WORLD TRADE  
ORGANIZATION  WT/COMTD/W/152 
19 September 2006 
 
 (06-4453) 
Committee on Trade and Development Original:   English 
  
 
STRATEGIC REVIEW OF WTO TRADE-RELATED 
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (TRTA) ACTIVITIES 
 
Final Report
 
 
 
 Please find attached the Final Report for the Strategic Review of WTO TRTA activities, submitted by the Consortium made up of CUTS, FLAC SO and NSI.  This consortium was selected by 
the Steering Committee, appointed by th e Committee on Trade and Development.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  Strategic Review of 
WTO-provided 
TRTA Activities 
 
 
 
Final Report* 
 
 
                                                      
* A consortium of individuals from Consumer Unity & Trust Society (CUTS), India; Facultad 
Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales  (FLACSO – Latin American School of Social Sciences), Argentina;  and 
North-South Institute (NSI), Canada  prepared this report.  It was commissioned by a Steering Committee 
consisting of WTO Members and appointed by the WTO Committee on Trade and Development.  Views 
expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the positions of their respective 
organisations. Members of the Steering Committee have commented on this report in their individual capacity, not necessarily reflecting the positions of their respectiv e countries.  This report has been submitted to the 
Steering Committee on 21
st July 2006. WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
Page 
 
List of Tables and Charts  7 
List of Boxes  7 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  8 
ACRONYMS  9 
GLOSSARY  12 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  16 
I.  INTRODUCTION:  THE CONTEXT  24 
 Definitions
 26 
 Actors Involved in TRTA  27 
II.  METHODOLOGY FOR THE STRATEGIC REVIEW OF WTO-PROVIDED TRTA  28 
III.  EVALUATIONS OF OTHER AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRTA  31 
2. United Kingdom’s Department for International Development  32 
3. European Commission  33 
 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development  34 
 World Bank  35 
 International Trade Centre  36 
 Integrated Framework for TRTA to LDCs  36 
4. Joint Integrated Technical Assistance Programme  37 
5. Summary  38 
IV.  OVERVIEW OF WTO’S TRTA  39 
V.  COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE  47 
 WTO Trade Law and Negotiating History  47 
 Neutrality  48 
 Development Dimensions  49 
 Negotiations Skills  49 
 Technical Knowledge and Implementation Experience  50 
 Development of Analytical Skills  50 
 Case Studies and National/Regional Specificities  51 
 Training and 'Training of Trainers’  51 
VI.  RELEVANCE  53  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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   Overall Relevance  53 
 Needs Assessments  54 
6. Course Content, Approach and Frequency  56 
 Relevance of Particular Courses  58 
 Quality of Trainers  60 
 Uniformity of Participants  61 
 Impacts/Outcomes  61 
VII.  MANAGEMENT AND EFFICIENCY  68 
 Management of the ITTC  68 
 Selection of Participants  68 
 Quality Control of Trainers  71 
 Evaluation  73 
 Management of Partnerships  73 
 Cost Effectiveness  74 
 Funding  75 
 Pre- and Post-Training Activities ('Follow-Up’)  75 
 Logistics  76 
VIII.  FINDINGS, LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS  78 
 Comparative Advantage  78 
 Relevance  81 
 Management and Efficiency  86 
IX.  CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCENARIOS  90 
 Scenario 1:  Incremental Change  91 
 Scenario 2:  Fundamental Rethink  93 
 REFERENCES  96 
 Annexure 1  100 
 ToR for the Strategic Review of WTO-provided TRTA Activities  100 
 Annexure 2  107 
 Questionnaire for Recipients of TRTA  107 
 Annexure 3  113 
 Questionnaire for Officials  113 
 Annexure 4  119 
 Information about Respondents  119 WT/COMTD/W/152 
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   Annexure 5  120 
 Summary of Country Reports  120 
 Bangladesh  120 
 Barbados  124 
 Cambodia  129 
 Ecuador  133 
 Kenya  138 
 Kyrgyz Republic  142 
 Moldova  147 
 Senegal  151 
 Yemen  155 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  List of Tables and Charts 
 
Table 1a. Share of 9 field visit countries in total WTO TRTA commitments Table 1b. Share of WTO in total trade policy and regulations TRTA in 9 field visit countries Table 2. Summary of strengths and weaknesses of selected technical assistance providers 
Table 3. Total WTO TRTA for the 2002-2004 Period by category and relative to total TRTA 
Table 4. WTO TRTA by income group of recipient countries Table 5. WTO TRTA by region of recipient countries  Chart 1.  WTO TRTA by subject matter – Share of number of activities, 2005 
Chart 2.  WTO TA and Training Plan Expenses, 2006, SFr000s and % 
Chart 3.  Organisation chart of ITTC Chart 4.  WTO TA and Training Plan Funding Sources 2006  
List of Boxes 
 
Box I.1: Going Beyond Expectations Box I.2: Defining TRTA and CB Box IV.1: The WTO’s TRTA Products Box IV.2: Doha Mandates in Respect of T echnical Assistance and Capacity Building 
Box V.1: Views on Training Activities of Other Agencies/Donors 
Box VI.1: Views on Course Content and Approach 
Box VI.2: Views on Regional Courses Box VI.3.1: Views on Application of Training Box VI.3.2: Examples of Application of Training Box VI.4: Views on Dissemination 
Box VII.1: The WTO’s TRTA Institutional Structure 
Box VII.2: WTO-INTAL Collaboration Box VII.3: Views on Selection procedures Box VII.4: National Assessments Box VII.5: Views on Follow-up training and other activities  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
 The Strategic Review of WTO-provided TRTA  Activities has involved a number of people 
and on behalf of the Review Team, I would like to  express my gratitude for all their efforts and 
contributions.  First of all, the Review Team has been ably guided by the Steering Committee:  
Ambassador Gomi Senadhira (Chair man);  Mats Åberg;  Kiminori Iwama;  Ernesto Martínez Gondra;  
Dominique de Crombrugghe and Edouard Bizumuremyi.   From the WTO Secretariat, Jorge Vigano and Jeremy Allen deserve particular mention due to their assistance throughout the Review.  Thanks are al so due to WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy 
and WTO-ITTC Director Paul Rolian as well as to several other staff of the WTO Secretariat for their 
insightful comments and observations.   In all, the Review Team interviewed 269 peop le in Geneva and in nine selected countries 
between February and May 2006.  I extend my appreci ation to them for their time and contribution as 
well as to those who helped in organising and coordinating the meetings. 
  A special thanks goes out to my fellow members of the Review Team:  Ann Weston, Diana Tussie and Amb. Maniam Supperamaniam.  Working with them has been a rich learning experience and a great pleasure.  
 The Review could not have been successful w ithout the assistance of Chantal Blouin (NIS), 
Bipul Chatterjee (CUTS), and Pablo Heidrich (FLACS O) and I am grateful for their outstanding work 
throughout the Review.  The inputs from Dorothy Te mbo in her capacity as advisor to the Review 
Team are also gratefully acknowledged.  Finally, Michael Bratt, Alice Pham and Pooja Sharma of 
CUTS have provided excellent suppor t throughout the Review process. 
 
  Pradeep S. Mehta    July 2006   WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  ACRONYMS 
 
ACP   African, Caribbean and Pacific countries ACWL   Advisory Centre on WTO Law AD   Anti-Dumping 
AfT   Aid for Trade 
AITIC   Agency for International Trade Information and Cooperation ASEAN  Association of Southeast Asian Nations BTOR   Back-to-Office-Report  CAFTA  Central American Free Trade Agreement 
CARICOM  Caribbean Community and Common Market 
CB   Capacity Building CIDA   Canadian International Development Agency CIS   Commonwealth of Independent States CNNCI   Comité National pour les Négociati ons en Commerce International (Senegal) 
COMESA  Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa 
CSO   Civil Society Organisation CTD   Committee on Trade and Development CTPL   Centre of Trade Policy and Law (Carleton University) CUTS   Consumer Unity & Trust Society CVD   Countervailing Duties 
DAC   Development Assistance Committee 
DCE   Direction pour le Commerce Extérieur (Senegal) DDA   Doha Development Agenda DDAGTF  Doha Development Agenda Global Trust Fund  
DFID   UK Department for International Development 
DTIS   Diagnostic Trade Integration Study 
EAC   East African Community EC   European Commission ECOWAS  Economic Community of West African States ENEA   National School for Applied Economics (Senegal) EPA   Economic Partnership Agreement 
EU   European Union 
EURASEC  Eurasian Economic Community FAO   Food and Agriculture Organisation FDI   Foreign Direct Investment FLACSO  Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales 
FTA   Free Trade Agreement/Area/Arrangement 
GAFTA  Greater Arab Free Trade Area GATS   General Agreement on Trade in Services GATT   General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GCC   Gulf Cooperation Council GDP   Gross Domestic Product 
HRD   Human Resource Development 
ICTSD   International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development 
IDB   Inter-American Development Bank IDEP   African Institute for Economic Development and Planning IF   Integrated Framework 
IFC   International Finance Corporation 
IIC   Inter-Institutional Committee IMF   International Monetary Fund INGO   International Non-Governmental Organisation INTAL   Institute for the Integratio n of Latin America and the Caribbean WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  IPDET   International Program for Development Evaluation Training 
IPRs   Intellectual Property Rights ISO   International Standards Organisation ITC   International Trade Centre ITHID   Integration, Trade and Hemispheric Issues Division (IDB) 
ITTC   Institute for Training and Technical Cooperation 
JITAP   Joint Integrated Technical Assistance Programme LDC   Least Developed Country MFA   Ministry of Foreign Affairs MFAFT  Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade (Barbados) 
MFN   Most-Favoured-Nation 
MITT   Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism (Kyrgyz Republic) MoU   Memorandum of Understanding MTS   Multilateral Trading System NAMA   Non-Agricultural Market Access 
NCWTO  National Committee of the WTO (Kenya) 
NGO   Non-Governmental Organisation NSI   The North-South Institute NTB   Non-Tariff Barrier OD   Operational Division (WTO) ODI   Overseas Development Institute 
OECD   Organisation for Economic  Co-operation and Development 
OECS   Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States PEF   Participant Evaluation Form PRSP    Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PTA   Preferential Trading Arrangement 
RBM   Results-Based Management 
RTA   Regional Trade Agreement RTPC   Regional Trade Policy Course SAFTA   South Asian Free Trade Area SECO   State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (Switzerland) SME   Small and Medium-Sized Enterprise 
SPS   Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards 
TA   Technical Assistance TAMC   Technical Assistance Management Committee TBT   Technical Barriers to Trade TCA   Technical Cooperation Audit 
TCB   Trade Capacity Building 
TCBDB  Trade Capacity Building Database TORs   Terms of Reference ToT   Training of Trainers TPC   Trade Policy Course TPR   Trade Policy Review 
TRA   Trade-Related Assistance 
TRCB   Trade-Related Capacity Building TRIPs   Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights TRTA   Trade-Related Technical Assistance USAID   United States Agency for International Development 
UN   United Nations 
UNCTAD  United Nations Confer ence on Trade and Development 
UNDP   United Nations Development Programme UNIDO   United National Industr ial Development Organisation 
UWI   University of the West Indies  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  WB   World Bank 
WBI   World Bank Institute WCO   World Customs Organisation WHO   World Health Organisation WIPO   World Intellectual Property Organisation 
WTO   World Trade Organisation 
WTO-CCO  WTO Coordination and Communication Office (Yemen)  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  GLOSSARY 
 
Activity  – Actions taken or work performed through wh ich inputs, such as funds, technical assistance 
and other types of resources are mobilized to produce specific outputs.  
Anti-dumping duties  – GATT's Article 6 allows anti-dumping duties to be imposed on goods that are 
deemed to be dumped and causing injury to pro ducers of competing products in the importing 
country.  These duties are equal to the differen ce between the goods' export price and their normal 
value, if dumping causes injury.  
Association of South East Asian Nations  – Eight ASEAN members are members of the WTO – 
Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.  The 
other ASEAN members – Laos and Vietnam – are negotiating WTO membership.  Beneficiaries  – The individuals, groups, or organisations , whether targeted or not, that benefit, 
directly or indirectly, from the development intervention. 
 Countervailing duties  – Action taken by the importing country, usually in the form of increased 
duties to offset subsidies given to producers or exporters in the exporting country.  Dumping  – Occurs when goods are exported at a pri ce less than their normal value, generally 
meaning they are exported for less than they are sold  in the domestic market or third-country markets, 
or at less than production cost.  Effectiveness  – Extent to which the development inte rvention's objectives were achieved, or are 
expected to be achieved, taking into account thei r relative importance.  Note:  Also used as an 
aggregate measure of (or judgment about) the merit or wo rth of an activity, i.e. the extent to which an 
intervention has attained, or is expected to atta in, its major relevant objectives efficiently in a 
sustainable fashion and with a positive institutional development impact.  Efficiency  – A measure of how economically resources/inputs (funds, expertise, time, etc.) are 
converted to results. 
 
Ex-post evaluation  – Evaluation of a development intervention after it has been completed.  Note:  It 
may be undertaken directly after or long after comple tion.  The intention is to identify the factors of 
success or failure, to assess the sustai nability of results and impacts, a nd to draw conclusions that may 
inform other interventions. 
 
Feedback  – The transmission of findings generated th rough the evaluation process to parties for 
whom it is relevant and useful so as to facilitate  learning.  This may involve the collection and 
dissemination of findings, conclusions, reco mmendations and lessons from experience. 
 Finding  – A finding uses evidence from one or more ev aluations to allow for a factual statement. 
 
Free trade area  – Trade within the group is duty free but members set their own tariffs on imports 
from non-members.  High Income Countries  – Per capita Gross National Income (GNI) > US$10,065 
 
Impacts  – Positive and negative, primary and sec ondary long-term effects produced by a 
development intervention, directly or indirectly, intended or unintended.   WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  Indicator  – Quantitative or qualitative factor or variable that provides a simple and reliable means to 
measure achievement, to reflect the changes connect ed to an intervention, or to help assess the 
performance of a development actor.  Inputs  – The financial, human, and material res ources used for the development intervention. 
 
Institutional development impact  – The extent to which an inte rvention improves or weakens the 
ability of a country or region to make more effici ent, equitable, and sustainable use of its human, 
financial, and natural resources, for example thr ough:  (a) better definition, stability, transparency, 
enforceability and predictability of institutional a rrangements and/or (b) better alignment of the 
mission and capacity of an organisation with its  mandate, which derives from these institutional 
arrangements.  Such impacts can include in tended and unintended effects of an action. 
 Intellectual property rights  – Ownership of ideas, including literary and artistic works (protected by 
copyright), inventions (protected by patents), signs for distinguishing goods of an enterprise 
(protected by trademarks) and othe r elements of industrial property. 
 Internal evaluation  – Evaluation of a development intervention conducted by a unit and/or 
individuals reporting to the management of the donor, partner, or impl ementing organisation. 
 Lessons learned  – Generalizations based on evaluation e xperiences with projects, programmes, or 
policies that abstract from the specific circumstan ces to broader situations.  Frequently, lessons 
highlight strengths or weaknesses in prepar ation, design, and coordination, etc. 
 Low Middle Income Countries  – Per capita GNI US$826-3,255 in 2004 
 
Monitoring  – A continuing function that uses systematic collection of data on specified indicators to 
provide management and the main stakeholders  of an ongoing development intervention with 
indications of the extent of progress and achievement of objectives and progress in the use of allocated funds.  More Advanced Developing Countries and Territories  – Aruba, Bahamas,  Bermuda, Brunei, 
Cayman Islands, Chinese Taipei, Cyprus, French Polynesia, Hong Kong, Israel, Korea, Kuwait, 
Libya, Macao, Malta, Netherlands Antilles, New Ca ledonia, Qatar, Singapore, Slovenia and United 
Arab Emirates.  Most-Favoured-Nation  – The principle of not discrimina ting between one's trading partners. 
 
Non-tariff barriers  – Such as quotas, import licensing systems, sanitary regulations, prohibitions, 
etc.  Other Low Income Countries  – Per capita GNI < US$825 in 2004. 
 
Outcome  – The likely or achieved short-term and me dium-term effects of an intervention's outputs 
 Outputs  – The products, capital goods and services which results from a development intervention;  
may also include changes resulting from the intervention which are re levant to the achievement of 
outcomes. 
 
Partners  – The individuals and/or organisations that collaborate to achieve mutually agreed upon 
objectives.  Note:  The concept of partnershi p connotes shared goals, common responsibility for 
outcomes, distinct accountability and reciprocal oblig ations.  Partners may include governments, civil WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  society, non-governmental organisations, unive rsities, professional and business associations, 
multilateral organisations, private companies, etc.  Performance  – The degree to which a development inte rvention or a development partner operates 
according to specific criteria/standards/guidelines or achieves results in accordance with stated goals 
or plans. 
 Performance indicator  – A variable that allows the verifi cation of changes in the development 
intervention or shows results relative to what was planned.  
Recommendations  – Proposals aimed at enhancing the effectiveness, quality, or efficiency of a 
development intervention;  at redesigning the objec tives; and/or at the reallocation of resources. 
 Relevance  – The extent to which the objectives of a de velopment intervention are consistent with 
beneficiaries' requirements, country  needs, global priorities and partne rs' and donors' policies.  Note:  
Retrospectively, the question of relevance often be comes a question as to whether the objectives of an 
intervention or its design are still appr opriate given changed circumstances. 
 Results  – The output, outcome or impact (intended or  unintended, positive a nd/or negative) of a 
development intervention.  
Results-Based Management  – A management strategy focusing on performance and achievement of 
outputs, outcomes and impacts.  Safeguard measures  – Action taken to protect a specific industry from an unexpected build-up of 
imports – generally governed by Article 19 of GATT. 
 
Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures or regulations  – Implemented by governments to protect 
human, animal and plant life and health, and to he lp ensure that food is safe for consumption. 
 Schedule  – In general, a WTO member's list of commitments on market access (bound tariff rates, 
access to services markets) 
 
Self-evaluation  – An evaluation by those who are entrusted with the design and delivery of a 
development intervention.  Singapore issues  – Four issues introduced to the WTO agenda at the December 1996 Ministerial 
Conference in Singapore:  trade and investment, trade and competition policy, transparency in 
government procurement, and trade facilitation.  Stakeholders  – Agencies, organisations, groups or individuals  who have a direct or indirect interest 
in the development interv ention or its evaluation. 
 
Tariffs  – Customs duties on merchandise imports.  Levied either on an ad valorem basis (percentage 
of value) or on a specific basis (e.g. US$7 per 100 kgs.).  Tariffs give price advantage to similar 
locally produced goods and raise revenues for the government.  Thematic evaluation  – Evaluation of a selection of development interventions, all of which address a 
specific development priority that cuts  across countries, regions, and sectors. 
 Trade facilitation  – Removing obstacles to the movement of goods across borders 
(e.g. simplification of customs procedures).   WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  Trade policy review  – Surveillance of national trade policies undertaken by the WTO.  All WTO 
Members are reviewed, the frequency of each country's review varying according to its share of world trade.  Transparency  – Degree to which trade policies and practices, and the process by which they are 
established, are open and predictable. 
 Upper Middle Income Countries  – Per capita GNI US$3,256-10,065 in 2004. 
 Uruguay Round  – Multilateral trade negotiations launc hed at Punta del Este, Uruguay in 
September 1986 and concluded in Ge neva in December 1993.  Signed by Ministers in Marrakesh, 
Morocco, in April 1994. WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
 
I. INTRODUCTION:  THE CONTEXT 
 The launch of the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) in 2001 marked a new chapter in trade-
related technical assistance (TRTA) provided by th e World Trade Organisation (WTO).  Developing 
countries' lack of negotiating and implementing capac ity, their disappointment with the materialized 
benefits (or lack of them) from the Uruguay Round a nd their refusal to be pushed into a deal with 
limited benefits were some of the main factor s that triggered a recognition that TRTA was an 
important element in furthering economic development a nd reducing poverty in developing countries.  
Indeed, the offer to significantly expand TRTA was critical to launching the DDA, as trade ministers 
agreed to a sizeable increase in the volume of b ilateral and multilateral initiatives and programmes, 
including the creation of the Doha Devel opment Agenda Global Trust Fund (DDAGTF). 
 
II. METHODOLOGY FOR THE STRATEGIC RE VIEW OF WTO-PROVIDED TRTA 
 This is the first external review of the WT O-provided TRTA (inter-changeably used in this 
report as WTO's TRTA as well as WTO TRTA), wh ich during 2002 to 2004 involved an annual 
average of 480 activities in the areas of trade policy and regulation and a cost of US$15 million.  It was based on detailed, questionnaire- based interviews in nine countries with officials and others who 
had participated in one or more of the WTO's se minars, courses, workshops or other activities, as well 
as others interested in trade policy issues.  
 The nine countries were Kenya and Senega l in Africa, Yemen in the Middle East, 
Bangladesh, Cambodia and the Kyrgyz Republic in As ia, Barbados and Ecuador in the Americas, and 
Moldova in Europe.  This selection was d esigned to capture a broad representation of 
TRTA recipients;  they accounted for some  6 per cent of WTO TRTA during 2002-2004. 
 
 The WTO's TRTA in the nine countries was c oncentrated in five of the 20 categories of 
activities as defined by the WTO/Organisation for Economic Co-operation a nd Development (OECD) 
database (i.e. trade education/training, tariff ne gotiations/non-agricultura l market access (NAMA), 
technical barriers to trade (TBT), trade negotiati ons techniques and services) with 56 per cent of the 
total WTO TRTA spending in these categories.  Relative to all TRTA provided in these nine countries, the WTO only accounted for 2.6 per cent of spending. 
 
 In addition, in Geneva we interviewed several  people closely associated with TRTA in other 
international organisations and th ink tanks, in donor governments and in the WTO Secretariat.  
Altogether some 152 questionnaires were completed ( 118 recipients and 34 supervisors/officials) and 
a total of 269 people met between February and May 2006.  We also drew on the growing literature 
on trade and capacity building, on official and unpublished WTO documents, and our own knowledge 
as trade policy analysts.   Our review focused on the following three aspects:  
• WTO's comparative advantage as a provider of TRTA; 
 
• relevance of its TRTA activities; 
 
• its management and efficiency. 
  Taking into account the increasingly complex as pects of TRTA in terms of both demand 
(need for training that goes beyond knowledge of WTO rules to analytical capacity and critical  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  negotiating skills) and supply (increasing number of actors), we considered the WTO's comparative  
strengths and weaknesses .  We evaluated the relevance  of its terms of response to stated national, 
institutional and individual officials' needs.  For management and efficiency , we looked at issues 
relating to the organisation of the TRTA cour ses themselves and the overall programming of TRTA. 
 III. EVALUATIONS OF OTHER AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRTA 
 Before we began our examination of the WT O's TRTA, we reviewed evaluations undertaken 
recently of TRTA programming by the United Kingdom 's Department for International Development 
(DFID), the European Commission (EC), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the World Bank and the International Trade Centre (ITC) as well as the Integrated 
Framework (IF) of TRTA for Least-Developed Countries and the Joint Integrated Technical 
Assistance Programme (JITAP).   The review highlighted a series of issues TRTA providers need to take into account, notably approach to training, content, and manageme nt.  Examples include moving beyond technical 
assistance to building longer-term capacity, mainst reaming training outside core ministries and 
government, linking trade policies to poverty reduc tion and distributional issues, enhancing national 
and regional content to training including research on bilateral and regional trade policies, training in 
analytical skills and the creation of databases,  supporting experiential learning, flexibility in 
programming to respond to evolving national needs and priorities, coordinating TRTA at the national 
and regional levels, and short-te rm and irregular financing. 
 
IV. OVERVIEW OF WTO'S TRTA 
 In this section we provide some basic information about the WTO's TRTA, beginning with 
the seven strategic objectives endorsed at Doha in the New Strategy for WTO Technical Cooperation 
for Capacity Building, Growth and Integration  (New Strategy, 2001).  We also describe the five 
broad categories of TRTA products or activities, which are as follows: 
 
• General WTO-related training and tec hnical assistance (including Trade Policy 
Courses (TPCs) in Geneva and in the re gions, which account for a third of the 
TRTA budget); 
 
• specialized and advanced training and technical assistance (including national and 
regional workshops/seminars with another 33 per cent); 
 
• academic support for training and capacity building (including workshops for 
university professors and research collaboration, with 3 per cent); 
 
• support training and technical assistance facilities in Geneva (from symposia to 
internships, with 12 per cent); 
 
• other programmes and support activities with funding requirements (such as 
involvement in other organisati ons' workshops, with 2 per cent). 
  Of all WTO TRTA in 2002-04, 27 per cent w as allocated to Trade education and training, 
with another four kinds of ac tivities each accounting for some 7 pe r cent (Tariff Negotiations-NAMA, 
Trade mainstreaming in poverty reduction strategy pa pers (PRSPs), TBT, and Services), all of which 
are of key relevance to developing countries in the Doha Round. Relative to all TRTA funding the 
WTO has played a larger role in  providing training on tariff negotiations/NAMA, rules, dispute WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 18  
 
  settlement, trade negotiations techniques, and services.  Almost half (48 per cent) of its TRTA has 
been in Africa, with Asia receiving 19 per cent, and Latin America and the Caribbean 16 per cent.   Comparing WTO's contribution to TRTA in trade policy and regulations with that of all other 
TRTA in that category shows that it is very small in  terms of value – less than 2 per cent.  However, 
WTO has played a relatively important role in pr oviding training in sub-categories such as tariff 
negotiations/NAMA, rules, dispute settlement, trade negotiations techniques, and services. 
 
V. COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE 
 The issue of comparative advantage is particularly important given the growth in 
TRTA demand and supply, and in considering how  far the WTO should move beyond its original 
focus, collaborate with others, and leave certa in areas and approaches to others.  We found 
widespread agreement that the WT O has strong comparative advantage in knowledge and information 
about WTO rules and procedures, particularly from a legal perspective, in many operational aspects of 
agreements and in the latest state of play in on going negotiations.  But many  other organisations are 
also proficient in training on WTO trade law basi cs.  The WTO's neutrality mandate is both an asset 
and a constraint.   In other areas considered important to ma ny developing country recipients, notably 
development dimensions, negotiati ng techniques and analytical skills , and knowledge of national and 
regional specificities, the WTO's competence was qu estioned.  The WTO has partnered with other 
organisations and experts to complement its ow n capacities, including a number of developing 
country universities and regional organisa tions as in the regional TPCs (RTPCs). 
  In sum, earlier assumptions such as the unique ness and adequacy of WTO experts' knowledge 
are being challenged, suggesting it is time  to rethink and refocus the WTO 'brand'. 
 
VI. RELEVANCE 
 Our interviewees across the nine countries we visited as well as many others working on 
TRTA found that the WTO's TRTA has been generall y relevant – responding to  national, institutional 
and individual needs. 95 per cent of interview ees found that the WTO courses had matched their 
requirements considerably or to some extent.  But there were several ways suggested to make it more 
relevant. 
  One is improved needs assessments : few of the nine countries visited had a national 
TRTA plan, yet in nearly all there is a national me chanism for the development of trade policies that 
could help to identify TRTA needs and priorities,  using various types of support that the WTO has 
offered.  In terms of course content , for most interviewees the level of training was just right, though 
there were complaints about repetition a nd a call for more graduated programming. 
  The materials  were useful, but improvement were suggested to make them more accessible 
and with more interpretative and analytical content.   Similarly, while there was no bias noted in the 
content and materials – to maintain neutrality  – this had limited the WTO trainers' willingness to 
discuss policy flexibility within the WTO rules a nd the implications of alternative negotiating 
proposals and to many WTO training was oriented more to building national officials' capacity as effective rule takers than as effective negotiators  and rule-makers.  Courses offered with regional 
experts and longer courses allowed the use of more relevant case-study material and simulations, than 
did many of the 2-4 day national or regional seminars and workshops.  On the quality of trainers , 
WTO experts were considered to be of high qualit y with strong trade law expertise, but sometimes 
doctrinaire, in contrast to others who were less fami liar with legal or negotia ting details but offered a 
broader approach and regional experience.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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 Impacts at the individual level were easier  to identify than at the institutional one – 
TRTA helped many trainees to perform particular ta sks more effectively.  Still, in many countries the 
training has had an institutional impact, primarily in building up the capacities of a cadre of trade-
skilled professionals particularly in trade ministries,  to understand and implement WTO rules.  But in 
most countries the capacity to design national trad e policies and to negotiate at the WTO remains 
relatively weak, even if there was evidence of mo re engagement in various aspects of the ongoing 
DDA negotiations.  
VII. MANAGEMENT AND EFFICIENCY 
 Leadership of WTO-provided needs to be dynamic and full of missionary zeal, but this 
Review has found that the approach of the ITTC ma nagement is characterized by routine churning out 
of TRTA activities within a pre-determined static framework.  This state of affairs has, in turn, 
lessened the motivation of the workforce and, by ex tension, negatively influenced the desirable and 
long-lasting impact of TRTA on beneficiary countries. 
 
 While the selection of participants is larg ely a government responsibility, and often works 
adequately, there were concerns that the varia tion in knowledge levels, la nguage skills, and other 
differences made class es difficult to manage and less effective.  Similarly, there were questions about 
variations in the quality of trainers, with one sugg estion being that training performance be part of all 
WTO technical staff's annual performance. 
 
 Evaluation has expanded beyond the feedback forms from WTO trainers and trainees to some testing on course completion, course audits by the internal audit unit, and now some ex-post evaluations for the major courses.  Longer reports pr epared by trainees for their national ministries, 
were rarely made available to the WTO. 
 
 Many of the WTO's partnerships with other or ganisations have been managed in a largely ad 
hoc, informal fashion.  In some cases, however, there are active Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs), such as the collaboration with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and its arm the Institute for the Integration of Latin America (INTAL), which has been quite positive, and the 
relationship with various universities in the running of the RTPCs. 
 
 There is too little data publicly available for co st effectiveness to be systematically assessed;  
this is an area for further action by those work ing on the WTO/OECD TRTA/Capacity Building (CB) 
database.  It seems, however, that many WTO nationa l activities are more cost-effective than others, 
though these may not bring the full benefits associ ated with regional activities (such as networking 
with regional peers).  Finally, the section raises othe r administrative issues such as the challenge of 
raising funds for a longer period so that the Ins titute for Training and Technical Cooperation (ITTC) 
can develop a longer-term programme, involving more pre- and post-training activities, and a number 
of logistical challenges such as making inform ation available on-line about course content and 
materials and planning.  VIII.  FINDINGS, LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 In this section we highlight key messages and review the findings, lessons learned and 
recommendations of the three preceding sections on comparative advantage, relevance, and management and efficiency.  
 The key messages that come out of the Review are as follows: 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 20  
 
  Comparative advantage 
 
• Credible core competencies in trade law; 
 
• building deeper partnerships; 
 
• transforming ITTC into a fully-fledged training institution. 
 
Relevance 
 
• Absence of effective needs assessments; 
 
• course content and approach still to respond to specific national needs; 
 
• product-related objectives partially met; 
 
• overall high quality of trainers, but room for improvement; 
 
• mixed impact of WTO TRTA. 
 
Management and Efficiency 
 
• Lack of dynamic leadership in management of the ITTC; 
 
• trainee selection processes lacking in focus and transparency; 
 
• inadequate quality control of trainers; 
 
• moving beyond trainee self-evaluation; 
 
• programmatic approach needed; 
 
• boosting value for money. 
  The following are some of the r ecommendations made in this report: 
 
Comparative Advantage 
 
• Consider outsourcing the training on WTO basics; 
 
• move up the trade system knowledge value chain; 
 
• deepen collaboration with other international organisations and agencies; 
 
• move from 'hub and spoke' to joint partnerships; 
 
• move from Geneva-based to more regional and in-country approach; 
 
• build the capacity of subject matter experts to deliver training and not just content 
lectures; 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 21 
 
 
  • strengthen the autonomy and freedom of ITTC. 
 
Relevance 
 
• Support in-country needs assessments; 
 
• work with the OECD to make the Trade Ca pacity Building Database more useful for 
planning purposes; 
 
• move from WTO-centric content to a more comprehensive approach; 
 
• re-orient training to help countries develop negotiating and analytical skills to better 
identify their trade interests and assert their trade rights; 
 
• draw more on case-study material and research from within WTO and from outside; 
 
• include more economists amongst trainers on WTO courses; 
 
• make courses more interactive, with trai ners as facilitators instead of lecturers; 
 
• add 1-2 days to shorter courses to allow more practical and regionally relevant 
content; 
 
• expand pre-training and access to materials ahead of courses; 
 
• include more national or regional trainers  to address language problems and expand 
the range of materials and instruction in all three official languages; 
 
• expand collaboration with Southern  think tanks and academics. 
 
Management and Efficiency 
 
• Employ people who have a missionary zeal  and a long experience of working on 
trade problems of developing countries either  at governmental or inter-governmental 
levels or in research institutions; 
 
• encourage greater transparency in trainee selection process and the use of benchmarks 
for participant selection; 
 
• include a training performance indicator in  the annual evaluation of WTO staff; 
 
• increase funding for more regular ex-post and thematic evaluations; 
 
• introduce more systematic evaluation of trainees with emphasis on their on-the-job 
performance rather than their 'customer satisfaction'; 
 
• seek more predictable and longer-term funding for the WTO's TRTA to assist ITTC 
in longer-term planning; 
 
• Ittc should develop an overall plan to allow trainees to go through a structured 
programme of learning; WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 22  
 
   
• solicit funds for trainees to participate in negotiating meetings and acquire other 
resources (e.g. databases) to apply their newly acquired WTO knowledge; 
 
• consider expanding DDAGTF resource alloca tion to national and regional activities; 
 
• with OECD and other agencies compile data to allow comparison of relative costs of 
different TRTA programming. 
 
IX. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCENARIOS 
 In the final section, we make a few concluding comments and present two alternative 
scenarios for the future of the WTO's TRTA.  The continued inability of  developing and least 
developed countries to understand and respond to th e implication of WTO agreements and negotiate 
national interests and priorities have led to calls  from beneficiary countries for a reorientation and 
rationalisation of the WTO's TRTA activities.  WTO's neutrality mandate, lack of involvement of non-WTO resource persons and lack of dynamic leadersh ip, in particular, have been important factors 
in reducing the impact of the WTO-provided TRTA.  
 We present here two possible scenarios for chan ge; the first is a scenario of incremental 
change and related adjustments, while the second in volves a more fundamental rethink, if not a new 
paradigm.  
Scenario 1:  Incremental Change  
 
 This scenario would be easier to implement, but  would leave some recipient needs and current 
expectations of recipients unmet.  For instance,  it would involve needs assessments at the national 
level and ensure that regional workshops include country examples and case studies from the region.  
Other incremental changes would include devel oping a structured programme of courses, more 
interactive content and activity between regional experts and the WTO, providing reading materials 
ahead of events, improving participant selection, providing pre-course training and incorporate a 
training performance indicator in WTO staff annual evaluations along with a more dynamic leadership to run the training programmes.  
Scenario 2:  Fundamental Rethink  
 
 This scenario would be more ambitious and woul d seek a more holistic approach to cover all 
the WTO's TRTA objectives as set out in its New Strategy for WTO Technical Cooperation for 
Capacity Building, Growth and Integration  (2001) and especially those that under the incremental 
scenario would remain unmet.  Such a fundamental rethink is needed to broaden and deepen capacity 
building support, especially to least developed count ries.  The new approach could be developed by: 
 
• Increasing decentralisation of courses to regional centres and national institutions; 
 
• TRTA activities should draw on independent research as well as feed on the inputs 
from the Research Division of the WTO; 
 
• the ITTC should be responsible for colla borating with other organisations, including 
country-based think tanks and non-government al organisations (NGOs), with a view 
to ensuring that the assistance which the WTO cannot provide due to its neutrality 
and other constraints is met by non-WT O resource persons and/or programmes. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 23 
 
 
   To ensure ITTC's independence, we suggest that procedures for reporting to the 
WTO Director-General be drawn up so that, except on major policy-related issues, it has full autonomy in drawing out its programmes and in dete rmining priorities.  These programmes should be 
prepared every two or three years and training should provide analysis of what is actually being done and not done around the world under each agreement and why, so as to provide more dynamic and 
objective TRTA. 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  I. INTRODUCTION:  THE CONTEXT 
 The Doha Round purports to be a 'development'  Round with the aim to integrate developing 
and least developed countries (LDCs) more fully into  the multilateral trading system (MTS).  This, in 
turn, is expected to contribute to poverty reducti on and economic development in these countries.  In 
this context, the Doha Ministerial Declaration recognized that "enhanced market access, balanced 
rules, and well targeted, sustainably financed technical assistance and capacity building programmes 
have important roles to play".
1  The significance of trade-related technical assistance (TRTA) is 
therefore considerable.  However, the essence of th is has not received the importance it deserves, and 
how the WTO views TRTA since the organisation wa s established in 1995.  Indeed, the very ethos 
has shifted, as becomes clear when reviewing the development of WTO with regard to TRTA in the 
past decade, from a developing country perspective.   But how far this new ethos was captured in the 
programme design and delivery is suspect.   That a lack of negotiating and implementing capacity is a recognized recurrent problem for developing countries became evident soon after the closing of the Uruguay Round, as criticisms were 
raised concerning the asymmetry of the outcomes of that Round and the disproportionately high costs 
of their implementation.  This did not, however, hinder the 1996 Singapore Ministerial from expanding the scope of WTO's agenda, notably with th e four so-called 'Singapore Issues':  investment 
policy, competition policy, transparency in go vernment procurement and trade facilitation. 
  Although there were several reasons for the fa ilure of the Seattle Ministerial in 1999, the 
greater understanding of developing countries of the WTO system – and their resultant refusal to be 
pushed into a deal with limited bene fits – was certainly a contributing factor.  It was also during this 
time – towards the end of the five-year transition period granted to most developing countries under 
several agreements of the Uruguay Round
2 – that there was sharper awaren ess that they were not in a 
position to implement their obligations, as they were expected to.  In response, a view emerged that 
implementation required significant investment in 'bricks and mortar' issues as well as the provision of 
TRTA, and "one way to make this linkage formal wo uld be to seek agreement that no legal basis for a 
WTO dispute exists if adequate assistance has not been provided for implementation".3 
  Then, in 2001, came Doha.  Here, TRTA ser ved as an inducement to launch the new Round – 
the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) – in what  can be seen as a 'concession' to development.
4  More 
specifically, the Doha Ministerial Declaration incl uded commitments to TRTA in twelve different 
paragraphs, resulting in a sizeable increase in the volume of activities – both bilateral5 as well as 
multilateral initiatives and programmes, such as th e Doha Development Ag enda Global Trust Fund 
(DDAGTF), the Integrated Framework (IF), and the Joint Integrated Technical Assistance Programme 
(JITAP). 
                                                      
1 Para. 2. 
2 For instance in the case of trade-related intell ectual property rights and investment measures, 
developing countries had until 2000 to conform to WTO rules, whereas LDCs had until 2006 and 2002 
respectively.  For phasing in agreed cuts in agricultu ral tariffs, however, developing countries had 10 years 
while LDCs were not obliged to make any cuts. 
3 Kostecki, 2001, page 13. 
4 See John Whalley (1999) Special and Differential Treatm ent in the Millennium Round , CSGR (Centre 
for the Study of Globalization and Regionalization) Working Paper No. 30/99. 
5 Bilateral efforts are reflected in a series of documents from the EU and national governments, 
including:  European Commission (2003) "Trade and Development:  A priority for the Round", July 2003;  CIDA (2003) Gender Equality and Trade-Related Capacity Building:  A Resource Tool for Practitioners , 
August;  DFID (2001) "Building Capacity for Trade", Trade Matters Background Briefing , September;  DFID 
(2003) "Standards as Barriers to Trade", Trade Matters Background Briefing , March;  GTZ (2003) Making 
Globalization Equitable:  Trade-Related Cooperation , September;  and USTR/USAID (2002) "U.S. Trade 
Capacity Building Initiatives in the Americas", September 2002.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 25 
 
 
   
Box I.1.  Going Beyond Expectations 
 
 The DDAGTF was created in order to ensure the long term funding of the WTO's technical 
assistance activities.  The Fund was only meant fo r TRTA activities to be conducted by the WTO 
and not other agencies.  More importantly, the creation of the DDAGTF represented a positive 
response to earlier criticism that the WTO's TRTA ha d been open-ended, short- term and contingent.  
It relies on voluntary contributions from Members.   In 2002 it received pledges of around US $15.7 million, which enabled the WTO to 
undertake an unprecedented level of activities.  Surprisingly, the pledged amount was more than 
double that anticipated, which could be attributed to the willingness by developed countries to show 
developing countries that Doha was indeed going to be a 'development' round.  The promise of additional funding for trade was also reaffirmed  at the Monterrey Conference on Financing for 
Development in March 2002.
6 
  It is important to emphasize that TRTA and capacity building (CB) were recognized to serve 
particular purposes and not only as ends in themselves.  This b ecomes clear when comparing the first 
draft of the Ministerial Declaration (Harbinson's Draft Ministerial Declaration) with the final text.  As 
an illustration, the first draft included the following with regard to the interaction between trade and 
competition policy:  
 "We commit ourselves to ensure that appropriate arrangements are made for the provision of 
technical assistance and support for capacity building both during the negotiations and as an 
element of the agreement to be negotiated."  (Paragraph 20.) 
  In contrast, paragraph 24 of the final vers ion of the Doha Ministerial Declaration is 
considerably more elaborate:   " We recognize the needs of developing and least-developed countries for enhanced support 
for technical assistance and capacity building in this area [trade and competition policy], 
including policy analysis and development so that they may better evaluate the implications of 
closer multilateral cooperation for their d evelopment policies and objectives, and human and 
institutional development. (…) " 
 
 What happened at Doha can therefore be seen  as a response to the calls from developing 
countries for capacity building in order to address a range of challenges that directly involve the 
WTO.  As listed in Deere
7 these include their limited capacity to: 
 
• Participate meaningfully in the WTO negotiations and decision-making; 
 
• comply with WTO obligations and implem ent related regulatory reform given the 
associated financial, institutional and human resource costs8; 
                                                      
6 See paras. 26-38 on international trade as an engine for development and notably para. 36. 
7 Carolyn Deere, Capacity Building and Policy Coherence.  A Role for a Leaders' Level G20?  
Background Briefing Paper, Centre for Inte rnational Governance Innovation (CIGI), 2004. 
8 Beyond obligations in the Uruguay Round Agreements to reduce trade barriers, developing countries 
also undertook commitments to introduce significant reforms of regulations (including the formation and 
administration of intellectual property systems, and upgrading of sanitary, technical and phytosanitary 
standards) and trade procedures (including import licensing procedures and customs valuations).  The Round did not, however, take into account the cost of implementi ng these reforms—a full year's  development budget for 
many of the least developed countries—nor did it ask whether that money might be more productive in other WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 26  
 
   
• exercise their rights and bring cases under the dispute settlement procedures; 
  
• take advantage of market opportunities whic h negotiations yield due to significant 
resource, supply-side and competitiveness constraints; 
 
• address non-tariff barrier (NTB) constraints to  market access (i.e., developed country 
sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS), packaging, and environmental standards); 
 
• withstand external shocks to domestic production and export opportunities;  and 
 
• diversify economies and expand exports (50 WTO Members rely on just 1-3 export 
commodities). 
 
 As the Doha Round advanced, attention to TRTA  developed further.  In the run up to the 
Sixth WTO Ministerial Conference in Hong Kong in December 2005, the discussion of how to increase the 'development' effects of the Doha Round, and in particular how to find ways of helping countries which would lose (or hardly gain) from the negotiations, became an issue of central 
relevance.  The Hong Kong Declaration had elemen ts of the traditional approach to special and 
differential treatment such as requiring no lib eralisation from LDCs and allowing reduced 
commitments from other developing countries, as well as stressing the need to offer greater 
liberalisation in areas of interest to them.  But the major change was the recognition of 'preference 
erosion' and of poor capacity to trade as valid c oncerns for the WTO.  The Hong Kong Ministerial 
Declaration reaffirmed the importance of TRTA/CB, looked forward to the report of the IF Taskforce 
on ways to improve its implementation and address s upply-side constraints in LDCs, and authorized 
the creation of another taskforce to review pr oposals for expanding and operationalising Aid for 
Trade.
9 
 Definitions
 
  According to the Organisation for Econom ic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 
Development Assistance Committee (DAC) Guide lines on Strengthening Trade for Capacity 
Development
10,  trade related capacity building (TRCB) should strengthen capacity to: 
 
• Formulate and implement a trade development strategy; 
 
• increase and diversify exports and markets;  and 
 
• participate in institutions and processes th at shape national and international trade 
rules and practices. 
 
