学術研究論文

Intention of Paratransit Drivers to Operate as Feeder Service of
Public Bus in Phnom PenhThis paper investigates the attitudes of paratransit drivers towards the newly-introduced public bus
in Phnom Penh and their intention to operating as feeder service of the bus. We developed astructural equation model using data collected from drivers of Motodops and Remorks. We foundthat Motodop drivers intended to operate as feeder service of the bus, regardless their attitudes
towards the bus. Remork drivers cautiously anticipated the negative impacts of the bus on theirlivings and accordingly, they had no intention for its feeder service. A better regulation onparatransit service was likely to encourage intention of feeder service.

Keywords

Feeder service, Mass transit, Paratransit, Phnom Penh,
Structural equation modeling

ポン・ヴェン・キェン

博士（工学）
  一般財団法人運輸政策研究機構運輸政策研究所研究員

屋井鉄雄

工学博士

（一般財団法人運輸総合研究所総合研究部研究員）

Veng Kheang PHUN

東京工業大学大学院総合理工学研究科長

YAI, Tetsuo

1──Introduction
Paratransit plays a signiﬁcant role in urban mobility context in Asian developing countries,
because it provides flexible and personalized
transport services to general citizens in needs
with certain levels of service quality and reasonable fare. Paratransit assists the social economic
activities through its service availability and job
opportunities for the poor or low-skilled people1).
In addition, the operations of paratransit require
little policy intervention and public investment or
subsidy2). To some extent, the paratransit operations yield negative effects such as trafﬁc congestion, trafﬁc accidents, and air pollution3).
The concept of paratransit differs among developed and developing countries4). Paratransit often
refers to demand-responsive transport services forthe elderly and disabled in the developed countries5). In Asian developing countries, paratransit
refers to indigenous public transport mode that is
locally adapted, modiﬁed, and perhaps advanced(i.e., LAMAT) for a certain transport service in aparticular city or region6). In Phnom Penh, paratransit includes Cyclo, Motodop, Remork, andLong-tailed Remork.
In Asian developing countries, the existing paratransit system is not thoroughly established andmanaged for easy coordinated services with masstransit system7). Lack of connectivity among public transport modes increases transfer time andtravel time, which in turn, reducing satisfaction
for intermodal passengers. In most cities of Asiandeveloping countries, the operations of public
transport modes are independent among operators.
002

運輸政策研究 Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer

The independent operations often cause competition among modes, while possibly contributing to
duplicated transport services and uneconomical
operations8). These issues would become morecritical, since the governments of many Asiandeveloping countries have considered the operations of modern mass transit system, including
bus rapid transit (BRT), light rail transit (LRT),and mass rapid transit (MRT). Either a newly
introduction or an expansion of a mass transit
system has substantial impacts on the existing
paratransit services. Consequently, questions areraised whether the paratransit system should be
eliminated, or it should be promoted with better
service performance and less negative impacts9).
The impacts of mass transit on paratransit services would be regarded as serious without
appropriate countermeasures provided to theimpacted operators. When the impacted operators have bigger strength opposing to the implementation plan of the mass transit system, it
would possibly derail the project itself. Thisshows the importance of the co-existence among
urban public transport system (paratransit andmass transit). The co-existence should be madewhen the impacts of mass transit on paratransit
are satisfactorily minimized and when the consensus among all transport operators is properly
established. Alternatively, transport policy makers
should consider how to integrate the paratransit
system into the whole public transport system10).
In fact, when mass transit system is considered
and implemented, paratransit could function as
feeder mode by ﬁlling the gaps of transport services between mass transit system and private
学術研究論文vehicles4), 11). Since the paratransit services havebeen established to facilitate the poor accessibility in Asian developing countries, the potential
role of paratransit as feeder mode of a mass transit
system should be considered because it provides
at least five benefits. First, paratransit provides
intermodal passengers with easy accessibility andbetter connectivity among modes. Second, paratransit supports the last mile solutions to thedevelopment of fixed transit system in term ofcollecting/distributing passengers from/to thestops or stations. Third, feeder service could promote the ridership for both paratransit and masstransit. Fourth, paratransit fulfills the transport
needs by general people with reasonable fareand service quality. And ﬁfth, paratransit maintains the employment opportunities within paratransit operators.
A number of studies can be found for feeder services12), 13), but only a few exists in Asian developing countries. For example, Satiennam et al.7)
demonstrated that having a good organizing
feeder and parking facilities for paratransit to a
BRT system would improve the route network
performance with lower emission of air-polluting
level. The improvements on accessibility and connectivity, through the integration between paratransit and mass transit systems, are also shownto increase user satisfaction level14), 15). While several
studies assessed the sustainability of paratransit
service from the viewpoints of passengers2), 16), 17)(e.g., user satisfaction, perceived service quality,and behavioral intention), only few paid attention
to the paratransit operators-related aspects suchas job satisfaction, job mobility, and quality oflife18)-20). Moreover, previous studies assessed thepossibility of implementing paratransit as feeder
mode to a mass transit system from the user perspective14), 15) (e.g., user satisfaction). However,there is no known study simultaneously investigating the attitudes of paratransit divers (from theoperator perspectives) towards the implementation of mass transit system as well as their intention of operating paratransit as feeder mode ofthat system.
This study explores the attitudes of paratransit
drivers towards a newly-introduced mass transit
system and their intention to operate as feeder
service of mass transit system. Phnom Penh, thecapital city of Cambodia, is selected as a casestudy. The recently introduced public bus service
in Phnom Penh in early 2014 might have brought
concerns to the existing paratransit drivers, especially those who operate along the bus routes21).
In line with this situation, we are interested on
how do drivers perceptually react to the recent
bus service in the city; more speciﬁcally, whether
学術研究論文they have intention to provide feeder service tothe bus stops. The attitudes of paratransit drivers
are investigated under a structural equation modeling (SEM), using data collected from an interview survey with paratransit drivers in Phnom
Penh. The targeted paratransit modes are
Motodop (1-2 passengers) and Remork (2-6 passengers), which provide ﬂexible transport services
to general citizens on a non-fixed route, nonﬁxed timetable, non-shared ride, and negotiable
fare basis. The outcomes of this study provide
transport relevant authorities/planners with useful
information about the intention of feeder service
to the new implementation or expansion of amass transit system, from the viewpoints of paratransit drivers.

