WORLD TRADE  
ORGANIZATION  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
4 July 2006 
 
 (06-3229) 
Sub-Committee on Least-Developed Countries  
  
 
NON-TARIFF MEASURES ON PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST 
TO THE LEAST-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 
 
Note by the Secretariat
1 
 
  
I.
 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... .2 
II. OVERVIEW OF NTMS...........................................................................................................2  
A. IDENTIFICATION AND TAXONOMY ..............................................................................................2  
B. QUANTIFICATION AND IMPACT ...................................................................................................8  
III. NTMS FACED BY LDC EXPORTS ....................................................................................11  
A. SPS  MEASURES .........................................................................................................................15  
B. PREFERENTIAL RULES OF ORIGIN .............................................................................................16  
C. OTHER TYPES OF NTM S FACED BY LDC  EXPORTS ..................................................................17  
IV. POSSIBLE AVENUES FOR ADDRESSING NTMS..........................................................18  
A. INCREASED PARTICIPATION IN THE REGULAR WORK OF THE WTO ........................................18  
B. MAXIMIZING OPPORTUNITIES THROUGH THE DDA  NEGOTIATIONS ........................................19  
C. STRENGTHENING STANDARDS -RELATED CAPACITY ................................................................20  
D. ENHANCING PRIVATE -PUBLIC DIALOGUE ................................................................................21  
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS .................................................................................................21  
 
                                                      
1 This document has been prepared under the Secret ariat's own responsibility and without prejudice to 
the positions of Members and to their rights and obligations under the WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 2  
 
   
I. INTRODUCTION 
1. This Note has been prepared in res ponse to a request from the Sub-Committee on 
Least-Developed Countries (LDCs) at its 43
rd Session.  It is recognized that the overall market access 
landscape for products originating from LDCs is  conditioned by both tariff and non-tariff measures 
(NTMs).  While NTMs have been covered, to a limited extent, in the previous studies by the 
Secretariat2, the present Note focuses exclusively on NTMs faced by products of export interest to 
LDCs.  
2. Section II of this Note provides an overvie w of NTMs and contains a synopsis of the 
literature on NTMs, issues involved in the identification and classification of NTMs.   It also 
discusses problems associated with measurement and impact of NTMs on trade.  Section III identifies 
NTMs on products of export interest to LDCs a nd provides non-exhaustive information on various 
types of NTMs faced by LDC exports.  Section IV provides possible avenues for addressing NTMs 
followed by concluding remarks in Section V.  
3. It should be noted from the outset that a comprehensive examination of NTMs concerning 
LDCs is difficult due to data limitations.  Availability  of data on NTMs which is of relevance to LDCs 
is limited not only in the WTO Secretariat, but also  in other NTM databases.  Information on NTMs is 
usually provided by the private sector;  informati on from the private sector in LDCs is scant which 
limits the data contained in this Note. 
II. OVERVIEW OF NTMS 
4. This section provides an overview of the literatu re on NTMs.  It begins with a description of 
the issues involved in the identification and clas sification of NTMs, followed by a discussion on the 
measurement and impact of NTMs.  It also estab lishes a foundation for the identification of specific 
products and specific measures which will be provided in the next section.  The key message from this section is that the complex nature of NTMs makes it difficult to draw precise conclusions about 
their impact on exports originating from LDCs.  
5. The term measure  as opposed to barrier  is used in this Note to reflect the uncertainty of the 
trade effect of some non-tariff instruments.  As will be shown below, some measures, such as quotas 
are explicit barriers to imports, whereas others such as standards can, under certain circumstances, 
increase the volume of trade, rather than act as a ba rrier.  Furthermore, many of these NTMs are based 
on legitimate non-economic objectives and can be introduced in a WTO consistent manner 
(e.g. measures to protect human or animal health, th e environment, national security, etc.).  Usage of 
the term measures, therefore, accords greater latit ude in identifying trade -related instruments.  
A. I
DENTIFICATION AND TAXONOMY  
6. The broad range of instruments that can impact the flow of trade has made it difficult to 
develop a tractable definition beyond tariff and NT Ms to categorize these instruments.  Defining a 
measure as not being a tariff does little in terms of  understanding the relative importance of different 
measures to the trading system.  The original roots of this distinction can be traced back to GATT, 
which, through Article XI envisaged a trading syst em governed by tariffs.  At that time, quantitative 
restrictions represented the principal NTM, althoug h a number of other instruments such as licensing 
and standards were also in existence.  Instead of developing specific approaches to handling NTMs, 
GATT Contracting Parties simply dealt with different  NTMs as they were put forward for negotiation.  
In 1967, the GATT Contracting Parties decided to cr eate an inventory of NTMs based on notifications 
                                                      
