MMRCDISCUSSION PAPER SERIES
No. 390

Global Knowledge Transfer Network:
The Case of Global Production Support System of Toyota
Youngkyo Suh
Graduate School of Economics, the University of Tokyo
March 2012

東京大学ものづくり経営研究センター
Manufacturing Management Research Center (MMRC)
Discussion papers are in draft form distributed for purposes of comment and discussion. Contact the author for
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Global Knowledge transfer Network: the Case of Global Production
Support System of Toyota

Youngkyo Suh
Department of Management,Graduate school of Economics, the University of Tokyo, Japan
Keyword: Knowledge transfer, Overseas production, Mother factory
Summary: In this paper we discuss global knowledge transfer networks by examining

Toyota`s global production support system. We focus on three parts of Toyota`s system, themother plant, Operations Management Consulting Division(seisan chosa shitsu) and Global
Production Center(GPC). This paper argues that these systems work as knowledge transfer
network.

Global Knowledge transfer Network: the Case of Global Production
Support System of Toyota

Youngkyo Suh
Department of Management,Graduate school of Economics, the University of Tokyo, Japan

1. Introduction
Japan has a very strong manufacturing industry. And many Japanese firms go abroad andutilize their manufacturing abilities. But it is not easy to transfer Japanese production system
in foreign countries. Because foreign countries have different language, cultural backgroundand market environment, Japanese production system might not work well at there. In order tosolve these kinds of problems, mother plant system used for transferring Japanese production
system. Mother plant supports production of foreign plants. But mother plant system is not the
only systems that support foreign productions and foreign factories.
In this paper we examine production system`s transfer through the case of Toyota. In thiscase we will discuss transferring Toyota`s production knowledge from Japan (a home country)
to overseas production bases. We assume that one of Toyota`s ownership advantages is
Toyota`s knowledge about mass production. We lay emphasis on three parts of Toyota`sknowledge transfer system, the mother plant, Operations Management Consulting Division(seisan chosa shitsu) and Global Production Center.
Yamaguchi(2006) indicates that the mother plant is a key factor of Japanese production
system. When a Japanese firm tries to manufacture its own products in foreign countries, it
has to transfer its own knowledge to its foreign factories. In this situation, the mother plant
functions as a part of tacit knowledge transfer system. Tacit knowledge is much harder to betransfered than explicit knowledge. The mother plant transfers tacit knowledge by sending its
skilled workers and teaching foreign workers in the mother plant. And the mother plant also
has a role in creating new organizational routines. It supports foreign factories by creating andteaching new organizational routines.
Operation Management Consulting Division (OMCD), as known as seisan chosa shitsu,
was made by the former Toyota`s CEO, Oono Taiichi. The task of OMCD is, firstly educationand diffusion of Toyota Production System(TPS), secondly human resource development for
TPS, thirdly helping factories and suppliers solve problems, fourthly participating in“voluntary problem-solving studies(jishu ken)”, and finally local support and expansion of1

TPS in foreign production(Satake1998, Fujimoto1999). TPS is not a simple production
system, but a kind of organizational norm and philosophy. In foreign countries TPS is hard to
be accepted because they have different cultural backgrounds from Japanese ones. Because ofthis kind of difficulty, OMCD has very important role in global production. Despite ofimportance, there is not much research on OMCD.
Global Production Center (GPC) was founded in July, 2003. It was made for humanresource development and localization of model changes. Recently, Toyota`s foreign
production is increasing rapidly. With increase in production, it is getting harder to transfer
best practices. To overcome the problems of human resource development, GPC trains foreign
factory`s trainers and supervisors. Also it is responsible for training of Japanese staff members
who will be sent to overseas. Localization of model change is also important role of GPC.
Manufacturing new model is time consuming process. Especially in foreign factories,
introduction of new model is followed by mother factory`s model change and supported bymother factory`s staff. Now foreign and Home country staff members develop theirproduction methods of new models together in GPC. It is for localization and time saving inoverseas plants.
These three parts of global production support system have very important roles. It transfer
s home country`s advantages and knowledge to foreign countries. But there is not muchresearch on these systems. In this paper, we discuss global knowledge transfer network by
examining Toyota`s global production support system. The relationship and link between
these systems will be explained.