2──Public Transport in Phnom Penh
2.1 Public Bus

After the Khmer Rouge Regime and civil war in
the 1970s, more transport infrastructures inPhnom Penh have been gradually reconstructed
and improved. Phnom Penh is now home formore than two millions citizens, while increasing
trend of urban motorization is observed. The
number of registered vehicles is more than 3.7
times compared to 200021). Like other Asiandeveloping cities, Phnom Penh faces serious traffic problems such as traffic congestion, traffic
accidents, and air pollution22)-24). The problems
have increased the travel time and cost, andslowed down the economic activities. To remedy
the problems, the government has consideredseveral alternative modes of mass transit systems(e.g., BRT, Tramway, Public bus), but only the
public bus service has been actually introducedin the city.
In June 2001, Phnom Penh Capital Hall and Japan
International Cooperation Agency ( JICA) once
tested the public bus service as a demonstrationfor one month. The bus was demonstrated as apart of JICA study in order to comprehensively
develop the urban transport system for Phnom
Penh. Twenty-three air-conditioned minibuses (29seats) were operated along two major roads(Monivong Boulevard and a ring road) with thetotal length of about 17 km21). Two ﬂat fares were
implemented: 500 KHR (≅ 0.13 USD, as exchange
rate of June 2001) for the ﬁrst 5 days and the last
8 days, and 800 KHR (≅ 0.21 USD). The daily
average numbers of bus users were 4687 for 500
KHR and 2738 for 800 KHR. However, the bus
was shut down after one month extension, mainly due to the ﬁnancial matter25).
In February 2014, the Capital Hall and JICA again
Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer 運輸政策研究003

tested the public bus service for one month. A
ﬂeet of 10 air- conditioned buses (35 seats) was
operated along Monivong Boulevard with a total
length of 7.5 km21). With a ﬂat fare of 1500 KHR(≅ 0.37 US$, as exchange rate of February 2014),
the average number of daily bus users was 1546.
The bus fare in 2014 was higher than that in2001. The higher fare was deﬁned based on theincreased gasoline price and the usersʼ mostacceptable fare level26). The bus was introduced,
but there are insufﬁcient infrastructures to support its smooth operation. For instance, most of
the bus stops are on the roadsides that have beenlabeled as “Bus Stop” with lane marking and astation pole. Among 36 bus stops, only five ofthem had shelters and seats. There are no speciﬁc(paratransit) stations for intermodal passengers.
Further, the bus was operated with slow speed in
the mixed traffic. The general traffic volume
along Monivong Boulevard has increased bymore than 34.0% since 2000, and the average
operating speed of the bus was also observed todecrease from 13.9 km/h in 2001 to 9.9 km/h in2014.
Although the average number of daily bus users
in 2014 was lower than that in 2001, the bus service was later extended and the servicing route
was expanded from one to three routes, with a
total length of 51.5 km and 43 buses21), see Figure—1. Later, more bus stops have been improved
with shelters and seats. From October 2014, a farediscount policy has been implemented. The bus
service is free for specific groups of bus users
including students, children, and the disabled
persons. With this fare policy, the average number■ Figure —1004

 he public bus routes and the survey locations
Tin Phnom Penh

運輸政策研究 Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summerof daily bus users for all three bus lines has substantially increased from about 2500 to more than
6000, but about 40.0% of them are free riders.
The bus fare alone could not cover the bus operational cost. This time, the government shows
strong supports for the public bus service asnecessity for the development of Phnom Penh,but the funding sources remain unclear.
2.2 Paratransit

Prior to the availability of the public bus service
in Phnom Penh, citizens mainly depend on paratransit as public transport modes. In 2012, themodal share of paratransit was 13.4% and wasprojected to be 11.4% in 203526). The lower shareof paratransit is expected due to the implementation plans of formal public transport modes suchas public bus and railway system. Despite thepresence of the bus service since 2014, the paratransit services remain indispensable. Figure—2
shows the most popular paratransit modes inPhnom Penh: Motodop and Remork. Motodop,
the so-called motorcycle taxi, is the most commonly mode used. With relatively small-sized
vehicle, Motodop could provide the fastest andﬂexible transport services. Motodop typically carries two adults and one child at maximum.
Remork was originally formed from a small trailer
pulled by a bicycle, which was later substituted
by a motorcycle.
Until recent years, Remork, the two-wheeled carriage pulled by a motorcycle, has gained its popularity due to its larger transport capacity of 2-6
passengers, safer transport service, and more
comfort6). In Phnom Penh from 2001 to 2011, themodal share of Motodop has decreased from
19.0% to 8.0% whereas the share of Remork has
increased from 6.0% to 9.0%27). The reasons forchoosing Motodop include shorter travel time
(37.0%), lower fare (36.0%), and no choice(8.0%)26). The reasons for choosing Remork
include safety (41.0%), comfort (19.0%), and lower
fare (10.0%). In addition, Motodops and Remorks
can be found anywhere in the city streets, including major intersections, bus stops, and shopping
malls.
Besides, Cyclo is a three-wheeled vehicle powered by a human. It could carry two passengers■ Figure — 2

Common paratransit modes in Phnom Penh

学術研究論文with movable weather-protected roof. It is usedmainly for a short-distance trip. The popularity of
Cyclo has gradually declined due to its slow speed,
while sometimes it is considered as inhumanworking condition. Cyclo is now mostly used for
tourism purpose. Other types of paratransit
modes include long-tailed Remorks which areoperated on fixed suburban roads, mini-trucks
which transport factory workers, and Taxi whichis available for general people. Among all theexisting paratransit modes, this study mainly
focuses on Motodop and Remork, the most active
public transport modes in Phnom Penh.
2.3 Governance of Motodop and Remork