                                                                                                                                                                     
development uses.  See Finger & Schuler (1999). Lengyel (2005) has calculated these costs for Costa Rica, Peru 
and Argentina. 
9 See paras. 48-54 and 57. 
10 OECD 2001.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 27 
 
 
  Box I.2.  Defining TRTA and CB 
 
The World Bank defines TRTA and CB as follows:  TRTA:  Services financed and/or provided by donors and development agencies to strengthen trade-
related institutions and build trade capacity in developing countries. 
 CB: In trade context, activities supported by th e donor community aimed at strengthening the 
ability of stakeholders in developing countri es to develop national trade policy, undertake 
analysis and identify their interests in international trade negotiations. 
 
Understood as such, TRTA is more focused on the activities per se , whereas CB is a more results-
based approach that is primarily concerned with outcomes and impacts.  CB is therefore a broader 
concept in that it emphasizes TA activities as a means to an end. 
 
The WTO uses TRTA in a broader sense that is more akin to CB and the two terms – as well as 
TRTA/CB – are therefore used interchangeably in this report. Specifically, based on WTO's New 
Strategy for WTO Technical Cooperation for Capacity Building, Growth and Integration  (2001) 
TRTA and CB are here defined as training and technical cooperation activities for assistance in 
implementing commitments, developing trade policy capacity for participati on and negotiation, and 
support for national policy objectives for benefic ial integration into the trading system and the 
global economy . 
 Source: www.worldbank.org/research/trade/glossary.htm 
 
 The WTO/OECD trade capacity building data base (TCBDB) which tracks donors' efforts in 
the two main areas of trade policy and regulations and trade development, uses the term TRTA/CB, 
while TRTA and TRCB are used interchangeab ly in many other documents.  As noted in 
Blouin (2004)11 some agencies and analysts do make a distinction; for instance the Canadian 
International Development Agency (CIDA) defi nes CB as an activity which leads to lasting 
transformation, "a people-centered, learn-by-doi ng approach, one that implies a consciously 
participatory methodology".12  In contrast, technical assistance, while involving a sharing of technical 
knowledge through a limited number of activities, does not necessarily build capacity.   While TRTA is the term preferred by the WTO, its objectives suggest it is interested in 
building capacity as per the broader WTO/OECD definition, in the area of trade policy and 
regulations.  In this report, therefore, we ma inly use TRTA in this broader sense, and where 
comparisons are made with other countries, drawing on WTO/OECD data, we also use the term TRTA/CB.  Actors involved in TRTA
 
 
 The WTO's TRTA increasingly involves partnerships among a great number of agencies both in donor governments and on the developing country side, each of which has different priorities, 
operating arrangements, timeframes and resources.  Besides the WTO, multilateral implementing agencies include the United Nations Confer ence on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the 
International Trade Centre (ITC), the United Na tions Development Programme (UNDP), the World 
Bank (WB), the Advisory Centre on WTO Law (ACWL), the Agency for International Trade 
                                                     
 
11 Blouin, Chantal, Working Paper No. 2 Comparative analysis of DFID and other donors' trade-
related capacity building activities , The North-South Institute, 2004. 
12 CIDA, Strategic Approach to Trade Related Capacity Building  (TRCB), draft document, 
August 2003, page 4. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 28  
 
  Information and Cooperation (AITIC), and a range of  regional organisations and development banks.  
A number of other United Nations (UN) specialized  and voluntary agencies are also involved in the 
field in their respective areas of  competence, including the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 
the World Customs Organisation (WCO), the World Health Organisation (WHO), the World 
Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) a nd the United Nations Industrial Development 
Organisation (UNIDO).
13  At the receiving end there is a wide range of actors involved from 
ministries of trade and foreign affairs to agricu lture, industry and health as well as specialized 
agencies (such as customs and standards offices).   Such expansion underscores the importance of ensuring that the WTO's programming draws 
closely on the needs of national authorities to ensu re that TRTA meets changing country needs and at 
the same time that such programmi ng is well-coordinated with that of  others in terms of enhancing 
both relevance and efficiency.  
II. METHODOLOGY FOR THE STRATEGIC RE VIEW OF WTO-PROVIDED TRTA 
 As per the Terms of Reference (TORs), the Strategic Review is based on a combination of 
desk-studies, questionnaires and interviews with TRTA participants, donor representatives, key staff 
of cooperating organisatio ns and delegates attending WTO meetings in Geneva (see Annexure 1).  
Field visits were undertaken in nine selected c ountries that have received WTO-TRTA.  The nine 
countries are Bangladesh, Barbados, Cambodia, Ecua dor, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Senegal and 
Yemen. 
 
 This selection was designed to capture a broad representation of TRTA recipients – including 
both LDCs and others;  longstandi ng, more recent and acceding members; and countries from all 
geographical regions.  WTO TRTA during 2002-04 in the selected countries amounted to US$2.62 million or some 5.8 per cent of the total va lue of its TRTA for all countries and 6.2 per cent 
of all its activities (Table 1a).  In terms of all TRTA/CB to the nine countries, the WTO accounted for 
2.6 per cent of funding from all sources (Table 1b).
14 
 Representatives of the Consumer Unity & Trust Society, Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias 
Sociales  and the North-South Institute (CUTS-FLAC SO-NSI) evaluation team  interviewed about 
15 recipients and 5 officials in each country as well as two or three persons from other TRTA-
delivering agencies, donors, private sector representa tives, civil society organisations (CSOs) and 
academics.  In some countries, meetings were also  held with the national trade policy consultative 
body.  In addition, in Geneva the review team me t with representatives of a number of other agencies 
involved in the delivery and funding of TRTA, as well as with staff at the WTO Secretariat.  
                                                     
 
13 UNIDO, for example, is working to help assist with the development of the productive capacities of 
industry and to build capacities to produce exportable  products.  See WTO (2003) "Technical Assistance:  
WTO, UNIDO to work together on tr ade-related technical assistance", WTO Press Release, 10 September 2003.  
The FAO is similarly working in the agricultural sector, particularly to help countries meet product standards 
and also to analyse the various issues under negotiatio n.  See FAO (2003) "Trade -Related Capacity Building 
Programme for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry", FA O Support to the WTO Negotiations, FAO:  Rome.  The 
WHO provides considerable support to developing countries  with respect to the implementation of public-health 
friendly intellectual property policies. 
14 There are difficulties with the data on activities, which are compoun ded when they are aggregated.  
We do not show data here for number s of TRTA/CB activities for all donors, as there are inconsistencies in the 
way that these are recorded in aggregate and by country in the WTO/OECD database.  Even in the case of the 
WTO alone, the data must be used cautiously.  First, there is no distinction made between different types of activities, for instance between three-day workshops an d three-month long policy courses.  Second, a WTO 
activity with participants from, say, ten countr ies will yield ten records according to the WTO.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 29 
 
 
   The interviews with the recipients and offici als followed a standard questionnaire for each 
group (see Annexures 2 and 3) structured to cover the three main areas in the TORs, namely the 
WTO's comparative advantage in TRTA, the relevance of its technical assistance, and its management and efficiency.  These three areas were also the fo cus of the semi-structure d interviews with other 
informants.  Altogether some 152 questionna ires were completed (118 recipients and 
34 supervisors/officials) and a total of 269 peopl e met between February and May 2006.  Further 
details about the respondents are given in Annexure 4.  The responses were subsequently analysed, 
qualitatively and quantitatively, in the light of the TO Rs and in conjunction with the relevant back-to-
office-reports (BTORs) and Participant's Evaluation Forms (PEFs).  The findings of the nine country 
field visits are summarized in Annexure 5. 
 
 We considered that the WTO's comparative advantage  in TRTA in a twofold context of 
demand and supply flows is evolving with increasing complexity over time.  On one hand, over the 
period 2002-2004, TRTA demands have moved beyond knowledge of the juridical content and 
negotiating history of WTO rules to building analytical capacity (both human and data) and critical 
negotiating skills.  On the other hand, the suppliers  of TRTA have increasingly comprised a number 
of bilateral, regional and multilateral agencies (many of  them using universities, think-tanks or private 
sector organisations to deliver programming), as well as a growing number of domestic providers 
(universities, trade associations, etc) in some deve loping countries.  This changing context necessarily 
modifies the role of the WTO and impels it to  give growing attention to inter-institutional 
coordination with all these other suppliers of TRTA. 
 
 Therefore, in our field interviews as well as  with document-based research, we considered the 
comparative strengths and weaknesses  along the following lines: 
 
• WTO trade law and negotiating history; 
 
• neutrality; 
 
• development dimensions; 
 
• negotiations skills; 
 
• technical knowledge and im plementation experience; 
 
• development of research and analytical skills; 
 
• case studies/national and regional specificities; 
 
• training and training of trainers; 
 
• working with trade, foreign affairs and other ministries and public agencies; 
 
• working with groups outside government. 
  Based on WTO documents and in the course of the fieldwork, we evaluated the relevance  of 
the WTO's TRTA as responding to stated national, in stitutional and individual officials' needs.  This 
was closely related to the observation that th e WTO's strategy must respond to growing and 
diversified demands.  We considered trainees' opini ons on the courses they took, their self-assessment 
of their learning there, their observations on increased capability and implementation capacity 
afterwards, as well as our own analysis of the longer term impacts of the TRTA on the trade 
policymaking institutions where they came from. WT/COMTD/W/152 
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 In terms of management and efficiency , with our interviews and through desk research we 
looked at the steps taken for the organisation of th e TRTA courses themselves,  such as the selection 
of the participants and the quality control of th e trainers.  We also considered the general 
programming of TRTA, elements such as the manage ment of partnerships, follow-up activities, cost-
effectiveness, funding and other logistical matters.   Several of these issues are understood as being 
under a shared responsibility of the WTO Secretaria t and the national recipient governments, and the 
evaluation was done keeping this in mind.  
Table 1(a).  Share of 9 field visit countries in total WTO TRTA commitments 
2002-04 by value and number of activities    
Category Value 
(US$ 000) Value 
(%) Number 
(%) 
Total  2,620 5.8 6.2 
33111 - Trade mainstreaming in PRSPs/development plans  130 4.1 4.4 
33112 - Technical barriers to trade (TBT)  194 6.2 6.0 
33113 - Sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS)  154 7.1 8.6 
33121 - Trade facilitation procedures  145 6.4 6.2 
33122 - Customs valuation  81 8.4 6.4 
33123 - Tariff reforms  - 0 0 
33130 - Regional trade agreements (RTAs)  21 5.6 5.3 
33141 - Accession  11 3.3 3.5 
33142 - Dispute settlement  68 5.3 5.5 
33143 - Trade-related intellectual property rights (TRIPS)  71 6.4 6.9 
33144 – Agriculture  45 6.0 7.3 
33145 – Services  173 5.5 6.0 
33146 - Tariff negotiations - NAMA  206 5.8 5.8 
33147 – Rules  80 6.3 8.1 
33148 - Training in trade nego tiation techniques  185 7.4 7.3 
33151 - Trade and environment  117 4.9 5.2 
33152 - Trade and competition  103 4.6 5.0 
33153 - Trade and investment  39 5.1 5.5 
33154 - Transparency and government procurement  69 4.7 5.3 
33181 - Trade education/training  728 6.0 7.1 
Source :  WTO/OECD Trade Cap acity Building Database 
 
 Table 1(a) shows that the WTO TRTA in th e nine countries was concentrated in trade 
education/training, followed by tariff negotiations/ non-agricultural market access (NAMA), technical 
barriers to trade (TBT), trade negotiations techni ques, and services.  The nine countries accounted for 
a relatively higher share of WTO spending in custom s valuation, trade negotiations techniques, SPS, 
trade facilitation techniques and trade-related intell ectual property rights (TRIPs), and for a relatively 
higher share of activities in SPS, rules, agricu lture, trade negotiations techniques and trade 
education/training. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 31 
 
 
  Table 1(b).  Share of WTO in total trade policy and regulations TRTA in 9 field visit countries 
2002-04 by value  
Category Amount (%) 
Total 2.6 
33111 - Trade mainstreaming in PRSPs/development plans 1.0 
33112 - Technical barriers to trade (TBT) 1.1 
33113 - Sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS) 13.9 
33121 - Trade facilitation procedures 0.4 
33122 - Customs valuation 6.8 
33123 - Tariff reforms 0.0 
33130 - Regional trade agreements (RTAs) 0.4 
33141 – Accession 0.1 
33142 - Dispute settlement 55.8 
33143 - Trade-related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) 4.9 
33144 – Agriculture 89.6 
33145 – Services 63.5 
33146 - Tariff negotiations - NAMA 42.4 
33147 – Rules 100.0 
33148 - Training in trade negotiation techniques 5.1 
33151 - Trade and environment 5.8 
33152 - Trade and competition 7.1 
33153 - Trade and investment 40.5 
33154 - Transparency and government procurement 100.0 
33181 - Trade education/training 28.0 
Source :  WTO/OECD Trade Cap acity Building Database 
 
 Table 1(b) shows that in terms of funding, th e WTO has been a relatively important source of 
TRTA in the nine countries for training in certain areas, notably rules and transparency in government 
procurement, agriculture, services, and dispute settleme nt.  In contrast it has played a relatively minor 
role in training on issues such as tariff reforms, accession, regional trade agreements (RTAs), customs 
valuation, trade mainstreaming in Poverty Reducti on Strategy Papers (PRSPs)/development plans.  
We do not show here any data by number of ac tivities because of inconsistencies in reporting by 
TRTA providers to the WTO/OECD database.  
III. EVALUATIONS OF OTHER AGENCIES INVOLVED IN TRTA 
 Under the umbrella of TRTA, a broad range of activities is covered including: seminars, 
workshops, training programmes in trade rules a nd procedures, courses on negotiating skills, legal 
advice and assistance with preparing draft laws, assistance for making use of the WTO's dispute settlement machinery, technical missions, the provi sion of manuals, guides, documents, data research 
and consulting practices, as well as funding for specific programmes and initiatives (such as improved 
customs facilities and infrastructure development, export insurance programmes, support to exporters 
and cooperative initiatives among businesses, etc). 
  While some donors focus on supporting greater participation by developing countries in trade negotiations and improved implementa tion of trade agreements, others  focus on support to small and 
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in developing countries.  TRTA/CB efforts have also included 
activities to promote developing country imports , enhance productive capacity, support national WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 32  
 
  policy making processes, and build capacity for civ il society to monitor the implementation and 
results of trade.
15 
  The OECD estimated that commitments to TR TA/CB in 2001 and 2002 were equal to some 
4.8 per cent of aid commitments (on a par with the share going to basic education or basic health).  
Total TRTA/CB activities totalled some US$2,127 million in the same period.
16  In addition, in 2000 
and 2001 an average of US$8.1 billion committed to economic infrastructure (some 20 per cent of all 
aid) was devoted to building infrastructure (e .g., transport, energy and communications) for 
international trade.17 
 
 Several evaluations have argued that benefi ciary-orientation and relationship building are 
usually weak points and that familiarity with the reci pients is often missing.  They have suggested that 
TRTA/CB should be better adapted to the context of the recipient countries.  Since each country is 
different and has different priorities, responses to  needs have to be sequenced differently.  The 
question as stated by Prowse (2002) is not so much whether there is a need for a significant increase 
in aid for trade as how to deliver it.18 
  This section discusses the findings of the most recent evaluations of some selected agencies in order to highlight where the WTO's own TRTA programmes might find a comparative advantage and how it can play a constructive role in advanci ng the Aid for Trade agenda, as it complements the 
agreements made in the Doha Development Ministeria l conference.  The coverage here is meant to be 
indicative, not exhaustive.  Many  other bilateral, regional and mu ltilateral initiatives exist which may 
also have been the subject of evaluation and from wh ich lessons might also be drawn.  (These include, 
for example, European Union (EU) efforts in resp ect of its relations with African, Caribbean and 
Pacific (ACP) countries, the creation of an EU-L DC network which includes a trade component, and 
the establishment of the ACWL, which is based in Geneva and assists developing countries to bring 
cases under the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism.)
19 
 
2. United Kingdom's Department  for International Development 
 
 The evaluation of trade-related work of th e Department for International Development 
(DFID)20 focused on bilateral TRCB projects and progr ammes, but also involved some interviews 
                                                      
15 These variations are noted and described in WTO/OECD (2002) First Joint WTO/OECD Report on 
Trade-Related Technical Assistance and Capacity Building  (TRTA/CB). 
16 WTO/OECD (2003) Second Joint WTO/OECD Report on Trade-Related Technical Assistance and 
Capacity Building (TRTA/CB) . 
17 The OECD classifies trade-related aid under thr ee headings:  (1) trade policy and regulations — to 
help countries reform and prepare for closer integr ation in the multilateral trading system;  (2) trade 
development — to help develop the business climate and promote trade to business sectors;  and (3) infrastructure — to help countries build the physical infrastructure required to move goods and exports 
successfully. 
18 Prowse, S. The Role of International and Nationa l Agencies in Trade Related Capacity Building, The 
World Economy , vol. 25, pp 1235-1261, 2002. 
19 For further information, see European Commission (2003) Making Globalisation Work for 
Everyone:  The European Union and World Trade , December, and for the EU-LDC  Network:  http://www.acp-
eu-trade.org/euldcnetwork.html .  The Netherlands gover nment also undertook an evaluation of its 
TRTA financing in 2003;  see Evaluation of TRTA.  Three Geneva-based Organisations:  ACWL, AITIC and 
QUNO, by Nora Plaisier and Paul Wijmenga, Ecorys/NEI, Rotterdam, June 2004, available at:  http://www.quno.org/geneva/pdf/2004i ntellectualPropertyEval-iob.pdf
. 
20 The evaluation was undertaken by a team led by the North-South Institute. See Ann Weston, Chantal 
Blouin and Leelananda De Silva Evaluation of DFID Support to Trade Related Capacity Building.  Synthesis 
Report , February 2005.  This and other reports from the DFID evaluation are available at NSI's website 
www.nsi-ins.ca.   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 33 
 
 
  with lead multilateral agencies (UNC TAD, WTO) and other bilateral donors, to provide a context for 
the UK evaluation.  There were five country case studies in which DFID-funded projects in trade policy and regulations and trade developm ent were reviewed.  Following the OECD Guidelines , the 
dimensions addressed were: relevance, performan ce and success, as well as sustainability and the 
linkages made to poverty reduction, gender  equality and regional integration. 
 
 During 2000-03, DFID gave priority to business support services, trade finance, mainstreaming trade and trade facilitation.  The evalua tion found it had been a leader in efforts to link 
trade to poverty reduction in research, policy analys is, dialogue, and policy-making.  But it was less 
able to integrate gender equality.  Its trade polic y and regulations projects contributed to developing 
countries' capacity in four areas:  build knowledge about WTO and trade issues;  support governments 
to integrate an approach to trade policy making;  build a government-society trade policy dialogue;  and strengthen connections between trade and pove rty reduction in the discussion and practice of 
trade policy.  DFID also tried to bring a poverty focus to the multilateral programmes that it supports 
directly (UNCTAD, WB, UNIDO, ITC and others). 
 
 The key challenge for DFID was found to have  been to move from technical assistance to 
capacity building in all these endeavours.  The strate gies suggested were:  to move beyond responding 
to short-term needs through the provision of tec hnical assistance to building capacity through the 
creation of trade knowledge networks;  to elaborat e a strategy to involve universities, think-tanks, 
chambers of commerce and non-governmental organi sations (NGOs) in the development of such 
networks
21;  to go beyond workshops and courses to support experiential learning (i .e. participation in 
the trade negotiating process itself, study tours and internships);  to invol ve stakeholders beyond 
ministries to assess TRCB needs; to  maintain flexibility in project design to account for changing 
local conditions;  to build TRCB components into br oader projects to mainstream trade issues;  to 
increase transparency in decision-making about TRCB projects (use of funds, timelines, choice of 
subcontractors, etc);  to maintain trade-related capacities beyond the initial phase with continuous 
investment to offset staff turnover and the evolvi ng nature of trade negotiations;  and to improve 
linkages between trade policy projects and trade development projects.  
3. European Commission 
  The evaluation
22 focused on trade policy and regulations  and trade development projects in 
the period 1996-2000.  It involved field visits to Kenya, Moldova, T unisia, Vietnam and Zambia.  The 
evaluation was hampered by a lack of accurate data on trade-related assistance (TRA), particularly as 
the database did not capture the TRA elements of other projects nor the differences between types of 
output (technical assistance, training, etc), and difficulties in distinguishing between commitments, 
engagements and disbursements. 
  The evaluation was quite critical of the European Commission's (EC's) TRA programming documents, finding them to be weak in terms of as sessing national trade policies and priorities, though 
their regional programming was usually based on a deeper analysis.  Instead needs were usually 
derived from consultations with various officials in recipient countries (with no particular criteria for 
whom to include).  There was no use of systematic di agnostic or analytical surveys to verify priorities, 
let alone detailed coordination with other donors.  The EC TRA had followe d a reactive, piecemeal 
approach rather than an overall strategy or framework for its TRTA projects.  One of the 
recommendations to address these problems was to train EC staff on trade and development issues and the elaboration of the EC's guidelines for TRA. 
                                                     
 
21 They could be used as implementing agencies for TRCB projects or project sub-components.  This 
may require longer term or multi-phase programming. 
22 ADE in association with IBM and EPU-NTUA. Evaluation of Trade-Related Assistance by the 
European Commission in Third Countries, Final report , Volume 1, May 2004. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 34  
 
   
 EC programming varied between regions.  Region al integration was the main channel in the 
ACP, while the focus in other regions was on private and/or productive sector development and 
WTO accession, with increasing demand for more technical assistance.  Many different types of activities were supported which made it difficult to  draw conclusions about their individual 
contribution. 
  In general, however, it seemed that the EC 's TRA projects had contributed to increased 
knowledge and understanding  of the multilateral trading system (MTS) at the national and regional 
levels, yet there was still limited capacity on basic tr ade issues.  On the other side, the projects were 
often delayed and lacked the flexibility needed to adapt to changes in the trading environment and 
beneficiaries' needs.  It was suggested that pr oject implementation could be improved by broadening 
the steering committees to include a broader range of  stakeholders besides immediate beneficiaries. 
  There was little coordination between regional and national programming to ensure that they 
complement and reinforce each other.  The report recommended that regional institutions be involved 
in the development of country strategies and nati onal indicative programmes.  In terms of trade 
development, the evaluation found that it was very  hard to link project activities to changes in 
aggregate data.  But it concluded that the main c onstraints on project impact and sustainability were 
the poor business environment and regulatory framework  in recipient countries, and these needed to 
be taken into account when designing TRA programmes. 
 
 The projects had not addressed crosscutting issu es such as gender or the environment partly 
because they were already quite complex.  More rapid disbursements might be achieved by the use of trade trust funds, sector-wide approaches, budget ai d and allowance for short-term specialized 
expertise.  And the evaluation recommended that t echnical trade assistance activities be built into 
projects relating to agriculture, pr ivate sector development and SMEs. 
 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
 
  While UNCTAD remains a relatively small agen cy in the area of TRTA, it has developed a 
niche role with an emphasis on the 'development dimens ion' of international trade, with a particular 
focus on LDCs.  At UNCTAD IX (Midrand, 19 96) and X (Bangkok, 2000), the organisation's 
mandate was strengthened with the launching of two UNCTAD technical assistance instruments:  the 'Positive Agenda' and the Commercial Diplomacy Pr ogrammes.  The mandate to provide support to 
RTAs among developing countries was also strengthened.  
 An external evaluation was carried out covering activities from UNCTAD X in 2000 up to 
March 2005.
23  The key findings were that the selection process and its marketing needed to broaden 
the diversity of participants and to attract candi dates who can derive the maximum possible advantage 
from the courses.  Its collaboration with regional UN commissions and local academic institutions 
should be substantially improved to complement the 'generic knowledge' provided by UNCTAD with 
the 'local knowledge' required by the participants. 
 
 Partnerships with the research and academic communities were needed to raise the long-term 
quality and relevance of the participation of the de veloping countries in international negotiations – 
the establishment of the WTO Training Institute (now the Institute for Training and Technical 
Cooperation) being mentioned in particular. 
 
 The evaluation suggested that closer coor dination should be established between UNCTAD 
trainers and the selected regional and local speakers  during the preparation of courses by exchanging 
                                                      
23 Presser, Lazzarotto and Sheikh, 2005.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 35 
 
 
  the training materials and other inputs well in a dvance, in order to ensure that UNCTAD's 
presentations were related to the regional and local  speakers' presentations, and vice versa.  Such a 
move would in turn help to increase the regional and local capacity in these issues. 
  Another recommendation was to define feasible impact indicators prior to the implementation 
of future courses.  It was suggested that course delivery should gradually rely more on problem-based 
learning rather than lectures.  Case studies, si mulations and hands-on trai ning should be used more 
extensively to keep a high degree of personal invol vement and to further stimulate group discussion.  
As a follow-up on training, information exchange me chanisms should stimulate the networking of the 
trainees.  Most trainees required continued contact with the secretariat, and in particular with the 
trainers, to obtain advice, analysis and general in formation after the end of the training course, and 
particularly as they began to share the acquire d knowledge and information in their respective 
ministries.   To allow impact at the societal level, UNCTAD could become involved in encouraging 
home-grown teaching and research responding to the needs of policy makers and other stakeholders, 
and helping to enhance understanding of country-level  implications of WTO agreements and changes 
in the global environment.  UNCTAD should devel op strategies for building the statistical capacity 
needed for evidence-based research and policy making.  World Bank
24 
 
 The World Bank provides technical assistance in all areas of trade.  It is an organisation-wide activity, mostly undertaken as part of country le nding but also by its training arm, the World Bank 
Institute (WBI) and various networks.
25  Most work is focused on support for customs reform, 
institutional strengthening and analysis of trade polic y reform.  The renewed interest in trade capacity 
building (TCB) at the global level has increased pressures for the Bank to  coordinate its work in this 
area even while TCB continues to occur in a dispersed fashion. 
  A new Trade Department was established in 2002 to expand training.  Lending for TCB more than doubled from US$132 million in 19 98-2000 to US$267 million in 2001-03. 
 
 The WBI in particular undertakes capacity bui lding extending to WTO-relevant issues.  The 
central component is a modular course also provided through distance learning with the aid of video conferencing, electronic debates, and a website  linked to the joint World Bank/WTO Trade and 
Development website.
26  The strengths of this programme are that it addresses several levels and 
demands of policy, helping in the development of a national strategy to manage the benefits of 
accession.  The WBI attaches particular importance to the selection of participants and takes a pro-
active stance in that matter.  Research assists tr aining through the Bank's In tegrated Programme of 
Research and Capacity-building to enhance par ticipation in the WTO negotiations on agriculture. 
  The weaknesses are in the glaring gap between  capacity building to liberalize trade and the 
lack of assistance to help countries manage external shocks and adjustment costs related to that same 
trade liberalisation.  There is a neglect of pressing demands at the regional level, such as the Central 
American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), Economic  Partnership Agreements (EPAs) in Africa and 
bilateral free trade arrangements/agreements (FTAs) , which is compounded by lack of a clear focus 
                                                     
 
24 This section draws largely from World Bank, Office of External Evaluation, Evaluation of World 
Bank Support for Trade , 2005 (unprocessed). 
25 The Finance and Private Sector Development Ne twork of the World Bank, for example, assists 
countries in improving the business en vironment, thereby encouraging inve stment, and facilitating trade through 
improved logistics in ports and related transport infrastructure. 
26 www.itd.org  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 36  
 
  on these negotiations in the Bank's trade research and capacity building.  In addition, there is scant 
attention to the distributional outcomes of trade liberalisation.  Given the purported importance of TCB in the trade agenda, too few resources have b een devoted to training activities.  Furthermore, 
development of databases and tools for trad e policy analysis has been very slow. 
 
International Trade Centre
 
  A private consortium undertook the evaluation
27 of the International Trade Centre between 
2003 and 2005, focusing on its comparative advantag e, performance and eff ectiveness.  Later, 
governance, donor and human resources coordination were  added.  The evaluators found that ITC had 
a strong comparative advantage in trade developmen t, in contrast to the strength of its parent 
organisations, UNCTAD and WTO, which concentrated on trade policy and regulation.  ITC was 
further supported by its self-developed competenci es in business advocacy, knowledge of specialized 
aspects of trade policy as they affect private enterp rises, as well as its long experience in networking 
private actors for trade promotion aims. 
 
 While the evaluation mostly endorsed ITC's styl e of intervention, it noted a need for more 
systematic needs assessments and a measurement of products' costs in terms of real utilisation by 
recipients, as well as a stronger drive to update them  according to changing needs.  It also criticized 
the limited understanding of ITC of the business sector in LDCs, leaving out the informal economy, with a consequent gender bias. 
 
 ITC was found to be visibly handicapped by its lack of multiyear funding and the frequent 
lags in the reception of funds promised by external donors.  Also, the size of the organisation was too large to continue providing just generic or global products but too small to develop more region- and 
country-specific products.  It was recommended either to downsize and continue its current task more 
efficiently, or to enlarge and generate more recipi ent-specific business assistance.  It was considered 
that the change of management in 2006 due to retir ements was a good time for ITC to reform itself by 
choosing one of these two paths in order to reach  a better equilibrium between expenditures and 
global impact.  Integrated Framework for TRTA to LDCs
 
 
 The evaluation of the Integrated Framework w as carried out in 2004 by a private consulting 
firm and addressed two key issues – the expected c ontribution of trade to LD C poverty reduction, and 
the effectiveness of the IF as a means to mainstre am trade into LDC development plans and PRSPs.28  
It considered stakeholders' awareness, understandi ng and expectations of the IF, the extent of 
stakeholders' cooperation, factors affecting th e IF's success, implementation of previous 
recommendations, and governance.   The evaluation was completed very quickly, a llowing for only 2-day visits to 17 LDCs, and 
an invitational electronic survey.  Qualitative measures were primarily used as it was too early for 
measurable results in terms of  poverty reduction, and as there were few measurable goals and 
objectives against which to measure operational results .  Some data was collected from the survey, but 
it had a very limited response.   The report identified some progress at the ag ency level and within several LDCs, where 
diagnostic trade integration studies (DTIS) had been  completed and discussed, and efforts were being 
                                                     
 
27 DMI Associates in association with Ticon DCA, Copenhagen DC & ACE-Global, Evaluation of the 
International Trade Centre UNCTAD/WTO , Volume 1:  Synthesis Report, 2005. 
28 CAPRA INTERNATIONAL AND TFOC, IF EVALUATION , WTO, WT/IFSC/6/REV.2 AND 
ADD.1, 2003.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 37 
 
 
  made to integrate trade into the PRSP process.  To  achieve concrete results in more countries, it 
proposed changes in LDC agencies and donors in pl anning, programming and implementation.  It 
called for the use of results-based management (RBM) and a Logical Framework specifying impacts, outcomes and outputs in order to clarify the IF's 'fin al destination' (what it seeks to achieve and by 
when), and the 'roadmap' for getting there. 
 
 LDCs saw the IF as a mechanism for providing  additional funding for the projects identified 
in the diagnostic studies.  LDCs, donors and agencies thought the IF should address supply-side constraints, including infrastructure.  Donors and ag encies were however reluctant at the country-level 
to link their TRCB assistance to the IF or to use th e IF as a basis for enhanced coordination of their 
work.  They expressed concerns about its effectiv eness, and wanted to link the DTIS Action Plan 
Matrix to the PRSP process, as with other aid a nd financial support.  The report recommended a donor 
facilitator work to improve coordination.   It also suggested that LDCs ask donors to bid on projects, which were identified in the DTIS.  
Diagnostic studies were found to be complicated, ove r-ambitious, and without clear priorities.  Most 
LDCs lacked the capacities to manage, implement or promote the IF agenda and a training specific for 
the IF Focal Point was recommended in order to addr ess that issue in each country.  To improve the 
IF oversight committees, a smaller Working Group was proposed to accelerate decision-making and 
reduce inter-agency-driven political posturing.  This  was to be complemented by consultations done 
through a strengthened IF Secretariat that woul d oversee an expanded capacity building programme, 
accommodate new LDC recipients, undertake a co mmunications programme and manage a new 
network of IF Focal Points.   Recent enhancements to the IF address some of those issues.
29  They include a significant, 
multiyear expansion of resources for technical assistance and capacity building and for strengthened 
governance and increased ownership at the country leve l, through more flexible national management 
structures.  The main objective is still to mainstre am trade into national development strategies to 
ensure policy coherence, increase donor coordinati on, and maximize financing of trade-related 
projects through bilateral and multilateral channels. 
 
4. Joint Integrated Technical Assistance Programme 
 
 The Joint Integrated Technical Assistance Programme, operated by the ITC, UNCTAD and 
the WTO, was the subject of a mid-term evaluation in 2000 and a summary evaluation in 2002.  The summary evaluation involved field visits to ten countries – eight countries benefiting from JITAP and 
two non-JITAP 'benchmark' countries.
30  Besides a review of relevant  documents, meetings were held 
with key stakeholders, including inter-institutional committees (IICs), private sector organisations and 
members of the NGO and academic communities inter ested in trade issues in each country.  The 
evaluators followed a qualitative approach, partly refl ecting the lack of indicators and data collected 
during the programmes that might have helped in th e measurement of impact.  The only data available 
related to outputs (numbers of people trained etc).  
 The key findings and recommendations were th at JITAP was an important instrument in 
familiarising and developing capacities on the MTS in the eight beneficiary countries.  It enabled 
MTS issues to be discussed not only within govern ment, but also with the private sector and civil 
society.  Many outreach programmes stimulated by JITAP and also IICs, enabled broader participation. 
 
                                                     
 
29 Nielson, 2005. 
30 Leelananda De Silva and Ann Weston, Summary Evaluation of the Joint Integrated Technical 
Assistance Programme (JITAP) , ITC, June 2002. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 38  
 
   JITAP also achieved an effective blending of national and inter-country (sub-regional) 
arrangements to implement programme activities.  While it had not yet linked trade and poverty 
explicitly, some IICs and export-sector strategies we re conducive to exploring such linkages, and it 
was recommended that they be explored in the next  phase.  JITAP had successfully contributed to the 
development of relevant human re source capacities, developing a training culture on MTS issues.  
While some local institutions were stimulated to expand their training activities in this as a result, 
many more local universities, business schools and si milar training institutions could be included. 
  Overall, the joint and integrated approach to  trade issues had raised the credibility and the 
profile of the three organisations involved – ITC,  UNCTAD and WTO – and also contributed to better 
understanding of trade issues in participating countries.  Addressing three broad issue areas – 
negotiating capacities, enabling application of agreed rules and creating opportunities for export 
expansion – was essential for this, but the JITAP' s design of 'clusters' to segment training had 
somewhat diluted this effect.  
 Other problems with JITAP's implementati on were: irregular financing, management 
problems in Geneva and at the country level, l ack of flexibility in adjusting work plans, and 
centralisation of authority.  No judgement on JITAP's cost-effectiveness was possible given the lack of meaningful financial statistics.  
5. Summary 
 
 To sum up, this section has reviewed recent evaluations of TRTA/CB undertaken by a range 
of donors and agencies, including the IF and JITAP in which the WTO is also involved.  As summarized in Table 2, several strengths and wea knesses have been identified.  In particular the 
review has highlighted a series of challenges in terms of approach to training, content, and 
management: 
 
• Moving beyond technical assistance to capacity building; 
 
• mainstreaming training outside core ministries and government; 
 
• linking trade policies to poverty reduction and distributional issues; 
 
• enhancing national and regiona l content to training including research on bilateral and 
regional trade policies; 
 
• training in analytical skills and the creation of databases; 
 
• supporting experiential learning; 
 
• flexibility in programming to respond to e volving national needs and priorities; 
 
• coordinating TRTA at the nati onal and regional levels;  and 
 
• short-term and irregular financing. 
  It is important to bear these in mind when addressing various aspects of the WTO's TRTA in the following sections and considering where the WT O can play a most constructive role, as will be 
developed in the scenarios for wh at we see as future options. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 39 
 
 
  Table 2.  Summary of strengths and weaknesse s of selected TRTA providers and programmes 
Institution Strengths Weaknesses 
DFID • Linkages between TRTA and poverty 
reduction • Challenge to respond to long term needs 
• Room for more deliberate st rategy to expand knowledge 
networks 
• Scope for more participation in needs assessments and 
decision-making as well as greater transparency 
EU • Contribution to increased knowledge and 
understanding of the MTS at the national 
and regional levels 
 • No use of systematic diagnostic or  analytical surveys to verify 
priorities 
• No detailed co-ordination with other donors 
• Frequent delays and lack  of flexibility 
• Little co-ordination between regional and national 
programming 
• Lack of addressing cross-cutting issues 
UNCTAD • Contribution to building capacity for 
apprehending intricacies of the MTS 
• Central role in facilitating and encouraging 
the expansion of South-South trade • No formal monitoring mechanism to remain in contact with 
former UNCTAD trainees 
• Co-ordination challenges to ensure link between 
UNCTAD providers and local recipients 
• Top-down approach to TA 
• Not enough definition of feasible impact indicators prior to the 
implementation of future courses 
World Bank • Systematic use of needs assessment 
procedures 
• Regular statement of goals, indication of 
how the project's results will be evaluated 
and where to find additional information on 
the problem to be solved • Slow introduction of tools for trade policy analysis 
• Bias toward particular kinds of economic policy advice – 
programmes tailored to facilitate  liberalisation rather than 
addressing development issues 
• WB activities crowding out attention to alternative economic 
proposals and role of other agencies 
ITC • Good track record in co-operation and co-
ordination with development partners 
• Capacity, neutrality and impartiality to 
support developing countries 
• Relevant and efficient interventions • Low level of utilisation of some products 
• General tendency of product proliferation 
• Lack of ITC field presence 
• No formal systematic processes of needs assessment or for 
monitoring results 
• Weaknesses in governance and accountability structures 
• Complex financing structure 
IF • Efforts to integrate trade into the 
PRSP process • Differences in planning schedul es and programme objectives 
among partners 
• Complicated and ambitious diagnostic studies 
• Concern over ability to guarant ee sustainable financing, 
effective co-ordinated delivery of TA, and demands of IF conditionality 
JITAP • Broad participation of stakeholders 
• Effective blending of national and inter-
country arrangements to implement programme activities 
• Successful contribution to the development 
of human resource capacities 
• Raised credibility and profile of ITC, 
UNCTAD and WTO 
• Contribution to a more holistic and 
comprehensive view of trade issues • No explicit link between trade and poverty 
• Scope for greater engagement w ith local training institutions  
• Extensive fragmentation at the field level   
• Financial constraints and irre gular flow of donor funding  
• Management problems in Geneva  and at the country level 
• Lack of flexibility in adjusting work plans 
• Little decentralisation of authority 
 
IV. OVERVIEW OF WTO'S TRTA 
 There are three types of objectives with regard to the WTO's TRTA activities.  First, there are 
specific objectives set out for every TRTA activity und ertaken.  Second, there are product objectives 
set out in annual Technical Assistance and Training Plans.  Finally, there are the seven strategic 
objectives endorsed at Doha in the New Strategy for WTO Technical Cooperation for Capacity 
Building, Growth and Integration  (New Strategy, 2001).  These are: 
 
• Coordinate effectively with key developmen t partners to enable beneficiaries of 
TRTA to participate meaningfully in the system; 
 
• assist beneficiary countries to understand thei r rights, implement their obligations and 
improve their capacity to draw on the benefits  of the system.  To this end, technical WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 40  
 
  assistance will focus on establishing partnerships with beneficiary countries to better 
understand and use the rules; 
 
• increase the volume and quality of TRTA in response to demand; 
 
• provide a focused response to the prioriti es expressed by beneficiaries, within a 
coherent trade policy framework and companion policies; 
 
• support national efforts in building institutional capacity; 
 
• ensure that TRTA is delivered within a coherent policy framework (not on a stand-
alone basis) through careful coordination with bilateral and multilateral development 
partners; 
 
• provide legal advice and assistance in respect of dispute settlement, pursuant to 
Article 27.2 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding. 
  As for product objectives, the organisati on breaks down its TRTA activities into five 
categories (which, in turn, contain sub-categories):  
• General WTO-related training and technical assistance; 
 
• specialized and advanced training and technical assistance; 
 
• academic support for training and capacity building; 
 
• support training and technical assistance facilities;  and 
 
• other programmes and support activities with funding requirements.
31 
 
 These are described in greater detail in Box IV.1. 
 
                                                      
31 See, for instance, the Technical  Assistance and Training Plan fo r 2006 (WT/COMTD/W/142) for the 
full breakdown of WTO's TRTA activities.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 41 
 
 
  Box IV.1:  The WTO's TRTA Products 
 
The WTO now offers over 50 different TRTA 'pr oducts', which it groups into five categories.32 
 
General WTO-related training and technical assistance 
 
This category consists of three sub-categories:  (i) trade policy courses (TPCs) – Geneva-based and 
regional, which last 12 weeks;  (ii) Geneva-based  introduction courses (3 weeks);  and (iii) regional 
and sub-regional short TPCs a nd Doha Development Agenda ( DDA) advance training programme
(1-2 weeks).  These activities primarily aim to  give government officials a basic grounding on 
WTO and international trade rules.  While the TPCs date back to the days of the General Agreement 
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the regional TPCs (R TPCs) were introduced in 2001 and are delivered 
in partnership with selected universities in all regions, using regional academics and trade policy 
specialists alongside WTO and other international experts.  The shorter regional TPCs are usually 
carried out in partnership with other or ganisations such as regional secretariats. 
 
Specialized and advanced training and technical assistance 
 
This category comprises:  (i) Geneva-based specia lized courses; (ii) national TA activities;  
(iii) regional seminars and workshops;  (iv) trad e negotiations techniques;  and (v) national and 
regional outreach activities for parliamentarians and civil society.  These activities usually involve 
trainers from the WTO's Institute for Training and Technical Cooperation (ITTC) and a relevant 
operational division, though outside experts may also  be used, and the typical training lasts 2-3 days, 
with the exception of the specialized courses, whic h are usually 1-2 weeks.  In the case of national 
activities to which each country has the right to two or three each year, the level of knowledge ranges 
from broad and general to more specialized activ ities, depending on what is requested.  Regional 
seminars (which alone account for some 20 dis tinct WTO TRTA products) are increasingly intended 
to provide more advanced training.  
Academic support for training and capac ity building: an integrated approach  
 This category is geared towards building sustaina ble institutional capacities at national levels on 
WTO-related matters, working in close cooperation with regional inter-governmental organisations 
and academic institutions.  Besides involvement in running the RTPCs, there are workshops for university professors on WTO matters (to prepare for the RTPCs and discuss curriculum development 
inter alia ), support programmes for doctoral students, programmes for visiting academics, research 
collaboration
33 and dissemination of WTO documents to universities. 
Box IV.1 (cont'd) 
                                                      
32 Technical Assistance and Training Plan 2005 , WT/COMTD/W/133/Rev.2 , 16 December 2004. 
33 Some of this research may enrich the content of  ITTC training.  For instance, in 2006 the WTO's 
Research and Economic Division produced a book with material prepared by researchers from many different countries, Meeting the Challenges of WTO Participation:  45 Case-Studies , available at:  
www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e /casestudies_e/casestudies_s.htm
. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 42  
 
  Support training and technical assistance facilities 
 
This category includes a wide variety of Geneva -based activities such as topic-specific symposia, 
WTO introduction days, the "Geneva Week" and the Newsletter for non-residents, ad hoc assistance 
to delegations, servicing regional groups, advice on le gal issues, and four different types of trainee 
programmes or internships.  Additional activities deliv ered in the field include trade policy clinics, 
WTO reference centres, and TA within the Trad e Policy Review (TPR) mechanism framework.  
Finally the WTO assists beneficiaries in conductin g needs assessments; and developing TA using 
distance learning and information technology.  Other programmes and support activ ities with funding requirements 
 
WTO experts are increasingly involved in seminars and workshops organized by other organisations.  
The WTO is also a key player in JITAP (focussing on technical support to WTO reference centres and 
national enquiry points on SPS, TBT, Services and TRIP s) the IF (through its pa rticipation in national 
workshops/seminars in IF recipient countries and in IF management). 
 As Chart 1 underlines, the bulk of activities in 2005 focussed on the WTO agreements and related 
issues, followed by general capacity-building ac tivities, the trade policy courses and the academic 
programmes.  In terms of funding, Chart 2 show s that roughly a third of funding for 2006 was 
intended to go to general courses a nd another third to more specialized courses, and only 3 per cent to 
academic programming.  The remainder of expens es were to be for support training and technical 
assistance facilities (12 per cent), additional short-te rm contract staff (7 per cent) and overheads 
(10 per cent). 
 
Chart 1.  WTO TRTA by Subject Matter – Share of Number of Activities, 2005 
(N=462) 
59%
8%30%3%
WTO Agreements and related issues
Trade Policy Courses*
General Capacity-building activities**
Academic Partnership Programmes
 
 
 
  * Includes e-Training/Distance learning, specialized courses, introductory cour ses and introduction days. 
** Includes Geneva Week, IF, JI TAP and reference centres. 
 