2. Transfer of Production as Knowledge Transfer
In this paper, we assume that transferring of production function from home country toforeign countries as knowledge transfer process. It means that home country`s factories andorganizations have knowledge about mass production. And this knowledge forms a
production system. Transferring production system to foreign countries means thattransferring knowledge about production from home country to foreign countries.
Transfer of Production system to Foreign Country
Why multinational Companies(MNCs) expand overseas? This is because MNC transfer
their competitive advantages based on the home country`s headquarters to overseas(Hymer1960). Foreign subsidiaries, compared to local businesses have disadvantages such as
languages, local economy information, laws and regulations, and distribution networks. So
MNC has to have some advantages over local businesses in order to succeed in overseas
markets. Dunning(1979) developed eclectic theory by combining ownership advantages,
2

location advantages and internalization incentive advantages.
In research on Japanese MNCs, transferring ownership advantage are considered importantfactors of their overseas business. Japanese management system and Japanese production
system are treated as competitive advantages. Especially in Japanese MNC`s production
system, foreign factories heavily depend on home country`s advantages (Yamaguchi2006,
Abo2007). But Japanese management and production system might not work well at foreigncountry, because foreign country has different language, cultural backgrounds, and market
environments. Abo(2007) explains Japanese foreign plant by ‘application-adaptation(hybrid)
evaluation model’. By this model, Japanese foreign plant has two sides. One side is‘application’. It means Japanese management and production system are introduced andtransplanted without modification. On the other side is ‘adaptation’. It means Japanesesystems are modified by foreign environments. Any Japanese firm`s foreign plant havecharacteristics of both sides. Similar discussions are claimed by Jeffrey et al(1999). It insist
that Japanese firm`s factories in America has Japanese production system as its ownership
advantage. But it has been modified because of American environments. These researchs
assume that Japanese production system as ownership advantage, and Japanese firms want totransplant it to foreign countries.
Yamaguchi(2006) indicates that the mother plant is a key factor of Japanese production
system. When a Japanese firm tries to manufacture its own products in foreign countries, it
has to transfer its own knowledge to its foreign factories. In this situation, the mother plant
functions as a part of tacit knowledge transfer system. Tacit knowledge is much harder to betransfered than explicit knowledge. The mother plant transfers tacit knowledge by sending its
skilled workers and teaching foreign workers in the mother plant. And the mother plant also
has a role in creating new organizational routines. It supports foreign factories by creating andteaching new organizational routines.
Knowledge Transfer and Organizations
Knowledge is created by organizations. By daily operations, knowledge has been created inorganizations. Not only in organizations, knowledge could be acquired from outside oforganizations. Knowledge can both be created inside and acquired from outside. And theseknowledge can be a source of firm`s competitive advantages (Kogut&Zander 1993,
Darr,Argote,Epple1995,
Zander&Kogut1995,
Szulanski1995,
1996,
2000,
Almeida&Kogut1998, Argote&Ingram2000, Tsai2001, Schlegelmilch&Chini2002)
To utilize knowledge, knowledge has to be transferred from its original source to otherorganizational units. But knowledge transfer is far from easy. There are many barriers toknowledge transfer. Szulanski(1995, 1996, 2000) indicates that there is stickiness inknowledge transfer processes. Stickiness defines as the difficulty of transferring knowledge3within the organization.
Kogut&Zander(1993) and Zander&Kogut(1995) explain transfer of knowledge byknowledge`s characteristics. They analyzed characteristics of knowledge by codifiability,
teachability, and complexity. If the knowledge is much codifiable, easy to teach, and notcomplex, that knowledge is less hard to transfer and its transferring speed has to be fast.
Many researches pointed out that efficiency of knowledge transfer and organizational
relationship are related. Darr,Argote,Epple(1995) examine transfer of knowledge acquired
through learning by doing in service organizations. Knowledge is found to transfer acrosspizza stores owned by same franchisee. Almeida&Kogut(1998) found that interfirm mobilityof engineers and communications influences the local transfer of knowledge. Tsai(2001)
focuses on intraorganizational network. It emphasizes that the network of interunit links
provides channels for distributing information and knowledge. If A unit positions central
network position, it has opportunities to access other unit`s knowledge and knowledgetransfer will be more activated than others. Schlegelilch&Chini(2002) also emphasizes thelink between knowledge transfer and organizational distance.
These researches focus on characteristics of knowledge and organizational relationship. But
when knowledge transfers occurring how organizational units are interrelated each others
were not discussed. Knowledge are saved in more than one organizational units(Argote&Ingram2000). Because knowledge is distributed in organization, its transfer needs
organizational unit`s interrelationship and cooperation.
Research Question and Methods
In this paper, we assume transfer of production system as transfer of knowledge. And we
discuss about the case of Toyota`s foreign factory. Supports from home country to foreigncountries are regarded as knowledge transfer.
How multiple organizational units interact and cooperate when they transfer homecountry`s knowledge to foreign countries? Former researches did not discuss about these
problems. How firm can management their units to transfer knowledge to overseas?
To explain this we discuss about the case of Toyota. The case is based on 4 times of factory
visiting (Japan and foreign factories) and 7 times of interviews. With this case we can find
how Toyota`s organizational units interact and cooperate in knowledge transferring processes.

