriage, which became a

as a venue for sharing private matters in their daily

hot issue to the community. Y. Kim first post about

lives.

the event was:
〈Re: Serendipity, Oct. 25, 2005〉〈Reading required; Public notice on the decision“I’m now on the job training here in Singapore.

for the gift item for T. Yoo’s marriage〉

Since I have to stay here for 6 months, I’m afraid I“T. Yoo and his bride decided Hausen drum

can’t participate in Hyeon’s marriage ceremony.

washing machine for the gift item. I acknowledge

The 3rd 1998? The following is an article found bythat important is our mind, but I inevitably confesschance and it’s very funny. Kill time reading it.”we need mutual aid of 30,000 won per capita. The
They also posted “help wanted” notices fromfollowing is my bank account. Please remit withmembers.

pleasure.”〈Urgent: Wanted the family with 3-generations’Afterwards, the married couple posted anreunion for New Year’s day altar ceremony〉

invitation letter to all the members of 1998-entrancecoded alumni to their new home as a return“The ceremonial costumes should be Korea-

courtesy. The post received 20 replies accepting

traditional.^^ Please let me have information till

the invitation.

coming Monday morning;;;;^^ Regards..”〈Re: Please, come over to my house! May 4th,

3.3 Difference from Japan
Korean alumni’s online communities, which2005〉

have college education for their backbone, differ“I’m afraid that it’s not too late. It’s Saturday...I’dgreatly from those of Japan.

like you to gather at No. 6 exit of Bong Cheon
subway station//~.. This is housewarming. I’d

In Japan, the Zemi (short for “Seminar,” thegreatly appreciate if you all come. Please reply if

German word) system utilizes ML (mailing list) as

you accept.

a general means for contact. The ML setup is of
the one-to-multitude type and thus inadequate forp.s. Please don’t buy us anything. Hausen ismembers who post articles freely for personalenough.^^”purposes.
Another marriage took place in November 2005.

Korean colleges do not have the Zemi system;

The member was H. Jin. The community’s online

they basically just circulate course lectures, usingbulletin board played an important role again as

online communities as the main media for publicity

the cyber communications center. The groupand content exchange for certain participants. The

agreed on the congratulatory gift and invited

following is an example of online community

alumni the same way as in the first wedding-activities partly participated in by the cinematics

through their online bulletin board.

class.

(3) Sharing and cooperating with daily routines〈Re: Wanted participants for team presentation!

The 1998 group’s bulletin board also functioned

Sep. 11, 2006〉
41

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community“Looking for team presentation participants, I’m

LEE‘C’ department. I hope to find out good materials

a 2002 law college student. Please reply~

for my lecture and a supporting network to connect

Reply 1. Lee Hyang: Well, with me, 2002 social

applying opportunities for special lectures andcollege (Mar. 11, 2006)

intern students’ job. I’d greatly appreciate if you

Reply 2. Lee Seong Wun: hope, businessconcern.”administration (Mar. 11, 2006)”
The
From the constructivism perspective on online

vocational

Broadcasting

composition

Ethicsvaries:theCommunication(2,

communication activities, college student activities

governmental organization), U1 Media (2), TU

and alumni marriages are major factors inMedia (2), Skylife (2), Newspaper (2), Professors

motivating online communities to form an alumni’s(2), and KT (1, information and communications).

network. The “New Media Union ABC” case below

Japan also has associations with different vocational

is an example of a theme online community formed

connections and exchanges. However, even in

by such constructivism factors.

Meiji, an age of active academic networks, they
were formed according to their realms, such as

3.4 New Media Union ABC

administration, press, etc. (Amano, 1992).

(1) The process of establishing an online café

New Media Union ABC is characterized by the

New Media Union ABC was established ininclusion of specialists from different fields amongNaver by IT experts who graduated from the “O”

college alumni. Also notable is the fact that alumni

department of “S” university. In 2006, it wasin the same company collaborated, as in the cases

nominated as the representative site of informationof 1984-code/1986-code in Broadcasting Ethics,

and knowledge sharing. Actually, Naver had

1985-code/1989-code

started to provide community service since 2003.

1986-code/1989-code Sky media.

U1

Media,

andSmall real-world IT circles that existed before

3.5 Evolvement of social relationships driven

the start of Naver’s online community service haveby an official home pagegrown tremendously since Naver added online

While the alumni online communities and theme

community service.

online communities have been in the forefront, the(2) Characteristics of the network“S” University “O” Department Official Homepage,

As of February 2008, the café had 16 members

which appeared in the spring of 2005, has been-entrance-coded alumni from 1979 to 1998, some of

hosting

whom had never met each other before.

lifestyles.

〈writer: pja832. Greetings and a note, Feb. 20,(1) Log-in required

spiritedexchanges

about

alumniThe Official Homepage consists of Public

2008〉“Hello! Goodman, the Café manager, and Singa,

Notice, Alumni Reference, Alumni Activities,

sorry I don’t know who you are. Lee Hang Bok

Membership Registration, and Free Bulletinsenior, Gang Dol Seok senior. You are familiar with

Board. Alumni Reference cannot be accessed

me. I’m working as a professor at Gangwon College

without logging in, as it contains confidential
42

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009details such as the college entrance year, working

community cored by “S” city residents; Type 2, by

place, position, cellular phone number, officeurban immigrants from “S” city; and Type 3, by anumber, home number, home address, e-mailmixture of Types 1 and 2. We will discuss Type 3

address, etc., all listed in alphabetical order.

first since it appeared the earliest.

(2) Log-in not required

4.2 Type 3 : Hometown-rooted urban immigrants
plus hometowners

Everyone can look at the contents of Public
Notice without logging in. In January 2008, there

The I-love-“S”-city Association, “S” City Cyberwere 55 articles, of which 60% were condolences

Village (in short, Sang Sa Mo), the best

extended not only to the members themselves but

representative Type 3 community with about 3,400

also to their parents, grandparents, and parents inmembers as of July 2007, was opened on August 6,

law. The following interview shows that, especially

1999, in the early stages of Internet service. This

to members over 40, posting condolences

community is almost as big as [Kawasaki region

contributes to active member interrelationships.

BBS] in Japan, which has about 3,500 members.
In February 2008, the small inner associations“We’ve met often till marriage and continued toof Han-Love (Han-sarang), Seoul-Residents (Seoul-

keep in contact afterwards. Soon, with sons andCircle), and 386-Generation (386世代-Circle) weredaughters, we got busy with company affairs, too.

formed and were very active from day one. Han-

Suddenly, we missed contact numbers. One day, aLove, with about 100 members, is an association of

condolence information of an alumni friend or his

local social-service volunteers. Seoul-Residents

parents flew in. It was an opportunity to gather

has around 590 Seoulians, and its activities include

again and somebody recorded the contact numbers

hiking and other socials. 386-Generation, withand passed out. Again, we have New Year’s meeting

about 600 members, is an association of people inand Year-end parties and spring and summer

their 40s who were college students in 1980s. Its

picnics, too. Now, we keep alumni homepage, andmembers may choose to reside anywhere.

it’s very convenient, especially with the information

In addition to these three, primary school alumniof condolences (1987 alumnus).”boards have been newly opened and the café isnow campaigning to recruit other cafés for

4. Case study of online communities as an old-

sisterhood relationships. The following is its public

hometowners’ network

notice for the campaign.

4.1 Overview of “S” city’s Hometown-rooted〈Re: Wanted sisterhood relationship with cafés.

Online Communities

writer: chonjang, Jun. 17, 2008〉“S” City has a population of 110,892 (in 2008)“There are lots of cafés in ‘S’ city, which seems

and is part of Gyeong Sang Buk Do (Province),

going along very well but sometimes unfamiliar towhich comprises 25 counties and cities. It lies inus, hard to find out. We hope for the better service

the center of South Korea.

to the members through your sisterhood.”

The online communities related to “S” city areclassified into 3 major groups. Type 1 is aThis tendency in Korea is much different from
43

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community

LEE

that of Japan; i.e., machi-BBS, opened independently“There has been 33rd General Assembly Regularfrom 2ch, tried to avoid connection to alumni

of Pusan’s ‘S’-city hometown-rooted association

associations because of board troubles.

held in Pusan KBS Hall (in an annex). President B.
Koh (Taegu’s), Secretary General Y. Kim and

4.3 Type 2: Hometown-rooted Urban immigrants’

Chief General Affair Y. Nam participated. B. Koh’s

connection

congratulatory address flourished and Pusan’sType 2, cored by urban immigrants, is divided

was sort of in different atmosphere. Our execution

into 2 categories, minority hometown companions’staff will succeed merits of the former tradition.”communities

and

urban

communities.

Here,

we

old-hometowners’
willdiscuss

Meanwhile, Seoul’s “S”-city Hometown-rooted

theOnline Community has changed its name into “S”-

characteristics of Seoul’s “S”-city hometown-rooted

city Hometown-rooted Association, “S”-city-origin

online community.

Circle.

This

means

that

the

“S”-cityold-

The “S”-city old-hometowners’ online community

hometowners’ online community for Seoulians hasfor Seoulians started in 2006 as a homepage for

evolved into a social network of “S”-city origins.

thereal-world“S”-city

hometown-rooted

association. As time passed, the site received a〈Publication on the main-page〉

considerable number of visits not only from its“Welcometo‘S’-city

Hometown-rooted

Seoul members but also from other regional

Association! People of ‘S’-city origin are free to joinmembers. Following is an example:

us. You can visit and post and enjoy news andinformation on our hometown. Smaller inner〈Re: Upgrade to full membership, please. writer:

associations include alumni sites where you candosa, posting date: Feb. 14, 2008〉

enjoy communications with primary, middle, high“First, Congratulations on your opening! I’m B.

and college alumni. ‘S’-city old-hometowners are

Jang, the café manager of ‘S’-city middle-school

the host here. We hope you share writings,

25th alumni and Taegu’s ‘S’-city-rooted middle-

information and knowledge, publication, news,

school online community manager. Whoever heetc. in our site.”

may be in Seoul or Pusan, the mind always is living

4.4 Type 1: Hometowners’ connection

with ‘S’ hometown. Please upgrade my membership

Type 1 is cored by “S” city residents. County’s

so as for me to visit often.”

Grape Site, Dried Persimmons Village Site, andThe “S”-city hometown-rooted association hasother sites are familiar with information about

members from Pusan and Taegu, the country’s

their local specialty products. Their online activitiesndrd

2 - and 3 -largest metropolitans, and other areas,

areincluding Seoul. In particular, exchanges between

government.

Taegu and Pusan are frequent, as the two regions

relatedandinfluenced

by

the

local

To be able to post an article, a person must

are just an hour apart by train.

secureregularmembershipfrom“Invil(Information + village),” the department of the〈Re: Hi! writer: General Affairs boy, posting date:Home Affairs Ministry (government) that is

May 27, 2007〉

responsible for the online community. Anyone can44Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

be a member of Invil, and each member can access

preparatory measures for possible weddings of

all its regional sites. Type 1 is similar to BBS inchildren or deaths of parents. The mutual-aid

Japan regarding administrative involvement for

network for funerals was passed down fromthe sake of regional prosperity.

generation to generation, which shows how

COARA, a representative BBS in Japan, waspopular mutual aid and members’ relationships
were in a network(12).

initially cored by Oita residents, but due to theAnother interesting fact is that these mutual-aid

huge influx from foreign regions, its originality

networks are formed by peers or similar-age

was lost in the membership acquisition limit.
From the perspective of membership acquisition,groups. The reason is closely related to thethere is a dividing line between off-limit of origin incontents of traditional education. As a primaryType 2 and Type 3, and open-limit of origin in Typeschool system in Choson Dynasty, Seodang (書堂)

1. The current trend appears to overwhelmingly

taught the five basic principles of interpersonalfavor the continuation of online communities.

relationship as 三綱五倫 (the three bonds and thefive moral rules in human relations): 父子有親

5. Influence by the extant culture of traditionally(There should be affection between father andorganized mutual aid in congratulations andson), 君臣有義 (There should be loyalty between

condolences

lord and vassal), 夫婦有別 (There should be adifference between husband and wife), 長幼有序

As discussed above, alumni and regional online(There should be orders between senior andcommunities are growing tremendously in Korea,

junior) and 朋友有信 (There should be faithfulness

and their message boards’ function of announcing

between friends)(13).

celebrations and grievances greatly promotes

長幼有序(There should be orders between

interpersonal relationships among the alumni

senior and junior) refers to the authority bestowed

members.

on age and 朋友有信 (There should be faithfulness

Confucianism and Confucian ancestral worship

between friends), to classmates under the same

permeate every level of Korean society. Similarly,

teacher. The social disciplines played a key role inmutual-aid networks for weddings and funerals

the diverse codes of etiquette and manners

can be found throughout the peninsula. These

prescribed for differently aged relations. On the

networks are called “Kye” (契)other hand, classmates can enjoy interpersonal

(10)

.

Yongsan-ri, a small town of ninety-four houses inrelations on familiar terms. Thus, Kye tended to

Jindo County, is an example. At the beginning ofcenter on the same age group, and the trend

the rapid economic and social development in thecontinued to the current age(14).

early 1970s, the townsfolk Yongsan-ri had alreadySince Korea’s National Liberation from Japaneseestablished 130 mutual-aid networks. Seventy ofcolonial rule (1910-1945), the importance of thethe networks were for weddings; twenty, forfive principles in interpersonal relationship has

funerals; another twenty, for friends; fi fteen, forbeen constantly emphasized in school subjects

savings; and three, for miscellaneous reasons (Ito,such as morals and social studies at school. In(11)1977a).

contrast, Japan abolished morals (修身). South

Mutual aid for weddings and funerals were

Korea is also different from the Asian trend in
45

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community

LEE

China (文化革命), Vietnam, and North Korea,

pursue higher education. As a result, half of Seoul’s

which

undergraduates are of regional origin (Gyeong

criticize

Confucianism(15)

socialism and communism

andembrace.

Sang Univ. ISS, 2005). It is these urban immigrants

Kye continues to prosper in Korea, centering on

who make up the old-hometowners’ network,

peer groups. Unlike their counterparts in Japan,

joining high-school alumni’s associations or others.

alumni circles in Korea correspond to the modern

As stated above, Kye crosses school ties, which, intransformation of Kye from a traditional heritage

turn, cross regional ties. Therefore, double-folded

to a kind of academic network (Kim Pil-Dong,

between the academic and regional is one of the1992).

major characteristics of Korean interpersonal

For this reason, weddings and funerals in Korea

networks. We have analyzed the cases by way oftend to have great numbers of guests, counting

illustrating those characteristics by〈4.2〉andamong them numerous academic ties. For〈4.3〉(especially Types 2 and 3).

example, a study by the Korea Consumer Agency

6. Conclusion and Prospects(1997) reveals that the average number of guests
at a wedding (for both families) is 343; a 2001

6.1 Overall Analysis

survey reported 365. A Korean attends aroundtwenty-four weddings and funerals a year.

Since the start of the nationwide spread of

Elsewhere, the number of wedding guests is onlyInternet service, Korea has continuously andabout 15-30% of the Korean figures; in Japan, ten to

considerably developed online communities based

twenty (reception guests, fi fty to a hundred); in

on real-world interpersonal relationships. In the

the United Kingdom, fi fty; and in the US andspotlight are blood, academic, and regional ties-

Taiwan, fi fty to a hundred(Korea Consumer

the three major Korean traditional ties that have

Agency,1997).

long persisted in the form of alumni and hometownrooted associations.

Among the Korean wedding guests, school
colleagues take up a very high percentage. For

Two questions have been raised: (1) What is theexample, according to a study by Lee Sari, a third-

reason behind the boom in Korea’s online

generation Japanese-Korean’s wedding guests

communities, especially those based on alumni’sfrom Japan are: 50% family, 12% schoolmates, 11%

network and old-hometowners’ network, the two

acquaintances, 18% work colleagues, and 4% hobby

closely related social network factors unique to

network friends. In Korea, the numbers are: 5%

Korea that this study considers the modern

family, 53% schoolmates, 3% acquaintances, 32%versions of the traditional real-world interpersonal

work colleagues, and 4% hobby friends. These

relationships? and (2) What will be the reciprocal

figures reveal that school ties are extremely strong

influence by the online communities on thein Korea. In addition, ties between the guests inevolvement of real-world social relations andKorea are much more varied than in Japan (Leeactivities?
This study was conducted from a constructivism

Sari, 2004).
A large number of rural youngsters moved into

perspective, focusing on the sudden appearance ofurban areas to work as laborers during Korea’s

an interactive medium such as Internet service,high-growth period, and in succeeding years, to

which
46

allowsindividuals

toexchangeJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

old-hometowners’

network,

which

is

communications transcendently, ignoring timeurban

and place. Internet users can keep reforming theconstructed based on rural hometown highfunctions of online social-networks such as

schools.

alumni’s network and old-hometowners’ network,

At this stage, online community services

which are closely related and often composite.

provided by the competing Internet portal sites

Network members can maintain interactive

have further fired up online participation at

relationships and exercise reciprocal development,

alumni’sboth online and offline, in the social evolvement of

networks.

networks

andold-hometowners’

This study also confirmed the fact that the

Korea’s community.
Unlike Japan’s concept of academic ties, theacademic and regional ties once weakened by timenumber of official positions available to literary

are getting stronger through the convenience of

circles under Korea’s traditional centralized

the Internet, and are evolving into a new phase of

bureaucratic system was limited. Academic cliques

the social network concept.

were constituted and Koreans achieved cultural

In case of the〈“S” University “O” Department

recognition by banding together “school wise.”

Alumni’s Online Community〉, online pages are

Korea moved very quickly from ancient to modern,separated according to the entrance-year code andtha feat accomplished late in the 20 century. During

most of the alumni participate.〈New Media Union

this rapid transition, the tendency to segregateABC〉, as a theme online community, has aand congregate remained and even accelerated.

considerable number of members who never met

The phenomenon has now expanded nationwide

before.〈“S”-city’s

due to fast economic growth and the popularity ofCommunities〉accepts

higher education, and has paved way for thehometown area, regardless of their current place

alumni’s network, a blended social network ofof residence.

“ancient-modern” capital.

Hometown-rooted
members

OnlinefromtheThe overall conclusion is that former small

In view of regional ties, Korea’s traditionalgroups of intimate alumni (cronies) with relatively

munjung culture-a kinship congregation-played astrong ties are now expanding their influence on

key role in tying emigrants mentally to their placesgroups with weaker ties and coalescing into anof origin. Immigrants who had rushed to urban

alumni’s network. Similarly, thanks to widespread

centers formed hometown-rooted associations andInternet service, online communities are helping

enjoyed regional ties that the groups afforded

urban immigrants foster regional ties andthem. These associations were the seeds of theinterpersonal relationships transcendently, andeventual development of the old-hometowners’

are coming together in super unions such as old-

network. The direct presidential elections andhometowners networks.

democratization process of the late 1980s worked

The concept of ties is considered one of thetogether in promoting the activities and functions

important approaches in social psychology, social

of

the

old-hometowners’

network,

therebycapital, etc. For instance, Granovetter (1973)

producing outstanding social capital.

pointed out that weak ties play an instrumental

As a result, almost all Koreans are connected toroleboth the residential community network and theinemployment

andresignation

fromemployment; at the same time, there are reported
47

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community

LEE

cases wherein strong ties are divisive (Murray etrefers to the community service provider ofal., 1981). Both case studies have shown that ties,

Cyworld(18).

once established, are effective social capital.

chatting site, specializes in “chatting”; and “I love

SayClub,

Korea’s

representative

school,” in alumni.

A study comparing social relationships in Korea“I love school” started as an information service

and the USA revealed that in Korean society,hyeoreon, hakyeon, and jiyeon are stronger(16).

site that provided its members with the users’Compared to Japan and the USA, therefore,

Alumnicontact

information,

andgradually

Korea is unique in the function of academic andexpanded into a club-type community service

regional ties from a community’s constructivism

provider for alumni.

point of view. Meanwhile, the full-fledged spread of

Although this suggests that the development ofInternet service has prompted online communities

Onlineto develop into new social networks, such as theInterpersonal Relations has an influence on thealumni’sdevelopment of the online community, such is not

network

networkandold-hometowners’

(17)

.

Communities

based

on

Real-world

the case. According to the result of the Gratification
Niches of Internet Communities based on Real-

6.2 Topological importance of the real world-world Interpersonal Relations and Those based on

based online communities

Online Relations, the two types of Internet

What influence is exerted on the evolvement ofcommunities

have

coexisted

in

Korea,

the whole cyber-world space construction by thecomplementing each other with their particularwidespread use of online communities that arefunctions (Lee Yunbok, 2009).

based on real world?

In addition, it is thought that the development of

To better understand the topological importance

OnlineCommunities

based

on

Real-worldof real world-based online communities throughInterpersonal Relations influences not only theinterpersonal relations, the study field needs to be

development of a community and SNS with theenlarged to cover subjects from the entire online

community function, but also other communication

space. Moreover, to be included in this study, there

services. SayClub was once a mere chatting

must be a comparison with other forms of online

specialist but is now close at heels of the othercommunication service functions in different

sites. Koreans’ interpersonal relationship biases totopologies, such as “search,” “SNS (Social Network

familiar acquaintances are well documented in theService),” “chatting,” etc.

research done by Yoshii and others, which

Further analysis on the background of 〈Table

compared Japan and Korea as regards the use of1.〉 will help understand the key role of online

mailing service (Mobile Communication Researchcommunities. The table contains information

Association, 2003)(19).

about the online community distribution of all the

The term “café,” denoting a type of Internet

major portal sites in Korea which are providing

community service provider, was first adopted byservices

Daum and, since then, it had been regarded as a

for

the

community

activities

andsymbolic proper name for Korea’s unique online

communication functions.
Daum and Freechal major in “community

community activities. Soon enough, fast-growing

activities”; i.e., Cyworld (Club) in 〈Table 1.〉Naver added the word to its name (Naver Café) to48

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

boost user visits to Naver pages.

Daum did try to give chase but failed to catch up

A long court battle ensued between Naver andbecause SNS functions optimally when the volume

Daum (starting in February 2004), as Daum suedof users is huge. While Daum’s SNS languished

for the exclusive use of “Café” as an on-line-

below, Cyworld rode high on its new community

community service provider Naver eventually won

service known as Cyworld Club.

the case. The legal altercation between Daum andCyworld Mini Home Page has grown very

Naver underscores the importance of BBS-based

quickly because Korea had sustained the online

online community service, especially in Korea,

communities based on real-world interpersonal

whose cyber space is packed with online

relations. Most of them started out as multitude-to-communities reflecting real-world interpersonal

multitude communications in topology, and therelations.

user felt the need to build his own network that

In addition, it is thought that SNS with thecommunity

functionhassuddenly

centered on himself-a one-to-multitude setup in

becometopology. It was at that point that SNS showed up
as a tool(20).

fashionable in Korea, thereby causing a surge inthe spread of SNS. Korea’s Cyworld calls SNS its

The recent study on the comparison between“Mini Home Page,” as it used to be an auxiliary

Korea and Japan shows that Koreans are morefunction for Club activities connected with theinclined than the Japanese to establish andClub’s profile-service functions. Mini Home Page

maintain relationships with acquaintances by SNS

had been designed by Cyworld (which originally(Hasimoto et al., 2008). It may be necessary to

was online community service provider) to support

examine the functional relations of the online

its own Club service .

community and SNS with the community functionin Korea, utilizing the niche analysis(21).

The users of this service function had
increasingly used it as a means of sharing thecontents of their own production, and the popularity

Notes

caused SNS to develop separately as Mini Home

(1) The terms alumni’s network and old-hometowners’

Page, an independent online service provider

network, which culturally and socially feature the(NIA, p.176, 2005).

major constructivism concept of “social capital,”

According to NIA’s research (NIA, p. 176, 2005),

were carefully coined for this study and speciallyCyworld started developing the concept of anmarked in bold-faced and italicized type todistinguish them from other similar explanatory

independent SNS service and specializing in it

expressions.

back in 2001, almost 2 years ahead of “Friendster”(2) The term “Local information (地域情報化)” wasof the USA (March 2003), and about 3 years before

first used in Japan. Unfortunately, it turned out thatJapan’s “mixi.” Daum, at that time, failed toonly 4 of 733 communities have succeeded

recognize the potential of SNS service and(Kogawa, 2007).

capitalize on it. Daum could only look with envy at(3) The italicized but not bold-faced expressions like

Cyworld, whose soaring sales catapulted it fromsarang, yeongo, hyeoreon, hakyeon, jiyeon, etc,

being a minor community-service provider to theare Romanized Korean words.

third-highest in Korea, with a record membership(4) Hyeoreon (혈연; blood ties), hakyeon (학연;over 10 million.

academic ties), jiyeon (지연; regional ties), and49

The Evolvement of Social Relationships as Influenced by the Spread of the Online Community

LEE

yeongo (연고; the three major Korean traditional(12) In the western world and Japan, funeral rites haveties) are denoted by the Chinese characters 血緣,been socially systematized, and funerals are

学縁, 地緣, and 緣故. Yeongo have always beenpresided over by a pastor at a church or by aregarded as traditionally important social capital

Buddhist monk at the temple. However, in such athroughout the Korean Peninsula and its cultural

Confucian country as Korea, institutions likehistory.

churches and temples were not as well developed.