Source : WTO, Annual Report on Technical Assistance and Training (1 January to 31 December 2005), 
WT/COMTD/W/146, 6 February 2006.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 43 
 
 
   
 
 To ensure long term funding, the DDAGTF was established in 2001, which relies on 
voluntary contributions, averaging circa US$20 million per year.  This compares with some 
US$800 million per year in total bilateral and multilat eral TRTA in trade policy and regulations, and 
underscores the importance of ensuring that the WTO's TRTA programming is well coordinated with 
that of others in terms of ensuring it is both rele vant and efficient.  Demand for TRTA has grown, but 
so has the supply from agencies keen to be involved in its delivery. 
 
 In addition to channelling donor funding thro ugh its DDAGTF, the WTO has also taken up a 
central role in improving coordination among donors through the Trade Capacity Building Database 
(established jointly with the OECD in 2002) which maintains details and fundi ng levels of bilateral, 
regional and multilateral donors.  
 In order to deal with the increasing needs, e xpectations and the responsibility granted by its 
own much-enlarged budget since 2002, the WTO h as engaged with other multilateral and regional 
organisations in providing TRTA.  Specifically, the WTO works closely on a formal basis with the 
World Bank, UNCTAD, ITC, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the context of IF and 
JITAP.  Besides that, it has signed 25 or so Memo randa of Understanding (MoUs) since 2002, though 
not all are active. 
  Under those arrangements, the WTO provides,  besides its own TPCs in Geneva and other 
regions, general and specialized/advanced technical assistance through:  
• Workshops, seminars, technical missions, on specific agreements and/or national 
issues, held in a country or region; 
 
• courses on trade negotiations skills;  and 
 
• outreach activities for parliamentarians and civil society, albeit at a much lesser 
frequency. 
  On a still smaller scale, it also supplies s upport for conducting TRTA needs assessment (only 
since 2005) and a range of academic and technical assistance support activities. 
  Planning for these activities, originally expect ed to respond to recipient countries' stated 
needs, is for the most part agency-designed in  annual plans.  While a longer work plan would Chart 2.  WTO TA and Training Plan Expenses, 2006 
(SFr000s and in % of the total)  
12,853 (33%)
12,391 (33%) 1,267 (3%) 4,645 (12%) 2,480 (7%) 695 (2%)3,768 (10%) General WTO-Related  
Training & TA  
Specialized & Advanced  
Training & TC  
Academic Support for  
Training & CB  
Support Training &  
TA Facilities  
L-Posts and Short-Term  
Contracts
Programme activities  
Overheads
Source: WTO, Committee on Trade and Development, Note on the Meeting of 5 October 2005, 
WT/COMTD/M/54, 20 December 2005.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 44  
 
  obviously strengthen cooperation with other agencies  and deepen dialogue with stakeholders, a more 
ad-hoc manner was selected to gain flexibility, acco unting for probable needs of fine-tuning in later 
years, to accompany the ongoing negotiations in th e Doha Round, and to take stock of expected 
requests from member countries for nation-specific TRTA.  
 Needs assessments are intended to help gove rnments establish priorities amongst the WTO's 
28 agreements on which they could apply for assistance.  The WTO is providing support in various ways.  It has prepared guidelines for use by gove rnment officials and discussion by WTO staff during 
their TPRs, though these are done with intervals of  several years in most developing countries. 
 
 Some national officials during their secondmen t to the WTO Secretariat, under the Dutch-
funded internship programme, have been tasked  with contributing to national TRTA needs 
assessments following these guidelines.  Finally, th e IF provides some TRCB needs assessment as 
part of the diagnostic studies for some 30 least developed countries involved in the IF.  
Table 3.  Total WTO TRTA by category (2002-2004) 
Category Amount 
(US$ 000) % of WTO Total % of all TRTA 
33181 - Trade education / training  12,212  27.03  7.32 
33146 - Tariff negotiations - non-agricultural market access  3,570  7.90  37.97 
33111 - Trade mainstreaming in PRSPs/development plans  3,200  7.08  0.94 
33112 - Technical barriers to trade (TBT)  3,134  6.94  2.49 
33145 - Services  3,132  6.93  11.29 
33148 - Training in trade negotiati on techniques  2,517  5.57  11.43 
33151 - Trade and environment  2,403  5.32  2.71 
33121 - Trade facilitation pro cedures  2,254  4.99  0.31 
33152 - Trade and competition  2,247  4.97  2.34 
33113 - Sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS)  2,169  4.80  1.77 
33154 - Transparency and government procurement  1,476  3.27  8.80 
33147 – Rules  1,287  2.85  29.47 
33142 - Dispute settlement  1,282  2.84  16.06 
33143 - Trade-related intellectual property rights (TRIPS)  1,112  2.46  3.19 
33122 - Customs valuation  965  2.14  1.23 
33153 - Trade and investment  780  1.73  3.67 
33144 – Agriculture  740  1.64  2.88 
33130 - Regional trade agreements (RTAs)  370  0.82  0.09 
33141 – Accession  337  0.75  0.57 
33123 - Tariff reforms  0  0.00  0.00 
TOTAL  45,185  100.00  1.88 
Source :  WTO/OECD Database 
 
 Table 3 shows the different types of TRTA activities conducted by the WTO by itself or in 
association with other suppliers, and compares these with other donors' TRTA. More than a quarter 
(27 per cent) of funding has been allocated to Trade education and training, with  another four kinds of 
activities at around 7 per cent, jointly accounting fo r another 28 per cent (Tariff Negotiations-NAMA, 
Trade mainstreaming in PRSPs/development plans, TBT, and Services).   All these are of key relevance to developing countries in the Doha Round.  They are, 
however, not the only subjects of concern to the recipi ents of this TRTA;  a similar case can be made 
for several others that have received much l ess funding from the WTO.  In terms of how the 
WTO compares with total TRTA by all donors in the se categories, the table shows that the WTO has  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 45 
 
 
  played a relatively important role in providing tr aining on tariff negotiations/NAMA, rules, dispute 
settlement, trade negotiations techniques, and services.   Another way to look at the WTO TRTA activ ities is through its financial allocation to 
recipient countries, classified according to their income level and geographical location.  Table 4 
indicates that the WTO spent around 40 per cent of its budget in the least developed countries, and 
another 35 per cent in low and low middle-inco me countries.  Upper-middle and high-income 
countries have absorbed the remaining 15 per cent.  Overall, these proportions in TRTA expenditures 
have remained more or less the same  for the three years under review here. 
 
Table 4.  WTO TRTA by income gr oup of recipient countries (2002-2004) 
TRTA by income group, value 
(US$ 000) 2002 % 2003 % 2004 % 
Least Developed Countries  4,267  39.45  5,856  40.20  7,200  39.90 
Other Low Income Countries  1,502  13.89  1,921  13.19  2,694  14.93 
Low Middle Income Countries  2,404  22.23  3,205  22.00  3,865  21.42 
Upper Middle Income Countries  1,381  12.77  2,233  15.33  2,359  13.07 
High Income Countries  51  0.47  81  0.56  74  0.41 
CEECs/NIS*  650  6.01  511  3.51  621  3.44 
MADCTs**  560  5.18  760  5.22  1,233  6.83 
Total  10,815  100.00  14,567  100.00  18,046  100.00 
Note:  Excludes TRTA not allocated by country. 
* CEECs/NIS are Central and Eastern European  countries and Newly Independent States. 
** MADCTs are More Advanced Developing Countries and Territories. 
 
Source :  WTO/OECD Database. 
 
 Table 5 notes the regional distribution of WT O TRTA, with Africa receiving close to 48 per 
cent of the funding, Asia 19 per cent, while Latin  America and the Caribbean (North, Central and 
South America) had around 16 per cent, and the re mainder went to developing Europe, the Middle 
East, and Oceania.  The biggest change during this period was the increased allocation to Far East Asia, which was offset by a decline in Europe.   One can therefore conclude that the WTO's TR TA has been concentrated on least developed 
countries, located mostly in Africa, and less in th e remaining continents.  Fewer funds have gone to 
low and middle low-income countries in Latin Am erica, the Middle East and Far East Asia. 
 
Table 5.  WTO TRTA by region of recipient countries 
TRTA by region, value 
(US$ 000) 2002 % 2003 % 2004 % Total 
2002-04 
% 
Africa   5,076  46.93  7,270  49.91  8,415  46.63  47.81 
North & Central America  964  8.91  1,688  11.59  1,803  9.99  10.26 
South America   594  5.49  1,069  7.34  972  5.39  6.07 
Far East Asia  720  6.66  1,135  7.79  2,106  11.67  9.12 
South & Central Asia  1,112  10.28  1,260  8.65  1,919  10.63  9.88 
Middle East   619  5.72  709  4.87  735  4.07  4.75 
Europe   1,154  10.67  861  5.91  1,124  6.23  7.23 
Oceania   576  5.33  574  3.94  971  5.38  4.88 
TOTAL  10,815  100.00  14,566  100.00  18,045  100.00  100.00 
Note:  Excludes TRTA not allocated by country 
 
Source :  WTO/OECD Database WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 46  
 
   
 A previous review of the WTO's TRTA was undertaken by Kostecki in 2001
34 for the 
International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Deve lopment (ICTSD), prior to the launch of the Doha 
Development Agenda.  In brief, th is review underlined two concerns with the work being done by the 
WTO up to that time.  One was that the TRTA was too focused on how to enhance rule compliance, 
and too little on providing member countries with useful analytical tools to participate successfully in 
trade negotiations.  Second, it pinpointed the incomp leteness of needs assess ment and bottlenecks in 
the cooperation with other donors in terms of join tly generating developmen tally purposeful TRTA.  
On the positive side, it underlined the WTO's instit utional advantage in providing 'organisation-
specific' knowledge on rules and the technical aspec ts of trade negotiation.  The following sections 
contain a new review of a very different period of WTO TRTA history, and they will assess to what 
extent these opinions are still relevant.  
Box IV.2:  Doha Mandates in Respect of T echnical Assistance and Capacity Building 
 
Paragraphs 38-41 deal with overall TRTA while, para graphs 42-43 focus more specifically on LDCs. 
 
Paragraph 38 instructs the Secretariat "to suppor t domestic efforts for mainstreaming trade into 
national development plans for economic developm ent and strategies for poverty reduction.  The 
delivery of WTO technical assistance shall be designed to assist developing and least-developed countries and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines, implement 
obligations and exercise the rights of membership , including drawing on the benefits of an open, 
rules-based multilateral trading system.  Priority shall also be accorded to small, vulnerable and 
transition economies, as well as to Members and Observers without representation in Geneva". 
 
Paragraph 39 underscores the importance of coordinati ng delivery of TRTA with  relevant bilateral, 
regional and multilateral institutions and calls for consultations with  relevant agencies, bilateral 
donors, and beneficiaries to identify ways of enhancing and rationalising the IF and JITAP. 
 
Paragraph 40 instructs the Committee on Budget, Fina nce and Administration to develop a plan to 
ensure long-term funding for the WTO's TRTA. Paragr aph 41 instructs the Director-General to report 
on the implementation and adequacy of the technical assistance and capacity- building commitments.  
Paragraph 42 lists meaningful market access, suppor t for the diversification of their production and 
export base, and trade-related technical assistance and capacity building as essential for integrating 
LDCs into the multilateral trading system.  It al so addresses the need for accession-related technical 
assistance. 
 
Paragraph 43 endorses the Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least-developed Countries (IF) as a viable model for LDCs ' trade development.  It also requests the 
Director- General to provide an interim report to the General Council in December 2002 and a full 
report to the fifth Session of the Ministerial Conference on all issues affecting LDCs. 
 
In addition, the Declaration is peppered with sp ecific technical assistance and capacity building 
provisions related to the various negotiating mandates, notably in market access fo r non-agricultural 
products (paragraph 16), trade and investment  (paragraph 21), trade and competition policy 
(paragraph 24), transparency in government proc urement (paragraph 26), trade facilitation (paragraph 
27) and the environment (paragraph 33).  More specific technical assistance provisions are to be found in the Decision on Implementation-related Issues and Concerns (WT/MIN (01)/W/10) also 
adopted in Doha, notably in paragraphs 2.2, 3.5, and 3.6., 5.1, 5.3., 5.4, and 14. 
 
Source :  ICTSD, Doha Round Briefing Series, "Technical  Assistance and Capacity-Building", No. 12. 
                                                      
34 Technical Assistance Services in Trade-Policy:  A contribution to the discussion on capacity-
building in the WTO, ICTSD, November 2001.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 47 
 
 
  V. COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE 
 The issue of the WTO's comparative advantag e in TRTA has been prompted by several 
developments.  On the one hand, as outlined in ear lier sections, there have been many suggestions 
made about expanding TRTA needs – for instance going beyond knowledge of the juridical content 
and negotiating history of WTO rules to building analytical capacity (both human and data) and 
critical negotiating skills, to applying these in bila teral and regional contex ts, deepening technical 
knowledge and application in highly specialized areas such as SPS, and broadening awareness of 
trade-related issues outside government to the privat e sector, CSOs, parliamentarians and others.  At 
the same time there have been an expanding number of  agencies at all levels – multilateral, regional, 
bilateral, national, official, private sector, unive rsities and CSOs – that have become engaged in 
TRTA/CB.  Many of these have established themsel ves as credible and effective in TRTA/CB – as the 
earlier review of recent evaluations illustrated.  Mo reover, the WTO's involvement is relatively small 
in terms of funding, even when in terms of trai ning activities it is generally one of the leaders. 
  In this increasingly complex TRTA/CB geograp hy in terms of both demand and supply it is 
important for the WTO to consider where its st rengths and weaknesses lie – how far it should move 
beyond its original areas of focus in TRTA, colla borate with others, and leave certain areas and 
approaches to others.   In this section, we draw on the interviews in  the nine case-study countries, the fieldwork in 
Geneva, and our review of the literature and dr aw some general findings.  We organize our 
observations around a number issues, arising from th e interviews and literature.  These relate to: 
 
• WTO trade law and negotiating history; 
 
• neutrality; 
 
• development dimensions; 
 
• negotiations skills; 
 
• technical knowledge and im plementation experience; 
 
• development of research and analytical skills; 
 
• case studies/national and regional specificities; 
 
• training and training of trainers; 
 
• working with groups outside government. 
  In our interviews, we asked trainees about their awareness of similar training activities 
conducted by other agencies or donors (Box V.1).  More than 80 per cent had some awareness, and 
72 per cent had actually taken part in such activities.  Overall, the WTO courses were ranked somewhat higher – 80 per cent of respondents with some opinion considered the WTO training to 
have been good or very good, whereas the figure for other training was 67 per cent.  The discussion of 
comparative advantage here, however, draws on their answers to other questions and other 
observations made in the course of our meetings.  
WTO trade law and negotiating history  "What the WTO is doing cannot be done by others" … "it 
has the best knowledge" … "it can do what no other can do" WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 48  
 
   
 There is widespread agreem ent that the WTO has a strong comparative advantage in 
knowledge and information about the WTO system of  rules and procedures, and related history of 
their negotiation and use, particularly from a le gal perspective.  As the above quotes from various 
interviewees imply, it has a unique position in term s of its knowledge of the juridical content and 
negotiating history of the WTO rules.  This is reflect ed in the high quality ascribed to both its training 
and the documents provided.  WTO officials also  have core competencies on many operational 
aspects of agreements and the latest state of play in ongoing negotiations, which form the focus for their daily work.  
 Nonetheless, for the more basic legal information about WTO rules and history, the 
WTO might want to consider some form of outsour cing to the many other organisations with detailed 
knowledge of WTO trade law – both intergovernment al, private and non-profit organisations in both 
developed and developing countries which are already providing similar courses.  It could also train 
other institutions, particularly in  developing countries, to do this , and make available relevant 
materials on its website, building on the e-courses that  are already available for pre-training of course 
participants.  Moving in this direction would be c onsistent with the preference of some donors; more 
importantly, it would allow the WTO to focus the scarce time of its experts on more technically complex issues.  
Neutrality  "Other donors would try to influence our positi ons" … "Neutrality at all costs limits 
TRCB" … "the Secretariat's lack of neutrality is disproportionately a problem for developing 
countries" 
 
 The WTO is generally considered to be mo re neutral than bilateral agencies, whose 
involvement in TRTA/CB has raised qu estions about conflict of interest.
35  As already mentioned in 
the section on relevance, many trainees considered that the WTO presented information in a fair and 
balanced way, without biases.  Neither they nor the bilateral agencies funding the training had to 
worry that the approach or content in the WTO courses was intended to influence their negotiating 
positions – whereas this might have been a concern with courses offered directly by donors with well-
entrenched positions on, fo r instance, agriculture. 
 
 There were several questions, however, about whether the WTO interprets the responsibility 
to be neutral too narrowly – in fact many interviewe es considered that this acted as a constraint, and 
meant that the WTO was unable to provide them with  the full range of technical insights or capacity 
building skills that they had sought.  
 Others suggested that the WTO had failed to stay within the narrow boundaries of neutrality, 
for instance in adopting a pro-liberalisation position and promoting engagement on services, 
enforcement of TRIPs and discussion of the new issues.   In other words, it is important to recognize 
that WTO experts' interpretation of WTO rules and negotiations may sometimes reflect certain 
bureaucratic and ideological interests or preferences.
36  Even with these limitations, however, the 
WTO Secretariat and its experts are considered less biased than many other official agencies involved 
in TRCB. 
 
                                                      
35 See, for example, Sauvé (2004) and Overseas De velopment Institute (ODI) (2006).  Sauvé talks of 
'the inherent difficulty of divorcing a donor economy's TRTA/CB from its own market  access interests' p. 21.  
Trading for Development . Report from an Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Workshop on 
WTO Capacity Building Best Practices , prepared for the APEC WTO Capacity Building Group, Santiago, Chile 
February 2004.  ODI argues that an honest broker is needed to avoid the situation in which donors such as the EC are providing TRCB to countries with whic h it is negotiating from divergent interests. 
36 Sauvé 2004, p. 12.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 49 
 
 
   Various changes in the WTO's approach to trai ning appear to have helped to diminish the 
neutrality bias.  For instance, one has been to in volve resource persons from outside the WTO, as in 
the case of the RTPCs (though some have felt cons trained to keep to the WTO approach on a 
particular subject).  The WTO has collaborated with other intergovernmental organisations like 
UNCTAD, which has had a broader mandate, as in the context of JITAP.  (While the WTO has also 
made efforts to engage with other perspectives, fo r instance in the annual meet ings with analysts from 
the private sector and NGOs in Geneva, this do es not address the need at the national level for a 
broader perspective in TRCB.)  Finally, other or ganisations (such as intern ational think-tanks like 
ICTSD or the South Centre and AI TIC) have provided a space in wh ich WTO experts, for example, 
may more openly present their views on trade issues, at least in their personal capacity. 
 
Development dimensions  "the WTO courses are too status-quo oriented and lack a development 
dimension"…  "… a diversity of views is important"  (Sauvé) 
  The debate about whether the WTO's mandate extends to development is reflected in the 
confusion about how far its TRTA should and can ad dress the development aspects of trade rules.  A 
particular complaint of many trainees was that th e WTO experts were unable to provide a sufficient 
development dimension to their presentations, perhaps in their efforts to remain neutral.  In their view, 
the policy space or development flexibilities that were  open to them were not  fully or adequately 
explored and this reflected a certain bias.  Certainly they would have liked more effort to flesh out the 
windows for special and differential treatment in th e existing rules and the development implications 
of particular negotiating proposals. 
  A related question is whether the WTO is e quipped to examine the links between trade and 
development – and to help countries build the capacity to integrate trade into development strategies.  
This has not been emphasized in the WTO cour ses; it is an area where the WTO lacks core 
competencies compared to other organisations like UNCTAD, the World Bank and UNDP. 
 
Negotiations skills  "now that we have a good understanding of the agreements, we need more 
training on negotiating skills, especially for the weaker countries" … "strengthen the practice of 
tactics of negotiations; the culture of ea ch country, their interests, the politics"  
  Much of the WTO training is technocratic – focusing on legal obligations and processes for 
negotiation – but several interviewees noted the im portance of learning negotiations skills.  These 
have been included in some of the longer courses,  often using a simulation exercise developed and 
taught by an outside consultant.  Some trainees regretted that once traine d, the WTO lacked the 
funding to provide them with hands-o n experience in a negotiating setting. 
 
 While the WTO can explain the procedures of negotiations, some question whether it has the competence to train developing country officials in the more political aspects of negotiating (both in 
terms of domestic politics and in rela tionship to major partners).  The World Bank refers to "the limits 
of advice: and the importance of domestic cons tituencies for reform" and calls for "appropriately 
structured public-private partnerships … in a wide -range of areas, including trade negotiations, trade-
related investigations and legal actions , trade-related research and extension."
37 
  It is not appropriate for the WTO to become  involved in such political processes, given its 
lack of experience and limited knowledge of dom estic political actors, as well as its neutrality 
obligations.  Other international agencies such as UNCTAD and bilateral donors such as DFID have 
helped governments develop consultative mechanisms  to work with national stakeholders in the 
development of trade policies and negotiating positi ons.  And some international, regional and 
                                                     
 
37 World Bank, 2006:152-153. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 50  
 
  national NGOs have also been involved.
38  But it is still a relatively underdeveloped area for outside 
involvement, reflecting various difficulties including sensitivities.  
Technical knowledge and implementation experience  "on some issues other agencies have more 
specialized expertise and implementa tion experience" … "The WTO staff need to be complemented by 
trainers with more practical experience"  
 
 Many trainees – especially those with some basic knowledge of the WTO, often as a result of WTO courses – underlined the value of the WTO's mo re detailed technical knowledge of the rules and 
their application, for instance in the handling of dispute settlement cases, safeguard action and 
preparation of services schedules. 
  In the view of several, however, there are other organisations that are better suited for 
particular aspects of TRTA/CB than the WTO.  Several interviewees suggested that more of the 
WTO activities be undertaken in collaboration with sp ecialized agencies and organisations such as the 
WCO, WHO, WIPO and FAO.  Indeed, while the WT O staff is seen as most qualified to explain the 
content of the legal documents, this needs to be complemented by trainers with greater technical 
expertise relating to the application of t hose rules and more practical experience. 
  These other agencies are recognized to have more  specialized, or deeper, technical expertise 
than the WTO on some aspects – for instance the WCO on issues such as customs valuation, the FAO 
on agricultural trade impact assessment, the Inte rnational Standards Organisation (ISO) and other 
standards agencies for training on certification or auditing.  Drawing on their experience they are 
better able to provide concrete examples, with many of these examples relating to implementation, 
which is still a preoccupation for many countries.  The examples were also used to illustrate the training, in a way, which was often found to be lacking in the WTO courses.  (For instance, recipients 
in Yemen reported that a workshop on SPS/TBT or ganized by the US Agency for International 
Development (USAID) had been more useful than a similar course offered by the WTO.) 
  Another approach taken by some donors is to fund the opportunity for some hands-on 
experiential learning to complement WTO training;  for instance USAID has funded Latin American 
expert participation in WTO meeti ngs in 2002-03 to be able to appl y and reinforce their knowledge of 
SPS negotiating rules and procedures. 
 
Development of analytical skills  "analysis of cases was very enlight ening" … "we often do not have 
the capacity at the national level to do analytical  work, for example to analyse the proposals being 
put forward in the negotiations"  
 
 In many countries, governments lack the an alytical capability to analyse the economic and 
social implications of alternative proposals during the negotiations, let alone to determine an optimal 
trade strategy to meet their national development objectives.  Several interviewees requested that 
WTO courses be enhanced to allow them to devel op more such analytical skills, and that these be 
complemented by providing trainees with access to studies, analytical tools and databases. 
 
 Others suggested that the WTO work with na tional economic research centres to run national 
courses emphasising training in analysis and un dertake impact assessments, for example of the 
changes proposed in the three agricultural pillars. 
 
                                                     
 
38 For instance, Oxfam is working with the South Centre in some countries to combine technical 
support with political mobilisation.  In Senegal ENDA-Tiers Monde has been active in bringing together 
farmers' organisations and the government to advance their involvement in the cotton case.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 51 
 
 
   The WTO has expanded its research outputs in  recent years and has begun to work with 
researchers from developing countries – with a small number of visiting academics and doctoral 
students as well as partnerships with Southern academics in the RTPCs – to enhance Southern 
research capacity on WTO issues.  But overall its capacity to provide analytical content to its courses is limited by human resource constraints.  And it remains small relative to the capacities of other 
intergovernmental agencies like UNCTAD, the Wo rld Bank and the FAO.  For this reason it has 
regularly involved the Bank in its RTPCs – the Bank typically assists trainees with their research 
exercise in the last week of the course – and may do so in the Geneva TPC.  Such cooperation could be extended more systematically to other agen cies, such as UNCTAD, th e African Institute for 
Economic Development and Planning (IDEP) and othe rs with complementary analytical expertise. 
 
 Access to databases is important for analytical purposes as well as meeting national obligations (e.g. on SPS/TBT).  WTO databases have  been useful and officials in some countries 
expected the WTO would be able to assist in the construction of national databases (e.g. on services).  
In one country officials suggested that UNCTAD's trade and tariff data was more useful for tariff 
conversion exercises;  but more information is needed to establish the relative strength and 
weaknesses of WTO databases compared to those available to Southern analysts from other 
organisations such as UNCTAD, UNIDO, WIPO  and the World Bank as well as from national 
sources.  
Case studies and national/regional specificities  "knowledge of national and regional issues is not its 
comparative advantage"  
 
 A common request from trainees was for more case studies, simulations and illustrations 
during the courses that reflect regional if not nationa l specificities.  This would make it easier for 
trainees to relate to the material and to learn from it.  It would also help to reinforce ongoing regional 
integration and efforts to develop regional sectoral  policies and positions at the WTO (as much as in 
negotiations with the EU or other trading partners ).  Many reported that out-of-region facilitators 
illustrated their courses with inapplicable and i rrelevant examples from much larger countries or 
others with a very different level of development or confronting different development challenges.  
The lack of a country-specific or region-speci fic vision of the WTO training was a frequently 
mentioned problem. 
 
 Various steps have been taken to increase th e amount of more relevant material.  First, 
training carried out with regional institutions such as Institute for the Integration of Latin America and 
the Caribbean (INTAL) and the Economic Commun ity of West African States (ECOWAS) has 
involved trainers with knowledge of more  concrete and region-specific examples. 
 
 Second, courses bringing together participants from within a region are able to share specific experiences – provided there is enough time and st ructure to allow for trainees to develop case 
studies.   Third, the partnership with researchers in the RTPCs and the visiting researchers at the WTO 
is also likely to have generated more such mate rial.  The WTO might consider systematising the 
information that is already available to it, while investing more funding in the development of further 
case-studies (in partnership with UNCTAD and/or the Bank, for example) and drawing on the material produced elsewhere.  Training and 'training of trainers'  "trainees with experience should be  used as trainers to share 
experience, to have multiplying effects"  
 
 It is clear that most trainees and many othe rs involved in TRTA/CB consider that the WTO 
has developed good training courses that are taught by people with strong training skills – and that WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 52  
 
  these have become more institutionalized with the formation of the ITTC.  As mentioned in the 
section on management, there were various sugges tions for how these might be improved – ranging 
from training the WTO and other trainers now invol ved in WTO courses, to the way in which the 
courses are managed, and testing of trainees.  Ther e is still a sense that the ITTC is not as fully 
developed a training institution as others that ha ve been involved in training for longer and on a 
larger-scale and/or more integrated fashion (i.e . running programmes rather than a series of one-off 
short courses), as well as a concern that its mandate  may limit the scope and approach of training 
offered, relative to an institution with training as its primary mandate. 
  Some have suggested that the WTO should therefore expand its collaboration with other 
organisations.  This might involve building on its experience with its RTPC partners – whose 
comparative advantage lies in being regionally ba sed training institutions.  For instance, these 
institutions could assume greater responsibilities as co -managers of the RTPCs, and even as regional 
centres for managing all WTO courses in a region.  In Kyrgyzstan, for instance, another suggestion 
was that the WTO consider opening a regional Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) WTO 
training centre based in Bishkek, which could be linked to other donors' ongoing regional initiatives. 
  Yet another option would be for the WTO to de legate more responsibility for courses to other 
organisations – with the WTO no longer taking the lead on course delivery preferring instead to concentrate on the design of a programme of courses, the production of relevant materials, and/or the 
provision of courses as part of programmes managed by  others.  This would respond to the challenge 
from a few interviewees that the WTO should reduce its  direct engagement in training, and instead 
concentrate on preparing training materials to be u sed by other organisations.  In this view, WTO 
experts could also be invited as resource persons in some of the training activities of others, but the 
WTO would not be organising the activities themselves.  
 A focus on training of trainers (ToT) in government and in training centres would allow the 
WTO to respond to the continuing demand in government as well as the growing demand from outside government in many countries for more in formation and understanding about the WTO.  But 
it would do so in a way which does not require it to go outside its area of competence, i.e. its close connections to officials working on trade issues in many countries.  Through strengthening these 
officials' knowledge and providing them with certa in outreach tools, the WTO can more effectively 
support dialogue with private sector organi sations and farmers' groups for instance. 
  To sum up, it is time for a rethinking of th e WTO 'brand' which has now become associated 
with all sorts of training that it may have lost its identity – at the same time that the core assumptions 
of the original training courses (such as the uni queness and adequacy of WTO experts' knowledge, 
and trainees' interest in juridical aspects of the mu ltilateral trading system – to name only two) have 
been increasingly challenged.  Some future options are set out in the final section in the form of 
alternative scenarios for the WTO.   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 53 
 
 
  Box V.1:  Views on Training Activities of Other Agencies/Donors 
 
21a.39 Are you aware of similar training activity  conducted by other agencies/donors? (N=118) 
  Yes 95 (80.5%) No 23 (19.5%) 
 
21b. Have you participated in the above -mentioned training activity? (N=118) 
 
 Yes 85 (72%) No 10 (8.5%) NA 23 (19.5%)  22. If yes, how do you compare the technica l assistance provided by the WTO Secretariat 
with the capacity building of other organisations with which you have been involved? (N=66/74) 
 
 WTO %  Other % 
Very Poor  0  0   0  0 
Poor  1  1.5   1  1 
Fair  8  12   14  19 
Good  23  35   22  30 
Very Good  14  21   9  12 
NA  20  30   28  38  
 
VI. RELEVANCE 
Overall relevance 
 
 From our interviews and observations drawi ng on various sources (PEFs, BTORs, etc) it is 
clear that many view the WTO's TRTA as having been relevant in a ge neral way – responding to 
national, institutional and individual needs.  Almo st half of the beneficiaries (48 per cent) responded 
that the training had matched their requirements cons iderably, while another 47 per cent thought it did 
so to some extent (Question 8b, Box VI.1.  Views on course content and appro ach, at the end of this 
section).  There is also a general sense that the WTO has evolved its TRTA in recent years (as 
detailed in Section IV above), in tune with some of the emerging demands from its recipients relating 
to content, delivery and volume of training.  Howeve r, it is clear that there are many ways in which 
the relevance of the WTO's TRTA can be enhanced – beginning w ith the articulation of national 
needs, as well as the content and approach of courses, and going beyond courses to include other 
elements.  Here we consider a range of releva nce issues encompassing inputs, outcomes and impacts 
of the various WTO training activities.  Broadly speaking, we sought to trace training outcomes at 
four levels:  
• Trainees' reactions – what they thought and felt about the training; 
 
• learning – the resulting increase in their knowledge and/or capabilities; 
 
• behaviour – the extent of improvement in their behaviour, capability and 
implementation/application;  and 
 
• results – the longer term impact on the trade policymaking institutions.
40 
                                                      
39 These numbers in the boxes that refer to the inte rviews (Boxes V.1, VI.1, VI.2, VI.3.1, VI.3.2, VI.4, 
VII.3, VII.4 and VII.5) correspond to the question numbers in the questionnaires (see Annexures 2 and 3). 
40 From Donald Kirkpatrick, Evaluating Training Programs , 
www.businessballs.com/kirkpatricklearningevaluationmodel.htm . WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 54  
 
   
Needs assessments 
 
 Needs assessments are a critical first step to planning effective TRTA.  Both the WTO Secretariat (through ITTC), its members and ot her partners (such as the OECD and partner 
organisations involved in the IF) have invested in  designing and using various processes and tools to 
assess national TRTA needs, and thus to increase the effectiveness of TRTA.  It is generally recognized that recipient governments in collaborati on with national stakeholders are best positioned 
to identify their own needs – and thus to ensure  greater national ownership of TRTA – but that 
assistance may be needed in  this process.  Some have argued that multilateral or regional agencies are 
better placed to provide such assistance
41 given that donor agencies (e.g. the European Commission) 
may have conflicts of interest.  Nonetheless, it is  important to bear in mind that multilateral and 
regional agencies may have their own biases acco rding to several interviewees, as discussed 
elsewhere.  
 The WTO Secretariat is also involved with the OECD DAC in collating information on what 
TRTA/CB has been offered to individual countries in the areas of trade policy and regulations and 
trade development since 2001.  This is largely retr ospective, however, rather than prospective and so 
is not very useful as a planning tool, e.g. for coordinating efforts by various agencies.  Other constraints are that it captures funding committed rath er than funding disbursed, and that some data 
aggregation makes it difficult to capture all national-level activities. 
 
 The WTO produced guidelines for needs assessments in August 2004
42 and later a proposal 
was discussed to integrate the use of these into national TPRs.43  These WTO documents recognize 
the importance of a nationally-driven approach that  involves a wide range of stakeholders, with 
priority given to the inter-ministerial community w ith interests in various aspects of trade policy and 
practice.  The WTO therefore proposes that it wo rk with governments to build on whatever may 
already exist, whether in national trade policy stat ements, PRSPs, under the DTIS of the IF, or some 
other mechanism.  This assistance may be provided at the time of national TPRs and at other times in 
the intervening years.   In 2005 the WTO Secretariat was able to s ecure support from the Dutch government for a 
trainee programme, which has been  used in part to provide assistance to member governments in 
TRTA needs assessments.  The trainee progra mme involves officials on secondment from their 
governments working in the WTO Secretariat, or Geneva-based missions or international NGOs 
(INGOs)/NGOs.  As a result of these and other effo rts, a few countries have now produced national 
TRTA needs assessments, or are about to do so. 
 
 A brief review of three such assessments for Malawi, Mongolia and the Organisation of 
Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)
44 shows that these provide an overview of the existing trade policy 
framework in each country, and a list of broad and specific areas for further TRTA/CB from the WTO 
and others.  Only in one case (OECS), however, are th ere particular priorities identified for the WTO.  
The reports are useful in highlighting additional TA  needs that could be met by the WTO such as 
training "regional statisticians on collection and disse mination of trade data in a useful way for policy 
makers"45 and going beyond training to issues such as funding for officials to participate in 
negotiations.46 
                                                      
41 See, for example, ODI 2006 p. 19. 
42 JOB(04)/113. 
43 6691d. 
44 15 November 2005, and JOB (05)/275, November 2, 2005 respectively. 
45 OECS para. 24. 
46 OECS para. 28.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 55 
 
 
   
 In few of the nine countries visited in the cour se of this evaluation was there a clear process in 
place to determine national TRTA needs, whet her through the PRSPs or annual trade policy 
statements, let alone an action plan for meeting those needs.47  There had been little systematic 
engagement with donors on TRTA/CB needs, and th e WTO TPRs had not yet been considered an 
opportunity to do a needs assessment whether targeti ng the WTO or more broadly.  Instead what is 
most common is for the WTO focal point in the tr ade ministry to act as a liaison between the WTO 
and the government – responding to WTO requests for suggestions of national courses and for 
participants in regional workshops or other courses.   Examples are the WTO Division in the Ministry 
of the Economy in Moldova or the WTO Department in the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism 
in Kyrgyzstan. 
  Few of those interviewed were aware of th e WTO needs assessment guidelines, nor of any 
other national approach to do this, though they r ecognized that this was important and primarily a 
national responsibility.  In the absence of such a plan , it appeared to a majority of interviewees that 
much of the TRTA/CB, whether from the WTO or other agencies, was supply-driven.  Even in 
Bangladesh, Cambodia and Yemen, despite having access to the IF and its DTIS, which is meant to 
address TRTA needs even if not in a very detaile d fashion, none of those interviewed knew of any 
TRTA/CB needs assessment.  Cambodi an officials appeared to know  what their TRTA needs were 
but were not sure how to go about securing the re quired TRTA.  In Yemen, the WTO Coordination 
and Communication Office (WTO-CCO) in the Ministry  of Trade and Industry noted its intention to 
develop an Annual Training Plan for its staff. 
  In Senegal, however, the DTIS Action Matr ix, which was written in 2003 and updated in 
2005, does make several references to TRTA/CB.  One encompasses trade po licies and includes such 
measures as operationalising the Comité National pour les Négociations en Commerce International  
(CNNCI), and strengthening trade negotiating capacities to  put international trade rules into effect.  
Senegal's Matrix also includes TRTA/CB needs beyo nd knowledge of WTO rules and the capacity to 
negotiate and enforce them, such as assistance to strengthen standa rds and quality, competitiveness 
and the application of competition rules.   Nonetheless, in nearly all the nine count ries there is a national mechanism for the 
development and implementation of trade policies th at would be appropriate for overseeing a process 
to identify TRTA needs and priorities, develop a pl an of action, identify TRTA funders/suppliers, and 
coordinate activities to maximize complementarity  and minimize duplication. Examples include the 
Foreign Trade and Investment Council in Ecuador, the CNNCI in Senegal and the National Economic 
Policy Council in Cambodia. 
 
 There are also committees in these and other c ountries, which focus more specifically on the 
WTO, that might be tasked with needs assessme nt targeting WTO training such as the National 
Committee on the WTO in Kenya, the Inter-Agenc y Committee on WTO Matters in Cambodia and 
the National Committee on Accession of Yemen to the WTO.  
 For instance in Cambodia, the Inter-Agency Committee is well positioned to ascertain its 
WTO-related capacity constraints, as it is res ponsible for overseeing the implementation of the 
country's WTO commitments.  In some countries (M oldova, Kyrgyzstan) there is neither an inter-
ministerial working group nor an advisory group on the WTO, so it would fall to the WTO focal points to lead this needs assessment. 
 
                                                     
 
47 Similarly ODI (2006, p. 18) found that needs assessments lack "a clear mapping of who will be 
addressing the most urgent bottlenecks". WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 56  
 
  6. Course content, approach and frequency 
 
 While WTO Members can request two or three WTO-provided training activities in their countries each year, and decide whether or not to no minate national participants for other activities, 
most recipients disagree with the claim that the WTO's TRTA is demand-driven.  (See, for example, 
WT/COMTD/M/54 paragraph 96:  "The Plan was de mand-driven. A list of what could reasonably be 
foreseen was provided, but there was flexibility to d eal with demands from beneficiary countries, in 
particular with regard to national activities.").  In  fact, the WTO's TRTA is predominantly modular – 
or, to put it another way, a fixed menu – with limite d flexibility or 'à la carte' options.  Members are 
able to choose between a number of given courses, drawing from the WTO's core competencies and 
mandate.  There is somewhat greater flexibility fo r the national courses, but these are limited in 
number, reflecting the WTO's training capacity constrai nts rather than members' needs.  Also, in some 
cases it seemed to interviewees that their na tional demands had been largely ignored. 
  For most interviewees, the key factors in dete rmining the relevance of the courses offered by 
the WTO are their content, approach and frequency. 
 
Content
 
 
 It is generally clear that the subject areas o ffered by the WTO in the Geneva-based courses, 
RTPCs and workshops as well as those it can offer nati onally in response to country-specific requests, 
are considered relevant to recipients.  In all of the field countries, there is a continuing need for 
increasing understanding about the WTO rules and ongoing negotiations.   The level of training was considered just right  by 84 per cent of respondents, but too basic by 
9 per cent and too advanced by 7 per cent (Question 7, Box VI.1).  Basic information is still needed 
by both newer officials in trade ministries and those in other ministries involved in trade-related 
matters, as well as non-government officials that are now part of national trade machineries.  And 
these needs extend beyond such circles to include pa rliamentarians, journalists, private sector, CSOs 
and others.   For those with previous experience of WTO courses and other trade-related training, the 
availability of more advanced/specialized cour ses is appreciated as a way of deepening their 
knowledge and increasing their ability both to implem ent national obligations and represent national 
interests in multilateral trade negotiations.  One su ggestion therefore was that the WTO offer more 
two-week specialized courses.  
 Some interviewees considered that the cour ses available provided a graduated approach to 
learning about the WTO – starting with basic information and moving into more advanced knowledge, through a series of courses available.  But others complained that there was a lot of 
repetition, with too much time at the beginning of  courses covering introductory material, when what 
they needed was more updating and/or deepening of  more specialized knowledge.  This led to the 
suggestion that the WTO develop an overall human  resource development (HRD) plan that would 
allow trainees to go through a structured progra mme of learning, rather than ad hoc courses and 
activities as at present.  (This would parallel the de velopment of national trade-related HRD plans for 
trade officials and other stakeholders.)   Officials were less impressed than recipients by the level of training, as 73 per cent found it 
just right, while 17 per cent considered it too basi c and 10 per cent deemed it too advanced (Question 
9c (O), Box VI.1).  Several pointed out that a trai ning that was too basic for some could be just right 
or too advanced for others.  Achieving the right level, therefore, depended on the proper selection of 
participants.   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 57 
 
 
   The material is generally considered to be ve ry useful (62 per cent of respondents, Question 9, 
Box VI.1) and in many cases trainees have continued to use it after the courses, sharing it with their 
colleagues, and even using it as the basis for presenta tions to their colleagues, in other seminars or 
workshops, or, in the case of ac ademics, for lectures to their st udents.  Nonetheless, there were 
various suggestions for their im provement in terms of accessib ility (paper/CD/online, language, 
timing) and content (more explanations, interpretation, examples). 
  In terms of the course subjects offered by the WTO, these do not always match the needs expressed by national requests or in the course of in terviews.  For instance in one country a request 
for training on SPS was denied on the grounds that other agencies were already providing this, even 
though national authorities considered that the WT O training would be complementary rather than 
duplicative.  A number of countries considered th ey had not had enough detailed training on trade 
remedies and safeguards, going beyond the introducto ry level information ava ilable in general courses 
on WTO rules.  
 In the shorter courses, content is often limited to a description of the agreements rather than 
addressing the more practical issues of implementation and negotiation.  While this may be of interest 
to lawyers, typically participants are keen to lear n about the application of rules, through case studies, 
which illustrate the practical examples of how WTO rules affect policymaking or how to make 
proposals.  As one interviewee explained, " case-studies help to understand the WTO rules and 
discover their 'power'." 
 
 One criticism is that many of the WTO courses ar e standardized – following a 'one-size fits 
all' approach rather than being tailored to fit re gional let alone national specificities.  There is a 
mismatch between national experiences and examples being used to illustrate particular issues.  For 
instance, one course in Moldova on trade and the en vironment included refere nces to Japanese whale 
hunting and fishing which were not relevant to their circumstances.  Others noted that examples could 
be less relevant because they were  drawn from larger countries or countries at very different levels of 
development.  Some Yemeni respondents (one offici al and several recipients ) commented that content 
should also be better adapted for traini ng officials of countries in accession. 
  Others underlined the importance now of co mplementing WTO teaching on multilateral rules 
with an understanding of the regional context, so that national trade communities can deepen regional 
integration in a way which is co mpatible with WTO obligations. 
  Several interviewees in both field visit countries and in Geneva suggested that the use of 
regional and national experts alongside WTO traine rs would help to provide more relevant 
perspectives and material.  Another idea was for more WTO activities to require participants to 
prepare brief reports on country-specific problem s or issues, for presentation and discussion during 
the course.  
Approach
 
  The WTO's approach, and particularly its attemp t to maintain a neutral position in its training, 
is generally considered appropriate.  But several interviewees also made a number of comments about 
ways in which the WTO's training could be strengthe ned to make it more relevant, through tailoring 
its content, and complementing theoretical, juridical  and general content with  more applied/practical, 
economic, analytical and regionally-specific content.   Others underlined the importance of officials 
understanding the political nature of trade polic y making and negotiations, a subject not often 
addressed by the WTO courses.   Some three-quarters of respondents considered that the training was fair and balanced, while 
the remainder expressed doubts about this (Questi on 8a, Box V.1).  In the discussions, several WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 58  
 
  interviewees raised concerns about a bias in the WT O's approach.  Some considered that if the WTO 
trainers are really to be neutral, they should pl ace less emphasis on trade liberalisation and not suggest 
that countries would benefit from making services commitments.  Similarly, they should give more attention to the development flexibilities or policy space that exist within the WTO rules and to the 
possible implications of different negotiating opti ons.  Some trainers and courses do follow this 
approach – for example in Barba dos, one respondent noted that a c ourse on intellectual property rights 
(IPRs) had provided information about policy space as well as how to comply with WTO norms.  But 
this needs to be more consistently applied.   To many, WTO training seemed more oriented to building national officials' capacity as 
effective rule takers – i.e. complying with the multila teral system – rather than to going beyond this to 
build their capacities to negotiate and become effe ctive rule makers.  Several respondents therefore 
called for more training on negotiating skills.  Many  others emphasized the need for assistance in 
developing their analytical skills to better assert thei r trade rights.  "We often do not have the capacity 
at the national level to do analytical work, for ex ample to analyse the proposals being put forward in 
the negotiations" as one official explained. 
  Finally, many interviewees noted that training would be more relevant if the courses involved 
more case-studies, simulations and other practical  exercises, such as problem-solving in which 
participants would be able to consult with res ource persons as well as fellow participants from other 
countries.  In effect, the role of th e trainers would become more one of facilitator rather than 'lecturer'.  
In the RTPCs and some other regional workshops, wh ere WTO trainers had been complemented with 
others from the region, it was found that th is had allowed for a broader approach. 
 