3. The Case of Toyota: Phase 1
We divide Toyota`s knowledge transfer system in 2 phases. First phase mainly analyzes
about Toyota`s knowledge transfer system before 2000. There are two importantorganizational units in phase1, mother plant and Operation Management Consulting Division
4

(OMCD). Second phase analyzes about Toyota`s knowledge transfer after 2000 and there waschange in the system because of rapid growth of foreign production. In phase2 we will discuss
about Global Production Center (GPC), mother plant and OMCD.
Phase1 - Mother Plant
Toyota`s first foreign plant was NUMMI (New United Motor Manufacturing, INC.). Its
factory located in Fremont, California and it was joint venture with General Motors. NUMMI
was the first experience of transfer Toyota Production System (TPS). Takaoka plant supported
NUMMI`s factory. Engineers are sent to NUMMI for its ramp up from Takaoka.
After NUMMI, Toyota built its own foreign plant in America alone. It was Toyota`s
Kentucky plant. Japanese Tsutsumi plant supported to launch Kentucky plant. Kentucky plant
was planned as a mirror factory of Tsutsumi plant. It means that Kentucky plant was a copy
version of Tsutsumi plant.
When Toyota build foreign factory, they choose Japanese plant to support it. Not only
supporting for launching foreign plant, but also supporting for daily manufacturing.
Supporting Japanese factory is called ‘mother factory’ of ‘parent plant’. In this paper we callthis system as ‘mother plant system’. Mother plant is a key factor of Toyota`s knowledgetransfer system.
Mother plant has 5 roles for supporting foreign plant. First launching support, second newmodel manufacturing support, third skill training, fourth kaizen, and finally problem solving
support.
Launching support is the first step of foreign plant supporting process. Mother plant is abase of foreign plant. Basically foreign plant is reproduction of mother plant. Because ofdifferent market environments and local situation, it has to be modified. But Toyota want tokeep TPS in foreign plants and reproduction of mother plant is the best way to do that. To
launch foreign plant, mother plant sends its engineers.
New model manufacturing support is important role of mother plant. Toyota`s new model
was basically developed by development department in Japan. After development, motherplant put new model producing to trial. In trial producing, problems about manufacturing andproducing line lay outs are determined. Home county`s mother plant decide the way to
produce new model, and it is transferred to foreign plants. Mother plant manufacture newmodel before foreign plant and its experiences and knowledge are transferred to foreign
plants.
Skill traning, kaizen, and problem solving are daily support in production site. Skill training
is teaching skills for producing cars to workers. Japanese workers or engineers from motherplant teach producing skills or foreign workers can be trained in Japanese mother plant. This
trainings include not only producing skills but also management skill at production site (e.g.
5role of group leader, team leader). Kaizen means improvement in Japanese. At production sitekaizen means pursuit of better manufacturing way and continuous improvements
Fujimoto(1999). Mother plant support foreign plant`s kaizen by transfer its kaizen outcome.
Kaizen that already been done in mother plant is transferred to foreign plant. Finally, if
foreign plant has problems or trouble in production sites mother plant support to solve theproblems.
These kinds of mother plant`s support are done by humane transfer. Supports are done bysending mother plant`s engineers and workers to foreign plant or by accept foreign plant`sengineers and workers at mother plant.
Phase1 - Operation Management Consulting Division
Operation Management Consulting Division(OMCD) is an organizational unit unique toToyota. It established in 1970 by Taiichi Ohno as a staff office in the Production Control
Division. It has been in change of maintaining, diffusing and educating employees about the
Toyota Production System (TPS) both inside Toyota and at Toyota Group parts
suppliers(Fujimoto1999).
Its current mission can be broken down as follows: educating employees about TPS,
implementing TPS principles on the shop floor in collaboration with TPS instructors (shusa)
who belongs to each plant, participating in “voluntary problem solving studies (jishu-ken)” by
the plants or by the suppliers, diffusing and educating employees about TPS to foreignsubsidiaries and plants.
To educate about TPS, OMCD supplies contents about TPS class. TPS class is included in
Toyota`s human resource development courses. Each plant has a employee called TPS
instructor(shusa). OMCD works with TPS instructor to improve production sites (kaizen).
With kaizen they can teach TPS concepts to employees. Also OMCD participates in voluntary
problem solving studies (jishu-ken). Toyota`s plants can solve problems of production instudies. Toyota Group parts suppliers have their own voluntary problem solving studies too.
And OMCD also has a role for foreign subsidiaries and plants. OMCD diffuses andeducates about TPS to foreign employees. Foreign plant is mainly supported by its motherfactory, but in some cases OMCD can supports it. When OMCD is requested help or support
by mother plant, it can support foreign factories.
In foreign sites, OMCD`s roles are little different from domestic roles. About TPS class,
OMCD provides the contents of TPS to foreign plants or subsidiaries. Sometimes foreign
employees are sent to OMCD and be educated in there. OMCD also do the kaizen in foreign
plant to diffuse and educate TPS. Finally, there is voluntary problem solving studies byforeign plants and OMCD participate it. But there is no voluntary problem solving studies byforeign parts suppliers. OMCD supports foreign parts suppliers when they are requested.
6