Currently, there is no formal control over the paratransit operations in Phnom Penh. Particularly,
owners of Remorks are required to register theirvehicles with the Department of Public Work andTransport. In 2012, the total number of Remorksin Phnom Penh was approximately 6000 26).
However, the number of Motodops remains
unknown because there is no ofﬁcial control orrecord over the operations of Motodops (e.g.,license and registration). Anyone own a motorcycle can become a driver of Motodop if he or
she wants to do so. Some drivers provide theMotodop service only as a secondary source ofincome. The potential number of Motodops inoperations was believed to be close to the number of registered motorcycles in Phnom Penh(e.g., about 828000 in 2011). But this number is
not trustworthy.
Currently, the operations of paratransit are partially controlled and managed by paratransit associations (or labor unions), which are self-organizedand established with internal rules to ensure thefairness, efﬁciency, and quality of transport service among members6). Each member joint theassociations is required to pay a monthly membership fee of 0.0 USD-0.5 USD for Motodop andof 0.3 USD-1.0 USD for Remork28). The collected
membership fee will be used as ﬁnancial source
for the expenses of the association activities. Up
to 2016, there are at least 14000 Remorks registered to six paratransit associations in Phnom
Penh. Yet, the number of Motodops registered tothe associations remains unknown because oneof the biggest labor unions in Cambodia (i.e.,
Cambodia for Confederation Development
Association) could not estimate the number ofMotodop members.
Moreover, the government has no specific farecontrol for paratransit29). The fare rate is deﬁned
by self-regulatory optimization and negotiation
through free market competition. Principally,
drivers of Motodops and Remorks deﬁne a fare
学術研究論文level based on several factors including trip distance, number of passengers, and their working
conditions. The average fare levels per kilometerper passenger were estimated to be 1100 KHR(0.27 USD) and 160 0 K HR (0.40 USD) for
Motodop and Remork, respectively. For the ﬁrst
two-kilometer, the fare levels would be higher:
2800 KHR (0.69 USD) for Motodop and 6700 KHR(1.67 USD) for Remork. Remork charges higher
fare due to its higher service quality (e.g., comfort, safety) and higher operating costs (e.g., fuelconsumption, maintenance cost).

3──Hypotheses
The resumed operation of public bus in Phnom
Penh has brought concerns to many paratransit
drivers, especially those who have provided
transport service along the bus routes. The concerns include fewer daily passengers and lower
monthly income. These concerns would become
more critical when the bus service will be further
expanded or a new mass transit system (e.g.,
BRT, LRT) will be implemented. Even so, paratransit service might not be simply eliminatedfrom the public transport system due to the stability of social economy (e.g., job opportunities
for the poor and low-skilled people) and inevitable needs for transport poor9). For instance, thecoach service in Hong Kong cannot be easily
eliminated from the overall public transport system because passengers have different preferences for transport modes, although alternative mode
(i.e., franchise bus) was considered for the substitution of the coach10). In Cebu, the operation of
Jeepneys has been re-deﬁned and the resulting
effects were examined in response to the implementation plan of BRT system30). In Metro Manila,
passengers did not use the railway service (MRT3)
because there was no connection going to adesired destination (41.0%) and inconvenienttransfer between MRT3 and other transportation
modes (22.0%)14). Subsequently, researchers suggested ways to integrate the coach and Jeepneywith whole public transport system. Particularly,
operating them as feeder modes to a mass transit
system would promote a sustainable urban public
transport in term of easy connectivity and transit
ridership7). It should be noted that coach andJeepney are ﬁxed-route and shared ride paratransit modes with transport capacity 12-24 and regulated fare structures.
This paper investigates the attitudes of Motodop
and Remork drivers towards the public bus service as well as their intention to provide feeder
service to the bus in Phnom Penh. The three bus
Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer 運輸政策研究005

lines in the city would make up just a fraction of
the existing road network and are likely to havelittle charm for general citizens as many still prefer a door-to-door trip. The bus service is stillquite new and the flat fare of 1500 KHR (0.37
USD) is relatively cheaper than the fare of a paratransit mode. Since the bus charges flat fare,using the bus is much cheaper for cross-town trip
than the traditional paratransit alone. Among all
bus users, 30.4% claimed that they previously
traveled by a paratransit mode21). In addition, theshare of bus users who had an access/egress distance of more than 400 m was 32.5%, of which
11.5% traveled to a bus stop using a paratransit
mode. This suggests that the combined trips
between a paratransit feeder and the bus could
provide a superior transport service to certain
users compared with either of the options alone.
The conceptual SEM is illustrated in Figure—3.
The driver attitudes are decomposed into twolatent constructs: one that measures the positive
attitude (i.e., Support for Bus Service in the city)
and another that measures the negative attitude(i.e., perceived Negative Impacts of Bus Service
on their livings). Either positive or negative attitude the drivers might have, paratransit should
provide feeder service because the bus is necessary for citizens and the future of Phnom Penh.
The presence of the bus could improve the overall economic activities and ease the current trafﬁccongestion in the city. Paratransit drivers might
not fully understand the necessity of the recent
bus service. Accordingly, they might not be so
ready to change their business strategies in orderto maintain their proﬁts. For example, they might
not be familiar with the feeder service to the bus,
since there is no proper space allocation for paratransit services near the bus stops. We test theirattitudes towards the recent bus service with thefollowing hypotheses:
H1: Support for Bus Service has positive effect on
Feeder of Bus
H2: Negative Impacts of Bus Service has positiveeffect on Feeder of Bus
It is also important to include in the SEM thedriver perspectives on paratransit regulation andSupport for Bus
Service