Frequency
 
  While the WTO annual plan suggests an inte nse pace of activities, opportunities to attend 
WTO courses at a national level are more intermi ttent, except in regional centres like Kenya and 
Senegal where there are more opportunities for partic ipation in regional workshops in their capitals.  
In countries with smaller bureaucracies and trad e policy communities, such as Barbados, Moldova 
and Kyrgyzstan, there are still questions of absorptiv e capacity.  But in many other countries there is a 
demand for somewhat longer and more frequent courses.  Adding a day or two would allow 
workshops to include more practical and regionall y-relevant content, without compromising the time 
needed to absorb details of WTO ru les and procedures.  Several participants reported that courses are 
too short for the amount of information being covere d, with little time for digestion.  Nor had the 
courses been frequent enough to satisfy the demand expressed in several countries for broadening the 
scope of participants in WTO courses to those outside trade ministries in other parts of the 
government, as well as the private sector, unive rsities and NGOs active in the trade policy 
community.  
Relevance of particular courses 
 
 In our interviews, several comments were made about the strengths and weaknesses of the 
different types of WTO training activities.  Most of the 68 responses were in connection with the 
regional workshops or courses other than the R TPC (see Box VI.2 Views on Regional Courses). 
 
Geneva – TPCs and introductory courses
 
  The longer three-month courses are generally cons idered of high quality and very useful in 
preparing officials for their trade-related responsib ilities.  Besides covering th e breadth of WTO rules, 
they now incorporate simulations, case studies and ne gotiating skills.  Even so some argued that the 
course is still intensive and could be improved by  more practical exercises.  The opportunity to  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 59 
 
 
  network with WTO officials as well as with counterpa rts from other countries is of considerable value 
to many participants.  
Regional – RTPCs and other courses
 
  Courses or workshops bringing together official s and others from countries within a particular 
region are appreciated for various reasons, though in general it was felt that the shorter workshops (of 
2-3 days) are too short and ad hoc.   In the experience of a number of interviewees  involved in the regional courses, one advantage 
of regional training is that it allows the devel opment and strengthening of regional networks, which 
can be particularly relevant for countries in the pr ocess of deepening regional integration.  In some 
instances, however, it was suggested that the WTO Secr etariat needed to rethink the definition of its 
regional groupings to maximize the number of count ries in a workshop with common interests.  For 
instance, Moldova has been included in the Eastern European group rather than with the former CIS 
with which it has more in common.  In Africa, some  'regional' workshops have  involved both East and 
West African countries, despite their divergent interests as revealed during lengthy discussions on cotton in an agricultural workshop.  Others, howev er, suggested that the diversity of experience 
provides the opportunity to learn from each other.   The lack of country-specific or region-speci fic examples was a problem mentioned especially 
frequently with respect to the shorter regional wo rkshops.  In some cases where events were co-
organized with regional institutions there was grea ter scope for broader pe rspectives and 'creative 
thinking', regional knowledge/content and regional languages.  Offeri ng training in a language besides 
English is particularly crucial for ensuring effectiv e participation by officials from outside the trade 
ministries, who are typically less proficient in English. 
 
 The more technical courses, for instance on notification procedures and SPS/TBT rules, were 
by their technical nature quite specific, and often practical.   Participants in the longer trade policy courses were much less affected by the problem of the 
lack of concrete examples and application, as th ese courses included simulation exercises, which the 
recipients thought were very important and useful.  Working with partners and trainers from within 
the region also ensured regional content.  Finally,  the RTPCs have also benefited from more careful 
joint planning between WTO and non-WTO trainers from the region.  
National courses
 
 
 National courses are generally considered effec tive in that they allow a more tailor-made 
course, addressing national priorities in more depth (particularly as in the case of services where these are at an early stage of identification) and invol ve many more national pa rticipants and national 
trainers.  On the other hand, this can preclude th e benefits of other regional approaches including 
networking, sharing of different experiences, a nd deepening efforts to integrate regionally. 
 
Online courses
 
 
 The online courses are considered interesting a nd a cost effective way of getting a general 
understanding of the WTO rules and procedures.  But they had been frustrating for trainees in 
countries with slow Internet access (as in Moldova),  power outages and other connectivity constraints. 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  Quality of trainers 
 
 In general the quality of trainers involved in WTO courses is considered high, particularly on 
legal aspects of WTO rules, their negotiating histor y (past and current) and their implementation.  
Nonetheless various observations have been made about these trainers that suggest the scope for 
improvement, if WTO courses are to contribute traini ng that meets national needs in the short- and 
longer-term.  
WTO trainers
 
  Altogether there are some 200 WTO staff, who have been involved in training, who fall into 
three categories – WTO long-term staff working in ITTC, those based in WTO substantive divisions, 
and others on fixed-term ('L') contracts (most of whom are also employed in the divisions). 
  ITTC staff are considered more adept trainers, while those from other divisions are 
considered more knowledgeable at a substantive leve l.  The newer trainers are generally considered 
good, but perhaps more concerned than others abou t maintaining 'neutrality' and there were some 
indications that they might also need to improve  their training and interpersonal skills.  Some 
interviewees thought that WTO trainers are more  doctrinaire than non-WTO trainers, with "an 
excessively orthodox perspective, shyi ng away from debate or discussion". 
 
 Finally, most trainers are legal experts and th is is considered appropriate for training on the 
juridical aspects of the WTO.  However, there is increasing interest from recipients in training that 
embraces economic analysis, to allow better unders tanding of how to promote and protect national 
interests through WTO rules and negotiations.  
 It is not clear that this demand can be met by  the relatively few economists at the WTO, most 
of whom are in the Economic Research and Statistics Division and the TPR Division.  Instead it may be necessary for the WTO to include more economists amongst the increasing number of non-WTO trainers now involved in its courses.   There has been a problem with the language of instruction (and the language of materials) for 
non-anglophone speakers.  English is the predominan t language of instruction.  Non-English speakers 
have found that interpretation is not always availabl e, and when it is, it is usually not adequate.  To 
these participants, it seems that they are getting second -rate training.  One solution may be to include 
more national or regional trainers;  for instance in Moldova and Kyrgyz, it was suggested that 
Russian-speaking resource persons from Eastern Europe could be used. 
 
Non-WTO trainers
 
 
 While the majority of WTO training activiti es are still provided by WTO officials, an 
increasing number of other trainers have been involved in training WTO courses over the last four years.  This partly reflects an effort by the WTO to respond to some of the suggestions for improving 
the relevance of its training, as well as a solution to the limited number of its staff.  Non-WTO trainers 
include trainers from other international orga nisations, as well as consultants from a number of 
developing and developed countries.   Most, though not all, of these non-WTO trainers are drawn from 
a roster managed by ITTC.  But several interviewees c onsidered that this could be taken further, with 
more training of national and regi onal experts to become trainers, involved in WTO and other courses 
on international trade. 
  The most organized group of non-WTO trainers includes those involved in the RTPCs.  In particular the development of the RTPCs in collabor ation with academics and other trainers from the 
regions has been an important initiative.  While regional trainers are chosen because of their  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 61 
 
 
  knowledge and interest in WTO rules and negotiati ons, as well as related national and regional trade 
policies, their own capacity is generally considered to  have been enhanced through annual meetings in 
Geneva to plan the RTPCs with their WTO expert partners, as well as in the actual delivery of the 
courses.  
 Several interviewees considered that non-WT O trainers often had relevant experience and 
good knowledge of the regional context, which effec tively complemented WTO juridical expertise.  
Some favoured keeping a mixture of developed and developing country trainers.  Others suggested 
that there needed to be a careful selection process as some trainers had been too rhetorical, theoretical 
or biased. 
 
 One issue for non-WTO trainers has been the ex tent to which they are involved in planning 
the WTO courses, and the degree of their autonomy in teaching (when accompanied by WTO trainers).  While increasing non-WTO trainers' i nvolvement might be considered likely to dilute 
the WTO 'brand', it is in keeping with the general request for greater national and regional content, 
more variety in perspectives taught, and the im portance of ToT to reduce the dependence on WTO 
training.  
Uniformity of participants 
 
 While the size of classes was generally considered  to be appropriate (Q uestion 10, Box VI.1), 
several interviewees commented on the need for gr eater efforts to improve their selection.  Amongst 
the problems raised were:  differences in knowle dge of the subject matter and language, regional 
experience, responsibility and interest.  Of course some differences are recognized as providing the 
basis for useful exchanges of experience, with par ticipants from one country keen to learn from the 
different approaches of another.  But when they are too pronounced they distract the trainer and 
undermine discussions and other group exercises.  Se lection procedures and ways to improve them are 
addressed in the section on management and efficiency below.  
Impacts/outcomes 
 
 There are several ways in which the imp acts of WTO's TRTA were assessed during the 
course of our fieldwork and literature review.  Th ese included:  contribution to improved individual 
work capacity as well as changes in institutional and national capacities. 
 
Short-term/individual impact
 
  Nearly all trainees (90 per cent of those inte rviewed) found that they had acquired knowledge 
that would be useful to them in their current j obs (Question 4a Box V.3 on Application of Training) 
and 93 per cent reported that they were able to  apply the knowledge acquired (Question 15).  
Somewhat fewer (77 per cent) considered that the training had been very relevant to their work, 
however (Question 4b).  Officials similarly found the training useful;  97 per cent believed that the 
participants were applying the acqui red knowledge either considerably (62 per cent) or to some extent 
(35 per cent) in their present positions (Question 5 (O) Box VI.3). 
  A wide range of examples was given.  For inst ance countries in the process of acceding or recently 
acceded found that the training had helped them to prepare for accession (others noted that it had 
helped them to develop requests of acceding countr ies) and to understand their new WTO obligations.  
Some suggested, however, that the tr aining had not been particularly useful in preparing them for the 
practicalities of implementing these obligations – they would have apprec iated a more applied 
approach in the courses.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 62  
 
   Several trainees found that the more techni cal workshops, for instance on TBT and SPS, had 
allowed them to realize that their national regulati ons and/or procedures were not in conformity with 
the WTO and what steps were need ed to correct this, or to develop mutual recognition procedures 
with other countries.  Similarly, others consider ed themselves better equipped to examine and even 
contribute to draft national legislation, e.g. on IP Rs, to ensure that it was in conformity with 
WTO provisions, or to notify the WTO about national NTBs. In some cases, the training had prepared 
officials for their TPR (though more often this wa s one aspect of WTO training that interviewees 
thought needed strengthening).  Some were able to use their training to apply safeguards against 
imports from a major trading partner an d make the appropriate notifications. 
 
 Another common area of impact was in the ongoing Doha negotiations .  Many interviewees 
found that the workshops had provided them with e nough information to be better able to understand 
the issues on the table, such as the NAMA formulas, and to formulate national, regional and other 
group positions for different negotia ting groups and for the Hong Kong Ministerial.  This suggests 
that the orientation of WTO training, if not the volume of activities, will need to change once the 
DDA is completed.  There will likely be less need for information and training related to the analysis 
and preparation of proposals for WTO negotiations.  Instead the training may shift to ways to assert 
existing WTO rights (e.g. through the application of  safeguards or the pursuit of dispute settlement) 
and to adhere to commitments (e.g. tracking donor commitments to Aid for Trade, notifications under 
any new agricultural safeguard mechanism) as well  as those obligations that arise from the DDA 
(e.g. through improved notification procedures).  As already suggested elsewhere in this report, the 
WTO may become more involved in partnership with others in training to support the development of 
more analytical skills for national trade policy-maki ng and implementation, and in training related to 
enhancing regional trade.   WTO training had also helped to st rengthen officials' contribution to bilateral and regional 
FTA negotiations , and more generally to their capacity to brief ministers  on a wide range of national 
trade issues.  (For instance, one interviewee noted the importance of presenting bilateral trade 
relations not just in terms of statistics but in th e context of the various WTO and other sets of rules 
governing that relationship.)  
Follow-up by trainees
48 
 
 There have been various efforts to ensure th at the information and knowledge acquired during 
WTO training is shared institutionally, i.e. with ot hers whether in their ministries, other government 
departments or elsewhere.  Almost three-quarters of trainees prepared a report on the programme they attended and an even higher ratio shared the info rmation and materials with their colleagues and 
others in the private sector and civil society (Qu estions 5 and 17 in Box VI.4 on Dissemination). 
  For instance, in Kenya after attending a WTO seminar on intellectual property, an official 
from the Health Ministry organized a national se minar on these issues for 25 colleagues, with the 
financial support of the WHO.  In Kenya as we ll as Senegal, WTO trainees frequently provide 
informal feedback to colleagues in the five or si x national trade negotiations  sub-committees.  Others 
have organized outreach events with private sector a nd other groups.  In Ecua dor, officials who have 
participated in WTO courses become focal points on these issues for their colleagues and as such are 
regularly consulted about them.   In most countries, however, this reporting a nd dissemination process has not been formalized, 
resulting in missed opportunities and lower impacts, according to several interviewees.  Resources are 
not necessarily put in a known or easily accessible place fo r others to consult.  Trainees are rarely 
                                                     
 
48 The issues of follow-up in terms of evaluation and in terms of further training by the WTO are 
addressed in the following section on Management and Efficiency.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 63 
 
 
  required to prepare formal reports on their training let alone to organize sessions at which they share 
their training with their peers, other stakeholders in  the trade policy community, or more broadly.  So 
it is somewhat surprising that as many as 56 pe r cent of respondents reported making a presentation of 
some sort.  While recognising that many officials have competing priorities, and not wanting to create 
new layers of bureaucracy, there are various ways in  which such initiatives can be regularized and the 
impact of TRTA enhanced.  For instance, at the end of a regional workshop, according to one 
interviewee, "the participants should indicate what they will do with the information they gained and 
later the WTO would check what they did."  Simila rly, there should be an information management 
system in place to ensure that WTO materials coll ected are appropriately archived and thus accessible 
to others. 
 
 Most trainees have had insufficient training, whether in the WTO or other courses, to become 
trainers themselves.  There is a limit to their kn owledge, and capacities as trainers.  While this might 
change with a more organized and sustained series of  courses, a more efficient approach would appear 
to be to work with developing country academics, as in the RTPCs.   There are already examples of 
the RTPCs contributing to the development and/or strengthening of Masters courses on trade policy – 
as at the University of Nairobi and the Univers ity of the West Indies (UWI).  Many additional 
suggestions were made in the course of our intervie ws.  One was that staff at WTO reference centres 
be given further training to act as WTO resource persons.  The Kyrgyz government requested the 
WTO to open a regional WTO training centre for members of CIS to expand training of Kyrgyzstan and other officials in the region.  Others suggest ed that staff at national administrative training 
institutions such as the Bangladesh Foreign Trad e Institute, once it becomes functional, or the 
National School for Applied Economics (ENEA) in Se negal, might be trained to broaden training 
about the WTO.  There are several think tanks outsi de government that could also be reinforced in 
this way – whether by the WTO or other agencies – such as the Centre for Policy Dialogue in Bangladesh or the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis.  In Yemen, one idea was 
that the WTO help to develop a network of local  resource persons and institutions for follow-up 
training.  Such networks could also be called upon to promote information about the WTO in regional 
centres outside capitals.  
Longer-term/institutional impact
 
  In most countries the training has had an ins titutional impact – in terms of building up the 
capacities of a cadre of trade professionals.  In general it seems that the selection criteria have 
operated in favour of candidates with past and future  involvement in trade issues.  Typically this has 
meant that the knowledge and skills of individuals  working within trade ministries have been 
enhanced – particularly those that were able to attend the longer TPCs or RTPCs as well as some of 
the shorter courses.  In many cases, trainees from na tional trade ministries had used their training to 
strengthen their working relationship with officials in other ministries or agencies working on trade issues, and occasionally with private sector groups.  For instance on SPS, officials felt better equipped 
to provide advice to exporters and to assist in the process of risk assessment.  On IPRs, officials were 
able to make useful contributions to discussions with national patent offices.  There has been a 
leakage of trainees out of trade ministries, however, reflecting both turnover within the public sector 
and poor conditions of service compared to the private sector in many countries. 
  Over time a growing number of others involved in trade policy discussion, design and 
implementation have been covered – though these have typically participated in shorter courses or 
workshops which have improved th eir understanding and access to information rather than making 
them particularly knowledgeable or  expert.  This is particularly the case in countries with a more 
formalized inter-institutional process – as in Kenya and Se negal.  Yet it is still the case that in most 
countries the capacity to design national trade policie s and to negotiate at the WTO remains relatively 
weak (as in the case of Bangladesh where three offi cers in the commerce ministry handle all issues WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 64  
 
  relating to the WTO), and there is a need for continuing updating and deepening of knowledge, 
whether through reading, courses and/or application.   What has been the overall impact of WTO traini ng?  The evidence is fairly mixed and weak.  
In the case of Ecuador, which only joined the WTO in  1996, the government has been quite active in 
promoting its national interests.  It has participat ed in 11 dispute cases, two of which as a complaining 
party and six as a third party.  It has also made a number of proposals during the Doha negotiations while actively pursuing regional agreements.  Moldova , which joined even more recently in 2001, has 
been involved in building a coalition with other recently acceded countries and made a number of other proposals.  Bangladesh has been active in  the LDC coalition including a number of years as 
spokesperson.  Cambodia's accession in 2004 took ten year s – and this delay was explained by its lack 
of trained personnel, even after a number of trai ning activities.  Representatives of Kenya often speak 
on behalf of the Africa Group in the WTO.  In Kyrgy zstan, officials considered that they had useful 
experiences in their accession and post-accession activiti es to share with other CIS countries, even if 
their own trade-policy making capacity remained weak .  Senegal worked with Kenya and a number of 
other African countries on a proposal regarding the Singapore issues for Cancun, as well as with 
seven other countries on services proposals.  Its amb assador is presently involved Chair of the WTO 
Committee on Regional Trade Agreements.   While not one of the four West African countries leading the demands for changes on cotton support programmes, Senegal has joined these countri es in discussions with the US about the West 
African Cotton Improvement Programme.  Finally, th e Barbados ambassador is Chair of the Council 
for TRIPs.   It is, however, important to recall that WT O TRTA typically accounts for a small share of 
total TRTA in each country – for our sample of nine countries, it amounted to less than 3 per cent of 
total TRTA/CB received in the 2002-04 period und er review (according to WTO/OECD database 
figures).  This ranged from 1.2 per cent in Bangladesh to over 95 per cent in Barbados.  
Box VI.1:  Views on Course Content and Approach 
 
6a. What is your assessment of the qualit y of the training you received? (N=118) 
 
 Very poor 0 (0%)  Poor  0 (0%)  Fair  13 (11%)  Good  52 (44%) 
 Very good 53 (45%) 
 
7. Was the training provided to you at the right level or too basic/too advanced? (N=118) 
 
 Too basic 11 (9%)   Just right 99 (84%)  Too advanced 8 (7%) 
 
8a. Was the design and delivery of the trai ning activity fair and balanced? (N=117) 
 
 Yes 86 (73.5%) Maybe 24 (20.5%) No 7 (6.0%) 
 
Box VI.1 (cont'd)  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  8b. Did it match your requirement? (N=91) 
 
 Considerably 44 (48.4%) To some extent 43 (47.3%) Not really 4 (4.4%)  
9. Were the training materials useful? (N=117) 
 
 Not useful  1 (1%)  Somewhat useful 4 (3%)  Quite useful  40 (34%)  Very useful  72 (62%) 
 
9c(O). Was the training at the right level? (N=30) 
 
 Too basic 5 (17%)  Just right 22 (73%) 
 Too advanced 3 (10%) 
 
10. Were there too many or too few participan ts in that training programme? (N=110) 
 
 Too many 13 (12%) 
 Just right 96 (87%) 
 Too few 1 (1%) 
 
Box VI.2:  Views on Regional Courses 
 
4a. Are you applying the knowledge that you acquired from the training activity in your 
position?  (N= 53) 
 
 Yes 46 (87%) No 7 (13%) 
 
4b. How relevant was the training activities for your work? (N=55) 
 
 Considerably 39 (71%) To some extent 14 (25%) Not really 2 (4%) 
 
14. To what extent were you able to apply the knowledge in your work at the time of the 
training?  (N=35) 
 
 Considerably 16 (46%) To some extent 13 (37%) Not at all 6 (17%) 
 
15. Are you able to apply it now in your current responsibilities? (N=37) 
 
 Yes 33 (89%) No 4 (11%) 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  Box VI.3.1:  Views on Application of Training 
 
4a. Are you applying the knowledge that you acquired from the training activity in your 
position?  (N=118) 
 
 Yes 105 (89%) No 13 (11%) 
 
4b. How relevant was the training activities for your work? (N=118) 
 
 Considerably 91 (77%) To some extent 25 (21%) Not really 2 (2%) 
 
5(O). In your opinion, are the participants a pplying their acquired knowledge in the present 
positions?  (N=34) 
 
 Considerably 21 (62%) To some extent 12 (35%) Not really 1 (3%) 
 
14. To what extent were you able to apply the knowledge in your work at the time of the 
training?  (N=87) 
 
 Considerably 43 (49%) To some extent 35 (40%) Not at all 9 (10%) 
 
15. Are you able to apply it now in your current responsibilities? (N=84) 
 
 Yes 78 (93%) No 6 (7%) 
 
Box VI.3.2: Examples of Application of Training 
 
4c. Could you give us examples of how you used it? 
 
• During discussion with line ministries for am ending/formulating la ws and regulations 
regarding General Agreement on Tr ade in Services (GATS) provision 
• To 'hold on' and argue in negotiations with the WTO and other agencies/countries 
• I used GATS principles to back up my negotiations with the ASEAN 
• I used knowledge gained on anti-dumping (AD) duties, countervailing duties (CVD) 
and Safeguards to discuss the draft national law on those subjects 
• For FTAs negotiations and dispute settlement mechanism meetings 
• The TPC was very useful to get ready for our accession negotiations 
• To do tariff notifications 
• I used it to develop case studies for my courses and I am preparing a book on 
WTO accession in the region with othe r participants to the workshop 
• To develop a new legal framewo rk for government procurement 
• To change our practices on food safety standards 
• We used the information to investigate a case related to the safeguard agreement 
• In preparing requests for bilateral negotiations with acceding countries 
• Examination of draft legislation to dete rmine its conformity with WTO provisions 
• I have used the knowledge about WTO provisions and tariff regimes in other 
countries in the process of building and developing the national tariff system 
• To work on IPR-related issues during the TPR process in cooperation with the 
national Patent Office 
Box IV.3.2  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  • I can apply the knowledge acquired from WTO training on SPS (when I was still a 
government official) to my present work in a company that exports foodstuffs 
• To prepare WTO negotiation and understand the issues on the table 
• To formulate positions for the Hong Kong Ministerial 
• Prepared a draft proposal for notification 
• Learned that we were not in conform ity as we had not notified the WTO on TBT 
• We changed our position on Trade Fac ilitation and undertook a new business 
initiative on Trade Facilitation 
• Networking with other participants was very  useful to see different perspectives on 
WTO 
• Individual advice to exporters and other stakeholders 
• Prepared briefs and became involved in an AD case 
• Helpful in designing and negotiating FTA 
• Useful background for briefing domestic e xporters and discussi on with relevant 
ministries and official agencies 
• Regional integration on TBT issues 
• To apply safeguards against imports from another country 
• Interpretation of the Agreement on Agricultu re and notifications required, which was 
also useful for FTA negotiations, consider ing options for compensation and room for 
manoeuvre including safeguards 
• Networking with regional allies on mu ltilateral negotiations and RTAs 
• To prepare background notes and other short analyses for briefing the Minister before 
visiting another country 
• Preparation for the TPR 
• Networking with WTO for further CB. 
 
Box VI.4:  Views on Dissemination 
 
5. Did you write and submit a report of  the programme you attended? (N=110) 
 
 Yes 78 (71%) No 32 (29%)  17. Did you have the opportunity to share the information on the training programme 
received with your colleagues in your department and other government departments? (N=105) 
 
 Yes 95 (83%) No 20 (17%)  18a. Were you able to organize a meeting/briefi ng/workshop to disseminate the information 
in your department? (N=114) 
 
 Yes 64 (56%) No 50 (44%)  
Box IV.4 (cont'd) WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  18b. Were participants from other government  departments/agencies/organisations also 
invited to the meeting/workshop? (N=59) 
 
 Yes 31 (52.5%) No 28 (47.5%)  18c. What was the level of response to th is meeting/briefing/workshop? (N=49) 
 
 Very poor: 0 (0%)  Poor:  0 (0%)  Fair:  5 (10%) 
 Good:  33 (67%) 
 Very good: 11 (22%)  
19. Have you shared the acquired knowledge with other stakeholders, such as producer 
groups, business associations, civil societ y groups, as a resource person? (N=108) 
 
 Yes 65 (60%) No 43 (40%)  
 VII. MANAGEMENT AND EFFICIENCY 
 In the course of our interviews and literature re view there were several issues that arose with 
respect to the management of the WTO's TRTA that impact on its efficiency and effectiveness.  These 
covered a wide range from management of the prog ramme, selection of participants, quality control of 
trainers, and evaluation more generally, to manageme nt of partnerships, follow-up activities, cost-
effectiveness, funding and various logistical issues.   While some of these are the responsibility of the 
WTO Secretariat, others relate to national reci pient governments, donors, and multilateral agencies. 
 
Management of the ITTC 
 
 It is a truism to state that strong leadership plays an important part in the performance of any 
joint activity. The provision of TRTA is, of course, no exception.  In fact, it can even be argued that 
dynamic leadership in WTO-provided TRTA is as im portant as most other WTO divisions in view of 
the specific development mandate under the DDA.  This can also be attributed to the perception that 
TRTA is of a secondary nature in WTO's primary mandate and work, which is servicing the Members 
on negotiations. 
 
 Based on off-the-record discussions with WTO st aff and personal interactions, this Review 
has found that there is a lack of missionary zeal in  the management of the ITTC.  The approach is 
characterized by routine churning out of TRTA ac tivities within a pre-determined static framework.  
This includes responding to requests and meeting d eadlines, rather than by personally motivated 
people who are driven by an ambition and the visi on to ensure that TRTA has a desirable and long-
lasting impact and who, equally important, can spread this missionary zeal to the rest of the staff. 
 
Selection of participants 
 
 The process of selecting participants is la rgely within national governments' authority, 
typically in the WTO focal point in the trade ministry, though with some input from WTO missions in 
Geneva.  As many as 22 per cent of  our interviewees did not know what process was used to make 
these selections (Box VII.3; in Bangladesh 11 of 15  did not know).  In many countries the process 
appears to be ad hoc and several participants sugg ested that the processes could be improved to ensure 
both greater uniformity in the knowledge level and expectations of participants, as well as broader  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 69 
 
 
  representation of stakeholders from other parts of government and non-government agencies.  This is 
important to ensure that courses are effective and th at some participants do not act as a drag on others. 
 
Box VII. 1: The WTO's TRTA Institutional Structure 
 At the heart of the Secretariat's TRTA are the ITTC, the Technical Assistance Management 
Committee (TAMC) and the Technical Cooperation Audit (TCA) unit. In addition, the various 
Operational Divisions (ODs) play a significant role in the delivery of activities.  While TRTA falls under the responsibility of Deputy-Director Gene ral Ms. Rugwabiza, the Committee on Trade and 
Development (CTD) oversees this work. 
 
Institute for Training and Technical Co-operation 
The ITTC is the focal point of the WTO's TRTA, being the key manager a nd coordinator of these 
activities.  The division was created in March 2003  through a merger of the WTO Training Institute 
and the Technical Cooperation Division.  The merger was partly an effort to integrate training and 
technical cooperation and thereby maximize potential synergies.  At the end of February 2006, the ITTC was divided into seven units (excluding the Director's office) with a total 39 staff (see 
organigramme on p. 77). 
 
Technical Assistance Management Committee  
The TAMC was set up in 2001 to ensure the coordi nation and coherence of WTO TRTA internally 
and externally, acting as a forum for discussions a nd sharing of knowledge between TRTA providers, 
the ITTC and ODs.  It has met up to ten times annually since then (five times in 2005).  It consists of a 
Deputy Director-General (chair) and Directors of relevant divisions (ITTC, Economic Research and 
Statistics, Development, Budget and Controls Section).  It is assisted by contact persons in each OD 
(about 26 people in total).  
Technical Cooperation Audit   
The TCA unit was established in early 2001 in orde r to monitor and evaluate WTO's TRTA and since 
then it has produced an annual evaluation report on th e previous year's TRTA activities.  It currently 
includes one permanent and one contracted staff persons.  
Operational Divisions 
The WTO Operational Divisions are the main provi ders of TRTA, relating to the Agreements under 
their responsibility as well as in various TPCs a nd introductory courses.  Some 200 staff from ODs 
contribute to Geneva- and/or field-based activities in a variety of workshops and training events. 
 
Committee on Trade and Development 
The CTD is the forum where WTO Members discu ss and establish guidelines for WTO TRTA.  It 
convenes on a formal basis roughly once a quarter to consider TRTA and other regular business. 
 
  Most governments centralize selection of particip ants in the WTO department or focal point 
in the trade/trade and industry, commerce, economy, foreign affairs or foreign affairs and trade 
ministries, and these in turn tend to give priority  to officials in their ministries.  Even when 
specialized issues such as SPS/TBT are involved, officials fro m the specialized agencies are not 
necessarily the first to be selected.  Involvement in the national trade policymaking machinery such as 
the National Committee on the WTO (NCWTO) in Ke nya and the CNNCI in Senegal has been one 
criterion used to identify candidates for the WT O courses, an approach that was considered 
appropriate by many interviewees as the trainees ar e likely to use the knowledge gained to be more 
active participants in these national machineries.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 70  
 
   But otherwise the tendency in most countries h as been to build up a cadre of officials with 
WTO training in the central trade ministries before  extending these opportunities to those in other line 
agencies involved in trade (agriculture, customs, indus try etc.), let alone academics, private sector and 
CSO representatives.  In some smaller countries with  smaller bureaucracies, th ere were fewer officials 
to choose from and so fewer concerns about selection procedures. 
 
 In terms of gender  representation, in one country it was noted that having the foreign affairs 
ministry determine and dominate participants in general WTO courses, means there is a gender bias 
amongst trainees, given the disproportionate number of men in that ministry.  In another country the 
higher proportion of women in the public sector wh ere salaries are much lower than in the private 
sector, had had the opposite effect.  Otherwise ther e was no general pattern of gender discrimination 
in the selection of participants.   Some countries have an age limit, which was found to be dysfunctional, as it prevented more 
senior, permanent officers from updating and strengthening their technical knowledge via 
WTO courses. 
  Some concerns about inappropriate allocati on procedures could be addressed by introducing 
greater transparency.  Whilst recognising that in some countries internet communication is not widely accessible, one suggestion is that the WTO announ ce on its website each time that it is contacting 
governments to nominate participants for particular  courses.  This publicity would encourage other 
stakeholders to put forward possible candidates th rough the appropriate nati onal channels.  "Expanded 
diffusion would allow technical officers – and not only diplomats – to participate.  An improved selection of the participants would lead to more relevant TA and lasting results" according to one 
interviewee.  One suggestion was to have a sub- committee of national trade machineries manage or 
review the selection process. 
 
 Others suggested that the WTO and specifica lly ITTC establish benchmarks for identifying 
participants for all courses.  Governments coul d then designate a pool of officials requiring 
WTO training for their work and onl y these participants would be able to participate in the courses 
and training.  The list could be shared with the WTO and made public, as a way to monitor the 
selection of participants.  The WTO could also b ecome more directly invo lved in working with 
governments to screen participants, building on th e approach followed for the Geneva-based TPCs 
and the internship programmes, or even have count ries forward a short-list of potential candidates to 
the WTO for it to make the final selection.  But generally there were not so many problems with 
participant selection as to warrant  such an intrusive approach. 
 
 In some countries there is a human resource ma nagement problem that has diluted the impact 
of the WTO and other TRTA;  this is associated w ith high turnover rates, departmental restructuring 
and the departure of some officials to the private sector, where salaries are often much higher.  Such 
movement is not completely negative – it can help to mainstream awareness of WTO issues.  But it 
can undermine efforts to build up a core of traine d people within government and thus capacity to 
design, negotiate and implement trade rules.  In order to stem the associated loss of human capital, the 
WTO has suggested that participants in the TPCs be required to commit to staying in their jobs for a 
minimum period.  In several countries this appro ach is followed although making such requirements 
binding goes against labour laws in many, and th erefore it cannot always be enforced.  Another 
strategy might be for external funding to be used to  retain recently trained staff, for instance through 
additional salary or the promise of further training ( as in the case of the pilot project for economists in 
Zambia which is being proposed for bilateral support under the IF). 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 71 
 
 
  Quality control of trainers 
 
 While in general WTO courses are recognized as high quality, questions have been raised 
about the WTO's approach to quality control – whether there is a clear policy or practice, for instance, 
to ensure that trainers meet certain standards.  In 2002, a To T initiative to improve their performance 
was considered useful but it was not followed up sub sequently, despite some internal suggestions that 
this and more personalized tuition were desirable.  This lack of follow-up has meant that the newer 
recruits have not been given the opportunity to attend a ToT. Some BTORs also underlined this 
need.49  According to ITTC staff, one way to ensure that training skills are taken more seriously by 
managers and experts would be to include a tr aining performance indicator in WTO staff annual 
evaluations; certainly this would be consistent w ith the emphasis now given to training in the WTO's 
TRTA mandate.   Another issue is to ensure that if an expert cannot turn up as planned, say in a RTPC, that the 
person replacing them has appropriate expertise. 
 
 Some experts might also benefit from trai ning to work with non-WTO partners (both 
Northern and Southern), some of whom have compla ined about being corrected or contradicted in the 
course of their presentations.  
                                                     
 
49 According to the BTORs for the 8th Introduction Course for LDCs, 71% of participants ranked 
sessions given by ITTC trainers as very successful compared to 42% for sessions given by experts from other 
divisions.  
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 72 
ENGLISH-
SPEAKING 
AFRICAN 
COUNTRIES  
D. YEBOAH M. HASSAN ASIA & PACIFIC 
COUNTRIES 
R.KROMMENACKEREUROPE,  
CENTRAL ASIAN,  
MIDDLE EAST & 
ARAB COUNTRIES 
POLICY ISSUES,  
TA COORDINATION
TAMC 
M. SMEETS  
S. SEIF EL YAZAL 
I. CELESTIN 
  LATIN AMERICA & 
CARIBBEAN  
COUNTRIES  
P. GOMEZ TORAN FRENCH-SPEAKING  
AFRICAN 
COUNTRIES,  
AGENCE DE LA 
FRANCOPHONIE  
and JITAP Distance-Learning 
Universities 
Regional Trade 
Policy Courses 
Training-of-Trainers
Reference Centres 
Fellowships 
Databases
S. MARCHESE 
M. GAGLIARDI 
G. TOURETTE 
G. THIELEN 
E. BACCOUCHE 
R. MAILLOUX-H 
D. HALLORAN  
S. HARRISON 
M. SALETTE 
M-F. RIVIERE 
A. URBANSKI 
E. VILLACORTA 
B. AUSTEN 
A. BERTHON Trade-Policy Courses 
Introduction Courses 
Specialized Courses 
Introduction Days 
ITTC Support Library 
Programme Support 
J-D. REY  
J. MAGALHAES 
C. TROLLIET 
D. MORALES 
C. SCHWALLER  
M. SYRAT 
M. COMTE 
M. CHELLEMBROMDIRECTOR  
P. ROLIAN C. FAVRE-POULET ADMIN . ASSISTANT  
SECRETARIAT  
J. DUNN 
N. BROUILLAUD 
N. BOURRU 
S. ROETHLISBERGER 
V. SCERBO 
J-M. FORTIN 
W. CHATSIKA 
D. ALI Chart 3.  Organisation Chart of the Institute for Training and Technical Cooperation (ITTC) 
(as on 21 February 2006) 
 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 73 
 
 
  Evaluation 
 
 In recent years the WTO Secretariat has taken several steps to expand the evaluation of its 
training programme, in order to ensure that its r esults are in line with its objectives.  Until this 
strategic review, the focus had been on self-evaluatio ns by trainees and WTO trainers, combined with 
on-site evaluations by the TCA.  The Rules Division has proposed an ex-post evaluation of its courses 
some 8 to 12 months after completion of its c ourses and similar ex-post evaluations were to be 
followed in the TPCs, to determine bot h individual and institutional impacts. 
  There are several ways in which even this inte rnal self-evaluation can be strengthened.  For 
instance in the case of the RTPCs, according to one interviewee, Sout hern trainers should be asked to 
complete BTORs as per the WTO trainers.   Evaluation needs to be done both systematically  and seriously.  Some interviewees suggested 
that evaluation was difficult when it was not confiden tial, while a few others noted that there was an 
incentive at least in the case of courses involving trav el and per diems to report favourably on courses.  
Even so, the degree of thoughtful and constructivel y critical comments we received in the course of 
our interviews suggested that participants find it in their interests to provide accurate feedback. 
  Evaluation of trainees is rarely undertaken.  Some interviewees thought that this would be 
useful – whether it was undertaken by the WTO trainer, Secretariat, or the national ministry or 
agency.  In the case of longer courses this could take  the form of written tests while shorter courses 
could involve oral tests.  (N.B. oral tests may be less feasible given trainer time constraints).  Such an evaluation could be shared with senior officials and used as input into future performance evaluation.  
Others suggested that trainees be required to comple te BTORs as do the trainers in order to provide 
more feedback on the strengths a nd weaknesses of the TRTA – a nd to provide input to national 
human resource managers. 
  Besides the evaluation forms completed at the end of courses, many trainees are expected to 
prepare reports on their training for their employers; 45 per cent of our respondents had done so (Box VII.  4).  Typically these are presented to thei r directors and occasionally even shared with their 
ministers.  While there is rarely a fixed outline fo r such reports, they usually combine commentaries 
on the substance of the courses, how the training might be used, as well as observations about the 
competence of the trainers, quality of materials, and other observations.  They were rarely accessible 
to others considering doing WTO courses – in th e same or other departments (an exception being 
Cambodia) – and only rarely sent to the WTO.  Management of partnerships 
 
 In order to respond to growing demands for TRTA in a wide range of areas, involving 
increasing technical knowledge and with greater regiona l if not national content, the WTO has greatly 
expanded the number of partnerships in which it is involved.  Informal estimates suggest that as many 
as three-quarters of WTO courses involve other agencies.  The main exception is the national 
activities, which typically only involve WTO traine rs (though in the case of JITAP, the WTO works 
with UNCTAD and the ITC).  And at the same time  other agencies are asking the WTO to participate 
in courses, which they are running (75 or 16 per cent of all activities involving the WTO in 2005
50). 
  One reason for the uncertainty about the extent  of partnerships is that this is managed 
informally, 'in a pragmatic way'.
51  The Secretariat has signed between two and three dozen MoUs 
with other agencies to govern collaboration in TR TA but in many cases these have expired without 
being used.  Generally Secretariat staff consider info rmal relations are more effective.  Several other 
                                                      
50 WT/COMTD/W/146 p. 39. 
51 Para. 157, WT/COMTD/W/146. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 74  
 
  agencies disagree, arguing that a MoU can clarify sev eral aspects needed to en sure that partnerships 
work well.  (For an example of good practice, see Box VII.2 on WTO-INTAL collaboration.)  
Box VII.2:  WTO-INTAL Collaboration 
 In Latin America and the Caribbean, many WT O TRTA activities are now undertaken in close 
partnership with the Inter-American Developm ent Bank (IDB) and its arm INTAL, under a MoU 
signed by the IDB and the WTO in February 2002.  The following are some key characteristics:  
• The WTO with the Integration, Trade and Hemispheric Issues Division (ITHID) of 
the IDB and INTAL has jointly develope d a trade negotiations training course. 
• The annual programme for the region – the selection of topics, calendar, places and 
trainers – is designed jointly by the WTO's ITTC in consultation with delegations in 
Geneva and the IDB/INTAL. 
• The programme involves 12-15 regional c ourses a year, and is flexible enough to 
incorporate topics relating to the state of the Doha negotiations. 
• The IDB provides US$600,000 annually for these activities and INTAL provides two 
full-time officers. 
• The training is provided by WTO experts of the WTO, alongside IDB experts from 
the ITHID. 
• The WTO usually provides documentation and teaching materials. 
• Courses are provided in only one language at a time – English in the Caribbean and 
Spanish in Latin America. 
• Trainees are national government officials, appointed by their respective ministries, 
and whose working responsibilities are closely related to the process of trade negotiation, at a regional or multilateral level. 
• After each course trainees are encouraged to fill in an evaluation form to help 
improve the next year's activities. 
• The Joint Programme has produced a number  of concrete, region-specific examples. 
• Despite the overall positive experience, ther e is still scope to: improve the "match" 
between trainers and trainees; fine tune th e level of instruction; identify appropriate 
trainees;  mesh the WTO's one year planning horizon with the longer term perspectives of the IDB; and strengthen th e Latin American partners' role in the 
planning, design and content of the activities. 
 
Cost effectiveness 
 
 One issue that arose in some interviews was the relative cost of WTO TRTA compared to that 
offered by national training institutions such as universities or administrative staff colleges ( 'les écoles 
d'administration et de douane' ).  For instance, we were told that the average cost of a participant in 
the three-month RTPC in the Caribbean is some  US$30,000 whereas a similar course offered by 
UWI-Cave Hill campus in Barbados, taught by Cari bbean and international specialists costs some 
US$6,000 (excluding accommodation and travel costs).52 
  In terms of courses offered by the WTO, in terviewees generally suggested that national 
courses were the most cost-effective, as many mo re national officials and others could attend, 
                                                     
 
52 Airfares and accommodation are included in the WTO costs.  The 18-month long Masters Program 
in International Trade offered at the same campus cost $14,000 per participant in 2006 ($15,000 from 2007).  
This course involves nine months of teaching, one-month study tour and five months of internship/placement.  It is noteworthy that Caribbean governments and businesses are willing to pay the shorte r course fees even while 
the WTO equivalent course would be free to most of them.  This information is from interviews in Barbados and 
correspondence with the UWI course assistant.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 75 
 
 
  compared to the one or two participants normally  allowed for other courses.  (An exception is the 
regional courses in which host countries are able to have more national participants.)  For the WTO 
the cost-savings are primarily in terms of  participants' travel and per diem costs.53  Besides the 
financial benefits, there are several benefits to recipient countries (as alre ady discussed in the section 
on relevance).  National courses typically involved representatives from other ministries and agencies 
besides those dealing with trade or foreign affairs;  also there was often the possibility of one or two 
participants from a national unive rsity and CSOs.  In this way, TRTA was more likely to be 
mainstreamed and national trainers to be develope d, than with other courses.  National courses also 
allow for more tailoring of presentations, discussion a nd materials to the national context.  On the 
other hand, there would be a loss of the networki ng with officials from regional or more distant 
trading partners, and the exchange of national e xperiences, which have been associated with the 
courses outside trainees' home countries, as underlined earlier.   Most interviewees were satisfied with the si ze of classes, which averaged 25-30.  The few 
courses with as many as 150 participants from around the world (as reported in a course on domestic 
regulation) were considered too large to allow for much discussion. 
 