OMCD has a role for maintaining, diffusing and educating TPS not only in domestic sites,
but also foreign sites.
Phase 1 - Summary
Toyota`s knowledge transfer system in phase 1 is consisted with mother plant andOperation Management Consulting Division (OMCD).
Phase 1`s knowledge transfer system is largely dependent on people`s transfer. In thisphase knowledge transfer is done by moving people. Mother plant sends engineers or workers
to foreign plants to transfer its knowledge. Foreign plant sends its employees to Japan for
education in mother plant. Yamaguchi(2003) indicate that this kind of knowledge transfer bymoving people is efficient for transferring tacit knowledge. Mother plant is a system fortransfer tacit knowledge to foreign plants without knowledge conversion (tacit knowledge to
explicit knowledge). OMCD`s supporting was also based on sending its people to foreignsites.
Another characteristic of Phase1`s knowledge transfer system is its knowledge creation
sources. In this phase, creation of knowledge is highly dependent on home country. Of course
knowledge mainly flows from home country to foreign countries. Mother plant supports
foreign plants in many ways, but it only transfer knowledge that be created in Japan. For
launch a new model, mother plant produce new model before foreign plant did. And motherplant`s experiences and knowledge about new model are transferred. In case of kaizen, motherplant adapts kaizen that already occurred in mother plant to foreign plants. OMCD alsotransfers its knowledge about TPS that is created and maintained in Japan.
Mother plant and OMCD has a complementary role in knowledge transfer system. Motherplant supports problems of production sites and substantive manufacturing such as launchingsupport, new model manufacturing support, skill training, kaizen, and problem solving
support. In contrast, OMCD supports in philosophy and attitude about TPS. This is because
the characteristics of TPS. TPS is not only production methods, but also philosophy andthoughts of production. To transfer knowledge about Toyota`s manufacturing and TPS, they
have to transfer different kinds of knowledge. Because of these differences, twoorganizational units of Toyota transfer different kinds of knowledge to foreign plants. And it
works as complementary system.

