JICE Collection of
Theses andResearch Notes

Contents
Naonori Kodate

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Masako Kishimoto

Kenji Yamana

Sachiko Yamano

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes
01

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland
Naonori Kodate
特別寄稿／地域統合と欧州連合の教訓：アイルランドの視点から
小舘 尚文

11

Lessons extracted from the training “Young Leader Program”in Developing Countries
Case Study of JICA Training “Young Leader Program”（4 years）-

Masako Kishimoto
研修事後評価からの教訓 —JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—
岸本 昌子

21

Complications of the Language and the Constraints on the Interpreter
Aiichiro Yamamoto
言語構造の違いが通訳に及ぼす影響～英語、日本語、インドネシア語通訳の事例から
山本愛一郎

28

The theory of nonlinear function model of the structure ofincome and expenditure to make a rational decision financially
Kenji Yamana
非線型収支構造モデル式における生産商品の最適品種選択の意思決定理論
山名 健司

34

Evaluation of Training in Japanfor the Saudi Japanese Automobile High Institute Project
Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai日本・サウジアラビア SJAHI プロジェクト
生井 年緒／今井 宏

40

日本式マネジメントの評価

Humans walk with dogs ━ A Hokkaido dog case study
Sachiko Yamano
人、イヌと歩く山野 幸子━━

北海道犬に関する一考察Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland
Naonori Kodate

Assistant Professor, School of Social Policy, Social Work and Social Justice University College Dublin, Ireland

Introduction

Despite the difference in size between the countries (e.g.

evidence of positive results emanating from international
cooperation.

economy, demography and labour market), Ireland andJapan are both islands, with a unique strategic position

In recent years, however, there have been negativein Europe and Asia respectively, at a time of rapid global

reactions in the world towards globalisation. Theygeo-political shift. Japan is where I originally come from,manifest themselves in such forms as the rise of populism

and Ireland is where I am currently based.

and a growing sense of apathy. These have shifted ourattention away from transnational and regional cooperation

Last year was the 60th anniversary of diplomatic relations

to national self-interest and protectionism. In Europe, thebetween the two countries, and I was extremely fortunate

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

to lead a university team in organising numerous cultural(UK) voted in favour of leaving the European Union

and academic events in my affiliation on the campus,(EU) by a narrow margin on 23 June 2016. With theout in the community in Ireland and also in Japan. Some

exception of Emmanuel Macron and his new politicalof these events featured themes such as robotics-aided

party’s victory at the French Presidential election ineldercare (social policy/engineering/nursing), Patrick

May 2017 and subsequent legislative elections in June,

Lafcadio Hearn (literature), extreme ultraviolet source

many European countries, including Germany, are now

development (physics), infectious diseases (veterinary

faced with opposition towards the further integration of

medicine), Abenomics (economics), wartime diaries

Europe. In the last ten years, Europe has been challenged(history), pop-culture diplomacy (international relations),

by several crises such as the European debt crisis andwomen leaders in science and society (science/genderrefugee crisis. A series of terrorist attacks also highlighted

studies), Lesson Study in mathematics (education/

the weaknesses of coordinated actions at European andmathematics), board games, language, cuisine, taikointernational level.

drumming (music) and rugby (sport). The year 2017
became an important year for us to look back on the 60-

The change in political leadership in the United State

year long history and at ongoing developments in ourof America (USA) signalled a similar pattern of shift infriendships both individually and collectively.

foreign policy and the balance of power. As a result, while
economic internationalisation deepens interdependences

The Japan Center for International Cooperation (JICE)

amongst a variety of actors (e.g. transnationalhas been one of the great supporters of the bilateral

corporations, NGOs), nation states began to reassert theirrelationship through its involvement in the Youth Speechclaims over their national cultures and territories. This is aContest in honour of Lafcadio Hearn (Koizumi Yakumo),

dilemma that poses many questions to countries including

annually held in Matsue City. The JICE team paid aJapan and Ireland.

special visit to Dublin in 2016, exhibiting at Experience
Japan, the largest Japan-related cultural event in Ireland.

Looking eastwards from the perspective of the westernWith various links and partnerships being forged andedge of Europe (Ireland), we quickly discover that theflourishing, the relationship between the two countries is

emergence of China as a global superpower is anotherbecoming closer and deeper, despite the great physicalsign of the geo-political shift, supporting the idea that the

distance, and the ebb and flow in their respective

21st century will be marked by Asian dominance. The One

economies. Numerous examples can be found as

Belt One Road (OBOR) Initiative exemplifies China’s

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

01

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Irelandmuch greater role and influence in global affairs. Many

Against this background, the short research note revisits

European countries including Ireland have stepped up their

the EU by tracing its evolution using two conceptual

efforts to strengthen their economic and trade relations

frameworks (intergovernmentalism and supranationalism).

with China, striking deals both bilaterally and collectively

The EU has provided us with three possible models (freethrough various fora such as the EU-China Summit.

trade arrangement, single market, and common currency

The recent visit to China by the British Prime Ministerarea) for regional integration (Inomata 2013), while going

Theresa May (Jan-Feb 2018) showcases the importance offurther beyond economic integration.

the UK-China bilateral relations. The proposed areas forfurther cooperation and expansion of investment include

The paper looks at the interactions between the EU

finance, agriculture and education. The significance of thisand one of its member state, asking what the European

relationship and its associated risks will be more widely

integration process has meant to Ireland. The question isrecognised, as the expected date (the end of March 2019)

concerned with the potential exit of Ireland (Irexit) fromfor UK’s exit from the EU (Brexit) approaches .

the EU, following Brexit. Would Ireland, with strong
historic and economic ties with the UK, be the next to

Yet it is not only China but also South Korea, Japan andleave the EU? As Ireland’s neighbouring country andother Asian countries, which the EU has been seeking

close trading partner is preparing its departure from theto strengthen its ties with. The EU-South Korea Free

European Single Market, some expect a form of ‘domino

Trade Agreement has been applied since 2011, producing

effects’, arguing that Brexit is only the beginning of thepositive effects in their trade relations (European

end to European integration, as we know it. Even if otherCommission 2014). In December 2017, the EU and Japanmember states do not follow the UK, the EU may lean

finalised a 4 year-long negotiation for a trade agreement

towards a more strongly state-centric (intergovernmental)(commonly called EPA (EU-Japan Economic Partnershipmodel of regional collaboration in the future, based on free

Agreement)). Also in 2017, with the Association of

trade agreements. What factors could influence Ireland’s

Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the EU resumed thedecision regarding its future relationship with Europe?

free trade negotiation, which started in 2007 but waspaused in 2009. The Eurasian relationship is expected

The first section describes the history of European

to grow closer and deeper through these multilateral

integration followed by a section on Ireland in thepartnerships and bilateral relations. The cooperation is not

European context. The third and last section looks

restricted to business and economy, and the interactionsat potential implications of Brexit on Ireland and its

in the spheres of culture, education and research have also

relationship to European integration.

been on the increase (Vandewalle 2015).

.

While the EU is actively pursuing one type of international

European Union as a model of regional
integrationcooperation (free trade agreement) at the moment,

European integration has been regarded as one uniqueanother type of cooperation (pooling of sovereignty) is

grand project, becoming as it did one of the models forcoming under increasing scrutiny and criticism. Citizens’

international cooperation. It dates back to the Treaties

scepticism is growing towards the EU’s democratic

which established the European Coal and Steel Community

legitimacy for further deepening its integration in policy(ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC)

sectors such as defence and security, social protection

and the European Atomic Energy Community (known as

and healthcare. The pooling of political and economic‘Euratom’). The treaties were aimed at achieving lastingsovereignty as a model of regional integration is now

peace by way of creating a common market for natural

being critically challenged.

resources amongst its member states. The root causes ofmany devastating wars in and around the Ruhr region led

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

02

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland

to the collective realisation that fierce competition overwhy some cooperation in specific policy sectors could

those natural resources had to be contained and managed

lead to wider integration, even ‘spilling over’ into politicalbetter.

spheres. Supranationalism became a popular theory todescribe the evolution of the ECSC, Euratom and EEC

The Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steelinto the European Community. Neo-functionalism formed

Community (ECSC), or Treaty of Paris, was signed on

the basis for supranationalism, in which a separate and

18 April 1951 and came into force on 25 July 1952. For

autonomous political entity at European level is assumed.

the first time, six European States (‘Inner Six’: France,
Germany, Italy and the Benelux (Belgium, the Netherlands

Figure 1 below shows these two main strands of theand Luxembourg)) agreed to work towards integration.

conceptual lens with which regional integration can be

Since then, the main thrust for European integration

analysed.

has primarily been achieved through the European
Community/Union and its policies, although some otherFigure 1. Two strands of conceptual lens for understanding

regional organisations such as the Council of Europe andEuropean integration

the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) have existed
in parallel.
Regional integration has been an important facetof globalisation, and economic, political and social
development. The core element in the integration process
has been primarily driven by tangible benefits including
funding, investment and the goal of economic growth,
symbolised by the establishment of the Customs Union
and Common Market.
Intergovernmentalism is one way of looking at regional

Figure 1. Two strands of conceptual lens for understanding European
integration

integration. It is underpinned by the idea that national
governments are the main actors who decide and agree

The strand in intergovernmentalism was later developedon specific fields for negotiation while retaining theirinto Liberal Intergovernmentalism by Moravcsik (1998),

sovereignty. Therefore, integration is driven by the choice

while supranationalism evolved into the framework ofof national governments to maximise their countries' self-

Multi-Level Governance (Hooghe and Marksinterest, as the primary purpose of the European project

The latter focuses on the dispersion of authority acrossis to strengthen the nation-state framework, rather thanmultiple levels of political entities, including sub-national

weaken it (Milward 1992; Tsebelis and Garrett 2001).

bodies, local governments, and non-state actors such as2001).

NGOs.
However, since the signing of the Single European Act(1986) and the Maastricht Treaty (1991), it appeared

Into the 2000s, the European Economic and Monetary

more authority began to be delegated from national

Union (EMU), Eastern enlargement, Common Security

governments to supranational bodies. Already in theand Defence Policy (CSDP) had much greater impacts

1950s, the concept of spillover (Haas 1958; Schmitteron the shaping of the European ‘polity’ and gave the2005) was used to explain the pooling of sovereignty (e.g.

impression that the European project would bring about

the ECSC), which could contradict the preservation of

a sense of unity, and formation of a European identity, as

national interests in a conventional sense. It helps explain

opposed to each ‘national’ identity (e.g. French, Irish and

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

03

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland

Catalonian).

akin to Hokkaido in Japan in terms of population andHowever, as demonstrated by opinion polls, people insurface area. In many ways, its political and economic

Europe have constantly opposed the EU’s involvement intrajectories (including complex Anglo-Irish relations, andsocial redistribution programmes (Hix 2008). This is why

exceptionally rapid economic growth between the 1990s

a mechanism called the Open Method of Coordination wasand mid-2000s) have been unique in western Europe.

devised as an instrument to overcome the opposition andstart sharing best practice, benchmarking and harmonising

The country has thus far escaped many contemporary

different policies in the areas where the EU has no‘issues’. For example, it does not have a far-right populist

legislative powers (Chalmers and Lodge 2003, Alber

political party with an anti-immigration message. The

2006). These are primarily social policies: employment,

country’s current economic performance is rather strongsocial protection, immigration, education, health and long-(ESRI 2017), unlike those in Southern European countries

term care, and environmental affairs.

with very high youth unemployment rates. Table 1 showsthat Ireland is a trading nation, and its GDP per capita is

The next section will examine Ireland’s relationship with
Europe. Ireland is an interesting case. On the one hand,the country has no strong backlash against globalisationand Europeanisation, and could continue to be
pro-integrationalist. On the other hand, as uncertainty
and predicted negative impacts (both economically andsocially) loom in the post-Brexit era, Ireland could becomea more reluctant player in international cooperation.

Ireland in Europe

Ireland is a country located in the North West of Europe(see Figure 2). It has a population of 4.6 million, and is

one of the highest amongst the EU member states.
Table 1. Basic data: Ireland, the EU and Japan
Population (million persons)GDP per capita,
2016 (USD current PPPs) (WorldBank)
Trade in goods and services,
Exports, % of GDP,
2016 (OECD)
Trade in goods and services,
Imports, % of GDP,
2016 (OECD)
Elderly population aged 65 andover (%)
Foreign-born population,
Total, % of population,2013 (World Bank)

Ireland
4.8

EU
511.8

Japan
127.3

63862

32234

38901

121.6

44.0

16.1

99.6

40.5

15.1

12.7

18.4

25.1

16.4

10.7

1.6

(Sources: CSO; OECD; World Bank)

Situated on the periphery of Europe, psychologicalproximity of Ireland to Europe has been questioned in
the past. In 2000, the then Enterprise Minister of Ireland,
Mary Harney TD observed that Ireland was a lot “closer
to Boston than to Berlin”. Her remark reflects Ireland’sclose relationship with the United States of America(USA), primarily based on common ancestral ties throughimmigrations in the past. Approximately 10 percent of
the total population in the USA reported Irish ancestry in
2013. What is also hinted at in her remark is that Ireland
may share more in common with the USA and other
English-speaking countries such as the UK, Australia,
Canada and New Zealand than the Continental European
states.
Figure 2. Map of Europe (the island of Ireland encircled)

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

04

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland

However, because of Ireland’s complex past with its

military neutrality might be compromised if the treaty wasneighbouring country of the UK, and its rich cultural

ratified.

heritage (music, dance, Gaelic games, storytelling,
folklore and literature), Ireland has sought to play activeroles within multilateral diplomacy. Ireland became arepublic when the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 (No. 22 of
1948) was passed. This meant that Ireland was no longera member of the British Commonwealth. In 1955, Irelandjoined the United Nations.
Ireland has been supporting multilateral frameworks,
through which it actively promotes democracy, humanrights and the rule of law (Allain and Mullally 2007).
Ireland has been often dubbed a ‘middle power’, despite
being a small economic and military power (Moriarty
and Massa 2012). Likewise, Ireland has been committed
to European integration. Ireland was one of the founding
members of the Organisation for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) and the Council of Europe.
Ireland joined the European Economic Community (EEC)
in 1973, together with the UK and Denmark. Comparedwith the reluctance and resistance shown by the British
and Danish people towards their accession, the willingnessof Irish people joining the EEC was remarkable. Outof those three countries, Ireland is the only one whojoined the common currency (Euro) in 2002 (Laffan andO’Mahony 2008).
Domestically, the accession of Ireland to the EEC brought
about the elimination of the so-called Marriage Bar, which
prohibited many women from continuing in employment
in the Civil Service, local authorities and health boards assoon as they married. Many therefore associate Ireland’s
entry to the EEC with social change and modernisation(Redmond and Harford 2009).
Table 2 shows Ireland’s voting records at EU-related
referenda, and some agendas during Ireland’s EC/EU
Presidencies. Generally, Irish voters have been in favour of
the EU’s initiatives and treaties, except for two rejectionsin the 2001 and 2008 referenda. It was argued that one
reason for this rejection was that Ireland’s traditional

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

Table 2. Chronology of Ireland’s voting record in relation to European
integration
Ireland voted to join the European Community with 83 percent
1972 in favour
Turnout: 71 percent
Ireland joins the EEC with the UK and Denmark (Norway voted
1973
against joining).
Irish Presidency of the European Community: Taoiseach Liam
Cosgrave TD oversaw the first Lomé convention, a trade and1975 aid agreement between the EU and African, Caribbean andPacific countries. The European Regional Development Fundwas created.
Irish Presidency of the European Community: Taoisigh Jack
Lynch / Charles Haughey TD. The first election to the European
1979
Parliament was held. The European Monetary System (EMS)
was established.
Irish Presidency of the European Community: Taoiseach Garret
FitzGerald TD.
1984
The EU signed the Trade and Economic Cooperation
Agreement with China.
70 percent of the Irish electorate voted in favour of the Single
1987 European Act
Turnout: 44 percent
Irish Presidency of the European Community: Taoiseach
1990
Charles Haughey TD supported German Reunification.
69 percent voted in favour of the Maastricht treaty which
paved the way for the creation of the European Union and the
1992
introduction of the euro currency
Turnout: 57 percent
Irish Presidency of the European Union: Taoiseach John Bruton
TD presided over the discussions leading to the Stability and
1996
Growth Pact, which establishes macroeconomic parameters forcountries participating in the Euro.
Ireland ratified the Amsterdam Treaty on further European
1998 integration, with 62 percent voting in favour
Turnout: 56 percent
Irish voters rejected the Nice Treaty on EU reform (with 54
2001 percent voting against).
Turnout: 35 percent
The common currency Euro was launched in 12 countries
including Ireland. 63 percent of voters endorsed the Nice treaty
2002
in a second referendum.
Turnout: 50 percent
Irish Presidency of the European Union: Taoiseach Bertie Ahern
2004 TD brokered an agreement among the then 25 EU Member
States on the wording of the EU Constitution.
French and Dutch voters rejected the Nice Treaty in referenda.
2005
The charter stalled.
Ireland rejected the Lisbon treaty with 53 percent against.
2008
Turnout: 53 percent
67 percent of the Irish electorate voted in favour of the Lisbon
Treaty. Ireland’s military neutrality and rules on abortion were
2009
given assurances before the second referendum.
Turnout: 59 percent
60 percent of the electorate voted in favour of the European
2012 fiscal compact.
Turnout: 51 percent
Irish Presidency of the European Union: Taoiseach Enda Kenny2013 TD brokered a final agreement on behalf of Member States on
new rules to stabilise Eurozone economies.