(5) “Chousen Habatu Tousousi, 1992 by Mun Ok Chu”

Thus, peasants organized mutual aid for funerals

is one of the more informative publications written

and prepared for them as a group. The study

in the Japanese language about the development of

implies that such traditional networks continue to

Korean cliques.

exist today.
(13) This is similar to the onset of formal education in(6) Higher education here means at least two years ofJapan during the Meiji Period, when the primarycollege.
(7) It said that the development of lineage culture

school system was widely established as acarried out immediately after the National

showcase of the nation’s Family System (theEmperor System).

Liberation from Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945)
was greatly owed to both the Choson’s traditional(14) Ito conceptualized this as “ch′inhan-sai,” which

yangban-custom, with privileges such as exemptionmeans “ultimately intimate relationship.” He saidof taxation to munjung holders, and the backlashthat it is almost impossible to define this in theagainst the compulsory changing of one’s full nameexisting anthropological terms (Ito, 1977b).
(15) According to a recent Korean research, big-scale

under the coercion of the imperial Japan.

mutual aid for funerals still existed very widely in(8) “Han,” the Romanized Japanese expression for 藩,

Korea, even up to the late 1990s (Kwangju Folk

means “administrative province.”

Museum, 1997).

(9) The subject in relation with “we,” especially after
the high growth, is continuously an issue in Korea’s(16) A study by Lee Jong-Han on 198 Korean and 184

various social science fields, such as sociology,

American subjects, aged 30-49 years, who residepolitics, communication science, etc. (i.e., Parkin cities and have jobs and college-level education,

Sung-Gwan, 1994: Lew Seok-Choon, 2002)shows that in college, 50% of the Koreans were(10) Munjung

fornon-volunteers who belonged to an Alumni Group

ancestors’ worship in Confucianism ceremony)or Kinship Lineage Association. In comparison,

first appeared around in 17C~18C during the

94% of the Americans were volunteers (Lee Jong-(門中、kinshiporganization

Choson Dynasty. While yangban (両班、theHan, 1992).

upper class) was able to establish munjung,(17) Putnam, in the social capital perspective, points

sangmin (常民、the peasant class) were not. Thatout the importance of the development of social

is why the peasants constructed Kye (契)relationships by means of American online space

networks. “Kye for funeral ceremony” was the(Putnam, 2000).
(18) Daum calls online communities “Cafés,” while

first to appear, almost at the same time as the

yangban’s munjung (Kim Pil-Dong, 1992).

Cyworld calls them as “Clubs.”(11) Ito’s study indicates that the main stream in(19) By way of analysis, Mobile Communication says,

mutual aid is on weddings and funerals; the“There’s a distinctive difference the distribution

Japanese versions of mutual aid in financing andof the frequent mailing partners between Korea

savings are less frequently found.

and Japan, with familiar friends, seniors and50

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009
juniors higher in Koreans as much as 64.6%...

Press, 1-30. (in Japanese)
Gyeong Sang Univ. ISS. (2005) Hierarchial System of(Mobile Communication Research Association,

Universities: Its Problems and an Alternative

p.121, 2003).
(20) In

Korea,

theegocentric

development

Program, Pajoo: Hanul.(in Korean)ininterpersonal relations basically relies on hakyeon,

Granovetter, Mark (1973) “The strength of weak ties.”

hyeoreon, and jiyeon ties, which are thought to be

American Journal of Sociology, 81: 1287-1303.

associated with attitudes that are centered, not on

Hagiwara, M (2004) Web Shicyouritu Data kara mita 2

the body of the group, but on the individual. We

channel, In 2chnnel (ed) 2 channel Kousiki Guide,
Tokyo: Core magazine, 20-24. (in Japanese)

need further study on this topic. Japanese

Hamaguchi. E & Kumon. S, 1982 Nihonteki syudansyugi:

individualism and collectivism are very different
from those of Western Christianity (Hamaguchi

sono sinnka wo tou, Tokyo: Yuhikaku. (in Japanese)& Kumon, 1982). It is thought that Korean

Hasimoto, Y. (1998) Personal Media to Communicationindividualism possibly develops very differently

Koudou, In I. Takeuchi et al. (eds) Media

from that of Japan and America because it isCommunication-ron, Tokyo: Hokujyu Syuppan, 117138. (in Japanese)

Confucian.
(21) The niche analysis predicts that a new medium

Hasimoto, Y. et al. (2008) Comparative Study of Internet

will compete with established media for user

Use and Online Community between Japan andsatisfaction (Dimmick, 2003).

Korea, Research Survey Reports in Information

Studies, 24: 1-47. (in Japanese)

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52

A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning
Environment of Japanese in Slovenia
Keywords:
Japanese as a foreign language, Language learning environment, Web-based system, Foreign language
learning support website

Linda MARUSIC, Interpreter
Atsushi IWAI, Gunma University

Abstract
In this paper we present the problems in developing the learning environment of Japanese as aforeign language in a small European country with its own language, and suggest a method of
improvement. The Republic of Slovenia, an EU member state with a population of approximately
2 million, geographically and culturally distant from Japan, is taken as an example. Not only is thenumber of Japanologists in Slovenia quite small, the small number of potential purchasers resultsin higher prices for books, leading to difficulties in publishing Japanese language related materials.
In this paper, construction of a learning support environment based on an information system
incorporating Web 2.0 elements is proposed as the means of improvement: centralizing theexisting resources on a single, academically credible website based on the Slovene language andfocused on Japanese language learning, and inviting participation from not only Slovene students
and scholars, but also Japanese students willing to support foreign students in learning theJapanese language.

53

A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese

1. Introdution

MARUSIC and IWAI

elsewhere, Slovene has approximately 2.5 million
speakers (Kanazashi, 1995).

In this paper, we investigate the problems aJapanese language education in Slovenia issmall European country with its own language

mainly conducted at the University of Ljubljana,

faces in developing its Japanese language learningand the scope of Japanese learning materials

environment,

designed specifically for Slovene speakers isandsuggestamethodofimprovement.

limited. The country’s small size results in a small

The Republic of Slovenia (hereinafter referrednumber of Japanologists and an even smaller

to as “Slovenia”) is taken as an example. Slovenia

number of Japanese researchers with a sufficientis a country situated in southern Central Europe

knowledge of the Slovene language to help produce(Figure 1), with a population of approximately 2

such learning materials. Another problem is thatmillion and its own unique language. Separating

the small number of Slovene speakers learning thefrom Yugoslavia in 1991, it joined the European

Japanese language translates into a small number

Union in 2004, adopting the Euro as its currency inof buyers of such materials, which makes it

2007. According to the Statistical Office of thesomewhat difficult to publish them (see next

Republic of Slovenia, 56% of the population aged 10

section).

to 74 was using the Internet in 2007 (SORS, 2008).

In this paper, construction of a learning support

In the first quarter of 2008, 59% of households hadenvironment based on an information system isaccess to the Internet and 50% used broadband

proposed as a temporary means of improving the(1)

Internet access.

learning environment of Japanese as a foreign
language in Slovenia. The method proposed here
involves some decision-making, but is basically asimple one: starting a single, representative
website for this purpose. It should also be possible
to apply this approach to other countries facing
similar problems.
In section 2, the Japanese language educational
system in Slovenia is outlined and unsolved
questions discussed. In section 3, the possibility ofusing an information system as a potential solution
is shown, and in section 4 starting a single new

Figure 1. Slovenia and its capital, Ljubljana(2)website is proposed as a concrete method of
implementing this idea.

Slovene, the official language of Slovenia, is a

2. Japanese language education in Slovenia

part of the Slavic language family. Apart frombeing spoken in Slovenia itself, it is also used by
Slovene minorities living in Italy, Austria and

2.1 Characteristics of the educational system

Hungary (Yamazaki, 1985). Including Slovene

The University of Ljubljana plays the central

immigrants to the United States, Australia, andpart in Japanese language education in Slovenia.(3)54Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Japanese is being taught in the Department ofsystem that only teaches the language of A (A itself

African and Asian Studies (the major focus is on

isresearch and education concerning China andeducation).

Japan), which was founded in 1995 as a part of theeducationin

conducting

anyforeignlanguage

While countries in the Type 1 model have theFaculty of Arts.
Interestingly,

notadvantage of having domestic language experts
formalJapanese

Slovenia

only

languagestartedavailable for all other languages, they also have toafter

maintain an education system for 3 foreign

independence. One might generally assume alanguages. In Type 2, learning foreign languages

smaller country would automatically have lessis deemed unnecessary for country A, and theforeign language educators, and the smaller theother 3 countries are also less burdened withcountry, the more difficult it would be to have an

foreign language education systems since it is only

educational system for several foreign languages

necessary for them to learn language A. However,in place. Under such circumstances, the appearance

this approach implies that not only any interactionof a Japanese language education system inwith A, but also communication between any other

Slovenia can be interpreted as an investment in the

2 states (for example C and D), will have to be(4)

future.

conducted in A’s language. Usually, Type 1 is anapproach possible for larger countries, and Type 2
is common in smaller ones (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Two types of foreign language learning
systems
In order to better understand the position of

Figure 3. Country size and foreign language

Japanese language education in Slovenia, foreign

education

language learning systems in general are divided
into two broad types, as seen in Figure 2. A circle

In reality, the situation is not so extreme as torepresents a country with its own language, while

only allow the choice between Type 1 and Type 2,

a line shows a link to another country’s language,

but this simple model is taken as a basis for thewhich is being taught as a “foreign language” inexplanation that follows.

the first country (in Type 2, it means only language

If knowledge of foreign languages was only

A is being taught). For the sake of simplicity, thenecessary for maintaining international relations

model in Figure 2. presumes one language per

and arranging business transactions, the systemcountry. In Type 1, the countries A, B, C and D

presented in Type 2 might be sufficient. In reality,each possess a system for teaching the languages

however, many nations prefer to consider theof all the other countries. In Type 2, on the otherpotential benefits of establishing foreign language

hand, B, C and D have a foreign language education

education systems for a few select languages they55

A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese

MARUSIC and IWAI

consider important (Trim (1994) lists several

knowledge of the Slovene language to help produce

factors influencing that choice). In other words,

learning materials. Thus, the limited number ofEnglish takes the role of a “common language”

experts able to produce such materials delays the(language A in Type 2), and several other foreign

process.

(5)

languages are selected in addition .

There is, however, another reason why providing

It may be said the Japanese language wasJapanese language learning materials in theselected as one of those additional foreign

learner’s own language is difficult for small

languages in Slovenia.

countries like Slovenia, namely the economic
aspect of publishing materials for a prohibitively

2.2 Unsolved

questionsconcerningthesmall number of potential purchasers. While it

educational systemcertainly depends on the type of publication, it has

In the beginning, the lack of Japanese language

been stated, “A book in Slovenia today costs asteaching materials in the local language forcedmuch as dinner for four.”(6) This is an example ofstudents and educators to resort to using textbooks

small print-runs being covered by higher prices,and dictionaries written for English-speaking

but in the case of highly specialized publications,readers. In other words, due to the limited

such as Japanese language teaching materials, theresources and small size of the country, English

number of purchasers becomes even smaller. In(in the role of language A in a Type 2 model) had

such cases, the estimated sales might be

to be, and to some extent still is, relied upon as ainsufficient to even recover the costs of publishing,means of learning another foreign language -consequently making the project unlikely to be

Japanese (Figure 4).

undertaken by most publishing houses. Since theGradually, the Department of African and Asianabsolute number of Slovene speakers interested in

Studies managed to produce basic Japanese

buying Japanese language learning materials is

language textbooks in Slovene, but there aresmall, the appearance of an abundant selection ofpractical limitations to what can be done.

such materials on the market is very unlikely.
To summarize, the unsolved problems ofJapanese language education in Slovenia include
the small number of both Slovene Japanologists
andJapanese

researchers

with

a

workingknowledge of the Slovene language, as well as theunfavorable impact of the lack of purchasers on
the publishing of Japanese language learningmaterials. It seems unlikely these issues can be

Figure 4. Japanese language education in

resolved immediately by using the conventional

Slovenia

system of foreign language education based on
published materials.

Slovenia’s small size results in a small absolute

In this paper, we propose an alternative approach:number of Japanologists and an even smaller

the construction of a learning support environment,

number of Japanese researchers with a sufficient

based on an information system, as a temporary
56

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009means of improving the learning environment ofare cases when web-based language learning

Japanese as a foreign language in Slovenia. The

support systems can offer a learning environment

potential of such a system is explained next.

withfeaturesmore

powerful

than

those

publications normally provide.

3. The possibilities of an information system

The representative functions of the contemporary

based learning support

language learning support websites (including theexample above) could be listed as follows: A)

The idea of establishing a learning support

online dictionaries and their variations like theenvironment based on an information system isabove-mentioned

founded on two observations, the first being that

focusing on reading comprehension (including

since information systems have reached a highthe systems with functions for reading foreignlevel of functionality in recent years, language

language texts without repeatedly searching forlearning resources are increasingly being createdwords) B) offering materials such as texts, audio

and delivered in electronic form. The secondand video files in the target language for learningobservation, based on the results of a survey

purposes C) offering memorization tools such as

conducted by the authors, is the existence of

vocabulary drills and electronic flashcards D) an

ordinary Japanese people willing to support (inoption of asking language learning related

electronic form) foreign students in learning thequestions to the site’s resident experts andJapanese language.

community members E) evaluating the learner’s

popup

definition

system,The tendency for learning materials to appear in

ability and progress by means of online tests orelectronic form is further discussed in 3.1, while

recording the usage (usage time, number of

the analysis regarding the willingness of Japanese

exercises taken, proportion of correct answers).

students to contribute to the Japanese language

In this paper, the term “foreign language

learning environment in Slovenia is shown in 3.2.

learning support website” is used for websites
offering the above-mentioned features. A more

3.1 The development of web-based foreign

formal definition is “a website providing various

language learning environments

tools and materials for the purpose of supporting

Web-based learning support has surpassed thethe process of learning a foreign language, forsimple online presence of electronic dictionaries

example online dictionaries, pop-up definitions,and is beginning to provide a variety of new

and audio / video materials”.

functions.

Some concrete examples of foreign language

While the number and diversity of learninglearning support websites include Rikai.com,(7)support websites makes categorization difficult, adeveloped by Todd David Rudick, a software

concrete example can be given: a feature which

engineer in Tokyo, Reading Tutor,(8) whichallows whole sentences (as opposed to only one

provides reading materials as well as dictionaries

word or set phrase per query) to be input andand other reading tools and was developed byprocessed, displaying popup definitions of words

Japanese language education professionals, andby moving the mouse cursor over them. This

WordChamp,(9) by GlobaLinguist, Inc. Reading

function is based on a simple idea, but shows there

Tutor and WordChamp also include entries in the57

A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese

Slovene language.

MARUSIC and IWAI

friends list for help with specific tasks, such as

Figure 5 is a screenshot of Rikai.com, showing

proofreading and providing audio files forthe use of the popup function to examine possible

pronunciation. Such a system, allowing contribution

translations after inputting text

by those who have access to it, could provide an
efficient solution to the afore-mentioned problem
of a small number of Japanese language researchersin Slovenia.
Foreign language learning support websites will
most likely continue developing in this new
direction of encouraging contributions from, andFigure 5. An example of usage of the popup

collaboration

dictionary function (Rikai.com)

among,

participants.

In

these

circumstances, it is possible for even ordinary
Japanese students, who stay in Japan and do notsupportengage in studying abroad, to be able to cooperate

websites, the examples above included, have theManyforeignlanguagelearningwith students learning the Japanese language

benefits of being available for free (the economic

overseas by means of communication in the

problems discussed previously in the case ofJapanese language. In other words, as the foreign

printed learning materials are absent) and arelanguage learning support websites develop, themore convenient than repeatedly consulting a

existence of ordinary Japanese with an interest in

printed dictionary (or even an electronic one).

Slovenia, not only Slovene Japanese language

Furthermore, they are accessible from any PC

experts and Japanese researchers who understandconnected to the Internet and updated more

the Slovene language, becomes increasingly

frequently (new words are included faster) than

relevant to the question of improving the Japanesemost conventional dictionaries.

language learning environment in Slovenia(Figure

Another noteworthy point is the practical

6).

embodiment of Web2.0 elements in some foreign
language learning support websites. The system’s
usefulness and adaptability are improved byallowing users to contribute, for example by adding
new definitions, words and materials or evaluating
existing resources. At the WordChamp site, forinstance, users can add translations, as well as
audio or image files to the site’s dictionary, or
create flashcards for vocabulary drills. These card
lists are presented according to popularity andtags. From their profile page, users can also searchamong other users for language partners with

Figure 6. The potential of a web-based foreigncomplementary language skills. While editing

language learning environment

their flashcards, they can ask those people on their58

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

The next question is to assess to what extent theexchange students with the University(10). Since

Japanese are willing to cooperate in such projects.

the survey includes questions concerning thepossibility of studying in Slovenia, it was deemed

3.2 The possibility of cooperation among

the most appropriate choice at the time.)

students
In order to investigate the possibility of having

The following questions were included in thethe Japanese contribute to the process of improving

survey (the question number will be used as a

Slovenia'sreference code hereinafter):Japaneselanguagelearning

environment, a questionnaire survey aimed atundergraduate students of a Japanese university

Q3. Would you like to study abroad in thewas conducted. Since Slovenia is not necessarily

future?

well known in Japan, it was anticipated the targeted

Q4.1. Would you like to study in Slovenia?

undergraduate students might have difficulties

Q4.2. Would you like to learn the Slovene

answering questions related to the country. For

language?

this investigation, it was deemed desirable that theQ4.3. Would you like to support Slovene

questionnaire subjects have a certain level ofstudents in learning the Japanese language

knowledge

learningby means of communication and interaction

opportunities such as a possibility to study abroad.

through chat rooms, bulletin boards, wikis

What follows is the outline of the survey taken

etc. in Japanese?

from this point of view.

Q9.1. Are you generally interested inabout

Slovenia

andinternational
Survey Outline

exchange

activities

andexperiencing different cultures?

Survey Target: Gunma University, Faculty of

Q9.2. Would you like to engage in business-

Social and Information Studies, undergraduate

related work in the future?

students

Q9.3. Are you interested in chat rooms,

Number of respondents: 79（49 male, 30

bulletin boards, wikis and similar Internet-

female）

based systems?

Date of survey: June 28, 2007

Q9.4. Are you interested in international

Method: a questionnaire survey conductedcooperation activities, such as helping

among the participants of “Introduction to Social

people in developing countries?

and Information Studies”, a compulsory subject
Five options were provided: 1. Yes, 2. More yes

for first-year students
Number of questionnaires distributed: 79,

than no, 3. Undecided, 4. More no than yes, 5. No

Number of questionnaires retrieved: 79（ValidThe results of Q4.1, Q4.2 and Q4.3, which are

Response Rate 100%）

directly related to Slovenia, are displayed in Table(The reason for selecting this particular faculty

1, Table 2 and Table 3.

was its long-term student exchange program with

By grouping the affirmative answers in Tables

the University of Ljubljana (Araki, 2007), making it

1-3 into “has intention” and the negative ones into

practically the only faculty within Japan to“no intention”, it becomes apparent the negative59

A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese

Table 1. Result of Q4.1

MARUSIC and IWAI

component analysis was conducted using the datafrom the 8 questions mentioned above.
The results of principal component analysis arepresented in Table 4. While these components
should be interpreted carefully in parallel withother data, the authors think, at the present stage,

Table 2. Result of Q4.2

that the first components (Q4.2, Q4,3, Q9.3) should
be grouped in a column that reflects interest in
language-related or electronic communication, thesecond components (Q3, Q9.1, Q9.4) in a columnthat reflects interest in experiencing foreignculture and the third components (Q4.1, Q9.2) in a

Table 3. Result of Q4.3

column that reflects the aim for economic
success.
It is interesting to note that Q4.1 (wishing tostudy in Slovenia) and Q4.3 (supporting learnersof Japanese) are included in separate columns.
From the component analysis above, it can be seen

tendency is strong in all of them. However,that while the main aim of the students wishing tocompared to Q4.1 (13 “has intention”, 17 neutral,study in Slovenia might be economic success, the49 “no intention”) and Q4.2 (11 “has intention”, 17

intention of supporting Slovene Japanese-learners

neutral, 51 “no intention”), Q4.3 (21 “has intention”,

is separate from this and connected to an interest

23 neutral, 35 ”no intention”) displays a morein communication.

affirmative tendency. In fact, just under one fi fth of

Table 4. Rotated Component Matrix(*)

respondents (9 out of 49) who fall into the “nointention” category in Q4.1 (studying in Slovenia)
answered affirmatively to Q4.3 (Japanese language
learning support).
While there are not many students who actuallywish to study in Slovenia, it became apparent there
are students who even though they have no wish
to study in Slovenia claim that, if given an
opportunity to participate in mutual learning
activities over the Internet, they would be willing

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser normalization.
(*) Rotation converged in 7 iterations.

to help Slovenian university students learn
Japanese.
Next, in order to analyze the background

While increasing the number of Japanese

structure of the intention to study in Slovenia or

students in Slovenia might be difficult, it should be

support Slovene learners of Japanese, principal

possible to create an environment suitable for60

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

4. Discussion

receiving Japanese language learning support
from Japanese students, by, for example, designinga site to ensure more enjoyable communication,

While there are many advantages to the use ofand then developing it in such a way as to attract

foreign language learning support websites, theypeople interested in communication itself (Figure

also display some drawbacks and limitations

7).

typical of web-based learning. The main points at
issue can be summarized as follows: 1) The
language learner must be computer literate andhave access to the Internet. 2) Internet-basedlearning support websites are currently not truly
portable in the same way as a printed dictionary,
textbook, or an electronic dictionary. 3) Prolonged

Figure 7. The possibility of participation bycomputer use tends to cause physical discomfort

Japanese students

and psychological stress. 4) Many foreign language
learning support websites, apart from the afore-

In this section, the possibility and potential of amentioned

Reading

Tutor,

lackacademic

solution based on an information system wascredibility

shown. However, simply pointing out only the

published by universities and authored byadvantages of foreign language learning support

academicians. 5) Many foreign language learning

websites is not enough and before actually

support websites were constructed using English

implementing an efficient Japanese languageas their “central language”, sometimes resulting inlearning environment based on a learning support

problems with functionality when other languages

website, problem issues need to be addressed.

are used.(12)(11)

Specific problems are discussed in the next

in the sense of not having been

The use of foreign language learning support

section.

websites is desirable if either the advantages

Figure 8. Points concerning the construction of a language learning support site
61

A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese

MARUSIC and IWAI

mentioned in the previous section exceed thethe dispersion among several sites of thedisadvantages listed above, or the problem points

contributions of the already small number ofthemselves can be resolved. The problems 1) to 3)

Slovene Japanologists and Japanese Researchers.

are not specially related to learning foreign

The problems indicated in Figure 4 reappear

languages or small-sized countries and will

here.

probably continue being resolved in parallel withTaking the acquisition of academic credibility

the advancement of information technology inand overcoming dependence on English into

society. In contrast to this, points 4) (acquisition of

consideration, the following approach is proposed

academic(overcomingin this paper as one possible method of using

dependence on English) are of essential importancecredibility)

and

5)

Slovenia’s relatively scarce Japanese language

for this research. These problems are related tolearning resources to their maximum extent:

Figure 9. The construction of a prototype system
62

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Constructing a single, academically credible

Japanology Department’s website. As seen in part

website, based on the Slovene language andA, it already contains an SNS-style community site

focusedlearning,with a variety of features that enable communication

concentrating the aforementioned resources, as

between participants (chat, forums, comments

well as incorporating Web 2.0 elements thatand private messages), as well as sharing audio

promotecollaborationand video files. Students can ask questions,

between participants, enabling them to not only

exchange information, share learning materials,

interact on a personal level and share knowledge

communicate with students currently in Japan as

and information through chat and forums, but towell as invite their existing Japanese friends (andalso contribute and evaluate learning materials. In

other students) to join.