4. The Case of Toyota: Phase 2
Phase 2 is about Toyota`s knowledge transfer after 2000 and there was change in thesystem because of rapid growth of foreign production.
After 2000`s, production in overseas grew rapidly. With growth of production in overseas,
7

numbers of foreign factories grew too. And with growth of numbers of foreign factories,
Toyota`s knowledge transfer system has been changed.
Phase 2 – Mother Plant
Mother plant was the core of Toyota`s knowledge transfer system. TPS includes much tacitknowledge in it. As stated before, mother plant system was effective system for transfer
Toyota`s tacit knowledge to foreign plants.
Mother plant system also changed with rapid growth of foreign production volume. Motherplant mainly supports foreign plants by sending its people. But numbers of foreign plants are
increased and mother plant lacks of its human resources.
With shortage of human resources, lack of consistency in the support of foreign plant isalso the problem. People sent from mother plant transfers tacit knowledge embedded in them.
But tacit knowledge of individuals highly depends on its personal characters. If supporterfrom mother plant are changed, the knowledge from supporter might change with it. And
there is differences between home country`s plants. Toyota has multiple plants in Japan. All
the plants are run by TPS, but details are different. Mother plants transfer knowledge fromtheir experiences. It means each mother plant transfers different knowledge to its supported
foreign plants.
Mother plant was decided by models. If foreign plant A are planned to produce model B,
domestic plant that produced model B is decided foreign plant A`s mother plant. Productionof same model was required for knowledge transfer from mother plant to foreign plants.
But foreign market has a different condition with domestic market. To fulfill those needs
foreign plant has to produce models that are not produced in its mother plant. For productionof those models, one foreign plant has to be supported more than one mother plants. Also withdomestic market`s change, mother plant`s production model might be changed. Thesesituations make mismatches in production models of mother plant and foreign plant. Motherplant system`s knowledge transfer decreased its efficiency.
Toyota changes its mother plant`s support for its consistency. In this paper, we see thischange with Toyota`s plants in china.
Tianjin FAW Toyota Motor (TFTM) is a joint venture of Toyota and FAW motor. It
established in 2000, and started its manufacturing at 2002. Plant 2 was built in 2005, and plant
3 was built in 2007. All three plants produce different models.
Plant 1 and plant 2`s mother plant was mainly Motomachi plant. But Tahara plant
supported TFTM`s plants. These mother plants were decided by production models. And plant
3 is supported by Takaoka plant. These 3 mother plants are similar production system but little
different in details. There were 3 teams from each mother plants in TFTM. These teammembers cannot be mixed or moved. And communication between teams were not activate.
8

After 2008, TFTM unifies its mother plant to Takaoka Plant. Supporters from Motomachi
and Tahara plant are decreased and supporters from Takaoka plant are increased. By unifying
mother plant TFTM can solve common production problems its plants and communications
between supporters are improved.
Phase 2 - Operation Management Consulting Division
The role of OMCD is not changed basically from Phase 1. OMCD`s role for foreign sites isdiffusing and educating TPS. But there is change in its systems.
OMCD`s role for foreign sites were done by sending people to foreign plants. Similar tomother plants, with rapid growth of foreign production volume, OMCD has shortage ofhuman resources. Therefore, OMCD decided to set up sub unit of OMCD in regional
headquarters. It is called operation management development division. America, Europe(England), Asia (Thai) have operation management development division in there. It isconsisted with OMCD`s officers from Japan and officers hired by regional.
Operation management development division cooperate with TPS trainer in each foreign
plants. TPS trainer is similar with TPS instructors (shusa) in domestic plants. TPS trainers
have roles to do kaizen in production sites and educate TPS. TPS trainer alternate the roles
formerly done by supporters from Japan.
Phase 2 – GPC
Global Production Center (GPC) is established in 2003. Establishment of GPC is deeply
related to growth of foreign production. Toyota`s production volume in 2003 was 6millions.
Toyota planned to increase its volume to 10million till 2010. It means Toyota has to increase
4millions in 8 years. And it depends mainly on foreign production. When Toyota increases its
production volume in overseas, many problems have been occurred.
What were the problems? As mentioned before, Toyota`s knowledge transfer system was
highly dependent on people. Transfer of knowledge is mainly done by moving people. Whenforeign production is increased, Toyota needs to send large numbers of people to foreign
plants. But numbers of human resources in home country have limitation. Another problem islaunch speed of foreign plant. To grow foreign production rapidly, foreign plant have to belaunched fast. Toyota`s knowledge transfer emphasize on transfer of tacit knowledge andtransferring by people. It was very powerful way to diffuse and utilize TPS but relatively time
consuming way.
To solve these problems, Toyota has to change its way of knowledge transfer. GPC hasestablished to solve these problems. GPC has 2 roles. First, it develops tool for training of
human resources of domestics and foreign. Second, it reduces the time of switching newmodel. We focus on GPC`s role in Toyota`s global knowledge transfer system.
9