05

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland

In 2002, the second referendum was held and the rejection

Although the spectacular growth in the national economy

was overturned. Again in 2008, the Lisbon Treaty wasfeatures prominently in the discussion of Ireland’s

rejected by a narrow margin, and the second attempt

relationship with the EU, economy is not the only reason

in 2009 secured the majority in favour of the treaty.

for Ireland to remain committed to the European project

Therefore, it is fair to argue that the Irish electorate’s(Quinlan 2015). Irish membership of the EU has equipped

attitudes towards the EU have remained positive until

Ireland with a new dimension in which the country can

2001, and since then has had ups and downs.

reshape its own identity, independently of its past with theUK.

The remainder of this section will look at Ireland’s links
with the EU, in particular in relation to economy, identity

The late Peter Sutherland was one of the Irish persons

and the Brexit deals.

appointed to the European Commission in 1985,
and had responsibility for competition policy, which

Ireland’s entry to the EEC in 1973 coincided with theinitially included education. It was he who proposed thefirst Oil Shock and the global economic slowdown andestablishment of the ERASMUS (EuRopean Community

lower productivity. Although the Irish economy continued

Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students)

to suffer from long-term unemployment and structural

programme, which allows students in European higher

problems, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in

education institutions to study in other EU member states

Europe helped Irish farmers and those engaged in agri-(Bruton 2018). The programme has been successfully run

business. In manufacturing, a substantial increase inin the past 30 years, and it has been expanded to include

employment in foreign-owned industry was due to thesport exchanges, exchanges between European universities

accession to the EEC. Several factors have been reported

and those outside Europe (e.g. ERASMUS+ICM),

to have positive impacts on the period of rapid economic

providing many people with opportunities to study andgrowth called the Celtic Tiger (from the mid-1990s to

research abroad. In Ireland, more than 88,000 Irish

the late-2000s). These are airline deregulation in 1986,

students and teachers have benefited from this mobility

a large increase in FDI flows into and within Europe,

scheme.

and the doubling of the EU Structural and Cohesion
Funds (regional aid for infrastructural projects) in 1989

While Wolff, a political scientist predicts the “Erasmus(Barry 2003: 403). Despite strongly positive economic

generation” (Costello 2015) will yield a new cadre of pro-benefits that the EU brought to the Irish economy, its euro

European citizens in the future, Polyakova and Fligsteinmembership is sometimes associated with low interest(2016) reported that the European identity has notrates which resulted in the housing bubble and subsequent

increased much in the past 20 years. Despite the argument

crash in the 2000s (Whelan 2013).

that the financial crisis and subsequent austerity measuresturned some Europeans against the EU, the authors foundIn the past three decades, the Irish economy hasthat the EU integration project ‘pushed citizens to value

experienced a rollercoaster of highs and lows. Its property

their national identities more’ (p. 60), even before thebubble collapsed in 2008 and the deepened economicEurozone crisis.

crisis led to requests for financial assistance from theEU, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other

Dustmann et al. (2017) examined the level of trust placed

EU Member States. A package worth €85 billion wasin the European Parliament, compared with that placed innegotiated, on the condition that the Irish budget would be

respective national parliaments across European countries.

closely monitored by the Troika (European Commission,

Alongside countries such as Greece, Spain, Italy andEuropean Central Bank and the IMF) on a regular basis toPortugal, in Ireland's case, ‘trust in the national parliament

ensure that financial conditions were met.

was consistently lower than trust in the European

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

06

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland

Parliament’ (p.63). However, during the Eurozone crisis,

As seen above, in the areas of economy and identity, theattitudes became less sympathetic, and the level of trust

data paint a mixed picture of the relationship between

in the European Parliament dipped. ‘The turn against the

Ireland and Europe. Recent changes show some signs ofEuropean Union is particularly pronounced (…) in Italy,

negative feelings towards the EU (e.g. rejections of the

Ireland, Finland, Germany (which started from a very pro-

Nice Treaty, and increased votes for anti-EU parties),

EU level), Denmark, France and the United Kingdom’

yet more people feel both Irish and European. The final(p.34). Vote shares for anti-EU parties at European

section will look at another dimension to Ireland’s place

Parliament elections in Ireland nearly doubled in 2014

in Europe, which must be closely monitored amid Brexit(p.36).

negotiations.

Their findings combined with the Eurobarometer surveys

When Ireland undertook the Presidency of the European

could explain in part the recent resurgence of national

Community back in 1989, the then Taoiseach Charles

identities and populist parties across many European

Haughey mentioned that ‘German reunification was acountries. How do Irish people perceive themselves then?

matter for the German people… and because of our own
history we were naturally inclined towards any wish by theGerman people to come together in unity…’ (O’Driscoll
2018: 231. Italicised by the author). In supporting German
reunification, he stressed the importance of further
European integration and unity. He then alluded to anotherof Ireland’s characteristics, namely, that of a ‘divided’
nation.

% 70

Irish only-IE

60(Nationality) and European-EU

50
40(Nationality) only-EU

30

Irish and European-IE

20
European only-IE

100

Feb/Mar-07 May-10

Dec-11

European and (Nationality)-EU

Jun-12 Nov/Dec-12 May-13

European and Irish-IE
European only-EU

Nov-13 May/Jun-14 Nov-14

May-15

Nov-15

Irish only - IE

(Nationality) only - EU

Irish and European - IE

(Nationality) and European - EU

European and Irish - IE

European and (Nationality) - EU

European only - IE

European only - EU

Figure 3-1. National and European identity: “Do you see yourself as…?”
between 2007 and 2015 (Ireland (IE) and EU average (EU)) (Source: Eurobarometer. Adapted by the author.)

Figures 3-1 and 3-2 demonstrate that Irish people have astronger sense of national identity (i.e. feeling Irish) than
the average European citizen, although since mid-2014 thegaps have narrowed. The numbers of Irish people who feel
both Irish and European at the same time barely reach 50
percent.
%

70
60
50

40
30
20
10
0

Both Irish and European (Ireland)

Both (Nationality) and European (Europe)

Figure 3-2. Combined figures of those who feel both “Irish/Nationality andEuropean” between 2007 and 2015 (Source: Eurobarometer. Adapted by
the author.)

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

Figure 4. Map of the island of Ireland: 4 provinces and 32 counties(Source : La Historia con Mapas website)

07

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland

Six counties north of the border have formed part of the

In June 2016, the majority (56 percent) of NI people

UK since 1921. The island of Ireland is divided into 4

voted to remain in the EU. However, an unexpected result

provinces (cúige) (Connaught, Leinster, Munster andfrom the June 2017 snap general election brought a pro-

Ulster), and 32 counties (contaetha na hÉireann). Northern

Brexit political party in NI to centre stage of the Brexit

Ireland (NI) roughly overlaps with the Province of Ulster,negotiations. The minority Conservative government madealthough three of the counties in that province (Monaghan,a Confidence and Supply pact with Democratic Unionist

Cavan and Donegal) were situated in the Republic of

Party (DUP). The DUP is demanding a ‘no border between

Ireland after partition.

Great Britain and NI’ solution.

Peculiarly, even after the establishment of the Irish FreeOn the other hand, the ROI government, led by TaoiseachState in 1922, open borders were maintained. This relates

Leo Varadkar TD, is preoccupied by the border issues

to the Common Travel Area (CTA), which comprises

between NI and ROI. The Irish government is strongly

the UK, Republic of Ireland (ROI), Isle of Man, andarguing for a ‘no hard border between NI and ROI’

Channel Islands. Depending on the results of the UK-EU

solution. Being both the youngest and the first person

withdrawal negotiations, the CTA may have to be removed

from a minority ethnic background to hold the office, thein 2019. The division between NI and ROI would then,current Taoiseach represents a new type of Irish/European

for the first time in modern history, be marked sharply bypolitician, and perhaps the “Erasmus generation”. During

restrictions on freedom of movements in goods, services

his speech in the European Parliament on 17 January 2018,

and people. At present, nearly 6,500 and 8,300 commutehe stated ‘the European ideal has always been inspired bydaily between NI and ROI respectively (CSO 2017),

a spirit of optimism and a belief in a better future. Thatso that approximately 15,000 people could be affectedideal has been tested, but has not been broken. We haveby some form of national border. As transportation ofa renewed appetite to face the challenges of the future.’commodities, ingredients and services will also be heavily(European Parliament website.) He switched between four

affected, the economic impact is expected to be negative.

languages (English, Irish, German and French) in thisspeech, which amply highlighted his desire for Ireland toSome are apprehensive over whether Brexit mightremain committed to the European project.

endanger the peace process (e.g. the Good Friday
Agreement), by potentially activating cross-border

The future of the island of Ireland in the post-Brexit era

operations by paramilitaries. Furthermore, the border issue

remains uncertain at the time of writing this researchis very critical not only for the UK-Ireland relationship,note. Many things will (have to) become clearer, as thebut also for Ireland in Europe.

negotiations progress throughout the year. One of theunintended consequences of the Brexit referendum was

Following paramilitary ceasefires in 1994, the EU initiallyto shed light on the multi-layered nature of European

founded the PEACE Programme in order to make positive

integration, and the way in which the UK and ROI were

contributions to the promotion of cohesion between

held together as two separate nation states within theunionist and nationalist communities. Between 2014 andEuropean polity. Now that the UK decided to leave the2020, the EU decided to finance cross-border initiatives

EU, this top layer could be removed, and the border issue

through the European Regional Development Fund. The

has resurfaced between the two countries. Unexpectedly,

PEACE IV Programme (worth €270m) is designed to

Brexit underscored the EU’s origin, which itself stemmed

support peace and reconciliation projects in Northernfrom a peace process, and its function as a confidence

Ireland and the Border counties of Ireland (Cavan,building mechanism.

Donegal, Leitrim, Louth, Monaghan and Sligo) (SEUPB
website).

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

08

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland

Concluding remarks

institutions, has its own dynamics, and will continue

European integration in the aftermath of World War Two

to offer us a fascinating insight into models of regionalcommenced not as a purely economic project, but as aintegration (Moone and Andreosso-O’Callaghan 2017),

peace-building operation amongst nation states, with awhich involves a balancing act between realpolitik andparticular focus on the border region between Germany

consensus building through the diplomacy of nation statesand France. It is no surprise, then, that when a member

and other actors. Ireland’s experience is an interesting casestate decides to quit the project, people fear that a peace

for countries like Japan, Korea (another ‘divided’ nation

process in another border region can be jeopardised.

on the Korean peninsula), and other Asian countries.

Ireland joined the group in the first wave of its

Clearly, the ultimate goal of achieving lasting peace isenlargement, together with the UK and Denmark in 1973.

something that we would all find critical as a universal

Therefore, the European Community/Union has provided

theme for regional integration. As a very ambitious andIreland with a useful umbrella where it could develop its

unique model of regional integration, the past, present andown identity, independently of the UK, while maintaining

future of European integration will continue to be closely

its trading partnership with the UK and shared old customs

watched, and lessons will be drawn and transferred withinsuch as the CTA. As time goes by, the EU embarked on

and beyond Europe.

very ambitious programmes, evolving from more of anintergovernmental organisation to a supranational entity.
It developed its capacities influencing each member state,

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the President of JICE, Ms

from areas spanning economy, trade, employment andSachiko Yamano, the JICE team (Ms Machiko Naitō, Ms

security.

Maki Saitō, Mr Yuji Kawamoto, Mr Takahiro Sekiguchi),and the editorial team of this journal. The author is

Ireland, as a country with relatively small economic andalso grateful to Professor Kunihiro Wakamatsu (Tokyo

military clout, has been a proactive player in multilateral

University of Foreign Studies) and Ms Yumi Ōmori (Tokyo

diplomacy, yet following a unique trajectory with rapid

University of Foreign Studies/the Embassy of Japan in

economic growth and a modernisation agenda, while

Ireland) for their informative seminar on 8 February 2018.

retaining a strong national identity. As a ‘divided nation',

I would like to thank my colleagues, particularly thoseit faces a unique set of challenges, this time, posed byin the School of Social Policy, Social Work and Social

centrifugal forces including Brexit and an emerging

Justice, UCD Japan and Experience Japan.

division between those left-behind by economic andsocial change and those who benefit from globalisationand international cooperation. The issue of Ireland’s open
economy, relying heavily on its low corporation tax toattract multinational firms, remains unresolved.
In the context of the challenges now arising in the postBrexit world, the search for new and alternative markets aswell as alliances is a clear priority for countries including
Ireland. As a way of mitigating current potentially adverse
circumstances, new opportunities throughout Asia will
be seized, and further links between Europe and Asia
will be found and strengthened. However, European
integration, as a multilateral process with supranational

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

References

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Barry, F. (2003) Irish Economic Development over Three Decades of EU
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Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Special Contribution

Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration: A Perspective from Ireland

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doclib/docs/2014/march/tradoc_152239.PDF (accessed 12 February
2018)
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Polyakova, A. and Fligstein, N. (2016) Is European integration causing
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D. (Eds) The Act of Voting: Identities, Institutions and Locale, 255-275.
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Tsebelis, G. and Garrett, G. (2001) The Institutional Foundations of Intergovernmentalism and Supranationalism in the European Union. International Organization, 55, 2: 357-390.
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Vandewalle, L. (2015) The increasing role of the EU's culture, educationand science diplomacy in Asia. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/
etudes/IDAN/2015/549050/EXPO_IDA(2015)549050_EN.pdf (accessed
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Whelan, K. (2013) Ireland’s Economic Crisis: The Good, the Bad and the
Ugly. Paper presented at Bank of Greece conference on the Euro Crisis, Athens (24 May 2013).
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10

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Lessons extracted from the training “Young Leader Programs” inDeveloping Countries
Case Study of JICA Training “Young Leader Program”-4 yearsMasako Kishimoto

Vice President of Japan International Cooperation Center(JICE)

Abstract

required training needs of target countries; 2) While high-In FY2007, Japan International Cooperation Agency

understanding Japan and Japanese people are highly(JICA) modified the training contents of its Youthevaluated as well. As a bridge between participants

Invitation Program and restarted the program under a new

and Japanese people, the role of training managers andtitle “Young Leader Programs”1. By the end of FY2017,

coordinators is considerably significant; 3) It is necessary2level contents are required, elements that help enhance

12,003 number of participants from 121 countries was

to include the follow-up plan into the training curricula

planned to attend the program.

to support participants’ activities after they return to theircountry; and 4) In addition to implementing training

Japan International Cooperation Center (JICE), alongprograms, JICE needs to establish a system to evaluatewith other partners, conducted Ex-Post Evaluation Survey

these programs effectively.

of JICA Knowledge Co-Creation Programs (Groupand Region Focus & Young Leaders) between FY2013
and FY2016. Regarding the Knowledge Co-Creation
Programs (Young Leaders) (“Young Leader Programs”),

1 The title was changed again in July 2015, to JICA “Knowledge CoCreation Programs (Young Leaders)”.
2 www.jica.go.jp/

the survey targets were 5,553 participants between
FY2010 and FY2014, out of which 590 returned theirquestionnaire effectively. In this study, I re-analyzed theoverall outcomes of Young Leader Programs by using
the data of these previous surveys and aim to apply thelearned insights and lessons to other training programs
implemented by JICE.
As results of the study, the overall outcomes of Young
Leader Programs were highly evaluated. Programs
were designed with high-level contents and supporting
elements to meet participants’ request. Through training
programs, participants gained specific knowledge andskills required to solve developmental issues in theircountries. Additionally by coming to Japan, participants
had opportunities to be exposed to Japanese tradition andculture, which helped deepen their understanding about
Japan, and enhance a positive perception toward Japan.
The outcomes from non-lecture activities and experienceswere proved to be significant. They also met the objectivesof JICA Knowledge Co-Creation Programs.
The insights and lessons extracted from this study include:
1) It is important to match the training contents with the

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

11

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

研修事後評価からの教訓—JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—一般財団法人
常務理事

日本国際協力センター

岸本昌子

１．はじめにや国際機関から委託を受けて研修を実施している。
研修以外の国際交流事業や留学生事業においても、

JICA は、1984 年、将来の国づくりを担う開発

海外からの若手リーダーの日本での学業や交流の途上国の青年が当該分野の研修を通じて知見を深成果を最大限にするために、様々な業務を行ってめるとともに、同じ分野の我が国の青年との交いる。

流を通じて相互理解を深めることを目的として、※1

www.jica.go.jp/※2

JICA2017 Annual Report

ASEAN 諸国を対象に、“青年招へい”事業を開始した。その後、対象地域はアジア、大洋州諸国、アフリカ、中央アジア、中東、中南米に拡張され、2006 年度までに 31,428 名が青年招へい研修に参加している。“青年研修”事業は、2007 年度から内※ 3 研修監理業務とは、研修コース個々のプログラムの計画に基づき、主に研修現場においては研修監理員（トレーニング・コー
ディネーター）が、その全体の運営管理を行い、研修成果を最大限にするために、研修期間中のプログラム全行程に同行し、通訳を行い、関係機関とのプログラムの連絡調整、研修員の課題や問題点を把握して理解を促進する業務全体を指す。