H5

H3Regulation &Service■ Figure — 3006

Vehicle Size

H6

Negative Impactsof Bus Service

H7

H1
H4

H2

Feeder of Bus

Conceptual SEM for testing the hypotheses

運輸政策研究 Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer

service. Regulation that can control the growth ofparatransit drivers in a serving zone ensures thebalance between supply and demand 3). This
growth control gives opportunities to the existing
drivers to work more efﬁciently with reasonable
service quality and to maintain their living conditions. Likewise, the management of paratransit
services can be strongly influenced by internal
regulation of a paratransit association, the mostcommon form of paratransit organization. Theinternal regulation might require drivers of aparatransit association to having a uniform thatshows their driving career and operating zone.
This would help registered drivers to clearly
notice other registered drivers within the operating zone, and hence avoiding an open market
competition with other members. Moreover, theparatransit fare is currently not regulated by thegovernment. The fare is deﬁned by the paratransit drivers, and is negotiable by the passengers
who want to use the service. The fare might behigher during the national holidays or for passengers who appear to be rich. When the fare is notaffordable, passengers would switch to the otherdrivers. Accordingly, the drivers who fail todeﬁne a reasonable fare might face a decrease in
number of their daily passengers (or revenue).
The fare negotiating process could also increase
total travel time, slow down the general trafﬁc,
and cause longer exposure to air pollution. The
use of a fare-meter system might be an option to
remedy these problems31). To this end, drivers
who expect better regulation and paratransit service would also support for the public bus and its
feeder service in order for them to maintain thepassenger demand.
H3: Regulation & Service has positive effect on
Support for Bus Service
H4: Regulation & Service has positive effect on
Feeder of Bus
Furthermore, it is interesting to see the attitudesof drivers of different vehicle sizes towards thebus service as well as its feeder intention.
Different vehicle sizes refer to different paratransit
modes. Previous study by Fujiwara and Zhang9)
found that the use of small paratransit vehicles(i.e., Becak, Ojek, and Bajaj) as feeder modes tomass transit system did not promote public transport for current paratransit users in Jabodetabek,
Indonesia. Yet, it was suggested that the operation of such small-sized vehicles should not be
immediately eliminated for the sake of social stability (i.e., jobs for the poor), and they should be
operated as main modes for short-distance trips
in local communities and their neighborhoods.
学術研究論文Alternatively, larger-sized paratransit vehicle (i.e.,Angkot) as feeder to bus was preferred. In contrast, Thangphaisankun et al.15) found that theconvenience/comfort of smaller-sized paratransit(i.e., motorcycle taxi) as access mode to masstransit signiﬁcantly increased the commuter satisfaction and ridership in Bangkok, compared with
Songtaew. Angkot and Songtaew are shared ride,
operating on fixed-route with fare regulated.
However, it is unclear whether which argument
remains true from the viewpoints of paratransit
drivers in other Asian developing cities like
Phnom Penh. In this paper, we will test theeffects of Vehicle Size with the hypotheses below.
Larger Vehicle Size refers to Remork.
H5: Larger Vehicle Size has negative effect on
Support for Bus Service
H6: Larger Vehicle Size has positive effect on
Negative Impacts of Bus Service
H7: Larger Vehicle Size has negative effect on
Feeder of Bus

4──Methodology
4.1 QuestionnaireThis study uses the secondary data from an interview survey with paratransit drivers in Phnom
Penh 29). The interview questionnaire was firstwritten in English and was later translated into
Khmer. We used the back translated technique toensure the consistency between the English andKhmer versions. There were four sections in thequestionnaire. Section 1 inquired about generalparatransit service and paratransit vehicles.
Section 2 inquired about the paratransit fare levels which were defined by drivers for a given
trip. Section 3 inquired about the subjective
responses regarding the driver attitudes towards
the newly-introduced public bus and paratransit
services. The subjective questionnaire items werebased on a ﬁve-point scale rating scores (1: Very
unlikely, 3: Neither, 5: Very likely). And section 4
inquired about personal information. This study
mainly analyzes the data from section 3 of thequestionnaire.
4.2 Interview Survey

The interview survey was conducted from 19 to
23 December 2014, by four surveyors who weretrained to fully understand and administer thequestionnaire. We selected the sample size basedon the available time and budget. We adopted asimple random sampling technic, and tried tocover most of the operations of Motodops andRemorks in Phnom Penh. At ﬁrst, the surveyors
学術研究論文requested approximately 250 drivers, who were
waiting for passengers at their pick-up points(e.g., near bus stops, major road intersections,markets) around the city. Figure—1 shows theinterview survey locations. The surveyors did not
request every paratransit drivers at each location.
Approximately 35 drivers refused to participate in
the survey because they were busy, and about 20
drivers refused the survey but did not offer an
explanation. The total number of participants was
192. After the information screening process, thedata available for further analyses were 186, of
which 106 were drivers of Remorks. Each participant received a “Thank-you money” or a reward(a pen and a reﬂective sticker) after he had completed the questionnaire. This incentive strategy
helped more drivers to participate in the survey
and to patiently answer to the questionnaire.
Approximately 35.0% chose the reward, implyingthat they did not consider monetary incentive as
the major reason for them to participate in thesurvey. For those who chose the money and whoseem to give bias answers, the surveyors wouldemphasize more about the intended questions. If
necessary, the surveyors would repeat the questions to get more reliable answers. It tookapproximately from 15 minutes to 25 minutes inaverage for a driver to completely answer thequestionnaire.
The sample distributions can be divided into four
geographical areas based on the survey locationsin Figure—1: 20.4% in the city center (Location
5-7), 12.4% in the North (Location 4), 51.1% in theSouth (Location 8-13), and 16.1% in the West
(Location 1-3). This would cover most of theparatransit operations in the urban areas withhigh-density population26). In addition, the result
from one-way analysis of variance shows that thedriver intention to provide feeder service to the
public bus (Item 2 of Feeder of Bus in Table—2)
was not significantly different among the geographical areas [F (3,182) = 2.08, p = 0.1048]. We
also found no differences in the feeder intention
between drivers whose pick-up locations werenear a bus stop and whose pick-up locations
were not near any bus stop [t (109.7) = 0.6248].
This suggests that there is no effect of sample
distributions across geographical areas on driverintention to provide feeder service to the bus.
Because we adopted the geographically stratiﬁed
random sampling, the sample size of 186 witheffective information might be sufﬁciently reasonable to represent most of Motodop and Remork
operations in Phnom Penh. A sample size
between 100 and 200 is also said to be adequate
and satisfactory in the SEM analysis32).

Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer 運輸政策研究007

4.3 Participant Characteristics

The descriptive statistics of the interviewed drivers (participants) were reported in Table—1.
Participants were from 23 to 64 years old, withthe average age of about 40 years old. Regarding
the highest education attainment, 29.6% ﬁnishedgrade 0-6 (primary school or never going toschool), 45.2% finished grade 7-9 (secondary
school), 24.7% ﬁnished grade 10-12 (high school),and others (0.5%). 65.0% were not citizens ofPhnom Penh; they came from several provinces
across Cambodia. 29.0% were members of fiveparatransit associations. Up to December 2014,
the average working period as the paratransit
drivers was approximately seven years, while thelongest period was up to 30 years. In daily average, Motodops made 7.9 trips and transported
11.4 passengers. Remorks made 4.1 trips andtransported 10.5 passengers per day. Because
Remorks had larger-sized vehicle, Remorks could
transport more passengers per trip (2.6 = 10.5/4.1)
than Motodops (1.4 = 11.4/7.9). But, the operating
speed of Remorks (35.7 km/h) was lower thanthat of Motodops (43.3 km/h). Since Remorks
generally charge higher fare rate, Remorks also
made higher monthly income (252.4 USD) than
Motodops (178.8 USD).
All participants owned each a vehicle. They
reported that approximately 75.0% of motorcycles
were produced before 2010. The price of motorcycles (≤ 125 cc) was from 110 USD to 2100 USD,
with the average of about 830 USD. The price ofRemorks (motorcycles with a carriage) was from
■Table—1