GPC develops tool for train workers at production sites. To speed up of training, it sets
fundamental skills of manufacturing and develops tools for teach fundamental skills. Workers
produce cars by following standard tasks. Standard tasks are consisted by elemental tasks. In
period of time, numbers of elemental tasks have to be done by fixed order. That is thestandard task of Toyota. Fundamental skills are skills that be needed to perform elemental
tasks. By mastering these fundamental skills workers can produce cars successfully andrepeatedly.
To teach fundamental skills, GPC developed Visual Manuals. Visual Manuals explains
fundamental skills to workers by videos, animations, and textual description. Workers canmaster fundamental skills easily and fast with visual manuals. After training with visual
manual, workers can practice it in training facilities. These kinds of trainings for workers
were mainly done implicitly at production sites. GPC develops manuals about these trainings.
GPC develops visual manuals about 18 sections of production.
Each plant trains its workers with visual manuals. And each plant has its trainer. These
trainers are trained by master trainer in GPC. Master trainer trains trainers and send them toeach plants.
Not only fundamental skills, but also leader`s roles at production sites are turned into
manuals. In Toyota`s production sites team leader, and group leader are responsible formanagement for workers and productions. To be a leader, rich experiences and tacitknowledge about production are needed. But with rapid growth of foreign production, it
becomes hard to train leaders in foreign plants. Traditional ways to train leaders was time
consuming. To solve this problem, GPC develops manuals about leader`s roles. It is called
floor management development system. GPC tries to utilize this for human resource
development.
Another role of GPC is to make new model change fast. Former way of model change wasleaded by mother plant. Mother plant has to produce new model before foreign plants andforeign plants are transferred its experiences and knowledge about new model production. In
this way, new model production of foreign plant always be followed by mother plant. And
mother plant has to send large number of supporter to foreign plant.
To solve this problem, GPC built facilities for trial production of new model. GPC has pilotline facilities for welding, painting and assembly line for production. When a new model isplanned to be produced not only domestic plants, but also foreign plants, all the people fromplants that be expected to produce a model, gathered in GPC and prepare for its production.
By doing so, people of foreign plants can participate in the preparation process of new model
production. This can reduce the support from mother plant and possibly reduce the time formodel change.
GPC is located in Japan, but there are sub unit of GPC in Toyota`s regional headquarters.
10Toyota has 3 regional headquarters, America, Europe (England), Asia (Thai). Each regional
head quarter has its own sub unit of GPC. Master trainers in regional GPC train trainers andsend them to regional foreign plants. But these Master trainers of regional GPC are trained in
GPC of Japan. Also regional GPC has its own pilot line for preparing new model`s production,
but it only be used for regional models.
Phase 2 – Summary
In phase 2, Toyota`s knowledge transfer system is changed because of rapid growth offoreign production volume. What was different in systems between phase 1 and phase 2?
Characteristic of Toyota`s knowledge transfer system in phase 1 is knowledge transfers
mainly by people. Sending people or being sent people was important way to transfer
knowledge. But with rapid growth of foreign production, Toyota lacks of human resources.
And management of mother plants had problems too. Phase 2 of Toyota`s knowledge transfer
system is a result of these problems and correspondences.
GPC is a organizational unit established for solve these problems. GPC trains master trainer
and master trainers train trainers. Trainers are sent to foreign plants and train workers at
production sites. By doing this, mother plants role for skill training can be reduced. And
visual manuals reduce time for training and numbers of trainers. GPC`s pilot line also reduces
mother plant`s support for new model change.
Another change occurs in knowledge flows. In phase 1, knowledge only flows from homecountry to foreign countries. But in phase 2, knowledge can flow in regional. GPC andOMCD have its sub unit in regional head quarters. Knowledge can flow from these sub units
to foreign plants. Home country is not the only source of knowledge. Regional headquarters
are now one of the source of knowledge.
So in phase 2, how these three organizational units cooperate for knowledge transfer?
Mother factory and OMCD basically cooperate similar to phase 1. They transfer different typeof knowledge about TPS. But their roles are relatively decreased. GPC supports mother plant
and OMCD. Mother plant and OMCD mainly concentrated on transfer of tacit knowledge.
GPC tries to turn tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge can betransferred fast and easily. Visual manuals and floor management development system areexamples of explicit knowledge. But explicit knowledge is made for faster transfer tacitknowledge. This will be described in discussion.