onJapanese

communication

languageandother words, the method proposed here is to start

As reflected in the name of the site, at thea single site supported by a consensus of thecurrent prototype stage the membership primarily

relevant experts and concentrate resources similar

consists of Ljubljana University students who haveto those held by the existing foreign language

studied, or are currently studying in Japan. These

learning support websites.

students are being systematically invited to joinMore concretely, this means the researchers

the new site on the assumption that theirand students of the University of Ljubljana, as thecomparatively high level of Japanese-language

central research institution, would be directly

skills and experience with Japan itself can be

involved in starting the new website. The reason

valuable to other students and, when needed,

why constructing a new site, instead of simply

serve as a bridge between the Japanese members

choosing an existing one that also supports theand the less experienced Slovene students. Future

Slovene language, is considered more appropriate,plans include inviting those Japanese students

is that some of the issues previously identified,

who have previously studied at Ljubljana University

such as reliance on English, would otherwise

on an exchange program or visited Slovenia on aremain unresolved. While the construction of thestudy tour, as well as gradually including regular

new site itself would require some practical effort,

Japanesethe procedure of gathering the resources (forcommunication (as shown in section 3) andexample a Japanese-Slovene dictionary) that

Slovene Japanese language learners who have

Slovene researchers have produced themselves

never been to Japan and would benefit fromand hold the ownership of should be relatively

language exchange and interaction with Japanese

easy. Moreover, having the new website managed

students.

students

withaninterestinby an academic organization that already has a

The dictionary system still only exists in thestudent exchange program established would beform of outside links. However, the prototype

extremely advantageous for creating a learning

system includes a structured set of guidelines ofenvironment in which ordinary Japanese students

how to use these outside resources. Anotherparticipate, as was considered in 3.2 of section 3.

element of the prototype system, still at an

Elements of the prototype system at the present

experimental stage, is a student participation

stage of development are shown on Figure 9.

based

When finished, the system will be linked with thespecifically for this system (Part B). This system
63

dictionary-construction

function

madeA Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese

MARUSIC and IWAI

can be used for constructing both Slovene-

there are problems with fragmentation (theJapanese and Japanese-Slovene dictionaries. It

potential contributors for a particular language arefeatures a majority-rule based voting system fordispersed among several sites) and repetition

deciding the most appropriate translation, with an(similar tools and content being produced several

aim of maintaining the quality of the dictionary.

times for different sites, for example the same

Assuming cooperation by Japanese students, itword being entered into several sites' dictionaries),

also provides a Japanese interface. One importantresulting in poor efficiency. Such problems should

and very original aspect of the framework is thatnot be ignored when it comes to a language with aeach decision making process yields one specificsmall number of speakers such as Slovene. Whilecommunication space. That is to say, Part B also

the situation of multiple sites coexisting implies

provides the possibility of discussion between

diversity and the benefits of competition, theusers, so they can jointly decide on any

inefficiency of such an approach prevents it from

improvements

whenbeing the optimal solution for a small language,

problems arise. In each discussion space linked

which might benefit from a more concentrated

with a particular word, users can collaborate byeffort, namely a single site. This paper assumes

adding translations, sample sentences, questions

Slovene to be such a case.

andcountermeasures

or vocabulary drills. Here, the decision process is

The construction of such a website could also

itself one of the cooperative learning activities, andbe effective in gathering ordinary Japanese people

the structured accumulative dialog data provides

who do not yet have any contact with Slovenia andusers with a new real-time resource for language

are simply interested in a general cultural exchange

learning.

and economic benefits. It can be anticipated that a

Construction of the prototype system presentedsite where “all Japanese-speaking Slovenes”

here is the first step towards the system integration

congregate would have the effect of bringing

proposed in this paper. While the formal consensus

Slovenia closer to the Japanese. Therefore, forfor integrating these components into the proposed

example, it should be possible from among those

single site is still pending, the elements of theJapanese students who already have an interest in

system displayed in Figure 9 already exist.

cultural exchanges with foreign countries, toRejecting the multiple sites currently existing

interest a larger number in Slovenia, than by using

and constructing a special new one might invite

more conventional methods. Furthermore, thiscriticism. This single-site approach, however, iskind of site could be useful for the securing of local

based on concern for credibility and efficiency.

personnel

The present situation of several coexisting foreigncompanies who plan to expand into Eastern

language learning support websites is not theEurope. This approach would probably provide

result of planning, but rather came about

better support for economic activity than the

spontaneously. They were started independently

current state of several dispersed sites.

byrepresentativesofJapaneseby several different organizations and individuals

To summarize, construction of a single new

for various reasons and are managed separately.

foreign language learning support website by anThis leads to the above-mentioned question ofacademic organization is proposed as a provisional

academic credibility and reliability. Furthermore,method of improving the learning environment of64

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Japanese as a foreign language in Slovenia. Whilemaintained in such countries is certainly a matterthe validity of the proposed method is yet to beof concern and interest for Japan(13).

examined from many sides, the authors consider it

Lastly, while this research focused only on theto be at least one of the more promising methods

development of information systems in recent

at the present stage.

years as one of the changes in the environment
surrounding Japanese language learning, there

5. Concluding Remarks

are also other changes worth investigating. One of
the rather interesting tendencies in recent years is

In this paper, the various issues facing a small

the increasing number of scholars of the Chinese

European country with its own language andlanguage (which itself is closely connected to thedeveloping

learning

Japanese language) worldwide.(14) A multilateralenvironment are examined and a learning support

investigation including these points of view can beenvironment based on an information system isconsidered as a future research topic.

itsJapaneselanguage

proposed as a temporary means of improvement.
Furthermore, regarding the future prospects of

Acknowledgements

development in constructing Japanese language

We would like to thank the reviewers for theirlearning environments in small countries, based

insightful comments, which have helped us significantly

on the results of our survey, the possibility andimprove the paper; Prof. Andrej Bekeš and Prof.

importance of participation of ordinary JapaneseKristina Hmeljak Sangawa for their guidance and help;

with no direct relation to those countries wasand the students of Universities of Gunma and Ljubljanapresented.

for participating in this project.

While this research deals with Japanese as aforeign language education, it focuses solely on

Notes

the small-country point of view and can be(1) From “Internet usage in households and byconsidered novel in this regard. Although

individuals, Slovenia, 1st quarter 2008” on the pageconsiderable research has been devoted toof Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia:

Japanese as a foreign language education withinh t t p : / / w w w. s t a t . s i / e n g / n o v i c a _ p r i k a z i .

Japan(Kikuchi(1997),Tsuruno(2002),Ozaki(2006)),

aspx?id=1907

rather less attention has been paid to such(2) From “Republic of Slovenia” on the page of The

developments abroad, particularly in relatively

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan

recently established small countries.

http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/slovenia/

Furthermore, it should be possible to apply theindex.html (place names were added as needed)findings of this research to other small countries(3) There are 2 major universities central to university

with language education problems similar to thoseeducation in Slovenia: University of Ljubljana andof Slovenia, and this could be important in the

University of Maribor. The latter, however, isfuture. There are other such small countries inoriented more towards science and technology,

Europe (as mentioned in (Bekeš, 2004)) andwhile cultural studies (including Japanese) areelsewhere, and whether a learning environment

mainly taught at the University of Ljubljana. The

for Japanese as a foreign language is created andfaculty in charge of Japanese language education is65

A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese

MARUSIC and IWAI

called the “Faculty of Arts” in English and not

nl.ijs.si/jaslo/chuta), containing almost 10,000“Department of Literature”, as its Japanese nameentries.

suggests.

(9) http://www.wordchamp.com/lingua2/Home.do(4) From the year 1996, the Japanese side also beganoffers pop-up definitions (called “web reader” on

accepting and funding Slovene exchange students.

the site), vocabulary lists and several different

However, the domestically produced scholarly

exercisesbooks on Slovenia are, while not completely non-comprehension, picture flashcards and antonyms.

existent (Yamazaki, 1985 and Kanazashi, 2001),

One of its characteristics is that it was presumably

rather small in number. The same can be said about

specifically designed to be a resource for language

the number of Japanese people able to understandteachers, offering tools for setting homework

the Slovene language.

assignments and tracking student performance.

includingpronunciation,

listening(5) While a detailed examination of the criteria of(10) Gunma University (primarily the Faculty of Social

choosing languages exceeds the scope of thisand Information Studies) has a one-year student

research, Trim (1994) discusses some very

exchange program with the University ofinteresting points regarding the criteria for

Ljubljana. Refer to Araki (2007) for the particularchoosing the second language. In the same work, it

details of this student exchange system.

is stated that a country is more likely to value a(11) The problem of credibility seems to be omnipresent

particular foreign language highly if that language:

when it comes to Web2.0, and is well known. The

1. Is widely used as a vehicle of international

results of another survey conducted for thiscommunication 2. Is spoken by a country (orresearch include reports of unease regarding thiscountries) with which there are active interpersonal,

matter and will be briefly reported here. A

industrial, commercial, leisure, entertainment, andquestionnaire survey targeted at foreign students

tourism relationships 3. Has a positive image 4. Is

studying at Gunma University’s Foreign Student

spoken by high prestige groups.

Center was conducted as a preliminary survey for(6) Taken from an argument by Andrej Blatnik http://

this research in June 2007. In the 11 questionnaires

w w w. t r a n s c r i p t - r e v i e w. o r g / s e c t i o n .

retrieved (the respondents’ first languages were

cfm?id=249&Lan=en

Vietnamese (3), Chinese (2), Korean (2), Malay(7) http://www.rikai.com/perl/Home.pl features pop-(2), Persian (1) and English (1)), 2 people

up definitions (Japanese -> English, English ->professed to using Japanese language learning

Japanese, English -> Spanish, Chinese -> English)

support websites, which is not many. However, inas well as Firefox plugin with the same functionality

answering the open answer type of questions(but apparently only the Japanese to English

about the advantages and disadvantages of using

version), flashcards and several small modules

Japanese language learning support websites, 4(such as “Today’s Kanji”) that users are free toout of 8 respondents pointed out advantages suchplace on their own websites.

as speed of use (“many words can be translated at(8) http://language.tiu.ac.jp/ Also contains a levelonce”). Among the indicated disadvantages, thechecker for either vocabulary or kanji. Interestingly,

problem of accessibility (“cannot always be used”)

it also supports the Slovene language in“jaSlo:

appears in 3 instances. There were also

Japanese-Slovene Learner’s Dictionary” (http://

expressions of unease regarding the accuracy of66

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009
information

(“I

don’t

know

whetherthestarted a single site like the one proposed in thisinformation is correct”).

paper, the cooperative administration of those(12) The language learning sites based on Englishsites could contribute to the stated goal ofusually cannot support certain features of thecooperation between researchers.

Slovene language, which presents a problem in(14) The increase in the number of Chinese language

terms of practical use. For example, while

scholars does not necessarily mean a decrease in

WordChamp’s so called Web Reader offers boththe number of Japanese language scholars. There

Slovene -> Japanese and Japanese -> Slovene

is a possibility that the results of research by aoptions, it presently cannot support inflection as it

greater number of Chinese researchers who

appears in the Slovene language, for example

understand Slovene will lead to higher levels ofdeclension of nouns. This might not present a big

functionality of software for the Japanese language

problem while using the Japanese -> Slovene

learning environment. For example, an algorithm

option for reading Japanese text or inputting new

for translating a word in a Slovene sentence into awords (that is, Slovene definitions of JapaneseChinese word or character might also be usefulwords), but becomes a serious issue when thefor translating it into a Japanese word or character

Slovene -> Japanese option is used. Moreover,as Chinese and Japanese share many of the samedependence on English as a transitory language

characters.

in the process of learning Japanese can present a

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Kakehasi”, Faculty of Social and Information

target language, making it necessary for students

Studies, Gunma University．

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Bekeš, A. (2004): surobenia ni okeru nihongo kenkyû

however, many students never formally study theno kadai. “sekai no nihongo kenkyû no arata na

Slovene language again, and a firm grip on proper

hattenorthography and grammar is not always the case.

kokuritukokugokenkyûsyo kokusai sinpoziumu

It can be argued that using English as a transitory

hokokusyô), pp.16-23．

language

betweenJapaneseandomotomete”

(dai

12

kai

Kanazashi, K.(2001)“Slovenia-go Nyûmon”, Daigaku-

SloveneSyorin.

aggravates the problem.
(13) Regarding the topic of Japanese language research

Kikuchi, H. (1997)：gengo kyôiku no seizigaku.

in Slovenia, Bekeš (2004) notes “(Since Slovenia“tagengo, tabunka komyuniti no tame no gengois) a small country, it is difficult to anticipate thatkanri:

the research of Japan and the Japanese language(kokuritukokugokenkyûsyo kokusai sinpoziumu

will greatly increase in the future. In order todai 2-4 kai senmon bukai), pp.187-210．

sai

o

ikiru

kozin

to

komyuniti”

maintain the enthusiasm of researchers and the

Ozaki, A.(2006): tiiki no nihongo kyôiku: seizin nolevel of research hereafter, connecting withgakusyûsya o taisyô ni, “tabunkakan no kyôiku toJapanese language researchers from otherkinsetu ryôiki” (kôza・nihongo kyôikugaku dai 5

countries is an extremely important topic.” Ifkan, nuibe yosinori kansyû) surienettowaku, pp29-

Slovenia and the surrounding countries each

44.

67

A Web-Based Approach to Improve the Learning Environment of Japanese

MARUSIC and IWAI

Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (2008):

national foreign language policymaking in Europe”,“Slovenia in Figures 2008”, Statistical Office of theForeign Language policy: An agenda for change(R.

Republic of Slovenia, pp54.

D. Lambert ed.)，American Academy of Political

Tsuruo, Y. (2002): nihongo kyôzai・gakusyûzai no

and Social Change, pp1-16．

tukaikata. “tabunka kyôsei zidai no nihongo kyôiku”

Yamazaki, K. ed. (1985): “Slovenia-go Kiso 1500 go”,

(nuibe yosinori hentyo), pp30-55.

Daigaku-Syorin.

Trim, J. L. M. (1994): “Some factors influencing

68

A New Set of Staged Criteria to Evaluate the Improvementof Communication within a Regional Community
Keywords:
Regional Information System, Regional Community, Collaboration, Evaluation, Civic Engagement

Shino NAMIKI, The University of Tokyo

Abstract
This paper reports the progress and result of the experiments of EDCM (Evaluation andDiscussion by Community Members) approach with a new set of staged criteria which aims to
improve communication within a regional community. Based on the concept which the author
wrote in the previous paper, the experiments of the approach took places in Sapporo City andFujisawa City.
The execution and the discussion of the experiment gave the chance that participants becameaware of new human resource networks, reconsidered the media for regional community and thelevel of their commitment to regional community. These are learning opportunities to improve
the participants’ capability to observe the present situation of the regional community and toprovide motivation for collaboration. Also the results showed a more unified public and private
partnerships is required in order to share the meaning and impact of the media in regional
community. This experiments in spite of early stages of our study, it can be a contribution tocreating a new channel for the regional community and bridging human relationships.

69

A New Set of Staged Criteria to Evaluate the Improvement of Communication

1. Introduction

NAMIKI

The procedure of this study is to holdThis paper reports the progress and result ofworkshops in Sapporo and Fujisawa City in thethe experiments of EDCM (Evaluation andsame style as was held in the Hitoyoshi case

Discussion by Community Members) approachstudy,

with a new set of staged criteria which aims to

implements the same indicators (Table 1) that

improveregional

were used in the Hitoyoshi case study however

community. Based on the concept which thewith a more detailed explanation of each stage

author wrote in the previous paper, theincluded. From the results of workshop, thisexperiments of the approach took places inpaper is to analyze the utility and adequacy of the

Sapporo City and Fujisawa City.

evaluation indicators.

communication

within

a

by

using

indicators(1).

Table 1. The indicators of community communication

70

This

study

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

2. The concept and methodology of EDCM

factors that affect development in and create

approachdisparity between regional information systems

Recently, deteriorating communication within

across cities, towns and villages in Japan andcommunities and diversification of values among

pointed out three conditions for development:

local residents have become serious problems inability and creativity inJapan. Therefore, it’s difficult to share goals andtelecommunication

direction

ICT

existence of related industries which can support(Information and Communication Technology)

regional information systems. Ability and creativity

has become an important tool for developing andin information use is especially important. In

maintaining a communication system. ICT allows

regional development and interactive systems,

a lot of content to be supplied and is useful forbelonging in various parties and face to faceresearch and communication in daily life andcommunication supported by media is necessary

business around the world. The information

for society (Sudoh 1995).Then, the citizens’

explosion has made it easier to create local content

concern is determining how to utilize theand forge relationships between people. However,community media(2) to gather information andface to face communication is still important to the

feedback from the regional community itself inregional community in order to share local

order to support its growth and development.

withinregional

community.

information use;

infrastructure;

and

the

information and connect social discussions. This

To solve these problems, social discussion andis necessary for the next stage of the regional

evaluation by citizens are necessary. The newcommunity development, because the learning

communication network then becomes important

process is still evolving with the regional

for various parties to share and exchange local

community. For this situation, forming new

information and knowledge. But, communication

communication channels is a task with pressing

criteria are rarely met and in fact there are noturgency.

clear standards on how to develop such criteria.

Issues in regional community include how toThis study considers the possibility of evaluationbuild communication networks inside and outside

through engagement with the regional communityof the regional community, how to respond to a

to solve this present situation.

globalized information society, and how to copeOn the local level, municipalities have various

with an aging society. Regarding communication

evaluation methods available depending on their

within regional communities in Japan, theaim(3) and citizen participation can take many

government’s

national

forms(4). But this is not mature in Japan.

development plans and their information policies

Municipalities have various resources at theirfor regional development have had a big impact on

disposal, however only allocate minor attention todeveloping regional communities both in terms of

citizens’ concern. The importance of evaluation bytransportation and information. However, withcitizen participation is to view various evaluatorsthese policies, the issue remains of underutilizationand learning processes, to have multiple aspects ofof the infrastructure to build social networks andevaluation, and for citizens to get feedback fromto conceive and implement new ideas(Kobayashi

the evaluation results. This process is connected

1997&2000). Yamanaka (1999) analyzed several

to improving practices and situation and offers

comprehensive71

A New Set of Staged Criteria to Evaluate the Improvement of Communication

opportunitiesforcontinualandgroups in the city, and consensus on regional

evaluation

community goals by sharing information, humanindicators focused on citizens’ knowledge andresources and ideas (Namiki 2005b). This study’s

learning are immature, and there isn’t a clear idea

workshop style is based on the Hitoyoshi City caseof how to develop such indicators.

study. First, 29 participants are divided into fivelearning(5).

reflective

refinement

NAMIKI

However,

The next consideration is the case of evaluationgroups (local government, creation of community,

through civic engagement. In Oregon State’s

industry, media, and future generation) .Eachbenchmarks, public services are based ongroup individually evaluates the facet of the

responsibilities.

occursregional community they are assigned and present

through research and study of civic groups by

Citizenparticipation

their findings to each other. Finally, all participants

benchmarking and from this the potential for

discuss the results as one group. This workshop

improvement is advanced. Another system, thewas completed on December 19th, 2004.

Readiness Guide by Computer System Policy

3. Sapporo City Case Study

Project (CSPP) and J-Matrix (Readiness Guide inJapanese version)(6) aims to provide new methods

3.1 Overview

for creating new and improving existing projects.
on

The workshop was completed on December 8th,

communication and idea gathering for solutions to

2006. 21 participants were divided into five groups:

problems. Participants share information andinternational tourism city, information center,build up networks. The result is policy reflection

youth, beautiful November project and culturaland new project creation. In these two cases,

facilities(8).

Theseevaluationstylesarebasedlearning processes and the evaluation system are

3.2 The individual group evaluation and issues

invaluable. The relationship between learning andin Sapporo city

evaluation is found in civic engagement. The
evaluation style is self-evaluation. Learning by
evaluation includes reflection, awareness and(1) The case of bringing up the problems fromsetting new goals. Evaluation and response are

the evaluation (in Beautiful November

connected to improvement by giving feedback on

project group)

early planning and unexpected circumstances. To

In this case, common problems and issues werecorrect distortion, a relative viewpoint must be

found from the ‘identity’ and ‘role of lectures’chosenindicators, about the needs of gathering human

from

the

multipleevaluators

andresources with production ability. This project

discussion.
Table 1 shows evaluation indicators which were

aimed to increase tourism in the month of(7)

implemented in previous research (Namiki2005b) .

November, when the number of tourists is

In Hitoyoshi City, Kumamoto Prefecture, thecomparatively low. The project started in 2006 to

result of the evaluation workshop using thesestimulate regional resources and create anindicators was increased awareness of the regional

attractive city with the help of citizens and tourism.

community’sof

In this workshop, this project consisted of about

improvement of relationships between various

ten people and their immediate task was to gather

present

state,

discussion

72

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Table 2. The results of the comprehensive group evaluation in Sapporo City

(2) The context in the community coveragevarious human resources. In relation to this, the
issue

as

found

from

the

indicators

indicators of ‘Community’ (in cultural facilityofgroup).

‘Communication’ and ‘Recognition ranking in thecommunity’ was how to broaden the project by

The cultural facility group consists of museums

sending information and finding human resources.

and the non profit organization Civic Media.

In addition, the indicator of ‘The role of theMuseums do not represent the community media

lecturer’ was considered highly important. For

directly. But, as far as community coverage isexample, specialists with different backgrounds

concerned, they have the ability to inform residents

reported to others about the attractive Novemberof their facilities and events, by introducing thisin Sapporo. Finally, future issues were connected

information on their website and in their brochures.

to the economic level through the process ofWithin this group, the non profit organization

involving those people.

Civic Media is in Stage 4, but the group overall isin Stage 3.
The results from all groups are shown in Table
2.
73

A New Set of Staged Criteria to Evaluate the Improvement of Communication

3.3 The comprehensive discussion in Sapporo

NAMIKIin the stored information, which will becomeCityarchives for the regional community. As an
example, everyday scenes are an important part ofIn the comprehensive discussion, issues wereregional community’s history and character, butraised concerning the community media.
In this case, to improve community media andare rarely recorded on film. Similarly, day to day

communication, the opportunity to connect new

activities within the regional community are notgroups was suggested. Through the community

known by the whole regional community because

coverage

newaccess to media and research is not easy.

relationships and expand the Beautiful November

Community media should be stored, edited andproject. For example, during this workshop, thereintroduced to the regional community. Sapporo

opportunity to discuss the question “Is Sapporo an

City’s community media ‘Web City Sapporo’ isinternational city?” on the city’s website wasopen and free of charge, and the content is easily

suggested. This suggestion was inspired bydifferentiated from commercial content.

process,

citizens

can

form

another group’s evaluation results, and the need toThis workshop aimed to connect people who

deepen discussion of local issues. The results ofhave various backgrounds. This connection assists

the international tourism group showed thein problem solving, issue raising and the research‘Communication’ indicators in Stage 2. This isof citizens’ views about regional information. In

because the level of information gathering andboth the individual group evaluations and theresearching is low, for example, street directories

comprehensive discussion, participants shared

are still in the process of development. Similarly,

their information which they previously did notthe ‘recognition ranking in the community’

have the opportunity to convey. Groups which do

indicator is in Stage 1, because large scale events

cover the whole regional community introduced

like the snow festival are highly recognized but

their connections and community information

other events have low recognition. Sapporo is notwhich is then linked through discussion andconsidered an international city by its citizens.

evaluation by the indicators. Through face to face

With this in mind, the suggestion is to ask thecommunicationquestion again on the website and cultivate a view

participants discovered the human network in theamongstregional community and the core resources ofthecitizens

that

Sapporo

is

an

with

a

varietyofpeople,community information.

international city.
The next case involves the media’s role in

However, the issues concerning the indicators

editing the information in regional community. It

are how to clarify the community area and how tois necessary to utilize the media to facilitate

establish a recognition ranking in the discussion.

accumulation and presentation of the local

This is related to the size of the regional

community’s information. The expanded potential

community. Some participants suggested thatof the media then helps in creating new

Sapporo City has a large population and therefore

relationships.

evaluation is difficult, because the amount ofcommunity

information access and the level of recognition are

information, other media can store and replay it .It

different. It is necessary to make the groups more

becomes possible to find new meaning and value

flexible, because it is often difficult for groups to

Once

the

media

broadcasts

74

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

evaluate and decide on the appropriate stage. Also,on the local government’s website. They associate

citizen participation changes the number of people

communityand balance of the group so the group needs moregathering with the management system throughcarefuladministrative

monitoring.