Descriptive statistics of participants
Variables

Age

Motodop
RemorkMarital status (1: if married)
Motodop
RemorkPhnom Penh citizen (1: if true)
Motodop
RemorkDrivers with dual jobs (1: if true)
Motodop
RemorkWith a driving license (1: if true)
Motodop
RemorkYears of working as drivers till 2014
Motodop
RemorkDaily working period (Hours)
Motodop
RemorkDaily average number of trips
Motodop
RemorkDaily average number of passengers
Motodop
RemorkMonthly average income (USD1)
Motodop
RemorkMean
SD
Min. Max.
39.56
8.84
23
64
40.60 10.18
23
64
38.78
7.63
23
64
0.95
0.22
0
1
0.95
0.22
0
1
0.95
0.21
0
1
0.35
0.48
0
1
0.31
0.47
0
1
0.38
0.49
0
1
0.30
0.46
0
1
0.39
0.49
0
1
0.24
0.43
0
1
0.37
0.48
0
1
0.29
0.46
0
1
0.42
0.50
0
1
6.88
6.15 0.02
30
7.54
6.94 0.02
28
6.38
5.46 0.06
30
11.95
2.64
2
19
11.54
2.70
3
19
12.26
2.56
2
18
5.72
4.49
1
30
7.86
5.70
2
30
4.10
2.24
1
20
10.88
7.98
2
60
11.38 10.27
2
60
10.51
5.70
2
30
219.89 105.52 37.5 700
176.81 83.09 37.5 500
252.41 109.29
50 700Note1: 1.0 USD = 4000 KHR is assumed for the exchange rate008

運輸政策研究 Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer

350 USD to 3500 USD, with the average of 1415
USD. The lower price of a vehicle implies that thevehicle is more likely in a poor condition (i.e.,
second-hand vehicle). The price of the vehicles
seems to be affordable for most drivers, althoughsome drivers might have a loan from their familyor relatives. No information about the leasing
contract with any paratransit operators wasreported by the participants. It should be notedthat the driver characteristics presented here andfurther information about operational services ofparatransit in Phnom Penh can also be found in
Phun et al.30).
4.4 Measurement Models

There are four latent constructs and one contextual variable included in the SEM, as shown in
Table—2. Each latent construct is operationalizedusing three indicators, which are the subjective
responses evaluated based on the 5-point scale■Table— 2

Summary statistics of SEM’ s variables
Variables

Welch’s
t-test1Mean

SD

I want proper stations near bus stops
Motodop
RemorkTransport passengers from/to bus
stops
Motodop
RemorkBus on major roads, my service atothersMotodop
Remork

4.05
4.33
3.85
3.67

1.14
0.94
1.23
1.20

3.89
3.51
3.84

1.17
1.21
1.26

2.15＊

4.16
3.59

1.10
1.32

3.20＊＊

I support for the continuum of bus
Motodop
RemorkIt is good to have public bus in the city
Motodop
RemorkBus helps reducing the traffic accidents
Motodop
Remork

2.96
3.50
2.56
3.02
3.48
2.67
3.90
4.14
3.73

1.55
1.46
1.49
1.45
1.34
1.44
1.02
0.88
1.09

Public bus lowers my monthly income
Motodop
RemorkPublic bus lowers my daily passengers
Motodop
RemorkPublic bus affects my living conditions
Motodop
Remork

3.54
3.26
3.75
3.58
3.26
3.81
3.25
3.00
3.44

1.36
1.47 −2.36＊＊
1.24
1.36
1.49 −2.69＊＊
1.21
1.44
1.51 −2.07＊
1.37

All drivers to have paratransit uniform
Motodop
RemorkTo register/define all drivers each zone
Motodop
RemorkTo use fare system like Taxi-meter
Motodop
RemorkContextual variable:

4.46
4.49
4.43
3.97
3.90
4.02
3.53
3.55
3.52

1.08
1.13
1.05
0.99
1.09
0.90
1.60
1.64
1.57

D_Remork (1: if a driver of Remorkand 0: if a driver of Motodop)

0.57

0.50

Latent constructs2:
Feeder of Bus

Support for Bus Service

Negative Impacts of Bus Service

Regulation & Service

Vehicle Size

2.99＊＊

4.32＊＊
3.93＊＊
2.84＊＊

0.33
−0.79

0.13

Note1: To compare different subjective scores between Motodop and Remork
Note2: Value of each subjective questionnaire item ranged from 1 to 5
＊p < 0.05, ＊＊p < 0.01

学術研究論文(1: Very unlikely, 3: Neither, 5: Very likely). The
intention of paratransit drivers to operate as feeder service of the bus (i.e., Feeder of Bus) is measured by three questionnaire items: how likely do
you think that (1) you want to have proper dropoff/pick-up locations for paratransit modes nearbus stops? (2) you want to transport passengers
from home to bus stops and from bus stops tohome, rather than ﬁnding them as nowadays? and(3) if bus service is available on major roads,
people should use paratransit service on otherroads? For each of these questionnaire items, thesurveyors further explained drivers about theirintention to operate as feeder service to the bus.
The additional explanation was to ensure that the
combination of these items would represent thedriver intention to harmonize with the public bus
by operating as its feeder mode (not a competitive mode). For instance, item 2 of Feeder of Bus
gives drivers the options to choose whether theywanted to operate as feeder service to bus orthey wanted to continue their current transport
services, competing to the bus. Similar ways ofasking were used for other questionnaire items of
the remaining latent constructs.
For Feeder of Bus, the overall average score foritem 1 is 4.05, suggesting that drivers had highdemand for proper paratransit pick-up/drop-off
stations near the bus stops. This accounts for
83.3% of those drivers, whose rated scores were 4
or 5. The average score of item 2 (3.67) impliedthat majority of drivers (60.8%) wished to transport passengers from/to home and to/from bus
stops, rather than acquiring passengers as nowadays. For item 3, 76.4% of drivers demanded thatpassengers should use their paratransit services atother local roads, if the public bus is operated atmajor roads in the city. Besides, we performed
Welchʼs t-test to test for the different subjectivescores between Motodop and Remork drivers.
Results showed that the subjective scores (item1-3) evaluated by Motodop drivers were signiﬁcantly higher than those evaluated by Remork
drivers (p < 0.05). This primarily suggests that
Motodop drivers had stronger desire to provide
feeder service to the bus than did Remork drivers.
Regarding the Support for Bus Service, 51.6%
thought it was good to have the public bus in thecity, 46.8% supported for the continuum of thebus service, and 79.6% expected the reduction intraffic accidents following the bus service inPhnom Penh. For the Negative Impacts of Bus
Service, the overall average scores were higher
than 3.0, indicating that drivers have substantial
concerns over the introduction of the bus service
that may affect their livings. The results from