容を改編し、新たにスタートした研修事業である。
2007 年度から 2016 年度までに 11,023 人※ 1 が研修に参加し、2017 年度は 980 人の受入予定で、世界２．研究目的の 121 か国から参加している。JICA の青年研修は

本研究は、JICE が 2013 年度から 2016 年度の 4

現在、開発途上国の次世代を担う若手リーダーの年間に行った JICA の青年研修の「研修事後評価

育成として、

調査・現況調査」のデータを再分析することによっ1． 日本における各分野の基礎的な技術や制度にて、青年研修の効果を総体的にとらえ、そこから関する知識を習得する

JICE が実施している研修や他の事業に生かしてい2． 日本の技術が発展した歴史、経験や文化、社

くための教訓を得ることを目的としている。

会的な背景を理解する
3． 対象国の開発課題解決への取り組みに資する
知識・意識を向上させることを目的としている※ 2。

３．研究方法3.1

調査対象

ま た、JICE は、 設 立 以 来 30 年 以 上 に わ た り
JICA の研修監理業務※ 3 を担ってきた。研修員の2013 年度から 2016 年度の「課題別研修等事後

来日から帰国までの期間、研修コースの計画に沿っ評価調査・現況調査における青年研修の全数調査て、研修担当者及び研修監理員が研修実施期間全は、質問紙（アンケート）調査法を用いて行った。

体の運営管理を行ってきた。青年研修以前の青年

調査対象は 2010 年度～ 2014 年度の青年研修に参招へいプログラムにおいても、そのプログラムの加した研修員 5,553 人であったが、有効メールア

設立時から関わり、JICA の既存の研修監理業務にドレスを持つ 1,961 人に質問票を送付し、590 人か加え、青年招へい事業をサポートし、青年の交流

ら回答を得た（表１）。今回はこの 4 年間のデータを深める様々な活動をプログラムに組み込む支援をまとめて再分析をした。

を行った。
現在、JICE はこの経験を生かし、国内外の政府

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

12

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

研修事後評価からの教訓—JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—-

表１

全数調査対象者数・アンケート回答回収
調査年

対象年度

2014年度

2015年度

2016年度合計

2010

2011～2012

2013

2014

2010～2014

1,460

2,144

1,028

921

5,553

392

770

476

323

1,961

76(19.4%)

288(37.4%)

130(27.3%)

96(29.7%)590(30.0%)

研修員数(人）
有効メールアドレス
回答数（回収率：％）

3.2

1 のとおり 11 地域（590 人）から参加しており、

2013年度調査方法

どの年度においても東南アジアからの研修員が一番多く、次にアフリカ、そして南アジアとなっている。
図1

調査にあたっては、エクセルファイルで作成した質問票及びグーグル・ドキュメントのアプリケー
ションを利用した Web アンケートの 2 種の方法を用いた。対象者への電子メールにエクセルファ
イルによる質問票を添付するとともに、送付状にWeb アンケートの URL 並びに両質問票の内容は研修員の所属国（N: 研修員数）0%

2013年度

20%

40%

52.6

60%

80%

100%

18.4

15.8

2.6

6.6

4.9 4.9

東南アジア
アフリカ
南アジア
中央アジア・コーカサス

2014年度

58.3

16.3

大洋州
南米

2015年度

40.0

22.3

26.2

5.40

中東

東アジア
西アジア

2016年度51.0

同じである旨を記載した。質問票は基本的に英語

18.8

10.4 5.2 6.32.1

中米・カリブ版を用いているが、研修員数が多い国については母国語に翻訳したものを提供した。

4.2

研修に対する評価

青年研修における質問項目の内容は、「研修参加の動機」・「研修内容」及び「研修カリキュラム評

以下、評価結果を示す表中の評価値が空欄の場

価」、研修の効果（アウトカム）に関する「研修内合は、調査で質問を行っていないことを示してい

容の習得度」
・「研修総合評価」
・「研修後の意識・る。

態度の変容」
・「習得した知識・技術の活用」
・「研
修経験の共有」・「日本・日本人や関係者との関わり」

4.2.1

研修参加の動機及び「日本に対する理解」などである。質問項目

青年研修の研修参加動機に関しては、表 2 からは主に 5 段階評価（5 点が評価が高く 1 点は評価分かるように、総じて 4 点台の高い値を示していが低い）を用いた。

る。特に「研修内容に興味を持った」と「日本に青年研修の経年変化を見るために、質問の多く来ることに興味を持った」の二つの評価が 3 年間

は 4 年間同じ内容である。なお、2016 年度に関しを通じて 4.60 点以上であることから、日本に対すては経年変化に捉われることなく質問をしている

る関心が高いことがうかがえる。

ことから、一部の質問内容が異なっている。
表２

４．分析結果分析では、効果の発現状況を明らかにするために、それぞれの質問項目について回答者の平均点を求めた。さらに各質問項目間の関連性および効
果の発現要因を明らかにするために、相関分析、重回帰分析を行った。

参加の動機
2013年度

2014年度

2015年度I was interested in the contents of theTraining

4.74

4.73

4.81

-

I was interested in coming to Japan

4.75

4.74

4.60

-

My supervisor advised me to participate in the Training.

3.80

4.03

3.82

-

My colleagues and/or friends advised me to participate in
the Training.

3.61

3.67

3.57

-

質問項目

4.2.2

2016年度

研修内容

研修内容に関しての研修員の平均点はすべて
4.21 点以上の高い評価を得ている（表３）。「研修内容は本国のニーズに合致」、「研修内容は所属機

4.1

研修員の属性

青年研修の各年度の分析対象者の所属地域は図JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

関のニーズに合致」、「研修内容は新しい知識・技術を網羅」、「研修内容は実際的」及び「研修カリ13

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

研修事後評価からの教訓—JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—-キュラムは目標達成のために適切にデザインされのように、JICA が提供している研修カリキュラムている」は 4 年間通じて高い。一部質問していなのそれぞれが高く評価され、研修総合評価も高い

い年度があるが、「研修は日程通りに実施された」、

ことから、質の高い研修を提供していると考えら「研修は目標達成のために適切に実施された」
、
「研

れる。

修は計画通りであった」、「学習した研修内容は業務に関連がある」及び「学習した研修内容は現在も活用できる」の質問は 2 年あるいは 3 年間、高表４

研修カリキュラム
2013年度

2014年度

2015年度

2016年度く評価されている。このことから JICA 研修事業

General orientation on culture of Japan

8.45

8.75

8.89

4.33

Coordinators and staffs' performance

9.01

9.11

9.18

の青年研修が提供した内容は非常に高いと言える。

Interaction with Japanese people

7.62

8.46

8.61

Interaction with other participants

8.66

8.84

8.90

4.29

Lectures

8.35

8.59

8.71

4.47

Field visits

8.79

9.09

8.97

4.66

Home-stay

8.57

8.10

8.75

4.52

Program as a whole

8.72

8.92

8.93

表３

研修内容
質問項目

2013年度The contents of the Training matched my country's needs
The contents of the Training matched my organization's
needs
The contents of the Training covered new knowledge andskills
The contents of the Training were practical
The Training curriculum was appropriately designed toachieve its goal.
The Training was implemented as scheduled
The Training was implemented efficiently for achieving
its goals.
The Training covered the contents as planned.
・The knowledge and skills I learned in the Training are
relevant at present (2014.2015)
・The knowledge and skills required for my work atpresent (2013 )4.2.3

2014年度

2015年度

質問項目

4.75
-

-

2016年度

4.53

4.47

4.48

4.49

4.36

4.32

4.41

4.29

4.47

4.53

4.53

4.61

4.26

4.36

4.41

4.21

4.23

4.41

4.38

-

4.77

4.73

-

4.27

-

4.58

4.59

-

-

4.65

4.70

-

-

4.45

4.42

4.38

研修カリキュラム

５．研修の効果（アウトカム）
5.1

習得度・目標達成度・研修総合評価

研修を総合的に理解するために、全体として「研修内容をどの程度習得したか」と「研修目標にどの程度達したか」を質問した。習得度に関し研修のカリキュラムとして、「ジェネラルオリエて、2013 年度は 79.30％、2014 年度は 84.28% そしンテーションによる日本紹介」、「研修監理員と関て 2015 年度には 84.83％と研修で与えられた知識・係スタッフのパフォーマンス」、「日本人との相互技術の 80% 前後の高い習得度となっている（表５）。

交流」、「研修員間の交流」、「講師」、「現場視察」、

また、目標達成度について、2013 年度は 77.30％、「ホームスティ」及び「プログラム全体」について

2014 年度は 81.07%、2015 年度は 81.53％と 80% 前質問した。なお、2013 年度から 2015 年度は 10 段

後の高い目標達成度を示している（表５）。

階評価で 2016 年度は 5 段階評価となっている（表４）。
研修カリキュラムの中で「研修監理員と関係ス
タッフのパフォーマンス」については 2013 年度から 2015 年度の 3 年間を通じて 9.01 点以上の非常に

表５

習得度・研修総合評価（％）

質問項目
How much of the Training contents did you acquire
overall? Please answer in terms of percentage（from 0 to
100）
How much of the Training's goal did you achieve ? Pleaseanswer in terms of percentage (from 0 to 100)

2013年度

2014年度

2015年度

79.30

84.28

84.83

2016年度
-

77.30

81.07

81.53

-

高い評価を得ている。また、2016 年度も 4.75 点の高い評価となっている。その他「日本の文化紹介」
、

5.1.1

習得度に影響を及ぼす要因「現場視察」、「ホームスティ」、「講義」及び「研修研修参加者にとって研修内容を習得することは員間の交流」も高く評価されている。2016 年度の重要であることから、重回帰分析を用いて習得度

5 段階評価でも多くは 4.29 点以上と高い評価となっと習得度に影響を与える要因との関連をみた ( 表ている。さらに、カリキュラム全体の評価（以下６)。

研修総合評価）は 2013 年度から 2015 年度の 3 年「研修で習得した知識やスキルは現在の業務にもともに 8.72 点、8.92 点、8.93 点と非常に高い。こ生かされている・習得した知識・スキルは現在のJICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

14

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

研修事後評価からの教訓—JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—-業務で必要なレベルである」、また「講義」は 3 年

り高くなると言える。

連続で研修の習得度に影響を及ぼしている。2014
年度は「研修内容が所属組織のニーズに合致して

5.2

研修員の意識・態度の変容

いる」、そして 2013 年度は「研修内容は実用的であった」も習得度に影響を及ぼしている。これら

表８に示すように、研修参加後の研修員の意識から研修員が帰国後も必要とされる高いレベルのや態度の変化として、「研修トピックに関する意識・内容を研修実施側が提供する、また良い講義であ自覚が強くなった」、「より効果的・効率的に業務るほど習得度が上がると考えられる。

をするようになった」、「自国の開発に貢献できる

表６「自国の状況を国際的観点から考えるようになっような活動へのモチベーションが上がった」及び習得度に影響を及ぼす要因
2013年度
説明変数

2014年度た」の質問をした。

2015年度

標準
検定
標準
検定
標準
検定
偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果

The contents of the Training matched my organization's
needs

-.066

The contents of the Training were practical.231

・The knowledge and skills I learned in the Training are
relevant at present(2014, 2015)
・The level of knowledge and skills I acquired from theTraining: compared with the knowledge and skills
required for my work at present(2013)
LecturesField visits
調整済み決定係数
N.237 (**)

-.112

(+)

.026

-.096

.252

(+)

.139

(*)

.400 (**)

.403

(*)

.265 (**).328 (**)

-.132

.004

.018

.264 (**).258 (**).222 (**)

68

285

120

2014 年度から 3 年間にわたり、「研修トピックの意識・自覚が強くなった」「自国の開発に貢献で** 1%水準で有意差がある * 5%水準で有意差がある + 10%水準で有意差がある

きるような活動へのモチベーションが上がった」、「自国の状況を国際的観点から考えるようになった」の評価は 4.51 点以上と高く、意識の変化と態度の変容が見られた。キャパシティビルディングの指標となる研修員の意識・態度の変容が生じていることが考えられる。

5.1.2

研修総合評価に影響を及ぼす要因

表９は 2014 年度と 2015 年度における研修員の次に重回帰分析を用いて研修総合評価と各研修

意識・態度の変容と「より重要な業務への配置」、

カリキュラムとの関連をみた。表７に示されるよ「昇進」との相関を示してある。いずれも相関係数

うに「研修監理員と関係スタッフのパフォーマンは有意であることから研修員の意識の変化や態度

ス」、「講義」及び「現場視察」は 3 年連続して研の変容によってより重要な業務に配置されるよう

修総合評価に大きく影響を及ぼしている。また、になった、あるいは昇進したと考えられる。

2014 年度の「ジェネラルオリエンテーションによる日本文化紹介」と「ホームスティ」も研修総合評価に影響を及ぼしている。これらから「研修監理員と関係スタッフのパフォーマンス」、「講義」、「現場視察」の評価が高いほど、研修総合評価がよ
表７

研修総合評価に影響を及ぼす要因
2014年度

2013年度
説明変数-.015

Coordinators and staffs' performance.290

Interaction with Japanese people(2014, 2015)
Interaction with young Japanese people(2013).095

Interaction with other participants.156

Lectures

.176

(*)

(+)

.199 (**).107.271 (**).286 (**)

.010

.137

-.065

-.038

.238 (**).324 (**)(+).339 (**).259 (**).179

Home-stay.013.120 (**).102.793 (**).693 (**).655 (**)

55

242

109

N

質問項目

2013年度

2014年度

2015年度

-

4.59

4.57

I work more effectively and efficiently.

-

4.36

4.42

-

4.62

4.60

-

4.50

4.52

I am assigned to more important work.

-

3.96

4.26

-

I am promoted

-

3.29

3.64

-

I am more motivated to undertake activities that
contribute to my country's development.
I consider my country's situation with international
perspective more than before.

(*)

2016年度
4.51
‐
4.67
4.48

研修員の意識・態度の変容と重要な仕事および昇進

との相関
質問項目
年度

Field visit

調整済み決定係数

研修員の意識・態度の変容

The Training strengthened my awareness on the topic of
the Training.

表９

2015年度

標準
検定
標準
検定
標準
検定
偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果

General orientation on culture of Japan

表８

I am assigned to more
important work.
I am promoted.

The Training
strengthened myawareness on the topic
of the Training.

I consider my country's
I am more motivated tosituation with
undertake activities
internationalthat contribute to myperspective more thancountry's development.
before.

I work more effectively
and efficiently.

2014.230**.397**.386**.344**

2015.328**.595**.337**.360**

2014.081.241**.234**

2015

*

**

.174

.449

.147*

.153
** 1％水準で有意差がある.274***

5％水準で有意差がある** 1%水準で有意差がある * 5%水準で有意差がある + 10%水準で有意差がある

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

15

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

研修事後評価からの教訓—JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—-5.3習得した知識・技術の活用

パシティビルディングの過程で起きる知識・技術の共有と伝達もなされていると考えられる。

研修で習得した知識・技術がどのように活用されているかについては、「学んだ当該分野の方法や

5.5

日本・日本人の理解技術を業務の中で生かすことができている」はす
べての年度で 4.15 点以上と高く評価されている
（表

5.5.1

日本・日本人に対する認知の変容10）。また、「所属組織の中でアクションプランを

表 12 に示されるように、日本と日本人の理解度

作る、あるいは改善している」、については、ほとに対して 4 つの質問を行った。「日本と日本人へのんどの年度で評価は 4.05 点以上となっている。こ

信頼性の深化」、「日本人と協働することへの深いれらから習得した知識・技術の活用は自分の業務、興味」、「日本の社会と日常生活への深い理解」、「日所属組織で大いに活用されていると思われる。政本の伝統・文化の深い理解」の全ての質問に対し府レベル、自治体レベルへの政策提言への評価はて 4.42 点以上と非常に高い評価となっている。こ

相対的に低くなっていることから、研修員の身近れらの結果から、研修員の日本・日本人に対するな職場での活用が良くできていると考えられる。

信頼、日本人と共に仕事をすることへの興味、日本の社会・日常生活への理解、日本の伝統文化が表 10深まったと考えられる。日本・日本人への理解が習得した知識・技術の活用
質問項目

2013年度

2014年度

2015年度

2016年度I contributed to establishment or improvement of policies
and systems by national or local government.
I contributed to establishment or improvement of system
in my organization.
I contributed to establishment or improvement of methods
and techniques used in my work.

3.67

3.48

3.68

3.65

3.79

3.90

4.08

3.72

4.22

4.23

4.23

4.15

I contributed to project formulation in my organization.

3.86

3.89

4.09

3.86

I contributed to development or improvement of actionplans in my organization

4.19

4.05

4.23

3.89

深まることにより日本に対して好感度が高まったと考えられる。
表 12

日本・日本人に対する認知の変容
質問項目

My trust in Japan and the Japanese people has increased.