Furthermore,somecommunication
operations.

andIn

information
their

view,

participants belong and commit to multiple groups

community coverage is defined as citizen needin the regional community. For these reasons,finding and which is an obligation of the local

more research of human resources is necessary.

government. In the present situation, responding

In Sapporo’s case, to prevent scattered discussion,

to citizens’ requests has limits. Since vast numbers

each district in Sapporo city was divided intoof request may be gathered by ICT, the difficulty

discussion groups.

lies in categorizing those requests according toquality and then prioritizing feedback. However

4. Fujisawa City Case Study

Fujisawa City supplies information on child raisingand crime prevention by cell phone e-mail and is

4.1 Overview

considering extending this effort to other forms of

The workshop was completed on December

media. Accordingly, it is necessary to sort theth

10 , 2006. 19participants were divided into fourcontent which is important for the regionalgroups: video imaging, local government, mapping

community(9)and electronic conference room .

and

to

createtheappropriate

channels.
The results from the comprehensive group

4.2 The individual group evaluation of issues in

evaluation are in Table 3.

Fujisawa city
4.3 The comprehensive discussion in Fujisawa
City(1) Relationships within the video imaging
group

In the comprehensive discussion, there wereWith regards to the ‘Community creation in

noticeable issues about the relationship within thedevelopment’ indicator, two groups were foundregional community.

within the video imaging group which have

From the results of the evaluation, a participant

different aims, but a complementary relationship.

discovered the potential of collaboration between

One group holds big events which cover the whole

the local government group and the video imaging

community, and another creates videos on agroup: to improve the local government’s website,

smaller scale. In this case, only two such divisions

which has no video footage, he suggests utilizing

within a group were found, however, it is entirely

the contents created by the video imaging group

possible to find more groups which are able to use

in this workshop. The local government’s website

their complementary relationships to create a

has a high recognition ranking in this evaluation,

wider network in the community.

but the video imaging group has limited
opportunities(2) The context in the ‘Identity (1)’ indicator intointroduce

theircreations.

Therefore, they can form a partnership by sharing

local government group.

their issues and ideas.

The local government group evaluation focused

Another participant pointed out that the75

A New Set of Staged Criteria to Evaluate the Improvement of Communication

NAMIKI

Table 3. The results of the comprehensive group evaluation in Fujisawa City

electronic

conference

room

(a

web-based

both communication and civic participation. Baseddiscussion forums on Fujisawa City’s home page,on this, multiple systems operate in parallel and inin which citizens can begin conversations on apartnershipvariety of topics with other citizens upload photos,

creation.

inFujisawa

City’scommunityask questions and so on) and the mapping group

Next, there are suggestions on how to utilize

are positioned closely in the evaluation results.

these evaluation indicators. To provide motivation

The reason was pointed out by another participant,for each group, the self evaluation level is set awhich is that two projects started from the same

little higher. To advance levels and improve theconcept: civic participation in various styles,

present situation, it is necessary to promote

communication and information sharing. The

collaboration between groups with a higher

advanced stage of the electronic conference room

evaluation ranking and groups with lower rankings.

is simply due to the fact that it ten years old while

Other use of this evaluation indicator is to change

the mapping is five years old. In this discussion,

public opinion from criticism to praise. For

the evaluation stage makes clear each group’s

example, there are a lot of critical opinions toward

activities in the same direction within thethecommunity. The two groups have the same aim in

understanding of what has been accomplished and
76

local

government

inparticular.

TheJournal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

discussion.

developed for citizens will raise the motivation forboth the local government as a whole, andConsideration is the issues of the indicators andindividual local government staff.

the role of the community media. According to the

The local government has a major presence in‘Recognition ranking’ indicators, the majority of

the regional community, and their new endeavors

the citizens is in Stage 1.Stage 1 indicates a level ofand useful services should be introduced to andrecognition under 25%, which is very low. Although

understood by the regional community. This has

it may be better to adjust the criteria which define

an effect on regional community’s pride, by

each level, we should utilize the higher stage

increasing citizens’ interest in and motivation togroups and concentrate on information to promote

improve the running of their community. In

communication within the regional community

addition to making information available, how tocommunication. In particular, more and moredetermine the recognition ranking is an issue,

important information must be made available; forbecause the amount of information access is not

example, new policies, financial conditions, andstrongly related to the level of recognition. The

disaster information. With regard to community

feedback on evaluation indicators was to continue

activities, the local media pick up content such as

the workshop step by step, to connect a variety of

local events, news, and issues, edit it, thengroups and participants, and to contribute a new

broadcast or publish it. These activities raise

bridge for regional community evaluation byawareness of the local community’s problems andmakingopportunities

clear

each

group’sstrengths

and

for

furthersocialeducation.

weaknesses. Regarding continuing evaluation, it

Therefore, in order to raise the interest of thewas considered important to determine the stage

community, it is necessary to improve theand achievement and to indicate potential new

recognition ranking by appropriate editing ofpartnerships by examining the information of

information and civic participation.

human resources in more detail. Selecting a variety

From the evaluation results, there are opinionsof groups and participants is necessary in order tofor separating numerical information on visitor

conduct proper evaluation and to bridge gaps inaccess to the web site from the recognition

the evaluation. For this, it is necessary toranking. To do this, it would be necessary to haveinvestigate the groups’ composition and members

more data and monitoring in the study, otherwise

and to share this information with participants.

it would be difficult to separate them clearly. As forthe recognition ranking, although there are

5. Glossary of the results of the experiments

different types of media, organizations which havepublic significance must be introduced to and

The results of the workshops in Sapporo City

highly recognized by the regional community.

and Fujisawa City showed that although there are

6. Conclusion

some issues concerning evaluation indicators andconducting workshops, this study contributed toregional community’s interaction by increasing

The evaluation results and discussion indicatedcommunication and awareness of the present

that this study contributed to creating new

situation

networks and partnerships within the regional

throughevaluation

resultsand77

A New Set of Staged Criteria to Evaluate the Improvement of Communication

NAMIKI

community. In this study, there are limits to

extracted the function of the learning model as

consider in the operation of conducting an

indicators within the seven fields and four stages

evaluation workshop. Ｗe must utilize the(Namiki 2005a). Participants utilize this indicatorevaluation information and results, not only within

to determine which stages and unlock the potential
to the next step.

the evaluation workshop but in daily community(8) The youth group consists mainly of university

activities for the long term. This is connected to

students. The Beautiful November project aims to

the evaluation; citizens should become accustomed

increase tourism in November in Sapporo. The

to and feel comfortable with giving feedback

cultural Facility is Sapporo’s Information Center.

between the practice and evaluation.

The international Tourism City consists membersof relevant Sapporo events.

Acknowledgement(9) The electronic conference room group makes

I would like to thank NPO Civic Media, NPOcontent about Fujisawa by sharing and discussing

Chiikimiryoku and all participants of the workshop

information using a web-based bulletin board. The

for their support in this study.

Mapping group makes content of Fujisawa using
by GPS. The video imaging group creates video

Notes

footage in Fujisawa. The local government consistsof Fujisawa City staff.

(1) In this study, the implementation field is Sapporo
City and Fujisawa City. The reason includes theperformance in areas of civic engagement with

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79

The Informatic Turn-Who Observes the “Infosphere”?
Keywords:
information ethics, infosphere, observer, autopoiesis, fundamental informatics, informatic turn

Toru NISHIGAKI, The University of Tokyo
Tadashi TAKENOUCHI, Tokai University

Abstract
In this paper, we discuss the infosphere from the viewpoint of an observer. The infosphere, as
proposed by Luciano Floridi, is a core concept that integrates separated micro-level information
ethics into an integrated information ethics (IE). The goal of IE is to decrease the entropy of theinfosphere. When applying IE to actual situations, it is necessary to clarify by whom and from
where it is observed because entropy itself is defined and measured from the observer’s viewpoint.
The theory of Fundamental Informatics (FI) insists that not only human beings but also otherliving creatures can become observers of the infosphere. On the other hand, a machine cannot be
an observer by itself, although it can constitute part of an observer when it is embedded in acomplex man-machine system. The informatic turn, which enables this extended notion of anobserver, provides criticism on Floridi’s infosphere.

81The Informatic Turn-Who Observes the “Infosphere”?

NISHIGAKI and TAKENOUCHI

1 Introduction

accepted, exact definition of the concept. In
addition, ethics and morals depend on local

Fundamental Informatics (FI) is a new academic

cultures that are permeated with diversity. Whiletheory which we are in the course of developing

each area of the globe is interconnected through(Nishigaki 2004). It aims at providing radical

globalization, it is not clear whether there can be ainsights into various informational phenomena inuniversal ethics that overcomes such cultural

biological, mechanical and social fields, rather

differences. How can we solve this chaotic

than at providing basic knowledge of information

problem? We argue that by taking these conditions

and communication engineering. Since FI inquires

into account, it is possible for us to take theinto the philosophical foundations of information,

standpoint of “monism of information”, where weit has strong relations to the ethics and value

look at all beings as having informational existence.

systems in the information society. This paper

Based on such a standpoint, we are able to seek a

discusses some aspects of Floridi’s IE (Information

new approach that establishes universal ethics.

Ethics) which is a part of his PI (Philosophy of

The information ethics proposed by Luciano

Information) in the light of FI. Especially it aims toFloridi is one particularly noteworthy approachcriticize the concept of infosphere (Floridi 2008),

that has attracted great attention. Its main concept

the central idea of Floridi’s argument, by extendingis the notion of the infosphere. Everything

the notion of an observer involved in informational(including not only human beings and other living

phenomena. In FI, the observations of not only

creatures, but also natural and/or artificial beings)

human beings but also any living creatures can be

is defined as an informational being (informationaltaken into consideration. This change of attitude is

object) which constitutes the infosphere. Floridi’s

called the informatic turn, which makes us possible

information ethics endeavors to respect all

to discuss the worlds experienced by various living

informational beings in the infosphere and to makethings.

them flourish (Bynum 2006). In his argument,

Up to this time, our understanding of the value

artifacts such as robots also take part in ethicalsystem underpinning the larger society has been

issues, although to date they have been excluded

based on conventional communications. In thein conventional ethical arguments because of their

21st century, we need to elaborate on the value

inability to take responsibility. Plainly speaking,systems in the information society that are

Floridi’s approach is a kind of new ecologicalsupported by developed digital ICT (information

environmental ethics that considers not only living

and communication technology). We especiallythings but also non-living things, including

need a new approach to ethics that is not the so-

artifacts, as opposed to conventional ecologicalcalled information ethics as a normative code

ethics which aims at preserving an ecosystem

underlying the use of ICT, but an information

composed only of living things.

ethics as universal ethics for the 21st century

Incidentally, the notion of infosphere reminds

global society.

us of the Situation Semantics which is one of the

As we all know, however, this goal is not easily

most refined theories for natural language

attained. The concept of information itself is

processing (Barwise and Perry 1983). The theory,

equivocal, and there is as yet no common, widely

which captures the ever-changing situations of82

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

real world through mathematical expressions,

Actually, such “informational beings” are made of

makes analyses of linguistic statements as a bulk

a set of data each corresponding to some property

of information describing the situations. Thisvalues that reflect a specific condition or function.

approach is called ecological realism. We might

As well as moral agents, moral patients are

say that the approach has something in common

informational beings that are given impact by thewith that of infosphere. However, the focus ofactions of moral agents.
In brief, Floridi’s IE, by regarding various kinds

Floridi’s infosphere is apparently on ethicalof informational beings as moral patients, aims at

problems.
Floridi’s

preventing them from being destroyed orinformation ethics is its broad scope as an

fragmented. Thus micro-ethics are integrated into

integrated macro-ethics. Hereafter, we refer to thisa single macro-ethics with a simple claim: We

integrated

Most

ought not to destroy any informational beings inarguments relating to information ethics used tothe infosphere. In micro-ethics, we discuss thebelong to micro-ethics, which distinguishes

norms for an agent (actor), but on the other hand,

between three different aspects of a moral agent’s

in Floridi’s IE, it is the status of a patient (receiver)

behaviors (where “moral agent” is understood asthat we should focus on in order to construct

one capable of playing a role in moral issues).

ethics and morals.

The

most

remarkable

information

point

ethics

as

of

IE.

Namely, 1) the information that should be provided

As mentioned above, moral beings (those beings

as input to the moral agent (for example, the issue

who are concerned with ethics and morals)of informed consent); 2) the information that theconsidered in Floridi’s IE include not only humanmoral agent should offer as output (for example,

beings but also natural beings such as living

the issue of accountability); and 3) the influence

things, rocks and stars, and even tangible/that the moral agent should have on its

intangible artifacts such as machines, pictures,

surroundings (for example, the issue of privacy).

music, and literary products. That is, any kind of

In micro-ethics, each issue is discussed

being in the universe can be discussed in IE.

independently, thus enabling deep and specialized

Usually we consider only those beings who takearguments. However, in practical situations, these

responsibility for their actions in relation to ethics

three factors are often intricately intertwined andand morals. Nevertheless IE also considers

mutually intervene with one another (for instance,complex man-machine systems including robots

the issue of the surveillance society). Therefore,or computers. This is obviously one of the greatthese three factors need to be approached from an

merits of IE in the information society where ICT

integrated standpoint. Floridi’s IE precisely

is highly developed.
Floridi’s IE aims at respecting all beings in theaddresses this need.
The concept of the infosphere is defined toinfosphere and making it flourish. To state its goal

introduce an integrated standpoint. The infosphere

more precisely, IE tries to keep the infosphereis a kind of informational environment that consistsfrom increasing its entropy. In other words,

of informational beings (objects). To understandaccording to Floridi’s IE, increasing or decreasing

what an “informational being” is, we could imagine

entropy corresponds to bad or good, respectively.

an “object” in object-oriented programming.
83

The Informatic Turn-Who Observes the “Infosphere”?

NISHIGAKI and TAKENOUCHI

2 Hierarchical order and entropy

doubt about the classical western view of a humanbeing as one who possesses reason and acts

Floridi’s idea is that any kind of beings (not only

according to his own free will. Day by day, thehuman beings but also other living creatures,

borders between soul and body, between animals

natural beings, and artifacts) can be understood as

and human beings, and even between living

an informational object in the infosphere, and eachcreatures and machines, are becoming increasingly

deserves and demands respect. This idea seems

blurred.

to criticize a certain element of traditional Western

What will happen if this situation continues? Itthought, namely, a monotheistic hierarchical orderthreatens the traditional ethical view wherein only

(from top to bottom: God, angels, human beings,

a human being becomes a moral agent who takes

animals, plants, minerals, and artifacts). Our

responsibility. And we might even be led to a fatal

supposition is that Floridi himself hopes tocollapse of ethics and morals. The idea of an

overcome this order. On the contrary, however, it

infosphere that comprehends all creations (beings)

yields the impression that all such beings arecan be regarded as an effective strategy to establish

regarded and understood from the monotheistica new kind of ethics and morals that will beviewpoint of the transcendental God (Demiurge)

accepted in the information society where complex

who creates everything.

man-machine systems play increasingly important

God treats His creations with great compassion.

roles. In this regard, the approach of Floridi’s IE

And human beings, endowed with reason and– focusing not on agents but on patients and aiming

especially chosen by God, have the mission toat preserving all moral patients – is quite ingenious

become co-stewards of God’s creations. Therefore

because we can avoid problematic discussions

human beings must preserve and control them toconcerning responsibility and/or free will thatbring about harmonious prosperity. This is thealways accompany a moral agent.

typical Western understanding of how humans

Nevertheless, we cannot deny that Floridi’s IE

stand in relationship with and as responsible forstill seems to have some basic problems. In short,the natural order. IE, as proposed by Floridi, is thethese problems all turn on a simple question,

development of this thought in the digital“Who judges something to be important and worth

infosphere. For us human beings, it is our mission

preserving?” (We can make the same query of

to control the infosphere in such a way as toordinary ecology that insists on preserving

decrease its entropy.

ecological system.)

By taking such an approach, we are able to attain

It is of paramount importance in the infospheresome kind of preferable effect just like the ecology

to define how an informational object corresponds

movement. The strongest point of Floridi’s IE is its

to each being. In other words, this concerns thecomprehensiveness and progressiveness. Today,

viewpoint towards the whole world. It is very likely

classical human views are challenged by newthat the conceptual structure of human beings willfindings of modern sciences such as molecular

be applied. In any event, Floridi’s argument on thisbiology, brain science, ethology, biogenetics,

point does not seem to be satisfactorily clear.

robotics, cognitive science, and AI (artificial

Apparently, Floridi’s IE itself is a pure abstract

intelligence) studies. Such findings create severe

theory that provides a framework and/or a84

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

methodology to solve problems, and therefore itof our ability, whether or not a signal has been

does not impose a specific conceptual structure.

successfully transmitted from a sending machine

But when we apply IE to actual situations, unless

to a receiving machine.

properly handled, a conceptual structure might be

As mentioned above, in Western approaches wechosen that is currently convenient for effective

often find this kind of transcendental, God’s-eye

information processing. This inevitably involves

view of the world at least tacitly assumed, even in

the risk of oppressing humanity. For example, we

scientific and technological fields. Here a humancan easily imagine such a situation that a computer

being with a special mission pretends to play a rolesystem, initially constructed with great cost,

as the agent of God, and thus brings about ancontinues to be in use for an extended period even

effect not always desirable.

if it is quite unreasonable and inconvenient for

In order to make this discussion more concrete,many people. This may happen because a computerlet us point out a technical question. As alreadysystem must be respected in IE.

stated, the goal of Floridi’s IE is to decreaseIn summary, although Floridi’s IE proposes a

entropy. This forces the question: What does

comprehensive and progressive idea of the“entropy” exactly mean in this regard? It cannot be

infosphere, it is accompanied with a certain amountthermodynamic in nature. We may make aof misleading ambiguity when applied to actual

conjecture that it is the value defined in Shannon’s

situations. If the infosphere itself is constructed

information theory. The entropy in his theory

based on inappropriate attitudes, and yet if thisrepresents the degree of uncertainty of theinappropriateness is not recognized, all efforts

information source. More precisely, it is an average

dedicated to the infosphere cannot achieve theiramount of uncertainty from the receiver’s

goals.

viewpoint concerning which signal will beThis view of Floridi’s IE reminds us of Claudetransmitted by a sender. The entropy is small when

Shannon’s classical information theory and its

the same signals are often transmitted, and it

theoretical limitations (Shannon 1948). As isbecomes large when unforeseeable signals arewidely known, Shannon’s information theory,

frequently transmitted. In general, the more aalthough it superficially serves as a universal

system behaves at random, the larger the entropy

theory of information transmission, is just a signal

becomes. ( This is same as the entropy defined intransmission theory between telecommunication

physics.) Hence the goal of decreasing entropy

devices and therefore cannot relate to the aspectmeans “decreasing the disorder of the infosphere”

of the meaning of information. The viewpoint ofor “regularizing the infosphere”.

the theory appears objective, and it assumes, as it

But we all know that technical innovations as

were, a hidden viewpoint of a transcendental God.

well as dynamic and creative activities are

It is only God who can see through man’s mind

promoted for ICTs. So we may simply ask if this isand judge whether or not the meaning of

not a direction through which to increase entropy.

information has been successfully transmitted

Or is it one of the goals of Floridi’s IE to suppressfrom a sending person to a receiving person. When

excessive technical innovations? Indeed, the ICT

we human beings, however, take the place of God

business field, where everyone is always underand become observers, we can judge, to the best

pressure to develop new products, is too demanding
85

The Informatic Turn-Who Observes the “Infosphere”?

NISHIGAKI and TAKENOUCHI

to be humane. But if we want to draw attention to

However, can we be satisfied with supposing athis situation, we should abandon the goal of thehuman being only as an observer? One of theflourishing of the infosphere.

merits of Floridi’s IE is enlarging the target of

In addition, there is a more radical question:

information ethics to include not only human

From what viewpoint should we calculate entropy?

beings but also other living creatures and artifacts.

The entropy defined in information theory is

When considering the progress of modern

calculated when we observe the behavior of an

information science and life science, it isinformational being (object) from a specifictheoretically difficult to say that only mankind

viewpoint. Unless we designate a viewpointshould be treated in a privileged manner with

precisely, we cannot calculate the entropy. Let us

regard to ethics and morals. For example, how

imagine, for example, jungle-like display shelves

should we treat an AI-programmed computer thatin a discount shop. To a new customer, the entropy

manipulates human language? It may be possible

must be quite large. On the other hand, however,

to make the refutation that current AI-programmed

truly

understandhuman

the entropy is quite small for a shopkeeper because

computers

he considers such a display to be well-organized.

language. But day by day, the development of ICT

Similarly, what human beings regard as garbage

and media technologies increases the electronic

usually lacks value, but such garbage can often be

and mechanical factors that intervene in ourvaluable for cockroaches.

linguistic communications. In accordance with

neverThus, we return to our question: “Who observes

this, we cannot deny that our responses in daily

the infosphere?” or “From whose viewpoint should

communications are becoming more and more

we keep the infosphere in order?” This issue ismechanistic. What should we think of such

related to the perspective of Floridi’s notions of

intricate situations? Moreover, genetic engineering“level of abstraction (LoA)” or “method of

demonstrates that human bodies are formed based

abstraction”. We hope to shed light on our questiononin the following by applying these notions.

processing, just like other living things. Our pointthemechanismofgenetic

informationis that the distinctions between humans and

3 The viewpoint of an observer: Towards themachines that might argue in favor of taking a

informatic turn

human perspective as the primary observer's
perspective (or LoA) are quickly blurring.

It might be natural to take a “human’s view” asIndeed, we must take into account the very

an observer of infosphere. At this point, the life

situation that the borders separating human beings

world, as pointed out by Heidegger, should befrom other living things and/or machines are nottaken into consideration. Otherwise, it will bejust blurring, but in fact beginning to melt away.

criticized as digital reductionism (Capurro 2006).

First, let us consider the border between human

The main drawback of digital reductionism does

beings and other living things (Takenouchi 2006).

not exist in its digitizing operation itself but in a

It has been often said that human beings are notdogmatic attitude behind the operation, which

regulated by instinct, unlike other living creatures.

ignores the fact that a human being constructs the

But this argument is no longer persuasive. Everyworld through his/her daily life.

living thing, including human beings, is an86Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

autonomous system that has a kind of freedom tothing.

interpret the stimuli from its surroundings despite
differencesindegree.

This

freedom

Even if we set aside for the moment the borderofbetween human beings and other living things,

interpretation may yield errors, but it can also be athen how should we consider the other border –source of creativity. Furthermore, this freedom ofthat which separates living things from non-living

interpretation corresponds to the process ofthings (machines)? Can a machine play the role ofabduction proposed by C. S. Peirce in his theory ofan observer? Here we can recall the theory ofsemiotics. And this is one characteristic that

autopoiesis that was proposed by Humberthuman beings have in common with other living

Maturana and Francisco Varela in 1970s and 80’s

things. It postulates that primitive creatures(Maturana and Varela 1980). According to thisinterpret their surroundings in very simple ways

theory, a living thing is an autopoietic system, thatwhile mankind is the species which has the highest

is, a being which creates (poiesis) itself by itself

degree of freedom of interpretation. In other(auto). On the other hand, a machine is anitsallopoietic system which is designed and produced

surroundings with its own degree of freedom, andby other beings (allo), namely by humans. These

therefore, it can be an observer. (A living thingtwo

incapable of manipulating language can be an

distinguished.

words,

every

livingthing

interprets

types

of

systemsshouldbestrictlyobserver but can never be a describer of its

A living thing (an autopoietic system) is basicallyexperience. The term observer means “one who

a closed system that has no input nor output. It

recognizes the world” in wider sense, and “onecontinues to change itself based on its past

who recognizes and describes the world” inoperations (experiences). When a living thing

narrower sense. Here we use the term in wider

recognizes its environment, it chooses what issense.)

valuable for its survival (such as food, enemies,

This reminds us of the concept of “surrounding

and the opposite sex). In other words, thisworld” (Umwelt) proposed by bio-philosopher

interpretation of the environment is nothing more

Jakob von Uexküll in the early 20th century (Vonthan an “observation”. Observation and life are

Uexküll 1970). The “surrounding world” are theinseparable, and consequently, machines cannot

environments observed by a living thing. It is not

be observers.

an objective world, but something which appears

However, we have to note that although a

subjectively, caused by the behaviors of a living

machine alone cannot be an observer, it can be athing. For a fly, for example, even a very fancy

part of an observer when embedded in a complex

ceramic dish is nothing but a resting place, andman-machine system. As a matter of fact, weonly the piece of cake on it appears as a meaningful

cannot otherwise explain such phenomenon as so-“being.” As such, we are reminded of Heidegger’s

called information transmission.

view of the “life world” (Lebenswelt) that appears

An autopoietic system is, as already described, ato all human beings. If we enlarge the scope of theclosed system that has no input nor output. It

arguments, we might even say that Uexküll

receives “stimulus” rather than “information” fromproposed a more comprehensive concept of theits surroundings. According to the theory of“surrounding world” that appears to a living

autopoiesis, therefore, it is impossible to transmit
87

The Informatic Turn-Who Observes the “Infosphere”?