学術研究論文Welchʼs t-tests showed that Motodop drivers had
signiﬁcantly stronger support for the bus service
in the city, but Remork drivers had more concerns over the bus service.
For the Regulation & Service, the overall averagerating scores are relatively high (> 3.5), implyingthat drivers had strong desire for the better paratransit regulation and service in the future. The
majority (89.8%) wanted all paratransit drivers tohave uniform showing their career properly,
wanted all paratransit drivers in each operatingzone in the city to be clearly registered anddeﬁned (86.0%), and wanted to use the fare system like the Taxi-meter instead of the current
negotiable fare (66.1%). However, results from
Welch ʼ s t-tests show that both drivers ofMotodops and Remorks had similar subjectivescores in each item of Regulation & Service. Thisimplies that drivers equally supported for the
future improvements on paratransit regulationand service.
Previous studies examined the effects of vehicle
sizes on feeder service by passengersʼ perception
on different paratransit modes (e.g., Ojek, Bajaj,
Angkot). In this study, we created “D_Remork” asa proxy variable to assess the effects of paratransit
vehicle sizes on driversʼ feeder intention. We operationalize D_Remork as the contextual dummy
variable, which equals to 1 if participant is a driver of Remork and 0 if participant is a driver ofMotodop. D_Remork captures the effects of different aspects of Remorks (e.g., the physical andoperational characteristics of vehicle) on feeder
intention, compared with those of Motodops. We
preferred the dummy variable here because its
effect can easily be observed for the two types ofparatransit modes (i.e., Motodop and Remork).
Basically, the use of dummy variable might be thebetter option because the two paratransit types
being investigated are in the similar form of
motorcycle and operational services. In addition,
the estimation of the separated models for
Motodop and Remork alone could not be made; it
resulted in an empirical under-identiﬁcation. Since
the model is structurally identiﬁed, the empirical
under-identiﬁcation is probably due to the small
sample sizes used in the separated models for
Motodops (N = 80) and for Remorks (N = 106).
Therefore, the effect of Vehicle Size will be discussed based on D_Remork, which is included in
the SEM using overall sample size (N = 186).
Based on the Welchʼs t-tests in Table—2, D_
Remork is expected to have a negative effect on
Support for Bus Service and Feeder of Bus, and apositive effect on Negative Impacts of Bus Service.

Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer 運輸政策研究009

5──Results
5.1 Structural Equation Model

The full structural equation modeling and its estimate results using the statistical package AMOS
7.0 are illustrated in Figure—4. The modelʼ sgoodness of ﬁt is assessed by multiple-ﬁt indices:χ2, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation(RMSEA), Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted
GFI (AGFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), TuckerLewis Index (TLI), and the Comparative Fit Index(CFI)33). In the initial model estimation, the modiﬁcation indices indicated that the model could be
improved through speciﬁcation of an additionalcorrelation between the error variance of Supportfor Bus Service and that of Negative Impacts of
Bus Service. Theoretical justiﬁcation for this correlation is that paratransit drivers who perceived
negative impacts of the bus service were unlikely
to support for the bus operation, and vice versa,
causing the additional structural covariance
between the two latent constructs. The estimatedcorrelation between the two error variances is－0.54 with the critical ratio of －5.253 and p <0.001. After correcting for this correlation andre-estimation, the model ﬁt notably improved.
The χ2 of this model is 85.087, with 58 degree of
freedom. The p-value associated with this result issmall (p = 0.012), which is statistically signiﬁcant.
The χ2 measures the overall model ﬁt and assesses the magnitude of discrepancy between the ﬁtted covariance matrices and sample. Further, theabsolute ﬁt index is explained by RMSEA, whichequals to 0.050, being far lower than 0.08 as close
ﬁt. RMSEA, one of the most informative ﬁt indices, tells us how well the model would fit the

It is good to havepublic bus in the city
0.807

＊＊＊

0.467＊＊＊

population covariance matrix 34). The values ofother ﬁt indices (GFI, AGFI, NFI, TLI, and CFI) arehigher than 0.9, indicating a good model ﬁt33). All
ﬁt indices for this model are notably high, suggesting that the overall ﬁt of the model is good.
The number attached to each path arrow represents the standardized effect. All standardized
effects are statistically signiﬁcant (p < 0.05) withexpected signs. Most indicators have standardized
effects of 0.6 or higher, suggesting that the latentconstructs are well measured by their corresponding indicators.
5.2 Effects of Bus Service

There are seven hypotheses tested in this study.
The first hypothesis, the relationship between
Support for Bus Service and Feeder of Bus, andthe second, the relationship between Negative
Impacts of Bus Service and Feeder of Bus, wereconﬁrmed by positively signiﬁcant values. Results
indicate that, whether paratransit drivers had positive or negative attitude towards the bus service,
they basically had intention to operate as feeder
service of the bus. The Support for Bus Service
construct has a stronger effect (0.519) on Feeder of
Bus than the Negative Impacts of Bus Service does
(0.231). This lies in the fact that drivers who
expected the beneﬁts of bus operations for general citizens had stronger desire to feed the public
bus with paratransit service than those who anticipated the negative impacts of bus service on theirlivings. Drivers might have concerned over their
future services when they realized the importanceof the bus service which would be unavoidable forthe city development and for the future of Phnom
Penh citizens. Most of the participants (99.5%)

I support thecontinuum of bus

Public bus lowers mymonthly income

0.876

0.784

Support for Bus
Service－0.350＊＊＊

D_Remork

0.216＊＊

Negative Impactsof Bus Service

Bus helps reducing thetraffic accidents
All drivers to haveparatransit uniform

0.624

To register & define 0.715
all drivers each zone010

0.519＊＊＊－0.167＊0.805＊＊＊

Regulation &Service0.231＊

0.740＊＊＊

0.597＊＊＊■ Figure — 4

0.882＊＊＊

Public bus affects myliving conditions
0.186＊To use fare system
like Taxi-meter

Public bus lowers mydaily passengers

0.603＊＊＊
N = 186

Feeder of Bus＊＊＊

I want proper stations
near bus stops

0.651 Transport passengers

from/to bus stops

0.627＊＊＊

χ2 = 85.087, df = 58

GFI = 0.937, AGFI = 0.902, RMSEA = 0.050
NFI = 0.903, TLI = 0.954, CFI = 0.966＊p< 0.05, ＊＊p< 0.01, ＊＊＊p< 0.001, Numbers in“italic”arefixed to one