Funding 
 
As with many TRTA programmes, there are a nu mber of issues relating to funding that have 
complicated management of the WTO's TRTA, in particular making it more difficult to develop 
longer-term plans.  (NB. Even with fully committed funding, there will always be some uncertainty in 
the WTO plan given that both the supply and the demand for certain types of training are contingent on developments in the WTO, and notably in the negotiations.)   Funding for TRTA is drawn from various po ols – the regular budget (which covers the 
Geneva-based activities, some specialized national activities, research collaboration and dissemination 
of documents to academics for a total of SFr5.3 m illion in 2006), the DDAGTF, other trust funds and 
cost sharing (see Chart 4).   According to WTO financial rules
54 the Secretariat needs to have in place 25 per cent of its 
annual plan funds by December 31, 75 per cen t by March 31, and the remaining 25 per cent by 
June 30.  Failing this, the activities have to be scal ed back.  By May 2, 2006, only SFr13 million had 
been pledged i.e. barely half of what was needed for the whole year (see Chart 4).  (Some of the delays may have been the result of donors wa iting the findings of this Strategic Review.) 
  While there has been no case as yet of funding not  materialising, this uncertainty has made it 
more difficult for ITTC to make longer-term comm itments, and at one point  it seemed that the RTPC 
might be in jeopardy.  One suggestion might be that  a reserve fund be created to provide a buffer.  
Ideally the ITTC should be able to programme regiona l activities in a two-year cycle, even if national 
activities are planned on a shorter one-year cycle in order to allow for greater flexibility in responding 
to short-term national requests.  Pre- and post-training activities ('follow-up') 
 
 Many people interviewed suggested that the WTO needed to develop an overarching plan for 
its training courses.  This would require not only so me reflection on how different courses relate to 
                                                     
 
53 The WTO does not track costs on a per participant/d ay basis except where it has to cover the costs of 
a participant.  This makes it difficult to compare costs.  Assuming an average of 30 people in a national seminar, 
however, costs per day in 2004 would have been SFr 57, compared to SFr1,100 for regional activities (assuming no local participants), 500 for RTPCs and 2,300 for regional activities at WTO headquarters, according to 
information from the Secretariat. 
54 Annex B WT/BFA/56. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 76  
 
  each other, and whether different courses add up to a coherent programme, but also what pre- and 
post-training activities might be needed to maximize the benefits of the courses.   Pre-training is an idea that has been introdu ced, for instance with electronic courses, to bring 
people up to the same level in advance of a course.  While it is still fairly limited, those interviewees 
who had experienced it suggested that it was very useful, though some had experienced problems with 
slow internet connections.  Certainly pre-traini ng complements careful participant selection as a way 
to ensure trainees are at a similar knowledge level wh en they start courses, thereby helping to improve 
their overall effectiveness.  
 In terms of follow-up activities, there was a ge neral sense that more could be done.  Over 
90 per cent of respondents noted that there had been no follow-up by the WTO (Box VII. 5).  Many trainees reported keeping in touch with counterpart s from other countries who had participated in the 
same courses, through informal netw orks such as electronic chat room s.  But others suggested that 
there was a role for the WTO to provide various types of follow-up – over three-quarters thought that 
such activities were required.  An obvious need was for further training – to deepen knowledge 
acquired in the introductory and shorter courses in or der to develop expertise in certain areas, and in 
particular to develop analytical skills.   Another suggestion was for the WTO to facilita te contact between course participants and 
trainers, to allow trainees to share ideas with each  other and contact experts /trainers with follow-up 
questions.  Some follow-up contact with experts alre ady takes place – and interviewees noted that this 
had been timely and helpful – but it could be strengthened.
55  But there were many ideas about other 
initiatives that the WTO could undertake.   For instance, these included sending trainees update d information on the issue in which they 
were trained;  assistance with organising WTO materials (in some countries the reference centres are 
not fully functional); assistance with compiling natio nal statistics, and providing access to analytical 
tools, international databases and studies needed for analytical work;  and providing funds to participate in negotiating meetings.  
Logistics 
 
 In our interviews and meetings, several points were raised about the logistics and how minor 
changes could help to improve the qua lity of the courses in various ways. 
 
Advance delivery of information about course content and materials
 
 
 Given that much of the WTO's courses are modular, it is surprising that many participants complained about not receiving materials let alone information about course content in advance of the 
courses.  This is not always the case – for some of the longer courses, this is done more systematically as participants are encouraged to prepare for the cour se.  But it is also important for shorter courses or 
workshops in which a lot of material is covered in two or three days.  Sending a list of readings, 
identifying which are recommended and which opti onal, and where they might be sourced on the 
Internet, with a minimum three week notice, shoul d be a basic principle for all courses.  The WTO 
reference centres in each country might be used as a distribution centre for these training resources. 
 
                                                     
 
55 In the case of the International Program for Development Evaluation Training (IPDET) presently run 
out of Carleton University, the organizers emphasize group building and networking among individuals during the programme, providing contact lists for all trainees, maintaining a list serve for problem solving and tracking 
down resources, and follow-up mini-courses organized by the trainees themselves.  Correspondence with IPDET 
manager, June 2006.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 77 
 
 
   The WTO appears to be behind the industry standa rd in this respect.  In contrast to the very 
limited course descriptions on  the WTO website56, there is a detailed syllabus including list of 
readings on the websites for the Masters in International Trade Policy at UWI57, the Certificate 
Program in Trade Policy and Commercial Diplomacy at the Centre of Trade Policy and Law (CTPL), Carleton University
58, and UNCTAD's Virtual Institute.59  On the other hand this information is not 
available for the courses organized by the Joint Vienna Institute. 
 
Language of instruction and discussion  
 
 As mentioned already in the section on relevan ce, language difficulties have been an obstacle 
for many trainees.  Interviewees recommended that the WTO make more effort to expand the range of 
materials and instruction in all three official langua ges, i.e. Spanish and French as well as English, 
and consider working with trainers and materials in other regional languages such as Russian and 
Arabic.  Even so, participants' proficiency in th ese languages needs to be subjected to more rigorous 
testing.  The present tests do not appear to have weaned out those unable to comprehend the training 
or to participate in the discussions.  Lack of proficiency has diluted the impact of courses. 
 
Box VII. 3:  Views on Selection procedures 
 
2a. Are you aware of the selection procedu re of this training activity?  (N=117) 
 
 Yes 91 (78%) No 26 (22%) 
 
2b. Was your country mission in Geneva involve d with the process of selection?  (N=111) 
 
 Yes 21 (19%) No 61 (55%) Don't know 29 (26%) 
 
Box VII. 4:  National Assessments 
 
13a. Other than the assessment done by the WT O were you asked to make an assessment of 
the training programme by your department?  (N=101) 
 
 Yes 45 (45%) No 56 (55%) 
 
13b. If yes, was that assessment shared with your department?  (N=40) 
 
 Yes 37 (93%) 3 No (7%) 
 
13c. Do you know whether that assessment wa s sent to the WTO or not?  (N=41) 
 
 Yes 2 (5%) No 28 (68%) Don't know 11 (27%) 
 
                                                      
56 www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel _e/train_e/tradepolicycourse_e.htm.  
57 www.cavehill.uwi.edu/trad epolicy/courses.html.  
58 www.carleton.ca/ctpl/pdf/training/ctp l_certificate_progr am_syllabus.pdf.  
59 In the case of the Virtual Institute, correspondence with the course supervisor is needed before 
gaining access to the documentation. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 78  
 
  Box VII. 5:  Views on Follow-up training and other activities 
 
20a. Was there any follow-up by the WTO to th e training programme that you attended?  
(N=105) 
 
 Yes 10 (9.5%) No 95 (90.5%) 
 
20b. If yes, did you participate in that follow-up training programme?  (N=8) 
 
 Yes 7 (87.5%) No 1 (12.5%) 
 
20c. If no, do you think follow-up activities were required?  (N=74) 
 
 Yes  58 (78%) No 16 (22%) 
 
20d. Did you request your government to request a follow-up training activity?  (N=81) 
 
 Yes  21 (26%) No 60 (74%) 
 
Chart 4.  WTO TA and Training Plan Funding Sources 2006 
(SFr millions) 
 
    
 
     
 
  
Source :  Derived from WT/COMTD/M/54, page 31. 
 
VIII.  FINDINGS, LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 In this section we present the findings, less ons learned and recommendations of the three 
preceding sections on comparative advantage, rele vance, and management and efficiency.  Key 
messages have been identified under each of th e three aspects of WTO TRTA and the findings, 
lessons learned and recommendations are accordingl y organized under the relevant key messages. 
 
Comparative Advantage 
 
Credible core competencies in trade law  
 
Findings 
 
• There is widespread agreement that th e WTO Secretariat has strong comparative 
advantage in knowledge and information about the WTO system of rules and 
procedures, and the related history of thei r negotiation and use, particularly from a 
legal perspective. Regular budget 
DDAGTF 
Other Trust Funds  
Cost-sharin g7.1 5.3 
1.6 
24  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 79 
 
 
   
• The WTO's more detailed knowledge of the rules and their application is highly 
valued. 
 
• The WTO is considered less biased than many other official agencies involved in 
TRTA.  But the requirement for neutrality can limit the scope of its advice and 
sometimes it appears to be pro-liberalisation. 
 
• The WTO has less capacity to provide t echnical assistance and training on the 
development dimensions of trade rules, th e political aspects of negotiations (both in 
terms of domestic politics and in relations hip to major trading partners), and on 
analytical techniques. 
 Lessons Learned 
 
• The WTO's neutrality can act as a constraint , and despite this neutrality, interpretation 
of WTO rules and negotiations by the WTO experts sometimes reflects certain bureaucratic and ideological interests or preferences. 
 
• The question is whether the WTO is equipped to deliver training on trade and 
development, political skills of negotiation, and analytical skills.  There is scope for 
greater collaboration with specialized and regional agencies for training and capacity building on such issues, which would complement WTO's expertise and training. 
 
• Outsourcing of basic training on WTO issues would be consistent with the preference 
of some donors.  More importantly, it would allow the WTO to focus on more 
technically complex issues, given its limite d resources (human as well as financial). 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Consider outsourcing the training on basic information about the WTO's history and 
rules to other organisations now having knowledge on such issues. 
 
• Move up the trade system knowledge value chain with, for instance, courses on latest 
jurisprudence and conduct a version of 'trade  clinics' that respond to the specific 
queries and assessed needs of recipient countries. 
 
• Deepen coordination and collaboration with  other international organisations and 
agencies, especially to ensure that TRTA  needs in terms of 1) pre-negotiations 
analysis and policy consultations, 2) post-a greement adjustments, and 3) supply-side 
capacity are met by non-WTO programmes. 
 
• Extend decentralisation and devolution to re gional institutions;  for instance, work 
with national economic research centres to run national courses on analytical skills and to undertake impact assessments. 
 Building deeper partnerships 
 
Findings 
 
• The WTO has greatly expanded the number of its  partnerships, but the nature of these 
partnerships remains underdeveloped.  Partne rships are often managed informally, 'in 
a pragmatic way'. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 80  
 
   
• Some partners are better able to address policy issues confronting national ministries 
such as Preferential Trading Arrangements (PTAs) that go beyond a WTO-specific focus. 
 Lessons Learned 
 
• The 'hub and spoke' approach to partners hip – with the WTO as the hub – needs 
revision to make TRTA more inclusive and appropriate to recipients' needs. 
 
• Several partner agencies find informal relati ons to be less effective than the WTO, 
arguing that a memorandum of understanding can clarify several aspects needed to 
ensure that partnerships work well. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Move from 'hub and spoke' to joint partners hips with other agencies/donors and with 
recipients. 
 
• Move from Geneva-based towards a more regional and in-country approach. 
 
• When working with partne rs, delegate more responsibility for courses to them, 
leaving the WTO to play a supportive role. 
 
Transforming ITTC into a fully -fledged training institution 
 
Findings 
 
• WTO is seen as having developed good traini ng courses taught by people with strong 
subject knowledge. 
 
• These courses have become better planned si nce the formation of the ITTC, which is 
a part of the WTO Secretariat. 
 
• However, the ITTC is not as fully developed a training institution as others that have 
been involved in training for longer and on a larger-scale and/or in a more integrated fashion. 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• The ITTC's mandate may limit the scope and a pproach of training offered, relative to 
an institution with training as its primary mandate. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Build the capacity of subject matter experts to deliver training and not just content 
lectures.  This could involve obligatory annual/biennial training courses and the 
creation of a training 'help desk' in ITTC  for trainers to consult as needed, and 
particularly when developing a new course. 
 
• Create and support networks of trainers so that they can regularly exchange notes and 
ideas. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 81 
 
 
  • The ITTC should systematize training of trainers and develop teaching materials for 
courses and workshops to be used by the tr ainers, both in government and in other 
training centres. 
 
• Work with recipient governments to he lp trainees become capable trainers. 
 
• Work with recipient governments and other members to strengthen the autonomy and 
freedom of ITTC.  Expect it to prepare a work programme drawing on ideas from recipient countries and partners every two to three years. 
 
Relevance 
 
Absence of effective needs assessments 
 
Findings 
 
• Despite the importance of national needs assessment to ensure effective TRTA, in 
few countries is there a clear process for doing this, let alone an action plan that details how those needs should be met. 
 
• Yet TRTA needs assessment can be effe ctive when undertaken by recipient 
governments in collaboration with nati onal stakeholders.  Donors and/or 
regional/multilateral agencies can provide help in this process. 
 
• The WTO has a variety of tools to assist needs assessment and planning; 
e.g. internships, Trade Policy Reviews (though these are not sufficiently frequent) 
and the WTO/OECD database (though this  has a number of shortcomings). 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• The WTO should help recipient countries to introduce/improve domestic national 
needs assessment procedures. 
 
• National inter-ministerial committees can be effective in developing plans for training 
needs. 
 
• There are a number of useful mechanisms (for example, internships, TPRs, TCBDB) 
at the WTO Secretariat's disposal but these could be used more systematically. 
 Recommendations 
 
• The WTO should be aware of the instituti onal weaknesses limiting countries' capacity 
to assess their national needs, and work w ith governments to address this problem, for 
instance through inter-ministerial or multi-stakeholder committees focusing on trade. 
 
• The WTO should work with the OECD to  make the Trade Capacity Building 
Database more useful for planning purposes by including prospective as well as 
retrospective information, and ensuring  greater compatibility among the different 
providers' data. 
 
• A questionnaire could be sent to prospective TRTA participants to collect information 
about their strengths and weaknesses as well as establish their own priorities. 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 82  
 
  Course content and approach still to  respond to specific national needs 
 
Findings 
 
• WTO TRTA is predominantly modular with limited flexibility to adjust its content to 
recipients' specific needs.  National courses offer more flexibility, but are limited in 
number.  The Secretariat considers this to  be a demand-driven approach, but most 
recipients find it supply-driven. 
 
• Training is often theoretical, juridical a nd general, thus limited to describing 
agreements and focusing on legal aspects.  There is less focus on economic and social 
analysis. 
 
• Where practical examples are used to illustra te particular issues, they are often not 
relevant to national experiences.  But there is some useful case-study material emerging from the Economic Research and Statistics Division. 
 
• Outsourcing (out of Geneva as well as to other agencies) has begun to allow for a 
broader approach and to address specific nati onal and regional needs, but it is still too 
ad hoc/limited, except in the case of  Regional Trade Policy Courses. 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• The modular approach makes the WTO's TRTA activities too status quo oriented and 
without the flexibility needed for training to respond to needs. 
 
• Being too focused on legal aspects – and less on economic and social analysis – gives 
a sense that training builds officials' capac ity as effective rule-implementers rather 
than rule-makers. 
 
• Use of regional and national experts alongsid e WTO trainers helps to provide more 
relevant perspectives and material. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• The ITTC should promote awareness in  recipient governments about what 
TRTA activities can be provided by the WTO. 
 
• Provide more assistance, with other partne rs, to help countries develop negotiating 
and analytical skills to better identify their trade interests and assert their trade rights. 
 
• Draw more on case-study material and research from within WTO and from outside. 
 
• Ask participants to prepare brief reports on country-specific problems and/or issues, 
for presentation and discussion during a course. 
 
• Provide more training of national and regi onal experts to provide advice and act as 
trainers used by the WTO for regional and in-country courses. 
 
• Move from WTO-centric content to a more comprehensive approach, which 
addresses the broad range of trade policy issues now facing many developing country trade ministries. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  Product-related objectives partially met 
 
Findings 
 
• Short TRTA activities (i.e. less than one w eek) provide substantial information but do 
not allow sufficient time for digestion and simulations or practical exercises. 
 
• Material is mostly useful, but not always adequate to needs. It is not systematically 
sent out to participants in advance of training. 
 
• The WTO's attempt to maintain a neutral pos ition is generally cons idered appropriate, 
but there is a concern that it interprets its neutrality mandate too narrowly and has a 
trade liberalisation bias. 
 
• WTO's TRTA is currently lecture-based rath er than based on problem solving (with 
relevant case studies) though the longer TPCs and especially the RTPCs are moving in this direction. 
 
• There has been a problem with the langua ge of instruction and materials for non-
Anglophone participants. 
 
• The size of classes is generally considered appropriate, but lack of uniformity of 
participants in terms of knowledge, language pr oficiency, experience, responsibility 
and interest are cited as practical problems. 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• Shorter courses, especially national works hops, do not allow sufficient time for the 
amount of information covered to be discussed and digested. 
 
• Taking neutrality too far can reduce the rele vance of technical assistance and fail to 
provide recipients with the full range of technical insights or capacity building skills 
and knowledge that they had sought.  In volvement of non-WTO resource persons and 
collaboration with other organisations, agenci es, institutes etc. have helped to reduce 
the neutrality bias. 
 
• The present language tests do not appear to have weaned out those unable to 
comprehend training or participate in discussions. 
 
• Proper selection of participants is key to fulfil specific and product-related objectives. 
Some differences among participants can provi de the basis for useful exchanges of 
experience, but when they are too pronoun ced they distract trainers and undermine 
discussions and other group exercises. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Courses and workshops should be more interactive, with trainers as facilitators 
instead of lecturers.  Introduce more case studies, simulations and other practical exercises. 
 
• Adding 1-2 days would allow workshops to  include more practical and regionally 
relevant content, without compromising th e time needed to absorb details of 
WTO rules and procedures. WT/COMTD/W/152 
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• Greater use of regional resource persons could offset costs of longer workshops. 
 
• Sending a list of readings, identifying which are recommended and which are 
optional, and where they might be sourced  on the Internet, with a minimum three 
weeks notice, should be a basic principle for all courses. 
 
• Expand pre-training, for instance with electronic courses, to bring people up to the 
same level in advance of a course. 
 
• Include more national or regional trainers  to address language problems and expand 
the range of materials and instruction in a ll three official languages and consider the 
same in other regional languages such as Russi an and Arabic.  Subject participants to 
more rigorous testing of language proficiency. 
 
• Work with governments to improve the selection process (see Management and 
Efficiency section below). 
 
Overall high quality of trainers, but room for improvement 
 
Findings 
 
• Most trainers are legal experts.  In genera l the quality of WTO trainers is considered 
high, particularly on legal aspects of WTO rules, their negotiating history (past and current) and their implementation. 
 
• ITTC staff are considered more adept trainers, while those from other WTO divisions 
are considered more knowledgeable at a substantive level.  Newer trainers are 
generally considered good, but perhap s more concerned than others about 
maintaining 'neutrality'. 
 
• Some consider that WTO trainers are more doctrinaires than non-WTO trainers, 
though the latter also have strengths (suc h as their knowledge of the regional and 
national context) and weaknesses. 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• There appears to be differences in perfor mance between resource persons (trainers) 
from ITTC and from operational divisions of  the WTO as well as between 'newer' and 
'older' trainers.  This r esults in reduced consistenc y and, ultimately, overall 
performance of WTO-provided TRTA. 
 
• It is not clear that the demand for more training on economic analysis can be met by 
the relatively few economists at the WTO. 
 
• While increasing non-WTO trainers' involve ment and autonomy might dilute the 
WTO 'brand', it would help address the general request for greater national and 
regional content and more vari ety in perspectives taught. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Introduce regular training of trainers programmes (as already mentioned in the 
Comparative Advantage section above).  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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• Include more economists amongst WTO trainers as well as the increasing number of 
non-WTO trainers now involved in its courses in order to provide more 
comprehensive training. 
 
• Involve non-WTO trainers more in the planning of WTO courses and increase the 
degree of their autonomy in teaching. 
 
Mixed impact of WTO TRTA 
 
Findings 
 
• Many view the WTO's TRTA as having been relevant in a general way – responding 
to national, institutional a nd individual needs.  But the capacity to design national 
trade policies and to negotiate at the WTO remains relatively weak in most countries. 
 
• There is no formalized reporting and dissemination process of the training received in 
many countries. 
 
• Typically the WTO-related knowledge of indi viduals working within trade ministries 
has been enhanced, as has their capacity to understand and implement WTO obligations, though their analytical capacity is still limited.  Others involved in trade policy discussions have improved their general understanding and access to 
information on specific WTO issues, rather than becoming particularly knowledgeable about how to use the WTO to promote national interests. 
 
• Most trainees have had insufficient training,  whether in the WTO or other courses, to 
become trainers themselves. 
 
• In some countries there is a human resource management problem that has diluted the 
impact of WTO-provided and other TRTA.  This is associated with high turnover rates, departmental restructuring and departur e of some officials to the private sector.  
There is also a lack of continuity at Geneva missions as well as in other diplomatic 
posts. 
 
• Financial constraints on participation in WTO meetings and access to data also limit 
the capacity to put training into practice. 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• Need to adopt an institutional rather than  an individual focus, and to enhance the 
skills and knowledge of trade ministries as well as other agencies and stakeholder 
groups working with them. 
 
• Without formalized reporting and dissemination processes in place, recipients risk 
missing opportunities and lowering the institutional impact of training. 
 
• There is a need for continued updating and deepening of knowledge.  This requires a 
programmatic versus a product-specific appr oach to training (see Management and 
Efficiency Section below). 
 
• Having WTO trainees leave government can  help to spread awareness of 
WTO issues.  But it undermines efforts to bu ild up a core of trained people within WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  government and thus the institutional capac ity to design, negotiate and implement 
trade rules. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Assist recipient governments to put in place an information management system to 
ensure that WTO materials collected are a ppropriately archived and thus accessible to 
others. 
 
• Expand collaboration with Southern think tanks and academics in order to build 
institutional capacity in developing countries. 
 
• Provide further training to staff at WTO reference centres in order for them to act as 
WTO resource persons. 
 
• Provide assistance to develop trade-related databases on subjects such as tariff rates, 
non-tariff barriers etc. 
 
• Work with donors and recipients to consider  various incentives for retaining recently 
trained staff in order to curb the loss of human capital. 
 
Management and Efficiency 
 
Lack of dynamic leadership in management of the ITTC 
 
Findings 
 
• There is a lack of missionary zeal in the management of the ITTC.  The approach is 
characterized by routine churning out of TRTA activities within a pre-determined 
static framework. 
 Lessons learned 
 
• A lack of dynamism in the leadership results  in tasks being dealt with in a routine 
fashion within a pre-determined static framework. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Employ people who have a missionary zeal  and a long experience of working on 
trade problems of developing countries either  at governmental or inter-governmental 
levels or in research institutions. 
 
Trainee selection processes lacking in focus and transparency 
 
Findings 
 
• The selection process appears to be ad hoc in many countries. 
 
• Many governments centralize selection of pa rticipants in the international trade 
department or foreign affairs ministry, though other agencies involved in trade are encouraged to nominate trainees. 
 
• No general pattern of gender discrimination in the selection of participants was found.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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Lessons Learned 
 
• There is a problem in ensuring both greater  uniformity in the knowledge level and 
expectations of participants, as well as br oader representation of stakeholders from 
other parts of government and non-government agencies. 
 
• There is a tendency in most countries to build up a cadre of officials with 
WTO training in the central trade ministries before extending these opportunities to other ministries and stakeholders. 
 
• There are inter-ministerial or multi-stakeholder trade committees that could 
contribute to the identification of potential trainees. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Encourage recipient governments to estab lish a sub-committee within the national 
trade ministry, the national inter-minister ial committee or the national consultative 
trade committee to manage and review the selection process, and make it accountable 
to the trade minister and trade mission in Geneva. 
 
• Introduce greater transparency, for example through announcements on 
WTO's website when governments are bei ng asked to nominate participants for 
particular courses. 
 
• ITTC should establish benchmarks for iden tifying participants for all courses and 
work closely with governments to screen participants. 
 
Inadequate quality control of trainers  
 
Findings 
 
• While in general, WTO courses are recognized  as high quality, questions have been 
raised about the WTO's approach to quality control and whether there is a clear policy 
or practice. 
 
• A successful training of trainers in 2002 w as not followed up, despite requests that it 
be continued. 
 
• For the RTPCs, however, regular meetings with non-WTO trainers have helped to 
improve preparation and delivery. 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• The absence of follow-up on training of trai ners means that newer recruits at the 
WTO have missed the opportunity to bridge the gap with 'older' trainers (as noted 
above in the Relevance section). 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Include a training performance indicator in  the annual evaluation of WTO staff. 
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  • Some experts might also benefit from trai ning to work with non-WTO partners (both 
Northern and Southern). 
 
Moving beyond trainee self-evaluation 
 
Findings 
 
• There have been various changes to incr ease the amount of auditing and evaluation, 
although efforts have been limited by resource constraints. 
 
• Trainee self-evaluations are a key tool; along with back-to-office reports from 
WTO trainers.  Participants have provid ed a range of critical and constructive 
suggestions in their feedback. 
 
• Despite some earlier difficulties with tracking trainees, a longer term, ex-post 
evaluation will be undertaken in late 2006/early 2007. 
 
• Besides the evaluation form completed at the end of a course, many trainees are 
expected to prepare reports on their training for their employers.  These reports are rarely accessible to others considering doing WTO courses and only rarely sent to the 
WTO. 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• At present, evaluation is geared towards me asuring 'customer satisfaction' rather than 
the absorption and subsequent performance of a trainee. 
 
• More importantly, at present such evalua tion does not assess a country's interests – 
there is no feedback from s upervisors/responsible trade officials as to changes in 
national capacities to engage in the multilateral trading system. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Strengthen internal self-evaluation through, for instance, asking Southern trainers in 
Regional Trade Policy Courses to complete  back-to-office-reports as done by the 
WTO trainers. 
 
• Introduce more systematic evaluation of trainees performance via written or oral 
tests, alternatively trainees could be requir ed to complete and present back-to-office-
reports and subsequently  action-taken-reports. 
 
• Undertake ex-post and thematic evaluations every three years, including an 
institutional focus. 
 
• The Secretariat needs funds to undertake regular ex-post and thematic evaluations. 
 
Programmatic approach needed 
 
Findings 
 
• Budgets are provided to ITTC on an annual basis and do not cover a longer-term 
period. 
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  • At present, WTO-provided TRTA is main ly based on providing individual products 
with many ad hoc courses and activities. 
 
• Follow-up activities are exceptions rather than  the norm and there is a general sense 
that more could be done in this regard. 
 
• Complementary measures are needed to ensure that training is practiced. 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• WTO needs to adopt a programmatic appr oach and develop an overarching, long-
term plan for its training courses.  This would require not only some reflection on 
how different courses relate to each other, and whether different courses add up to a 
coherent programme for a country or set of  countries, but also what pre- and post-
training activities might be needed to maximize benefits of such courses, and what complementary funding might be involved. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Members should consider ways to ensure  more predictable and longer-term funding 
for the WTO's TRTA to assist ITTC planni ng of its activities.  This might involve 
more funding from the regular budget e.g. for the RTPCs. 
 
• ITTC should develop an overall plan to allow trainees to go through a structured 
programme of learning.  This would include  introductory courses and more advanced 
course for officials to ensure their trade expertize progresses over time.  Such an 
overall plan would respond to national tr ade-related human re source development 
plans, which ITTC should assist recipient country trade ministries to develop. 
 
• Develop a follow-up strategy includi ng facilitation of networking between 
participants and trainers, and distribution of updated information on course subjects. 
 
• Solicit funds for recipient countries to effec tively participate in negotiating meetings 
and acquire other resources (e.g. databases) to apply their newly acquired WTO knowledge. 
 
Boosting value for money 
 
Findings 
 
• It is difficult to access the detailed budgetary information needed to compare the costs 
of different WTO training activities and tho se of other international, regional and 
national agencies. 
 
• It seems that the WTO's national courses are the most cost-effective of all its courses, 
as many more national officials and others can attend them compared to the one or 
two individuals who normally participate in other courses, including Regional Trade 
Policy Courses. 
 
• WTO courses effectively share information and transfer some knowledge to trainees, 
but there are still questions about empowerment. 
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  • WTO courses have generated some political  returns in terms of goodwill towards the 
WTO, as well as the perceived legitimacy of its rules and participation in the negotiations. 
 
• WTO-provided TRTA is considered partic ularly valuable by countries with less 
access to bilateral/multilateral funds. 
 
Lessons Learned 
 
• Although difficult to measure quantitatively, WTO-provided TRTA has clearly 
brought benefits. 
 
• Nevertheless, there is room for improvement to increase efficiency and effectiveness 
as well as to boost relevance.  Notably, n eeds assessment processes can be improved, 
planning and delivery more demand-drive n, selection of participants more 
transparent, coordination and cooperati on with other TRTA providers more 
formalized, a more programmatic approach  – with systematic follow-up –adopted, 
and a move from individual to institutional impact. 
 
• More information is needed for comparisons with the costs of other TRTA. 
 
Recommendations 
 
• Consider expanding DDAGTF resource alloca tion to national and regional activities. 
 
• Compile data with OECD and other agencies to allow comparison of relative costs of 
different TRTA programming. 
 
IX. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCENARIOS 
 The findings, lessons learned and recommendations  of this Strategic Review show that the 
WTO's TRTA has focused on its core competen cies, namely promoting better understanding and 
interpretation of WTO agreements, rules and discipl ines as well as monitoring and enforcement.  In 
recent years the range of TRTA activities have e xpanded to include capacity  building initiatives to 
help developing countries participate in shaping inte rnational trade rules as well as in formulating 
trade policies at national levels.   Despite this evolution and expansion of WTO-provided TRTA activities, in-house capacities 
to understand and respond to the im plication of WTO agreements and negotiate national interests and 
priorities are mostly inadequate in many developing and least developed countries.  This should not 
come as a surprise, since the WTO's TRTA is focused on training and not on empowerment, which has even led to a few questioning whether the WT O should be in the business of providing TRTA at 
all. Seen in the light of the seven objectives in WTO's New Strategy for WTO Technical Cooperation 
for Capacity Building, Growth and Integration  (2001), this means that the WTO has not exactly 
succeeded to fulfil two of them: 
 
• Assist beneficiary countries to understand th eir rights, implement their obligations 
and improve their capacity to draw on the benefits of an open, rules-based, multilateral trading system.  To this end, technical assistance will focus on establishing partnerships with beneficiary countries to better understand and use the 
rules. 
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  • Support national efforts and ownership in building durable institutional capacity for 
trade policy formulation, advocacy and negotiation. 
  Several reasons for this failure have been di scussed in this Report, but three factors in 
particular should be highlighted.  First, WTO's neutrality  mandate – albeit appreciated by some – 
limits the knowledge and understanding  that developing countries can gain from TRTA.  As a result, 
the participants are trained to b ecome effective rule-implementers ra ther than rule-makers.  Second, 
there is a lack of utilisation of non-WTO resource persons  in the WTO's TRTA activities.  This point 
relates to the previous one on neutrality, since one  of the benefits from the inclusion of non-WTO 
trainers has been a greater variety of perspectives ta ught and a reduction in the neutrality bias.  Third, 
lack of dynamic leadership of the WTO's TRTA makes the technical assistance a routine affair.  It is 
paramount that the activities are guided by people with a missionary zeal and a long experience of 
working on trade problems of developing countries either at governmental or inter-governmental 
levels or in research institutions.   As a result of the foregoing, beneficiary c ountries have called for a reorientation and 
rationalisation of the WTO-provided TRTA activities to make them more broad-based and 
comprehensive in order to cover broader aspects of promoting trade policies that support national 
development strategies in general a nd poverty reduction in particular. 
  This necessitates broadening and deepening the scope of and approach to WTO-provided TRTA activities, among others, in rela tion to training of trainers, going deeper into technical issues 
(particularly on trade rules, especially those that  are creating non-tariff barriers to market access), 
moving beyond Geneva-based to more regional a nd national training (inc luding content), and 
promoting the participation of academia, private sec tor and civil society organisations as resource 
persons as well as recipients of WTO-provided TRTA.  
 Against this backdrop, we present here two possible scenarios for change and concomitant 
adjustments.  The first one is a scenario of increm ental change and related adjustments.  The second 
scenario involves a more fundamental rethinking, if not a new paradigm.  Both entail different overarching visions for what the work of WTO-pr ovided TRTA should be, an d remain contingent on 
current and future developments in the closing of the Doha Round and its afte rmath.  The alternative 
if neither scenario is pursued is "more of the sa me";  a wasted opportunity to improve WTO-provided 
TRTA and thus to manifest the development dimension more firmly into the WTO's ethos. 
 
Scenario 1:  Incremental Change 
 
 In this Scenario we assume that there would be some adjustments within the basic matrix of 
the WTO-provided TRTA, and a greater and more  functional synergy between the WTO-provided 
TRTA activities and those of other agencies.  Desp ite heightened visibility of TRTA in the Doha 
Development Agenda, this Scenario  assumes that for various reasons there will be no radical change 
to the basic approach and structure of providing TRTA.  Under this Scenario, training would remain 
focused on the "do's and d on'ts", but with a strong commitment to lessen information asymmetries on 
the MTS for all the WTO member countries. 
  The major benefit of this incremental approach  lies in that it is an easy, natural progression 
from the present state of affairs.  The disadvantage would lie in that some of the needs and current 
expectations of recipients might be left unmet.  Moreover, not all of the WTO's strategic objectives 
would be fulfilled with this proposed approach, and he nce a note of realism must be injected into this 
strategy. 
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   The imperative for adjustment lies in the fact that in this Scenario we foresee that only the 
following five out of the original sev en objectives, as spelt out in the New Strategy  and as agreed upon 
in Doha, would be covered:  
• Coordinate effectively with key developmen t partners to enable beneficiaries of 
TRTA to participate meaningfully in the system; 
 
• increase the volume and quality of TRTA in response to demand; 
 
• provide a focused response to the prioriti es expressed by beneficiaries, within a 
coherent trade policy framework and companion policies; 
 
• ensure that TRTA is delivered within a coherent policy framework (not on a stand-
alone basis) through careful coordination with bilateral and multilateral development 
partners;  and 
 
• provide legal advice and assistance in respect of dispute settlement, pursuant to 
Article 27.2 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding. 
 
• This Strategic Review has identified a need to introduce a number of adjustments and 
reforms to improve delivery and meet higher expectations arising from the increased 
visibility of WTO-provided TRTA activities. 
 
Building Blocks for a Scenario of Incremental Change
 
 
 At a general level one could consider ways of getting around th e constraint of neutrality by 
moving to a problem-solving approach that addresses trade-offs within and amongst agreements.  The 
key issue would no longer be how countries should adapt to WTO legal commitments, but how these can be jurisprudentially applied so as to redu ce developing countries' structural disadvantages. 
  In this manner, TRTA activities could be made more demand-driven.  This would require that 
TRTA-providers work with systematic needs assessm ents that would enable a more 'listening' and a 
more 'customized' content.  An in-country system for feeding into the pro cess of needs assessment 
would allow restructuring of delivery and enha nced coordination between and among agencies 
working on the ground.   At the management level, a system of follow-up of trainees is highly desirable, such as setting 
up an interactive network for trainees that would not only allow for their consul tation with trainers but 
also amongst themselves, thereby increasing cross-fe rtilisation of ideas, knowledge and experiences.  
While this would entail additional work for the I TTC, the aggregation and organisation of efforts 
post-TRTA delivery would acquire a true life a nd become a visible and positive outcome of the 
WTO-provided TRTA. 
 
 In terms of courses, training should focus on explanation of problems that developing and 
least developed countries are encountering while applying WTO rules and on practical steps that could be taken to resolve them within the frame work of the existing WTO rules.  This problem-
solving approach should be based on releva nt case studies and should take into account the 
flexibilities available to developing and least deve loped countries.  That implies replacing other 
approaches such as 'best practice' examples, wh ich tend to be more ideologically laden. 
  Increased emphasis on case studies, both in Ge neva and at regional/n ational levels, should 
centre on the experiences of developing and least developed countries in applying the  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  WTO agreements – their problems in applying WTO ru les and the impacts that the application of the 
rules-based system is having on economic and social development.   There might be a smaller variety of courses th at are of longer duration (1 week, 2 weeks and 
3 months), which could include both introductory as well as more advanced courses for officials 
whose trade expertise has progressed over time.  An improved dialogue with recipient governments 
(in national capitals and in Geneva missions) and w ith prospective trainees is  necessary to ensure the 
appropriate selection of participants.   Courses and workshops should become more inter active, with trainers playing the role of 
facilitator instead of lecturer.  For that, pre-c ourse preparation is essential, whether through the 
provision of reading materials to participants before training courses, or electronic courses, and the careful selection of trainees.  A post-course dissemination strategy should also be implemented.   Finally, ITTC could strengthen the skills of its trainers, through obligatory annual or biennial 
courses in training, the creation of a training 'hel p-desk' in ITTC for consultation as needed and 
especially when developing a new course, and in troducing training performance criteria to annual 
evaluations.   In Scenario 1, new resources (human as well as monetary) would not be required but existing 
resources at the disposal of the ITTC would be r eallocated to allow for a number of incremental 
changes, while the ITTC should establish greater  and more functional synergies with other 
TRTA providers.  
Scenario 2:  Fundamental Rethink 
  Comprehensive capacity building on WTO issues should constitute a core policy objective of 
developing and least developed countries in their e fforts to effectively integrate into the multilateral 
trading system.  This integration should be based on  balanced terms consistent with their level of 
development and their ability to assume and implement obligations.   This is the philosophy of the WTO, as stated in the Preamble to the Agreement Establishing 
the WTO, 1994 (the Marrakesh Agreement) and has b een reiterated many times in many places, most 
notably in Paragraphs 1 to 11 of the 2001 Doha Mi nisterial Declaration of the WTO Members.  Such 
comprehensive trade capacity building should be a part of a country's long-term trade policy. 
 
Building Blocks for a Scenario of Fundamental Rethink
 
 
 The argument for this Scenario lies in Para graphs 38 to 41 of the Doha Ministerial 
Declaration, which elaborated the objectives and scope of "Technical Cooperation and Capacity 
Building" of the WTO Members, in particular the l east developed countries.  Therefore, in line with 
these objectives and commitments, the WTO-provided TRTA activities should aim at building deep capacities and institutions in trade policy formul ation and implementation as well as at shaping 
WTO rules that can sustain effective participation,  anchored in their development strategies, of 
WTO Members in the international trading system.   Under this Scenario a clear strategy and sense of direction would be necessary to broaden and 
deepen capacity building support, especially to least  developed countries.  One would need a big push 
for such a new approach to TRTA, which could be  developed in a three-fold manner, as follows: 
 
• There should be increasing decentralisati on of course provision and workshops with 
regional centres and national institutions playing a more active role. 
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  • TRTA activities should benefit from independe nt research as well as feed on the 
inputs from the Research Division of the WTO. 
 
• The ITTC should be responsible for collabor ating with other organisations, including 
country-based think tanks and non-governme ntal organisations, with a view to 
ensuring that the assistance that the WTO cannot provide due to its neutrality and 
other constraints is met by non-WTO trainers and/or programmes. 
  The result of this more holistic approach w ould be to cast a net to cover all objectives of 
WTO's TRTA, as spelt out in the New Strategy  and especially the two that have been unfulfilled in 
WTO-provided TRTA to date and that would re main unmet under the incremental Scenario 1 – 
(i) assisting beneficiary countries to understand thei r rights, implement their obligations and improve 
their capacity to draw on the benefits of the syst em and (ii) supporting national efforts in building 
institutional capacity.   This Scenario would require a mandate to revamp both internal and external modus operandi  
of WTO-provided TRTA activities.  The benefits are that it would allow the WTO to fill the gaps left 
by other agencies in the field where it has shown a comparative advantage and also to ensure better 
synergy with the TRTA provided by other agencies.   WTO-provided TRTA would assist countries in the construction of local capacity to monitor (via knowledge, analytical skills and databases) the trade policy of their trading partners in subjects 
such as tariff rates, NTBs, compliance with WTO ag reements and use of subsidies or antidumping.  
These practical needs are essential for generating effe ctive ownership in the WTO trading system, as 
they provide the background to be able to negotiate effectively.   It would transform technical assistance and capacity building into genuine development of 
analytical capacity to negotiate and also to ex ercise full membership rights.  TRTA under this 
approach would empower countries by building long-ter m analytical capacity of trade ministries and 
similar capacities in other line ministries in a sy stematic manner.  The successful accomplishment of 
this scenario would surely increase the legitimacy of  the WTO in the eyes of developing countries 
governments and their populations, an asset that would in  turn facilitate the completion of the original 
TRTA New Strategy . 
 