NISHIGAKI and TAKENOUCHI

information between living things, at least in aphilosophy, proposed the thesis: “Being that canliteral meaning. It is understandable when webe understood is language.” (“Sein, das verstanden

think of the frequent misunderstandings during

werden kann, ist Sprache.”)(Gadamer 1975: XXIII).

our

are

Given the informatic turn, this thesis is enlarged

autopoietic systems who can, in principle, interpretto the dimension of life and expressed as: “Being

information freely, which is impossible forthat can be understood is information”.

conversations.

We

human

beingsOur Fundamental Informatics (FI) proposes themachines.
On the other hand, however, since we each playinformatic turn as a means to understandcertain roles as a part of society, it is naturally true

everything based on the concept of informationthat we must interpret the meaning of informationthat is “something significant for a living thing”.

within some fixed framework. Without such a

On the other hand, Floridi’s PI (Philosophy offramework, there would be no functioning human

Information) proposes the computational turn – asociety as it is. In human society, we can find achallenge to understand all kinds of informational

pseudo-phenomenon wherein information seems

phenomena from the viewpoint of digitization in

to be “transmitted” under certain conditions.

order to overcome and integrate the confused

Therefore, human beings appear as if they areconcepts of information. This directly leads to hisallopoietic systems (machines), when we observe

IE as macro-ethics based on the infosphere.

them from the viewpoint of the “society”. This kind

Both PI and FI aim at understanding the wholeof complex relationship is called “a hierarchicalworld from the viewpoint of information. Althoughautopoietic system” (or “a hierarchical autonomous

there seem to be no classification of information

communication system”) in the Fundamental

within the infosphere, it is categorized into three

Informatics (FI) which we propose. In this case,groups in FI – life information, social information,

the society is a high-ranking autopoietic system,

and mechanical information. These distinctions

while human beings are low-ranking ones

derive from the consideration of an observer’s(Nishigaki 2004: 107-115, See Note).

functions. The observation of a living thing and its
description by human beings each bring about life

4 Conclusion: The informatic turn and theinformation and social information, respectively.

computational turn

The

coded

corresponds

symboltoofsocialmechanicalinformation

information.

A

The life world for human beings is disclosed

machine, which manipulates only mechanicalthrough language. Given this, what discloses theinformation, cannot be an observer by itself. But itsurrounding world (Umwelt ) for living things?

can constitute part of an observer when it is

This

we

embedded in a complex man-machine system. The

human-centeredfatal drawback of Floridi’s PI lies in its inability toargument to the life-centered one, we must replaceelucidate this essential point. It would be quite“language” by “information” which serves as ainteresting to investigate furthermore what PI andmore comprehensive concept.

FI have in common and how they are differentisexactly

paradigmatically“information”.
shift

the

When

This is what the “informatic turn” is. Gadamer,from each other.

whose thought is deeply rooted in Heideggerian
88

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Notepartly embedded in the organization of system A,

There is only the Japanese version of this book at

so to speak, this fact does not affect system B’s

the moment, but some English papers related to FI

organization. The constraint imposed on system B

can be accessed here:〈http://www.digital-narcis.org/

can only be recognized through an observation ofenglish/〉. In Nishigaki (2007: 20-21), the notion ofsystem A, with the result that from the standpoint

hierarchical autopoietic system is defined as follows:of an observer of system B, system A remains a

The theory of Fundamental Informatics holds thattacit or implicit entity (the environment), andsystem B’s autonomy is kept intact.

any autonomous system, including an autopoietic
system, can come into existence only when it isaccompanied by an observer who witnesses its

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Barwise, J. and Perry, J. (1983): Situations andAttitudes, MIT Press, Mass.

is satisfied, if an observer watching systems A and B,

Bynum, T. W. (2006): Flourishing Ethics, in: Ethics andwhich are structurally coupled with each other, obtains
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Information Technology, Volume 8, Number 4,that “hierarchically autonomous systems” are in

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Capurro, R. (2006): Towards an Ontological Foundation

existence here, with system A ranking higher thansystem B in hierarchy:of Information Ethics, in: Ethics and Information(1) The observer observes system A, making sure thatTechnology, Volume 8, Number 4, November, pp.
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Floridi, L., Information Ethics, its Nature and Scopesystem B, making sure that it is autonomous and(2008): In: Jeroen van den Hoven and John Weckert

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performing their operations in a stable manner andMaturana, H. and Varela, F. (1980): Autopoiesis andto continue preserving their autonomy.

Cognition, Reidel, Dordrecht(2) While system A is observed, it is found that insystem A’s operation, system B is performing

Nishigaki, T. (2004): Kiso Jôhô-gaku: Seimei karacertain functions as an allopoietic system. And the

Shakai e (Fundamental Informatics: From Life toobserver can recognize that the operation of system

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Hierarchical Autonomous Systems, 38p. http://

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Shannon, C. E. (1948): A Mathematical Theory ofIn this situation, system A emerges as aCommunication,

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here is that even though system B’s operation is89

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(2006):

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NISHIGAKI and TAKENOUCHI

information ecology: Connecting Frankl’s thought

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Frankfurt am Main

November, pp. 187-193

90Causal Relationship between Media Use and Information Literacy:
A Three-Wave Panel Study with Junior High School Students
Keywords:
media use, information literacy, causal relationships, three-wave panel study, structural equation
modeling

Rei OMI, Ochanomizu University
Akira SAKAMOTO, Ochanomizu University
Nireka ADACHI, Taisho University
Reiko ANDO, Kinjo Gakuin University
Kumiko AKIYAMA, Ochanomizu University
Fumika KIMURA, Edogawa University
Megumi KASHIBUCHI, Gakushuin University
Mayumi NAITO, Takasaki City University of Economics
Mieko TAKAHIRA, Chubu University
Katsura SAKAMOTO, Ochanomizu University
Kanae SUZUKI, Tsukuba University
Shogo KATO, Ogaki City Institute for Educational Research
Takashi SAKAMOTO, Japan Association for Promotion of Educational Technology

Abstract
In this study, a three-wave panel study was conducted to examine how different media tools such as newspapers, books or
magazines, TV or video programs, video games, and telephones influence children’s information literacy. A total of 539 juniorhigh school students participated in the study. A structural equation modeling analysis of the obtained data indicated that there
were some positive short-term effects, which became visible within half a year, wherein the use of newspapers, books or
magazines, and the radio promoted abilities related to information collection. Regarding the long-term effects that became
visible within a year, however, the study showed that the use of video games had negative effects on the abilities to collect,
express, and communicate information. An examination of the long-term effects of information literacy-related abilities on theuse of media tools distinctly showed that children with higher skill levels read newspapers more often but read comic books orused video games less frequently.

91Causal relationship between media use and information literacy: A three-wave panel study

1. Introduction

OMI et alterm effects such as the effect of the extent ofvarious types of Internet use measured at Time 1

It is now more than 15 years since the Japanese(T1) on the skill level measured at Time 2 (T2)

Ministry of Education, the predecessor of theand the effect of the extent of various types of

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

Internet use measured at T2 on the skill level

and Technology (1992; “MEXT” hereinafter),measured at Time 3 (T3). When the longer-term

accorded importance to information education

effects were examined, T1 website creation or

and announced its guidelines in the form of thee-mail program use had positive effects on the“Guidelines for Information Education.” The

information literacy level surveyed at T3. This

informatization of society has advanced steadily,

effect suggested that although the Internet wasand the importance for children to have correctused voluntarily and not for educational purposes,

knowledge of information and the skill to masterits continuous and long-term use could improve

such information, called information literacy, now

information literacy.

seems higher than ever.

Apart from the Internet, children are exposed toIn 1998, MEXT put forth the skills that shoulda variety of other media tools. Recent survey

be developed within the scope of information

results released by the Japanese Cabinet Officeeducation; these were “the skill to practically use(2007) show that the media tool that elementary

information,” “the skill to scientifically understandschool, junior high school, and senior high school

information,” and “a positive attitude toward

students use the most is the TV: an average of two-

participation in the information society.” From

and-a half to three hours per day. Meanwhile, they

these, “the skill to practically use information” isspent an average of less than ten minutes and(1)synonymous with information literacy . This skill

thirty minutes reading newspapers and books,

is defined as “the skill to voluntarily collect, judge,

respectively (magazines were not considered).

express, process, and create necessary information,

These media tools, generally speaking, are used

and also to communicate such information while

for definite and different purposes. For example,

understanding the recipients’ status by using

newspapers and books are more likely to be useful

information tools appropriate for issues andfor information or knowledge. On the other hand,

objectives.”

TV and video games are fun and serve to pass theUsing this definition, Omi et al. (2006) conducted

time. Since individuals can watch TV while doinga three-wave panel study, with a half-year timeother things, it is considered a passive activity.

interval, to examine the effect of out-of-school,

Therefore, different forms of media may affectfree Internet use on information literacy of junior

information literacy differently.

high school students. A panel study, in which the

In the light of the above, we conducted a three-same groups of variables are measured multiple

wave panel study to examine the effect of a variety

times for the same population, is essentiallyof media tools on the information literacy level.

survey-based

relationshipThe following media tools were studied: print

between variables can be estimated by carrying

media tools such as newspapers, books/magazines,

out a certain type of analysis on the data obtained.

and comic books; electronic media tools such as

The results showed inconsistencies in the short-

TV and radio and video games; and telephones

research.

Causal92

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

and word processors. Our aim was to examinewith the specific purpose by using an appropriate

whether different media tools had different effects

method; (2) the skill to judge information: selecting

on the information literacy level. The converse ofnecessary information from a large volume of

the above was also examined: the effect of

information, judging its contents, and extracting

information literacy on media tool usage to see if

the most appropriate information; (3) the skill tothe varying information literacy levels correlated

express information: paying close attention to thewith specific media tool usage.

characteristics of information expression methods

In addition, it cannot be denied that someand organizing or expressing information in an

amount of time has passed since this research wasappropriate style; (4) the skill to process

originally undertaken, between 1998 and 1999.

information: appropriately processing the collected

However, hardly any information has been

information and extracting and understanding

reported so far about the effects on informationnecessary information; (5) the skill to create

literacy of the extent of media used in daily life.

information: creating information based on one's

From this viewpoint, data collected in this research

own ideas or opinions; and (6) the skill tois quite significant, as it aims to fill this vacuum.

communicate

information:communicating

information while being aware of the recipient's

2. Method

position or skill to process information. The total
score of the scale would indicate the information

2. 1 Participants

literacy level. There were 54 questions, and the

A two-year, three-wave panel study (T1: Octoberbreakdown was as follows: 10 questions on the

1998, T2: March 1999, T3: September 1999) was

skill to collect information, 8 questions on the skill

conducted with 1st and 2nd year students fromto judge information, 8 questions on the skill to

five junior high schools in Ogaki city in central

express information, 8 questions on the skill toJapan’s Gifu prefecture. Data obtained from 539

process information, 10 questions on the skill tojunior high school students (290 male and 249

create information, and 10 questions on the skill tofemale) who participated all the three times werecommunicate information. The responses could

analyzed.

range from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly
agree). Table 1 shows some examples of the

2. 2 Questionnairequestions.

Information literacy measurement To measure

Degree of media-tool usage The students were

the information literacy level, the Skill to Practicallyasked about the amount of time per day spent on

Use Information Scale developed by Takahira eteach of the following activities: reading newspapers;al. (2001) was used. Using the Ministry ofreading books/magazines; reading comic books,

Education’s definition of information literacy, thislistening to the radio, watching TV or videos,scale was developed to measure the level of its six

playing video games, using telephones (including

components. More specifically, this scale waspersonal handyphone system and mobile phones);

designed to measure the following: (1) the skill toand using word processors. Their response options

collect information: subjectively and sufficiently

were 1 (None), 2 (Less than 30 minutes), 3 (30collecting necessary information in accordance

minutes to less than 1 hour), 4 (1 hour to less than
93

Causal relationship between media use and information literacy: A three-wave panel study

OMI et al

Table 1 Examples contained in the scale of skill to practically use information

1 hour and 30 minutes), 5 (1 hour and 30 minutes

to examine the sex differences in the survey

to less than 2 hours), and 6 (2 hours or longer).

results, the male subjects were found to spend

Demographic variables The participants weremore time reading newspapers (in order of T1, T2

asked for their school name, grade, and sex.

and T3, p = 0.003; p = 0.002; p = 0.020) and playing

2.3 Procedure and analyses

0.001). Moreover, the use of telephones was foundvideo games than the female subjects (all p <The questionnaire was administered to eachto be significantly higher among the females thanhomeroom class at each school, and collected on

the males (all p < 0 .001). Also, at T 3, the amountthe spot by the teachers.

of time spent on reading comic books was
significantly higher for the male than for the

For statistical processing, we used Amos 6.0 for

female subjects ( p = 0.005).

structural equation analysis and SPSS 14.0 for the
rest of the analysis.

3.3 Comparison of survey results obtained at
3. Results

different time points
In order to examine temporal changes, an

3.1 Differences in the extent of media tool use

oneway analysis of variance was first conducted on

between the sexes and between different

each of the variables for the extent of media tool

time points

use measured at each time, followed by a multiple

Table 2 shows the mean values and standard

comparison test using the Bonfferoni method.

deviations of each variable for the extent of media

When the data obtained from all the students

tool use measured at each time; the sex differenceswere collectively analyzed, significant temporaland temporal differences were examined. Note

differences were found in the time spent readingthat this paper does not include the comparisonscomic books, reading books/magazines, watchingof

TV or videos, playing video games, and talking on

meanvalues,standard

deviations,sexdifferences, and temporal differences regarding

the telephone.

the information literacy level as they have been

comparison test indicated that the extent of comic

reported by Omi et al. (2006).

book and telephone use measured at T1 was

The results of the multiple

significantly higher than that measured at T3 (in3.2 Examination of sex differences

the following order: p < 0.001; p = 0.014). Also, theAll the three times that the t-test was conducted

extent of TV or video use measured at T1 and T2
94

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Table 2 Mean and standard deviation of the extent of media tool use

Note. Because of the missing values at each point in time of the survey, n represents the range of thenumber of items of valid data. The value of media contact is the score obtained on the scale of six
response items.
was significantly higher than that measured at T3

significant differences on the extent of reading(p = 0.009; p < 0.001). As regards video games, thebooks/magazines.

use measured at T2 was significantly higher than

When the data obtained from the male andthat measured at T3 (p = 0.002). There were no

female95

students

wereanalyzed

separately,Causal relationship between media use and information literacy: A three-wave panel study

OMI et alsignificant temporal differences were found in theinformation literacy and the extent of media tool

time spent TV or video use in common. Analysis

use, a structural equation model analysis wasof the data obtained from the male students

conducted.

indicated that the extent of use of books/

effects model (Model Ⅰ) shown in Figure 1 wasmagazines, TV or video, video games wasused. Path 1 and Path 2 show the short-term

significantly lower at T3 than at T2 (in the following

effects of the amount of media used on information

order: p = 0.009; p = 0.020; p = 0.002), and telephones

literacy, while Path 9 shows the long-term effects.

was significantly lower at T3 than at T1 (p = 0.009).

Paths 3 and 4 show the short-term effects ofSimilarly, for the female students, the extent of

information literacy on the amount of media used,comic book use was significantly lower at T3 thanwhile Path 10 shows the long-term effects. During

at T1 and T2 (p < 0.001; p = 0.029), in addition

analysis, we examined equivalent constraints for

significantly lower at T2 than at T1 ( p = 0.033).

each path and covariances of errors and selected

Also, TV or video use was significantly higher at

the most appropriate model for each combination

T2 than at T1 and T3 ( p = 0.007; p = 0.029).

of the amount of media used and information

For this analysis, the cross-lagged

literacy (refer also to Omi et al. (2006) for a

3. 4 Correlations of the extent of media tool use

description of the cross-lagged effects model andbetween different time points

theIn order to examine the statistical stability of theprocedureof

examining

the

model

constraints).

extent of tool use, we obtained correlations of theTable 3 shows the standardized coefficients

extent of media tool use between different time

obtained from the analyses. As for the short-term

points.

effects, the effect of the extent of newspaper use

In all the types of media tools, there wereon the skill to judge information, the effect of thesignificant positive correlations between T1 andextent of book or magazine use on the skill to

T2, T2 and T3, and T3 and T1, showing certain

process information, and the effect of the extent ofdegrees of statistical stability. Range of theradio use on the overall information literacy ascorrelation coefficients obtained was 0.12-0.63.

well as on the skill to judge information were all

The most statistically stable variable was the extent

significantly positive for the time between T1 andof video game use with a correlation coefficient of

T 2 and between T2 and T 3. On the other hand, the0.4 or higher at all three time points. The amounteffect of the extent of use TV or video programs onof time spent in reading newspapers also showed athe skill to collect information was significantly

correlation coefficient of approximately 0.4 at all

negative in both time intervals.

three time points.

As regards the short-term effects of the level of
information literacy on the extent of use of media

3.5 Causal relationship between the extent oftools, the positive effect of the skill to communicate

media tool use and the level of information

information on the extent of telephone use wasliteracy

significant in both time intervals. At the same time,

Results of simultaneous analyses of the short-the overall information literacy and the abilities toterm and the long-term effects In order to examine

judge,

the causal relationship between the level of

information had significant negative effects on the
96

process,

create,andcommunicate

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Figure 1 Cross-lagged effects model used in the present study (ModelⅠ)
Note. e1, e2, e3 and e4 represent errors, and σ, σ1 and σ2 represent covariances.

degree of video game use in both time intervals.

information literacy were analyzed simultaneously,

Regarding the long-term effects, i.e., the effectthe long-term effects of the use of books orof the extent of media tool use measured at T1 onmagazines and radio on the level of information

the level of information literacy measured at T3,

literacy were the opposite of the short-term effects.

the effect of the extent of comic book use on the

Therefore, in order to directly examine the effectskill to process information, the effect of the extent

of the extent of media-tool use measured at T1 onof book or magazine use on overall information

the level of information literacy measured at T3,

literacy as well as on the skills to process andwe conducted analyses using the cross-lagged

communicate information, and the effect of theeffects model (Model Ⅱ) shown in Figure 2. Table

extent of radio use on the overall information

3 shows the results.

literacy were all significantly negative.

As for the effect of the extent of media-tool use

As for the effect of the level of information

measured at T1 on the level of information literacy

literacy measured at T1 on the extent of media-toolmeasured at T3, the positive effect of the use ofuse measured at T3, both the skills to process andword processors on the skill related to processing

communicate information had significant positive

information, the negative effect of use of books oreffects on the use of newspapers. Meanwhile,

magazines on the skill to communicate information,

there were some cases in which the level ofthe negative effect of radio use on the skill to

information literacy had significant negative

process information, and the negative effect of use

effects on the extent of use of comic books, TV orof video games on the skills related to collecting,

video

expressing, and communicating information were

programs,

videogames,

andword

processors.

all significant.

Results of the analyses of the long-term effects

As regards the effect of the level of information

only When the short-term and long-term effects ofliteracy measured at T1 on the extent of media tool

the extent of media tool use on the level ofuse measured at T3, there was a noticeable positive97

Causal relationship between media use and information literacy: A three-wave panel study

OMI et al

Table 3 Causal relationships between the extent of media use and information literacy

Note. Values shown the table are estimated causal coefficients (standardized coefficients). School year
and sex are controlled. The underlined parts show that the equivalent constraints are imposed
between the paths. ＊p < .05, ＊＊p < .01, ＊＊＊p < .001.

98

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Figure 2 Cross-lagged effects model used for the long-term effects only (Model Ⅱ)
Note. e1 and e2 represent errors, and σ and σ1 represent covariances.
effect: a higher level of information literacy

for the amount of use of newspapers and video

increased the degree of newspaper use. A

games, suggesting that children who used thesenoticeable negative effect was also observed: amedia tools would continue to use them in thehigher level of information literacy decreased thefuture.
As for the sex differences in the extent of media

degree of comic book and video game usage.

tool use, the same sex differences were in the

4. Discussion

extent of newspaper use (Institute of SocioInformation and Communication Studies, 1997;

4.1 Sex differences and temporal changes in

2001; Interfaculty Initiative in Information Studies,

the extent of media tool use

2006) as in the extent of use of video games

When the extent of media tool use was compared(Institute of Socio-Information and Communication

between different time points, the amount of time

Studies, 1997; Interfaculty Initiative in Information

spent in reading comic books, watching TV or

Studies, 2006), and our study thus seemed to havevideo programs, playing video games, and talking

confirmed the same tendencies. As for the extent

on the telephone measured at T3 was significantlyof landline telephone use, the survey conducted

lower than that measured at the other time points.

with Japanese undergraduate students indicatedSince the extent of Internet use increased withthat the female subjects made more calls andtime (Omi et al., 2006), the extent of time spent ontalked longer than the male (NTT Service

media tool use may have been replaced by theDevelopment Department, 1991), and our study

Internet use. Note, however, that when the stability

suggested that even junior high school studentsof the extent of the media tool use was examined,

showed the same sex difference. However, there

all types of media tools showed significant positive

also exists data indicating that male individuals

correlations between time points; therefore, it wasuse both landline and mobile phones more often

confirmed that the extent of media tool use wasthan female individuals (Institute of Socio-

relatively stable. The stability was especially highInformation and Communication Studies, 1997;99

Causal relationship between media use and information literacy: A three-wave panel study

OMI et alInterfaculty Initiative in Information Studies,hindered the development of the skill related to2006). The age of participants for surveys reported

communicating information, and the extended use

by

and

of radio hindered the development of the skill to

Communication Studies ranged from teenagers to

express information. In the light of the above fact,

the elderly. Therefore, sex differences in thethe very least that we can conclude is that the daily

extent of telephone use may differ by the age ofuse of these media tools would not affect thethe participants. In addition, we would also like todevelopment of these skills desirably. Since thisrefer to Omi et al. (2006), where variations in

study indicated that the use of word processors

information literacy between points in time is

had a long-term positive effect on the development

discussed.

of the information-processing skills, the use of

InstituteofSocio-Information

media tools enabling individuals to actually process

4.2 Causal relationship between the amount of

information may be necessary for them to develop

media tool use and the level of information

the said skills. The study also indicated that theliteracyuse of video games had a long-term effect throughThis study found that the effect of the extent of

which it hindered the development of overall

media tool use on the level of information literacy

information literacy. The apparent cause for theand vice-versa was different for each type of media

same seems to be the fact that video games were

tool.

primarily used for entertainment and the collection

As regards the former effect, short-term positiveor organization of information was not focused on.

effects of the extent of use of newspapers, books

Moreover, video games were not e used to collector magazines, and radio on the skills necessary foror organize information either.

collecting and judging information were indicated.

The effect of the level of information literacy on

On the other hand, the extensive use of TV or

the extent of media tool use greatly differed withvideo programs hindered the development of thethe type of media tool used, especially where long-skill related to collecting information. Therefore,

term effects were concerned. The overview of thethe study suggested that daily use of print media

analysis results suggested that while children withtools such as newspapers and books or magazines

a high information literacy level read newspapers

or electronic media without images could

more often than those with a lower level, thecontribute toward the development of skills related

former did not use comic books or video games.

to collecting information whereas watching TV or

Since newspapers were considered to be lessvideo programs could hinder the same. The

entertaining than the other types of media tools

negative effects of TV or video program use can be

and were assumed to be used for the purpose of

attributed to the fact that the large amount of time

obtaining socially meaningful information, children

spent on watching TV or video programs led to awith a higher information awareness level werereduction in the amount of time that should haveexpected to use newspapers more often. On the

been spent on activities necessary for development

other hand, comic books and video games wereof the skill to collect information.

primarily entertainment tools and did not function

On directly examining their long-term effect, it

as information collection or processing tools.

was found that extensive use of books or magazines

Their use, therefore, may have been easier for100

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

those who had a low information awareness level

Notes

and whose skill to use information was of a low(1) The term information literacy is not usually used inlevel. At the same time, these may be the types ofJapan.

media tools that would be preferred by these types

practically use information.