Bus on major roads,
my service at others

Structural equation model and its estimated results with standardized effects

運輸政策研究 Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer

学術研究論文could ﬁnish high school or lower, making them
difﬁcult to get an employment in a highly competitive market of formal jobs. Consequently,
their concerns might have encouraged them toprovide coordinated transport service to/from thebus stops in order to maintain their living conditions. In addition, responses from subjective
questions show that the majority (73.4%) satisﬁedwith their current job as paratransit drivers.
Basically, they satisﬁed with the freedom in work
schedules. They (76.4%) also claimed that thedriver job was suitable for their capability.
Accordingly, they might not be so ready forswitching to any other jobs, whereas provision offeeder service to the bus would be one of theoptions for them to continue their career. The
positive intention of drivers towards the feeder ofmass transit system would be better off for theefforts in improving on the performance of masstransit system through the integrated public facilities (e.g., park & ride, transfer station) and transport services (e.g., fare, customer service andinformation).
5.3 Effects of Regulation & Service

The third hypothesis, the relationship between
Regulation & Ser vice and Support for Bus
Service, and the fourth, the relationship between
Regulation & Service and Feeder of Bus, were
statistically signiﬁcant, supported by positive values. Results indicate that drivers, who wanted abetter regulation and service for paratransit operations (e.g., paratransit uniform, growth control,and standard fare), were likely to support for thebus service as well as to provide feeder service tobus stops in Phnom Penh. This might be true
because the better regulation and service would
help improve the overall paratransit service quality(e.g., safety, security), balance supply over passenger demand, minimize open market competition among drivers, and more importantly attract
more intermodal passengers to use paratransit
service. Better regulation and service might alsomean that the paratransit service would become
formal or be recognized by the government, andthat the career as paratransit driver would possibly be more secured. Further, Regulation &Service has stronger inﬂuence on Feeder of Bus(0.603) than it does on Support for Bus Service(0.186). This is reasonable because the passenger
demand for paratransit service has been gradually declined since the presence of the public bus
in the city. Drivers would express stronger intention for feeder service to the bus in order forthem to retain the passenger demand. To thisend, the more effective Regulation & Service forparatransit operations is likely to encourage more
学術研究論文drivers to operate as feeder mode of the bus,
minimizing the driver contention to the service
expansion of the public bus in the city.
5.4 Effects of Vehicle Size

The fifth, sixth, and seventh hypotheses tested
the relationship between the Vehicle Size (i.e., D_
Remork) and three latent constructs: Support for
Bus Service, Negative Impacts of Bus Service, andFeeder of Bus, respectively. Results show that D_
Remork has negative effects on Support for Bus
Service (－0.350) and Feeder of Bus (－0.167).
Remork drivers, who were long time in service,
were easily affected by the recent introductionof bus service, and they were likely to have negative attitude towards the bus. This is supportedby the positively signiﬁcant effect of D_Remorkon the Negative Impacts of Bus Service (0.216).
Compared with Motodops, Remorks have largersized vehicle, higher transport capacity, and better service quality. Based on these attributes,
Remork service has its charm. The number ofdaily trips has been slightly decreased from 4.4 inJune 201226) to 4.1 in December 2014. This isplausible because, before the availability of thebus service in early February 2014, 22.4% of thebus users reported that they were Motodop passengers and only 7.2% were Remork passengers21). Despite the presence of the bus service,
Remork drivers could still make the monthly revenue of approximately 43.0% higher than
Motodop drivers. This might suggest that Remork
drivers were happier with their current transport
service, rather than operating as feeder mode of
the bus. Subjective responses also conﬁrmed that
Remork drivers had fairly higher satisfaction
scores (4 or 5) with their career; about 87.0% ofRemork (79.0% of Motodop) drivers reported thatworking as paratransit drivers offered them agood living condition. In sum, the results suggestthat drivers of larger-sized vehicle (i.e., Remorks)
perceived the negative impact of the public bus
service in Phnom Penh, they did not support forthe bus service, and they were less likely to offer
feeder service to the bus.
Based on how the variable D_Remork was
deﬁned, the results equivalently suggest that drivers of Motodops supported for the bus services
and intended to offer feeder service to the bus in
Phnom Penh. One main reason is that Motodop
drivers intended to operate as feeder of the bus
in order for them to maintain their revenue andto secure their job. The average number of daily
trips made by Motodops has been reduced byabout half, from 15.5 trips per day in June 201226)
to 7.9 trips per day in December 2014. The reduction might involve with the presence of the bus
Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer 運輸政策研究011

service, the increase in the number of paratransit
drivers in the city streets, and the popularity ofRemorks over Motodops in term of service quality. In addition, Motodop drivers might realize thenecessity of the public bus for the city development. Since the operation of Motodops is not currently controlled by the government, Motodop
service is considered as informal. It is possiblethat the operation of Motodops will be regulated
or restricted from the urban major streets, following the bus service expansion or the implantationof a new mass transit system (e.g., BRT, LRT).
Motodop drivers might have concerned over their
future transport service, which can be very competitive with other (paratransit) drivers and at thesame time with other public transport modes.
Moreover, 39.0% of Motodop drivers claimed thatthey had dual jobs29). This could possibly explainthat they have already concerned over their
unstable revenue from Motodop service. Theirconcerns might have been gradually intensified
after the bus service was introduced. Accordingly,
Motodop drivers would consider for some possible alternatives to co-exist with the public bus,
for instance, serving as feeder mode of the bus.
5.5 Discussion

