Reclaimed PV
Panels Market
Assessment
Industry Report
APRIL 2023

Acknowledgements
The authors of this report extend their sincere thanks to Energy Consumers Australia for providing grantfunding to undertake this important research project.
ENERGY CONSUMERS AUSTRALIA
Energy Consumers Australia (ECA) is the independent, national voice forresidential and small business energy consumers. We enable residential andsmall business energy consumers to have their voices heard by the sector
by working with other consumer groups to gather evidence-based researchwith a national perspective, distill it to key viewpoints, and feed it back to themarket to influence outcomes. Through the ECA Grants Program, we fund highquality, innovative research and advocacy initiatives that have potential todeliver long-term benefits to consumers and the National Energy Market.
www.energyconsumersaustralia.com.au
THE UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND SCHOOL OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Ranked in the world’s top 50, The University of Queensland (UQ) is one ofAustralia’s leading research and teaching institutions. UQ strives for excellence
through the creation, preservation, transfer and application of knowledge.
For more than a century, we have educated and worked with outstanding
people to deliver knowledge leadership for a better world.
www.itee.uq.edu.au
CIRCULAR PV ALLIANCE
Circular PV Alliance (CPVA) is an independent industry-led organisation,founded by the solar energy industry, for the solar energy industry. CPVA wasformed in 2021 with a mission to realise the full environmental, economic
and social benefits of solar energy by supporting the Australian solar energy
sector transition into a circular economy.
CPVA is focused on identifying and developing the necessary tools andstrategies required to enable a more sustainable and thriving solar energy
sector. CPVA collaborates with various industry partners to undertake
research and projects to understand and realise the potential of the solar
energy circular economy. A core aspect of CPVA’s work is to focus onpractical, commercial solutions that enable the self-determination of various
stakeholders and market participants.
www.circularpv.com.au

This document is printed on ecoStar+, an environmentally responsible paper made carbon
neutral and is FSC Recycled certified. ecoStar+ is manufactured from 100% post-consumer
recycled fibres in a process chlorine free environment under the ISO 14001 environmental
management system.

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Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report

Executive Summary
The University of Queensland and Circular PV
Alliance have prepared this Reclaimed PV Panels
Market Assessment to explore the end-of-lifelandscape for used PV panels. The focus of theresearch is on understanding potential customers
and value streams for used PV panels, and to
identify any market or policy barriers to reusing,
repurposing and recycling PV panels.
Research was conducted via a literature review
and a series of interviews. The interview cohort
comprised thirteen (13) organisations with diverse
interests in solar energy, the recycling sector
broadly, and PV panel reuse and recycling. Thematic
analysis of the interview transcripts identified aseries of recurrent themes that indicate potential
or perceived opportunities (drivers) and challenges(barriers) for PV panel reuse. These themes fall
into four (4) main categories – Policy, Consumers,
Industry and Legal. These categories also serve to
identify the potential roles and responsibilities ofeach group in used PV panel markets.
There is broad concern amongst interviewees thatfunctional PV panels are being decommissioned
before they fail and prior to fulfilling their productive
lifespan. Key drivers of used PV panels in Australia
are renewable energy certificates, the failure rateof low-quality products, residual PV panels fromsolar farms, warranty and insurance claims andperformance limitations between different PV
panels. It is predicted that Australia will have around
450,000 tonnes of PV panel ‘waste’ by 2040. This
volume may increase depending to what extent
solar energy contributes to Australia’s renewableenergy mix in future.
Once decommissioned, PV panels have historicallyfollowed a linear or ‘take-make-dispose’ lifecycle
which results in them being sent to landfill. This isproblematic for a range of environmental, socialand economic reasons. A PV panel has significant
residual value when removed from service throughits technical capability to generate clean energy
and the embodied value of its materials. Used PV
panels offer a low-cost and affordable clean energy
option for households and community energy
projects. Concurrently, PV panel recycling processes
are becoming more efficient with better quality
outputs and higher recovery rates. For example,
nano-silicon created from processing recoveredsilicon solar cells can retail for over $44,000
per kilogram.

Research found that the challenges identified
in literature or presented by interviewees
regarding recycling or reusing PV panels may besuccessfully remedied through different policy
frameworks, legislative mechanisms and provisionof commercial services. In most cases there aresuccessful examples of similar solutions already inplace around the world. Viewing used PV panels as
an asset and keeping them out of landfill through avalue-capture system, such as a circular economic
model, offers a variety of benefits and opportunities.
This model loops the ‘take-make-reuse’ phases into
a self-sustaining cycle. The model also provides afoundation to grow markets for used PV panels andresponds to consumer demands for credible andsustainable products and services.
It is recommended that a consistent, national
approach to product stewardship is adopted togive rise to the circular economy for PV panels
and initiate establishment of successful markets
for used PV panels. Mechanisms to incentivise
participation and disincentivise non-participation in
product stewardship are necessary. It is importantthat phases and activities within the circular
economy are clearly defined, for example, what
does it mean to refurbish a used PV panel or whatlevel of material/parts recovery from a PV panel
constitutes it being recycled. Standards for testing
and certifying used PV panels, providing repair
warranties, industry reporting or accreditation
requirements and product traceability are allimportant elements to product stewardship andused PV panel markets. Targeted engagementwith a broader range of potential consumers, theinsurance sector and PV panel manufacturers is
recommended to better understand the perceived
barriers held by these groups regarding used PV
panels, and to develop suitable solutions to mitigate
these perceived barriers.
In summary, used PV panels are a source of social,environmental and economic value. Looming
volumes of used PV panels and an
ever-increasing amount of solar energy being
installed in Australia provides the impetus toproactively create a circular economic model for PV
panels that will benefit consumers, industry and theenvironment collectively.

|

3

Contents
INTRODUCTION

5SOLAR ENERGY IN AUSTRALIA

7

PV PANELS – FROM WASTE TO ASSET

9DRIVERS OF USED PV PANELS

10

THE VALUE OF A PV PANEL

14

VALUE-CAPTURING USED PV PANELS

16

REUSING AND RECYCLING PV PANELS22CREATING A SUCCESSFUL MARKETFOR USED PV PANELS28

RECOMMENDATIONS32

REFERENCES

34

4

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Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry ReportIntroduction
The University of Queensland was awarded grantfunding by Energy Consumers Australia (ECA)
to undertake a ‘Reclaimed PV Panels Market
Assessment’. Working in collaboration with
Circular PV Alliance (CPVA), this research project
explores the end-of-life landscape for used PV
panels to understand potential customers andvalue streams available for used PV panels,
and to identify any market or policy barriers toreusing, repurposing, and recycling PV panels.
Research was conducted via a literature
review and an interview series. The literature
review involved an analysis of current andavailable literature, reports, and other relevant
documentation to gain an understanding of
the solar energy market, the current end-of-life
management of solar PV and existing options for
PV panel reuse and recycling.
A number of industry stakeholders were invited
to participate in an interview in order to obtaina range of perspectives relevant to the project.
Thirteen (13) organisations agreed to participate
as part of the interview cohort, with diverse
interests in the solar energy sector, recycling
more broadly, and PV panel reuse and recycling.

Collectively the cohort represents a range ofindustry bodies, potential user groups andvarious service providers (some with interests
across multiple categories) with diverse practical,
technical, and commercial backgrounds.
Interviews were guided by a set of questions, withparticipants also encouraged to explore used
PV panels in ways that were relevant to them.
The transcripts from these interviews were thencoded to extract themes. Many themes were
uncovered that were not directly part of theinterview guide. This has provided a nuanced
and more in-depth understanding of reclaimed
PV panels and potential markets.
Thematic analysis (Figure 1) of the interview
transcripts identified twenty (20) recurrent
concepts throughout the interviews. Aggregating
the concepts into dominant themes andsub-themes provides a macro level view ofinterviewees’ perspectives regarding reclaimed
PV panels.