It is instead expressed as the skill toof children. The negative effect of information

basically have the same meaning, the globally usedliteracy on video games in particular was also

terminformation

Since both terms

literacy

was

used

unlessotherwise specified in this paper.

consistently observed in its short-term effects,
and it was possible that a long-term adverse effect

References

was generated as a result of the accumulation of

Institute of Socio-Information and Communication

short-term adverse effects.

Studies, University of Tokyo (Ed.) (1997) Information
Behavior 1995 in Japan. University of Tokyo Press.

4.3 Focus of future study

Institute of Socio-Information and Communication

This study only examined the causal relationshipStudies, University of Tokyo (Ed.) (2001) Information

between the extent of media tool use and the level

Behavior 2000 in Japan. University of Tokyo Press.

of information literacy; the effects of moderator

Interfaculty Initiative in Information Studies, University

variables were not examined. However, given theof Tokyo (Ed.) (2006) Information Behavior 2005 insame media tools, children with a high information

Japan. University of Tokyo Press.

awareness level and those with a low information

NTT

Service

Development

Department(1991)

awareness level are considered to have different

Japanese telecom life 1991 (Nihonjin no terekomu

purposes (e.g. collecting information and passing

seikatsu 1991). NTT Publishing.

time) or methods (e.g. selective viewing of desired

Omi, R., Sakamoto, A., Ando, R. et al. (2006) Causal

TV programs, and lazy or relaxed and unintentional

relationships between Internet use and information

viewing of other TV programs) of using them.

literacy: A three-wave panel study of junior high

These differences then change the effect of theschool students. Educational Technology Research,
29, 25-36.

amount of media tool use on the level of information

Takahira, M., Sakamoto, A., Mori, T. et al. (2001)

literacy. Also, different content such as the genre

Validity and reliability of the skill of practical use ofof a TV program or a book may change the type of

information.

effect on the level of information literacy.

Japan

Journalof

Educational

Technology, 24, 247-256.

Regarding video games also, in recent years

The Cabinet office of Japan. (2007) The report of 5th

various types of software for learning English,

survey of attitude toward information society andcomputing, and kanji have become popular andadolescents. http://www8.cao.go.jp/youth/kenkyu/

theirjouhou5/index.html

contents

have

becomeincreasingly

diversified. Therefore, in the future, it is necessary

The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of

to examine the moderator effect of the extent ofJapan (1992) Guide for information education. The

media tool use on the level of information literacy

Ministry of Education, Science and Culture ofand to further examine in detail the relationshipJapan.

between the kind of conditions and their resulting
effects.

101

A Study of Remote Support by IT Volunteer Group for
Senior Citizens
Keywords:
Remote support, Senior citizens, IT novice, IT volunteer group, Remote control software

Wei ZHOU, The Office of Gender Equality, Nagoya University, zhou@is.nagoya-u.ac.jp
Shigeki YOKOI, Graduate School of Information Science, Nagoya University, Yokoi@is.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Abstract
In this study, we analyze existing IT support methods and senior citizens’ support needs
through a local IT promotion project, e-namokun. We then propose a remote IT support method,e-RemoSupp, to help senior users improve their IT ability and efficiently solve computer- andInternet-related problems under the support of IT volunteer groups by using remote control
technology. Starting with a short introduction to the project and early research, we examinee-RemoSupp through a four-month experiment, and then discuss its social issues, technical issues,and essential elements in implementing a successful remote support in cooperation with IT
volunteers.

103

A Study of Remote Support by IT Volunteer Group for Senior Citizens

1. Introduction

ZHOU and YOKOI

possibility of implementing e-RemoSupp, its social
and technical issues, and essential elements of

The digital divide among age groups (Loges

how to implement a successful remote support.

2001) has become a major concern around the

2. Existing IT support methods

world, even in developed countries such as Japan.
Currently, many elderly persons do not have the

2.1 Introduction of a local information promotion

knowledge to fully utilize the potential of computers

project: e-namokun

and the Internet, and many studies have been
conducted on Internet support methods, but mostThe e-namokun project was started in Nagoya,have focused on support for children and working

and has been developed to give senior citizens,adults, not for the elderly. When senior citizens

especially IT novices, a convenient support anduse computers and the Internet, they havelearning environment (Zhou 2007.1). In contrast

difficulty finding convenient and effective ways toto other famous information promotion projects

access material, solve problems, and improve theirfor senior citizens in Japan, this project aims to

information literacy.

develop a total support environment for helping

To bring more senior citizens into touch withsenior citizens use the Internet. E-namokun

the information age, an IT promotion project,includes technical aspects and a social support

e-namokun (Iribe 2005; Goto 2006; Zhou 2007;

mechanism

Yokoi 2009), was started in Nagoya in 2004. In theLifelong Learning Department of the city of

project, not only software tools were developed to

Nagoya), university, and IT volunteer groups, thehelp senior citizens easily use the computer andfirst project of its kind in Japan. The activities

Internet, but also many IT support methods were

include: (1) the development of e-namokun

considered and carried out. During the support

software (Iribe 2005; Goto 2006), which provides

process, we found that existing support methods

simple, user-friendly Internet tools; (2) e-namokun

did not fulfill senior users’ needs, so we proposedcourses at each lifelong learning center in Nagoya

a remote IT support method by using remotewith about 2,000 seniors citizens enrolled; (3)control technology. The technology is often used

computer rental service with very low fees; (4)in business, but has received little attention fromand a support center to provide telephone support

IT volunteer groups in IT promotion activities forand face-to-face consultations (Zhou 2007.1; Zhou

senior citizens.

2007.2). Such activities are viewed as key processes

throughjoint

government(theIn this paper, first we introduce the project, andbecause a convenient support and learningthen analyze senior citizens’ support inquiries,

environment can have a significant impact on

usage

whether users will maintain their interest in usingbarriers

andrequirements

throughcomputers and the Internet.

analyzing existing support methods implemented
in the project. Next, we propose a remote support

2.2 Analyzing senior novices’ support needs

method, e-RemoSupp. Through a four-monthexperiment, e-RemoSupp was proven to be able toIn the e-namokun project, senior users can use

efficiently perform IT support in coordination with

two kinds of traditional face-to-face support

IT volunteer groups. Finally, we discuss themethods: 1. periodic e-namokun course and104

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

consultation room in lifelong learning centers; 2.

could obtain much more useful information andhome-visiting service for those users who rent

improve their problem-solving ability by reading

recycled computers. However, these methods arethese FAQs. However, in many cases, questions

restricted by place, time, and class attendance

and problems they encountered were different

number. Although these face-to-face methods canfrom the FAQ cases and users could not find agive high satisfaction to meet user’s demands andsatisfying answer.

requirements and can be seen as the best way of

In addition to the FAQ web system, many otheroffering support, many senior users do not have

web-based educational programs and community

an appropriate chance to use them.

websites, such as seniornet.org1) in the US, havebeen established to provide a digital learning and

Therefore, in order to provide efficient and easy
non-face-to-facecommunication environment. Seniors are just like

support was considered and a support center was

everyone else in that they want to obtain solutions

set up to provide telephone support and an FAQ

as quickly as possible through online methods

website service. In the support center, a helpdesk

they can study anywhere and anytime, but thesesystem (Zhou 2007.1) has been developed andonline methods have not shown any satisfying

implemented to gather senior users’ telephone

problem-solving effect for senior novices. This isinquiries since December 2005. Thus far, hundreds

because novices do not have sufficient self-learningof inquiry cases have been recorded in the system.

ability to find suitable content easily and quickly.

Based on the case statistics and interviews with

Therefore, in addition to these existing support

senior users by telephone, we analyzed thesemethods, we propose a new support method:cases and ascertained their support requirements

remote IT support, which integrates both the face-

and the existing limitation of support.

to-face method and non-face to-face-method toaccesstosupportservices,

Many senior novices were satisfied with the

improve support effect, with the aim of not only

telephone support method because they thought

solving senior novices’ IT problems quickly, butthat talking to specialists was the best way to solve

also improving their Internet literacy and their

their problems. However, most novices worried

abilitythat when talking over the telephone, it may not beprocess.

throughacompleteproblem-solving

possible to clearly describe the problems they

3. Proposal of a remote support method forencounter. Because many seniors retired without

senior novices

having used computers and the Internet extensively
during their working careers, they have not

3.1 Related studies

necessarily learned good conceptual models of
how these technologies work, which makes it

Based on former studies’ results on senior IT

more difficult for the operators in the support

support, and considering senior novices’ attributes

center to understand what the users are saying.

and their support demands, we propose a remote
IT support method named e-RemoSupp, which

As a result, based on these inquiry cases weworks by using remote control technology.

developed a FAQ system (Zhou 2007.1), which is a
web-based support tool (Anton 2003). As for thisRemote control technology2) is often used in

FAQ web system, senior novices thought that they

remote system administration to allow use of105

A Study of Remote Support by IT Volunteer Group for Senior Citizens

ZHOU and YOKOI

3.2 The purposes of this study

computers and other hardware at a separate
location. A typical use is to control a computing

In the e-namokun project, many IT volunteer

server or desktop computer from another desktop

groups contribute to the senior IT education, so it

computer. It transmits the keyboard and mouseis necessary and important to introduce the remote

events from one computer to another. The

support method to IT volunteers. Meanwhile,controlling computer displays a copy of the image

although many expensive remote control software

received from the display screen of controlled

tools exist and are widely used in business, thecomputer, and the copy is updated on a timed

possibility of using free software tools to implement

interval, or when a change on screen is noticed by

the remote support should be considered andremote control software.

verified. Furthermore, such research questions as

Recently, as remote control technology comesthe following should be explored. Can remote

into maturity, it is gradually used in custom support

support services be used for elderly people andcenters and distance education. However, fornovices? What problems exist in implementing thesenior citizens and novices, there are not many

remote support? What factors are important incase studies and discussion about this technology.

implementing successful remote support?

3)

In Japan, although many companies such as NTT

We propose e-RemoSupp in coordination withhave remote support services, their users are

IT volunteer groups. As Figure 1 shows, IT

mainly company users and general users, notvolunteers use frequently used software to support

senior novices, and the cost is not low. An IT

senior IT novices remotely, guide their IT learning

4)

volunteer group named Pico has provided remoteand resolve their computer-related questions. The

service to seniors for about one year, but very few

purposes of this study are to:users have used it and the support effect has not

1. Verify

been demonstrated.

thepossibilityofIT

volunteer’s

participation,

IT is one of the important tools for helping

2. Verify the usage possibility of free remoteseniors participate local community activities

control software tools,(Yamada 2009). In a local community, senior

3. Discuss requirements, necessary conditions,citizens have many IT support needs and IT

and difficulty in implementing successful

volunteer groups are actively devoted to senior IT

support for senior citizens.

learning and support. One example is the Japan
Council on Disability (JD project 1997), which has
proved that computer volunteers can exert a great
influence during IT support activities. However, inmany cases, IT volunteer groups mainly conduct
support activities through courses and consultation
rooms, rather than through remote support.
Therefore, related discussions and studies on
remote support methods used by IT volunteer
groups are necessary and important.

Figure 1: The usage image of e-RemoSupp

106

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

4. Experiment outline

experience easily, but also because volunteer
groupsWe

testede-RemoSupp

inafour-monthhavestrongsocialawarenessandmotivation to create new value in corporate

experiment. Before the experiment, we had aactivities.

discussion with about 10 IT volunteers about

Our research and social activities receive a lot ofe-RemoSupp in December 2006, in which wevaluable advice and direct support from IT

received many valuable suggestions and support.

volunteer groups. The experiment is being

The experiment ran from December 2007 to

supported by a volunteer group, the Aichikyu

March 2008, and six IT volunteers participated.

Club5), which has nearly 30 volunteers, most of

They

the

whom are retired senior citizens. Some volunteer

experimental process by mailing list, and learned

members had computer experience during theirrelated technology and knowledge through lecture

working careers so that they can solve moremeetings. During this period, 132 e-mails werecomplex computer problems. Some members cansent and five lecture meetings (2-3 hours each)

instruct computer novices vividly and kindly

held.

because they had the same worries and problems

exchanged

information,

reportedwhen they studied computers before.

Participants were from 60 to 80 years old; threeof them had relatively rich IT teaching experiences,

4.2. Support content

and the others did not have a high level of computer

In the experiment, support content includes:

skills. During the experiment, they were divided

1. Software instruction

into 3 fixed groups to give support and receive
support peer-to-peer. They used remote control

Two types of software are taught. One issoftware tools in their homes, where ADSL ande-namokun (Iribe 2005; Goto 2006), which can be

optical fiber are mainly used to connect to theused to send email and explore websites. The

Internet and they got a private IP address fromother type includes software tools frequently usedtheir Internet providers.

in the classroom by local volunteer groups, suchas “Paint,” “Notepad,” and “Microsoft Word.”

In order to give them a better experiment

2. Problems solving

environment, six sets of devices, including aOS:

Problems solving is an important support

Windows 2000 and service pack 4, hard disk: 20G),

content, and includes virus checking, hard diska sound and microphone set, and a web camera,cleaning, sample file transferring, and security

were provided to participants.

related problems.

recycled

computer(Mobilecomputer,

By using remote control software tools,

4.1. In coordination with IT volunteers

volunteers can access senior users’ home PCs

The e-namokun project focuses on working infrom anywhere to do instructing and problem

coordination with IT groups who are playing ansolving. Senior users can also use a sound andimportant role in IT education and support in local

microphone device to talk with the support

communities. This is not only because the purposes

person.

of this project are consistent with volunteer groups’
aims so that we can share knowledge and107

A Study of Remote Support by IT Volunteer Group for Senior Citizens

ZHOU and YOKOI

5. Usage of remote control software

service any longer.

5.1. Selection principles

5.2. Classification and evaluation

There are many kinds of remote control

There are many kinds of software tools thatsoftware, so we have to take care in selecting

have remote control and remote instructing

suitable products and solutions for e-RemoSupp.

functions. Most senior users have not used thisWe considered many selection issues such as thetechnology before, so in order to give them a clear

following. Which functions are necessary: remote

understanding and efficient and useful solutions,control function, file transfer function, or soundwe classify these frequently used tools into fourchat function? Which is better, browser-based

types listed in Table 1. All of these tools are popular

software or client-based software? What content isand most of them are free.

suitable for remote instruction and support? We

Table 1: Four types classified in thediscussed these questions with volunteers andexperiment

decided upon the software selection principles
listed below.
(1) Easy to use: Both the support person andnovice have to prepare and pre-install remotecontrol software on their computers, so an easily
connected network environment is necessary.
Meanwhile, giving senior novices an easy way toType 1: Multi function typestart the software, and a barrier-free, anxiety-free

There are many commercial software tools that(virus, security) usage environment is important.

have multiple functions and perfect after-services,

Another consideration is to give volunteer

such as RemoteCall,6) Webex Support Center,7)supporters a convenient and easy way to accessand Laplink.8) Most of their users are large-scale

the remote computer and use it as if actually sitting

companies, and the cost is high.
Laplink was selected and tested in thein front of it.
(2) Having necessary functions: Many support

e-RemoSupp experiment. Laplink software has

actions can be performed in the support procedure;

been a global leader in PC connectivity and enjoys

for example, volunteers use the remote control

more than 15 million customers worldwide. The

function to access a user’s computer, the file

Japanese version has been widely used. In thetransfer function to give users learning material,

experiment, we bought six licenses costing about

the sound chat function to talk with novices and40,000 yen. Participants have been satisfied withteach in real time, and so on. We select products

its functions.

that not only have a remote control function; many
assistant functions are also considered, and fromType 2: Simple function typethem we find which functions are necessary.

For senior users, although tools in Type 1 have(3) Low usage fees: The cost of software tools or

multiple excellent functions, some are not often

usage licenses should be as low as possible. If it isused, so Type 2 are those tools that have only

too high for senior users, they would not use thenecessary and essential functions. Its remarkable
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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

feature is low cost even free for use, such as theSkype and the VNC tool, a middleware tool,

LogMeIn9) free version and the VNC10) (Virtual

SkyGateForVNC,14) is used so that the user can

Network Computing) tool. The LogMeIn free

use the VNC tool in a private IP network

version was tested in the experiment.

environment through Skype’s protocol.

LogMeIn is also a famous tool that many IT

Type 3 has the merit of privacy protection. By

service providers use to deliver remote end-user

Skype’s user and password authentication, a senior

support, access and manage computers and othernovice can permit and control the access time

Internet-enabled devices effectively and efficiently.

made from the remote support person, while in

Unlike Laplink in Type 1, which is a client/server-

Type 2 most tools cannot allow the user to control

based tool, it is a browser/server-based tool. In

the supporter’s access time.

the experiment, we use its “LogMeIn free” version
with no fee and no usage period limit. The free

Type 4: Remote instructing typeversion only provides the remote control function,

This type emphasizes remote instruction by

no file transfer, no sound chat, and so when using

using a live camera, while not using remote control

the tool, free telephone talk or Skype11) software

technology. This type is the easiest to use forwas used to let supporters and novices talk to eachsenior users; one need only talk and transfer live

other.

images to communicate with others. This includes
MSN, Skype, Google Talk15) and so on. Skype withType 3: Communication typea live web camera is tested in the experiment.

In general, remote control technology is used

Although Type 3 (Skype with VNC tools) is a goodfor IT professionals to do server management andsolution, it is not an easy method to allow novices

administration, and the concept has not been

to use the three tools smoothly to keep pace withpopular or familiar for senior users, so most of

the support person’s actions. Therefore, thethem do not have confidence and experience using

solution of combing Skype and a live web camera

it. So we select easy-to-understand and popularly

is considered, which is a very easy method for

12)

used tools: Instant messaging(IM) tool (a form

letting senior novices receive support.

of real-time communication between two or more

6. Discussion

people based on typed text or sound) plus remotecontrol

softwaretools.

We

call

this

the

13)

with

During and after the experiment, we collected

remote assistant, and Skype combined with a VNC

participants’ usage experiences and their attitudes

tool.

toward e-RemoSupp. All of them agreed that thecommunication type, which includes MSN

Skype with VNC tool was tested in the

remote support method is an interesting, important

experiment. Skype is a well-known free IM tool.

and necessary method to support seniors,

VNC is a graphical desktop sharing system forespecially novices, in solving problems andremotely controlling another computer. Most VNC

questions regarding computer usage and thetools need a global IP address, whereas in Japanlearning process. Moreover, they gave us a great

most Internet providers provide private IPdeal of advice about how to effectively use thisaddresses to home users. In order to combine

method. In this chapter, we discuss six essential
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A Study of Remote Support by IT Volunteer Group for Senior Citizens

ZHOU and YOKOI

issues about how to implement e-RemoSupp

In the experiment, Type 2 (LogMeIn free

successfully under the support of an IT volunteer

version), Type 3 (Skype with VNC tool) and Typegroup.

4 (Skype with web live camera) received higher
evaluations by participants.

6.1. Function
6.3. Usability

To support a computer novice remotely, twofunctions are necessary: a remote control function

Usability17) means ease of use, which is a mostand a voice talk function. In the experiment,

important issue to computer novices and even toparticipants commented that the word-input chatsenior supporters. To use the remote support, thewas difficult for computer novices, yet the voice

following steps should be taken.

talk was convenient and necessary. Remote control

1. Both sides preinstall the remote support tool.

tool combining with sound talk can be as helpful

2. Both sides setup his/her usage environment(Internet), user account and password.

for novices as if the assistant was actually there,

3. Access time is decided by both sides.

just like face-to-face support.
Other option functions are not essential but in

4. The novice gives his/her user account andsome cases they can be very helpful, such as the

password (in some cases) to the support

file transfer function to give a learning sample orperson.

important file, the log function to record the5. The support person accesses the novice’s

support process, and the printer sharing function.

computer at the decided time to do remote IT
support.

6.2. Cost

For senior novices, how to install remote support

Most IT volunteer groups would like to use freetools, how to set the Internet environment toor low-cost software because they do not have big

create an account and password, how to send abudgets for paying licensing fees or buying

support announcement and permit the support

software tools. The support objects always change,

person’s

so the software and user management issues are

implementing a successful remote support.

accessareimportantissuesfortroublesome. Furthermore, to senior users, if the

Besides the usage processes listed above, many

cost is higher than expected, they will not continue

tools’ interfaces are not suitable for seniors, suchto use the service.

as difficult IT terms, small buttons and menus, etc.

Moreover, one benefit of using free software is

In the experiment, we did not find a satisfactorythat it can be downloaded directly from thetool for senior users because most remote control

Internet, so license management effort can betools are designed for general users. Therefore,

saved.

studying the selected tool face-to-face beforehandFree tools are good but they have many related

is necessary.

security risks, such as virus problems, information

6.4. Internet environment

leak dangers and so on. Therefore, famous andwell-used tools should be selected. Although the

In a general family home, ADSL and optical fiber

functions are not sufficient, combining two or

are mainly used to connect to the Internet. Most

three kinds of tools is a good solution.

providers give private IP address to users, which
110

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

6.6. Quality of support

lead to many remote control tools not being able towork, such as Laplink and VNC. To senior IT

There are many factors that can affect support

novices, it is difficult to change network

quality, such as speed of the network environment,

configurations to meet the global IP addresscomputer performance, and remote support

requirement. Therefore, the web-based tools (suchsoftware quality.

as LogMeIn) and P2P based services (such as

Most remote control software tools consist of

Skype, MSN) are better solutions because they do

two separate computer programs, a “host version”

not have IP address limits and do not requirethat is installed in the computer to be controlled

network re-configuration.

(novice side), and a “client version” that is installedin the controlling computer (support person side).

6.5. Security and privacy

In the support person’s computer, two windows’

Although many tools in Type 2 (such as theinterfaces are shown; one is his computer and the

LogMeIn free version, and VNC) have very

other is the novice’s computer. Many cases showed

powerful control ability that can do remote support

that because the support person is not very familiar

easily and efficiently, they are often used forwith others’ usage habits, the first time it often

remote system management, which means one

takes much time to master.

party is a person and the other is a machine.

When remote support does not run smoothly,

However, in remote support both parties aresome optional support methods should bepersons, so security-related problems exist. Using

considered and prepared. For example, whenthese tools, once a support person gets a user’s

remote control software does not work, Type 4

password and is permitted access to a user’s(such as Skype with web live camera) should becomputer, the support person can gain accessused as a solution. Most senior novices are notanytime even if the user has not invited the support

aware of which problems would occur, so

person. This is dangerous and may lead to anxiety

guidebooks should be prepared and related notices

for senior novice users.

should be announced in advance.

Many senior novices are worried about privacy-

In the experiment, recycle PCs are rented torelated problems. They do not want to show their

participants, while in the actual environment, user-

personal file (such as family photos and videos,

owned computers are used and some work such

personal e-mail, and document files) to others.

as tool pre-installation and environment preparation

Therefore, if their computer is accessed without

should be considered.

their permission, senior users will not continue to

6.7. Remote control tools’ comparison

use the remote support method. In order to solve
this problem, participants gave us the following

Through the experiment and discussion, wesuggestions. 1. Before the remote support service

compare the four types. Table 2 shows the results.

is used, a privacy policy should be agreed upon

Type 2 (Simple function type) and Type 3

between the support person and the novice user.

(Communication type) have beneficial factors and

2. It is better that support is done within one IT

havevolunteer group, or in a trustworthy relationshipparticipants. Although Type 1 has many merits

as between teacher and student.

such as multiple functions, high security and good111

received

the

most

recognition

fromA Study of Remote Support by IT Volunteer Group for Senior Citizens

ZHOU and YOKOI

support effect, to many senior IT volunteers andbe closed, and a senior-friendly training program

novices, higher cost is the main weakness. Type 4

is necessary (Kuttan 2003).

is an easy-to-use and convenient solution, but inIn the experiment, there was only a small

many instructing and problem-solving processes,

number of participants, so the tools’ comparison

only using video and sound without remote control

and recommendation (in section 6.7) were easily

cannot provide a better support effect.

dominated by participants’ personal experience.