The overall results of this study implied that, following the newly-introduced public bus in
Phnom Penh, the interviewed drivers had intention to provide feeder service to the bus, regardless its anticipated impacts on their livings. Also,
the regulations on paratransit growth control
in each servicing zones, paratransit operations(i.e., proper driver uniform), and paratransit faresystem (i.e., standard fare structure) should beconsidered by the government and paratransit
associations. This is because a more effective regulation for paratransit service & operation would
encourage more drivers to operate as feeder ofthe public bus in a harmonized manner.
Results from SEM revealed that drivers ofRemorks did not support for the bus service inPhnom Penh nor intended to operate as feeder
mode to the bus. This implied that the drivers
preferred their current operations rather thanserving as feeder mode to the public bus. The
drivers may have observed that most trip origins/
destinations of their passengers were not near
any bus stops, and thus they had more confidence to remain with their current service.
Further, Remorks might not be suitable as feeder
mode of the public bus from the viewpoints ofpassengers. The carriage of a Remork functions
as the “protective shell,” offering passengers acertain level of safety, comfort, and weather protection. This makes Remorks more attractive, in012

運輸政策研究 Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer

addition to its ﬂexible door-to-door transport service. A passenger with up to five companions(the average rate of passengers per trip is 2.6)
would rather choose Remork to travel in groupon a single vehicle, and the travel cost per person
would be lower. With this regard, it is not economically or conveniently sound for the group ofpassengers to reach their destination through thebus transfer. Similarly, passenger(s) with goods
would use Remork to transport the goods directly
to a desired destination. This sort of transport
service is not available by other public modes inPhnom Penh, except Taxi that commonly charges
a higher fare. For the case of Indonesia, for example, passengers of bus and MRT were less likely
to use the auto-rickshaw (i.e., Bajaj) as the feeder
mode in order to reduce travel cost by avoiding
intermodal transfer, compared with walking 9).
To this end, it might be better to allow Remork
drivers to continuing their current operational
service, sometimes competing to the public bus
like the cases of Tuktuk in Bangkok, Bajaj inIndonesia, or general Taxi in Asian developing
countries.
The results also implied that drivers of Motodops
supported the public bus operations and intended to offer feeder service to the bus. This serves
as a positive starting point for the government todiscuss the role of Motodops in the future.
Motodops should be regulated as feeder mode to
the public bus in order to promote intermodal
ridership. Due to its smaller-sized vehicle,
Motodops can flexibly penetrate through smallroads and traffic congestion with shorter travel
time and relatively low fare compared to Remorkor Taxi. Since the bus service is only available on
the major roads far from high-density residential
areas along the small roads, citizens can reach abus stop by using the Motodop service. Walking
is not popular for general citizens due to thepoor sidewalk, weather condition (e.g., hot), safety concerns (e.g., crime, accident), and inadequate
control over the on-street parking. Infrastructure
supports like paratransit stations might also benecessary for the coordinated services amongtransport modes. Note that Thailand was the ﬁrst
country in the world that has regulated the
motorcycle taxi services since May 200535). The
Thai regulation includes operational safety (e.g.,helmet for passengers), pick-up stations, driver
uniform, driving license, fare rate, and yearly registration tax. Other Asian developing countries
including Vietnam and Indonesia have realized
the importance of motorcycle taxi service andhave already discussed how to regulate the service31).
The consideration on which size of paratransit
学術研究論文vehicles that should be operated as feeder mode
to mass transit remains unclear, because it closely
links to the passenger desire and the availabilityof paratransit modes in a par ticular area.
Motodops are small-sized vehicles and can transport fewer passengers to feed the bus, while
Remorks may not be ﬁtted as the feeder mode.
Besides, Motodops are not safe. With this respect,
the government might want to consider a more
systematic feeder mode such as microbus, whichshould be operated on a ﬁxed-route and sharedride basis with fare regulated. The fare of thismode is relatively lower than that of other ﬂexible paratransit modes. Microbus includes Angkot
in Indonesia and Songtaew Thailand.

6──Conclusion
We explored the effects of the attitudes of paratransit drivers towards the bus service, the size ofparatransit vehicles, and the paratransit regulation& service on feeder intention to the public bus in
Phnom Penh. With the bus service in place, we
found that Motodop drivers had intention to provide feeder service to the bus. This result reﬂected
the drivers alone. To arrive at the implementation
stage, however, the involving transport authorities
must make consensus among public transport
operators; especially the paratransit operators
who have been long in services. In doing so, itwill lead to a successful planning of whole public
transport system, minimizing the obstacles to further expansion of the mass transit system. Policy
intervention and regulation for better paratransit
service should be considered by all relevant parties such as paratransit operators, paratransit
associations, and the (local) governments.
Although this study found that drivers of largersized vehicle (Remorks) had no intention for feeder service of the bus, the choice of vehicle size as
feeder mode does not necessarily depend onparatransit drivers. It should depend more on theparatransit passengers, who can decide on whichmode they choose as main mode or feeder mode
for their trips, among the other available modes.
This is the ﬁrst study that provides a fundamental
piece of evidence regarding the intention of paratransit drivers to operate as feeder of a newlyintroduced mass transit system (i.e., public bus).
The study on paratransit operators in developing
countries remains at initial stage. It requires wider investigation on the supply side such as theimpacts of mass transit development plan onparatransit services and operatorsʼ quality of life,
the ticketing system and fare issues used for coordinated transport services, the more efficient
学術研究論文feeder route network, the use of advanced technologies (e.g., ICT), etc. It is obvious that further
researches on these fronts are required to discuss
more on long-term benefits of paratransit in
Asian developing countries and elsewhere.
Acknowledgements

The authors thank Mr. Hok Kimsrun, Miss Kak
Dany, and Miss Tep Sokleakhena, the students ofInstitute of Technology of Cambodia, for theirhelps with data collection. This research was apart of the EASTS-IRG activities, supported by
the Toshiba-Tokyo Tech Cooperative research
project. The contents of this paper reflect the
viewpoints of the authors, who are responsible
for any errors.
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（原稿受付

2015年11月2日）

パラトランジット運転者の端末交通への転換に関する研究
本研究の目的は，プノンペンで新たに導入されたバスを対象に，パラトランジット運転者がバスをどう受け入れるかと，端末交通としての事業運営の意向を明らかにすることである．運営企業であるMotodopsとRemorksの運転者へのイン
タビュー調査結果を用いて構造方程式を構築した結果，端末交通としての事業運営に対して，Motodops運転者はバスをどう受容するかに関わらず前向きである一方，Remorks運転者は生計への悪影響の恐れから後ろ向きであることが明らかになった．これを踏まえ，端末交通への参加を促すためのパラトランジットへの規制についても考察した．
キーワード ; フィーダサービス，大量輸送，パラトランジット，プノンペン, 構造方程式モデリング014

運輸政策研究 Vol.19 No.2 2016 Summer

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