5.4

My interest in working with Japanese people has
increased.
I have gained a deeper understanding of Japanese society
and daily life
I have gained a deeper understanding of Japanesetraditions and culture.

習得した経験の共有

2013年度

2014年度

2015年度

4.72

4.66

4.72

2016年度
4.50

4.68

4.69

4.71

4.67

4.47

4.56

4.51

4.57

4.51

4.47

4.42

4.57

日本での経験を帰国後どのように共有しているかを質問した。3 年間を通して評価が高かったの

5.5.2 「日本の文化への理解」と「研修カリキュ

は、「経験を自分の所属機関と共有した」と「経験ラム」

を自分の所属先以外で共有した」で、評価は共に日本の文化を理解するために役だったことを尋4.10 点以上と高く、帰国研修員は広く経験を共有

ねたところ、表 13 に示すように「ジェネラルオリ

しようとしていると言える。
「日本の事を他者に伝エンテーションによる日本文化紹介」、「実施機関

えた」「日本の研修プログラムを他者に伝達した」

やプログラムマネジャー等との交流」及び「現場の評価も共に 4.39 点以上であった（表 11）。

視察」の評価は全てが 4.23 点以上と高い。このこ

研修員は様々な形や場所で日本の研修の経験をとから日本文化の理解にこれらの活動が大きく貢共有し、伝達していることが伺えることから、キャ献していると言え、研修員は様々な場所で日本文

表 11

表 13「日本の文化への理解」と「研修カリキュラム」

習得した技術の共有
質問項目

2013年度

2014年度

2015年度

4.47

4.50

4.63

-

4.16

4.13

4.10

-

I shared the contents of the Training in my organization.
I shared the contents of the Training with others outsideof my organization.
After participating in the Training, I tell others about myprogram experience in Japan.
After participating in the Training, I tell others about my
impression of JapanJICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

4.55
4.50

4.37
4.55

4.39
4.54

2016年度-

質問項目
General orientation helped me understand culture ofJapan.
Interaction with the implementing organization andprogram managers helped me understand culture ofJapan.
Field visits helped me understand culture of Japan.

2013年度

2014年度

2015年度

2016年度

4.40

4.42

4.43

4.23

4.40

4.48

4.42

4.27

4.59

4.71

4.60

4.48

16

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

研修事後評価からの教訓—JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—-化に触れ、体験していることがうかがえる。

く影響を及ぼしており、これらの機会が増えるほど日本の社会や日常生活の理解が深まると考えら

5.5.3 「日本の文化への理解」に影響を及ぼす要れる。

因表 14 は「日本の文化への理解」に対して「ジェネラルオリエンテーションによる日本文化の紹表 15 「日本の社会と日常生活の深い理解」に影響を及ぼす要因

介」、「研修監理員と関係スタッフのパフォーマン
ス」、「日本人・日本人の若者との交流」及び「現場視察」を説明変数として重回帰分析を行った結果を示してある。
この表から明らかなように、「日本の文化への理2013年度
説明変数

2014年度

2015年度

標準
検定
標準
検定
標準
検定
偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果

General orientation on culture of Japan.295

Coordinators and staffs' performance

-.076

(+)

.383 (**)

.162

-.039

-.045

・Interaction with Japanese people(2014, 2015)
・Interaction with young Japanese people(2013)

.268

.099

.343 (**)

Field visits

-.030

.025

.001

.130 (**).177 (**).171 (**)

71

280

124

調整済み決定係数解」に対して 2014 年度と 2016 年度は「ジェネラN(*)** 1%水準で有意差がある * 5%水準で有意差がある + 10%水準で有意差がある

ルオリエンテーションによる日本文化の紹介」が大きく影響しており、2013 年度と 2015 年度は「日5.5.5 「日本・日本人への信頼性の深化」に影響

本人・日本人の若者との交流」が、また 2016 年度を及ぼす要因は「研修監理員と関係スタッフのパフォーマンス」

表 16 は、「日本・日本人への信頼性の深化」にが大きく影響を及ぼしている。これらのことから、対して「ジェネラルオリエンテーションによる日研修員への働きかけや活動をするほど日本の伝統・本文化紹介」、「研修監理員と関係スタッフのパ

文化への理解が深まると考えられる。

フォーマンス」、「現場視察」そして「日本の伝統・文化への深い理解」を説明変数に用いて重回帰分析を行った結果を示している。

表 14「日本の文化への理解」に影響を及ぼす要因
2013年度
説明変数

2014年度

2015年度

2016年度

標準
検定
標準
検定
標準
検定
標準
検定
偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果

General orientation on culture of Japan

.221.432 (**).054.281 (**)

Coordinators and staffs' performance

-.141

-.070

.045

.279 (**).061.346 (**)

.039

.018

.098

.191 (**).136 (**).206 (**)

280

124

96

・Interaction with Japanese people (2014, 2015)
・Interaction with young Japanese people (2013).318

Field visits-.012
調整済み決定係数

.104

N

71

(*)

(*)

－

－

** 1%水準で有意差がある * 5%水準で有意差がある

2013 年度から 2016 年度の 4 年間連続して「日本の伝統・文化への深い理解」が「日本・日本人への信頼性の深化」に大きく影響を及ぼしている、
また「研修監理員と関係スタッフのパフォーマンス」が 2014 年度から 2016 年度の 3 年間連続して大きく影響を及ぼしていることが明らかになった。

5.5.4 「日本の社会と日常生活の深い理解」に影これらが提供されるほど日本・日本人への信頼性

響を及ぼす要因が深まると考えられる。

表 15 は、「日本の社会と日常生活の深い理解」
に対して「ジェネラルオリエンテーションによる

表 16 「日本・日本人への信頼性の深化」に影響を及ぼす

日本文化の紹介」、「研修監理員と関係スタッフの要因

パフォーマンス」、「日本人・日本人の若者との交流」
及び「現場視察」を説明変数として重回帰分析を行った結果を示している。
「日本の社会と日常生活

2013年度
説明変数

2014年度

2015年度

2016年度

標準
検定
標準
検定
標準
検定
標準
検定
偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果

General orientation on culture of Japan

.250

.106

.017

Coordinators and staffs' performance-.115.189 (**).333 (**).181

Field visits

.129

.005

.022

-.031
-.014

(+)

の深い理解」に対しては、2013 年度と 2014 年度

I have gained a deeper understanding of traditionand culture.

.357 (**).369 (**)

.213

(*)

.380 (**)

は「ジェネラルオリエンテーションによる日本文

調整済み決定係数.209 (**).263 (**).163 (**).178 (**)

74

282

126

95

化紹介」が大きく影響を及ぼし、2013 年度と 2015N** 1%水準で有意差がある * 5%水準で有意差がある + 10%水準で有意差がある

年度は「日本人・日本人の若者との交流」が大きJICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

17

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

研修事後評価からの教訓—JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—-

5.5.6 「日本人と協働することへの深い興味」に影響を及ぼす要因

表 18 に示されているように、これまでの他の質問と比較して、帰国後の日本人との関わりにつ

表 17 には、「日本人と協働することへの深い興いての評価は 1 点台あるいは 2 点台と総じて低い。

味」に対して、「ジェネラルオリエンテーションにJICA からの情報提供や同窓会を通してのネット

よる日本文化紹介」、「研修監理員と関係スタッフ

ワークの評価は 2013 年度が 3.14 点であるが、そのパフォーマンス」、「現場視察」そして「日本との後は 2.40 点、2.73 点、2.72 点と低い。また JICA

日本人への信頼性の深化」を説明変数として重回の他の研修参加者についてもすべての年度におい帰分析を行った結果を示している。

て評価は 2 点台と低い。日本人とのその後のビジ

その結果、2013 年度から 2016 年度の 4 年間連ネスの関係や日本関係のプログラムへの参加の評

続して「日本と日本人への信頼性の深化」が日本

価も 1 点台と低い。研修員間も 2 点台と高いとは人と協働することへの興味に大きい影響を及ぼし言えない。研修参加後は研修員の日本人や関係者ていることが明らかになった。2013 年度では「研とのつながりや交流は少ないことが分かる。

修監理員と関係スタッフのパフォーマンス」が、2014 年度では「ジェネラルオリエンテーションの表 18よる日本文化紹介」が強く影響を及ぼしている。

り

これらのことから、日本で接した人々によって日本と日本人への信頼度が高まり、日本人と協働したい気持ちとなっていることが考えられる。
表 17 「日本人と協働することへの深い興味」に影響を及ぼす要因
2013年度
説明変数

2014年度

2015年度

研修後の日本・JICA・関係者及び研修員間の関わ

2013年度

2014年度

2015年度My home-stay family

2.23

2.32

2.77

-

Japanese youth volunteers (for in-house seminars and/orJapanese language programs)

2.38

2.26

2.23

-

My program managers or staff

2.53

2.69

2.88

-

I work as a Japanese language/culture teacher in mycountry.

1.04

1.210

1.770

-

I conduct business with Japanese people.

1.21

1.430

1.400

-

I participate in exchange programs with Japan.

1.25

1.427

1.630

-

3.14

2.40

2.73

2.72

2.56

2.39

2.48

2.18

質問項目

I receive information about JICA and Japan throughalumni network?
I engage myself in activities with other former JICA
trainees.

2016年度

2016年度

標準
検定
標準
検定
標準
検定
標準
検定
偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果 偏回帰変数 結果

General orientation on culture of Japan-.194.151 (**)

Coordinators and staffs' performance.436 (**)

.032

.086

.108

Field visits

-.078

.055

-.104

-.023

My trust in Japan and the Japanese people has
increased.563 (**).598 (**).730 (**).465 (**)

調整済み決定係数
N

.072

.020

.368 (**).490 (**).573 (**).227 (**)

74

282

124

124
** 1%水準で有意差がある

７．結論とまとめ
本研究では、ICA 青年研修における研修員の研修全体の成果は 4 年間継続して高く評価され、下６．研修後の日本人・JICA・研修員間との関わり記に述べる研修の効果が出ていることを明らかにした。
参加者の参加に対する動機は、研修内容に対す

帰国後の日本人や JICA、研修員たちとのつながる興味と、日本に来ることへの関心の高さが強く関りについては、「ホームスティ家族」、「日本の若者

係していることが明らかとなった。そして JICA がボランティア」、「プログラム・マネジャーやその提供した研修内容が相手国や研修員の所属機関の関係スタッフ」、「自国の日本語講師や文化関係のニーズに合致し、研修終了後も生かすことができる

講師との関係」、「ビジネス関係での日本とのつな

レベルと内容になっている。研修カリキュラムにがり」「日本との交流プログラムへの参加」、「JICA

ついては、研修員は当該分野の研修コンテンツの同窓会ネットワークからの JICA や日本の情報提みならず、日本文化紹介、研修監理員や関係スタッ

供」及び「元 JICA 研修員との繋がり」などを質

フ、日本人との交流及びホームスティのどれも高問した。

く評価し、全体のプログラムに満足している。

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

18

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

研修事後評価からの教訓—JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—-研修の効果として、研修全体の習得度について

人をこれまで以上に理解していることは JICA のは学習した知識や技術が現在でも活用でき、現在研修目的にも合致しており、その達成度は高い。

の業務に関係したものであることが大きく影響しまた、本研究によって以下の教訓が得られた。

ている。そして、総合的評価については、特に「研1． 相手国および研修員のニーズに研修内容が合修監理員・関係スタッフのパフォーマンス」
・「講義」

致していることは、研修員の習得度や総合評価に及び「現場視察」が大きく貢献していることが明密接に結びついているため、研修策定時には相手らかになった。研修員の帰国後の意識・態度の変国のニーズをできる限り把握し、研修目的を明確

容については、研修員自身の仕事に対する自覚がにすることが重要である。

強まり、自国の開発に貢献する活動へのモチベー

2． 研修カリキュラムは、当該分野の現地の技術ションが上がり、自国の状況を国際的観点から考に合致した、将来も役に立つ情報も含めた高質のえられるようになったことは自国の開発課題へのプログラムが要求されることから、研修策定者は意識が高まったと言える。そして研修員の、より専門分野の理解も不可欠である。講義、現場視察、重要な業務への配置や昇進につながっている。日日本・日本人の理解度を高める項目をできる限り本が提供した知識・技術は帰国研修員によって他含めることが望まれる。特に、来日によって身近者に伝達されており、自分の業務の身近なところ

で触れる日本人から学び、影響を受けることが大で習得した知識・技術を活用し、新しいプロジェ

きいことから、JICE スタッフの役割が研修の評価

クトが形成されているという研修の波及効果が発に大きく関わる。日本の知識や技術の背景にある現していることが明らかになった。さらに、青日本の伝統・文化は研修員には興味深く、それに年研修に参加することによって、日本・日本人のよって日本への信頼感が高まり、日本人と協働し理解について、ジェネラルオリエンテーションでたいと言う意識が高まっている。日本・日本人理の日本文化紹介、研修監理員と関係スタッフのパ解に関してのテーマについては JICE が独自に提フォーマンス、現場視察等から多くの影響を与え供できるプログラムであると考えられる。

られ、日本の伝統・文化が日本・日本人への信頼

一方で研修実施後時間が経つにつれ、日本での性を高め、その信頼性が日本人と一緒に働くこと経験や体験、日本・日本人の良さが、その後の関に関心を持つことに繋がっている。青年研修に参係が切れてしまうと当然ながらその効果や記憶は加することによって日本・日本人との良い繋がり

逓減していことが懸念される。これに対して、が育成されており親日家、知日家が醸成されてい3． 研修員帰国後のフォローアップの必要性があることを明らかにした。一方で、研修実施後の関げられる。帰国後のフォローアップも研修策定時

係者との繋がりや関係が充分継続・持続されていに提示できることが望ましい。帰国後の現地でのるとは言えないことが示された。

セミナー、専門家派遣、実施したいプロジェクト

これらを総合すると、青年研修の策定に当たっのフォロー、同窓会など工夫できることがあるとては、当該分野の高度な内容とそれを支える要素考える。

が求められており、それらに応えたプログラムが

4． 研修の評価は今後の研修の高度化、改善、ニー提供されていると言える。そして対象国の開発課

ズの把握に必要であることから、評価手法を確立

題に必要な専門知識・技術の習得に青年研修が貢していくことによって JICE の事業結果を内外に献していると考えられる。また、習得した知識・発信することができる。

技術の活用も行われ親日家を醸成している。来日

JICE は現在研修事業として国内外の政府機関やすることによって、日本人と接触し、日本の伝統

国際機関からの多くの研修を受託している。この文化に触れ、日本への信頼度を高めて日本や日本研究で扱った青年研修は JICE が過去に研修監理

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

19

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

研修事後評価からの教訓—JICA 青年研修事後評価を事例（4 年間）として—-業務を中心として研修コース実施にかかわった事業であることから、研修全体の評価が高く、研修監理員やスタッフが研修の成果・効果に貢献していたことは JICE として自信につながるものと考える。そして現在実施しているその他の研修、交流や留学生受け入れ事業の策定への教訓となるのではないかと考える。
謝辞
本論は JICE がプライムとなって JICA から受託
した「課題別研修事後評価調査・現況調査 調査報告書」の青年研修を基に分析・まとめたものである。調査の全数調査の生データを提供いただいた菊田怜子、高木桂一、中山和也、劉文（敬称略）のご協力に感謝申し上げる。ここで述べた見解は筆者個人のものであることを申し添える。

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

20

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreter
Aiichiro Yamamoto

Special Assistant to the President of Japan International Cooperation Center(JICE)

Introduction: Language and Humans“ball”. But for an Englishman, it means to” form a line”.

The use of fire and language distinguishes the humans

it a different meaning.

Although the sound itself is universal, each language gives

from the animals. The former given by Prometheus largely
contributed to the advancement of civilization of the hu-

The other human wisdom is to create a word as a mean-

manity but the latter given by the God as a punishment for

ingful cluster of sounds . A single linguistic sound or athe human attempt to build the Tower of Babel, destined

syllable is composed by a combination of a vowel and ahumans to be segregated by languages.

consonant or by a vowel or consonant only. “ai” in Japanese, which is a combination of “a” and “i” means “love”,

According to Ethnologue, which is a summary of the lan-while English combination of the sound indicating “love”

guages of the world, there are more than 6,900 languages

is “l” + “o” + “v”. For English speakers, “ai” spoken by

spoken in the world; even in Nepal alone there are 120,

a Japanese sounds like “I”, which means “myself”. In thisin Papua New Guinea, 800, and in Australia, 270. Thisway different languages give a totally different meaning tofact makes communication between people of different

the same cluster of sound.

languages extremely difficult save for using body or sign
languages.

This makes communication between people with different tongues impossible. For the native speakers of English

This study note examines how humans of different lin-

who know nothing about Japanese, it sounds like chickens

guistic background can smoothen oral communication bycracking in a barn and the reverse is also true. Humanusing professional interpreters given the constraints andwisdom has enriched their language in terms of its vo-

difficulties.

cabulary thus enabling to express various things and ideas
but on the other hand made their language more difficult

Chapter 1 : Structure of the Language

to understand by those who use other language.