FIGURE 1: THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS

How to manage
PV waste

Incentives

Reusing PV panels
Understanding themarket for reused
PV panels

Credibility
Testing
Recycling
Overseas exports|

5

These key themes are reflected in theopportunities (drivers) and challenges (barriers)
for PV panel reuse presented in this report. There
are four (4) main categories to group the drivers
and barriers which also serve to identify potential
roles and responsibilities: Policy, Consumers,
Industry and Legal.
‘Incentives’ was the most commonly mentioned
theme in the interviews, including the use of
incentives in relation to promoting PV panel
reuse and also in promoting the uptake ofrooftop solar. Incentives are viewed as a criticalpart of promoting PV panel reuse and recycling
by interviewees.
Managing and reusing PV panels, andunderstanding the market for reused PV panels
were secondary themes. This highlights the needto continue developing and communicating
solutions for reusing PV panels.
Other common themes such as testing andcertification form part of the reuse landscape,with recycling and exports also part ofthe solution.
Research found that the challenges identified
with recycling or reusing PV panels may be
addressed through different solutions ormechanisms. These solutions generally present
policy and commercial opportunities, andin most cases there are examples of similarsolutions in place around the world.
One example is the need for a supportive andeffective policy and legislative framework to drive
more sustainable or ‘circular’ industry practices
which has been in place in the European Union
for over a decade. Australia’s Renewable Energy(Electricity) Act 2000 [1] affords a range ofincentives and regulatory requirements fordifferent groups which resulted in the exponential
growth of domestic roof-top solar uptake inAustralia. This combination of incentives andregulations offers a proven template to drive asimilar outcome for used PV panels, as discussed
in this report.

6|

Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry ReportSolar energy in Australia

10%

31%

10% of nationalenergy generationin 2021

100M

Increase in solar
energy generationfrom previous year

Renewable energy is a growing contributor tothe overall energy generation mix in Australia.
Renewables accounted for 29% of nationalenergy generation in the 2021 calendar year [2].
Solar represented around 10% of total nationalenergy generation for the 2020-21 year which isa 31% increase in generation from the previous
year. The growth trend is clear and is supported
in data provided by the Australian PV Institute[3] which shows an ongoing upward trend of
installed solar energy generation capacity inAustralia since 2010 (Figure 2).
Australia has enjoyed a buoyant solar energy
market for over a decade. Current estimatesindicate there may be around 100 million
individual PV panels in Australia as of the endof 2022. Renewable energy, including solar PV,

Estimated 100 million
individual PV panels
in Australia end 2022

is experiencing an increasingly favourable
policy environment as the different levelsof government look to secure pathways
towards achieving Australia’s 2050 Net Zeroemissions target.
The sheer number of PV panels that are likely
to be needed to achieve this target is massive.
According to some scenarios, an additional
1,900 gigawatts (GW) of solar energy is required[4]. The highest wattage PV panel available today
is 700W. Allowing for technological gains in panel
efficiency over time, if we assume 700W might
be the average panel size in future, that equates
to over 2,700,000,000 (two billion 700 hundred
million) PV panels needing to be manufactured
and installed to achieve an additional 1,900 GW
of solar energy.

FIGURE 2: SOLAR ENERGY GENERATION TRENDS IN AUSTRALIA
Australian PV installations since April 2001: total capacity (kW)30,000,000

2022 – 12
Reported installed capacity (kW): 29,683,253
Estimated installed capacity (kW): 29,821,120

22,500,000

15,000,000

7,500,000

0

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

2018

2020

2022

(Source: Adapted from APVI)|

7

Achieving Net Zero will require a suite ofmechanisms to address policy gaps, open
implementation pathways, develop grid
capacity, advance technology and achievesocial acceptance of the renewable energy
transition. Australia’s current reliance on
importing PV panels exposes our renewableenergy ambitions to external market influences.
The Chinese government recently announced
it is considering limiting exports of advanced
solar technology [5] used to manufacture large
solar wafers, black silicon and ultra-high monocrystalline and multi-crystalline silicon. Suchan outcome has potential to increase importcosts exponentially and impact the renewableenergy transition.
Prices for lithium, cobalt, silicon, steel, aluminiumand copper have also soared recently. A recent
article by PwC [6] predicts the pressure of
the global energy transition and geopolitical
dynamics will further escalate the cost of criticalenergy minerals embedded in renewable
technologies. Overlay the fact that multiple othercountries also have lofty solar energy targets andwill be looking to source products from the same
supplier pool, and an alarming scenario begins
to emerge indicating a looming ‘bull’ market at
its core – to the detriment of solar PV consumers
like Australia.
This paradigm presents an opportunity totransform Australia’s energy, manufacturing
and waste management industries into an
integrated, circular economy as part of therenewable energy transition. Australia is forecast
to have one of the most significant accumulated
PV waste streams in the world [7]. Conversely, thisalso highlights the ready availability of feedstockon hand to kickstart new domestic markets to
respond to this waste stream. A circular economy
for solar energy opens a myriad of opportunities
to re-evaluate Australia’s global contribution toclean energy generation.

8| Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report

Renewables accounted
for 29% of nationalenergy generation in the2021 calendar year.

PV panels – from waste to asset
Australia is forecast to have up to 450,000 tonnesof solar PV panel ‘waste’ requiring some formof management and handling by 2040 [8].
Solar PV panels contain a variety of valuable
materials. A shift towards viewing a PV panel asa valuable resource or asset in preference to‘waste’ will improve both consumer and industry
level understanding of the inherent value of a
PV panel, even if it is not brand new.
Circular PV Alliance (CPVA) has found thatmany PV panels are removed or replaced ataround 10 years old. Although from a limited
data set, these could be seen as the ‘firstwave’ of PV panels installed during Australia’s
incentive-based approach to drive rooftop solar
energy uptake around 2010 which saw a spike ininstallations across the country.
Technological advances have vastly improved
the efficiency of PV panels in the last decade.
Ongoing financial incentives through therenewable energy certificates (RECs) scheme
encourage property owners to replace existing
solar energy systems well before they havereached the end of their design life, and oftenwith much larger systems. A ‘working’ PV panel
still holds inherent value, as discussed later inthis report.

CURRENT TREATMENT OF
USED PV PANELS
Solar PV panels have historically followed a linearor ‘take-make-dispose’ lifecycle (Figure 3) [9] inmost countries, including Australia, which means
most used PV panels have been sent to landfill.
Europe is more advanced in dealing with used
PV panels. In 2012 the European Union revised
its Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment(WEEE) Directive [10] to implement ‘extended
product responsibility’ (ERP) regulations for thecollection and recycling of PV panels, including
setting minimum collection and recovery
targets. Producers and importers of electricaland electronic equipment (including solar PV)
are required to organise (and report on) thecollection and waste treatment of their products,
and the financing of these activities.

Research conducted for this project, includinginterviews with industry stakeholders, indicatedother regulatory, licensing and warranty
arrangements also restrict the re-installationof solar energy systems. For example, one
interviewee described cases where a solar arraymight have been removed (to repaint a roof
for example) and was otherwise safe and fully
operational, but could not be reinstalled due tosuch restrictions.

|

9FIGURE 3: A LINEAR OR ‘TAKE-MAKE-DISPOSE’ PRODUCT LIFECYCLE

TakeResource
extraction

Make
Production
Distribution

Dispose
DisposeConsumption(Source: Adapted from Wautelet,
2018, ResearchGate.)