 A key measure to make this Scenario operationa l would be to transform the role of the ITTC.  
At present, it does not have the required autonom y and freedom for collaborating effectively with 
other inter-governmental, interna tional and national organisations in  providing assistance in which it 
does not have programmes.  
 In order to strengthen ITTC's independence, it would be necessary to carefully examine its 
existing organisational structure, ensuring that the procedures for reporting to the WTO Director-General be drawn up in such a manner that, except on major policy-related issues, it has full 
autonomy in drawing out its programmes and in dete rmining priorities.  These programmes should be 
prepared every two or three years drawing on id eas from recipient countries and especially the least-
developed countries. 
  In other words, rather than show WTO agre ements as "policy goals" that need to be 
incorporated into national trade policy and demonstrat e "best practices" in that regard, training should 
provide analysis of what is actually being done and not done around the world in respect to each 
agreement and why, so as to provide more dynami c and objective TA.  Thus, in this Scenario the 
ITTC would be given the task of designing a fo rward looking strategy intimately connected with 
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  policy formulation and implementation, for exer cising rights, and for building negotiation and 
advocacy skills on the part of the recipient countries.   The result would be ex-ante  visibility of WTO-provided TRTA activities in compliance with 
all objectives of the Doha Developm ent Agenda, in general and the New Strategy , in particular.  What 
developing and accession countries lack in terms of power  they need to make up, in areas of particular 
interest to them, through innovative policy ideas, knowl edge and the capacity to translate those ideas 
into practice.   In Scenario 2, a major reshuffle of resources would be required, and lik ely an expansion, as 
this would involve substantially enhancing the scope and quality of  TRTA activities without reducing 
the number of training activities provided in a year.    The ITTC should play a more pivotal role in th is context, particularly  in raising additional 
resources.  Additional human resources could be ma de available from different sources such as 
increasing the use of trainers from different operational divisions of the WTO Secretariat, but 
especially more use of trainers from outside th e WTO.  This would involve increasing cooperation 
and coordination by the ITTC with the operationa l divisions as well as with other TRTA providers. 
  For additional monetary resources, other than reallocating existing funds at the disposal of 
ITTC, new resources would need to be tapped.  Th e Aid for Trade (AfT) initiative could be one such 
additional source provided its operationalisation is  linked to the WTO-provided TRTA activities.  
Several proposals suggest that trade policy capacity  is an area with unmet needs that might be 
addressed by AfT:  on the one hand, through any nati onal trade-related needs assessment and priority 
setting that AfT may support, and, on the other,  through programming that targets supply capacity, 
trade infrastructure and compliance/adjustment costs.
60 
 
                                                      
60 See, for instance, Communication from UNC TAD, 19 May 2006, WT/AFT/W/11, and 
Communication from Mauritius on behalf of the ACP Group, 4 May 2006, WT/AFT/W/8. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 96  
 
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 European Commission, Trade and Development:  A Priority for the Round , March 2005 
 
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Development Challenge , World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper 2215, 1999 
 
GTZ, Making Globalization Equitable:  Trade-Related Cooperation , German Federal Ministry for 
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Peru , Latin American Trade Network (LATN), Working Paper no. 30, 2005 
 
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OECD-DAC, Evaluation and Aid Effectiveness:  Glossary of Key Terms in Evaluation and Results-
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Presser, Mario, Stefano Lazzarotto and Rizwan Sheikh, Evaluation of Technical Cooperation 
Activities [of UNCTAD] , UNCTAD, TD/B/WP/182, 2005 
 Prowse, Susan, The Role of International and National Ag encies in Trade Related Capacity Building , 
The World Economy, Vol. 25, pp. 1235-1261, 2002 
 
Saner, Raymond and Laura Páez, Technical Assistance to Least-Developed Countries in the Context 
of the Doha Development Round:  High Risk of Failure , Journal of World Trade, Vol 40(3), 
pp. 467-494, 2006  
Sauvé, Pierre, Trading for Development – A Report to  the APEC WTO Capacity Building Group , 
Singapore, APEC Secretariat, 2004  te Velde, Dirk Willem, Massimiliano Ca lì, Adrian Hewitt and Sheila Page, A Critical Assessment of 
the EU's Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Third Countries – Lessons from the Past, Policy 
Options for the Future , ODI, 2006 
 
UNCTAD, Turning losses into gains:  SIDS and Multilat eral Trade Liberalisation in Agriculture , 
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US Trade Representative (USTR), U.S. Trade Capacity Building in the Americas , USTR Trade 
Capacity Building, 2002  Weston, Ann, Chantal Blouin and Leelananda De Silva, Evaluation Of Dfid Support To Trade Related 
Capacity Building.  Synthesis Report , The North-South Institute , Ottawa, February 2005 
 
Whalley, John, Special and Differential Treatment in the Millennium Round , Centre for the Study of 
Globalization and Regionalization (CSG R), Working Paper No. 30/99, 1999 
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Building, Growth and Integration , WT/COMTD/W/90, 2001 
 
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Annex B in WT/BFA/56, 2002  
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JOB(04)/113, 2004  WTO, Technical Assistance:  WTO, UNIDO to work together on trade-related technical assistance , 
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OECS Countries , JOB(05)/275, 2005 
 
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 WTO, Terms-of-Reference for the Strategic Review of WTO-provided Trade-related Technical 
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WTO, Annual Reports on Training and Technica l Cooperation for 2003, 2004 and 2005 , 
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WTO, Technical Cooperation Audit Reports for 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 , 
WT/COMTD/W/97, WT/COMTD/W/111, WT/COMTD/W/125, WT/COMTD/W/138, WT/COMTD/W/148  
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 Page 99 
 
 
  WTO/OECD, First Joint WTO/OECD Report on Trade-Rel ated Technical Assistance and Capacity 
Building (TRTA/CB) , 2002 
 WTO/OECD, Second Joint WTO/OECD Report on Trade-Rel ated Technical Assistance and Capacity 
Building (TRTA/CB) , 2003 WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 100  
 
  Annexure 1 
 
TOR for the Strategic Review of WTO-provided TRTA Activities 
 
I. INTRODUCTION 
1. In November 2001 at the Doha Ministerial Conference, technical cooperation and capacity 
building were recognized as important components of  the development dimens ion of the Multilateral 
Trading System.  Subsequently, the Doha Deve lopment Agenda Global Trust Fund (DDAGTF) was 
established to finance TRTA activities in line w ith:  (i) the technical cooperation and capacity 
building mandates in the Doha Declaration
61;  (ii) the New Strategy for Technical Co-operation for 
Capacity-Building, Growth and Integration62;  and (iii) the Coordinated WTO Secretariat Annual 
Technical Assistance Plan.63  The annual resources for TRTA and training have doubled, both in the 
regular budget and in extra-budgetary funds.  Between 2002 and 2004, the donors allocated 
SFr 50 million of extra-budgetary resources and 16.5 million of the regular budget (RBTA) to meet 
technical assistance and training needs of the Memb ers concerned in all areas of multilateral trade.64  
A TRTA programme of work of such magnitude is without example in the history of WTO.  The 
seminars, workshops, courses, etc., during the past three years were attended by more than forty 
thousand employees of ministries of trade, commerce,  industry, finance, planning, customs agencies, 
universities and civil society organizations from 120 countries. 
2. The planning system, providing the framework for the delivery of the great volume of TRTA 
and to meet the Members' expectations for high  quality assistance, has evolved over time.  Since 
2004, the Technical Assistance and Training Plan (TA Plan) has been structured around five main 
categories of products65 and two major programmes, the JITAP and the IF.  It includes product-
specific objectives and offers assistance in twenty-f our technical areas in five regions for more than 
one hundred and twenty Member states.  In impl ementing the TA Plans, modalities for effective and 
efficient delivery and systematic gathering of  feedback from the recipients (Members) and 
beneficiaries (Participants) gained importance.  From the very beginning, donors of the DDAGTF 
emphasized the importance of monitoring and evalua tion (M&E) in managing technical co-operation.  
Therefore, in May 2002, a M&E system was put into effect aiming at making TRTA activities more transparent and accountable;  sensitizing WTO staff to the importance of the effects and impact of the 
TA delivered;  integrating evaluati on among other management functions. 
3. The M&E system's main means of action is self-evaluation.  Although the system also 
provides for thematic and ex-post evaluations of br oader issues than the performance of individual 
TRTA activities, for reasons of resource constraint s, such evaluations have yet to be carried out. 
II. OBJECTIVES, ASPECTS TO BE ASSESSED AND STAKEHOLDERS 
4. The main objective is to get independent views and recommendations that can be 
implemented on such aspects of TRTA, which ar e usually not subject to on-going internal 
                                                     
 
61 WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1. 
62 WT/COMTD/W/90. 
63 WT/COMTD/W/95/Rev.3; WT/COMTD/W/104/Rev.2 and WT/COMTD/W/119/Rev.2. 
64 Subject areas currently covered by WTO TRTA are as follows:  Accession;  Agriculture;  
Competition Policy;  Dispute Settlement;  Government Procurement;  Implementation Issues;  IT/WTO 
Reference Centres;  Integrated Framework/LDCs;  Inve stment; Mainstreaming;  NAMA;  Rules;  Services;  
STPC;  SPS/TBT;  Textiles & Clothing;  Tools for TA ;  Trade and Development;  Trade and Environment;  
Trade Facilitation;  Trade Negotiation Skills;  TRIPs. 
65 WT/COMTD/W/133/Rev.2 – Paragraph 16:  Ge neral WTO-related Technical Assistance and 
Training; Specialized and Advanced T echnical Assistance and Training;  Academic Support for Training and 
Capacity Building:  an Integrated Approach;  Support Technical Assistance and Training Facilities;  and Inputs 
into Activities organized by other Bodies  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 101 
 
 
  evaluations.  More specifically, external views are invited on the following three aspects to be 
examined within the framework of a Strategic Review (Review): 
 (a) WTO's comparative advantage in offering TRTA vis-à-vis other agencies; 
  (b) the relevance of WTO TRTA to  the Members and the Participants; 
 
 (c) efficiency and management of WTO TRTA.  5. The Review is expected to be forward-looking and result in what outside experts can offer by 
the identification and analysis of new prioriti es and/or modalities for TRTA;  formulation of 
recommendations and lessons learned for future impr ovements; and suggestions of creative ways to 
maximize TRTA benefits.  The output should be u ser-friendly in order to facilitate consideration by 
all the stakeholders of WTO TRTA. 
6. The main stakeholders are the Members, including the Participants who receive TRTA, the 
Donors, and the Secretariat.  The results of the Review should help Members (donors and recipients) 
in considering and making informed decisions rega rding the WTO TRTA strategy and practice.  The 
conclusions, recommendations and less ons learned from the Review may al so relate to and be useful 
to other agencies cooperating with WTO, e. g. IMF, ITC, UNCTAD, WB, WIPO, regional 
development banks, etc. 
III. SCOPE OF THE STRATEGIC REVIEW 
7. The scope of the Review will cover TRTA provi ded by WTO alone or in cooperation with 
other agencies, e.g. ITC, UNCTAD, WB, IMF, OECD , etc since 2002.  It should include TA products 
delivered within the framework of regional, national and Geneva-based technical assistance and 
training activities as provided for in the annual TA Plan s, or in addition to the Plans.  The JITAP and 
IF multi-year programmes, of which WTO is a coope rating partner, have recently been evaluated;  
this Review is not expected to repeat those eval uations.  Instead, it should include the assessment of 
WTO's role, inputs and performance in contributing to those programmes, as appropriate.  Neither 
should the reviewers redo the work of the Tec hnical Cooperation Audit (TCA) unit. TCA's annual 
reports to the COMTD should be used as source materials. 
IV. ASPECTS TO BE ADDRESSED 
8. As mentioned above, the Review will address three aspects of WTO TRTA through seeking 
answers to specific questions below.  The answers should be based on analysis, include findings, and 
result in conclusions, recommendations and lessons  learned, as appropriate.  The comparative 
advantages and the relevance of WTO TRTA will be examined in the light of the strategic objectives
66 
of WTO technical assistance. 
                                                      
66 There are the seven broad objectives attached to the New WTO Strategy for Technical Cooperation 
(document WT/COMTD/W/90 – 21 September 2001): 
(i) Coordinate  effectively with key development partners to enable countries and customs 
territories, beneficiaries of WT O technical assistance, to participate and integrate more 
meaningfully in the multilateral trading system, in order to increase incomes for growth, 
poverty reduction and development; 
(ii) assist  beneficiary countries to understand their rights, implement their obligations and 
improve their capacity to draw on the benefits of an open, rules-based, multilateral trading 
system.  To this end, technical assistance will focus on establishing partnerships with 
beneficiary countries to better understand and use the rules; 
(iii) increase  the volume and quality of the technical assistance that the WTO delivers in response 
to significantly increasing demand (from an increasing Membership); WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 102  
 
   (a) WTO's comparative advantage in offering TRTA vis-à-vis other agencies
 
 
- Who are the key development partners  (bilateral and multilateral) of WTO 
and what are the ordering principles, mechanisms and avenues in deciding 
the TRTA issues on which coordination with other agencies is required? 
 
- What specific role WTO plays in offeri ng TRTA relative to other institutions, 
e.g. UNCTAD, ITC, World Bank, etc?  Does WTO have a  comparative advantage in offering TRTA?  How successful are WTO TRTA activities carried out in coordination and/or jointl y with the development partners?  Is 
there a need for change in this coordination? 
 - On the basis of feedback from beneficiaries and TRTA reports, what kind of 
TRTA does WTO do better than other agencies?  What mix of TRTA activities can be suggested as an optimum, relative to the limited 
resources available for such purposes in WTO? 
 - How can the WTO further improve the de livery of TRTA?  Is it feasible to 
gradually shift to providing expert inputs to other training institutions 
offering TRTA and/or to supervising whether the training efforts of other 
institutions are effective and of high  technical quality?  Could one assume 
that by putting emphasis on the training of trainers and a steadily increasing 
role of partner institutions would r esult in a decreasing demand for WTO's 
direct delivery of training over time? 
  (b) The relevance of WTO TRTA to the Members and the Participants
 
 
- How effective are the needs assessment methods used by the WTO to 
determine the priority areas of TRTA provided to developing countries?  Do 
the TA plans reflect areas of greatest interest to developing countries?  To what extent Trade Policy Reviews have  been used to help identifying 
TRTA needs?  How could their utilisation be improved? 
 
- To what extent WTO TRTA met the needs and demands of the Members 
arising from the implementation of th e Doha Development Agenda?  Has 
TRTA helped to establish partners hip with beneficiary countries and 
improved the understanding of their rights ;  helped them to implement their 
obligations and improve their capacity to  draw on the benefits of an open, 
rules-based, multilateral trading system?  In this respect, what role do outsourcing and regionalisation (tra nsfer of TRTA activities to other 
institutions) of the TRTA play? 
 
                                                                                                                                                                    
 
(iv) provide  a focused response to the priorities expres sed by beneficiaries, within a coherent 
trade policy framework and companion policies; 
(v) support  national efforts and ownership in building durable institutional capacity for trade 
policy formulation, advocacy and negotiation; 
(vi) ensure  that WTO technical assistance is delivered within a coherent policy framework (not on 
a stand-alone basis) through careful coordina tion with bilateral and multilateral development 
partners.  Delivery of WTO t echnical assistance within a coherent policy framework will seek 
to mainstream trade priority areas of action into national development plans and strategies for 
poverty reduction, so that trade will more effec tively play its role as an engine for poverty 
reduction and development;  and 
(vii) provide  legal advice and assistance in respect of dispute settlement to developing country 
Members, pursuant to Article 27.2 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 103 
 
 
  - How effectively do the different TR TA products in the Annual Technical 
Assistance and Training Plans (Plan) contribute and link up to national efforts to bring about sustainable national institutional capacities for trade policy formulation, advocacy and negotiation ?  How successful has WTO been in 
mobilising participants from both genders to equally benefit from 
TRTA activities?  How can the par ticipation of women be increased? 
 
- To what extent has WTO TRTA b een successful in achieving the product-
related objectives set out in the TA Plan and those of the specific objectives established for the individual TA activ ities?  Do those objectives reflect the 
needs of the Members and the Participants? 
 
- How could the dilemma between trai ning the maximum number of persons 
from a maximum number of countries over an average of three days, or training fewer persons from fewer numbe r of countries but more in-depth, 
over a longer duration, be resolved while ensuring Member countries' rights 
to benefit from the TRTA?  Should th e main categories of products included 
in the TA Plan be developed into tec hnical assistance programmes of a larger 
scale and longer duration?  Is there a need to further adjust the planning process of the TRTA? 
 
- Has the volume and quality of the TRTA delivered been commensurate with 
the increasing demands, originated particularly by the increasing Membership?  Are needs for WTO TRTA infinite, still growing, steady, or decreasing over time? 
 
- Is there any cross-fertilization betw een WTO TRTA and its other functions, 
e.g. providing effective services to ne gotiations and in meeting existing work 
obligations related to rules setting an d dispute settlements?  How could the 
Donors, recipient Members and the Secretariat work closer together, including the improved coordination a nd knowledge-sharing with technical 
committees, in order to enhance the results of WTO TRTA? 
 
 (c) Efficiency and management of WTO TRTA
 
 
- Has the management of WTO TRTA, that is the ITTC, the Operational 
Divisions, the Technical Assistance Management Committee (TAMC) and 
the Technical Cooperation Audit Unit (TCA ), been effective and efficient in 
exercising their TRTA-related management  functions, e.g. planning, design, 
monitoring of implementation and evaluation of results?  Is there any duplication or overlap in exercising these functions? 
 
- How does the established monitoring and evaluation system help in making 
TRTA more results-oriented?  How effective is self-evaluation compared to 
other methods of assessment?  How can ex-post and thematic evaluations be 
carried out on a regular basis?  Are the reporting and budgetary processes of the DDAGTF adequate, transparent and effectively applied?  Are the resources adequate to cover non-training delivery elements of the DDAGTF 
such as needs assessment, course planning, design, monitoring and 
evaluation?  Are there any viable alternatives for improvement? 
 
- The Review should be based on an a ppropriate set of performance indicators 
and targets, which can be used in ass essing the effectiveness, efficiency and 
relevance of the TA Plan, as a whole as well as those of the individual WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 104  
 
  products included in the TA Plan.  Recommendations are invited on how the 
cost-benefit ratio of the TA products can be improved. 
 
- Finally, conclusions are invited on the extent to which WTO TRTA has 
generated value for money.  What are the main results and outcome and do 
they justify the resources allocated? 
 
V. REVIEW METHODOLOGY 
9. The Review should be independent and external to WTO.  It will be based on a combination 
of desk-studies, questionnaires and interviews with key staff of cooperating organizations in offering 
TRTA in Geneva and delegates st ationed in, or attending WTO meeti ngs in Geneva during the period 
of the Review as well as on a limited number of fiel d visits to selected countries which have received 
TRTA from WTO.  In the countries to be visited it is extremely important that the Team interview, 
and/or collect information from, former particip ants of WTO TRTA.  The reports resulting from the 
Review are required to relate the conclusions and recommendations to evidence.  The Review will be 
carried out by a team of experts (Team), independent from WTO. 
10. The methods below are to be applied to all th e issues addressed in the Review.  The Team 
should use instruments and techniques adapted to WTO mandate and suited to the great volume of 
TA events (courses, seminars, workshops, etc) of short duration and small budget.  More specifically, 
they should include: 
 - The preparation of a work plan describi ng in detail how the Team is going to conduct 
the Review, including the order in which they will address the issues included in the 
TOR; 
  - The preparation of a Review matrix th at includes yardsticks such as performance 
indicators/targets, sources of data and sour ces of verification.  The yardsticks should 
be used by the Team in an attempt to quantify the analysis of WTO's comparative 
advantages in offering TRTA, its relevance and its efficiency and management.  The 
Review matrix should structure the yardstic ks into Input, Output and Outcome levels; 
  - Desk review of relevant documents re lated to the Doha a nd Cancún Ministerial 
meetings;  COMTD reports on technical assistance and training plans;  
implementation reports;  annua l TCA reports;  minutes of relevant COMTD sessions 
that discussed these reports;  selected BTORs and Participant Evaluation Forms and a brief overview of the recent external evalua tion reports of JITAP, the IF, the ITC and 
UNCTAD; 
 
 - Analysis and search of the database of WTO/OECD on TRTA/CB to get an 
impression of the results of training offere d by WTO compared to other agencies and 
institutions; 
  - Observation of one or two TRTA even ts on-going in Geneva during the Review; 
 
 - Consultations with donors' representatives in  Geneva currently involved in financing 
WTO TRTA; 
  - Consultations with Members' delega tions in Geneva receiving WTO TRTA, or 
attending Geneva-based meetings; 
 
 - Discussions with ITC, UNCTAD and WTO officials (ITTC, Operational Divisions 
and TCA) involved in TRTA planning, desi gn, delivery, monitoring and evaluation;  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 105 
 
 
   
 - Interviews and consultations with Memb ers' representatives in selected developing 
countries that have received WTO TRTA. 
 
VI. EXPECTED OUTPUTS  
11. The outputs of the Review process should result from the application of the methodology 
outlined above.  These should be produced along the following schedule: 
 - Output 1:  Inception Report, including the Work Plan and the Review matrix, to be 
submitted within six weeks of the award of the contract; 
 
 - Output 2:  Draft Synthesis Report including conclusion, recommendations and 
lessons learned based on the desk reviews and the experience gained through field 
visits.  The draft synthesis report should be submitted within five months of the award 
of the contract; 
 
 - Output 3:  Final Report on the Strategic Review of WTO TRTA, to be submitted 
within six months of the award of the contract. 
  Each report should be as concise as possibl e and submitted in English to the Steering 
Committee of the Review.  VII. IMPLEMENTATION ARRANGEMENTS 
Steering Committee
 
 12. The effective management of the Strategi c Review will be monitored by a Steering 
Committee, which will consist of six Members, re presenting both Donor and Beneficiary Members of 
WTO TRTA.  The Steering Committee will be set up within one month after the adoption of the TOR 
of the Review by the COMTD.  It will select the members of the review Team, guide the Team's selection of the countries to be visited according to the criteria below: 
 - The countries to be visited, taken as a w hole, should have received a broad range of 
WTO TRTA, including regional and nati onal activities of both short and longer 
duration, implemented by WTO alone and/or  in cooperation with other agencies; 
 
 - no more than two countries should be select ed in the larger regions (Asia and the 
Pacific (including small island countries), Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean and one country in other regions, i.e. Arab and Middle East, Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia). 
 
Coordination
 
 13. The Team members will work independently  of the WTO Secretariat, while the 
WTO Secretariat will assist and facilitate the Team members when so requested: 
 - The Institute for Training and Technical Co-operation (ITTC) will be the focal point 
for the Review and will arrange for the smooth cooperation with the Team; 
  - The Operational Divisions providing TRTA, as well as the Administration and 
General Services (AGS) Division, and TCA will collaborate with the Team as required; 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 106  
 
   - The counterparts, in their domain, will a rrange for the Team's access to the required 
documentation and information, staff members, etc. 
 14. The management of WTO TRTA (ITTC, Operational Divisions, AGS and TCA) will also 
stand by to provide comments on the Draft Synthesis Report that relate exclusively to factual matters. 
15. It should be stressed that the process of dial ogue and consultation between the review Team 
and the stakeholders (Donors, Beneficiary Members and the Secretariat) should not in any way compromise the independence of the re view team and its final report. 
16. The management of WTO TRTA  will prepare a management response to the Steering 
Committee on the Final Report, highlighting its react ion to the Strategic Review and its views on the 
feasibility of the implementation of the recommenda tions and the application of lessons learned 
included in the Final Report. 
17. The smooth implementation of the review will require: 
 - Notification by the senior Management  of WTO of cooperating agencies (ITC, 
UNCTAD, etc) as well as the Members concerned on the conduct of the Review 
(including those who will receive the Team for field visits); 
  - the organization of formal briefings and debriefings of the Team members at 
WTO headquarters in ITTC and TCA. 
 18. Time frame for the Review process: the Review  will be conducted in 2005 and should be 
completed within 6 months. 
VIII.  COMPOSITION AND SELECTION OF THE REVIEW TEAM 
19. The Review Team will be composed of three experts with experience in and knowledge of 
developing countries' trade policies, strategies and ca pacities.  None of the team members should have 
been employed by WTO for working as resource pers on for WTO TRTA activities.  They should have 
experience in hands-on management and evaluation of  trade-related technical assistance and training 
systems and, as a Team, able to communicate a nd work in the three working languages of WTO 
(English, French and Spanish).  The Team will func tion independently and free of undue influence.  
The Team members will have the final responsibility  for the preparation of the Strategic Review 
report as scheduled and its submission to the Steering Committee. 
20. The selection of the Team members will be managed by the Steering Committee and follow 
the process below: 
 - The Secretariat will collect a list of candidates from the Donors and beneficiary 
Members of WTO TRTA and submits the CVs of the candidates to the Steering Committee for selection; 
 
 - the Steering Committee selects th e members of the Review Team. 
  For the preparation of the contracts for the Team members the WTO Secretariat will provide 
assistance, if required.  
IX. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 
21. The Team members will have access to all official documents and reports that are needed for 
the strategic review of WTO TRTA.   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 107 
 
 
  Annexure 2 
 
Questionnaire For Recipients  
CODE: 
 
Questionnaire For Recipients  of TRTA
 
 
NAME OF THE INTERVIEWEE (OPTIONAL): 
NAME OF THE INTERVIEWER: 
DATE & LOCATION OF INTERVIEW:  
1. What WTO-provided/conducte d TRTA (trade-related technical assistance) activities did you 
attend? 
 
 
 2(a). Are you aware of the selection pr ocedure of this training activity? 
   If yes, please elaborate: 
 
  2(b). Was your country mission in Geneva involved with the process of selection? 
 
Yes No Don't Know  
 
  
2(c). What do you think were the criteria for sel ecting you for this particular training activity? 
   2(d). Did you have to comply with any obligations to be eligible for participation?  (Such as 
minimum time to be spent in the departmen t/organisation to ensure that the institution 
benefits from the training). 
   3(a). What position did you hold at th at time, and in which department? 
 
  3(b). What position do you hold now?  
 
 4(a). Are you applying your acquired knowledge fro m that training activity in the present position? 
 
Yes No 
 
 Yes No WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 108  
 
   
4(b). How relevant was the training activity for your work?  
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  4(c). Could you give us examples of how you used it? 
 
  4(d). Which aspects of your work was it most useful for?  
Negotiations on WTO Agreements Im plementation of WTO Agreements 
 
  
5. Did you write and submit a repor t of the programme you attended? 
 
Yes No 
 
 
 6(a). What is your assessment of the quality of the training that you received?  Please rate on a 
scale of 1 to 5 
 
 
     
6(b). What were its major strengths and weaknesses? 
   7. Was the training provided to you at the right level (or too basic/too advanced)? 
 
Too Basic  Just Right  Too Advanced  
 
 Please elaborate: 
 
  8(a). Was the design and delivery of that training activity fair and balanced?  
Yes Maybe No 
 
 Any biases?  Please explain:  
 
 1 = Very Poor 2 = Poor 3 = Fair 4 = Good 
5 = Very Good   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 109 
 
 
  8(b). Did it match your requirement? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  9. Were the training materials useful?  Please rate on a scale of 1 to 4  
 
    10. Were there too many participants or too few participants in that training programme? 
 
Too Many Just Right Too Few 
 
 
 11(a). Did the training programme make use of r esource persons available in your country or 
region? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  
11(b). Were the resource persons able to explain complex issues with examples relevant for your 
country/region?  
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  12. Was there any feedback/assessment of the training programme and/or resource persons done? 
 
Yes No 
 
 Please specify:  
 
 13(a). Other than the assessment done by the WTO were you asked to make an assessment of the 
training programme by your department? 
 
Yes No 
 
  
13(b). If yes, was that assessment shared in your department? 
 
Yes No 
 
 1 = Not useful 
2 = Somewhat useful 3 = Quite useful 
4 = Very useful  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 110  
 
   
13(c). Do you know whether that assess ment was sent to the WTO or not? 
 
Yes No Don't Know 
 
  14. To what extent were you able to apply the knowledge in your work at the time of the training? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
 
 
15. Are you able to apply it now in your current responsibilities?  
Yes No 
 
 Any comments:    
16(a). Did the training programme reflect your prio rities (individual and departmental priorities) in 
terms of the need for enhancing capacity? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  16(b). Was it consistent with the requests that your country had made to the WTO?  
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  
17. Did you have the opportunity to share the information on the training programme received 
with your colleagues in your departme nt and other government departments? 
 
Yes No 
 
  18(a). Were you able to organize a meeting/brie fing/workshop to disseminate the information in 
your department? 
 
Yes No 
 
 If yes, please explain: 
    WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 111 
 
 
  18(b). Were participants from other government depa rtments/agencies/organisa tions also invited to 
the meeting/briefing/workshop? 
 
Yes No 
 
  18(c). What was the level of response to this m eeting/briefing/workshop?  Please rate on a scale of 1 
to 5. 
     
 
 19. Have you shared the acquired knowledge with  other stakeholders, such as producer groups, 
business associations, civil society groups, as a resource person? 
 
Yes No 
 
 If yes, how:  
 
 20(a). Was there any follow-up by the WTO to the training programme that you attended?  
Yes No 
 
  20(b). If yes, did you participate in that follow-up training programme? 
 
Yes No 
 
 
 20(c). If no, do you think follow-up training activities were required?  
Yes No 
 
  20(d). Did you request your government to request for a follow-up training activity? 
 
Yes No 
 
 
 1 = Very Poor 
2 = Poor 3 = Fair 4 = Good 
5 = Very Good  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 112  
 
  21(a). Are you aware of similar training activity conducted by other agencies/donors? 
 
Yes No 
 
 Please specify:    
21(b). Have you participated in the above-mentioned training activity? 
 
Yes No 
 
 Please specify: 
   22. If yes to 21(b), how do you compare the technical assistance provided by the 
WTO Secretariat with the capacity building activiti es of other organisations with which you have 
been involved?  Please rate on a scale of 1 to 5.  
WTO  Others 
  
 
Any comments: 
    
 
  23. What other comments or recommendations w ould you like to share about the WTO's trade-
related technical assistance programme? 
 
 
 1 = Very Poor 2 = Poor 3 = Fair 
4 = Good 
5 = Very Good   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 113 
 
 
  Annexure 3 
 
Questionnaire for officials 
 
CODE: 
 
Questionnaire for Officials  Involved with TRTA  
 
NAME OF THE INTERVIEWEE (OPTIONAL): 
NAME OF THE INTERVIEWER: 
DATE & LOCATION OF INTERVIEW:  
1(a). Please elaborate the process of selection of participants for the WTO TRTA programmes as 
well as the rationale behind the selection. 
 
 
 1(b). Was your country mission in Geneva involved with the process of selection? 
 
Yes No 
 
 Please specify:   
 
2. Were there any conditions/prerequisites put forth by the WTO regarding the recipients? 
 
Yes No 
 
Hint:  (Such as education, position held, years of ser vice, level of topic specific knowledge etc.)  
 
 Please specify:   
 
3. Do you impose any obligations on the participants of WTO TRTA activities?  
Yes No 
 
Hint:  (Such as guaranteed continued engage ment in the department/organisation) 
 
 Please specify:  
 
 4. When personnel are being promoted/moved from th e positions held at the time of a training 
activity, was the participation in th at activity considered as a factor? 
 
Yes No 
 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 114  
 
  5. In your opinion, are the participants a pplying their acquired knowledge in the present 
positions? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  6. For which aspects of the Ministry's activities have these trainings been found to be most 
useful? 
 
Negotiations on WTO Agreements Im plementation of WTO Agreements 
 
 Any comments: 
   7. Can you give us examples of how the recipien ts have used/may use the knowledge received in 
their work? 
   8. Do the participants write and submit a report on the training programme they attend? 
 
Yes No 
 
 
 
9(a). What is your assessment of the quality of the training programme?  Please rate on a scale of 1 
to 5. 
   
 
   9(b). What are the major strengths and weaknesses of this training programme? 
 
  9(c). Was it at the right level?  
Too Basic  Just Right  Too Advanced  
 
 Please explain:  
 
 1 = Very Poor 
2 = Poor 
3 = Fair 4 = Good 5 = Very Good   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 115 
 
 
  10. In your opinion, is the design and delivery of this training activity fair and balanced?  
 
Yes Maybe No 
 
 Any biases?  Please explain:    
11. Do they match your country's requirements? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
 
 12. Does this activity make use of resource pe rsons available in your country or region? 
 
Yes Sometimes No 
 
  13. In your opinion have the resource persons been  able to explain complex issues with examples 
relevant for your country/region? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  14. Do the providers take feedback/assessment  on the training programme and resource persons? 
 
Yes No 
 
 If no, do you think it is required?  
Yes No 
 
  
15(a). Do you ask the participants to make their individual assessment of the training programme(s) 
they attend? 
 
Yes No 
 
  15(b). If yes, is that assessment shared within the department?  
Yes No 
 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 116  
 
  15(c). Is this assessment sent to the WTO as well? 
 
Yes No 
 
  16. Do the training programmes reflect your pr iorities (country and departmental priorities)  in 
terms of the need for enhancing capacity? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
 
 
17. Do they reflect the requests that your country made to the WTO?  
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
 Could you cite an example of a training pr ogramme that was requested and subsequently 
received: 
  
 
18. How is the demand for such trai ning activities assessed in your country? 
   
19(a). Are lessons from a training programme, attended by a particular participant shared within the 
departments and/or with other government de partments through mee ting/briefing/workshop? 
 
Yes Sometimes No 
 
  19(b). If yes, what was the level of response of th e participants on this meeting/briefing/workshop?  
Please rate on a scale of 1 to 5. 
 
     
 
 19(c). Are these meeting/briefing/workshop departme nt-specific or are participants invited from 
other government departments/agencies/organisations as well? 
 
Within Department Among Departments 
 
  1 = Very Poor 
2 = Poor 
3 = Fair 4 = Good 
5 = Very Good   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 117 
 
 
  20. Is the acquired knowledge shar ed with other stakeholders?  (Such as producer groups, 
business associations, civil society groups?)  
 
Yes Sometimes No 
 
 If yes, how:   
 
21. Has there been any follow-up activity of this programme conducted by the WTO? 
 
Yes Sometimes No 
 
  22. If yes, do the trainees participat e in that follow-up training activity? 
 
 
 23. If follow-up activities were not undertaken, do you think such training activities are required? 
 
Yes Sometimes No 
 
  24. Has your government requested for follow-up training activities? 
 
Yes Sometimes No 
 
 If yes, have they been provided? 
 
All  Some None 
 
 Please specify: 
 
  25. Are you aware of similar training ac tivities conducted by other agencies/donors? 
 
Yes No 
 
 If yes, please specify:  
 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 118  
 
  26. How do you compare the technical assistance provided by the WTO Secretariat with the 
capacity building activities of others with whic h you may have been involved?  Please rate on 
a scale of 1 to 5. 
 
WTO  Others 
  
 
Any comments: 
  
 
    
27. Does the WTO TRTA activities address the technical assistance requirements of your 
country? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  28. How does the TRTA activities of other agen cies/donors address your country's requirement? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
  
29. In your opinion is there an element of repetitiveness in the TRTA provided by different 
agencies/organisations? 
 
Considerably To Some Extent Not Really 
 
 Please elaborate:    
30. What other comments or recommendations w ould you like to share about the WTO's trade-
related technical assistance programme? 
   1 = Very Poor 
2 = Poor 
3 = Fair 4 = Good 5 = Very Good  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 119 
 
 
  Annexure 4 
 
Information about respondents 
 
  Trainees Supervisors/ 
Officials 
  N=118 N=34 
Gender Female 23 9 
 Male 35 9 
 Not specified 60 16 
Position Head/Manager/Chief 41 8 
 Deputy Head 11 1 
 Assistant Director 3  
 Specialist/Expert 18  
 Lecturer 2  
 Research/Policy Officer 13  
 Senior Assistant Secretary 1  
 Fellow 2  
 Desk officer 3  
 Economist 10  
 Not specified 14 25 
Orgtn/Dept Trade ministry 36 7 
 Standards agency 7  
 Agriculture ministry 5 2 
 Procurement agency 4  
 Other ministries/agencies 23 3 
 Academic  6 1 
 IGO 2 2 
 Industry assoc. 4 1 
 NGO 3  
 Private sector 1  
 Consultant/advisor 2  
Training  (1) 1, 2- or 3-day course 51 7 
 1- or 2-week course (incl. 4 days) 27 2 
 TPC 15 2 
 3-week courses or longer 6  
 RTPC 8  
 Internship 2  
 Online 2  
Training (2) One course 54 5 
 Two courses 24 1 
 Three or more courses 32 2 
Notes:    
Position  refers to where trainees are toda y, not where they underwent training.  
Other ministries  include finance, health, environment, social  affairs, tourism and tax/revenue authority.  
Training (1) includes all types of courses taken by a respondent. If a pe rson has taken a 2-day course and a TPC entries have been 
made under both categories.  However, if a person has taken two 2-day courses, th ere is only one entry under that category.  
Training (2) refers to the number of courses a respondent has taken.  
Source: interviews in field countries   
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 120  
 
  Annexure 5 
 
Summary of Country Reports 
 
Bangladesh 
 
1. Key features of national trade context 
 With a population exceeding 140 million, Banglad esh is the world's largest LDC.  It has 
enjoyed fairly robust growth in the past decade, with average annual gross domestic product (GDP) 
rising by 5.3 per cent in 1995-2005.  During the sam e period, it has continued a liberalisation process 
that began in the 1980s with th e reduction of quantitative restricti ons, the lowering of tariffs and 
greater government support for exports.   Bangladesh's export performance during the p ast two decades of greater openness has been 
strong, with annual growth of exports of goods and services averaging 9.2 per cent in 1995-2005.  
Exports more than doubled during the decade, reac hing US$8.6 billion in 2005.  The bulk of the 
growth in exports was due to the country's vibr ant ready-made garment sector, which represented 
some three-quarters of total exports in 1997-2003.  One factor in that particular sector's success was 
Bangladesh's advantageous position in  the textile quota regime that ca me to an end on 1 January 2005 
and which has resulted in greater competition from other garment producing countries, notably China.  
 Imports stood at US$11.5 billion in 2005, n early doubling against a decade earlier. 
Bangladesh's main imports are cotton, machinery and mineral fuels, and its ma in import partners are 
India, China, Singapore and the EU.  As for exports, the main destination by a considerable margin is 
the EU (58.6 per cent in 2004), followed by the US (25.6 per cent).  
 Bangladesh was one of the founding members of the WTO.  It is also a member of South 
Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA).  
2. Activities under assessment 
 TRTA in the category trade policy and regula tions totalled US$29.6 million in Bangladesh in 
2002-2004, according to the WTO/OECD database .  Of this, TRTA from WTO accounted for only 
1.2 per cent, although that still made it the fourth largest donor during that period, with 79 activities. 
  Trade education/training was the sub-categor y that received the most funding and activities 
from the WTO in Bangladesh.  Other sub-categor ies with relatively more funding were trade 
mainstreaming in PRSPs/development plans, TBT and training in trade negotiations techniques. 
 
 The EC was by far the greatest donor of TRTA in trade policy and regulations in Bangladesh in 2002-2004, providing more than three-quarter s of all funds during that period.  Other donors 
included Canada, Japan, Korea, Norway and the US.   The evaluation team interviewed a total 25 people in Bangladesh, which included four 
officials and 15 recipients.  The remaining six we re four representatives of agencies (viz. Canadian 
International Development Agency, Department for International Development-UK, European 
Commission, World Bank) that provide technical  assistance and capacity-building support to the 
Government of Bangladesh and two officials from the Ministry of Commerce (Joint Secretary and Deputy Secretary) that deal with these agencies.  The interviews took place between 17 and 24 March. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 121 
 
 
  3. Findings 
Relevance  
 
 According to most officials and recipients, tr aining courses are relevant to their work, on the 
grounds that "some knowledge is better than no kn owledge".  Overall, they applied the knowledge 
acquired in their areas of work.  Some training cour ses were not directly relevant to their work, but 
the participants were still able to  apply the knowledge gained to some other areas.  For instance, one 
participant who had undergone traini ng on dispute settlement said that it was not particularly relevant 
in the context of Bangladesh's association with WTO and related issues, since as a poor country it is not in a position to enter into the dispute settleme nt process.  For example, it does not have the 
capacity to address anti-dumping duties imposed by Brazil on jute products or raise dumping disputes 
with China and India.  Nevertheless, the par ticipant found that the training had helped in 
understanding the language used in discussions about disputes.   One problem highlighted relates to the selecti on of participants.  In Bangladesh, there is a 
committee headed by the Additional Secretary, Mi nistry of Commerce, which is responsible for 
selecting participants in the WTO-provided training courses.  Most of the time appropriate candidates 
are selected for training, but there was some suggestion that the process was not always straight-forward.  There have been cases where governme nt officials who required training were not 
considered for nomination despite being recomme nded by the Geneva mission, with some senior 
officials instead attending those trainings (mostly those of short duration and held outside Dhaka). 
 
 The difficulties in getting the right candidates seem to have been confined to the Ministry of Commerce.  In the case of other ministries and agen cies (such as the Ministry of Agriculture and the 
National Board of Revenue) the selection process was reportedly more objective, leading to the right persons being selected.  In such cases, the Minist ry of Commerce follows an established procedure – 
writing to the head of the ministry or agency to nominate a relevant person. 
  According to interviewees, one of the factors th at contribute to making an activity relevant is 
a trainer's understanding of the situation in Banglad esh.  However, resource persons were mostly 
drawn from the WTO Secretariat, which often result ed in issues being explained with examples that 
were not relevant to Bangladeshi trainees.  Many offi cials and recipients were of the opinion that it is 
not possible for the WTO resource persons to have  adequate knowledge of on-the-ground realities in 
different countries.  For this reason, they suggest ed there should be more trainers who understand the 
need of the country or region in which the training is taking place.   There is therefore a need to develop the ca pacity of local and regional resource persons. 
 
 There is hardly any need assessment as far as training on WTO issues is concerned on the part 
of either the WTO Secretariat or the Ministry of  Commerce in Dhaka.  Not only that, the WTO has 
failed to respond adequately to the few requests th at were made by Bangladesh.  There have been 
instances when issues relevant for the country we re not considered for capacity building through 
training, despite the country periodically sending its  needs for national training seminars to the WTO 
Secretariat.  Indeed, in only one case (a national seminar on SPS) did the request lead to a training 
activity, while other requests were mostly ignored.  That there is a need for further training can be 
seen in the services negotiations:  Bangladesh has received nine requests, but the Ministry of 
Commerce has very limited capacity to respond to these.  Performance
 
 
 One of the major weaknesses identified by the participants of the WTO-provided training is 
that the activities are mostly quite short and with so many issues covered, there is too little time to 
read the course content while undergoing the traini ng.  Design and delivery are mostly theoretical WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 122  
 
  when practical case studies (relevant to the c ountry) and simulation exercises would be more 
appropriate.  Most of the training was on WTO agreements, whereas knowledge on negotiating skills 
is very much required.   Another problem is that participants mostly come to know about the content of training after 
arriving at the venue.  Except the subject and a broa d agenda, participants were mostly in the dark 
about course content.  For instance, the Ministry  of Commerce had received a covering letter for a 
four-day regional seminar in China on the Doha Wo rk Programme.  However, not even a reading list 
– let alone course materials – had been sent to facili tate preparation for this activity.  There should 
therefore be a properly constructed reading list (with  "must-read" and "optional" sections) and course 
materials (including information about materials ava ilable on the Internet) shou ld be sent at least two 
weeks prior to a training programme.   The selection process affects the performance of TRTA, as having participants of diverse capabilities in a programme has result ed in the training being too basic for some, while for others it 
has been too advanced and in the process both sets ma y lose interest.  According to interviewees, with 
such disparities, resource persons have often found it difficult to balance the needs of different 
participants.   As for strengths, many participants appreciat ed the opportunities to interact with officials 
from different countries and to exchange experience s and knowledge on different issues in the course 
of the training activity. 
 
Impact
 
 
 An overwhelming majority of the recipients said that they are applying the acquired 
knowledge in their current position.  Based on this, the impact – at least at an individual level – can be 
seen to be satisfactory.   However, one problem in assessing the impact is the lack of evaluation of participants' 
achievements.  The WTO Secretariat does not condu ct any assessment of a participant's performance 
in a training programme.  Similarly, the releva nt ministry or agency does not conduct any post-
training assessment.  Performance should be apprai sed through marking and shared with the 
participants as well as senior officials in the releva nt ministry or agency, and this should be included 
in the criteria for future posting and promotion.  In making this assessment there should be different 
types of performance evaluation for short-duration and long-duration training.  For short-duration 
training, oral assessment may be more appropriate .  For long-duration programmes (three-week and 
three-month courses), there should be closed-book assi gnments (i.e. to be completed while sitting in 
an examination room) as well as open-book assignments (i.e. to be completed outside an examination 
room).   Most participants reported completing a f eedback form towards the end of a training 
seminar/workshop but there were quest ions about the reliability of the information provided.  In some 
cases, it was found that participants were encouraged  by their ministry, before going for a training 
programme, not to be very critical in assessing the resource persons and course materials while filling 
up the feedback form.  Sometimes participants were hindered by not being able to complete the form 
anonymously.  
 Most of the recipients considered that traini ng would have been better conducted in Dhaka, as 
this would have been more cost-effective and increa sed the likelihood that only those interested in the 
subject would undergo the training.  Such training in capitals could be facilitate d by national trainers.  
It was suggested that the WTO Secretariat conduct "training of trainers" courses in capitals, and 
simultaneously to strengthen the development of na tional-level institutions to  provide trade-related 
training and follow-up activities.  One such organi sation is the Bangladesh Foreign Trade Institute,  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 123 
 
 
  which was established two years ago, though it is still non-functional for want of resources as well as 
leadership.   In Bangladesh, as in many other countries, th ere is a clear lack of involvement of other 
agencies (including non-governmental organisations) in WTO negotiations and the need for them to 
become more proactive is an issue that could be  addressed through TRTA.  Their greater involvement 
is not only important because of the need for wi der stakeholder consultation, but also greater 
understanding of the WTO and the MTS.  For instan ce, some NGOs in Bangladesh are concerned that 
liberalisation of services may lead to malpractices on the part of banking and insurance companies.  
Yet many do not realize that there is scope for services regulation through WTO commitments and 
that there is no requirement to make commitments on public services like water. 
 
Comparative advantage
 
 
 It is not always easy – or even possible – to compare TRTA activities among different 
providers.  Nonetheless, interviewees who were ab le to make such comparisons found on aggregate 
that WTO TRTA was somewhat better than the tec hnical assistance provided by other agencies.  It 
was, moreover, clearly mentioned that the WTO Secretariat has a comparative advantage over other agencies in conducting training courses on WTO agre ements, as the Secretariat is dealing with the 
agreements in their daily work.  On the other hand, the WTO Secretariat does not provide much 
training on trade negotiations. 
 
4. Conclusions 
 At present, in Bangladesh the WTO-provided TRTA activities are considered to be relevant, 
albeit mostly supply-driven.  Participants enjoy the opportunities to share experiences and knowledge 
with representatives from other countries.  As for trainers, however, they find that training could be 
made more relevant if it were provided by more  resource persons with greater knowledge about the 
country and region.  Furthermore, courses are often regarded as too short for the amount of information to be conveyed and absorbed.  They ar e also found to be too theoretical and not having 
enough case studies and simulation exercises.   The government has requested training on speci fic issues, but these requests are often not 
met. This is not just true for training but for su pport under the IF.  For instance, since 2000 when the 
first Trade Policy Review of Bangladesh was undert aken, the country has placed 40 requests to get 
support as under the Integrated Framework;  only one  request (a project on leather sector) has been 
considered so far.  
 One issue that came out strongly in the fieldwork was how to improve the selection of 
participants to take into account both relevance to their position, their level of experience and 
knowledge, and their needs.  Many officials in the Ministry of Commerce suggested that the selection 
process should be made more transparent and that  there should be an accountability mechanism for 
senior officers.  In their view, the WTO Secretariat should play a proactive role in the selection 
process.  This has occurred on occasi on; for instance, for a training course on anti-dumping, where the 
WTO Secretariat followed a merit-based policy of sel ection.  To improve the situation, therefore, 
measures should be introduced both by the government and the WTO.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 124  
 
  Barbados 
 
1. Key features of national trade context 
 Barbados is a small Caribbean  island of 166 square miles, and one of the world's most 
densely populated countries.  Barbados compares favourably with other Caribbean countries on 
economic and social indicators: its poverty rates are the lowest in the Caribbean.
67  In 2003, Barbados 
ranked 30th in terms of the United Nations' Human Development Index.68 
  In the past thirty years, Barbados has tran sformed from an agriculture-based economy, to a 
more diversified, service oriented one.  Duri ng this transformation process, significant economic 
growth and development has taken place.
69  The particularly solid economic performance of the 
1990s, however, has given way to macroeconomic imbalances since 2001.   After implementing an expansionary public i nvestment programme to help revive economic 
activity
70 – especially the tourism sector – there was a strong economic recovery in 2004 and 2005.  
The economy expanded by 4.4 per cent in the first quarter of 2006, marking its seventh consecutive 
quarter of real GDP growth above 3 per cent.71  But Barbados continues to be an economy highly 
exposed to a narrow range of external factors over which it has little or no control.72 
  The domestic economy is also highly vulnerab le to the economic performance of its major 
trading partners, the US and Europe (predominantly the UK).  Whilst Europe is the main market for 
Barbados' exports, primarily under preferential tradi ng arrangements, the majority of its imports are 
from the US and Canada, with an increasing amount from within the region under the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) trading arrangements.
73 
 
2. Activities under assessment 
 According to the WTO/OECD database, to tal spending in Barbados on Trade Related 
Technical Assistance/Capacity Building (TRTA/CB) from 2002 to 2004 amounted to US$196,000 for trade policy and regulations, with 61 TRTA/CB activiti es organized.  The WTO was by far the largest 
donor of TRTA for Barbados with 49 activities, wh ich amounted to US$186,000 million.  Most of the 
funds were spent on trade education/training, followed by services, rules and trade negotiations 
techniques, TBT and trade facilitation procedures. 
 