2 NTMs were highlighted in previous notes prepared by the Secretariat in 
documents WT/COMTD/LDC/W/11, WT/COM TD/LDC/W/28 and WT/COMTD/LDC/W/31.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 3 
 
 
  with a view to negotiating some of the measures no tified.  Some 800 measures notified were classified 
in the following five broad categories:  (i) governme nt participation in trade;  (ii) customs and 
administrative entry procedures;  (iii) standards involving imports and domestic goods;  (iv)  specific 
limitations on imports and exports (quantitative restrictions and th e like);  and (v) restraints on 
imports and exports by the price mechanism.3  Contracting Parties decided during the Tokyo Round to 
continue and improve this inventory for both agricultural4 and industrial products5.  Following the 
Tokyo Round, the inventory was kept up to date by  first the Group on Quantitative Restrictions and 
Other NTMs (created in 1982) and subsequently th e Technical Group on Quantitative Restrictions and 
Other NTMs (created in 1986).  
7. Baldwin (1970) was one of the first academic attempts at developing an NTM taxonomy.  His 
basic framework defines a non-tariff measure as "any measure (public or private) that causes 
internationally traded goods and services, or r esources devoted to the production of these goods and 
services, to be allocated in such a way as to reduce potential real worl d income".  All such measures 
were then allocated by Baldwin to different categories.  
8. While Baldwin's definition is useful in the sense  that it defines NTMs as distortions, it is not 
particularly practical.  Lloyd (1996) adopts the "law of one price" approach, albeit in a non-NTM 
context, to examine integration concepts.  He argue s that if tariffs were zero and no other distortions 
existed, prices of traded goods would be arbitrag ed across borders.  Any existing price differences 
could then be attributed solely to transport costs, which can be measured.  This view is similar to the 
NTMs as a distortion perspective proposed by Baldwin,  but is more practical in the sense that prices 
are observed variables, which can provide informati on on the degree of a distortion.  This point will 
be taken up further when measurement issues are addressed.  
9. One of the key points to emerge from the NTMs as a distortion approach is that NTMs cannot 
be limited to measures designed to restrict trade.  Export subsidies and other policies, which increase 
trade, but are distortions nonetheless would also be  included in the basic framework.  Baldwin (1970) 
for example includes foreign investment c ontrols and immigration policies as NTMs. 
10. Laird and Vossenar (1991) approach the problem of NTMs from a different angle.  They 
argue for an approach that takes into account the in tent and impact of a particular measure on trade as 
the basis for their framework.  Measures designed to control imports and prices each have their own 
category and are supplemented with categories cove ring monitoring measures, technical barriers and 
production and support measures.  In 1994, UNC TAD combined the Laird and Vossenar taxonomy 
with one that they had developed internally in th e early 1980s and created what is now known as the 
UNCTAD Trade Analysis and Information System (TRAINS) coding system.   
                                                      
3 See GATT documents COM.IND/4, COM.IND/6 and L/3298. 
4 See GATT documents MTN/3E/DOC/5-10. 
5 See GATT documents MTN/3B/1-5. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 4  
 
  11. Deardorff and Stern (1997) circumvent the problem of precisely defining NTMs by 
identifying some of its stylized characteristics.
6  These are: 
• Reduction in quantity of imports .  NTMs are most often imposed with the intent of reducing 
the quantity of imports.   
 
• Increase in price of imports .  NTMs succeed in reducing the quantity of imports only to the 
extent that they raise the actual or shadow price of imports to demanders.  
 
• Change in the elasticity of demand for imports .  NTMs often alter the slope of the demand 
curve for imports, and thus they alter the res ponsiveness of imports in a particular sector to 
price changes.  The elasticity effect of an NTM is also important in assessing, in a general equilibrium context, the role of NTMs in infl uencing the outcome of other events such as a 
change in tariffs.  An increase in a tariff on a fi nal good, for example, will have its protective 
effect reduced if there is an elasticity-reduc ing NTM in place on an important intermediate 
input. 
 