This Chapter starts with analyzing the structure of the lan-

One other human linguistic art is grammar. Grammar is aguage. Animals create a sound by crying, barking, mewing

set of rules governing the order of the words, conjugationand chirping to send existential messages such as “This isof words, and adding particles and other auxiliary parts tomy territory.” or “Keep away from me.” Humans can send

the words. A speaker of a language puts the words undermore complicated massages and communicate with eachthe predetermined rule of order and make a sentence. Butother by using a common language.

the rule differs from language to language. In Japaneseand French “I love you.” must be put in the order like “I

An oral language is composed by a combination of sounds

you love.” If an English speaker says “I went to the party

articulated by the human speech organ such as nose, lips,

yesterday.” It must be translated into Japanese in the orderteeth, palate, tongue and vocal cords. But the striking dif-of “I yesterday to the party went.”

ference from that of the animals is that each sound has
its own meaning. And that meaning is different from lan-

In some language, conjugation of verbs are more compli-

guage to language. For example, if you pronounce “an”

cated than other languages. Japanese does not distinguishin English, it means “one”. But in Japanese it means “apresent perfect tense and past tense. If you say a sentence

draft plan”. If a Japanese pronounces “queue” it meansin Japanese equivalent to “I went to New York,” it means

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

21

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreter“I went to New York and “I have been to New York.”

The evolution of a language depends on, and influenced

in both ways. In French the verb has more variety

by, the development of civilization, historical transforma-of conjugation such as imperfect tense. French uses

tion and advancement of the livelihood of the country andimperfect tense when they mean a certain event

people who speak the language. According to the well-

was continuing in the past but it doesn’t exist any more

known period classification, English is classified into four

now such as “ Nous étions amis. “ which means we wereperiods: Old English; Middle English; Modern English;

friends for a certain period at that time but now no more.

and Present-Day English.

Generally speaking, European languages are more are

During the period of Old English (449 A.D.-1100 A.D.),

keen on and have more variety of tense, hence they havethe English vocabulary was largely rooted from Anglo-

more variety of conjugation of verbs. Asian languages are

Axon words such as “after, back, call, danger, eat, fresh,less keen on and have less variety of tense, hence theyghost, hide, inn, job, keep, lad, make, name, old, pillow,

have less conjugation of verbs. German language has con-queen, red, strong, three, up, and women. They are mostly

jugation even of nouns depending on its gender, number

short concrete and direct words. In addition to these, moreand case, while French has on its gender and number only

than 2000 words of Old Norse origin entered into English

and Japanese has nothing at all except a few nouns suchas a result of the settlement of Vikings in the north eastern

as “hito” (man) and “yama” (mountain). The plural form

England from late 8th century such as “both, call, die, egg,of “hito” in Japanese is “hito-bito (man-man)” and that ofgive, hit, raise, take, though, ugly, and want”. As may be“yama” is “yama-yama (mountain-mountain) ” Similar

noticed, the words of English during this period are mostly

pattern is seen in Indonesian language as in orang-orang

short concrete and direct ones.

(man-man) and gunung-gunung (mountain-mountain)
Adding a particle or an auxiliary to a word characterize

During the age of Middle English (1100 A.D. -1500 A.D.),

the word more precisely and meaningfully. In Japanese, if

transformational change took place in English language

you add “e” to a noun, it will mean a direction. “gakkou”

as numerous vocabulary from French was added to that+” e” means “ to school”. In a similar way in English “I goof Germanic and Nordic origin described above as a con-to school”. The difference is that English puts an auxiliary

sequence of Norman Conquest of England in 1066. Suchahead of the word while Japanese after the word.

vocabulary includes: “academy, boulevard, capital, date,equip, fiber, group, heritage, ideal, justice, kiosk, litera-

Chapter 2 : Evolution of the Languageture, machinery, naïve, obscure, partisan, questionnaire,
regime, sentence, television, unique and village”.

In this Chapter, we compare three languages: English,
Japanese and Indonesian to examine how a language

During the period of Modern English, an interesting

evolves over time and under the influence from outside thephenomenon occurred among English intellectuals torealm where the language is spoken.

import words of Greek and Latin origin such as “absent,
base, case, debt, election, face, genocide, hotel, itinerary,

2.1 English

junior, kinetics, lamp, magnet, negative, ocean, panic, quit
and resident”.

As discussed above, rule-based combination of words,
conjugation of words and affixing and suffixing of words

Thus English has expanded its vocabulary enormously

dramatically increase the capability of a language to sendby actively importing foreign words throughout its

more accurate, complex and abstract messages. However,historical evolution. 29% of modern English words are

not all the languages of the world have been evolved andderived from French, 29% from Latin and 26% fromdeveloped to such an extent.

Germanic. It is said that in order to generally understand

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

22

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreter

English, it is necessary to master 3000 words, French 2000

character.

words, German 5000 words; and Japanese 10000 words.
Japanese has one of the richest vocabularies of the world

2.3 Indonesianlanguages. I will examine why that happened next.
The current language which is largely spoken in Indonesia
2.2 Japaneseis rooted from a local language called “Melayu” spoken

Like English, Japanese language has transformed dramati-in the 7th century. It was basically the language for thecally in tandem with its historical evolution. It is believed

local traders in that region. Under the Islamic influencethat until 1400 years ago there was no written languagein 14th century, Malayu was bestowed the characters

in Japan. People had depended on oral languages tocalled “Jawi”, an off shoot of Arabic alphabet. Then later

communicate with each other within the community inwith the British colonial domination, its characters werewhich they lived. Thus it was difficult to send a message

changed into Roman alphabet.

in the east coast of Sumatra Island and Malay Peninsular

across to distant communities or to keep any record for
future generations. However, it was fortunate for Japan

Modern Indonesian only uses 26 alphabetical letters as

to have a highly civilized country just next to her. Japan

English does. In terms of the structure, Indonesian

imported a whole set of characters from China at the end

language is simpler than western languages. It hasof the 3rd century.

basically no tense. “Saya pergi ke sekolah” meaning “I goto school” can be used to mean present, past or future. So

The Japanese used imported Chinese characters in two

if you mean to say about the past, you must add an adverb

ways. One was to express abstract notions or ideas whichsuch as kemarin (yesterday). It does not have conjugation

they had not been able to express in their oral nativeof verbs depending on the gender or the number of thelanguage, because Chinese characters were so rich in its

subject words, which often occurs in the western

vocabulary. The other was to use Chinese ideogram

languages. In Indonesian, a verb “makan” (eat) can becharacters to create their own sets of phonogramused in the same way as in “Saya makan, (I eat.), “Kamucharacters;hiragana and katakana. The former was used to

makan. (You eat.) Dia makan (She eats.) or “mereka

pronounce and write and their native language as well asmakan.”(They eat.).

re-write Chinese characters for ease of understanding. The
later was used as auxiliaries added to Chinese characters

A special feature of Indonesian is that it can increase theto facilitate reading.

variety of words by adding a prefix or suffix. If you put “~an” to the end of a verb, you can make a noun. “Makan”

Interestingly, hiragana was more used by women because(eat)+ an = “makanan” (food). If you add “ter” in front

women were not allowed to read Chinese literature as it is.

of an adjective, you can make a verb. “ter+ busar (big)”=

And katakana was mainly used by men because men used

“terbesar” (expand). If you sandwich a verb with “men”

to read Chinese literature and need it as auxiliary characters.

and “kan”, you can turn an intransitive verb to a transitive

Therefore, a Chinese character in Japan has often two orverb. “Men + buri (buy) + kan”= “menburikan” (to buy

more ways of pronunciation. For example, the Chinese

something). You can make a passive sentence putting “i”

character denoting a mountain is pronounced as [san],at the end of a verb. “Diperbaik” (improve)) + i = “diper-

which is close to the original Chinese pronunciation [shan].

baiki” ( to be improved).

It is also pronounced as [yama] which mean a mountain in
the native Japanese language. Japanese allocated to each

In terms of the vocabulary, it is estimated to be limited

Chinese character their own pronunciation of the nativeat the early stage of Melayu. Then Malaysian merchants

language, if any, corresponding to the meaning of thatbrought many words from Sanskrit and Arabic. These

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

23

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreterwords included “singa” (lion), “gaja” (elephant), andsome similarities may exist across languages.

“bahasa” (language). During Dutch colonial administration,a huge body of Dutch vocabulary, presumably about 20%

3-2-1 Word Orderof the total vocabulary of Indonesian, was imported. These
included “kantor” (office),“sekolah”(school),

One of the persistent headaches of an interpreter is that the“departemen”(department), and “democrasi”(democracy).

word order in a sentience differs between the source lan-

An interesting aspect of such importation of western words

guage and the output language. In the Ural-Altaic languag-

was that together with the words themselves Indonesians

es, typically Japanese, the subject phase usually comes atalso brought in the abstract concept such as democracy

the end of the sentence whereas in English it comes at theand independence.

beginning. The Japanese equivalent of “I love you fromthe bottom of my heart.” is “I (watashiwa) you (anatao)

There seem to be a general rule in Indonesian language

from the bottom (kokorokara) love (aishiteimasu). So an

that the western words ending with “~ion” can be trans-interpreter from Japanese to English must wait until theformed into Indonesian by changing the suffix into “si”

speaker finishes the sentence before he or she start

as in the case of “demonstrasi, “administrasi”, and “reali-interpreting, because there is a risk that the speaker mayzasi”. In this way Indonesians introduced into their culture

end up saying like “I you from the bottom of heart don’t

and society western concepts and ideas along with thelove”.

corresponding words which denote them. Thus it can besaid that many of the Indonesian words denoting western

In this case, the interpreter must memorize or jot down

concept or ideas are rooted from western languages suchthe part “I you from the bottom of heart” until her or she

as Dutch. The indigenous Indonesian vocabulary is rather

can confirm the final mode of the sentence, positive or

limited.

negative. This really means that there is no such thing as asimultaneous interpretation between the languages whose

Chapter 3 : Role of Interpreter and its
Constraints

word orders are different. It may be possible between

3-1 Role of Interpreter

heart” is “Uo(I) cong wo xin di (from the bottom of myEnglish and Chinese whose word orders are similar. The
Chinese equivalent of “I love you from the bottom of myheart) Ai (love) Ni (you)”. So an interpreter from Chinese

In Chapters 1 and 2 above, I have examined the three dif-to English can start interpreting once he or she hears theferent languages: English, Japanese and Indonesian inworld” Ai” without waiting for the end of the sentence be-terms of their historical background, grammatical structurecause at that moment, the sentence proves to be positive.

and evolution of vocabulary. The role of an interpreter
is to transmit the message spoken in one language to an-

3-2-2 Mismatch of Vocabulary

other as correctly and speedily as possible. Correctness is
crucial because incorrect interpretation may cause further

Mismatch of vocabulary is a common phenomenon in the

problems in communication between foreign speakers andusage of languages occurring when different people namelisteners.

the same thing or concept differently. This is also problematic for an interpreter. For instance, the Japanese word

3.2 Constraints on Interpreterfor “contribute” is “kokensuru”, which is more often than
not used only in a positive sense such as in “contribute

The deep problem with an interpreter of a foreign

to peace” or “contribute to success”. However, English

language is that there is no identical language in all terms

connotation of “contribute” is case neutral. It can be usedin structure, grammar and of course, vocabulary, althoughin either positive or negative context such as in “contribute

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

24

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreterto economic depression” or “contribute to failure”. In“eat” and “run” but when it comes to abstract nouns such

this case, the Japanese interpreter has to think about otheras “democracy”, “coordination” and “partnership”, huge

word than “koukensuru” to avoid misunderstanding on thegaps in the volume of vocabulary among languages

part of listeners.

exist. This causes another headache to an interpreter.
Theoretically speaking, if an interpreter tries to convey a“Governance” is often translated into a Japanese word

message from Language A with 10,000 strong vocabulary“touchi” whose nuance is somehow of top-down nature

into language B with 500 vocabulary, he or she must try

as in “reign”. So there is no symmetrical translation

to explain a single word of Language A by using aof the word “govern” into Japanese. The word fornumber of words of Language B. An Indonesian -Japanese“democracy” in Japanese is “minshu-shugi” which wasinterpreter must use more Indonesian words to interpretthe word imported from Chinese in earlier period asa single Japanese word particularly when the world in

explained in Chapter 2-2. “minshu” means “people first”

question signifies rather abstract meaning. Therefore, anand ”shugi” means “principle”. So the correct meaninginterpreter is required to understand the exact connotationof “minshu-shugi” is “people first principle”, whichof the words in both source and output languages.

differs from the intrinsic meaning of “democracy” which
is about the form of government, rule, or influence based

3-2-4 Difference in Language Culture

on people’s will.
Last not least, an interpreter is often puzzled with theSuch mismatch occurred because there did not exit exactly

differences of language culture. Native speakers of athe same concept as democracy when it was imported tolanguage bring to their linguistic expressions various

Japan in early 18th century. So Japanese borrowed from

attributes of their culture and social behaviors. This is

the Chinese vocabulary to translate “democracy” into

particularly conspicuous between Japanese and English.

Japanese. This makes a strong case that when abstract

Japanese culture tends to value order, harmony,words and the concept denoted by such words are imported

homogeneity, consensus, and avoiding risks. The English

to one language from another, it is extremely difficult to

speakers, notably Americans, on the other hand tend to

bestow the correctly matching translation to that words.

value dynamism, diversity, heterogeneity, creative

An interpreter must know such mismatch of words indestruction and taking risks. For instance, a Japanese

every situations and if necessary, try to correct theword for “consider” is “kentosuru”, but when a Japanesedifference in the nuance of the words by adding extra

business person says “kentou itasimasu” (We will consider

explanation by his or her mouth.

it), what he or she really means is “We would not take that
proposal”. As Japanese value harmony, they do not want

3-2-3 Asymmetry of Vocabulary

to use a direct word, when using that word may offend
the feeling of others. So the correct interpretation of “ken-As noted in Chapter 2, the size of vocabulary differs

tosuru” in this case is not “consider” but “do not accept”

across languages depending on their historical evolution

in the interest of not misleading the American businessand the nature and living condition of the people using acounterpart. Here, an interpreter must have not only lin-language. It is said that in order to understand the contents

guistic expertise but cross-cultural communication ability,

in general sense, one needs to know 3000 words inwhich will be yet another challenging profession.

English, 2000 words in French, 10000 words in Japaneseand perhaps much less in Indonesian if the imported words
are deducted.

In Place of a Conclusion
The language is one of the most complicated and puzzling

There may be a symmetry in verbs such as “sleep”, “hit”

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

human creation. The role of the interpreter is crucial and25

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreter

the interpreter is required not just of linguistic ability inboth languages but of deep understanding of the structure
and the historical evolution of the languages he or
she deals with as well as the sensitivity of the culturaldifferences of the countries or regions of the native
speakers of the languages.
Japan International Cooperation Center, a privateorganization created in 1977 to promote international
study, training and exchange programs, has in its
command 1096 interpreters in 31 different languages,
mainly those of the third world countries. They serve not
only as an interpreter but as facilitator and cross-culturalcommunicator working day and night to minimize various
constraints and difficulties in interpretation. We cannot
dispense with such dedicated interpreters to promoteinternational exchange and cooperation in our bid to createa peaceful and prosperous world in the 21st century.

Reference:“List of English Words of Anglo-Saxon Origin” by Wikipedia“List of English words of French origin“by Wikipedia“List of Greek and Latin roots in English” by Wikipedia“History of English for Beginners” by Hotta Ryuuich“History of Japanese” by Nakami Yamaguchi“Structure of Indonesian Language” by Masashi Hurihata

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

26

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

言語構造の違いが通訳に及ぼす影響～英語、日本語、インドネシア語通訳の事例から（要約）
一般財団法人日本国際協力センター
特任部長

山本愛一郎

言語は人が創造したもののうち、最も複雑で混乱を起こすものである。世界には 6900 以上の言語があるが、それぞれ構造、文法、語彙数も違うため、これら異なった言語間の意思疎通を図るプロ
フェッショナルである通訳の抱える制約や困難は多い。言語間の語順の違い、語彙間の不一致、語彙の量の違い、言語文化の違いなどを十分に配慮した通訳が必要になる。日本国際協力センターでは、言語能力のみならずこれら言語間の違いに精通したコーデネーターと呼ばれる 31 言語 1,096 人の人材が活躍している。かれらの存在なくしては、
国際協力や交流は円滑に進まない。

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

27

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

The theory of nonlinear function model ofthe structure of income and expenditure
to make a rational decision financially
Kenji Yamana

Senior Assistant to the Executive Directors of Japan International Cooperation Center(JICE)

1. The point of view for the theory
When we make a rational decision financially to choose
one out of the two kinds of products to produce more

2.The precondition for the nonlinearity
function model of the structure of income
and expenditureconsidering the structure of income and expenditure, we(1)Suppose the decision is made to maximize the profit.

generally suppose that the variable cost and income have a(2)Let k be the volume of product A when we make a de-constant ratio per its one unit of products separately. That

cision.

is, the variable cost and income have a linearity to its one(3)Let b be the fixed cost.

units of products separately.