In Australia and the United States where thistype of legislation has very limited application,
research and feedback from interviewees foundthat attempts at preventing used PV panels fromentering landfill have resulted in vast quantitiesof decommissioned PV panels being stockpiledin warehouses. Recent policy changes and policy
reviews in several states (most notably Victoria,
South Australia and Queensland) now categorise
PV panels as e-waste and subsequently require
specific end-of-life management procedures. In
practice, this diverts ‘whole’ PV panels from being
disposed of at landfill sites however it does notprevent ‘parts’ of solar panels being disposedof in landfill as ‘residual waste’ from recycling
processes, or PV panels being shipped interstate
to circumvent policy requirements.
PV recycling businesses are emerging aroundthe country with differing recycling processesor technologies on offer. Currently, most PV
recycling technologies adopted around the world
focus on recycling materials that consist of the
majority of the weight of the module, such as thealuminium frame, glass and copper, using basic
crushing processes to meet legal requirements[11]. In the most basic scenarios, rudimentary
recycling activities occur to remove only thealuminium frame and the remainder of the
PV panel (and its embedded valuable resources)
is thrown out. This situation highlights possibly
an unintended ‘loophole’ in some policies,and concurrently reinforces the necessity toadopt appropriate compliance frameworks inconjunction with policy mechanisms.

10| Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report

DRIVERS OF USED PV PANELS
There is broad concern amongst
interviewees that functional PV panels arebeing decommissioned before they fail andprior to fulfilling their productive lifespan.
Some interviewees identified there is a trend
for PV panels being decommissioned earlier
and earlier into their lifespan, with functional(undamaged) panels as young as 3 years
old now regularly being removed. In someinstances, PV panels are being removed
before the embodied carbon associated with
manufacturing processes is abated by thepanel’s clean energy generation [12]. PV panels
are generally removed for two main reasons:technical issues (a faulty product or damage
such as from a hailstorm) or consumer-driven
upgrades to new technology.
Renewable energy certificates (RECs)
The Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 [13]was introduced to:• encourage the additional generation ofelectricity from renewable sources,• reduce emissions of greenhouse gases in theelectricity sector,• ensure that renewable energy sources are
ecologically sustainable,• contribute to the achievement of Australia’s
greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets.

The Renewable Energy Target (Figure 4) is an
Australian Government scheme designed toachieve the objectives of the Act and works
by allowing large-scale power stations andthe owners of small-scale systems (such as
residential rooftop arrays) to create ‘renewableenergy certificates’ (RECs) for every megawatt
hour of power they generate. Small-scale
renewable energy systems create small-scaletechnology certificates (STCs) and large-scale
power stations create large-scale generation
certificates (LGCs). These certificates are thenpurchased mostly by electricity retailers tomeet the retailers’ legal obligations (to source
certificates) under the Renewable Energy Target.
The value of an STC is determined, in part, by
the forecast length of time that the PV panel will
be generating clean energy, also known as thedeeming period. The deeming period was set out
by the Renewable Energy Target scheme (witha maximum period of 15 years) and was always
intended to be phased out and cease to apply
by 2030. A panel installed in 2010 for example hasa (capped) 15 year deeming period. ‘15’ is thenused as a multiplier to calculate the number of
STCs the system is eligible for and ultimately,
what discount may be applied to the overall costof the system through the sale of the STCs.

Upgrading to a more productive system in itself
is not necessarily a negative outcome. However
the structure of the RECs scheme (and this ismost prevalent for small scale systems) is thatit allows for the original system and PV panels
to be replaced within the deeming period of theoriginal STCs, with new STCs being attributed(and paid for) again for the same remaining
deeming period. The original STCs may havealready been bought, and could still be boughtin future, for clean energy generation that neveractually occurs.
This has created a commercial model thatsimultaneously promotes the consumption of
new PV panels and actively discourages theuse of used PV panels. This is a linear productlifecycle and is arguably at odds with theobjectives of the Renewable Energy (Electricity)
Act 2000, particularly one of the core objectives
to ensure that renewable energy sources are
ecologically sustainable.

FIGURE 4: AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENTRENEWABLE ENERGY TARGET

STCs can only be claimed against a list of new,accredited PV panels pre-approved by the
Clean Energy Council (CEC). STCs cannot be
claimed for PV panels that have already had
RECs claimed [14], which would include the bulkof PV panels in Australia, including safe andfunctional used ones. This scheme and legislative
framework were designed to create financial
incentives to promote a renewable energy
market in Australia, which it has successfully
done. An unintended consequence over time has
been the generation of discarded PV panels as
consumers (both large and small scale) look to
upgrade their solar energy systems with moreproductive technology.

(Source: Department of Energy, Climate Change, theEnvironment and Water, Australian Government.)|

11

Failure rate of low-quality products

Residual PV panels from new solar farms

Poor quality is another factor driving an increase
in PV ‘waste’. Australia’s incentive-based
approach to promote residential rooftop solar
resulted in a spike in installations and also an
influx of PV panel importers capitalising on theburgeoning market.

Australia’s energy industry, driven predominantly
by Net Zero targets, will rely on large utility scalesolar farms being constructed to achieve theplanned renewable energy transition. Insightsfrom interviewees found that up to 10 – 13% PV
panel damage is allowed for per project.
A 50MW solar PV farm for example may havearound 100,000 PV panels which may result
in up to 13,000 residual PV panels that require
processing. Given this damage allowance,
there is likely to be an increasing availability ofresidual PV panels from solar farm constructionin Australia.

Despite Australian quality standards, someinferior quality PV panels were imported andinstalled throughout Australia. This has createda substantial legacy waste issue which is well
documented in the media and well known toconsumers [15]. With no stewardship scheme inplace, there is no mechanism to determine orenforce accountability.
The type of failure will determine the pathway
for a PV panel, for example, water ingress will
generally result in the PV panel needing to berecycled and embedded resources recovered.
An interviewee provides an example of a type of
failure due to poor quality:
INTERVIEWEE QUOTEIs the backsheet actually anappropriate material? Not justcontact adhesive that they got
from a corner store? These are
all true stories like panels where
the back sheet just falls off withina few weeks in the sun, because
it was made of contact...
The failure of a backsheet however does notnecessarily mean that the PV panel must be
recycled. Refurbishment of the backsheet is apotential option to keep the PV panel functional.
New products are coming to market designed
to repair faulty backsheets instead of replacing
the PV panel [16]. Repair, refurbishment and reusepractices accord with a circular economy andwaste hierarchy which are discussed later inthis report.

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Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report

The nature of the damage determines thepathway of each PV panel for either repair andreuse, or recycling. FabTech Solar Solutions in
the United States is a commercial operation thatreceives used PV panels and processes them todetermine suitability for reuse (including testing,repair if needed and resale) or recycling if the
PV panel has irreparable damage. In addition to
condition, one of the determinants of whether a
PV panel is suitable for reuse is its power output.
Only PV panels of at least 250W are considered
for reuse to meet consumer demands andalso to make the process of preparing a used
PV panel for reuse economically viable, as thecost of a solar PV is partially determined by
its wattage.
In the US market, used PV panels sell for about
25% of the cost of a new one, making themvery appealing to consumers. As Australia
edges closer to 2030 and the end of thedeeming period for STCs, used PV panels may
become an increasingly attractive option forAustralian consumers.