• Variability of NTMs.   Unlike tariffs, NTMs often are define d relative to a benchmark quantity 
or price independent of market conditions.  If this benchmark is held fixed when underlying 
conditions of supply and demand,  exchange rates, and other market conditions change, as 
they inevitably do, then the effectiveness of  the NTM will vary.  Such variability may 
constitute a neglected cost that the NTM imposes on society and thus is very important to measure along with its more obvious average price and/or quantity effects. 
 
• Uncertainty of NTMs.  All government policies are uncertain in their implementation, but this 
seems to be especially true of some NTMs.  Indeed, some practices such as anti-dumping and 
countervailing duty investigations have been identified as NTMs almost entirely because of 
the uncertainties that they impose on international traders.  Even those barriers that are clearly 
restrictive, however, can become more so if their implementation is uncertain.   
 
• Welfare costs of NTMs.  For this purpose, the price and/or quantity measures of the NTM 
provide sufficient information.  Welfare costs ar e separate because of their importance in the 
literature on NTMs. 
 
• Resource Costs of NTMs .  In addition to the traditional welf are costs just noted, there are also 
certain costs that are associated with the manner in which the NTM is administered.  First, are 
the direct administrative costs th emselves, that is, the resource s used directly in enforcing 
whatever rules an NTM imposes.  It is essential that more careful measurements of them be attempted.  Second, and perhaps of much great er importance, are the resources lost to rent 
seeking and related phenomena.  These are the time and other resources that are wasted by 
individuals and firms in their efforts to secure the profit opportunities and other benefits that 
are created by an NTM. 
 12. These characteristics are helpful, but in themsel ves do not constitute a taxonomy.  They are 
especially useful to distinguish those instruments th at are measures that affect trade and those that 
constitute a barrier per se .  Once that has been done, the number of such barriers is still potentially 
large, hence the need for a taxonomy remains. 
13. While Deardorff and Stern (1997) is predominantly  theoretical in nature, the authors provide 
a number of practical suggestions on how to move towards a better understanding of the implications 
of NTMs.  They propose a classification system, whic h has at its core price (other than tariffs) and 
                                                     
 
6 Deardorff and Stern use the term NTB.  This has been changed to NTM in this Note.  In doing so, 
however, it should not prejudice their use of the term NTB.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 5 
 
 
  quantity border measures.  To these they add the re maining (other) set of measures that may affect 
trade and then customs and technical barriers as a separate category. 
14. When the proposed framework of Deardorff and Stern (1997) is compared with that of 
UNCTAD TRAINs some differences emerge (Table 1).  The most significant difference is the inclusion of a range of measures that affect forei gn investment and the environment for trade such as 
corruption.  Another difference is the collapse of  all the quantitative measures and what are essentially 
other duties and charges and trade defence measur es into one category.  The advantage of this 
categorization is that many of the policies include d in the two categories are easily identifiable. 
15. Another taxonomy that is in circulation is one that is being used as part of the 
Doha Development Agenda (DDA) negotiations.  Paragraph 16 of th e Doha Ministerial Declaration 
sets out the mandate for Members to agree on negotiations "which shall aim, to reduce or as 
appropriate eliminate tariffs, ... as well as non- tariff barriers".  The WTO taxonomy, which is 
presented in Table 2, is used by WTO Members to make reverse notifications on NTMs faced by their 
exporters.  It has its origins in the original taxonomy that was developed in 1968 by the GATT 
Contracting Parties to sort through different NTM proposals.
7  It is interesting to note that the 
taxonomy from 1968 changed very little throughout  the years and has b een used in the DDA 
negotiations as the basis of the first notificati on exercise of the Non-Agricultural Market Access 
(NAMA) negotiations.8  It should however be noted that this taxonomy was modified to include two 
new sections: one relating to San itary and Phytosanitory (SPS) measures and a residual category that 
includes, amongst others, issues relating to intellectual property.9 
16. The WTO classification system is very similar to the UNCTAD TRAINs classification 
system.  Both appear to have a heavy focus on meas ures that are applied at the border, although some 
behind the border measures such as subsidies and r estrictive business practices are also included.   
17. The differences across the three classifications  are a testament to the complexities of 
measuring and classifying NTMs.  Each classification tries to capture all measures that affect trade, regardless of their impact.  Two issues, however, need  to be addressed.  The first is the vintage of the 
classifications and the second is the possi bility of grading various measures. 
18. As indicated above, UNCTAD houses the only cr oss-country and time-series database on 
NTMs.  When it was developed, quantitative restrict ions represented the principal NTM of concern.  
Today, however, largely as a result of the Ur uguay Round Agreement a number of quantitative 
restrictions affecting trade have been abolished.  The elimination of these barriers and the more focussed attention on other NTMs, such as standards and customs-related measures raise the issue of 
whether or not a wholesale evaluation on how NT Ms are collected and classified is required. 
 