(4)Suppose we choose one kind of the products out of Pro-

Under this condition, when we make a decision financiallyto choose one out of the two kinds of products to produce
more without changing the fixed cost, we automaticallychoose one kind of product whose marginal profit is more

ductA and ProductB to produce (x−k) without changing the fixed cost.
(5)Suppose there are no stocks of products. Hence the volume of products is equal to the volume of sales.

than that of the other product.
But practically, when we produce one kind of productmore, the ratio of the variable cost per one unit of increased products decreases gradually due to merit of scaleof the cost and the increase of the price bargaining powerof purchase.

3.The nonlinear function model of thestructure of income and expenditure
3-1 The setting of the nonlinear function model ofstructure of income and expenditure

And the price per one unit of products also decreases
gradually due to the change for the worse of supply anddemand and the price bargaining power of sale. In accor-

3-1-1 The logarithmic conversion of the volume ofthe products compared with income and expendituredance with this situation, the ratio of the income per one
unit of increased products decreases.

Let x be the total volume including k to produce after

Considering the realistic situation such that there is not al-

making a decision.

ways linearity in the variable cost and income of increased

Let y be the total income and the total expenditure sepa-

products compared with the volume of the products, we

rately compared with x.

need to establish a creative theory to make a rational deci-

Suppose the number of data is n.

sion financially which is different from that of the stereo-Lettype decision of the concept of linearity.

P1(x1,y1),P2(x2.y2),・・・・・,Pn-1(xn-1,yn-1),Pn(xn,yn)

In this thesis, I adopt the precondition such that there isbe the points of each data consisting of the total volume,

not linearity but nonlinearity in the variable cost and in-

the total income and the total expenditure.

come of increased products compared with the volume of
the increased products. And I establish the creative theory

Considering the situation such that the ratio of the increaseof nonlinear function model of structure of income andof the income and the expenditure of the increased prod-

expenditure to make a rational decision financially.

ucts gradually decreases according to the increase of thevolume of the products, the linear formula is to be made.
Hence each x after logarithmic conversion is to be used inorder to calculate the linear regression formula.

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

28

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

The theory of nonlinear function model of the structure of income
and expenditure to make a rational decision financially

3-2-2 The determination of the nonlinear function of

SupposeX=loge(x+1)----- ①

expenditure of ProductBis the formula for logarithmic conversion.
b is the solution of the simultaneous equations ④⑤ with
3-2 The determination of the nonlinear function

respect to t according to 2.(3).

of the structure of income and expenditure

Hence the formula to be regressed to is given by
3-2-1 The determination of the nonlinear function of

y=uX+b---- ⑧

expenditure of ProductA

Let
Let

---- ⑨y=sX+t---- ②
be the formula to be regressed to.

be the function to denote the differences between theLetfunction and the data with respect to the expenditure of---- ③

ProductB.
Let c be the solution of

be the function to denote the differences between thef’(u)=0----- ⑩ .

function and the data with respect to the expenditure of
ProductA.

Hence we have
y=cX+b----- ⑪

Differentiating ③ partially with respect to s and t,

as the linear regression formula with respect to the expen-

letditure of ProductB according to ⑧ .
---- ④---- ⑤Hence we have
y=cloge(x+1)+b----- ⑫
as the final nonlinear regression formula with respect tobe the simultaneous equations to be solved.

the expenditure of ProductB according to ①、⑪ .

Let a be the solution of the simultaneous equations ④⑤

3-2-3 The determination of the nonlinear function ofwith respect to s.
Let b be the solution of the simultaneous equations ④⑤

income of ProductAwith respect to t.

The volume of products is equal to the volume of sale ac-Hence we havecording to 2.(5).

y=aX+b----- ⑥

Hence letas the linear regression formula with respect to the expen-

y=vX---- ⑬

diture of ProductA according to ② .

be the formula to be regressed to.

Hence we haveLet

y=aloge(x+1)+b----- ⑦
as the final nonlinear regression formula with respect to---- ⑭the expenditure of ProductA according to ① , ⑥ .

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

29

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

The theory of nonlinear function model of the structure of income
and expenditure to make a rational decision financiallybe the function to denote the differences between the

The nonlinear regression formula with respect to the ex-function and the data with respect to the income of Pro-

penditure of ProductB

ductA.

y=cloge(x+1)+b----- ⑫

Let p be the solution off’(v)=0----- ⑮

The nonlinear regression formula with respect to the income of ProductB is given by

Hence we have
y=pX---- ⑯

y=qloge(x+1)----- ⑱

as the linear regression formula with respect to the income

Hence the fluctuation of income and expenditure is asof ProductA according to ⑬ .

fpllows when we choose one kind out of two kinds such as
ProductA and ProductB to produce (x−k) units more.

Hence we have
y=ploge(x+1)----- ⑰
as the final nonlinear regression formula with respect tothe income of ProductA according to ① , ⑯ .

3-3-2 The fluctuation of income and expenditure toincrease Product A

The point of expenditure moves along the curve ⑦ .
3-2-4 The determination of the nonlinear function ofincome of ProductB

After replacing v with w and replacing p with q in 3-2-3,

The point of income moves along the curve ⑰ .
3-3-3 The fluctuation of income and expenditure toincrease Product B

we also have
y=qloge(x+1)----- ⑱

The point of expenditure moves along the curve ⑦ up toas the final nonlinear regression formula with respect tothe volume k of products.

the income of ProductB similarly.

The point of income moves along the curve ⑰ up to thevolume k of products.

3-3 The nonlinear function model of the structureof income and expenditure to make a rational decision financially

After the volume k of products, the point of expenditure
moves along the curve{cloge(x+1−k)+aloge(k+1)+b}.
After the volume k of products, the point of income moves

3-3-1 The nonlinear function model of the structure ofincome and expenditure

According to 3-1-1、3-2-1、3-2-2、3-2-3、3-2-4 , wealong the curve｛qloge(x+1−k)+ploge(k+1)｝
3-3-4 The nonlinear function model of the structure ofincome and expenditure to make a rational decision

have four kinds of nonlinear functions as follows.

financially

The nonlinear regression formula with respect to the ex-

According to 3-3-2 and 3-3-3, the nonlinear function

penditure of ProductA is given bymodel of the structure of income and expenditure to makey=aloge(x+1)+b----- ⑦

a rational decision financially is given by
f(x)= [｛qloge(x+1−k)+ploge(k+1)｝−{cloge(x+1−k)+

The nonlinear regression formula with respect to the in-aloge(k+1)+b}]−[{ploge(x+1)}−{aloge(x+1)+b}]--- ⑲

come of ProductA is given by
y=ploge(x+1)----- ⑰

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

30

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

The theory of nonlinear function model of the structure of income
and expenditure to make a rational decision financially

4. The theory of the nonlinear function
model of the structure of income andexpenditure to make a rational decision
financiallyIf x=k,4-1 The preconditions for the theory of the non-Nowlinear function model of the structure of incomef(k)---- ㉓=0----- ㉔f’(x)and expenditure to make a rational decision financially

At least we need improvement of profit to produce more inorder to have a chance to consider to increase the volume---- ㉕of the products.
Hence with respect to ProductA,

According to ㉕ ,p−a ＞ 0----- ⑳ ,q−c ＞ 0----- ㉑ ,If

0 ＜ k ＜ x---- ㉒

f(x)= ⑰ - ⑦ ,f’(x)={ploge(x+1)−aloge(x+1)−b}’={(p−a)loge(x+1)−b}’=ⅰ )Suppose q−c ＞ p−a,Whenever 0 ＜ k ＜ x and according to f’(x) ＞ 0,f(x)andmonotonically increases.

x+1 ＞ 0And according to ㉔ , f(k)=0.

Hence

Hence f(x) ＞ 0

p−a ＞ 0----- ⑳

Hence whenever q−c ＞ p−a , ProductB is chosen for
all x such that 0 ＜ k ＜ x .

In a similar way ,with respect to ProductB
q−c ＞ 0----- ㉑ⅱ )Suppose q−c ＜ p−a

4-2 The theory of the nonlinear function model of(x+1−k)(x+1) is the denominator of f’(x) such thatthe structure of income and expenditure to make(x+1−k)(x+1) ＞ 0----- ㉖

a rational decision financially{(q−c)−(p−a)}(x+1)+(p−a)k which is the numerator
According to ⑳㉑㉒ ,the preconditions are as follows

of f’(x) is a linear function with a negative slope with re-p−a ＞ 0----- ⑳ q−c ＞ 0----- ㉑ 0 ＜ k ＜ x---- ㉒

spect to x----- ㉗

The precondition for the theory of the nonlinear functionHencemodel of the structure of income and expenditure to makea rational decision financially is given byf(x)=[｛qloge(x+1−k)+ploge(k+1)｝−{cloge(x+1−k)+aloge(k+1)+b}]−[{ploge(x+1)}−{aloge(x+1)+b}]---- ㉓ⅱ ) －ⅰ）
Suppose x=k and ㉗ =｛(q−c)−(p−a)｝(k+1)+(p−a)k=(q−c)(k+1)−(p−a) ≦ 0----- ㉙
According to ㉖㉗、f’(x) ≦ 0 for all x such that k ≦ x.
Hence f(x) monotonically decreases.

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

31

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

The theory of nonlinear function model of the structure of income
and expenditure to make a rational decision financially

And according to ㉔ ,Let k be the volume of product A when we make a deci-f(x) ≦ 0sion.
Let x be the total volume to produce after making a deci-

Hence

sion.

whenever q−c ＜ p-a and (q−c)(k+1)−(p−a) ≦ 0, Pro-

Let b be the fixed cost.

ductA is chosen for all x such that 0 ＜ k ＜ x.

Suppose y=aloge(x+1)+b is the nonlinear function modelof the expenditure of Product A.

ⅱ ) －ⅱ）

Suppose y=ploge(x+1) is the nonlinear function model ofSuppose x=k and ㉗ =the income of Product A.

｛(q−c)−(p−a)｝(k+1)+(p-a)k=(q−c)(k+1)−(p−a) ＞ 0----- ㉚

Suppose p−a ＞ 0
Suppose y=cloge(x+1)+b is the nonlinear function modelof the expenditure of Product B.

According to ㉖ ㉗、whenever k ≦ x, there exists real
number x such that f’(x) ＞ 0.

Suppose y=qloge(x+1) is the nonlinear function model ofAnd according to ㉖ ㉗ ㉚、whenever k ≦ x, f(x) is the

Suppose q−c ＞ 0

the income of Product B.

function such that 0 →monotonically increasing → having a relative maximum → monotonically decreasing.

Conclusion

The nonlinear function model of the structure of income
Hence whenever k ＜ x ,there exists only one real number

and expenditure is given bysolution named α of the equation ㉓ which isf(x)=---- ㉛

Hence whenever q−c ＜ p-a and (q−c)(k+1)−(p-a) ＞ 0

Thenⅰ ) Suppose q−c ＞ p−a
Then the rational decision financially to produce moreis Product B.

ⅱ ) －ⅱ ) －ⅰ）whenever k ＜ x ＜ α
ProductB is chosen.

ⅱ ) Suppose q−c ＜ p−aⅱ ) －ⅰ ) Then whenever (q−c)(k+1)−(p−a) ≦ 0
Then the rational decision financially to pro-ⅱ ) －ⅱ ) －ⅱ）whenever α ≦ x
ProductA is chosen.

duce more is Product A.
ⅱ ) －ⅱ ) Then whenevr (q−c)(k+1)−(p−a) ＞ 0
Let

5. Conclusion
I establish the theory of nonlinear function model of thestructure of income and expenditure in order to make abe the equation to consider.
Then there exists only one real number solution of the equation named α.
ⅱ ) －ⅱ ) －ⅰ）

rational decision financially to choose one out of the two

The rational decision financially to produce

kinds of products to produce more considering the realistic

more is Product B whenever k ＜ x ＜ α.

situation such that there is nonlinearity in income compared with the volume of the products and in expenditurecompared with the volume of the products.

ⅱ ) －ⅱ ) －ⅱ )The rational decision financially to produce
more is Product A whenever α ≦ x.

Definition

Suppose there are two kinds of products such as Product A
and Product B to produce more.

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

32

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

The theory of nonlinear function model of the structure of income
and expenditure to make a rational decision financially

Even though q － c ＜ p － a, the rational decision financially to produce more is Product B whenever k ＜ x ＜ α.
This established theory means that the rational decision
financially depends on not only q－c ＜ p－a but (q－c)(k+1)−(p－a) ＞ 0,α and x considering the realistic situation such that there is nonlinearity in income comparedwith the volume of the products and in expenditure compared with the volume of the products.
Thinking much of this theory is so important due to thefact that there is nonlinearity in the structure of income,expenditure and the volume of the products.
Based on this theory, making a much more rational decision which fits the market mechanism contributes to not
only the organizations but also the whole market.
Concluded

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

33

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Evaluation of Training in Japanfor the Saudi Japanese Automobile High Institute Project
Toshio Namai

Director General for Middle East Cooperation
International Training Department

Hiroshi Imai

Project Manager, Saudi Japanese Automobile High Institute (SJAHI) Project
Administration & Overseas Project DivisionInternational Training Department
Japan International Cooperation Center

1. Outline of Saudi Japanese Automobile
High Institute Project

The Phase I and the Phase II of the Saudi Japanese Au-

1-1. Background of the Projectin September 2001 and ended in August 2009 were con-tomobile High Institute (SJAHI) Project which started
ducted as part of Japan’s Official Development Assistance

H.R.H then Crown Prince Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz,(ODA) implemented by Japan International Cooperation

former King of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA)

Agency (JICA). The institute was a nonprofit institute andvisited Japan in October 1998. At that time and from

opened in September 2002, offering two-year technicalthen on, population of young generation in the KSA has

education in automobile maintenance mainly for Saudi

been increasing rapidly. The Saudi Arabian Government

high school graduates. The Saudi Government provided

implemented the policy of so-called “Saudization”, whichwith land, JADIK and JAMA shared its construction costplanned to promote expansion of employment of Saudi

and the Japanese Government bore costs for long- andArabian nationals by developing vocational training.

short-term Japanese experts, training for SJAHI manage-

Saudization was described as one of the most urgent is-ment, staff, instructors and students, while JADIK and Hu-sues in each Saudi Five-Year Development Plan. For the

man Resources Development Fund (HRDF) of the Saudi

realization of Saudization, it was considered indispensable

Government bore its operation costs.

to provide vocational training with a level that satisfied
requirement of the private sector in the KSA. Technology

Outline of the Saudi Japanese Automobile High Institute isfor automobile maintenance was picked up as the most im-

as follows:

portant vocational training subject and the KSA requested
the Japanese Government for cooperation with establishment of a vocational institute in this field in the KSA.
The KSA and the Japanese Government entered into theAgreement on Establishment of an Institute for Improving
Automobile Maintenance Technology.
The Japanese Government started assistance for the automobile maintenance sector of the KSA as a public-private
partnership project. Both the Saudi and the Japanese
governments welcomed joint efforts by Japan Automobile
Manufacturers Association (JAMA) and Japan Automobile
Distributers in the KSA (JADIK) concerning establishment of an institute in the KSA for the purpose of contrib-

Table 1. Outline of SJAHI
Type ofTwo-year technical vocational institute (juniorInstitutecollege)
Graduates from high schools (Mainly 22 years
Main Target
old and under)
Number ofStudents
500 (250 per batch)
Admitted
Number of
90 including 53 instructors & teachers (31 techManagement
nical instructors, 15 teachers)& Staff
Capacity of300
Dormitory
Automobile maintenance course (Equivalent toCurriculum
the third grade automobile technician course inJapan)
Located at southeast of Jeddah City, approxiLocation
mately 32 km from the center of the city
(Source)”Saudi Japanese Automobile High Institute Gaiyo”, December 31, 2017, JICE

uting to human resource development of Saudi nationals,

After the termination of JICA assistance followed by

especially transferring related technology to the younger“graduation” of the KSA from the OECD DAC List ofgeneration of the KSA by utilizing supports from the Japa-

ODA Recipients in 2008, the project assistance was passed

nese side.

on to Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) of

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

34

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreter

Japan after the Phase III which started in September 2009.

1-2-2. Provision of Machinery and Equipment

With the number of graduates exceeding 2800 in 2017,SJAHI has become one of the most reputed technical

Machinery, equipment and materials necessary for instruc-schools in the region.

tion were provided by the Japanese side with the total
amount of approximately 454 million yen.