Tested tools were continued to be used after theAlso, the experiment was done over a short period,

experiment. More new software tools are planned

so the effects of how the novices’ skills developed

to help verify and introduce the developing remoteand volunteers’ support effects cannot be shown

control technology.

well. This research concerns many areas: IT
technology, social organization, senior citizens

Table 2: Comparison of four types incharacteristic, e-learning, and so on. It is significant

experimentand more topics should be discussed. In the future,a large scale experiment will be implemented to
explore these issues.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all people connected to thee-namokun project and participants of the e-RemoSupp.
We thank the Aichikyu Club5), IT Support Volunteer
Net,16) and the city of Nagoya.

7. Conclusions

Notes
1) Senior net, http://www.seniornet.org/

We proposed a remote support method named

2) Definition of the “remote control software”: http://

e-RemoSupp for senior citizens in cooperation withen.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_control_software

an IT volunteer group, which aims to give senior

3) NTT, remote support service: http://flets.com/osa/

novices a convenient support environment.

remote/s_outline.html

Through a small-scale experiment, we drew the4) NPO Pico, http://www.npo-pico.jp/

following conclusions. It is possible to implement

5) Aichikyu Club, http://aichikyu.net/

e-RemoSupp in IT volunteer groups for senior

6) RemoteCall: http://www.gfblog.jp/remotecall.html

citizens, using free software tools. If certain

7) Webex Support Center: http://www.webex.co.jp/

conditions are met, a successful remote IT support

8) Laplink, http://www.laplink.com

can be implemented on a large scale.

9) LogMeIn, http://www.logmein.com/

e-RemoSupp can be seen as a solution for10) VNC: Virtual Network Computing

bridging the digital divide owing to age. Also, it ishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Network_

necessary to realize that without technologicalComputinginnovation in terms of making the man–machine11) Skype, http://www. skype.com/

interface much friendlier, the digital divide cannot

12) Instant messaging (IM): http://en.wikipedia.org/

112

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009
wiki/Instant_messenger

Kuttan, A. & Peters, L. (2003). From digital divide to13) MSN: http://messenger.live.jp/

digital opportunity. The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

14) SkyGateForVNC: http://www4.ocn.ne.jp/~dragonoo/

Loges, W.E. and Jung J.-Y. (2001) “Exploring the15) Google talk: http://www.google.com/talk/intl/ja/

Digital Divide: Internet Connectedness and Age,”

16) IT Support Volunteer Net, http://vfbunka-itvol.

Communication Research, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 536562.

sblo.jp/

Yamada H., Sakakibara N., Sekine C., Fujikata K.,

17) Usability: http://www.usability.gr.jp/

Horiike K., Yuma K., (2009) “Senior, Return to local

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405-409.

113

The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,”but rather a Pathway to an Actual Community:
Employment and Participation for People with
Disabilities in Japan
Keywords:
Information Communication Technology, Social Participation, Employment, Disabled People (andDisability Studies), Internet Community, Actual Community.

Kuniomi SHIBATA, Otsuma Women’s University

Abstract
Over the past few decades, the use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) as abeneficial tool in the lives of people with disabilities has been brought to public attention. It has
been proposed that “people with disabilities achieve fuller social participation, especially in termsof economic self-reliance, with ICT use.” Japan’s welfare policy, introduced recently, compels
disabled people to use ICT in order to gain and conduct their employment. Economic self-relianceis regarded as a prerequisite for the social participation of people with disabilities, and obtaining
employment is the consequential and implicit goal. Acquisition of ICT usages has been seen as
the key that will help disabled people to achieve social participation.
This paper intends to present the results of an investigation that was conducted into the effects
of ICT on disabled people’s social participation. This investigation was based upon a log analysisof the online mailing list (ML) as well as fieldwork conducted in the offline arena. This fieldworkin the offline arena revealed that there were many social barriers that could not be overcome
through ICT use, even by those with consummate ICT skills.
In contrast, we observed that an “online community” allowed each member of the disabledworking community to communicate his or her living situation, a communication that broke down
barriers and encouraged social participation. These results led us to the conclusion that ICT is not
the “highway” to the “promised land” of social participation; instead the evidence suggests that
ICTs can instigate a “pathway” to an actual community of disabled people.

115

The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,” but rather a Pathway to an Actual Community SHIBATA

1. Introduction

encouraging their economic self-reliance.
“In order to realize normalization, which is

In the last few years, numerous attempts havethe fundamental principle in promoting

been made by scholars to demonstrate thatmeasures for persons with disabilities, social

Information Communication Technology (ICT)participation through employment will servecan be used as a “highway” to bring disabled

as its basis. Therefore, it is important to help

people into fuller participation within society.

peopleToday, many devices and services have become

employment opportunities are maximized

available for people with disabilities, as different

according to their qualifications and skills.”

assistive technologies, knowledge of universal(Cabinet Office, 2006: 47, Translation by

designs, and ubiquitous systems all come together

Author)withdisabilities

so

that

their

to provide the right conditions for the proliferation

Many disabilities studies have criticized theof such devices. Indeed, it is becoming clear

approach of “coercing” disabled people to beamong the wider community that “ICT must be

economically self-reliant. In addition, there are aavailable to everyone, especially people withwide variety of ICT applications that can facilitate

disabilities.”

various areas of their daily life, that can be

In fact, people with disabilities have been

imagined.

somewhat excluded from almost all areas of social

Employment is by no means the only approachparticipation. ICT has been regarded by theto social participation. The definition of “social

disabled community as the perfect “highway” toparticipation” may, in fact, be determined by thetake them to increased social participation. Indeed,people themselves in terms of whether they feelnumerous cases have been reported where

socially fulfilled. Nevertheless, in many cases

disabled people have succeeded in achieving

today, the social participation of disabled people isincreased social participation and employment

basically seen as synonymous with the achievement

through the usage of ICT (Swain, et al., 2004). It isof employment. We must not overlook the fact thatclear that these examples of success must be

the current support system for people withinvestigated further and similar efforts in the

disabilities emphasizes the following formula:future supported. However, the following important

employment = economic self-reliance = social

questions need to be asked: What is the mostparticipation.

important factor in ensuring this success? Doesthe evidence support the theory that using ICT

2. Key issue: “New forms of employment” assuccessfully is dependent on the acquisition of ICT

the “promised land” for disabled people

skills? Does ICT usage live up to its promise of
ensuring that people with disabilities actually exist

A large number of employment support

in society? Is it, in fact, a “highway” to a “promised

measures that help disabled people realize

land?”

economic

self-reliancehave

alreadybeen

As part of this inquiry we must also note that it

implemented, with the notion that this will act as a

has been suggested that the social participation of

prerequisite for social participation. The mostpeopledesirable scenario is one that has disabled people

withdisabilities

isconnected

with
116

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

employed in ordinary companies, but the reality isoffice employment and who use ICT. Common

that this is not so easily achieved. Therefore, a newsense suggests that people with disabilities whoform of employment, one that is different from thehave better ICT skills than the competition, as wellconventional or standard type of employment, has

as access to a high-performance personal

been drawing attention in this area. The crucial

computer, will be more employable; it appears thattool that is hoped will enable this new form of

this does hold true. If, for instance, a disabled

employment is ITC, a hope that has been

person has high-level technical skills that allowemphasized in recent years.

them to create more beautiful Web sites, areThese new models of employment include

competent in techniques that enable them to carrypeople working in a home office, where a person

out outsourced works more efficiently, they may

works at home after becoming self-employed or

expect higher earnings than others.

participates in a small-scale SOHO. The number of

For persons with disabilities who have been

people engaged in this model has increased in line

excluded from the labor market of generalwith the spread of personal computers and theemployment, this new form of employment can

expansion of the Internet. Indeed, it is this new

look like a miraculously fast way to achieve social

model of employment, above all, that is regarded

participation. The idea that those with disabilities

as offering the most opportunities for disabledshould learn ICT skills and take advantage of thispeople and toward which people with disabilities

new form of employment is now widespread, andare mainly directed.

ICT support provisions are basically following this“Due to the recent evolution of technologies

trend. In fact, ICT is appears to be drawing

such as IT, people with severe disabilities who

expectant attention from people who could not

find it difficult to commute to a workplace,obtain general employment. ICT can be seen as a

now have more employment opportunities,“highway” that helps disabled people experience aparticularly as they can now work from home,

future will fuller social participation. Today, mostdue to the Internet. Therefore, it is becoming

Japanese support measures for disabled people

increasingly important to provide support tourge them to continue their efforts to acquire ICT

the home office model of employment, in

learning. Many young disabled people in Japanorder to expand the employment opportunities

believe that high-level ICT skills are the key tofor people with disabilities.” (Cabinet Office,make a promise them to truly participate in the

2006: 47, Translation by Author)society; in fact, they expect that this new form ofIndeed, the expectations of the disabled

employment will take them to the “promised

community have been heightened, in the hopeland.”

that this new form of employment will provide

There are two reasons why we use a metaphor

further opportunities for social participation andof a “highway” in this paper. The first reason is

employment. In fact, the number of disabled

that, in order for people with disabilities to reachpeople who do work in this model has increased.

the destination of social participation, they need to

Having been encouraged by these expectations,

get on the route of employment and therefore

intensive support has been provided in recent(economic) independence. There should beyears to those disabled people who are in homealternative models for disabled people to realize
117

The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,” but rather a Pathway to an Actual Community SHIBATA

full social participation in the first place, butparticipation?

because an overwhelming portion of welfare policy

If we are going to think about these new forms

resources has been invested in the construction ofof employment that use ICT, then the best approach

this “highway” in recent years, it is difficult to opt

is to analyze a situation that is actually aiming tofor another approach.

realize this. Specifically, a case that includes the

The second reason is that this way is a toll road.

following two domains will be required. First, we

It requires a combination of access to a personalneed to analyze the online domain of the newcomputer (= the “toll”) and ICT skills (= “driving

forms of employment that use ICT. Since this istechniques”). For the “toll,” the necessary devices

done as telework, most tasks such as progress

are now becoming prepared, as mentioned earlier.

management and data sharing will be carried out

However, it is inevitable that one must pay to

via ICT, including the Internet. Therefore, we needacquire them. Also, for the “driving technique,”to analyze how the tasks in this specific case of athe roles of “skill development and job training”

new type of employment are conducted over thehave been stressed in recent years in the context

Internet. In concrete terms, we will analyze theof support activities for disabled people.

past logs of mailing lists (ML) that were used as

It is clear that ICT skills must also be acquired

the main media in the actual case.

by all people with disabilities. The issues that must

However, it is also important to note that thisbe discussed emerge after this recognition has

new form of employment is not limited to thebeen made. The next step in the process is toonline domain. Since ICT is actually used in theexamine the following questions: If people withliving space of people with disabilities, we must

disabilities use ICT, will they really be able toalso understand and analyze how tasks are carried

achieve social participation? If yes, then what kindout in the domain where the work is done face-to-of social participation will that be, and if not, whyface, with other people. In short, we need observenot? Therefore, in this paper, we will consider,participants to see exactly how work is done withusing specific examples, whether ICT usage is

ICT in the offline domain. Conventional ICT

really a “highway” for the social participation ofstudies have inevitably focused only on the online

disabled people.

domain, meaning the offline world of this work has
not been examined adequately. At the same time,

3. Purpose and method

there are only a few fieldwork studies that haveanalyzed, in a detailed manner, the actual state of

At this stage the questions we will address are

the telework that is done by people withgiven below:

disabilities.

・What kinds of problems and benefits are

We may now proceed to combine the analysis of

involved with the new form of employment inpast logs with fieldwork, and then discuss what

the context of people with disabilities?

ICT might offer to this new form of employment

・How can people with disabilities achievefor people with disabilities, from the perspective ofsocial participation by using ICT?

both the online and offline domains.

・Is ICT really a “highway” that can promise tobring

disabled

peopletofullersocial118

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

4. Case Studygroup activities tended to be restricted within thefacility. Only one of the members who lived at

4.1. Case overview

home could move using a private car. Since thisHaving clarified the objectives of this paper, we

person, “B,” had work experience at a Web site

will now discuss an actual case the new form ofcreation company and a wealth of technologicalemployment has been attempted with ICT. The

knowledge, “B” served as the “technology chief”

specific case that we are going to deal with here isor coordinator of N-Kobo. In addition, about threecalled the N-Kobo, a scheme in which disabledvolunteers, who had helped N-Kobo since it began

people played a central role due to the opportunity

at “A”’s personal computer school, participated in

to work from home. The N-Kobo scheme wasactivities that could not be done by the members

conceived in a personal computer school for people

alone.

with physical disabilities in Taihaku-ku, Sendai in

4.2 Analysis of Fieldwork (1) Cooperation of

Miyagi prefecture. The N-Kobo scheme was set

workersout according to the sole proprietorship model,
after appointing “A” as the president. They thenLet us examine in more detail how the workforce

set out to receive jobs. The business involvedof N-Kobo cooperated. In the case of N-Kobo, sincedeveloping Web sites, and creating and delivering

the composition of the ordered Web site could bethem from a “home office,” through telework—anroughly divided into two parts, the members wereexcellentgrouped into two teams and the workload was

example

of

the

new

form

of

broken down into smaller portions. This was done

employment.
N-Kobo’s members mainly consisted of thoseto make sure that none of the members had to

who were confined to a wheelchair because ofwork for a long period of time, as their specificmuscularotherphysical conditions meant that working too longdisabilities. Their living arrangements varied—

may harm their health. In addition, the rhythm ofsome lived in places such as care facilities, andtheir daily life could not be changed easily as thesome lived in their own home. From the verysignificant routine aspects of their life, such as

beginning of the project the goal was for the work

eating and sleeping, were dependent on their

to be conducted remotely, using telework throughcaregivers and family members and the amount of

the Internet, rather than gathering at one place totime that was entirely at their disposal was limited.

work. Members who lived in a care facility,

If they were living in a care facility, then the times

including president “A,” could use personal

when they were due to take a bath, or go to bed,

computers

weredystrophy

and

the

syndrome

Internet

andvia

assistive

strictly

determined.

Therefore,

when

technologies, without difficulty, but did not havecarrying out group work, they had to coordinate

work experience. In addition, when they wanted toeach person’s free time in order to complete aleave the facility, they had to independently submit

particular work task, and ensure that the various

a leave-out form and arrange for a welfare lift car

tasks were completed without a clash. Figure 1

and nursing volunteers. Thus, while this model

clearly shows that cooperative activities wereaided their employment opportunities, they werecarried out under the direction of president “A”

still far from fulfilling their social life, indeed, theirand with technology chief “B” working as the119The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,” but rather a Pathway to an Actual Community SHIBATA

4.3 Analysis of Fieldwork (2) Progress ofbackbone.

telework
At this stage, we should focus on the actual
telework at N-Kobo(1). It is worth noting that thetasks and meetings involved in N-Kobo’s work
were frequently carried out in the offline domain,
without using ICT. This offline arena wasparticularly significant in important aspects suchas relationship-building with the client. As ageneral trend in the Web site creation industry,
personal connections are extremely important in
the sales department; this is especially the case insmall-scale businesses. Therefore, it is important
to note that the Internet is not particularly helpful[Figure 1 Cooperation of workers]

in creating these kinds of personal connections.

In this figure, we must note the contribution

Most personal connections in these types ofmade by volunteers, who were an externalbusinesses are initiated first and foremost by staff

resource for each team. This contribution includes

members marketing themselves. This relationshipcompleting tasks that supported the members ofwith the client needs to be maintained throughN-Kobo, tasks such as liaison, shopping, errands

swift responses to those issues that always occur

to the bank, and the preparation of papers, as andin business. With this in mind, the question ofwhen the members needed them. Even thoughwhether the client can be visited immediately andthe employment was based around telework, nottheir needs responded to, is particularly relevant

all the tasks could be completed using ICT.

in the context of a company such as N-Kobo, as

Depending on the circumstances, the members

this question has a substantial influence on themight have had to ask the volunteers or even theirselling power of a company.

caregivers—the members’ primary help resource

Thanks to the client’s understanding andin their everyday life–to prepare printing papers or

thoughtful consideration, the best part of theexchange the storage media. It was clear to us

N-Kobo’s jobs could be carried out based on ICT.

when observing the workers of N-Kobo trying

But face-to-face negotiation and client visits werevery hard to obtain employment, that thisoften required in N-Kobo’s work. With the help ofsituation—in which they have to partly rely on

a welfare vehicle with a lift, President A and other

their caregivers (their own life resource) in ordermembers could be relatively mobile and on some

to work—is extremely unjust. Closer observationoccasions conducted client visits. However, dueof the progress of their telework can enable betterthe importance of prompt responses when runningunderstanding of the nature of this problem.

a business, in some instances a volunteer visitedthe client on behalf of the employees of N-Kobo, or
alternatively, “B” (the technical chief) would drive
to the client in his private car.
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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

The concept that became apparent throughuseless. With these issues in mind, let us now turnobserving the telework at N-Kobo was the fact thatto the online aspect of working at N-Kobo. The ML

ICT is not a suitable media through which to(mailing list) of N-Kobo functioned as the main

conduct the informative discussions that are

online media for the communication between

essential when establishing a business relationship,

those involved in the telework, and it is to this thati.e. one that is not particularly close. In important

we now turn.

aspects such as concluding an agreement,
brainstorming,

decidingondesigns,

Even though N-Kobo’s work was a type ofandtelework, the creation of Web pages itself was done

responding with urgency to various issues, face-to-by individual members using their personal

face communication is required. These situations

computers, each of whom was in charge of the

can not be responded to using ICT skills.

relevant sections. Since N-Kobo’s members wereEmployment in general involves many different

working individually, either at home or at a facility,

kinds of situations that can change kaleidoscopicallyit was crucial to have a media that was suitable foras the work progresses. This is also true ofgiving work instructions, reporting progress, andtelework. The workers can try to control the

sharing information and data. Many members

situation as much as possible, by investing inwere restricted in terms of transportation and thevarious resources including their skill level, time

hours when they were available to talk on theavailability,

physicalphone. The ML was an ideal media because notrelationships,

andcommitment,
relationships

colleague

with

other

only because it was a platform for sending andassociates who work around them. However,receiving messages, but also because it enabled

despite these investments, the fact remains thatthe attachment of data files to the messages, at any

workers with disabilities tend to experience astage of the creation of a Web site. At N-Kobo, theshortfall in the resources required to control theseML was introduced in order to operate the tasks

situations. ICT skills are just one of the resources

efficiently without delay.

required. Indeed, if improvement is made only in

The trends observed in the comments on the
ML were as follows(2):ICT capabilities, then it is highly likely that thefruits of this investment will not reflect the amountof the investment. The current situation, in which
valuable life resources are invested in situations
that will bear very little fruit, may expose disabled
people to even more difficult social situations,instead of promoting social participation.

4.4 Analysis of Logs (1) Trends of Comments[Graph 1 Trends of Comments of N-Kobo’s

From our observation of the processes ofML] (N=183)

telework, the benefits offered to disabled people
by this new form of employment, a form of

The majority of comments were posted from

employment that relies on ICT, are not clear.

phase IV through to phase VI (see Table 2). These

However, it should not be assumed that ICT isphases corresponded to the period of designing
121

The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,” but rather a Pathway to an Actual Community SHIBATA

through to the period of coding, the period that isjust before provisional delivery and therefore thebusiest period for N-Kobo. The fact that the
number of comments was proportionate to theprogress of the work also highlights the fact that
the ML was primarily introduced as a media that
was aimed at facilitating task operation.

[Table 1: Codes and numbers of comments][Graph 2 numbers of comments] (N=183)
Judging from the above graph, attention should
be given to the large number of comments that fell
into the categories of [2. Communicate] and [5.
Others]. Category [2. i. Communications referringto the sender oneself], in particular, included alarge number of comments. As this is an interesting
category, let us examine it in more detail.

4.5 Analysis of Logs (2) Comment for selfpresentation
In category [2. i.], each member communicated
The contents of text-based communications

the contents of her or his own specific work, insuch as e-mails can be classified with greater easeorder to encourage cooperative activities among

than face-to-face conversations. Generally, it is said

the members. This use reflects the originalthat three types of communications are required

purpose of the ML as it was originally outlined atfor running a business, namely: “1. Report, 2.

N-Kobo. However, in the course of organizing theCommunicate, and 3. Consult” (Nemoto, 2006:

comments in a detailed manner, we came across162). The business of Web site creation was

unique comments that fell outside the ostensible

conducted through business conversation at

scope of this category.

N-Kobo, and these conversations can also beclassified into these categories of the business
communication.

The

detailsare[Comment example 1 (2. i.)]explained

below(3):122

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

external environment(4).

These comments hardly referred to work

Of course, there are cases where work cannot

contents at all; rather, they referred to the worker’s
andbe performed due to emergency situations and incircumstances. In the case of telework, those whothese cases too, comments that present theuse the ML are only connected remotely and sosender’s situation are posted. What is important

the reader of a communication will have nohere is the promotion of an understanding among

knowledge of the sender’s working conditions or

all members of individual situations, in order tocurrent living conditions and environment. It is

protect both the sender as well as the otherclear that, the sender feels that he or she must

members, by communicating the sender’s situation

make the readers understand the current situationin advance.

(mailsender’s)ownlivingconditions

that he or she is living in, as well as his or her

4.6 Analysis

outlook on future living conditions. We can say

of

Logs

(3)

Comment

forconsiderationthat the mail sender becomes the presenter of self

However, these kinds of communication, which(Goffman, 1959).
In fact, maximizing opportunities for the senderpresent the sender’s “self” and her/his situation,

to convey information regarding his or her own

may eventually lead to a dependence on otherpersonal situation, as well as making each member

members, or a postponement of the deadline. This,

understand this situation, are both very importantin turn, may result in a delay of the entire

elements of communication when carrying out

cooperative activity. However, comments thatcooperative activities via telework. We have pointed

attempt to prevent the group from getting into thisout before that the work done by people withkind of situation can be seen in [2. ii.] and [5.

disabilities using ICT is significantly restricted by

Others].

the availability of resources that they own or the[Comment example 2 (2. i.)]resources around them, as well as their external
environments. The fact remains that all members
are in an inconvenient situation, although theextent to which may vary. If someone’s work getsbehind schedule due to a sudden change in theirsituation, this will have a significant impact on thework schedule of other members and will also[Comment example 3 (2. ii.)]

influence their situations. This may cause
repercussions and further worsen the situation of
the person who first brought about this change. In
order to prevent this from happening and continue
the work, it is important for members to share
information regarding their individual situations.
Therefore, communications that act as a “selfpresentation” (Goffman, 1959) are presented in

As in [2. i.], most comments in [2. ii.] wererelation to their physical conditions and theposted in order to communicate users’ overall
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The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,” but rather a Pathway to an Actual Community SHIBATA

situations, rather than to inform others about theonerous. Even if a member knew that the provision

specific situation of the reader. These commentsof support to other members was important, thosewere put in place either to express theirmembers who also have the same kind of risk

expectations that they were holding at that time

could sometimes find it difficult to contribute to an

toward the readers or to facilitate the work throughinstantly supportive atmosphere. However, theshowing thoughtful consideration (Ishikawa 2004)

communications that emerged in this “space forafter carefully observing the situation the readers

coordinating situations” indicate that this area

were in.

became a space in which the members considered

When one member withdraws from his/her

their fellow members’ circumstances carefully andwork, the decision affects the entire group who

actively helped each other out. It appears that thisare then in danger of falling into a serious crisis.

space became a space for mutual reliance where

To avoid this, the members made efforts tomembers could be supported without a sense of

motivate each other and demonstrate thoughtful

guilt or embarrassment.

consideration, in advance, to prevent the other

By presenting and coordinating their situations

members’ situations from getting worse. It appears(instead of taking the support for granted),

that it was important that the sender ensured thatreceiving support from others was justified within

their attitude reflected a respect of the readers’

the group. There is a natural justification for thissituations and placed value on the readers’atmosphere of support. It is widely known that,

autonomy, without forcing her//him to take action.

when a group is functioning in an online domain

If the sender instructed one reader to “try harder,”such as the ML, the overall mood of the group is

for instance, then this pressured the reader anddetermined by the “atmosphere” (air/Kuki) of thismade the situation worse. For communication to

space. In this particular case, this “atmosphere”

have been effective, the sender should have

evolved into one in which members actively helped

encouraged the other members to continue their

help each other. It is clear that the ML offered awork, by showing an attitude of thoughtful

space that promoted mutual support among theconsideration consistently and continuously.

members, by creating a space where members

The communications seen in [2. i.] and [2. ii.]

coordinated by exchanging information on theirwere trying to promote collaborative work bycommunicating

individual

situationstoindividual situations.

all

4.7 Analysis of Logs (4) Conversation spaces

members, as well as showing an attitude ofthat function like Actual Community

thoughtful consideration. We can see that the ML
was used as a space for coordinating situations,

We also observed another type of uniqueand that its use helped to strike a balance between

communication that occurred in the “space on thethe sender’s situation and other members’

ML that was coordinating individual situations”.

situations (Meyrowitz 1985).