Warranty and insurance claims
Examples were provided by interviewees
around warranty claims for PV panels, where
manufacturers opt to replace the entire array of
PV panels with new ones when there may only bea fault in one or two. Similar examples are known
for insurance claims. There are in-situ testingprocesses that can be undertaken to identify
specific faulty PV panels in an array, however the
relative expense and time to carry out the test
incentivises simply replacing all of the PV panels.
In addition, the RECs scheme only applies when
the full system is replaced, and not on individual
PV panels.
Performance limitations between different
PV panels
The performance of a solar PV array connected
to a common ‘string inverter’ is governed by thecapabilities of the lowest performing panel. For anarray of identically performing PV panels this is not
an issue. When this is not the case, the whole array
loses performance. ‘Optimisers’ can help regulate
the performance disparity between different
PV panels. When only one or some PV panels inan array need to be replaced and identical (orclose to) performing PV panels are not available,
retrofitting optimisers may be beneficial to smooththe generation differential and avoid the need fora brand new system. However, the costs (expertise,parts, labour, time) of supplying and fitting
replacement PV panels (including used ones)
and optimisers, needs to be competitive with thereplacement costs of a brand new system.
More cost effective to replace rather than repair
PV panels
The average rooftop solar PV system size inAustralia is 6.6kW and costs approximately$7,500 [17]. Some sales campaigns advertise
this size system for around $3,500, fully installed.
This price is achieved, in part, through RECs. Thistilts the economics strongly in favour of replacing
an old solar PV system with a new one instead ofrepairing an existing system. Consumer behaviours
are motivated by financial incentives, with 82%
of Australians installing solar PV primarily due tofinancial drivers [18]. Even if the relative cost of a
new set of PV panels is comparable to the cost of
a set of PV panels retrofitted with optimisers (asdiscussed above), consumers will be motivatedby the attraction of a newer product where theperceived better economic value lies. This resultsin older PV panels, although still productive, being
replaced before they reach their end of design life.
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13

The value of a PV panel
The solar PV panel is a transformational
technological innovation. Its ability to generateclean energy from the sun for an extended
period of time rightly justifies its place in a
renewable energy future. Solar energy, whether
generated via new or reused PV panels, has
the potential to play a major role in alleviatingenergy poverty. This means every PV panel is ofvalue to humanity and each PV panel should
generate energy (and provide value to people)
for as long as possible.
From a material perspective, the relative valueof materials in an average silicon solar panel
is 47% silver, 26% aluminium (frame), 11% silicon(cells), 8% glass and 8% copper [19]. The silver
content in PV panels is approximately 20 grams
or 0.1% of a panel’s weight.
Glass represents around 80% of a PV panel’s
weight. Materials recovery from PV panels is a
developing technological space, with different
mechanical and chemical recycling processes
yielding different material recovery rates.
The materials contained within a PV panel
represent a valuable set of resources worthyof recovering.

FIGURE 5: THE PARTS AND MATERIALSOF A PV PANELRELATIVE VALUE OF MATERIALS IN
AN AVERAGE PV PANEL47%

SILVER

26%

ALUMINIUM

11%

SILICON

8

%

GLASS

(Source: The Scientific World)

8%

COPPER

14|

Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry ReportA recent advancement in recycling research
has found a way to extract silicon from solar
cells and process this into high-value nanosilicon [20]. Nano-silicon is used in lithium-ion
batteries and can retail for over $44,000 per
kilogram. Silicon recovery from solar cells andprocessing this into nano-silicon presents avery significant area for ongoing research andcommercialisation.
Recycling is by far the most discussed andpromoted outcome for used PV panels inAustralia. The most common recycling practices
in Australia are considered ‘low recovery’ as
the recovered materials are generally not pureenough to be remanufactured in a new PV panel.
However, material recovery rates and the qualityof recovered materials appears to be improving
both in Australia and overseas. For example, Solar
Recovery Corporation is proposing to establish
materials recovery technology at two sites inQueensland with a >99% material recovery rate[21]. Similarly, SolarCycle, a US based organisation,‘mines’ resources from used PV panels andclaims to extract 95% of the material value froma panel that can then be used to manufacture
new panels [22].

Used PV panels have significant embodied
value in the form of materials and technologicalcapacity to generate clean, low cost energy
over a long period of time. Keeping functional
PV panels in operation for as long as possible
by reusing them and then recycling themto recover resources will reduce the volumeof raw resources needing to be extracted to
manufacture new ones. Thus PV panel reuse andrecycling offers many environmental, economicaland social benefits.

The glass in a PV panel is a very high-quality,
high-transmittance, tempered silicate glass.
Recovering an in-tact sheet of glass from a
PV panel offers significant embedded value due
to its production process and inherent qualities ofstrength, durability and clarity. This is challenging
to achieve though with limited examples ofconsistent success. Potential markets for intact
PV panel glass sheets are unclear, however
greenhouses and specialised construction
projects are potential options. The current main
outcome for solar PV glass is a crushed glass
off-take material generated from recycling
processes. Given the high quality of thesolar glass, high-value applications such as
manufacturing new PV panel glass need further
exploration and will likely emerge as recycling
processes evolve. Other products are coming
to market that utilise the crushed glass as asand replacement in building materials, suchas SolarCrete [23]. Recycling to extract crushed
glass from PV panels is most appropriate where
the glass is damaged and the PV panel cannot
be reused.

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Value-capturing used PV panels
Research has identified that used PV panels haveinherent value, whether that be in the opportunity
to be utilised in a second life application or
through recycling to recover embedded valuable
resources. Systems and/or mechanisms need tobe put in place to capture this value to benefit
Australian industries and consumers.

A circular economic model provides the basis
for a value capture system that responds tothe challenges and opportunities of PV panel
reuse and recycling identified in this research
project. This model involves reuse and recycling
to capture and re-embed value at different
stages of the PV panel lifecycle. It is a shift fromtypical linear consumption typologies andinvolves holistic ‘systems thinking’, where ‘takemake-reuse’ phases loop into a self-sustaining
cycle. The ‘take’ phase is different from the linear
model as inputs are derived from the reuse
phase as opposed to natural resources. This partof the report identifies and discusses importantelements underpinning a circular approach to
managing used PV panels.

FIGURE 6: A CIRCULAR PV PANEL LIFECYCLE WITH KEY DRIVERS BETWEEN EACH PHASECIRCULAR DESIGN
Redistribution

Remanufacturing

Manufacturing

Service networks
Reverse logistics

Take

Distribution

Make

Materials recovery

Consumption

Reuse

CIRCULAR SUPPLYCHAIN

PRODUCTSTEWARDSHIP

Recycling

Collection
Repair &Refurbish

16| Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report

Sorting

REUSE BEFORE RECYCLING
A circular economy calls for reuse prior torecycling. Where a used PV panel is functionalwith potential for redeployment to continue
generating clean energy, then attention needs tobe directed to facilitating that step in the panel’s
lifecycle. The National Waste Policy 2018 [24]outlines a waste hierarchy where the action
taken to manage waste is ordered in preference
starting with avoid and reduce, reuse, recycle,
recover, treat, and lastly dispose. The stages
in a circular economy are mutually sustaining– reusing a PV panel reduces the need to use
a new one, and increasing the efficiency of a
PV panel through design and technology also
reduces the volume of new PV panels required
to generate a unit of energy (and the associatedvolume of resources needing to be extracted
for manufacturing).
Diverting as much material as possible fromlower order levels of the waste hierarchy
avoids overburdening the supply chain andwaste management systems. Presently, waste
management infrastructure and supply chainsare not ready to deal with a high volume of used
PV panels. Once a PV panel is decommissioned it
represents uncertainties for the supply chain, assummarised by an interviewee:
INTERVIEWEE QUOTE…people don’t know what to dowith them…

FIGURE 7: THE WASTE HIERARCHY
Avoid and reduce waste
Reuse waste
Recycle waste
Recover energy
Treat waste
Dispose of waste(Source: National Waste Policy 2018)

The Circular Photovoltaics publication [25]references the ReSOLVE framework – Regenerate,
Share, Optimise, Loop, Virtualise and Exchange– to maximise the use and lifecycle of a PV
panel which largely aligns with the preferences
outlined in the waste hierarchy. These actions
require ‘circular business models’ at each stageof an ‘asset’s’ lifespan to create mutual benefits
amongst stakeholders and enable circular value
chains. This sharing of mutual benefits between
stakeholders could be seen as the convergenceof Australia’s energy, manufacturing and waste
management industries into an integrated,circular economy. A system or scheme to guide
appropriate handling of used PV panels will assist
in facilitating this industry integration.