1-2. Supports from the Japanese Side for
the Phase I (September 2001 through Au-

1-2-3. Training of Saudi Counterparts ingust 2006) and the Phase II (September

Japan

2006 through August 2009)
Nineteen counterparts received training in Japan in re1-2-1. Dispatch of Experts

spective fields under the counterparts training program of
JICA. Outline of training in Japan during the two phases is

Two chief advisors and two project coordinators wereshown in Table 2.

dispatched for project management. In addition, sevenlong-term automobile technical experts in the fields of curriculum supervision, engine, chassis and electricity were

2. Evaluation of Training in Japan

also dispatched for the purpose of technology transfer. The

2-1. Comparison of Training in Japanhe number of long-term experts totaled eleven. Besides

after the Phase III (starting September

long-term experts, seven short-term experts in the various2009) with that of the Phase I and theareas such as evaluation and grading of students were dis-

Phase II

patched.
2-1-1. Training for Instructors
Table 2. Outline of Training in Japan during the Phase I and
the Phase II
ProgramParticipants
PeriodFirst Training for
Five newly gradu- F r o m S e p t e m b e r
automobile mainte- ated from technical 2001 to May 2002
nance technology
colleges(9 months)
Deputy Governor ofTraining for Project
March 2002 (5TVTC* in charge ofManagement
days)
SJAHI Project
Training for Project
March 2002 (11Director of SJAHIManagement
days)
Second Training for Five newly gradu- From October 2002
automobile mainte- ated from technical t o J u n e 2 0 0 3 ( 9nance technology
collegesmonths)Training for student
Deputy Director / From February toevaluation, curEducation Manager M a r c h 2 0 0 3 ( 1 1riculum creation andof SJAHI
days )
instructor guidanceTraining for adminisFrom February toAdministration Mantration and manageMarch 2004 (23ager of SJAHI
ment of an institutedays )
Third Training forT h r e e g r a d u a t e s From March to June
automobile maintefrom SJAHI
2005 (3 months)
nance technology
Fourth Training for
From November
Two graduates fromautomobile mainte2008 to MarchSJAHInance technology
2009 (4 months)(Note)TVTC: Technical and Vocational Training Corporation,
KSA(Source)”The Joint Final Evaluation Report for the Saudi Japanese Automobile High Institute Project,” Jeddah, March 13,
2006, JICAJICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

Participants in the first and the second training courses
for automobile maintenance technology in Japan in the
Phase I were newly joined instructors in SJAHI who were
newly graduated from different technical colleges fromautomobile maintenance and had no basic knowledge andtechnology for maintenance nor experience of working at
automobile maintenance shops of dealers at the momentof enrollment. As a result, they had to start studying basic
technology and skills for automobile maintenance in Japan. The training courses for nine months were necessary
for this, but they could not study more advanced nor latest
technology because they did not have enough time andbasis for such a further study.
Even in the case of participants in the third training
courses for automobile maintenance technology in Japanto which three graduates from SJAHI were invited andjoined, they still had lacked in the experience of working
at automobile maintenance shops, although they acquired
basic technology and skills after two years’ study at35

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreter

SJAHI. They participated in the training courses prepared

Contents of training courses in Japan for SJAHI instruc-by several Japanese automobile manufacturers and mainly

tors have also changed reflecting change in qualification

studied basic maintenance technology, because they cameof the newly joined instructors. Trainees could study

to Japan just after they graduated and their technical level

more advanced technology based on higher level of ba-

was not sufficient to study current technology due to in-sic technology and the skills they had. They were able tosufficient practical working experience.

study newer and the newest technologies trained in major

After the Phase II, JICE was appointed to coordinate

Japanese automobile manufacturers’ training centers. They

training courses in Japan for SJAHI. Two participants inwere also able to study instruction and teaching methods

the fourth training courses for automobile maintenanceas instructors.

technology in Japan were also graduates from SJAHI andcame to Japan after two years’ experience as instructors

2-1-2. Training for Management

after their graduation. They had more knowledge andskills than participants in the third training course and had

Trainees in counterpart training in Japan in the Phase I

more potentiality to get more advanced and latest technol-

took part in what is called “counterpart training courses.”ogy training.

These courses mainly consisted of classroom lectures ingroup with participants of similar training objectives or

Since the beginning of the Phase III, JICE has managed

themes, and of related site visits. Not all the contents ofand coordinated the SJAHI Project as an implement-

training courses were tailor-made and designed 100% foring body of the related subsidy for the project funded by

the SJAHI Project. In addition, only three top management

METI. As for training for instructors in Japan, JICE coor-

in SJAHI could take part in training in Japan. Thoughdinated training courses for 31 trainees while JICA did so

SJAHI was expected to develop by adopting Japanesefor 15.

management style and operation system, the number ofmanagement who studied in Japan was too small and theDifference between participants in training for instructors

contents of training were not enough to satisfy self-reliant

in Japan in the Phase I and II and those in recent years isdevelopment of SJAHI by utilizing Japanese managementthat the latter had experience of not only instructors but

methods.

also mechanics. SJAHI choose candidates for new in-On the other hand, target for training in Japan shifted fromstructors from graduates from SJAHI who were working

top management to middle management after the Phase

at automobile maintenance shops who were members ofIII. JICE has invited 18 middle management and admin-

JADIK. Graduates from SJAHI were required to work at

istration staff to Japan since the beginning of the Phase

JADIK shops at least for three years. They became quali-

III of the project. Middle management and administration

fied to be recruited as instructors only after three years ofstaff which are the targets of training in Japan are thosework. As a result, all the newly scouted instructors of SJA-

who served closer to students, instructors in the class-

HI have had experience of both two years’ study at SJAHI

room than top management in SJAHI. They are managing

as students and working at automobile maintenance shops

and engaging in daily operations. They have their own

for three years or more. Most of newly joined instructors

version of problems arising from their daily management

in SJAHI actually have had a career of over three years.

and operations.

They have had more practical knowledge and skills in
addition to the basis which they acquired at SJAHI. More-

The Phase III training course in Japan mainly consisted

over, they took part in training courses for newly joinedof four categories of training: (1) Understanding Japan

instructors (called “apprentice instructors”) which wereand Japanese way of thinking (Japanese culture, Japanesewell-arranged by SJAHI and held for a time period of one

business manners and Japanese language conversation), (2)year or two, before they were sent to Japan.

Practical report writing and presentation methods, (3) Site

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

36

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreter

visit at automobile technology colleges and automobile

Japan had both academic background and practical expe-

dealers’ shops, and (4) SHOP (Solving Human and Orga-rience. They had all graduated from SJAHI and worked

nizational Problems) Seminar.

at automobile maintenance workshop of JADIC member
companies for at least three years or more. Then they

2-2. Characteristics of Training in Japan

were adopted as apprentice instructors and studied basic

after the Phase III

knowledge and skills for instructors at SJAHI for one or
two years. Such background helped them to study more

Training in Japan for SJAHI management and instructors

advanced contents with more practical training and current

is characterized by the four important points: (1) Emphasis

topics. Six or seven Japanese automobile manufacturers

on Understanding Japan and Japanese Ways of Think-

usually prepared their own tailor-maid training courses

ing, (2) More Practical and Current Technology Training

including their unique diagnosis system which was very

Based on Basic Knowledge and Skills and Experience atimportant for maintenance mechanics to find irregular

Automobile Maintenance Shops, (3) Emphasis on Japa-

places, parts and components. They also introduced thenese Management Style and Operation System for Middle

latest and current technological information. There wereManagement Training, and (4) Shift to More Practicalno other training courses which provide several JapaneseTraining Program for Middle Management Training.

manufacturers’ training in a single training course.
In addition, as instructors were not accustomed to writing

2-2-1. Emphasis on Understanding Japan

reports or presentation, JICE provided them with a train-

and Japanese Ways of Thinking

ing session for Report Writing and Presentation Methods
in the beginning of the training course. Then they were

JICE prepared a series of training courses such as Japa-

required to submit a report daily, while they participatednese Culture, Japanese Business Manners and Japanese

in technological training by Japanese automobile manu-

Language Conversation in the beginning of the training infacturers. The trainees got gradually accustomed to write

Japan. Japanese Culture Course helps trainees to under-a report and became able to make their report even at thestand Japanese culture, why Japanese people behave as

final stage of the training consisting of what they learnt

such. Japanese Business Manners Course gives trainees

and how they would adapt what they learnt in Japan toinformation of what they should do when they visit com-solve their own problems after returning to the KSA. They

panies, associations and schools in Japan, such as ways

also had opportunities to present their action plans.

of greeting and bows, of exchanging name cards, and soon. Japanese Language Conversation help them to greet

2-2-3. Emphasis on Japanese Manage-in Japanese and communicate with Japanese lecturers

ment Style and Operation System for Mid-and trainers by using easy Japanese vocabulary and daily

dle Management Trainingphrases. It also shows them how to order at restaurants
or first food shops. Greeting in Japanese is welcomed by

Middle management of SJAHI participated in SHOP

companies they visit and help them to build a good human(Solving Human and Organizational Problems) Seminar

relations and smooth communications.

after they had finished training courses related to Japan,such as Japanese Culture, Japanese Business Manner and2-2-2. More Practical and Current Tech-Japanese Language Conversation. The SHOP Seminar

nology Training Based on Basic Knowl-

was aimed at developing leadership, management andedge and Skills and Experience at Auto-team work skills and as managers of their respective de-mobile Maintenance Shops

partments by introducing them to the characteristics andexcellent points of management and operation system

SJAHI instructors who took part in training courses in

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

in Japanese companies and organizations. The training

37

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpretercourse consisted of lectures, discussion, role playing andfinal presentation in addition to matching site visits to

3. Concluding Remark

some Japanese organizations. Thus the participants wereSince the beginning of the Phase III, SJAHI was expected

given opportunities to understand how they should behave

to develop by adopting Japanese management style andin order to solve personnel and/or organizational problems

operation system based on the advice of Japanese experts,

faced by them as managers for the purpose of achieving

and also the middle management training course in Japan

group or organizational targets. They were expected to

was newly started.

adopt Japanese management style as a key to solve their

Furthermore, in order to respond to the actual situation ofmanagerial problems

the SJAHI management and operating structure, the improvements were always made in the contents of training

2-2-4. Shift to More Practical Training

in Japan both for instructors and middle management as

Program for Middle Management

mentioned in 2-2-1, 2-2-2 and 2-2-3.
The immediate goal of training in Japan is to improve theIn the case of middle management training course in Ja-

individual capacity of the training participants for instruc-pan, their duties in SJAHI, an automobile institute for thetors’ skill and management skill for middle-class manag-

purpose of bringing up excellent automobile maintenanceers and also to strengthen the management and operating

mechanics, were to develop the quality of SJAHI andsystem of SJAHI.

maintain sustainable management and operational system.

More specifically, the following contents of training were

All the middle management have their own challenges at

added.

SJAHI and the objectives of training in Japan was to help

1) Middle Management Training

them to study and understand how to solve the challenges.

○Solving Method of personnel and / or organizational

What is important was not what they learnt but how toproblems

make use of what they learnt in the training in Japan and○Japanese Management Styleto solve their own challenges after reinstating to SJAHI.
For this purpose, in addition to SHOP Seminar, they were
provided with opportunities to visit many automobile○School Management and Operating System in Japan
2) Instructors Training○More Practical and Current Advanced Technology

technology colleges similar to SJAHI. Some of them were

Training at several Japanese automobile manufacturers

managed by Japanese automobile manufactures or their af-○Teaching Method Training at Japanese automobile col-filiated or related companies, others were affiliated colleg-

leges

es of the university of technology or independent schools.
Other than just attending lectures and practical workshops,

As a result of the evaluation on the training courses inthey had much time to observe, study, ask questions andJapan, it has obtained high evaluation both from theunderstand college management and administration, daily

participants and from the executive board members ofoperations, roles of related departments such as student

SJAHI which included the JADIC representatives fromaffairs, education and general affairs, examination andthe viewpoint of improving individual skills and abilities.

evaluation system of students, curriculum creation system,

However, it is not necessarily highly appreciated from themethods to motivate students, management of classes,

viewpoint of improving the SJAHI management and oper-

evaluation of instructors, and so on. They learn establish-

ating system.

ment of daily practical operations which are controlled by

The main reason of this situation is that many of the ex-

Japanese college management system.

participants of Saudi instructors were transferred to otherorganizations such as government offices, military services, and other vocational training schools, etc. Their job
retention rate is not high.

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

38

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Complications of the Language
and the Constraints on the Interpreter

Because it is difficult to train Saudi managers due to its
low retention rate, SJAHI employs many third nationality
middle-class managers and senior instructors. As a result,the hierarchical structure of SJAHI consists of almost
all of Saudi junior instructors and many third nationality
middle-class managers and senior instructors, so that theschool management is considerably difficult for Saudi
principal from the point of view of personnel management
and organizational management.
In conclusion, the results of the initial target of training inJapan as expected have not been easily obtained from theviewpoint of improving the SJAHI management and operating system. However, it can be said that SJAHI counterpart training courses in Japan have highly contributed tothe improvement of the individual capacity building bothfor instructors and middle-class managers.

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

39

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Humans walk with dogs
A Hokkaido dog case study
人、イヌと歩く——北海道犬に関する一考察

Sachiko Yamano

President of Japan International Cooperation Center(JICE)

一般財団法人

理事長

日本国際協力センター

山野幸子

はじめに
JICE は海外と日本の高校生・大学生・若い社会人との交流や研究プログラムのなかで、お互いの文化、社会、価値観などの共通性と違いを学びな
がら、相互理解を深めてきました。
本稿は、日本の北海道と沖縄で、先人たちが調査と研究を地道に重ねながら保存してきた日本の、国の天然記念物である北海道犬と、沖縄県の天然

prefaceDuring the Japan – overseas youth exchange and training,
foreign students programs in which JICE has participatedfor nearly 40 years,
we’ve learned the differences and common features ofother cultures, societies, values, etc., and deepened ourmutual understanding.
We have also found a way to further enhance this understanding by looking at Hokkaido and Okinawa.

記念物である琉球犬を通して、日本と、周辺諸国・

Hokkaido and Okinawa, which are popular travel destina-

地域が人とイヌの移動の上で繋がりを持ってきた

tions for many Asian tourists, have extraordinary dogs

足跡について、近年の応用生物学者、獣医等の在with unique characteristics.

来犬遺伝子調査 , 及び透視解析等先端技術の成果

Dogs are not animals that roam and live independently.

が著しい、縄文時代（紀元前 15000―400 年）を研究する考古学の分類とに基づいて紹介します。
イヌは単独で移動し生きてきた動物ではなく、人とともに移動し人とイヌは相互に依存して生活してきました。そこに各地域の在来犬の研究が、先史時代及び歴史時代と深く関わってきた理由があります。

Dogs move together with humans and live as partners
through mutual support. This is why research into native
dogs are crucial issues in the study of pre-historic times aswell as of history .
This article traces the movement of humans and native
dogs in Japan, taking cases of the Hokkaido dog and the
Ryukyu dog. The Hokkaido dog is designated as a Japanese natural treasure, and the Ryukyu dog is designated as

アジア諸国が日本より後発で在来犬の保存と調an Okinawan prefectural treasure. Both Japanese native

査を開始する場合であっても、在来犬を天然記念

dogs have been preserved by collaborations of dog lov-

物＝受け継ぐ遺産として姿、気質、能力などの標

ers, amateur researchers, journalists and academics. This

準形を系統化して保存しながら、一方で 1990 年代
以降、在来犬の研究分野への適用においても画期的に発展した遺伝子調査等先端技術と協働することで、効率的で、精度が高い調査・研究が期待できます。本稿が、日本人と在来犬の軌跡を紹介することによって、アジアの若い人たち、とりわけ本稿に関わりが深いアジアの考古学及びその先端

article intends to describe how they have traced the origins
and steams of Japanese native dogs such as the Hokkaido
dog and the Ryukyu dog, and to describe how they areconnected with the dogs of neighboring countries. Thesefindings have been proven by genetic research in the
1990’s and supported by major classification in archaeological research into the Jyomon period(15000B.C. -400B.
C).

技術を担う工学・科学技術、応用生物学、生物多Asian countries that are beginning to preserve native dogs

様性などに関心が高い学生たちに日本の先行事例

and conducting research, despite having a later start thanが参考になることを願っています。

Japan, will have an advantage as they will be able to utilize the efficient genetic research techniques and cuttingedge technology such as improvements in X-ray imaging
which

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

40

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Humans walk with dogs
A Hokkaido dog case study

has been developed since 1990. Designating their native

treated as a source of food by people in the Continent anddogs as natural treasures will also help to maintain stan-

the Peninsula (China and Korea at that time).

dards for these dogs in terms of shape, character and abil-

Archaeologists surveyed northern Kyushu, the Western

ity.

and Central Japan and found that dogs were not buriedThis article introduces linkages between neighboring

like people had done in the Jyomon period.

countries, as well as between Southeast Asian countries

However, the regions of southern Kyushu( including Oki-and Japan, through research into the migration andnawa), Kii Peninsula, northern Tohoku etc., (where there

habitats of native people and dogs in Japan.

had little influence of agricultural cultivation from theI hope youth in Asia, in particular students with a keen

Continent and the Peninsula,) people supported their lives

interest in Archaeology, Science of Applied Biology andmainly through hunting (note 2).

Biodiversity, etc., will read and benefit from this article.
Dr. Yuichi Tanabe, who is a notable Japanese zoologist,(I)The role of dogs in Japan

was the first to investigate historical relationships between

Having lived alongside humans, the existence of dogs is ahuman beings and native dogs in Asia scientifically. His

reflection of the history of mankind.

theory was published in 1991 by The Society for the Study

Nowadays when we say dogs, we mostly means pets.

of Human Animal Relations. He sampled more than 2,500

People tend to regard dogs as intimate family members

dogs’ blood in Asia and conducted genetic analysis.

because people are familiar with being with dogs.