5. Discussion
In Toyota`s knowledge transfer system, mother plant and OMCD cooperate and work
complementary. Mother plant and OMCD transfer different type of knowledge to foreign sites.
11Mother plant support and transfer knowledge about daily production, OMCD support andtransfer knowledge about attitude and philosophy of production. This can be explained withorganizational routines and organizational norm. Mother plant transfers knowledge aboutorganizational routines and OMCD transfers knowledge about organizational norm.
Organization forms a organizational routine through daily operation. Behaviors are done
repeatedly and form a pattern (Nelson&Winter1982).Organizational routine makes firm`soperation efficient. At production sites, hundreds of vehicles are produced per day. Workers
have to do their work repeatedly and keep stable quality. These production activities form
organizational routines. To transfer knowledge about routines mother plant system was used.
Organizational norm is shared by all organizational members. It is a philosophy, attitudeand value that all members share. Argyris&Schon(1978) indicate that, when organization
accept new information or knowledge, organizational norm is the most hard part to change.
OMCD`s roles for foreign sites are transfer knowledge about organizational norm that is hardto transferred and settled.
GPC`s role is turning tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. For example, visual manualis turned tacit skills of production into videos and texts. Floor management development
system is also turned tacit skill of management at production sites into manuals. Explicit
knowledge is easier and faster to transfer than tacit knowledge (Kogut&Zander1993,
Zander&Kogut1995). But these explicit knowledge works as base for tacit knowledge.
Fundamental skills are base for learn elemental tasks, and standard tasks. If workers do notmaster fundamental skills, learning elemental tasks and standard tasks will be delayed. FMDS
is a manual for leaders, but it is positioned a base for leader`s training at production sites.
Explicit knowledge made by GPC works as support tools and bases for mother plant andOMCD`s knowledge transfer.
Toyota wants to transfer their implicit production system to foreign plant as possible as
they can. Mother plant and OMCD works complementary. They transfer different types ofknowledge. And GPC supported it by developing tools and converting knowledge.
Also the source of knowledge has been multiplied. GPC and OMCD have its own inregional headquarters. Knowledge can flow in regionally. But original knowledge creation inregional is still rare. The majority of regional knowledge transfers to plants are created inJapan.
Tsai (2000) inidicates that the network of interunit links provides channels for distributing
information and knowledge. The closer network of two organization unit is, the more
knowledge transfer occurs. Distance of network is defined as frequency of communication
between organizational units. In Toyota`s knowledge transfer system, regional knowledge
source can interpret as closer network position. Home country and foreign plants are harder tocommunicate than regional headquarter and foreign plants. Regional office could
12communicate better than home country`s units and organizational network distance can be
reduced. And knowledge transfer can be effective and frequent.

6. Conclusion
This paper explains about Toyota`s global knowledge transfer network. Support for foreign
plants can be explained by knowledge transfer. Home county`s knowledge can be transferred
to foreign countries and it can support and work as competitive advantage. Toyota`sknowledge transfer system analyzed by dividing in 2 phases. We indicate that multiple
organizational units can cooperate for effective knowledge transfer.
More than one organizational units work as a knowledge transfer network. Different typesof knowledge can be transferred by different units. Tacit and explicit knowledge also can betransferred by different units. And different network position can activate knowledge transfer.
Organizational units can work complementary and configure knowledge transfer network.
However this paper`s case deals with only one firm. Other firms can have different
organizational structure and environments. More cases about multiple organizational units
knowledge transfer system need to be investigated. Empirical methods also be needed. An
empirical approach has to be tested for further researches.
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知識移転のネットワーク：トヨタ自動車における海外生産支援を事例に
徐寧教(ソヨンキョ)
東京大学大学院経済学研究科経営専攻博士課程
キーワード：知識移転、海外生産、マザー工場
要約：本論文では、トヨタ自動車において、本国のマザー工場が海外生産拠点をどのように支援していて、それがどのような意味を持っているかを分析する。更にマザー工場システム
だけではなく、生産調査室、GPC という組織ユニットも知識移転に関与していることを説明する。そして、これらの組織ユニットが知識移転のネットワークとして本国から海外への知識移転に寄与してことを明らかにする。

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