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17

COLLABORATION IS KEY
Collaboration between all stakeholders including
businesses, investors, industry and policymakers
is central to optimising circular business models
at each stage of the PV panel lifecycle, startingwith circular design [26]. Interviewees expressed
the importance of collaboration in driving
change and identifying solutions. Clever design
can promote reuse and enhance recyclability.
Methods to assure circularity credentials suchas material ‘passports’ and labels, extended
producer responsibility (EPR) and productstewardship schemes, will be most effective
if designed with stakeholders. Public-private
partnerships to create scalable projects andcase studies which validate a ‘circular PV
industry’ are also important, such as the panel
testing pilot project carried out by CPVA andPV Lab.
The bulk of Australia’s solar PV deployment has
occurred over the last decade. Local practices
and research on how to manage discardedsolar PV panels is not well established, but is anarea of increasing focus by government andindustry. The solar energy circular economy
will need to overcome a variety of challenges
specific to local conditions and influences tosucceed. According to interviewees, managing
vast distances and the impact on transport costs
and logistics are important factors in Australia to
consider. The literature and interview feedback
highlighted the need for collaboration between
stakeholders to develop solutions in order tostrengthen the value proposition of the solar
energy circular economy. Doing so will provide
many opportunities to commercialise newservices in relation to:• Logistics for the collection and proper handlingof discarded PV panels to maintain theircondition for potential refurbishment and/or
reuse applications,• Developing new custom designed facilitiesor the integration of PV panel recyclingmachinery into existing waste or e-waste
handling and recycling facilities,• Creation of new supply chains for off-takematerials and manufacturing enterprises,• Developing independent certification
processes and platforms to assure
product circularity.

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Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report

PV LAB AND CPVA PILOTPROJECTIn 2021 CPVA and PV Lab carriedout a pilot project to test a set ofused PV panels against the highest
industry testing standards for safety,
performance and quality. The test
results found that on average, thetested PV panels were still producing
96% of their original name-plate
output, even with some of the
PV panels being over 10 years old.
Micro-cracking was not a major issue
as anticipated. The final assessment
was that the majority of the used
PV panels were suitable for reuse.
The PV panels will be reinstalled forongoing performance monitoring.
The next step is to develop a testing
and certification standard for used
PV panels in conjunction with otherindustry stakeholders to apply
lessons learnt from the pilot project
into a practical real world solution topromote PV panel reuse.

CONSUMERS EXPECTSUSTAINABILITY

POLICY MECHANISMS
ARE IMPORTANT

The circular economy is closely aligned with
consumer trends demanding more ethical andsustainable product choices. There is a growing
expectation that businesses (and this could be
extrapolated out to encompass industries as awhole) need to take a more active role in leading
positive change [27]. Interviewees highlighted
that in the absence of government action,industry stakeholders (such as manufacturers)
were driving PV panel recycling to meetshareholder and consumer expectations
around the sustainability credentials of brands
and businesses.

Other industries are well advanced in dealing
with sector generated waste streams andproduct stewardship and afford many lessons
for consideration by the solar energy sector.
Current examples demonstrate collaboration
between various stakeholders, including
voluntary and co-regulatory arrangements
between industry and government, to bringabout desired behaviours and beneficial
outcomes. One approach to managing used
PV panels is to include them as part of e-waste
management systems. An international example
is the aforementioned WEEE Directive introducedin the European Union. A benefit to this type oflegislative framework is that it enables a range ofservice providers to emerge to assist businesses
meet their regulatory requirements. These service
providers may be commercial businesses or
not-for-profit organisations (such as PV CYCLE
or CPVA through its proposed certification label)that can provide independent assurance ofcompliance with relevant legislation.

In terms of a clean energy future, reducing
emissions and transitioning to renewableenergy sources is one side of the coin – on
the other side is the consumer expectationthat this be achieved sustainably and withintegrity. Achieving Net Zero at the expense ofother social or environmental factors does notmeet consumer expectations and therefore
has commercial limitations. Fortunately, thisparadigm in conjunction with the growing
popularity of solar energy, presents anopportunity to expand on the range of tools andmechanisms that can be deployed concurrently
to drive a circular economy that meets
consumer expectations, including:• Developing product stewardship schemes
will help create an ongoing, improved
consumer perception of solar energy following
recent media coverage of some of theindustry’s shortfalls,• Government funding programs to incentivise
PV panel reuse as a means to achieve ultralow cost solar for domestic and international
communities and alleviate energy poverty,• Landfill bans to divert PV panels into
testing, refurbishment, reuse, resource
recovery and recycling pathways, andassociated certification and assurance
mechanisms to drive new industries and local
market capabilities.

A 2019 study prepared for Sustainability
Victoria and the (then) national photovoltaics
stewardship working group found that a
voluntary or co-regulatory approach for PV panel
product stewardship is feasible and will improve
management of materials and enhanceresource recovery. In July 2019 the Victoriangovernment introduced the Waste Management
Policy (E-waste) [28] given effect under theEnvironment Protection Act 1970 that bans thedisposal of e-waste (including PV panels) into
landfill. The Victorian government provided
funding to support local waste management
facilities adapt to the new e-waste management
requirements. This policy decision has driven thecreation of new businesses and services thatoffer drop-off points and collection services forused PV panels and new recycling operations.

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The scheme has had varying success.
Some drop-off points have reported very low
receivership of used PV panels. The low rate ofparticipation suggests that the voluntary natureof the scheme may need to be reviewed with aview to more mandatory requirements. Anotherissue has resulted from the lack of definition
around what ‘recycling’ means. Interviewees
shared known practices of only the aluminium
frame being salvaged, with the remainder of the
PV panel then dumped at landfill. This is clearly
not in line with the intent of the scheme, buthighlights another area for revision.
The National Television and Computer Scheme(NTCRS) is co-regulatory and run and funded
by industry. Any organisation that makes orimports computers and/or TVs is required to“contribute funds to support the recycling ofthese products” [29]. A central aspect of the
NTCS design centres on collection logistics,
which includes drop off points around Australia
to provide access to 98% of the population.
The collection services range from permanentarrangements in retail outlets or at local wastetransfer station for example, or temporary
one-off event services.
The Battery Stewardship Council launched
B-Cycle Battery Recycling, its battery
stewardship program in February 2022 [30].
The voluntary scheme involves battery importers
paying a levy to fund the scheme and incentives(including accreditation status and rebates)for scheme participants. Like the NTCS, drop off
points are provided as part of a national network.
The scheme is an Australian Government
Accredited Product Stewardship Scheme andis authorised by the Australian Competition& Consumer Commission (ACCC).
These examples demonstrate successin achieving more sustainable productmanagement outcomes in both voluntary andregulated schemes. The Victorian e-waste policy
example highlights the need to clearly articulate
definitions to ensure the desired outcomes areachieved. A central theme is also the need for a‘network’ of touch points to access the system.

20|

Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry ReportINTERVIEWEE QUOTE…once it [PV panel reuse]
becomes the norm, there’dbe less resistance with it…

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21

Reusing and recycling used
PV panels
Understanding the barriers and drivers behind
PV panel reuse and recycling markets will provide
an effective foundation from which to build an
effective circular economic model for PV panels.
Insights from the literature review and interviews
found that there are four (4) main categories togroup the barriers and drivers: Policy, Consumers,
Industry and Legal. These categories also serve to
identify potential roles and responsibilities.