The remaining comments, which were not directly

The task of providing support for otherrelated to work and did not fall into one of themembers, whose work may be delayed because ofother categories, were classified into the remaining

problems arising from their physical conditions or

category: [5. Others].

a deterioration of their living environment, can be124

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

[Comment example 4 (5.)]

responsibly. Owing to this sense of belonging, themembers were unlikely to abandon their workirresponsibly, which minimized the likelihood ofadversely affecting other members stress levels
and conditions. Precisely because there was aspace that engendered this sense of belonging, aplace was created where members could share theresponsibilities of work and conduct their work,
despite the fact that some posted comments may
seem irrelevant. Indeed this mechanism seems tohave allowed members to continue their work, andalso to complete more tasks than when they
worked individually.

Close analysis reveals that these comments,

Therefore, the members working ability wasposted on an ML that is ostensibly for interacting

measured within an entire space where members

about Web site creation work, actually functions inpresented

a similar way as having a daily chat, a chat thatsituations, which means it was impossible tofocuses on issues that are irrelevant to the businessseparate each individual’s abilities and skills. It

that all participants are involved with. Despite this,seems that the foundation that allowed people toon the ML, these kinds of comments wereshare responsibilities was generated throughout

positively

the entire space of N-Kobo.

encouraged.

Bysharing

their

and

coordinatedtheirindividual

experiences and work responsibilities through the

5. Discussion

ML, the members created a “sense of belonging
community”.
These communications demonstrated that the

By conducting a log analysis, it is clear that theML had a wider function than merely a media ofmembers made good use of the ML as a place

contact for issues surrounding Web creation.

where they could coordinate their situations with

While this sense of belonging may not have raised

those of other members, as well as a place where

the work efficiency of each individual, it seemed tothey could communicate matters related to work

have increased the members’ motivation to fulfill

and carry out reports and consultations. By using

their roles. The space for presenting andthe ML in this way, each member facilitated othercoordinating the self situations, seen in categories

members’[2. i.] and [2. ii.], offered a sense of security—aconsideration to each other, motivating each other,confidence that other members would work on

and creating a situation that minimized thebehalf of a member who would not fulfill his or her

likelihood of other members delaying their worktasks due to a worsened physical condition. Inor withdrawing from the work completely.

tasks,

byshowing

thoughtful

addition, the sense of belonging engendered by

The ML is an ICT tool that can promote thethe ML created a motivated attitude, wheresharing and coordination of individual situations, amembers felt galvanized to fulfill their rolecharacteristic that was demonstrated in this case
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The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,” but rather a Pathway to an Actual Community SHIBATA

study. Since the ML is a text-based media, thetelework conducted at N-Kobo by people withsender must write detailed letters if he or she is todisabilities was carried out by careful coordination.

communicate his or her situation. Background

Indeed, this system may not have offered efficiency

information that, in face-to-face communication, isin terms of gaining a high income and it may fall a

implicitly conveyed and received through thelittle short in terms of providing disabled people“feel” of the language tends to be written clearlywith economic self-reliance. However, this new

and intentionally when face-to-face communication

form of employment still has the possibility to act

is not possible. All participants were encouraged

as an impetus to encourage disabled people toto read the comments. For future use, it should beachieve economic self-reliance. The steps that are

noted that the contents of the comments on the

being taken by disabled people themselves—

ML must be clear, but the readership, to whom

through mutual actions of telework—may not bethese communications are directed, does not needlarge, but, at the very least, these steps offer an

to be well-defined. In fact, these comments should

opportunity for a forward-moving structure to be

be able to easily be shared, as this contributes toused in daily life, a structure that can help bringthe creation of the “atmosphere” of the place.

them closer to social participation. It has

These features, which are implemented in the ML,

traditionally been difficult for people who have notcontribute to the formation of a space where

had much exposure to these arenas that allow

senders communicate and exchange details aboutmutual interactions, to achieve social participation

their situations and coordinate these details within the offline world. Therefore, by providing

other members. This kind of space is essential if

disabled people with this space, via ICT, while they

the telework is to be completed without members

are at home or a facility, opportunities for social

dropping out.

participation are opened up.

We suggest that these kinds of mutual actions

If the ML, which was initially established as a

may have transformed telework at N-Kobo into

workspace tool, can become a space that generates

something beyond a mere business. In this casea sense of belonging, it should be renamed it as astudy, the workers found far greater pleasure in“community,” in order to better communicate its

taking part in cooperative activities, enabledtrue nature. It is clear that the ML is used as athrough the telework model, than they gained“community” through which the members canfrom just earning an income. This can be seen incoordinate their situations and that ICT enables

the following comment that was posted: “I feel likethis.

doing more work from now on. You should get

Therefore it is noteworthy that the researchmore jobs (laugh).” It should also be understood

results suggest that ICTs, originally used just athat the ML space supports not only the financial

media to support tasks, can transform an “actual

income of individuals but also acts as a supportive

community” through daily encouragement andframework for employees to work or participate inregular tracking of the progress of employment.

society.

ICT usage in this context has been transformed

In fact, while employment and financial income

into something quite distinct from its original

are important incentives in telework, it seems thatgoal(5). This shift in the function of ML usage, todaily communication offers the real benefit. The

one that represents an actual community, was born
126

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

out of the normal and autonomous communications

may, instead, create situations where ICT skillsof the users, used in their daily communication.

are assessed and judgments made, such as “youThe significance of this resides in the fact that thisare not trying hard enough to learn ICT skills” orspace was produced voluntarily and self-motivating,“you are not capable enough because you haveon the back of the ICT usage that was in place todisabilities.” If we believe the Internet’s promise tosupport their work. This is a valuable process thatlead us forward to the “promised land,” even if weshould be recognized for the fact that it highlights

pay the “toll” of education expenses and acquire

the opportunities that the new form of employment

the “driving techniques” in advance, it may still not

can offer to disabled people in terms of the social

be the highway we hoped for and it may, instead

participation.

turn out to reach a dead end.

The current employment support measures ofOn the other hand, the space that wasconventional approaches to this new form oftransformed into an “actual” community, throughemployment are not designed to support this kind

ICT usage, may well serve as a pathway to greaterof ICT usage. This is a relevant point in terms ofsocial participation. While it may not help disabled

understanding the key issue associated with thepeople realize their economic self-reliance in a

new form of employment: The Internet has been

single step, by gradually coordinating independentsuggested as a “highway” to the “promised land,”disabled people’s situations and encouraging themwhere the “toll” for traveling that highway is theto share their experiences with others in daily life,

preparation of the equipment and connection lines

it may well encourage social participation. Social

and the acquisition of the driving techniques, orparticipation is not inherent—it is enabled through“ICT skills.” Although this idea may offer economic

this kind of communication space. The space that

self-reliance to people with disabilities whose living

was transformed into an “actual” community—anconditions happen to be favorable, it is clear that

Internet community—with ICT usage, is one of

the Internet will not necessarily help many disabled

the indicators that the Internet certainly can serve

people achieve social participation. The evidence

as a “pathway” (not a highway) towards fullersuggests that even those disabled people whosocial participation.

already have the high level of ICT skills that are

6. Conclusion

required for the work, will not succeed without theinclusion of an arena to enable an “actual

The results of this case analysis into a new form

community to coordinate situations.”
For these reasons it is evident that it would beof employment clearly show that there are many

somewhat dangerous to assume that the current

problems that cannot be resolved easily. However,success of the new form of employment is

we have identified a pathway towards fuller social

dependent wholly on the worker’s abilities andparticipation for disabled people, a pathway that

ICT skills and, on the basis of this assumption,

emerged from an area that is totally distinct fromnarrow down the support measures for disabledthose areas traditionally thought to offer thepeople to focus solely on the education of these“highway,” and approached only with high-levelskills and abilities. Indeed, using this success as

ICT skills. The analysis of this case offers only one

an impetus to focus on individual workers’ abilities

possibility garnered from a single case. We must
127

The Internet is not a Highway to the “Promised Land,” but rather a Pathway to an Actual Community SHIBATA

take care not to make easy generalizations andthat will serve as a pathway to social participation

inferences. As far as the development of current

for people with disabilities. Today’s support

support systems for disabled people and the newmeasuresform of employment is concerned, it is clear that“communities” that will serve as a pathway that

there are some misconceptions that have informed

leads to society of people’s daily life, rather than

expectations toward ICT. In fact, ICT will not

forcing the “highway” upon them. This pathway,

benefit disabled people unless we reshape ourwhich may seem like a roundabout, will eventually

approach and examine this area from a different

become the foundation for social participation.

perspective.

The Internet is not a “highway” to the “promised

The notion that the Internet community canshouldhelp

createavailableland,” but a pathway to an “actual” community andfunction as a pathway for social participation,

the society.

allows us to propose two suggestions. First, that
actual communities like those studied here may be

Referencefound widely in our daily lives and that these

Barns, C., Mercer, G., and Shakespeare, T.(1999):

communities urge us to review the essence of our

EXPLORING“abilities,” “work,” and “social participation.”

Introduction, Policy Press.

DISABILITY:

A

Sociological

Especially in today’s highly informational society,

Delanty, G.(2003): Community, Routledge.

many of us will achieve social participation throughGoffman, E.(1959):

the Internet, as well as through those spaces that

The Presentation of Self inEveryday Life, Doubleday

have been transformed into a community by the

Ishikawa, J., (2004) “Mienai mono to Mieru monoInternet. It may be said that this space promotes–Syako to Assist no Shogai-gaku” Tokyo: Igaku

social participation by coordinating the participants’

Syoin.

situations both explicitly or implicitly. Or, it may

Meyrowitz, J.(1985): No Sense of Place: The Impact

also be said that the power of social participation isof Electronic Media on Social Behavior, Oxford

decided by the coordinating power of this space.

University Press.

Further investigation should be made into

Cabinet Office, (2006) “Heisei 18-nendo Syougai-sya

reviewing the spaces that function in our daily

Hakusyo” Tokyo: Naikaku-hu

lives and the role of ICT in them.

Nemoto, T., ed. (2006) “Keiei Kanri (Management)”

Furthermore, it may also be said that the largest

Tokyo Gakubun-sya.

problem in social participation is that people with

Swain, J., French, S., Barnes, C., and Thomas, C., ed.

disabilities have been deprived of living spaces, a(2004): Disabling Barriers Enabling Environments

privation of community that can be addressed bysecond edition, Sage.

the Internet. Even if a person with disabilities is

Wellman, B. and Haythornthwaite, C. ed.(2002): The

released from their welfare facility, is assisted with

Internet in Everyday Life, Blackwell.

his/her job hunting, acquires ICT skills easily due

Willson, M. A.(2006): Technically Together; Rethinking

to the various discounts that are available for theCommunity within Techno-Society, Peter Lang.

“toll,” he/she will still not be guaranteed fuller
participation in the society. The answer to thisparticipation can be found in an actual community
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Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol. 2 No. 1 Sep. 2009

Footnotes

Referring to the sender him/herself” and “ii.

(1) The progress and stages of telework at N-Kobo

Referring

was carried out as follows:tomatters

insidethegroup.”

Furthermore, we added the sub-code “iii.
Referring to external parties” for comments that

[Table 2 Progress and stages of telework]

are referring to external parties such as theclient.
(4) This process is quite similar to the concept of“situation and self-definition” from Meyrowitz (Meyrowitz 1985:31).
(5) We can find this mechanism in all kinds of social
activities, including employment. According to an
extreme logic, as long as we can form a“community for coordinating the situations,” wemay not have to use ICT. Nevertheless, using ICT
as a promoting tool for the establishment of acommunity(2) Data were gathered from September 7, 2003 tocertainly

promotedsocialparticipation.

February 5, 2004. The total number of comments

Acknowledgment

received was 183.
(3) In the case of N-Kobo, “1. Report” is a vertical

This article is an expanded and altered version ofrelationship that includes instructions given from

“Internet Community Pathway,“ published in “thethe president and technology chief, and progress

Journal of Socio-Information Studies Vol.12 No.1.” I

reports that must be produced as part of thewish to thank the reviewers and Editorial Board ofbusiness. On the other hand, “2. Communicate”

the Journal of Socio-informatics. And I am also

includes horizontal and equal communications

grateful to the Miyagi lodge of the Japan Muscularamong members regarding their specific work

Dystrophy Association for granting the permission tocontents. “3. Consult” includes questions andconduct this research. This work was supported byanswers. We also added the categories “4. Data

KAKENHI (18730333), a Grant-in-Aid for Youngexchange” and “5. Others” that were unique to

Scientists, from the Japan Society for the Promotion

this business and created a total of five categories

of Science, and a Project Research Grant from Schoolwith codes one to five assigned to each of them.

of Social Information Studies, Otsuma Women’s

We also classified the comments according toUniversity.

what they are referring to, using the sub-codes “i.

129Call for Papers of Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol.3 No.1
Editorial Board of Journal of Socio-Informatics
1. Aims and Scope
The Journal of Socio-Informatics (JSI) is the official English journal of JASI & JSIS (The Japanese
Association for Social Informatics and The Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies). The Journal aims
to contribute to promote social scientific studies relating with information and communication. It publishes
papers once a year dealing with communications, media studies, information communication technology,
business, sociology, economics, politics, psychology, education, computer science, simulation, and othervarious disciplines.
2. Requirements for Submissions(1) Manuscript Classifications
Original Paper — The Paper should be related to Socio-Informatics and is original in its researchmethods and/or results. The content of the Paper should be reliable and beneficial to the development of
Socio-Informatics: Systematic report of practical research, development of theoretical or simulation
studies, etc. Standard number of pages is 10 and the maximum number of pages is 12.
The Paper may be recommended as a Research Note by the Editorial Board of JSI. In such a case, theauthors can modify the Paper as a Research Note.
Research Note — The Research Note should be related to Socio-Informatics and is original in its researchmethods and/or results. The content of the Research Note should be a prompt report of research methods
and/or result. The number of pages is 6 or 8.
(2) Conditions for Submission
I.

The main part of the manuscript must not be in the process of being published, or have been
published or in the process of being submitted to any domestic or international scientific journals,
periodicals or commercial magazines. However, an author may compile and submit academic
lectures given at research societies or conferences, or oral presentations provided at international
meetings.

II.

The authors should adhere that the content and description of the manuscript must not engage inother copyrights, human rights in the research and ethical principles. The authors should consider
those issues in their manuscripts.

III. The manuscript should be written in a manner that can be understood by members of the same
research field.
(3) Handling of Submitted Manuscripts
I.

Upon submission, specify manuscript classification to be reviewed.

II.

The submitted manuscript will be examined by the Editorial Board and handled in the following
manner:A.

AcceptB.

Accept under the condition of making minor adjustments

C.

Manuscript will be re-examined after author makes adjustments according to therecommendations by the Editorial Board

D.

RejectIII. In the cases of manuscripts that need to be revised, manuscripts re-submitted after 4 weeks will betreated as newly submitted manuscripts.
IV. If the revision of manuscript is not finished by the printing of JSI Vol.3 No1, the manuscript may be
printed on JSI Vol.4 No.1.
3. CopyrightThe copyrights for all manuscripts are automatically transferred to JASI & JSIS (The Japanese Associationfor Social Informatics and The Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies) when the manuscript has
been accepted. The JASI & JSIS regards that not only the person submitting the manuscript, but also ALL
authors have accepted this copyright policy upon submission. However, JASI & JSIS automatically allows
without permission that authors themselves may use their own manuscripts for the academic or educational
purposes. Therefore, authors may copy, translate, modify, or deliver their own manuscripts, or send themto the public via the Internet.
4. Handling of Manuscript and Expenses
When the manuscript is received by the Editorial Board, a notice indicating the reception will be e-mailed
to the author. Rejected manuscript will be abandoned and a note indicating the reasons for reject will besent to the author. After acceptance of the manuscript, the acceptance will be notified to the author. The
author is requested to submit the final version of the paper in the form of electronic file (MS-WORD, or
Written text only in Text File). Extra cost for printing figures and tables is author’s responsibility. After the
manuscript is accepted, proofreading will be performed one time by the author. No insertions or
proofreading other than related to printing errors will be accepted. Original manuscripts will not be
returned to authors.
5. Important dates for Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol.3 No.1
The Editorial Board has plans to publish Vol.3 No.1 of the Journal in the spring or the summer of 2010.
One who would like to submit a paper on Vol.3 No.1 of the Journal must send the attached submission
form to submit-jsi@yahoogroups.jp until September 30, 2009. The original manuscript and copy withoutauthors’ information must be sent to submit-jsi@yahoogroups.jp until October 31, 2009.

Journal of Socio-Informatics SUBMISSION FORM Date: D/M/Y

1. Manuscript Type
Paper/Research Note *Note: please select Paper or Research Note which you want.
2. Title

3. Author(s) and Affiliation(s)4. Contact Information (One person ONLY)
Name:
Address:
Phone:

E-mail*The main part of the manuscript is not be in the process of being published, or have been published orin the process of being submitted to any domestic or international scientific journals, periodicals orcommercial magazines. However, an author may compile and submit academic lectures given at researchsocieties or conferences, or oral presentations provided at international meetings.
□Verify(check if you agree)*The authors should adhere that the content and description of the manuscript do not engage in othercopyrights, human rights in the research and ethnical principals. The authors should consider thoseissues in their manuscripts.
□Verify(check if you agree)*The copyrights for all manuscripts are automatically transferred to Japan Association for Social
Informatics and Japan Society for Socio-Infrormation Studies when the manuscripts have been
accepted.
□Verify(check if you agree)

Instructions For Authors
Keywords:
keyword1, keyword2, keyword3, keyword4, keyword5

First Author, Professional Affiliation
Second Author, Professional Affiliation

Abstract
This document is prepared for authors to submit papers of JSI Vol.3 No.1 2010. All authors arerecommended to use this document as a template of a manuscript. However, it is not obligatory
to use this document as a template, if each page is basically two columns and 39 lines.

1. Manuscript

clearly, Do not add numerical headings such as“No.1”. Subtitles are not recommended.

Prepare manuscript on the A4 paper format as it
would appear in the Journal, using word processing

4. Abstract

software. Since this document is prepared forsubmitting papers, authors may use this document
as a template of a manuscript. The manuscript

Abstract not exceeding 400 words must be
provided in Title Page.

should include the text, figures, tables, andphotographs and submitted in Microsoft Word

5. Key Words

format or PDF. When the manuscript is accepted,
the author(s) will be required to submit manuscript

Authors should include five to six keywords inin digital format (Microsoft Word format or plain

Title Page. These keywords should be used fortext file). Original figures and photos may be

deciding reviewers.

requested in case of printing.

6. Body of Manuscript
2. Number of pages
Write as follow:
For the limits of manuscript length, refer to(1) Introduction/Preface: Explain the experimental

Requirement of Submission of CFP of JSI Vol.3

background and the reasons for conducting theNo.1. Note that the number of pages includes theresearch. In addition, include a summary of thetitle page of a manuscript. The maximum number

paper and explain the results concisely.

of pages of Paper is 12 and the number of pages of(2) Content of manuscript: Diagrams and tables

Research Note is 6 or 8. Since tables or figures

should be used to explain research method

may require a bigger size to their text part(Experimental method, analysis, etc.), results,

readable, one column tables or figures may beresearch

permitted.

experiments, and preliminary considerations.

While the layout of the pages may require more

(3)

findings,

comparisons

Summary/Conclusions:

Providetopriorconcisespace than what the authors anticipated, the limit

conclusions and results. Itemized results areof number of pages of this document style is alsopreferred. In addition, write down any problems toeffective. This document style is considered to be

be solved.

A4 format. Using this document as a template, themaximum page is also 12(Paper) or 8(Research

7. Foreign Language

Note).
Besides proper nouns, translate the foreign

3. Title Page

words as much as possible. However, when a word
appears for the first time in the text, use thePrint title, author’s name, professional affiliation.
The title must be written in a manner so that thecontent of the manuscript can be understoodoriginal term when necessary.

Author,s name―title

numerals etc.

8. Figures, Tables and Photos
11. Writing Style
The number of figures, tables and photos should
be depicted as ”Figure 1,” “Table 1” or “Photo 1”.

In addition to being written in a clear and lucid

Insure that each figure, table and photo is properly

style, authors should keep in mind the diversenesstitled.

of the backgrounds and cultures of the prospective
readers. Use Arabic numerals. Superscript and9. References

subscript symbols should be cited within the text.

(1) List the names of the authors in alphabetical

12. Consideration for Other Copyrights andorder at the end of the manuscript. Citations within

Human Rights

the text should follow the following format:(i.e.) Sakamoto (1970a) reports…or …was

The manuscript must not engage in otherindicated. (Sakamoto 1970b)

copyrights, human rights in the research and(2) References to articles in journals should

ethnical principles, and also should be considered

include the following in the order given: author’s

those issues.

name, year of publication, article title, full title ofperiodical, volume number (issue number where

13. Procedure for submission

appropriate), first and last page numbers.
References to books should include the following

Prepare the manuscript according to thisin the order given: author’s name, year of

Instructions for Authors and submit to submit-jsi@

publication, title, publisher, place of publication,

yahoogroups.jp. Only electronic submission isand page numbers when necessary. Only thepermitted.

references cited or referred in the body of(1) Submission Form: Refer Submission Formmanuscript should be listed.

attached with CFP.

(3) When listing Japanese books or articles, write(2) Original manuscript: Microsoft Word format or

the romanized titles if they exist. If not, do not

PDF.

translate the Japanese titles info English but just(3) Copy for reviewers: original manuscript without

romanizeauthor’s name, affiliation, and acknowledgments

themaccordingtotheKunreiromanization system of Japanese (ISO3602).
Putting ISBN or ISSN is advisable.

10. Footnotes
Footnotes should be kept to minimum. If
necessary, however, they should be put together
just preceding the References with their proper
location in the text indicated by raised Arabic

for reviewing purpose.

Editor’s Notes
From this volume of JSI (Journal of Socio-Informatics), original refereed papers, which are acceptedby the Editorial Board based on two or more reviewers’ comments, are published. In this volume, aninvited paper, which is a selected paper from the Journal of Socio-Information Studies, is also published.
Since JSI are planned to provide the results of Socio-Informatics studies for the people interested in
the field of Socio-Informatics, the members of the Editorial Board have been selected from Japanese two
academic societies in the field of Socio-Informatics, JASI (Japan Association for Social Informatics) and
JSIS (Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies). While JSI is published by Japanese academic
societies, a submission to JSI is open to any researchers and students who study Socio-Informatics. With
your submission to JSI, JSI will become one of the most superior journals of Socio-Informatics studies in
the world in near future, JSI will be published only online.
(Editor in Sub-chief: Seiichiro SAKURAI)

Editorial Board of the Journal of Socio-Informatics
Editor in Chief
Kaoru ENDO, Gakushuin University
Editor in Subchief
Hirofumi IMADA, Hiroshima Bunka Gakuen University
Seiichiro SAKURAI, Meiji Gakuin University

Editorial Board Members
Keiichi ABE, Aichi Institute of Technology
Akiyuki ANDO, Tokyo Keizai University
Hisaki GOTO, Nihonbashi Gakkan University
Yoshiaki HASHIMOTO, The University of Tokyo
Takeshi HIROMATSU, Institute of Information Security
Mamoru ITO, Waseda University
Tadamasa KIMURA, The University of Tokyo
Hiroyuki KUROKUZU, Kansai University
Toshio KUROSU, Gunma University
Hiromu MAENO, Otsuma Women’s University
Toshiyuki MASAMURA, Tohoku University
Isamu OKADA, Soka University
Akio SUMITANI, Otsuma Women’s University
Hideyuki TANAKA, The University of Tokyo
Takao TERANO, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Kayoko YAMAMOTO, University of Electro-Communications

Journal of Socio-Informatics Vol.2, No.1
Sep. 30, 2009
Published
The Japan Association for Social Informatics (JASI)#408 3-38-4 Shimorenjyaku Mitaka Tokyo, 181-0013 Japan
Tel. & Fax. +81-422-40-2062
The Japan Society for Socio-Information Studies (JSIS)
Shizuoka University, Faculty of Informatics, FUJII Laboratory
3-5-1 Johoku, Naka-ku, Hamamatsu, 432-8011, Japan
Tel. & Fax. +81-53-478-1522
Print/Binding
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