According to his research, Hokkaido dogs ( Ainu dogs)
and Ryukyu dogs (Okinawan dogs)have nearly the same

In Japan dogs wouldn’t have been able to migrate andgenes, but other Japanese dogs like Shiba and Akita arehumans have wanted dogs to follow their command.

quite different. Dr. Tanabe concluded that Hokkaido andProven by zoologists and archaeologists, human beings

Okinawa were so remote from Honshu that people had lesshave become accustomed to living and working with dogs

cultural influence from the Continent and Peninsula(notefor more than 10,000 years.

3).

Dogs are the first livestock kept by the ancient Japanese.

He also concluded that people in Hokkaido and Okinawa
had the same ancestors, because their dogs were proven toFirstly, humans and dogs became hunting partners. In

be classified as having the same ancestors.

Japan, during the Jyomon period(note 1), a pre-historic
age in which Japanese natives were called Jyomon people(note 1) The Jyomon period; approximately dated between

and dogs were required for hunting small animals, wild

15000B.C. – 400B.C.

boars, bears and so forth.

(note 2 ) The Jyomon people had started cultivation ofDuring the Jyomon period, dogs were properly buried intheir own, but they still had mainly relied on hunting.

the same way as humans’ after their deaths.

People had used dogs as hunting mates whose relation-

Next, when agricultural cultivation was brought from theships were closer than that of the Yayoi people in agricul-

Continent(China) and the Korean Peninsula together withtural cultivation.

their cultures, such as bronze, silver, iron and ceramic(note 3)Hokkaido and Okinawa had been influenced bytechnology, dogs were not always required for hunting.

the Continent and the Peninsula, however the influence

Also, Buddhism and Chinese characters had started pre-were different from that of Honshu.

vailing in Japan and these markers of the upcoming Yayoi
period had overlapped with the Jyomon period, especiallyin northern Kyushu and in western and central Honshu. In
those regions, dogs were required mostly as guard dogs toprotect paddy fields and houses. Further, dogs were also

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes(II)Hokkaido native dogs; Hokkaido dogs
[ or Ainu dogs] and Sakhalin dogs( orKarafuto inu).
There are two species of native dogs in Hokkaido.

41

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Humans walk with dogs
A Hokkaido dog case study

One is Hokkaido dogs(or Ainu dogs) which were brought( the Northern Island of Japan,) are known as the Ainu

from Honshu by the people in the Jyomon period.

people.

Hokkaido dogs had been kept by the Ainu people for

Recent academic studies have proven that the Ainu people

hunting animals ( bears, deers, etc.) and protecting themare very similar to the Jyomon people in terms of life style

from wild animals.

and culture. The Ainu were less influenced by Yayoi cul-

Hokkaido dog is one of the six Japanese native dogs thatture directly due to Hokkaido being so remote and isolated

are designated as natural treasure.

from Honshu.
Academic studies in Hokkaido on the Jyomon period

Another is the Sakhalin dogs which were brought from thestarted later than in the rest of Japan due to Hokkaido hav-

north of Hokkaido, which are areas now belonging to Rus-

ing different characteristics from the rest of Japan in pre-sia. Sakhalin dogs had been used as sled dogs, as well as

historic times.

transportation dogs throughout Hokkaido until the 1980’s,

Hokkaido is biologically bordered by the “Blakiston

when couriers replaced them.

Line,” which categorized the Tsugaru Straits (note 5) as a

The Japanese Antarctic Research Expeditions wereborder for distribution of animal species.

accompanied by Sakhalin dogs. (note4)

Biologically it showed that in northern parts of the Blakiston Line, there lived creatures which are of different(III)Hokkaido dogs ( or Ainu dogs)

species from the southern part of the Line.

Currently the most influential theory is that people in the

The Blakiston Line shows that animals north of the Line

Jyomon period who had reached and settled in Hokkaido

are species of northern animals, which suggests all crea-

Soya Strait
Wakkanai

Hokkaido
SEA of OKHOTSKSEA of JAPANMonbetsu
Abashiri
AsahikawaTakikawa
Otaru

Lake Akan

Iwamizawa

SapporoNisekoChitoseTomakomai
Muroran

HidakaMountains

ObihiroNemuroKushiro

PACIFIC OCEAN

JAPAN

Hakodate
Tsugaru Strait

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

42

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Humans walk with dogs
A Hokkaido dog case study

tures including people and dogs living in Hokkaido are ofextinct.

and from the Northern areas.

Hidaka is the isolated mountain area where people could

In spite of the above, Dr. Tanabe’s 1991 genetic research

not come and go easily.

proved that the Hokkaido dog was proven related to the

Hidaka- Hokkaido dogs are the most primitive type, which

Okinawan Ryukyu dog.

had not been interbred with other species of Hokkaido

Furthermore, the Hokkaido dog and the Ryukyu dog are

dog. It is often seen with a characteristic brindle patternsimilarly linked with native dogs in Taiwan and specificon its coat.

regions of Indonesia.

“ Akan” is used in this book’s classification system as a(note4) The Sakhalin dog (Karafuto inu)was emphasized

symbolic name for the east coast area of Hokkaido. Lake

more for their capability of pulling sleds and heavy loads.

Akan is popular with tourists . The Abashiri Museum

For this reason, the standardization of Sakhalin dog

preserves the remains of people from the North ofbreeding has not been tightly controlled, and dogs are valued

Hokkaido and their 400 northern originated dogs. It ismostly for their strength and other physical characteristics.

proven that the skulls of these 400 dogs are different from

It is extremely difficult to standardize the breed

those of Hokkaido dogs, which originated in southern

as Sakhalin dogs vary greatly in terms of body shapeareas linked with Okinawan Ryukyu dogs.

and appearance. Their ancestry are from Sakhalin, Russia

Akan- Hokkaido dogs are medium sized and Mr. Denpo’s

where they were used for pulling sleds in winter, woods

photos show the influence of Sakhalin type northern dogs

and ships in summer.

in their ancestry. They often have a rather long coat(note 5) The Tsugaru Straits is the narrow channel between

compared with Chitose group Hokkaido dog , however

Hokkaido and Honshu.

the shape and appearance is completely the standard of

When we discuss the people and dogs of Hokkaido, the

Hokkaido dog.

prefecture is divided into 4 parts.
In 1962, Mr. Kanichi Denpo, a journalist and researcher
from Hokkaido, classified all Hokkaido dogs into four
categories, named for the areas they inhabit: Chitose,
Iwamizawa, Hidaka and Akan genealogy. (note 6)(IV)Preservation of Japanese native dogs
as natural treasures

The following Japanese dogs are designated as nationallevel natural treasures in Japan; Hokkaido, Akita, Kai(Yamanashi pref.), Kishu (Wakayama pref. & Mie

Firstly, Chitose is located 43km south west of Sapporo.

pref.),Shikoku (all four prefectures in Shikoku) and Shiba

Chitose later became the center of standardization fordogs. Ryukyu dogs of Okinawa are designated as

Hokkaido dogs breeds.

prefecture- level natural treasures in Japan.
Japanese native dogs, which have accompanied and lived

Secondly, Iwamizawa, which is 41km north east of Sapporo.

with people, show the features of the time and location in

Thirdly Hidaka, which is located in the southern central

which they existed.

part of Hokkaido. Finally, Akan which is around Abashiri

The study of human – native dog relations may contributeand Monbetsu, facing the coast of the Okhotsk Sea.

to our understanding of issues in human history andDogs in the Iwamizawa area, which includes former

society.

Hamamasu as well as Sorachi appear to have been
influenced by the arrival of foreign dogs , brought by invading(note 6 )Mr. Kanichi Denpo Hokkaido inu Dokuhon 1962

forces landing from overseas on the west coast of

北海道犬読本

誠文堂新光社 1962 年

Hokkaido. Photos of Iwamizawa-Hokkaido dogs show
comparatively large bodies, and faces influenced by Husky
type northern dogs in their ancestry. We seldom see theIwamizawa-Hokkaido dog, which are now believed to be

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes(V)Hokkaido dog in current times

In terms of the study of humans, Japanese native dogs andarchaeological remains, people in Hokkaido and Okinawa

43Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Humans walk with dogs
A Hokkaido dog case study

are Japanese who came to the islands during the firstJapanese native dogs, Ryukyu dogs, Hokkaido dogs(Ainu

population shift. However, Hokkaido’s existence was notdog), Taiwanese native dogs and Indonesian native dogs

generally acknowledged on the map of Japan until 1869

from specific regions have similar constitutive genes. All

when the Meiji government started to develop Hokkaido.

of these are regarded to come from Southern Asia 12,000
years ago during the Jyomon period. On the other hand,

Hokkaido dogs were used for hunting bears in Hokkaido

Japanese native dogs kept in Honshu have similar

until the 1960’s.

constitutive genes to native dogs from the KoreanWith the Meiji government’s development of Hokkaido,

Peninsula such as the Korean Chindou dog（ 珍 島 犬 ）people who stopped hunting and started to keep Hokkaido

and Cheju dog（済州島犬）. Other Japanese native dogs

dogs as pets in their families.

are believed to have come to Japan with humans from the

The Natural Treasure Hokkaido Dog Conservation Soci-

Continent (Mongolia and China) and the Korean Peninsula

ety which was established in 1951. This association has

about 2,300 – 1,700years ago, during and after the Yayoi

worked toward keeping the species pure and standardizing

period and later on. The Hokkaido and Ryukyu islands are

the Hokkaido dog. It is supported by dog lovers, journalists,

isolated from Honshu. In Hokkaido and Okinawa, people

vets, the academic circles, prefectural and ministerial

and their dogs came to Japan from different directions, andofficials and citizens.

in different time from that of Honshu. Genetic researchon native Japanese and Asian dogs is useful for(VI)Ryukyu dog

Starting Ryukyu dog preservation

confirming the archaeological theories from the Jyomon(15,000 – 400 BC)and Yayoi (10BC – 3 AC)period.

Ryukyu dogs have been preserved by the Ryukyu Dog
Preservation Association which was founded in(note 7)Survey Report on native livestock/ animals in1990 by Dr. Yoshio Arakaki, a veterinarian serving

Okinawa prefecture , 1996 年 , 沖縄県教育委員会

with the Okinawan prefectural government. Dog lovers
requested the protection of Okinawan native dogs, which
had been used as hunting dogs throughout the Ryukyu Islands.
Dr. Arakaki set up the Ryukyu Dog Preservation
Association and conducted a wild range of preservation.
He invited Dr. Yuichi Tanabe to the Association as anadvisor. Ryukyu dog preservation is based on Dr.Tanabe’s
genetic survey & theory published in 1991. Dr.Arakaki

Conclusion 結び
琉球犬とさらに台湾、インドネシア等につながる南方から北海道への人とイヌの移動は、1990 年
代の田名部雄一教授らによって研究されました。
しかしながら現在、ほぼ存在しない阿寒系と岩見沢系北海道犬の遺伝子調査は２つの系統の北海道
犬が、1980 年代後半以降、すでに存在していなかっand his followers have patiently continued work

たために、1990 年代の北海道犬遺伝子調査の対象

towards standardization of the Ryukyu dog species.

とされていません。この２系統はいずれもロシア

Dr.Arakaki and his followers have cutting edge scientificなど北方圏に起源を持つ人に伴われた北海道へのknowledge on human- dog relationships, having been

イヌの移動と関連が議論されてきました。

lectured and advised by Dr.Tanabe. Dr.Tanabe, a leading
scientist in the field of genetic analysis and tracing animal
ancestry in terms of relationship with humans. Along with
Dr. Tanabe, Dr.Arakaki has played a key role in thepreservation of Ryukyu dogs for almost 20years. (note 7)
The following is the result of Dr. Yuichi Tanabe’s gene
research and analysis on dogs in Asia.

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

琉球犬の保存に適用された現在の遺伝子調査技術を適用することによって解明される可能性が考えられます。
現在の動物学や応用生物学及び考古学の先端研
究は、過去の遺伝子の調査と分類を可能にしています。北海道におけるロシアはじめ北方圏からの44

Naonori Kodate

Masako Kishimoto

Aiichiro Yamamoto

Kenji Yamana

Toshio Namai/Hiroshi Imai

Sachiko Yamano

Humans walk with dogs
A Hokkaido dog case study

人とイヌの移動と定住の研究を、北海道犬との関In Japan a good model of collaboration with preservation

連でさらに進めることによって、北海道は南から

organizations is the Ryukyu dog (Okinawa), of whichの移動と定住及び北方からの移動とで定住の交流地域として、現在考えられている以上に豊かな多文化が存在してきたことが、北海道犬の分類上からも証明できる可能性があります。
Dr. Tanabe’s 1991 genetic research proved that the
Hokkaido dog was related to the Okinawan Ryukyu
dog, the native Taiwanese dog and Indonesian dogs in
specific regions. Through genetic research on Akan
and Iwamizawa Hokkaido dogs which have been extinct
since the late of 1980’s, migration and habitats of native

preservation started later than other Japanese native dogs.
Ryukyu dog preservation has been conducted throughcollaboration between enthusiastic dog lovers andoutstanding gene scientists.
Culturally, Okinawa is closely linked to Indonesia andother South East Asian countries.
In Asia, archaeological and native species research is driven by innovative technology and academic study. Youngresearchers in these fields have an opportunity to drive
future innovation in both liberal arts and science.
END

people and dogs from Russia and the Northern Regions to
Hokkaido, Japan could be explained by current scientificresearch into the Ryukyu dog in Okinawa.
It has been proven through research into other species that
Hokkaido was a “crossing region“ where diverse species
from both the Northern regions and Japan Islands
cohabitated.
This could be further proven by the existence of the
Hokkaido dog, which has been preserved by the Japanesepeople as a Natural Treasure.

同時に在来犬が絶滅に瀕しているインドシナを含む東南アジア地域においても、在来犬保全は日本の事例が先行する手法で、人とイヌの移動と定住を証明することは容易になってきました。
イヌは考古学においても重要な研究対象であり、近年、考古学はそれぞれの地域の生活と文化を各分野の科学者との協働で成果を挙げてきました。
今後も学問のレベラルアーツとサイエンスの合流点として、在来犬を通して人間の生活と社会の発展と変容を学ぶ学問に若い学生や研究者が参画することを勧めたいと思います。
In several countries researchers, for instance in Indonesia,
can take advantage of cutting edge technology and comeup with accurate and rich analysis by collaborating withpreservation organizations which keep total scientificrecords.

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes

45

JICE Collection of Theses and Research Notes
Editor’s Note

編集後記

Arguably, JICE has been working to promote a better

JICE はこれまで、海外の学生、研修生や留学生

understanding of Japan, intentionally or unintentionally, in theとの交流を通じ、JICE のプログラム参加者の滞

process of hosting international students and trainees and在を満足なものと工夫する中で、意図するしな

contriving to enrich their stay in Japan.

いにかかわらず「日本理解」の発信を行ってきた団体である。設立以来４０年を超える歴史のThis compendium of research notes delves into “something”

中で、JICE の中にも海外の学生や研修生とのthat have stimulated foreign students and trainees to

出会いを通じて蓄積されてきた日本理解に関す

understand Japan throughout 40 years of our international

る「何か」があるのではないか？

activities and attempts to describe such clues and essences inをテーマに今回このような JICE Collection ofa more expressly and objective manner.

Theses and Research Notes の 形 で 発 信 す

この「何か」

ることになった。JICE の職場はプロジェクトのUnlike academic institutions, we work mainly in the frontline of

現場と実務であるが、今後は日々蓄積されるデー

international cooperation and exchanges. It was a challenge

タや識見を、アカデミズムのような体系化されfor us to make a systematic and theoretical analysis on thisた論旨展開とは異なるが、現場から感じ体系化

theme. However, we have made every effort to systematize as

した「日本理解」として、特に海外の皆様に少much as possible our findings and knowledge acquired from

しでもお届けできれば幸いである。

our daily activities on the ground. We hope that this publication

最後に、発刊にあたり、このような趣旨をご理

will help enhance further international understanding of Japan解くださり、ASEAN はじめアジア諸国にとって関心の高い地域統合について、EU をモデル

I would like to take this opportunity to express our specialに、特別寄稿として執筆いただいた小舘尚文アthanks to Dr. Naonori Kodate, Assistant Professor, School

イルランド国立大学ダブリン校専任講師に御礼

of Social Policy, Social Work and Social Justice, University

を申し上げたい。（総務部長College Dublin, Ireland who, in full understanding of theobjective of this publication, offered us a special contribution
titled “Testing Europe as a Model of Regional Integration：
A Perspective from Ireland”, an interesting subject for Asia
seeking deeper integration.
Atsushi Tsutsumi
Managing Director,
General Affairs Department,
JICE

Publisher
JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION CENTER(JICE)
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2-7-1, Nishi-shinjuku,Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 163-0716
TEL+81-3-6838-2700 FAX+81-3-6838-2701
https://www.jice.org/
date of issue
March 30,2018
発行／一般財団法人 日本国際協力センター（JICE: ジャイス）
発行日／ 2018 年 3 月 30 日
〒 163-0716 東京都新宿区西新宿二丁目 7 番 1 号
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TEL：03-6838-2700、FAX:03-6838-2701
https://www.jice.org/堤敦史）