REUSING PV PANELS
PV panel reuse is a fledgling market that has
potential for significant growth. There is a small
market for used PV panels in Australia on second
hand goods trading platforms such as Facebook
Marketplace, Trading Post and Gumtree. A reviewof these platforms indicates that most used
PV panels for sale appear to be from residential
installations where the original solar array has
been removed and upgraded to a new one. It is
not known if any testing (for safety, performanceor otherwise) was performed on the usedPV≈panels for sale. Other online used PV panel
marketplaces around the world include Solar
Wholesale LLC, Salvex, Second Sol and Alibaba.
In the United States, a collaboration between
FabTech Solar Solutions [31] and SanTan Solar
provides a cleaning, testing, refurbishment/
repair and resale process for used PV panels.
Refurbished PV panels are offered as low-costsolar energy products for consumers. A 1-year
repair and workmanship warranty is offered oneach used PV panel sold.
Research has found that there is a divergence inperceived barriers around PV panel reuse. This islargely influenced by local market conditions,which influences consumer behaviours.
In Australia, where solar energy is partiallysubsidised through RECs and subsequently
relatively cheap (about AU$0.97/watt)[32],consumers are accustomed to low-cost PV
panel products. Thus, the focus in Australia ismore on the safety or performance aspect ofused PV panels, given there is little concern about
the cost of PV panels.
Safety and performance concerns can bealleviated through appropriate testing, repair/

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Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report

refurbishment and certification processes, andintroducing liability/warranty mechanisms tomeet Australian consumer expectations.
In the United States the solar PV market isvery different. Consumers in the US pay about
AU$3.40/watt [33] for new PV panels. Researchshows that used PV panels in the US sell foraround 25% of the cost of a brand new one.
The used PV panel market then becomes very
competitive simply by providing a lower
price-point in comparison in brand new
PV panels. Operators in the US market are
therefore motivated to source used PV panels at
low cost and focus on efficiencies in logistics toachieve a good profit margin.
The market conditions in the US potentially offera glimpse into the solar energy future in Australia
beyond 2030 after the STC deeming period ends.
If brand new PV panels become more expensive
in Australia it is likely that demand for quality
used PV panels will increase.
A more recent practice has emerged in Australia
whereby used PV panels, including damaged
and unworking ones, are loaded into shipping
containers and sent to overseas buyers. It is
understood that the intent is, in most cases,
to provide PV panels for solar energy projects
in developing countries, which is a worthwhilecause. This is a two-fold problem for Australia:
on one hand we are sending large numbersof PV panels that actually do not work andmay be unsafe, to countries that have no
infrastructure or services to responsibly handle
these broken panels, and we could be seen
to be imposing a waste burden on other lesscapable communities. On the other hand, highly
valuable resources embodied in each PV panel
are being sent out of Australia and out of ourown commercial resource recovery and PV panel
reuse markets.
Keeping used PV panels in Australia for reuse,recycling and resource recovery (and eventually
to manufacture new PV panels) as a first priority
is essential to driving a thriving domestic market
in Australia. At a minimum, testing used PV panels
for safety and performance prior to export or
local application is a necessary part of the solar
energy circular economy.

Barriers to PV panel reuse
Potential and perceived barriers to PV panel
reuse need to be overcome to build a robust
circular economy and associated productstewardship framework that will drive a used
PV panel market. Our research uncovered
several barriers to PV reuse:

Policy• The current RECs scheme is perceived ascompetition to PV panel reuse as it provides
financial incentives to use only new PV panels,• The current RECs scheme does not‘incentivise quality’ in terms of mechanicalstrength and energy output performance(certain old panels are generally stronger
than some of the newer models),• Resistance from levels of government to havereused PV panels in community projects inAustralia because of the unknown history,
safety or performance attributes of used
PV panels.

Consumers• Reuse is perceived to cost more thanrecycling a PV panel, particularly if testing forsafety and/or performance is required,• Perceived safety concerns, including fire risk,• Perceived as an inferior product,• Perception that consumers prefer new
technology,• Lack of information about thedecommissioned PV panel and consumers
desire to understand its condition and history.

Industry• The logistics of receiving and processing PV
panels for reuse at a commercially viable scale,• Lack of certification and standards for reused
PV panels,• Potential for faulty panels,• Manufacturers’ hesitation for PV panel reuse.

Legal• Legal agreements with manufacturers thatare hesitant about PV panel reuse,• Perceived liability issues, warranty limitations
and compliance for residential use,
• Perception that insurance companies will not
accept used PV panels for insurance work,• Uncertainty for installers around liability andresponsibilities regarding installing used panels.

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23

Drivers for PV panel reuse
Despite the barriers mentioned previously,
the literature and interviewees offer many
drivers for PV reuse. This shows the landscapeis improving in favour of PV panel reuse.
A growing spotlight on product stewardshipand a market shift towards circular businessmodels will support PV panel reuse inconjunction with the following factors:

Policy• Growing political interest in promoting
circular economy solutions for industry,• Current policy and support for renewableenergy (such as Net Zero Target) can
expand to include sustainable productlifecycles,• The forthcoming end of the deeming period
for STCs will end/reduce incentives to install
new solar energy systems.

Consumers• Consumers are demanding moresustainable and ethical products andservices,• Some older PV panels are of a provenquality to consumers, are robust and madeto last many years,

INTERVIEWEE QUOTE

Members of the supply chain
are compelled to participate
in stewardship schemes
to be seen to be ‘doing theright thing’.

• After the deeming period ends it will becheaper to fix a PV panel than make a
new one which makes reused PV panels
attractive to consumers,• Examples from around the world show
repair warranties for used PV panels satisfy
consumers.

Industry• Global market influences (such as China
halting export of solar cell technology,
waste import/export bans) provide
reason to establish and expand domestic
industries,• Most used PV panels still work, and they are
predominantly being removed for reasons
other than performance,• Most used panels are generally easier tohandle as they often weigh less than newones and are smaller in size.

Legal• Examples from around the world show thatremoving the serial numbers from used
PV panels and offering repair warranties
satisfies PV panel manufacturers concerns
about liability and warranty,• Introduction of landfill bans and otherpolicies that support reuse and recycling.

24|

Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry ReportKnown markets for used PV panels
Used PV panels are being utilised in a range of
projects and by organisations both domesticallyand abroad. Current applications and markets
for used PV panels include:• Low-cost solar carpark roofing,• Urban non grid applications such as footpath
and public park lighting,• Low-cost solar energy products in overseas
retail markets,

The Gippsland Climate Change
Network (GCCN) has been
investigating opportunities for used
PV panels. In the report Recycling
and Reuse of Solar Panels from2021, the GCCN found that the prime• Community energy projects by charities,

markets for used PV panels include• Uninhabited dwellings related to community
groups (that generally do not have muchfunding) such as sporting facilities, Scout halls,
community garden etc.

DC systems for caravans and• Overseas exports into developing countries inAfrica, the Middle East and Asia, although this isproving problematic as previously mentioned,

communities or farming applications• Agriculture infrastructure such as solar pumps,
farm irrigation etc.

touring applications and off-grid
AC installations such as remote(such as a remote pump). The key
reasons for this being that used
PV panels cannot be installed by a

• Solar farms and off grid solar gardens,

CEC approved installer on habitable• Outdoor recreation activities such as
camping/caravanning, fishing, boating,buildings and they are not eligible for• Repurposed applications, such as
PV panel tables with USB charging ports.
The continued operation of these activities needs
to be supported to develop a circular economy.
This will be achieved by bringing rigour andcertainty regarding safety and performanceof used PV panels. Facilitating easy access tolower order circular economy processes suchas recycling (once a PV panel can no longer beused for energy generation) is also an importantfeature of the circular model.