 Just a few other agencies and individual countries have offered occasional trade-related 
training courses focusing on trade finance and investment, namely Japan, Korea and the ITC.  The WTO has accounted for some 95 per cent of the courses, seminars or workshops available to 
Barbados from 2002 to 2005.  The bulk of these were  offered regionally or in Geneva; only 3 were 
organized nationally. 
  Barbadian trainees attended a variety of courses,  most of them in other Caribbean countries 
where the WTO – often in association with regiona l bodies – has offered different courses on subjects 
such as trade facilitation, technical barriers to tr ade, tariffs negotiations, trade and environment, 
                                                     
 
67 Barbados Staff Report for the 2005 Article IV Consultation.  IMF.  Prepared by the Staff 
Representatives for the 2005 Consultation with Barbados.  July, 2005. 
68 Human Development Indicators 2005 , UNDP, 2005. 
69 Turning losses into gains:  SIDS and multilateral trade liberalisation in agriculture , UNCTAD, 
United Nations, July 2003, p. 46. 
70 Barbados Staff Report for the 2005 Article IV Consultation. IMF, op. cit., p. 7-9. 
71 Review of the economy for the fi rst three months of 2006.  Economic Press Release.  The Central 
Bank of Barbados.  May, 2006. 
72 Trade Policy Review Barbados, Report by the Secretariat, WT/TPR/S/101, WTO, June 2002. 
73 Turning losses into gain , op. cit., p. 46.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 125 
 
 
  services and dispute settlement.  We conducted 20 in terviews in March 2006, 15 with recipients of 
this training, plus 3 government and regional organisations official s and 2 with representatives of the 
private sector.  The recipients were from the Minist ries of Foreign Relations and Foreign Trade (6), 
Agriculture (2) and Business (2), the Governme nt Audit Office (1) and the National Standards 
Institution (2). 
 
3. Findings 
Relevance  
 
 Most interviewees acknowledged having applie d their acquired knowledge in their positions.  
More important, most of them confirmed that the training activities were considerably relevant for 
their work.  Particularly, they found WTO cour ses very useful for different actions, such as 
understanding WTO terminology, clarifying some  WTO specialized topics (TRIPs, anti-dumping), 
producing tariff notifications, a nd advising authorities in policy-making.  The considerable 
opportunities for informal networking within the region or with countries facing similar dilemmas 
were seen as one of the central va lues of the courses and workshops. 
  Although there were good comments concerning the overall quality of the courses, some 
respondents underlined that the design and delivery of the training activities were not particularly 
balanced.  They argued that courses were too status  quo oriented and too supply-driven.  Especially 
when courses were led exclusively by WTO trainers, there was a lack of consideration of small 
economies' perspectives and a deficiency in unde rstanding the developmental impact of compliance 
with WTO rules.   WTO TRTA is perceived as being designed in a top-down way, covering a very wide context 
and paying little attention to regi onal particularities and regional pr e-existing know-how.  Also, even 
when WTO hires resource persons from the Caribb ean for regionally focused courses, they keep a 
too-tight leash on the content, eliminating the possibility for real input from these regional experts.  There was a general request among interviewees fo r courses to be taught with more specificity 
responding to local needs.   Regarding the relevance of WTO courses at the institutional level, Caribbean trade diplomacy 
has tended to be reactive for historical reasons and matters of scale.  WTO courses could help reverse 
or at least moderate this trend, by assisting Barba dos and others to write up more proposals, and assist 
them to keep abreast of multiple negotiati ng arenas despite their few human resources. 
  Follow-up activities were considered scarce or even non-existent.  No follow-up news service 
or newsletter from the WTO was distributed to trainees.   But some sort of 'continuing education' could 
be useful, keeping officials updated on the rapidly changing areas of WTO rules, such as intellectual 
property and others.  The exception is a newslette r service, which is provided to countries without 
representation in Geneva.  One interesting sugges tion was that courses be continued through on-the-
spot consultants, who would provide the type of TA most needed as Caribbean governments can afford only a very limited staff and those employed in  trade-related ministries must wear several hats 
at any given time. 
 
Performance
 
 
 The quality of the training received in the WT O courses or workshops was seen as very good 
or good.  But several interviewees acknowledged th at information provided by WTO instruction is 
limited to a description of the agreements, avoiding a focus on their practical consequences.  That lack 
of realism impedes their full internalisation, ow nership and adequate impl ementation.  A frequent 
request was for more case-study teaching instead of instruction going point by point through the 
agreements.  Case studies can be much more useful  for the Caribbean stakeholders because trainees WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 126  
 
  already know the basics of WTO agreements and what they need is practical examples of how 
WTO rules affect policymaking.   According to the interviewees, WTO trainers are not allowed to discuss the implications of 
WTO jurisprudence and regulations during the courses.  Lack of emphasis on policy-relevant 
connotations of WTO rules and dispute settlement puts in question the usefulness of the WTO's TA, 
when the aim is to reinforce traine es' ability to contribute to an act ive participation of their countries 
in ongoing WTO work and negotia tions.  Several respondents complained that courses "just teach 
how to comply with agreements" when they want ed more interpretation and discussion of work once 
agreements are signed. 
 
 As for the organisation and logistics, some interviewees remarked on the excess of technical juridical language, which, in add ition to language problems of some instructors, made courses quite 
difficult to understand and follow.  Moreover, courses were perceived as very front-loaded when they 
should have advanced faster on what had already b een taught.  The organisation in modules was also 
seen as too rigid.  A better alternative, according to  one interviewee, could be to divide up the longer 
courses into shorter versions and adapt them to  each of the areas of the Caribbean, investing 
WTO funds in local research and developing what  capacity building is actually needed in each 
Caribbean country.   The WTO spends US$1 million in the RTPC given in Jamaica to repeat the same instruction 
year after year, with limited input to course planning allowed from regional experts, even though they 
do a good part of the teaching.  In contrast, the Masters Program in International Trade at the 
University of West Indies offers an equivalent short course to officials, private business personnel and 
civil society representatives at a much smaller co st of US$6,000 per year, using local knowledge from 
the Caribbean and bringing in specialists from around the world without WTO support.  Some 
Barbadian officials are trained there, as are ma ny local businesses and other Caribbean government 
officials.  
Impact
 
 
 Concerning most trade policy courses, the process of selection of trainees is under the wing of 
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade (MFAFT), which tends to fill the quota first with 
its own personnel before offering spaces to other mini stries such as the Ministry of Economic Affairs, 
Agriculture, Industry and others.   Barbados can usually nominate two people to ea ch course.  Present procedures which rely for 
diffusion solely on the MFAFT do not allow extens ive participation of special agencies.  Some 
agencies remain unaware of the implications of the WTO agreements for their sector.  Hence, there is 
a need for the information on TA opportunities to be diffused more widely. An improved selection of 
the participants would lead to more  relevant TA and lasting results. 
  The limited pool of officials that could be trai ned in Barbados has already been tapped, with 
many cases now of officials being retrained repetitively every year on the same or similar courses.
74  
Repeating courses weakens participants' motivatio n, when they only need some information up-
dating.  As the group of officials needing basic ru le-oriented training is drying up, representatives of 
the private sector and civil society should be brought in as TRTA recipients.  
 The information received by participants is usua lly not shared with coll eagues after the event.  
The lack of meetings or any other efforts to  disseminate information limits the institutional 
accumulation of knowledge.  In the absence of such management rules to take full advantage of the 
TRTA given by WTO, institutional memory and hu man capital building appeared weak.  Regarding 
                                                     
 
74 Public officials are a very stable group in Barbados.  Training is valued but not in pay, certainly.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 127 
 
 
  the lack of human capital building, the problem is tw o-fold.  First, newcomers are rarely trained by 
retirees or others leaving their post.  While staff tu rnover is low in Barbados, the costs of training new 
officers are still significant.  Second, at the MFAFT only one person (at the administrative level) takes 
care of up-coming topics in their initial phase – and attends every course relevant to these issues – 
before these topics are permanently assigned to other members of the MFAFT staff, who then become 
eligible to take courses on those issues as well (i.e. SPS, IPR, environment, etc). 
 
Comparative advantage  
 
 During the interviews, none of the recipients questioned the ability of the WTO to explain the 
letter of the agreements, but many observed that out -of-region facilitators illustrate their courses with 
inapplicable and irrelevant exampl es from much larger countries (such as Brazil) or others with a very 
different level of development (suc h as India).  The lack of country-specific or region-specific vision 
of the training was the problem mentioned most frequently.  Training carried out with regional 
associations was seen as more useful in that re gard because it brought to bear concrete and region-
specific examples. 
  As a potential partner in future WTO courses, but with a stake in the determination of content and style of instruction, the UWI Masters Program in International Trade was singled out as one with 
regional relevance;  students get in-depth regional in sights with an appropriate degree of detail.  It 
involves a Caribbean 'tailor-made' programme fo r officials, private business and civil society 
representatives at a relatively small cost, us ing local resource persons and experience. 
 
4. Conclusions 
 In general the interviewees considered that  the WTO courses were very relevant to their 
individual work and to the needs of their institutio ns.  However, there were a number of ways in 
which it was suggested that the design and delivery of  courses could be improved.  To include a more 
regional focus in the content of the traini ng programs was the most repeated request. 
  Reviewing the neutrality of WTO courses wa s another frequent demand.  While many 
interviewees observed that the WTO experts were very  careful not to be biased – e.g. not to promote 
one negotiating position over another – some observed th at their efforts to be neutral went too far, 
pre-empting any 'development-conscious' approach to  the topics.  For some interviewees, a related 
weakness was the narrow juridical view.  Recipients would have preferred to examine case studies to understand WTO rules and discover their 'power', a nd to learn "how to live with the agreements 
already signed or likely to be forced to sign in the near future", as an interviewee said. 
 
 WTO TRTA is essential for a small country such  as Barbados, which suffers from a shortage 
of human resources.  Its small – although highly ski lled – workforce limits its trade policy capacity.  
Even worse, its small group of officials is repeatedly  trained year after year on the same courses.  An 
improved selection of the participants  and more tailored training would lead to more relevant TA and 
lasting results, and thus help Barbados to overc ome the intrinsic difficulties of a small bureaucracy 
dealing with multi-layered trade schemes. 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
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   Amongst suggestions made dur ing our field visit were: 
 
• Design courses with specificity for national needs and increase follow-up. 
 
• Allow more interpretation in training, for example on ways to make existing 
preferences work for a developing country. 
 
• Diffuse information on capacity building opportunities more broadly. 
 
• Improve the selection of participants.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 129 
 
 
  Cambodia 
 
1. Key features of national trade context 
 Following the civil war in the 1970s, Ca mbodia began a process of restoring peace and 
stability, introducing a democratic political system and undertaking various reform programmes such 
as administrative, judicial and economic reforms.  The latter primarily entailed a process of market-
oriented liberalisation that included the aboliti on of the state monopoly for foreign trade, the 
promulgation of a foreign investment law and the rem oval of a large number of restrictions to engage 
in international trade.  
 The importance of external trade to Cambodia's economy has grown significantly since the 
economy began to open up.  The ratio  of exports of goods and services to GDP more than doubled to 
65 per cent in the decade to 2004, when total expor ts reached some US$2.5 billion, having achieved 
an average annual growth rate of 18.4 per cent si nce 1994.  The US, which absorbed 1.4 per cent of 
Cambodia's exports in 1996, is now a major destin ation with some 60 per cent in 2003 due to the 
boom of garment exports.  In 2003 garment exports reached US$1.6 billion, some 80 per cent of the 
export total.   Imports were US$3.2 billion in 2004, up fro m US$0.7 billion in 1994.  Cambodia's imports 
are dominated by Hong Kong, China, Chinese Taipei and ASEAN partners, with almost half of the 
country's imports coming from the first three.  Its main imports are textiles and mineral products. 
 
 Cambodia became a WTO Member on 13 Oct ober 2004 – the second LDC (after Nepal) to 
accede to the organisation through the full working pa rty negotiation process.  It has been a member 
of ASEAN since 1999.  2. Activities under assessment 
 The WTO/OECD database on TRTA shows that Cambodia received a total of 
US$12.3 million in technical assistance for trade policy and regulations be tween 2002 and 2004, of 
which only 2.8 per cent was implemented by the WT O.  The TRTA activities in Cambodia funded by 
the WTO are quite varied, ranging from national se minars, workshops and mi ssions to regional and 
regular courses, Geneva-based courses, training of trainers, and video-conferences.  However, the 
most predominant forms of TRTA provided are trade policy-courses (Geneva-based or regional) and 
regional training courses/workshops (around 40 of these).  Japan, Thailand, France and the EC are 
among the major donors in Cambodia for trade-relate d technical assistance and capacity building in 
trade policy and regulation.  
 The evaluation team conducted 27 interviews  between 13 and 17 March with Cambodian 
officials, WTO TRTA recipients, one representative of the private sector, and one representative of the donor community.  A meeting was also arranged with members of the In ter-Agency Committee on 
WTO matters in Cambodia at the beginning of the fieldwork process.   At that meeting, various relevant ministries, which had not received WTO TRTA, requested 
to be given an opportunity to talk to the ev aluation team and convey their observation on the 
TRTA programme and their capacity building needs.  
3. Findings 
Relevance
 
 
 Most recipients thought that the quality of the training they received in the WTO course or 
workshops was very good or  good, and relevant to their work.  All quoted the strength of the activities WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 130  
 
  as helping to increase knowledge and capacity, and enhancing their understand ing about the MTS.  
However, many respondents commented that the training provided only introduced them to the WTO and the obligations.  They suggested that the training would have been more useful if it had also covered aspects relating to how they could fulfil their accession commitments, exercise their 
membership rights and derive benefits from the WTO system. 
 
 There was a sense that training should be more  demand-driven and bette r tailored to national 
needs.  More national-level events would not only he lp to customize the content of the training to the 
local situation and local needs, but would also serve  to broaden the participant base.  However, none 
of the interviewees (including the officials) were aware that Cambodia, being an LDC, could request 
the WTO to organize up to three national TRTA even ts.  This seems to reflect a lack of national 
strategy and vision regarding TRTA, as well as a lack of communications between the WTO Secretariat and the national authorities.  The lack of a mechanism for needs assessment at the 
national level is but one manifestation of the former.  
 With regard to making the training more releva nt to the national context, many recipients 
pointed out that the quality of the TRTA activities could be enhanced by adding more local/regional 
content, by way of making use of resource pers ons available in the region or in the country. 
  On the more institutional level, the role of th e Ministry of Commerce as a national focal point 
has meant that a lot of WTO training activities have  been concentrated there.  Some other line 
ministries, on the other hand, have participated  in TRTA activities but on a lesser scale.  An 
encouraging point, however, is that all interviewees were able to tell what are the areas of their work 
that are relevant to Cambodia's WTO membership (rights and obligations), as well as their demands in 
terms of technical assistance.  Performance
 
 
 Most interviewees were positiv e about the quality of the WTO's activities.  Some participants, 
however, commented that the trainers should be selec ted from a pool of practitioners, so as to avoid 
the problem of trainers who were rhetorical or too theoretical.  
 Similarly, most respondents were positive with regard to the training materials received from 
the WTO, which they had found very useful in  both internal settings (presentations within 
government, sharing with colleagues) and externally  (as lecturers in academic institutions or as 
resource persons in workshops/seminars).  One in terviewee noted, however, that the materials 
distributed were in some cases just photocopies of  the WTO legal texts, which could have been 
improved by adding explanations, interpretations and examples. 
  All participants acknowledged that having a regional group in various training events 
undertaken by the WTO helps in promoting networking and exchange of national experiences.  On the 
other hand, quite a few participants pointed out that there is usually a big gap of knowledge and 
capacity between participants from various countri es of different stages of development and with 
different levels of familiarity with WTO issues,  which hinders proactive participation and lively 
interaction in the regional activities.  This, coupled w ith the fact that the part icipants' were not very 
fluent in the language of instruction and that th e timing of some courses was too short (which made 
the speakers rush through various important issues) , adversely affected the comprehension of the 
recipients.  Some therefore sugg ested that the WTO could be more meticulous in its selection of 
participants, especially regarding their qualifications  (including English), years in service, etc.  In 
addition, perhaps some kind of pre-training up dating of knowledge and intimation could be 
undertaken – for example, via video-conferencing or circulation of some pre-training 'homework' – to 
ensure a more homogeneous level of  knowledge amongst participants. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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   A final point to highlight is the lack of  consistent effort by the WTO to solicit 
feedback/assessment on the training programme and resource persons from the participants.  To the 
extent that this was done, it was in an ad hoc manne r.  Assessments were made  within the departments 
and ministries, but they were never shared with the WTO.  Impact
 
 
 All recipients and officials agreed that th e WTO courses or training workshops were very 
useful for Cambodia's WTO negotiation process, sinc e they explained in detail how the multilateral 
trading system works, the organisation of the WTO,  and the relevant legal texts and inherent rights 
and obligations.  However, the WTO courses and training had not been useful for post-accession 
implementation of all the commitments made, since th ey neither went into specificities nor assisted in 
understanding how to undertake several commitme nts and what these commitments meant for 
Cambodia.  
 All interviewees recognized the importance of in stitutional capacity building, rather than just 
building the capacity of individuals, and recommended that major reforms of the public administration system should be undertaken, incl uding increasing civil servants' salaries.  The low 
salary levels in the government sector affect the sustainability of the knowledge/capacity acquired 
during WTO training.  
 The large gap between government salaries a nd what people with the same qualifications 
receive in the private sector [1:10] has induced many  officials, after having received training, to leave 
for the private sector and use their expertise to ear n a larger income there.  Requiring WTO trainees to 
stay in their jobs for a certain time after training is not possible under Cambodian law;  there is no enforcement mechanism for 'soft' promises or commitm ents made by the participants prior to their 
training, and so many later move to the private sector. 
  Regarding the short-term impact of the tr aining, the information (including materials) 
received by the participants is usually shared w ith colleagues after events, though there is no formal 
dissemination requirement, except in the case of MA FF.  The sharing of information takes various 
forms, such as a report (submitted to senior officials,  usually department heads, and then circulated to 
various colleagues) or informal and formal meetin gs.  Some ministries also organize talks with the 
private sector, although the level of response from the private sector is low.  Usually only representatives of business associations and chambe rs of commerce attend such briefing sessions. 
  On the issue of building longer term capacity , several interviewees highlighted the importance 
of training of trainers as well as the need for long-term planning of assistance as with the present 
short-term approach creates there is often a mi smatch between supply and demand which reduces the 
effectiveness and efficiency of the TRTA.  Th ere had been few follow-up activities by the WTO, 
despite all the participants and officials being of the opinion that such follow-up is required.  This 
results from the lack of systematic feedback/assessme nt to the WTO and especially from the fact that 
the Cambodian government rarely requests follow-up activities. 
 
Comparative advantage
 
 
 Discussions with the interviewees revealed th at there is a serious lack of coordination 
between donors (including the WTO), with the result that there is a certain level of duplication and 
wastage of resources. 
  Most interviewees have an equa lly favourable view of the quality of the training provided by 
the WTO and that provided by other donors/TA pr oviders.  The WTO TRTA activities tend to be 
perceived as 'general' and 'introductory' in nature – sometimes 'too unbiased' – and not too useful with 
respect to implementation.  Other donors, such  as the EC, Japan, UNCTAD, WIPO and the WCO are WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 132  
 
  considered more helpful in this way.  All th e respondents proposed more coordination between the 
WTO and other specialized bodies in providing TRTA.   A representative of the donor community in Camb odia also revealed that there were gaps in 
terms of coordination among the donors and between the donors and the relevant Cambodian 
authorities.  This can only be resolved if both ma ke concerted and pro-active efforts to liaise with 
each other.  There is an inter-ministerial steeri ng committee dealing with the IF.  However, this 
committee is not very active and holds irregular meetings.  
4. Conclusions 
 Cambodia faces several challenges such as a l ack of financial and human capital, economic 
vulnerability to changes in the international tr ading environment and implementing its post-WTO 
accession compliance programme of policy making and institutional reform.  There is limited understanding of WTO required la ws among implementing governmental  institutions and other key 
stakeholders like the private sector and research in stitutions/academia.  There is an urgent need for 
appropriate TRTA and capacity building initiatives in such areas as the legislative framework, 
valuation procedures, trade policy evaluation, and reporting and assessing the impact of trade 
protection and liberalisation.   Existing entities within the government sector as well as those outside including trade-related research institutions and industry associations have  very limited capacity to provide policy inputs 
relevant to policy makers. 
  Cambodian public policy-makers, particularly in  the Ministry of Commerce need a long term 
well resourced programme of capacity development th at is institutionally and programme-based rather 
than short project-based.  There should be stronge r cooperation and support to  strengthen partnership 
programmes among research institutions and with inte rnational organisations and academia.  There is 
also no evidence of a proper mechanism within the public sector to effectively ascertain, coordinate 
and implement TRTA needs and prioriti es in a holistic and coherent manner. 
  Most of the TRTA activities implemented by  international agencies and donor countries are 
supply-driven, with minimal inputs from the government sector.  In most cases, they are not tailor-
made to the requirements of the country and have resulted in duplication of activities.  The existing 
Inter-Agency Committee on WTO matters, chaired by th e Senior Minister of Commerce, would be an 
appropriate forum to ensure that TRTA programme s implemented are consiste nt with national needs 
and priorities and meet the requirements of sustainability.   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 133 
 
 
  Ecuador 
 
1. Key features of national trade context 
 Ecuador has a population of about 13 million.  It ranks 82 out of 177 countries according to 
the UNDP Human Development Report.75  It has substantial oil resources and rich agricultural areas.  
The country exports primary products such as oil, bananas, and shrimp, and fluctuations in world 
market prices can have a substantial domestic impact.  Trade in goods and services – as a proportion 
of GDP – has gradually decreased in the past few years.   The recent economic scene in Ecuador has b een dominated by the economic and financial 
crisis of 1998-1999 and subsequent adjustments.  Th e crisis caused real GDP to drop by some 6 per 
cent, with poverty worsening significantly.
76  The banking system collapsed in 1999, and Ecuador 
defaulted on its external debt.  The currency depr eciated by some 70 per cent, and, on the brink of 
hyperinflation, in March 2000, Congress approved th e adoption of the US dollar as legal tender.  
Dollarisation allowed stabilisation of the economy a nd growth returned to its pre-crisis levels. 
 
 Despite the relatively positive performance of  Ecuador's economy recently, in April 2005 a 
popular rebellion pushed Congress to oust the head of state Gutierrez and replace him with Vice-president Palacio.  The political situation has stab ilized under the current Palacio administration, but 
elections are due in October 2006 in what seems a fragmented and unstable scenario, especially 
concerning indigenous oppositi on to the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the US. 
 
2. Activities under assessment 
 Many of the activities under assessment were de livered in association with other agencies in 
the region.  In fact, except for the general TPC in  Geneva, and the recently inaugurated RTPC with 
the University of Chile (September- November 2005 ), capacity building was developed with a variety 
of regional and global bodies.  Particularly notable  is the association with INTAL – an arm of the 
IDB, which constitutes a milestone for WTO t echnical assistance activities in Latin America. 
  According to the WTO/OECD database on TRTA, Ecuador received US$7.7 million in 
technical assistance for trade policy and regulations between 2001 and 2005.  The WTO provided a 
large share of the activities benefiting Ecuador, with more than 88 per cent of the total.  During that 
period, officials from Ecuador participated in 98 activities, 71 of which were organized by the WTO 
mostly in trade education/training, services, dis pute settlement and technical barriers to trade. 
  There were 15 Ecuadorian trainees interviewe d and 5 officers in March 2006.  Trainees 
attended a variety of WTO courses, most of th em in countries other than Ecuador.  The most 
predominant form of TRTA provided by WTO was trade policy-courses (Geneva-based or elsewhere) 
and regional training courses/workshops.  There were  very few national events organized in Ecuador 
with WTO funds.  
3. Findings 
Relevance
 
 
 All interviewees confirmed that the training ac tivities were very relevant for their work.  
Particularly, they found WTO courses very useful  for different actions, such as making tariff 
notifications, improvement of negotiations skills, ne tworking and delivery of updated information.  
Almost every interviewee considered that the quality  of the training they received in WTO courses or 
                                                      
75 The HDI in the 2005 Report of the UNDP refers to 2003. 
76 Ecuador – Country Assistance Strategy. Public Information Notice, World Bank, 2003. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 134  
 
  workshops were very good.  The training provided a useful start-up to their jobs, mostly to understand 
otherwise arcane agreements and their legal intricacies.  The cons iderable opportunities for informal 
networking within the region or with countries f acing similar dilemmas were seen as another central 
value of the courses.  
 The instruction carried out with regional associ ations was seen as useful because it brought to 
bear concrete and region-specific examples.  The more technical courses pertaining to notification 
procedures and internalisation of SPS and TBT rules we re not affected at all by lack of concreteness, 
given their very specific nature by definition.  Some respondents suggested that case study methods might help to bring to life many issues.  There we re some specific requests to include further trade 
relief, safeguards and countervailing duties, and dispute settlement courses.  Demands for more 
frequent and longer courses, involving a larger number of participants, were also mentioned 
repeatedly.   Although there were very good comments concer ning the overall quality of the courses, some 
respondents underlined that the design and delivery of the training activities were not particularly 
balanced.  They argued that courses were too status  quo oriented and too supply-driven.  Especially 
when courses were led exclusively by WTO trainers, they seemed to be teaching a 'doctrine' with an 
excessively orthodox perspective, shying away from debate or discussion.   Some interviewees stated that  follow-up activities were scarce and were mostly done at the 
initiative of the trainees.  There were suggestions that the WTO offer more follow-up activities rather 
than repeat courses.  The participants gave, howev er, very positive comments about the materials and 
documents used in the courses and the seminars.  Th ey also used the materials in presentations made 
to their colleagues.  
 Regarding regional partnerships, the associa tion of the WTO with INTAL was prominent in 
the list of courses offered for Ecuador and other co untries in the region.  The annual programme of 
courses – designed jointly by the WTO, in cons ultation with delegations  in Geneva, and the 
IDB/INTAL – seems to fulfil the strong need for a regional focus.
77  The training is provided by WTO 
experts, sometimes jointly with experts from the IDB.  Although the quality of training by WTO 
instructors was not contested, trainees considered that they needed to relax their self-control, and 
expand the boundaries of their conventional instruction. 
 
Performance  
 
 As for efficacy, both positive and negative aspects were noted.  For several respondents 
WTO training was too general and applied rules by th e book.  In contrast, when delivered by external 
consultants or other agencies, training was less i nhibited and more appealing.  Thus, there was a 
general request to include more non-WTO instructors in order to become skilled at brinkmanship and 
to show the 'two sides of the coin'.   Also, many respondents proposed that the WTO offer more demand-driven and less 
'packaged' training.  There were also quite a few requests for more specific and precise courses: some 
more sub-regional and others more  country-specialized (on countries' idiosyncrasies, culture, politics, 
and interests) in order to strengthen negotiating skills.   Concerning the selection of Ecuadorian particip ants to attend WTO courses, it remains clear 
from the interviews that it could be improved.  In  relation to the general trade policy courses, for 
which demand is high, the process is under the wing of  the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), which 
tends to fill the quota first with its own pers onnel before distributing it to other agencies. 
 
                                                     
 
77 This Training Program does not include national seminars, only regional ones.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 135 
 
 
   Since MFA dominates the participation in gene ral WTO courses, there is a rather noticeable 
gender bias amongst trainees, given the male do minated composition of the MFA personnel.  
Moreover, the selection of officials carries an ag e limit, which is seen as dysfunctional.  The 
elimination of age limits would allow training for permanent officers who need to update and 
strengthen their techni cal knowledge and skills. 
 
 Regarding IDB/INTAL-WTO training, although  the general assessment was positive, it was 
stressed that efforts should be made to improve th e 'match' between trainers and trainees, achieve an 
adequate level of difficulty (not too basic nor too advanced), and better adjust candidates' profiles in 
order to target eligible applicants. 
 
 It is not feasible to make specific comments on efficiency of WTO courses in Ecuador.  This is because of the absence of data from the WTO – le t alone other agencies – relating to the costs of 
inputs and the challenges of attributing values to outputs, in this case, the information and knowledge 
acquired in the courses. 
 
Impact
 
 
 One important issue regarding the long-ter m impact of the WTO TRTA activities is the 
concern for the regular rotation of personnel.  As in most countries, in Ecuador the MFA has a quota 
for political appointments at a high level.  But trai nees have been drawn from permanent staff and not 
from political appointees, so very few trainees have le ft their jobs in the public service as a result of 
government changes.  As a general trend, natio nal political instability does not affect personnel 
stability within Ministries.  This is a clear indica tion that selection criteria ha ve operated in favour of 
candidates with past and future involvement in trade issues.  
 As we have mentioned, MFA centralizes WTO training – even though it is not the single 
leader in trade negotiations.  Moreover, the MFA has had a rotation policy for its personnel.  Hence 
rotation tends to be higher in principle in this Minist ry than in other agencies.  This raises again the 
question of the selection process.  Some interview ees highlighted that, as trade negotiations now loom 
large, the MFA is searching to increase specialisati on, reducing rotation of personnel from trade into 
other issues. 
 
 For the general Trade Policy Course, the WTO requires grantees to make a formal 
commitment to remain in their jobs –and therefor e, involved in trade policy issues– for a specified 
period. In the case of CORPEI (being a private non  profit institution), candi dates were required to 
remain in their actual jobs for a year after the c ourse.  This commitment reduces political interference 
and opens opportunities for agencies to ensure a multiplying effect. 
  Concerning the institutional impact, the informati on received by participants is usually shared 
with colleagues after the event.  This disseminati on takes different forms. Mostly it takes place on a 
day-to-day basis on request.  Participants in WTO courses become focal points for their colleagues in 
these particular trade matters and are consulted regularl y.  Several interviewees also stated that they 
had informal meetings with their colleagues wh ere they highlighted the key points from the 
WTO training activity.  Some participants were al so able to organize workshops and seminars with 
business, academics and civil society.   As for the impact of WTO TRTA activities in building capacity for the country, while 
outsiders – including WTO experts – are still considered  as needed to help in various ways, there is a 
sense of growing national capacity.  In concrete te rms, TRTA activities seem to have contributed to 
an increasing effectiveness of Ecuador's trade st rategies, although its innova tive negotiation tactics 
were first developed when accessing the WTO and simultaneously joining other WTO Members in 
the banana regime dispute against the European Union. 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 136  
 
  Comparative advantage
 
 
 Few interviewees thought that the WTO training programme should be fundamentally reviewed – recognising that it had inherent strengths  in the area of trade law and its application -- 
although many argued that they found the courses t oo status-quo oriented a nd lacking a development 
dimension.  One interviewee found that neutrality at  all costs was not useful  capacity building, and 
that more was needed to flesh out implications and windows for special and differential treatment.  
Another interviewee qualified the vision as too rosy; another as 'neoliberal'.   In contrast, when resource persons from outside  the WTO were incorporated as facilitators in 
the courses, the bias tended to be reduced.  Collabora tion with regional institutions also involved the 
use of concrete examples and case studies by the non-WTO resource persons, thus compensating for a weakness observed in courses offered by the WTO on its own.  Indeed, the WTO staff is seen as most 
qualified to explain the content of the legal documen ts, but several argued that this needed to be 
complemented by trainers with more prac tical experience and a broader perspective. 
 
 Nevertheless, the courses were highly graded, on a par with those run by other agencies, and seen as very useful for the day-to-day business of  both negotiating and implementing agreements.  
Many had comments on what could be improved and th ey offered proposals in terms of ensuring that 
the organisation best suited for the work is involved.  4. Conclusions 
 Knowledge and comprehension of WTO rules a nd procedures are important for a country like 
Ecuador where growth is linked to primary goods e xports.  It is important for the government to know 
how to negotiate; use WTO rules to reinfor ce its vulnerable economy; and profit from the 
opportunities created in other markets. 
 
 In general, TRTA activities organized by the WTO were considered constructive and helpful 
by Ecuadorian officials and recipients.  However, th e compact of 'excessive neutrality', training by the 
book, lack of development dimensi on and few dispute settlement courses, were seen as detrimental to 
the training's usefulness.  
 In terms of impact, capacity building resulting from TRTA activities in Ecuador revolves 
largely around the MFA.  This has allowed diplomatic officials to build a critical mass of knowledge about WTO rules and current negotiations.  In ot her key ministries, however, TRTA training has 
reached fewer recipients, leaving some sensitiv e trade areas deprived from expert knowledge. 
 
 There are still doubts about how best to take advantage of WTO training.  Some suggestions 
have been made about increasing the number of ac tivities, which appear to have been less than 
Ecuador has requested (especially concerning nationa l courses);  strengthening the content of courses 
(level, links to national and regiona l dimensions as well as the deve lopment context, balance between 
theory and practice, avoidance of excessive neutral stance);  and ensuring follow-up. 
 
 Some would like to be able to focus on par ticular policy/sectoral issues;  others would like 
further training to broaden/deepen their knowledge.   To conclude, some suggestions for consideration are to:  
• Embrace trainees as trainers.  However, whether such 'training of trainers' should be 
undertaken by the WTO, another internationa l organisation or a national partner is a 
point to discuss; 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  • include universities to bridge the divorce between the new trade regime and civil 
society; 
 
• incorporate an increasing number of external consultants in order to avoid excessive 
neutrality, risk aversion, or 'standoffishness'; 
 
• improve and balance the selection process; 
 
• share the 'tricks' of the trade and not just  the rules of the book as transferred by 
WTO officers;  and 
 
• design more demand-driven courses within a regional or country planning exercise. 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 138  
 
  Kenya 
 
1. Key features of national trade context 
 Trade reforms in Kenya evolved slowly from an import substitution strategy toward a more 
open trade regime, beginning in the mid-1980s.  Ho wever, given the lack of public support and 
limited political commitment, most trade reforms took place in the late part of the 1990s.  The recent 
trade reforms included the dismantling of import rest rictions such as quotas with the shift toward 
tariffication, the reduction of tariff levels and the el imination of export duties and taxes.  Tariffs are 
now the key instrument of Kenyan trade policy, but  protection remains relatively high.  The simple 
average of most-favoured-nation (MFN) import tariffs is 18 per cent, only 3.7 per cent of tariff lines 
are duty-free and tariff revenues still represent more  than half of tax revenue (54 per cent). 
  Kenya is a founding member of the WTO having been a GATT contracting party since 1964.  In recent years, Kenya has become more active in  WTO negotiations, and of ten speaks on behalf of 
the "Africa group", a coalition of African members.  Kenya is a member of the Common Market for 
Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and has esta blished, with Uganda and Tanzania, the East 
African Community (EAC) which also aims for economic integration and greater harmonisation 
between the three countries, as well as undertaking jo int projects in infrastructure.  The Kenyan 
mission in Geneva is composed of three individuals, plus some occasional interns.  In Nairobi, the WTO division of the Ministry of Trade and Industry includes thirteen officials.  2. Activities under assessment 
 Between 2001 and 2004, the WTO allocated almost half million dollars on technical 
assistance for Kenya, which represented about 2 per cent of all the financial resources donors spent on building capacity for trade policy and regulation in th is country.  This support has taken the form of 
several trade policy courses each year.  As well as three national seminars, Nairobi was the location 
for the regional trade policy course between 2001 and 2004, as well as some regional workshops.  
Kenyans also participated in sever al regional workshops in different African locations, as well as the 
courses offered by the WTO in Geneva and the Geneva-based 10-month internship programme 
managed by the WTO.  The WTO has also been  involved with the ITC and UNCTAD in the 
implementation of the JITAP, which was operational in Kenya during that period. 
 
 We conducted fifteen interviews in Nairobi between April 3 and 11, 2006.  Five officials from 
the WTO division of the Ministry of Trade and Industry were interviewed, seven from other ministries, and three from non-governmental orga nisations (private sector, academia and donor 
community).  The respondents had participated in the regional trade policy courses and in the regional 
workshops.  One interviewee had pa rticipated in the internship pr ogramme in Gene va, and another 
had attended only a national WTO workshop in Nairobi .  The author of this report also attended a 
meeting of the Kenya's National Committee on the WTO as an observer during her stay in Nairobi.  
3. Findings 
Relevance
 
  The interviewees all stated that the training received by the WTO was very relevant to their 
work and that they were able to  apply the information and knowledge received in the conduct of their 
duties such as the preparation of negotiation positions in the current WTO negotiations.  The simulation exercises are very much appreciated, as they are deemed very useful.  The materials 
provided to participants are considered very useful a nd the majority say that they continue to use these 
documents and materials after the training activity.   A number of participants commented about the 
regional groupings used for regional workshops.  They suggested that the grouping should only 
include East African countries, given their simila rities.  One respondent gave the example of a  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  regional workshop on agriculture, which include d West African countries and where the long 
discussions on cotton were not considered re levant for several of the officials. 
  Some interviewees suggested that the WTO' s training programme needs to move beyond 
knowledge of the WTO agreements and to focus on de veloping the analytical capacity of officials.  
This analytical capacity is needed to better unders tand the implications of negotiations proposals for 
Kenya, but also for other tasks such as the submissi on of comments in trade disputes, as in the recent 
sugar case involving the EU.  "We need to move from being generalists to  being experts," as one 
official put it.  The difficulties of doing analytical  work were also raised several times during the 
meeting of the National Committee on the WTO.  Wh ether it is on agriculture, NAMA or intellectual 
property, the members of the committee highlighted  the need to conduct studies and analysis and the 
lack of internal capacity to do so.  Analytical cap acity exists outside the governmental agencies, such 
as the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research  and Analysis (KIPPRA) and the university-based 
Institute of Development Studies (IDS), but funding  to support such studies is not sufficient. 
 
 It was suggested that one way the WTO can cont ribute to building analytical capacity was to 
offer more intensive training (2 weeks) on one sp ecific issue.  The 10-month internship programme 
currently being offered in Geneva is also seen as a good way to improve the analytical capacity of the 
officials, in addition to improving their negotiation skills by learning by doing.  Indeed, several noted 
the improvement of negotiating skills as a key area where there were still significant capacity gaps.  A 
number of interviewees mentioned the JITAP during our discussions.  "The JITAP was a very good 
model to build analytical capacity, especially the tr ain the trainers element of this model."  They 
suggested that the WTO used more of the appro aches adopted in this programme in its training 
activities.  
Performance
 
 
 The quality of presentations in WTO training activities is undisputed; interviewees see resource- persons from the WTO secretariat as very knowledgeable.  One obstacle to efficacy in terms 
of reaching the target audience was noted by a number of interviewees: the selection process of 
participants.  
 The participants in courses and workshops are nominated by the WTO division of the 
Ministry of Trade and Industry.  A number of problems have been raised regarding this process.  First, 
some interviewees noted that this leads to  an overrepresentation of the officers from the 
WTO division as participants, preventing some offi cials from line ministries such as the Ministry of 
Agriculture to gain better knowledge of WTO issu es.  This is not an issue unique to Kenya. 
 
 A number of interviewees also thought that th e selection of participan ts in terms of their 
qualifications and responsibilities shoul d be tighter and involve the WTO secretariat, and not only the 
national government's trade ministry.  "The Secret ariat should establish benchmarks for officials to 
participate in their activities, the candidates should submit a CV and there should be clear criteria for selection.  This is already done in the internship  programme."  We should note that in Kenya the 
selection of participation for WTO training activities al so takes into consideration membership in the 
National Committee of the WTO.  This is seen by many interviewees as a very good criterion for 
selection, as the trainees can use the knowledge gained  to be more active and useful participants in 
these national discussions.  Another suggestion made to  ensure that the right people are participating 
in the training activities was to ask the candidates to send a paper to the r esource person before the 
workshop and/or to prepare a presentation on a relevant topic for the event. 
  Between 2001 and 2004, the University of Na irobi was the regional centre offering the three-
month trade policy courses to African officials.  In 2004, it was moved to Namibia, according to a 
WTO decision to rotate the location of regional tr aining centres every three years.  Some officials 
challenged this decision, arguing that it is not an  efficient way of doing things, as the new regional WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  training centre has to start all over again in terms of  developing its capacity to manage such courses.  
Others believed that the decision to rotate the lo cation reflected the politicisation of the training 
programme, i.e. moving the centre to different capit als in order to "pepper" the benefits for the 
country acting as host.  A more long-term commitment to creating regional training centres was preferred. 
 
 Another element discussed regarding the decentr alisation of the WTO training was the need 
to verify the level of expertise of the resour ce persons before they offer training on the 
WTO Agreements.  Some of the selected local expert s did not have sufficient knowledge to be able to 
offer the trade policy courses.  Despite these difficulti es, interviewees all agreed that that the regional 
decentralisation of the training activities is a good approach. 
 
Impact
 
 
 Compared to many other countries, Kenya h as developed a relatively inclusive trade policy 
process with the NCWTO at its core.  The committee is composed of government officials for many 
ministries and government agencies (agriculture, en vironment, regulatory agencies, health) and is 
chaired by the director of the WTO division of the Ministry of Trade and Industry.  It is not only an inter-ministerial committee, as representatives from the private sector, academia and other non-
governmental organisations are also members.  
 Five sub-committees report to the NCWTO.  The NCWTO received financial support from 
JITAP during a number of years and many interviewees commended the work accomplished by JITAP in terms of building capacity on trade in Kenya.  The committee and its sub-committees offer 
interesting channels of dissemination of informa tion on trade, including information received at 
WTO training such as regional workshops, and sever al interviewees acknowledge  using this channel 
for this purpose.  However, they also suggested that the committee could used even more for such 
dissemination.   A number of other means have been used by pa rticipants, especially in regional workshops, to 
disseminate the information received to colleagues or stakeholders.  For instance, after attending a seminar on intellectual property, an official from th e Health Ministry organized, with the financial 
support of the WHO, a national seminar with 25 ministry officials, in order to increase their 
awareness and knowledge of these issues.  Officials from Kenya's Bureau of Standards disseminate 
the information received to the private sector through a number of means including a regular newsletter.  Some interviewees suggested that the WTO should do follow-up to ensure the impact of 
its training.  For instance, at the end of a regiona l workshop, "the participants should indicate what 
they will do with the information they gained a nd later, the WTO would check what they did." 
  The need to improve the long-term impact of trade training was on the mind of several interviewees.  They raised the need to develop a regular and systematic programme of training in 
specific areas (for example, agriculture, standards, h ealth), instead of the regional workshops that are 
usually carried out in an "ad hoc " fashion.  One of them suggested that these programs "should be 
more country specific, or at least better reflect the level of capacity of the recipient countries, as there 
are important differences across developing countries."  
Comparative advantage
 
  One interviewee challenged th e idea that WTO should engage in training.  "The WTO is a 
forum for discussions and for rules setting.  Training  should be left to other organisations for whom 
training is an integral part of their mandate, such  as international development agencies and the World 
Bank."  It was suggested that the WTO Secretaria t could still be involved in preparing training 
materials but that it would be used by other or ganisations.  Its experts could also be invited as 
resource persons in some of the training activities of  others, but the WTO would not be organising the  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 141 
 
 
  activities themselves.  Others did not challenge the involvement of the WTO in training on trade 
issues, but believed it should be doing it an even mo re collaborative manner with  other organisations.  
For instance, an official from the health mini stry suggested that the WTO develop a regular 
programme of training on trade and health issues in coordination with the FAO and WHO.  
 There are diverse views regarding the question of  whether there is an overlap or duplication 
of content between the different or ganisations involved in trade-related technical assistance.  Whereas 
many think that there is no overlap, others found that there was a lack of collaboration among the 
international organisations a nd donors involved in TRTA/TRCB a nd had observed duplication of 
efforts. 
 
 For example, some noted that there are ma ny workshops on trade facilitation and standards 
but no coordination to ensure a coherent progr amme of training and capacity building.  They 
suggested that the NCWTO could be use at the na tional level to coordinate all the training and 
capacity building made available. 
 