STCs. As such, the GCCN is targeting
uninhabited dwellings such as town
halls, sports facilities and farm houses
for used solar panel projects including
a local pony club and groundmounted solar gardens.

Interviewees also stated that a prescribed
level of testing and related certification forused PV panels similar to that required for new
PV panels that are imported into Australia would
be appropriate.

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25

RECYCLING PV PANELSAside from being sent to landfill and thehandful that may be resold on informal usedgoods platforms, recycling has been themost common outcome for a used PV panelin Australia.

Policy• Lack of effective policy mechanisms toencourage or enforce recycling,• Lack of transparency and reporting
obligations for recycling companies.

Barriers to PV panel recycling
Research has found that the lack of aformal policy framework is the main barrier
to PV panel recycling. Lack of consumer
knowledge around recycling practices
or what happens to a PV panel one it isremoved is also a limiting factor. Logistics
and transport are also challenging. Overseas
recycling and recovered materials markets
are more mature than in Australia and thosemarkets are expanding. Key barriers to PV
recycling include:

INTERVIEWEE QUOTE

Collecting is not recycling,
waste management is notrecycling.

Consumers• Low trust in PV panel recycling practices
and claims about material recovery rates
by recyclers,• Historically low interest and knowledge
by consumers about PV recycling (this ischanging).

Industry• Immature or non-existent markets forrecovered materials,• Recycling processes require high energy
input which results in a poor lifecycle
assessment score (which means current
recycling practices have a notableenvironmental impact).

Legal• Lack of licensing requirements or industry
standards for PV panel recyclers,• No tracking of decommissioned PV panels
to confirm they are recycled,• Australia’s commitments underinternational agreements, such as the Basel
Convention are unclear.

26|

Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry ReportDrivers for PV panel recycling
PV panel recycling is already underway andis the most common activity in the PV panel
circular economy. A largely self-defined sector
at present, PV panel recycling will benefit fromdefinition standardisation to clarify PV panel
recycling activities. This will assist to map out
key stakeholders and value chains, capture
opportunities for growth and overcome
potential barriers.

Policy• Landfill bans and supportive policy andlegislative frameworks, including productstewardship schemes and extended
producer responsibility (EPR).

Consumers• Consumers are demanding moresustainable and ethical products andservices.

Industry• Emerging markets and applications forclean materials recovery (like glass inconstruction products),• A growing feedstock of used PV panels
resulting from solar farm construction
damage, faults or upgrades,• Growing interest in domestic PV panel
recycling capabilities to strengthen the
sector against global influences, such aswaste import/export bans,• PV panels are a potential source for nanosilicon which retails for around $44,000/kg,• Strong commodity trading market foraluminium (year average around US$2,300/
tonne), aluminium maintains its quality
after recycling processes,• Resource scarcity for materials used to
manufacture PV panels which increases
market value and demand and makes
resource recovery more attractive,• Growing interest in domestic PV panel
manufacturing capabilities.

Legal• PV panel manufacturers have generally
preferred their products to be recycled(instead of reused) to limit potential liability.

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Creating a successful market
for used PV panels
A successful market for used PV panels requires clarity andcertainty around responsibilities and expected behaviours
that are understood by stakeholders, market participants
and consumers alike. Clear parameters for activities andservices throughout the PV panel lifecycle will provide
opportunities for circular business models across the value
chain. Ideal principles to guide the establishment of aneffective used PV panel market include:

Transparency

Assurance

Incentivised• Definitions of what
activities and services
form part of used PV
panel circular economy,such as ‘repair’, ‘recycle’,‘refurbish’, ‘recover’ etc.

• Standards for testing,repairing/refurbishing,classifying and certifying
used PV panels that areindustry agreed andindependently verifiable,• Reward operators andstakeholders in domestic
supply and value chains
within the solar energy
circular economy,• Expectations aroundresource recovery rates
and quality of recoveredresources,• Accreditation
requirements for service
providers undertaking
used PV panel testing
and certification
activities, and PV panel
recycling,• A clear productstewardship or extended
producer responsibility(EPR) framework
including regulation
where necessary to
appoint responsibilities,
promote complianceand accountability,• Inter-state coordination
to ensure consistency ofpolicy and compliance.

28|• Warranties for used PV
panels including repair
workmanship andperformance guarantees
from manufacturers,• Traceability and accessto data relating to used
PV panels including test
results, certification andclassification status, andalso for PV panels sent
for recycling.

Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report• Fund ongoing
innovation, researchand development todrive efficiency acrossthe circular economy,
particularly aroundmaking testing quick andaffordable and building
logistics capabilities,• Consideration of a similarRECs type framework to
support PV panel reuse
and recycling.

PUSH AND PULL MECHANISMS
Research indicates that a combination ofregulatory requirements and supportive
voluntary incentives can be used to drive acircular economy for solar energy. As previously
mentioned, some PV panel manufacturers
currently opt-in to recycling arrangements fortheir products as part of ESG (environmental,social, and governance) initiatives and market
differentiation. This approach appears to be
increasingly beneficial for those brands andbusinesses by enhancing their competitiveness,particularly in relation to sustainability
requirements in government contracts.
Levels of government play an important rolein enabling desired behaviours and driving
industry change. At the national level, thegovernment needs to define the process(product stewardship, EPR etc) and issue
guidelines so that stakeholders understandtheir responsibilities. Policy mechanisms such assustainable procurement (as mentioned above),industry reporting requirements, and funding
support are other examples. Clear standards andrequirements simplifies risk profiling and provides
certainty for market stakeholders. Victoria’s
approach of assisting local councils develop
supporting infrastructure for handling e-waste
is a positive example of supporting behaviourchange to achieve the intended outcomes of its
new e-waste policy.
Regulations on PV recycling can unlock
domestic production and manufacturing
capacity as material flows can be directed todevelop potential markets for recycling offtake materials. Effective regulation requires alevel of enforcement. The use of disincentives
or penalties needs to be carefully considered.
Indirect disincentives can be achieved througha cleverly designed incentive scheme to provide
pull mechanisms, encourage self-determination
by industry stakeholders and avoid excessive‘red-tape’ or perceived over-interference in themarket by government.
For voluntary programs, disincentives could
include import restrictions on international
PV panel manufacturers and other market
restrictions for domestic manufacturers that
do not participate in the voluntary productstewardship or EPR scheme.

Offering incentives for retailers and wholesalers
to only sell or promote brands that participate
in the stewardship or EPR scheme are also
indirect incentives to brands to encourage
participation [34]. However, the sheer volumeof used PV panels entering waste streams in
the near future infers that a level of mandatorycompliance in combination with incentives islikely appropriate. Mandatory requirements may
also prevent the export of broken PV panels tooverseas communities, as previously mentioned.
Another recent study [34] supports the researchfindings from this project that assuring the safety
and performance of used PV panels is critical todriving a market for used PV panels. Providing thisassurance requires some form of certification like
a compliance certificate, as previously discussed
in this report. The assurance framework isunderpinned by a product identification andtraceability platform to confirm complianceand satisfy consumers’ expectations for industry
integrity (Figure 8).

FIGURE 8: AN EXAMPLE OF A POTENTIAL
FRAMEWORK TO CERTIFY USED PV PANELS

Certifier(licensed)

Retailer/
Installer

Private User

Installer/
Collector

Recycler(licensed)

Manufacturer

Commercial
User

WEEE B2B Type
Agreement

SerialNumber
tracked byregulator/
PRO

Source: Adapted from Majewski, Deng,
Dias & Jones, AIMS Press Energy, 2023|

29

NEW MARKET OPPORTUNITIESAND SERVICES
The circular model for PV panels in Australia will work
most effectively across a network of service providers
to respond to logistics, geographical distances andeconomies of scale needed to build the circular economy.
There are various stakeholders in the PV panel circular
economy and other congruent sectors (such as
manufacturing) that can play single or multiple roles
according to their preferences and capabilities:

ELECTRICAL CONTRACTORS

PV panel decommissioning andpackaging for transfer, installation of used
PV panels.

LOCAL TRANSPORTOPERATORS

Collection and transfer ofdecommissioned residential PV panels.

INTERSTATE TRANSPORTOPERATORS

Bulk transfer of decommissioned PV
panels.

USED PV PANEL PROCESSORS
Receiving and processing used PV panels
for reuse including testing, refurbishment/
repair work, certifying and rebadging
ready for resale.

ONSITE TECHNICIANS

The size/scale of a PV panel installationthat requires decommissioning may
require onsite processing for more
economical solutions.

RECYCLERSDismantling and processing PV panels
to recover embedded resources as
feedstock for other markets.

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Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report

RETAILERSSale of reused PV panels including storingand online marketing.

MANUFACTURERS

Utilise recovered parts, materials andresources to re/manufacture new items.

METAL PRODUCERS

Melting and purification of recovered
metals.

TECH DEVELOPERS

Product identification and tracing
applications to assure the legitimacyof tested/certified used PV panels andrecycled products.

CONSULTANTS

To assist in the establishment of new

businesses and guide organisations to meet
regulatory requirements.

RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS

To undertake ongoing research andinnovation projects in conjunction withindustry.

INTERVIEWEE QUOTE

If we can get consumer
protection right and good
testing cost effective, thenreuse is a better outcome
than recycling.

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Recommendations
The key finding from this research is that
establishing a circular economy for PV panels
does not need to involve ‘re-inventing the wheel’.
Multiple strategies exist with proven performancein improving circularity. What is required is acollaborative, cohesive approach to assemble
all the pieces of the puzzle together. Thereare examples of policy, legislation, regulatory
frameworks, stewardship schemes, incentives
and effective commercial models alreadydeveloped and successfully implemented thatcan be integrated and made fit for purpose for acircular economic model for PV panels. A primeexample is the policy and legislative package
comprising the Renewable Energy (Electricity)
Act 2000, Renewable Energy Target andRenewable Energy Certificates which stimulated
Australia’s rooftop solar sector.
Ongoing consultation and collaboration withindustry stakeholders will further overcome
barriers and identify solutions, including
customised application of these existing
frameworks and mechanisms. The drivers for PV
panel reuse and recycling identified in this report
substantiate a circular economy for PV panels
and support the effort underway to achieve this.
These recommendations are intended to buildon the work already undertaken to develop
a more sustainable solar energy industry
through different policy frameworks, legislative
mechanisms or product stewardship studies.
The recommendations reflect insights obtained
from industry stakeholders and literature andhave both practical and technical relevance.

A CONSISTENT, NATIONALAPPROACH
Building on the principles of Transparency,
Assurance and Incentivised, a consistent national
approach to policy and compliance measures
will create clear parameters for used PV panel
markets. This consistent approach could beachieved through either a product stewardshipscheme or extended producer responsibility(EPR). As part of an integrated approach, it would
be beneficial to align with parallel initiatives,
such as the Australian Silicon Action Plan, theNational Reconstruction Fund and international
conventions (Basel for example) that Australia issignatory to.
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Reclaimed PV Panels Market Assessment Industry Report

It is recommended that work currently underway
in this context, if it does not already do so, coverthese matters:

Clear definitions
Prepare a set of clear definitions of activities
undertaken by service providers and what
phase of the circular economy that the activities
are completed in, to avoid ‘green-washing’ or
confusion, including but not limited to:• What does it mean to repair or refurbish
a used PV panel for reuse?
• What does it mean to recycle a PV panel?
Or recover materials? What percentage ofresource recovery from PV panels constitutes
satisfactory ‘recycling’ for a scheme?
• What are the determining factors for whether
a used PV panel may be suitable for reuse or
recycling?

Standards
Setting standard requirements is anothermeans of creating a transparent environment
for the circular economy to operate within.
Standards could be developed for processes(such as how to test a used PV panel forsuitability for reuse). Standards could also be
developed to specify minimum levels of material
recovery and minimum value of recoveredmaterials (to avoid downcycling) from PV panel
recycling processes (also relates to definition
above) to be considered an accredited ‘PV panel
recycler’. An important factor is to also consider
established standards’ potential applicability
and use. Further engagement with industry
stakeholders, particularly those with relevant
technical, commercial and practical expertise,
will assist in developing these standards.

Certification / Accreditation
Certification will provide assurance that thepredefined standards for testing (and classifying)used PV panels have been met. Accreditation will
provide assurance that the service providers
certifying the products are following thecorrect standards.

Reporting
Reporting serves the dual purpose of maintaining
trust between various stakeholders (service
providers, consumers etc) and also in tracking
the success of the stewardship scheme inachieving better, more sustainable outcomes for
PV panels. Auditing and reporting are necessary
to confirm compliance with certification
requirements and standards in order to maintainaccreditation. The regularity of reporting requires
further investigation and needs to be considered
in conjunction with developing certification andaccreditation requirements.

Consumer Education
There is an opportunity to build on consumer
expectations for more sustainable products
and services. A consumer education andcommunication campaign will reinforce theneed for and benefits of PV panel reuse andthe steps being taken by industry (throughtesting and certification for example) to addressconcerns and build consumer trust.

PRODUCT STEWARDSHIP NEEDSTO INCLUDE PV PANEL REUSE
There is already work underway at a national
level and to an extent at state level to develop
systems and mechanisms to improve the handlingof used PV panels. It is recommended that thiswork incorporates a full circular economy view ofsolutions for used PV panels. ”Reuse” is a criticalpart of achieving circularity and involves promoting
and supporting PV panel reuse prior to recycling ormaterial recovery processes. The “reduce” phaseof the circular economy needs to include looking at
options on how to keep functional PV panels in-situ
for as long as possible. Associated with that will
involve considering product quality and longevity/
lifespans as part of the stewardship model.
As demonstrated in this report, the perceived
barriers to reusing PV panels can be overcome.
There is a market for quality used PV panels
and the focus needs to shift to building aframework that satisfies the various stakeholders
involved in this market, including consumers,
PV panel manufacturers, insurers and otherservice providers.

FURTHER RESEARCH
Like all consumer markets, consumer demand isa fundamental part of the used PV panel market.
Understanding the potentially broad and varied
needs to this market will assist in identifying thebest and most effective methods of attracting
and retaining a strong consumer base for used
PV panels, particularly the reuse market. It is
recommended that further research include:• Specific research to identify and engage
with a broad range of potential consumers
about their perceptions, preferences andrequirements when considering reusing
PV panels,• Targeted engagement with the insurance
sector to better understand any potential or
perceived barriers held by the sector regardingused PV panels, and identify suitable solutions
to mitigate these perceived barriers,• Targeted engagement with PV panel
manufacturers to better understandperceived barriers regarding PV panels
being reused after being removed from theinitial installation, and discuss the solutions
presented in this report (such as de-branding
and repair workmanship warranties) or any
other solutions to mitigate these perceived
barriers,• Specific research into developing andapplying warranties for PV panels that are
sold for reuse, including clearly settingout when legal/warranty obligations of PV
panel manufacturers end and the chainof ownership and responsibility for used
PV panels,• Defining an appropriate process for testingused PV panels to determine suitability forreuse applications, and how best this testing
information can be held (in a central databasefor example) and the life of the PV panel
tracked.

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34|

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