4. Conclusions 
 The interviewees in Kenya are generally satisfi ed with the quality of the training received as 
well as with the materials used in that training.  Th e trainers were seen as neutral, very knowledgeable 
and competent.  The recipients all agreed that th e WTO TRTA was directly relevant for their work.  
One of the main issues highlighted during this c ountry field visit was the need to go beyond basic 
knowledge of the WTO agreements and to build anal ytical capacity among Kenyan officials, so that 
the government is in a better position to establish its  policy positions and evaluate the impacts of 
WTO trade agreements.  There was no consensus as to whether the WTO is the best organisation to 
address that need, but interviewees generally suppor ted that the suggestion that the WTO work more 
in collaboration with other TRTA  providers and that it increasingly decentralized its training 
activities.  Another issue raised frequently was the n eed to improve the selection of participants, with 
many interviewees suggesting that the WTO secret ariat become more involved in the screening of 
candidates.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  Kyrgyz Republic 
 
1. Key features of national trade context 
 The Kyrgyz Republic (or Kyrgyzstan) is a poor  mountainous country in transition, with a 
predominant agricultural sector.  It is regarded as having the most open trade and investment policies 
of the CIS – the alliance of old Soviet Union st ates, with the exception of  the three Baltic states.
78  It 
was the first CIS member to adopt a convertible currency, abolish the state monopoly on international trade and eliminate restrictions on foreign direct investment (FDI).  Similarly, it was the first CIS member to join the WTO, in 1998.  
 Total exports in the Kyrgyz Republic reached  US$672 million in 2005.  Gold was by far the 
main export, accounting for just over one-third of the total.  Other key exports included energy 
products and cotton.  According to World Bank figur es, the ratio of exports of goods and services to 
GDP was 43 per cent in 2004, up from 34 per cent a decade earlier.  As for imports, the Kyrgyz 
Republic's main commodities are mine ral fuels, machinery, pharmaceutical products and vehicles.  
Total imports in 2005 stood at US$1.11 billion, wh ich means that the Kyrgyz Republic had – as in 
nearly every year during the past decade – a negative trade balance.   The country's key trading partners are Russia,  Kazakhstan and China, which together account 
for some three-fifths of its imports and two-fift hs of its exports.  The United Arab Emirates is, 
however, its largest export destination, with about one-quarter of all exports. 
 
 Besides the WTO, the Kyrgyz Republic is  also a member of the Eurasian Economic 
Community (EURASEC) – a regional agreement am ong Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, 
Russia and Tajikistan.  
 The trade policy capacity of the Kyrgyz Republic vis-à-vis the WTO is very weak.  Out of 
five officials at the Geneva mission, only one is designated as representative to the WTO (i.e. working 
exclusively on WTO issues).  The WTO Department in the Ministry of Industry, Trade and Tourism 
(MITT) has 12 staff members, as compared to ar ound 180 people in total in the Ministry.  Media 
coverage is minimal and there are not many na tional studies on the WTO or other trade policy and 
trade development issues. 
 
2. Activities under assessment 
 According to the WTO/OECD database, the Kyrgyz Republic received a total of 
US$8.3 million in technical assistance for trade polic y and regulations between 2002 and 2004.  The 
technical assistance funded and undertaken by the WTO in the country amounted to just above 
US$0.2 million.  Trade education/training was by  far the sub-category that received most WTO 
TRTA in the country during the three-year period (with 14 out of 44 activities).   In all, there were 75 TRTA activities connected  with the Kyrgyz Republic, which means that 
the WTO – as is often the case – was the provider o ffering the most activities.  The US and the EC 
were the two largest funders of TRTA. 
 
 A total of 25 interviews were  conducted between 4 and 10 Apr il, with 22 questionnaires being 
filled out.  Twenty government officials were interviewed as well as one person from the private 
sector, one academic, one NGO representative (a pub lic association called "Investment Roundtable"), 
one donor official (GTZ) and a USAID contractor. 
 
                                                     
 
78 Turkmenistan downgraded its status from full member to associate member in 2005.  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  3. Findings  
Relevance  
 
 Answers from the respondents regarding the qua lity of the WTO TRTA training were very 
positive.  The participants and even the officials found these courses and seminars either good or very 
good, quoting the strength of the activities as helping to increase knowledge and capacity, and 
enhancing their understanding about the multilateral trading system.  They also noted that the training 
materials were either quite useful or very useful, the training level was just right, the training content 
was considerably relevant to their work and they  were all able to apply the knowledge acquired in 
their work.  These favourable responses reflect the fact that all WTO-related matters have been 
considered quite new and complex issues to Kyrgyz  officials, due to the dearth of technical 
knowledge;  any assistance coming their way would be  considered new and adding value.  Another 
possible reason is that the newly-introduced si mulation-based teaching methods used and subjects 
addressed during the WTO courses are perceived as obviously superior to the old Soviet-style teaching methods and subjects that had previously prevailed in the country. 
 
 Many respondents acknowledged the fact that  having a regional group in various training 
events undertaken by the WTO does help in pr omoting networking and exchange of national 
experiences.  One participant quoted the usefulness of referring to other countries' tariff systems in 
preparing that of the Kyrgyz Republic.  
 In order to increase the relevance of the WT O TRTA, some participants proposed that more 
national workshops be organized, wh ich would widen the training base and partially help to resolve 
the language problem (see below).  However, none of the interviewees bar one was aware that the 
country could request the WTO Secretariat for up to  three national training events every year on 
different topics.  This shows a severe lack of in ternal coordination within the national government as 
well as an absence of a proactiv e approach towards the WTO. 
  Also related to relevance is the issue of who is  selected to attend the course and if that is the 
right person.  There appears to have been fe w irregularities such as nepotism or favouritism.  
However, many participants said that they were neither aware of the process nor of the criteria by 
which they were selected, but simply filled the app lication form when being told by their directors 
that they had been chosen for participation. 
  This suggests that the selection was ad hoc , though it may also be explained by the fact that 
with few people available to take the courses, the choices were not difficult.  Performance
 
 
 All of the respondents appreciated the trainers  as being very knowledgeable and attentive, 
especially those from the WTO Secretariat.  Many mentioned that quite frequently resource persons 
were drawn from developing countries with relevant  experiences and good knowledge of the regional 
situation.  However, they also stressed that a good mixture of resource persons from both developed 
and developing countries is required to  balance the design and delivery of the training.  Some said that 
resource persons could have been  drawn from the Kyrgyz Republic itself, since the country's 
experiences would be very relevant for other CI S nations in their accession process.  Quite a few 
proposed that the courses provide more practical knowledge as well as simulation exercises.  
 One major problem that hindered effective par ticipation and comprehension by the recipients 
was their language proficiency, in particular Eng lish.  Some interviewees even admitted they could 
neither follow the teaching in English nor comprehe nd the English-language materials and that they 
had followed the teaching only with the help of so me fellow participants.  This shows that the 
selection process was not strict enough, and that the selection criteria could not be entirely met in WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 144  
 
  many cases.  The Head of the WTO Department in the MITT confirmed that this was a major problem 
which is yet to be resolved.  Those people sent for training mostly met the criteria of job profile, responsibility, qualifications and years of services but could not speak English as their education was 
in Russian.  The limited number of personnel, however , meant that the pool of experts to be chosen 
for participation was not big enough to allow any room for manoeuvre. 
 
 As a solution to this problem, all reco mmended that Russian-medium seminars/training 
courses, or even courses with simultaneous interpretati on, would have been more effective and that if 
the materials had been translated into Russian beforehand and sent to the prospective participants for 
study and better preparation, the benefits could ha ve been much greater.  One interviewee thought that 
Russian-speaking resource persons from Eastern Europe  would be very effective, since this would 
allow for direct interaction between resource persons a nd participants.  Besides, the similarity in terms 
of level of development and local  conditions between Eastern Europe  and Central Asia would also 
make the experiences and knowledge shared by the Eastern European resource persons more applicable. 
 
 Other aspects thought to have adversely affect ed the comprehension of the recipients and 
reduced efficacy and efficiency of the activ ities were the uneven levels of knowledge among 
participants, the sometimes too high number of part icipants attending courses (150 participants in one 
case) and the short duration of some activities.  On e participant mentioned that questions raised 
during the training course were of too diverse a nature and levels, which affected the overall 
efficiency since the trainers felt they had to a ttend to all questions in a fair and just manner. 
  Some found the courses too short and as there was a lot of information given, the speakers 
had to rush through various important issues with th e result that the trainees we re not able to absorb 
them sufficiently. 
 
Impact
 
 
 In most cases, people do not have to make  any commitments regarding their continued 
engagement in their ministry's/department's work sinc e this provision is not stipulated by law.  A few 
exceptions to this were stated by some officials, who confirmed that the participants have to make 
commitments regarding continuation of their service or engagement with the government for between 
one and three years.  However, all opined that onl y those showing competency and dedication to their 
work (sometimes shown by the years already sp ent in service) were ever chosen to go for 
TRTA training.  
 Reporting was ad hoc , though all recipients would go back and share their knowledge, 
information, as well as training materials with th eir colleagues, and in some cases with business 
associations and entrepreneurs informally or dur ing their daily work.  The WTO also did not 
undertake any type of serious assessment or follow- up other than a fleeting assessment handout at the 
end of each training event.  In some cases, even this assessment did not give any room for appraising the trainers, as well as testing the trainees' ac quired knowledge.  There was also no back-to-office 
performance appraisal of the recipients due to time and human resource constraints. 
  Many respondents stressed the point th at TRTA by the WTO should be provided on a 
continuous basis, not as a one-time event for the sak e of updating knowledge, if the intent is to build 
institutional capacity.  However, they did not reali ze that, to achieve this end, pro-active follow-up 
and sending requests are a must. Indeed, more than 90 per cent of all the interviewees said that no 
requests seemed to have been made from the Ky rgyz government to the WTO.  Most technical 
assistance for the Kyrgyz Republic to date appeared  to have been received passively and had not 
created any long-lasting effects.  The mismatch between the absence of host government requests and 
the great inflow of TRTA meant that the training has largely been supply-driven. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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   Finally, interviewees mentioned the adverse impact of the gap between public and private 
sector salaries and the unstable political environmen t.  The salary differential has been the main 
reason leading to movement of people from the public to the private sector.  The frequent restructuring of the government system has exac erbated the problem of personnel loss and reduced 
institutional capacity, which had followed the Kyrgyz revolution.  Most of the staff members in the 
WTO department had started working there af ter 2002-03, and many were very young and 
inexperienced.  Some more senior staff members have  been there for longer, but in other departments 
of the Ministry.  
Comparative advantage
 
 
 All respondents enthusiastically mentioned that the WTO Secretar iat has a comparative 
advantage over other agencies in conducting training courses on WTO agreements as they are administering the agreements in their daily work.  On the other hand, the other donor agencies had the 
advantage of longer-term programmes, local presence,  closer contacts with local institutions and 
better grasp of the situation in Kyrgyzstan. 
  Talks with recipients and officials as well as donor agencies revealed that there was almost no 
repetition or duplication in terms of TRTA between several donor agencies since:  (i) there was a National Economic Policy Council wh ich coordinated donors' activities, and (ii) in cases where the 
Council was not very active, the donors took the initiative to coordinate themselves. 
 
 Examples of TRTA undertaken by other providers in the Kyrgyz Republic include the GTZ, which has a special programme to promote the CIS countries' integration into the multilateral trading 
regime and to build capacity for managing globa lisation, in which the Kyrgyz Republic is a 
cornerstone.  This same approach has been adopted by USAID/PRAGMA in a regional 
TA programme they have been implementing since 2001, which covers the Kyrgyz Republic, 
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan.  
4. Conclusions 
 It was clear from many discussions with r espondents from outside the government that the 
Kyrgyz Republic entered the WTO quite quickly , without any planning on how to benefit from 
membership.  Exports have fallen considerably af ter the Kyrgyz accession to the WTO.  This may be 
attributed partly to Kyrgyz economic depende nce on trade with neighbouring countries and the 
financial crisis in Russia which negatively affect ed the economies of Kyrgyzstan as well as other 
CIS countries.  More TA on specific issues, therefore, should be provided both at the regional, international and national levels .  Resource persons from other de veloping and transition countries 
would be suitable for this purpose, as they would be  more au fait with local circumstances.  An 
example quoted in this regard was a resource person from South Africa in a joint project conducted by 
the Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SEC O) and ITC, who was greatly appreciated by all 
local participants.  Furthermore, the training ac tivities could be twinned with people from Eastern 
European countries, as they also speak Russian, which is the official language in the Kyrgyz 
Republic. 
 
 It was also thought that the former government of the Kyrgyz Republic took the decision to enter the WTO without any national dialogue, hen ce the people knew nothing about the WTO at the 
beginning.  Some members of the government and pa rliament have cooled in their support of the 
WTO and it was therefore suggested that TA for re presentatives of the private sector, the academia 
and parliamentarians was needed to reverse this trend. 
  The Kyrgyz government has requested help from the WTO to open a CIS-regional WTO training centre based in Bishkek, which c ould be linked to other donors' ongoing regional 
initiatives.  The Deputy Minister of Industry, Trade and Tourism mentioned that his ministry would WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 146  
 
  be happy to provide the space and basic facilities for this centre, if the WTO would provide resource 
persons and logistical support for participants.  He  considered that the Kyrgyz Republic's experiences 
as the first country in the region to join the WTO in  the region would be of great relevance and benefit 
to others.   WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  Moldova 
 
1. Key features of national trade context 
 Moldova became a member of the WTO in July 2001.  Moldova made the request for 
acceding to the WTO in 1993.  During the acce ssion negotiations, Moldova did not receive 
developing country status, but that of a transiti on country, despite its low-income.  The country has 
had a particularly difficult transition period followi ng independence in 1991.  After the collapse of the 
Soviet Union, Moldova lost direct and indirect subsidies that amounted to 25 per cent of its GDP.  Increasing energy import prices also have severely affected Moldova's terms of trade.  Moldova is a participant in many free trade areas such as the plur ilateral CIS free trade area consisting of 12 former 
Soviet Republics.  Moldova's domestic market is sm all and its economy is trade-oriented with exports 
representing 38 per cent of its GDP in 2004.  Mol dova's exports remain concentrated in a few 
commodities, and largely destined to the CIS market , with its main trading partners being Russia, 
followed by Ukraine and Romania.
79  The main exports are foodstuffs, wine and tobacco, and its 
imports, mineral products, fuel and machinery. 
 
 The Moldovan mission in Geneva has two prof essional staff, including the Ambassador.  In 
the capital, the WTO division includes eight professiona ls.  In a trade diagnostic study published in 
2004, the World Bank assessed Moldova's trade polic y capacity as relatively weak.  Nevertheless, 
there are some indications that its trade capacity  has increased; it has been active in building a 
coalition with other newly acceded members to have  their liberalisation commitments made during 
their accession process taken into  account in the Doha round. 
 
2. Activities under assessment 
 According to the WTO/OECD database on TRTA, Moldova received $12 million worth of 
technical assistance for trade po licy and regulations between 2001 a nd 2004.  In value terms, the 
WTO's technical assistance is a small part of all TRTA activities in Moldova, amounting to $209,000 
for the participation of Moldovan officials and nati onals in the Geneva-based trade policy courses, the 
regional trade policy courses in Vienna and the regional workshops.   We conducted eighteen interviews with Moldova-n ationals that participated in trade policy 
courses in Geneva or in Vienna, in varied regiona l workshops and in the new online course.  Seven 
respondents were from the Ministry of Economy, si x from other ministries, and one official is a 
member of the Moldova mission in Geneva.  We also interviewed four individuals from outside 
government, one of whom used to be part of the WTO division of the Ministry of Economy.  
3. Findings 
Relevance
 
 
 The participants usually thought that the training they received in the WTO courses or 
workshops were very relevant to their work.  Nevert heless, they highlighted that the lack of concrete 
examples and practical application was reducing the relevance of the training.  The lack of country-specific or region-specific examples was a probl em mentioned especially frequently about the 
regional workshops.  For example, a participant in a workshop on trade and the environment noted 
that many examples were about Japanese whale hunting,  fishing and forestry, which were not relevant 
to their economy.  Respondents generally agreed th at including more experts from the region in the 
delivery of the regional workshop would be a good idea to deal with this problem.  Some also suggested that the resource persons should have more  practical experience, than legal or theoretical 
knowledge. 
                                                     
 
79 The Republic of Moldova:  Trade Diagnostic Study , World Bank Report No. 30998-MD, 2004, p. 20. WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 148  
 
   
 One of the respondents had a specific r ecommendation to increase the relevance of 
WTO training:   "Before the workshop, each participant should prepare and send a report on the problems or 
issues of their country relevant to the wo rkshop.  The participants would present the 
highlights to the group, get the views of the experts and the views of the other participants.  This would make it more participative and inter esting, more useful than sitting and listening 
to lectures." 
 
 Another respondent suggested that in order to be  more concrete, the trainers should use a case 
study in the workshop, for example a case of WT O accession from the beginning to implementation.  
Participants in the trade policy courses were much l ess affected by the problem of the lack of concrete 
examples and application, as these courses included simulation exercises, which the recipients thought 
were very important and useful. 
 
 Many interviewees noted that the exchang es of national experiences among participants was 
one of the key strengths of the workshops, some even  suggested that 50 per cent of the time should be 
spent on such exchanges rather than  lectures from experts.  Some noted that when the participants are 
more passive and less involved in  a workshop, the relevance of the activity is diminished, and one 
suggested that there should not be more than  one participant by country because the second 
participant tends not to be active in the discussi ons.  Several respondents noted the quality of the 
participants as one of the strengths of the workshops  they participated in.  As mentioned in the quote 
above, if the regional workshop would be designed acco rding to this more participatory approach, the 
role of the trainers would become more  one of facilitator, than a "lecturer". 
 Performance
 
 
 The participants usually thought the quality of the training they received in the WTO courses 
or workshops was very good or good.  The comme nts about the presentations made were generally 
very positive.  The vast majority of interview ees (14/17) thought that the training programs were 
designed at the right level of expertise for them.  None had a problem with the size of the group of 
participants in the activities they were involved in.  The participants also made generally very positive 
comments about the materials and documents used in  the courses and the seminars.  They also used 
the materials in presentations made to their co lleagues and distributed them inside government. 
  The selection of participants in Moldova to be  sent to the TRTA activities is not perceived by 
most interviewees as a problem.  The selection of pa rticipants in Moldova is the responsibility of the 
Ministry of the Economy.  When the Ministry of Economy decides that the participants should be from another ministry, a formal invitation is sent to  the other department, which has to make its own 
internal selection.  The selection of officials with in the WTO division is based on the specialisation 
and level of experience of the individual.  For exam ple, the WTO trade policy course is used to train 
new staff that recently joined the division. 
 
 We only met one person, who wa s outside the WTO division, who believed that the selection 
of the participants was poorly done and that he/s he should not have been sent to the WTO regional 
workshop.  This person proposed that to prevent su ch mistakes, each country should designate a pool 
of officials that require WTO training for their wo rk and only these particip ants should be able to 
participate in the courses and training.  The list s hould be shared with the WTO and made public, as a 
way to monitor the selection of participants.  A respondent from outside government also deplored 
that the line Ministries, especially the Ministry of  Agriculture, were not often recipient of capacity 
building on WTO issues.   WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 149 
 
 
   Two of the officials we met had participated  in the recent WTO online courses.  They were 
generally pleased with the training they received in th is programme.  This is an interesting avenue to 
further explore, given the potential cost-effectivenes s of such activities.  The key problem raised by 
the respondents was that the slow internet access th ey had in Chisinau made the use of the online 
course often very frustrating. 
 
Impact  
 
 A key obstacle to the long-term impact of the WTO TRTA activities in Moldova is the regular movement of personnel.  Many responde nts noted that after a couple of years in the 
WTO division, the trade officials leave to go work in the private sector given the very large difference 
between the salaries of the public and private sector  in Moldova (10:1).  We were told that the 
WTO training, especially the trade policy course, is  used as an instrument to motivate personnel to 
stay at least three years in the division.  So me respondents see the movement of personnel as a key 
obstacle to build institutional capacity.  However, ot her considers that if the officials stay in the 
country, in the private sector, their expertise can still be used by the government as a consultant and is 
not lost.   In terms of the short-term impact of the tr aining on the trade policy of the government, the 
information received by participants is usually shared with colleagues after the events.  This 
dissemination takes different forms such as sharing of documents and material received, and informal 
meetings.  Moreover, the WTO division of the Mini stry of Economy organizes four seminars a year 
for government officials and non-government actors to share information about the WTO and the information received in the courses and workshops is  disseminated during these events.  In order to 
improve the impact of WTO training, one official s uggested that in the post-training reports, trainees 
should be "required to prepare a short note at the end for each issue area during the course to say 
(1) what they have learned that is useful to thei r work, (2) how would they apply this, and (3) what 
policy proposals/recommendations they would make as a result of what they have learned."   Several interviewees commented that the leve l of WTO training programme needs to progress 
with time, in order to reflect the increase in capacity  that have happened in the past years.  It was 
suggested by some that the content of the regional workshops needs to become more sophisticated and 
not simply an introduction to the issue area.  Mo reover, regional workshops should be developed as 
part of a continuous programme of training, not just a "one-time thing".  
Comparative advantage
 
  None of the interviewees thought that the WTO training programme should be fundamentally 
reviewed or that there were important problems of duplication.  One respondent stated, "what the 
WTO is doing cannot be done by others."  He a dded that one reason the WTO is best position to 
present the agreements and their implications is th at they are more neutral and that "other donors 
would try to influence our positions".  Indeed, a ll of our interviewees thought the programs they 
participated in had presented information in a fair and balanced way, without biases. 
 
 Nevertheless, many had comments on what coul d be improved and they offered proposals in 
terms of ensuring that that the organisation best  suited for the work is involved.  Thus, some 
interviewees suggested that more of the WTO ac tivities be more often undertaken in collaboration 
with specialized agencies and organisations such as WCO, WHO or WIPO.  This suggestion is linked 
to the often-mentioned lack of concrete examples  offered by the resources persons.  Indeed, the 
WTO staff is seen as most qualified to explain the content of the legal documents, but several argued 
that this needed to be complemented by trainers with more practical experience. 
 WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 150  
 
  4. Conclusions 
 This country study highlights that participan ts have generally pos itive views regarding the 
quality and the relevance of the technical assistan ce offered by the WTO.  The trade policy courses 
have drawn very few criticisms, but there is mo re room for improvement in the case of regional 
workshops. 
 
 The key areas for improvement that have been  identified here are (1) the need for more 
concrete illustrations and examples  in regional workshops (2) to n eed to move away from the one-
workshop model to a structured programme of training whose content evolves as capacity is improving, and (3) the need to ensure dissemina tion of the information received, especially to 
officials outside the trade ministry. 
  The interviewees did not have a lot of comme nts regarding the comparative advantage of the 
WTO in the field of trade training, except for some who thought the quality of the WTO training was higher than that given by other donors or providers.  Duplication, overlap or lack of coordination was 
not presented as a problem here.  Long-term impact of the WTO trade training and institutional 
capacity building remains an important problem in Moldova, however, given the very high movement 
of public officials, especially in the WTO division.  This problem is out of the control of the WTO Secretariat, but the implication for its trai ning activities may be that in countries with a high 
level of turnover, trade policy courses will have to con tinue to be offered at an introductory level, to 
ensure that new staff understand th e WTO Agreements and procedures. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 151 
 
 
  Senegal 
 
1. Key features of national trade context 
 Senegal's economy is fairly dependent on trad e (as shown by a trade:GDP ratio of 70.6).  
Imports were liberalized in the course of a m acroeconomic stabilisation and structural reform 
programme, which began in 1994 with IMF and Worl d Bank support.  Applied tariffs in 2004 were 
14.3 per cent for agricultural goods and 11.6 per cent for other goods on average, though average bound levels are 30 per cent Senega l's export performance has been well below that of other sub-
Saharan African countries, let alone a ll developing countries.  This can be partly attributed to a heavy 
concentration of exports on products for whic h demand was falling such as groundnut oil. 
 
 While Senegal currently has Least-Developed Countries (LDC) status, several people in the 
government and private sector envisage graduating to de veloping country status in the near future.  
This has increased their sense of  responsibility to ensure the economy and the bureaucracy has the 
capacity to handle the associated more onerous WTO obligations. 
 
 There are two key bodies with responsibiliti es for trade policy making and enforcement in 
Senegal.  In government, the Direction pour le Commerce Extérieur  (DCE) in the Ministry of Trade, 
which reports to the Trade Minister, is the lead  on trade negotiations.  The DCE also chairs a 
committee created in December 2001, in the wake of  the launch of the Doha Development Agenda, 
the CNNCI.  In addition to WTO negotiations, the region's negotiation of the EPA with the EU is 
another preoccupation for Senegal given its strong trade and investment links with the EU, as are 
efforts to strengthen regional integration within West  Africa.  Finally, a major trade concern is how to 
address supply-side constraints.  
2. Activities under assessment 
 According to the WTO/OECD database, tota l spending in Senegal on TRTA/CB in trade 
policy and regulations from 2001 to 2004 amounted to US$3.5 million.  The WTO was one of the 
larger funders after the EC (US$1.2 million) an d the US (US$1.1 million) with US$494,000 of 
activities.  The activities most funded by WTO were trade education and training, NAMA tariff negotiations, trade mainstreaming, TBT and services.  
 The interviews in Senegal took place in March 2006, in meetings with several people present 
and in bilateral meetings, involving a total of al most 50 people representing some 20 agencies.  This 
allowed a wide coverage of views and opini ons about WTO's TRTA as well as more focused 
feedback on particular types of courses.  The intervie wees had participated in a wide range of courses 
– in terms of subject, length of course, location of delivery (national, regional/continental and in 
Geneva), and organising agency (those funded, orga nized and delivered by the WTO and others in 
which other organisations participated in the funding , organisation and/or delivery).  They had also 
participated in courses in which the WTO had not had any involvement.   In addition to those with interests in the cour ses as participants or managers or colleagues in 
the national trade negotiating committee, mee tings were held with a number of donors. 
 
3. Findings 
Relevance
 
 
 In general the interviewees considered that  the courses offered by the WTO were very 
relevant to their individual work and to the needs of their institutions.  Howe ver, there were a number 
of areas in which the Senegalese Trade Ministry had unmet needs.  For instance it was felt that there 
had not been enough courses on intellectual proper ty and that the issue of trade remedies and WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 152  
 
  safeguards had not been adequately addressed beyo nd the introductory level information provided in 
some of the more general courses on WTO rules.  For some interviewees, one of the courses' weaknesses was the narrow juridical view/presentation of the WTO rules.  It would have been good to 
learn more about the development aspects and also to be taught more about how to analyse national 
interests in the WTO negotiations. 
 
 There seemed to have been too few national courses;  more national courses would help to 
meet the need for extending information and know ledge about the WTO beyond the relatively small 
group of officials and private sector representatives that  have been able to participate in the courses to 
date.  Customs officials, who may have a higher tu rnover than other directorates, suggested that a 
national course be organized for their officials to cover a wide range of areas for which they are 
responsible.   Another issue raised by interviewees was the need for the greater use of national experts, 
i.e. people who had already extensive training or experience in WTO questions – whether officials, 
academics or consultants – would both enrich th e courses and enhance the relevance of the 
knowledge.  It was also suggested that the WTO de velop a formal 'Training of Trainers' programme, 
with the collaboration of technical advisors fro m the WTO Training Institute, to produce a body of 
national trainers specialized in the WTO.  The firs t group to be trained in this way would be drawn 
from those who already have some knowledge of th e WTO.  This would allow the extension of 
training on the WTO to producer groups and others outside Dakar. 
 
 While many interviewees observed that the WTO experts were very careful not to be biased – e.g. not to promote one negotiating position over another – some commented that their efforts to be neutral went too far.  In their view, there was a bias against fully explaining the development content 
of the WTO.  For instance there was less time spent on the SDT provisions and how developing 
countries and LDCs can take advantage of these.  Si milarly there was inadequate time given to how 
countries might take advantage of safeguard and trade remedy provisions.   Interviewees noted that in some cases training needs to go further.  Capacity building is 
required for the conduct of impact assessments a nd studies, the implementation of WTO agreements 
such as customs valuation, and to  assess the implication of likely rules on trade facilitation.  And 
training is not enough; once the human capacity constr aints are removed, others become binding such 
as funding to participate in negotiating meetings.  
Performance
 
  In general, there was high satisfaction with many aspects of the WTO courses, but there were 
some areas where there had been disappointment s and various improvement s were recommended.  
For instance, some of the newer WTO experts were c onsidered to be less proficient as trainers than 
their more experienced colleagues.  But generally it was the non-WTO experts that were criticized as 
wanting in one respect or another.  
 Some interviewees considered the two and th ree-day courses to be too short given the amount 
of technical information that needed to be pr esented, discussed and absorbed.  There were some 
complaints about logistics.  Language was sometimes a problem.  When courses involve both Anglophone and Francophone participants, the teaching is more likely to be in English;  while 
interpretation is available, this is still second-best.  Materials were not always available in French 
when they were needed and in so me cases they were not even deliver ed to participants despite being 
promised.   It is not possible to make specific comments  on efficiency in the absence of data from the 
WTO let alone other agencies, relating to costs of  inputs and the challenges of imputing values to 
outputs – in this case the knowledge and information acquired in the courses.  Nonetheless it seemed  WT/COMTD/W/152 
 Page 153 
 
 
  clear to many respondents that it is much more effici ent for the WTO to offer national courses, than to 
send Senegalese officials and others to courses held in other countries.  This is primarily because it 
would allow more Senegalese traine es to participate.  There would also be efficiencies from the 
training of national trainers, who could then be used in partnership with WTO trainers. 
 Impact
 
 
 Interviewees were unanimous in their opini on that the WTO courses had increased their 
knowledge of WTO rules and provided them with so me tools (notably documents and websites to 
consult for more information) for furthering this knowledge after the courses were over.  Nonetheless 
there was a limit as to how far they were able then to apply this knowledge in their day-to-day to work 
let alone in training others.   Several participants and one instructor noted that  it was very difficult to incorporate lessons if 
there were limited or even no opportunities to practic e them.  The instructor had found that even when 
trainees had participated in 2 or 3 previous courses,  their knowledge of particular WTO issues such as 
dispute settlement was quite basic and needed to be retaught before they could move on to a new issue 
or area or to deepen their knowledge.   In this case the problem was considered to r esult from the teaching mode – quite theoretical 
and/or unrelated to the regional let alone national context – and the lack of practical application 
especially after the course.  In this respect, i nvolvement in the cotton case had been an effective 
learning tool for Senegalese officials and others, in contrast to some of the two or three day courses 
more generally available.   Participants were usually required to prepare a brief report for their department, but rarely to 
organize a seminar, though some interviewees consider ed this might be a useful practice to adopt in 
the future.  Some had been able to share their knowledge with others on th e CNNCI subcommittees.  
This appears to have contributed to an increasing effectiveness of the CNNCI, and particularly the 
agricultural subcommittee, which has become more active, includes a number of national CSOs and is 
seen by the government as an important vehicl e for determining national policy positions, according 
to some interviewees.  It is important to note, however, that besides th e WTO courses on agriculture, 
there have been other sources of more sustained a nd diverse TRTA, notably France.  Also, Senegal's 
involvement in the different group processes (i ncluding cotton, the G33, ECOWAS) has been 
empowering as well as educational for the govern ment and others.  Ne vertheless, very few 
interviewees considered themselves well enough trained to be able th emselves to become trainers of 
others. 
 
Comparative advantage 
 
 Most interviewees identified the WTO as havi ng a strong comparative advantage in providing 
training (both long-term and shorter-term) and documen tation related to the history and functioning of 
WTO rules, and the current WTO negotiations, follow ing an approach that is largely juridical and 
neutral.  What is less clear is the extent to which the WTO can go beyond these areas and approaches, 
and if not whether it should leave it to other organi sations to do so either operating independently or 
being incorporated into the design and delivery of  WTO courses.  Several interviewees recognized 
that other agencies might have more specialized e xpertise than the WTO – e.g. the WCO on issues 
such as customs valuation, the FAO on agricultur al trade impact assessment, the ISO and other 
standards agencies for training certifiers/auditors. 
  For instance, economic analysis, impact ass essment, development flexibilities were not seen 
as areas of WTO strength, in contrast to organisa tions such as UNCTAD, the World Bank, the FAO, 
the South Centre and IDEP, as well as certain donor government agencies.  One option would be for WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 154  
 
  the WTO to work with these other organisations mo re frequently to ensure that such content is 
included in its courses for Senegal.   The WTO has tried to increase national and re gional content through greater inputs from and 
exchanges between participants.  It has also begun  to use more national and regional experts in its 
courses, particularly those organized with regi onal secretariats like ECOWAS as knowledge of 
national and regional issues is not its comparative advantage.  But this could be taken further. 
  For instance, more courses could be orga nized in West Africa in collaboration with 
ECOWAS, with ECOWAS taking greater responsibility fo r designing the course content.  In Senegal, 
it was suggested that the WTO could link with CR EA (the Senegalese Centre for Applied Economic 
Research) or ENEA (the National School for Applie d Economics) to run national courses, or even to 
do national impact assessments of changes e.g. in  the three agricultural pillars.  There are other 
international agencies that might be in a better pos ition to provide workshops on bilateral and regional 
trade (e.g. UNCTAD in the case of tr ade and investment agreements). 
 
4. Conclusions 
 In terms of the WTO's training courses and other types of TRTA, it is clear that there has been 
an evolution in what is offered by the WTO whethe r on its own or in partnership with other funders, 
regional and sub-regional organi sations and multilateral agencies.  This can complicate a 
government's request for assistance as well as an eval uation.  But such flexibility is positive as it 
creates various possibilities for engagement with  the WTO and increases the probability that the 
WTO's TRTA responds to national needs, which themselves are changing over time. 
  Even so questions were raised in Senegal about:  the scope for programming 
WTO TRTA interventions which at times seem rather ad  hoc, one-off, rather than systematized or part 
of a longer-term plan;  increasing the number of ac tivities which appear to have been less than 
Senegal's entitlement (while Senegal has benefite d from being a hub of regional activities this may 
explain why it has had fewer national courses);  strengthening the content (level, links to national and regional dimensions as well as the development contex t, balance between theory and practice);  and 
ensuring follow-up.  These could be  better integrated with the TRTA efforts of other agencies. 
 
 In terms of the impact, in Senegal the abso rptive capacity for TRTA revolves largely around 
the DCE and the CNNCI and its subcommittees.  This  structure has allowed the training to be more 
systematically integrated into national trade polic y making and to create a critical mass of knowledge 
about the WTO rules and the current negotiations.  There is a core of expertise in the DCE where 
several officials have been trained by following more than one WTO course each.  Similarly in other 
key ministries there are individuals who have had some, albeit usually more limited, WTO training.  
Outside government exposure to the WTO has been rest ricted to a few private sector and even fewer 
NGO representatives involved in the CNNCI.   Nonetheless there are still questions about how best  to take advantage of  this training and to 
respond to the expectations that it has created.  The CNNCI is one means. But in our interviews there 
was a general sense that much more was needed.  To capitalize on their newly acquired understanding 
of how the WTO operates, some would like to be ab le to focus on particular policy/sectoral issues, 
and/or to participate in the WTO meetings.  Many would like further training to broaden/deepen their knowledge, especially to be able to do more analyti cal work; others want to be able to share their 
knowledge with others, especially groups outside the capital.  More institutionalized access to 
WTO resources, such as documents and trade-rela ted databases, along with more support to the 
reference centre, would also he lp to keep knowledge updated. 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  Yemen 
 
1. Key features of national trade context 
 Yemen is an LDC in the process of accession to the WTO, having submitted its application to 
join the organisation in 2000.  This process can be seen as a logical step in the country's efforts to 
liberalize trade, which date from 1995 when Yemen began to remove a number of trade barriers. 
  Exports of goods totalled US$4.1 billion in 200 4, with an average annual growth rate of 
1.3 per cent in the decade 1994-2004.  Its exports ar e highly concentrated with oil making up some 
95 per cent of the total.  Besides oil, it also expor ts fish, coffee and fruits and vegetables.  Thailand 
and China are the two largest mark ets, absorbing almost 30 per cent each of Yemen's total exports.  
Imports amounted to US$4.0 billion in 2004, with major imports being petr oleum products, foodstuffs 
– particularly cereals, sugar and dairy products, machinery and vehicles.  The largest sources of 
Yemen's imports are the EU, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.  
 Yemen is not yet a member of the Gulf C ooperation Council (GCC), whose members include 
some of its major trading partners, but in 2002 it joined the Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA), 
an arrangement that aims to eliminate tariffs among its members by 2010.  
2. Activities under assessment 
 In 2002-2004, Yemen received a total US$10.6 billion in TRTA in trade policy and 
regulations, of which the WTO accounted for 2.2 per cen t.  In all, there were 47 activities provided by 
the WTO that involved participants from Yemen.  Most WTO activities occurred in the sub-categories 
trade education/training (7 activities), tariff ne gotiations – NAMA (6), and services (5).  Two 
activities took place in the sub-category accession.  The EC, UK and US were the largest donors in terms of value during the three-year period, represe nting more than 90 per cent of the total funds 
going to Yemen. 
  15 recipients and 5 officials (from various Ministries of the Republic of Yemen) were interviewed in Sana'a between 29 March and 4 Ap ril. In addition, meetings were held with 
representatives of GTZ (Germany), UNDP and Interna tional Finance Corporation (IFC, part of the 
World Bank Group), which provide a range of TRTA/CB in Yemen. 
 
3. Findings 
Relevance
 
 
 Most recipients felt that the training programmes were relevant for them, as they were 
constantly using the know ledge gained and skills learnt in their current responsibilities, especially in 
the process of Yemen's accession to the WTO.   Some of the recipients felt that attending tr aining was only a part of their capacity building 
process; they also relied heavily on available literatu re (publications and the internet).  A few of the 
officials were, however, of the opin ion that there are instances when training activities are not really 
relevant for the participants.  For example, the va lue of two participants a ttending training on dispute 
settlement was questioned on the grounds that Ye men was not yet a WTO member and, as an LDC, 
was highly unlikely to enter into a dispute.   One aspect that diminished the relevance of the training was that resource persons were not 
always able to explain complex issues with exampl es/cases relevant for the region.  This was partly 
attributed to the fact that the resource persons were people from the WTO Secretariat and that only on very few occasions were nationals from one of th e countries in the region (Arab and the Middle East) WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 156  
 
  included as resource persons.  It was therefore sugg ested that the WTO should try to make use of 
national resource persons (experts and practitioners) based in the region, who are well aware of the 
national realities.  The WTO could provide a pre- training orientation for these national resource 
persons.  In view of the fact that the WTO Secretariat has trainers who are always on the move (providing training, etc. to recipients throughout the world), it would also be much more efficient to 
develop the capacity of resource persons from the region.   This is particularly important for a country 
like Yemen (and others in the Middle East) in view of the fact that many of the participants sent to 
regional trainings are Arabic speaking, and are not conversant in English.   Requests for national training activities are prep ared on the basis of the current requirements 
by the government, and are therefore considered more  useful for Yemen.  T hus, it was suggested that 
Yemen ask the WTO to increase these activities from the present annual quota of three. 
 
Performance
 
  The participants in the WTO-provided traini ng were very impressed with the knowledge of 
the resource persons, the comprehensive coverage of  the topics, and the participation of a large 
number of women in the regional training workshops.   With regard to the selection process, Yemen has a well-organized system of selecting the participants for WTO-provided training courses.   The WTO Coordination and Communication Office 
(WTO-CCO) is the focal point within the Ministry of Industry and Trade and is responsible for 
activities related to the WTO.  The efficient system is  in spite of the fact that Yemen is a country in 
accession and that participants from Yemen are only ab le to attend regional trainings organized by the 
WTO "if seats are not filled up by member country participants", as explained by some participants.  
 Nevertheless, it was revealed that the Ministry  of Industry and Trade does not have a proper 
procedure to clearly identify the training needs of the officials associated directly with the process of 
accession of Yemen to WTO.  Thus, it has sometimes been the case that participants with divergent 
backgrounds and with varying le vels of understanding particip ate in the training courses, and 
sometimes on issues that are not really consistent with their individual or departmental capacity building requirements. 
 
 The WTO-CCO has realized this anomaly a nd will soon be embarking on the process of 
developing 'Annual Training Plans' that will indicat e specific training requirements on trade-related 
issues for the staff.  These plans w ill be sent to the WTO. In addition, there was a suggestion that the 
background and current responsibilities of the trainees should be shared with the trainers well before 
the training programme, in order for the trainers to prepare their delivery in accordance with the 
capacity and requirements of the trainees.   A distinct problem facing Yemen is that Sw itzerland does not have a mission in Yemen and a 
Swiss visa can only be obtained by sending one's passpor t to Saudi Arabia.  This often leads to delays, 
which can complicate participation in training progr ammes for which there is usually limited lead-
time.  There have also been problems with visas to enter other regional countries in which the WTO 
was holding its training activities.   Other weaknesses of the training raised in the interviews included:  
• Short duration of the training programmes; 
 
• very limited availability of reading/training materials; 
  WT/COMTD/W/152 
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  • reading materials are provided on the spot, whereas ideally these should be sent 
electronically to the participants earlier, so that they could go through them before the 
training programme; 
 
• lack of proper translation/interpretation facilities; 
 
• too little focus on practical exercises and simulations. 
 
Impact  
 
 It is mandatory for all participants to fill out a 'feedback form' towards the end of all WTO-
provided training programmes, usually on the last trai ning day.  On their return, all participants are 
required by their respective ministries to write a re port about the training programme.  However, there 
is no fixed outline for these reports and so the struct ure and content is at the discretion of the person 
writing the report.  Some recipients reported that they had included a section in their report specifically on the quality of the training progra mme and the effectiveness of the resource persons.  
These reports are submitted to the respective departments,  and are filed for future reference.  But they 
are neither sent to the WTO nor to the other departments in the government. 
 
 Only in a few cases did the WTO undertake follow-up  activities to its training.  Clearly, this is 
an aspect that could be improved upon since all in terviewees (bar one who had attended a follow-up 
course) thought that follow-up training activities were required.  On the other hand, few recipients had 
actually asked their government to request such follow-up.  This suggests that measures can be taken 
by both the WTO and the government to ensure gr eater follow-up and, thereby, contribute to more 
long-term capacity building.  In this context, it w as also considered to be crucial that a network of 
national/regional resource persons a nd institutions was developed.  It was suggested that the WTO 
should facilitate the process of de veloping a network of national res ource persons and institutions that 
the trainees could approach for post-training cons ultations and further information sources, among 
other issues. 
 
 Most recipients said that they  shared the information gained in the training with colleagues 
and other stakeholders.  It appeared, however, that the organized briefings for government 
departments that used to take place are becoming increasingly informal.  With other stakeholders – 
business associations, trade unions, university prof essors and the like – the information was often 
shared in workshops.  Some officials felt that in addition to organising training in Sana'a, the capital 
of Yemen, there should be training organized in regi onal towns like Aden, Hodeidah and Harat.  This 
should be done with the object of developing the understanding of relevant  stakeholder groups on 
WTO issues.  
Comparative advantage
 
 
 Training programmes coordinated by the WTO were definitely better in terms of their 
content, quality and the knowledge of the resource persons than similar training activities undertaken 
by other agencies.  However, a few recipients noted  that on some specific issues training provided by 
other agencies were more useful than that o ffered by the WTO, e.g. a workshop on SPS/TBT 
organized by USAID. 
  The largest TRTA in Yemen, in value terms at least, that is currently being undertaken is a 
multi-year project titled 'Support to Yemen's Access ion to WTO', which is being implemented by 
GTZ with finance from the European Commission.  The goal of this project is to assist the 
government to undertake significant changes in the economic and legal structures of the country in 
order for these to be in line with WTO requirement s.  Other examples of TRTA activities offered by 
other providers include a project for developing the country's quarantine capacity with support from WT/COMTD/W/152 
Page 158  
 
  FAO; a joint programme with UNDP, the World Bank, IMF and UNCTAD to enhance capacity and 
ensure transparency on trade related policy-making;  and efforts under the Integrated Framework to 
develop Yemen's export potential in agriculture an d fisheries by establishing testing facilities and 
developing quality standards.  As for duplication,  the officials interviewed thought that there was 'to 
some extent' an element of repetitiveness of the TRTA provided by the different agencies and 
organisations. 
 
4. Conclusions 
 Yemen is a country in accession to the WTO and an LD C.  It is evident that there is an urgent 
need for the WTO to undertake training progra mmes that specifically match the country's 
requirements and that are especially relevant for th e staff engaged in the preparation of its accession 
to the WTO.  If it is difficult to organize such tr aining programmes at the regional level (keeping in 
view the demands from other members), it should be provided at the national level.  National 
activities should be practically oriented and intens ive, with appropriate follow-up activities, thereby 
ensuring continuity in the capacity-building process. 
 
 The WTO should organize training programm es for LDCs including both members and non-
members, so that the former can share their experiences with the WTO with the countries in 
accession.  Development of a regional resource ne twork of individuals a nd/or institutions on 
WTO issues should be facilitated by the WTO to co mpensate for the inadequacy of its own follow-up 
activities. 
 
 Finally, the WTO should adopt a process for proper 'needs assessment' before deciding on 
training activities for a country.  This should in volve improved coordinati on between the countries 
and the WTO Secretariat.  The approach adopted by  the Ministry of Industry and Trade to develop 
Annual Training Plans seems to be the right way forward. 
 
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