                                                     
 
7 See GATT documents MTN.GNG/NG2/W/19 and Rev.1. 
8 TN/MA/S/5. 
9 TN/MA/S/5/Rev.1. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 6  
 
  Table 1:  Comparison of UNCTAD and Deardorff and Stern Taxonomies of NTMs 
 
UNCTAD TRAINs Deardorff and Stern 
Price control measures 
 
• Administrative pricing 
• Voluntary export price restraint 
• Variable charges 
• Anti-dumping measures 
• Countervailing measures 
 
Finance control measures 
 
• Advance payment requirements 
• Multiple exchange rates 
• Restrictive official  foreign exchange 
allocation 
• Regulations concerning terms of 
payment for imports 
• Transfer delays 
 
Automatic licensing measures 
 
• Automatic licence 
• Import monitoring 
• Surrender requirement 
 
Quantity control measures 
 
• Non-automatic licensing 
• Quotas 
• Import prohibitions 
• Export restraint arrangements 
• Enterprise specific restrictions 
 
Monopolistic measures 
 
• Single channel for imports 
• Compulsory national services 
 
Technical measures 
• Technical regulations 
• Pre-shipment formalities 
• Special customs formalities 
• Obligation to return used products 
 
Miscellaneous measures for sensitive product 
categories 
 
• Marketable permits 
• Public procurement 
• Voluntary instruments 
• Product liability 
• Subsidies Quantitative restrictions and si milar specific limitations on 
imports or exports  
• Import quotas 
• Exports limitations 
• Licensing 
• Voluntary export restraints 
• Exchange and other financial controls 
• Prohibitions 
• Domestic content and mixing requirements 
• Discriminatory bilateral agreements 
• Countertrade 
 
Non-tariff charges and related policies affecting imports 
 
• Variable levies 
• Advance deposit requirement 
• Anti-dumping duties 
• Countervailing duties 
• Border tax adjustments 
 
Government participation in trade; restrictive  practices;  
general policy 
 
• Subsidies and other aids 
• Government procurement policies 
• State trading, government monopolies, and exclusive 
franchises 
• Government industrial policy and regional 
development measures 
• Government financed research and development; 
technology policies 
• National systems of taxation and social insurance 
• Macroeconomic policies 
• Competition policies 
• Foreign investment policies 
• Foreign corruption policies 
• Immigration policies 
 
Customs procedures and administrative practices 
•
 Customs valuation procedures 
• Customs classification procedures 
• Customs clearance procedures 
 
Technical barriers to trade 
 
• Health and sanitary regulations and quality standards 
• Safety and industrial st andards and regulations 
• Packaging and labelling regulations, including 
trademarks 
• Advertising and media regulations 
Source : Bora (2003).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 7 
 
 
  Table 2:  WTO/GATT Inventory of Non-Tariff Measures 
 
Parts and Sections Description 
Part I 
A 
B 
C 
D 
E Government participation in trade and rest rictive practices tolerated by governments  
Government aids, including subsidies and tax benefits 
Countervailing duties 
Government procurement 
Restrictive practices to lerated by governments 
State trading, government  monopoly practices, etc. 
 
Part II 
A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
I Customs and administrative entry procedures  
Anti-dumping duties 
Customs valuation 
Customs classification 
Consular formalities and documentation 
Samples 
Rules of origin 
Customs formalities 
Import licensing 
Pre-shipment inspection  
Part III 
A 
B 
C Technical barriers to trade  
General Technical regulations and standards 
Testing and certification arrangements 
 
Part IV 
A 
B 
C Sanitary and phytosanitary measures  
General 
SPS measures including chemical residue li mits, disease freedom, specified product 
treatment, etc. 
Testing, certification and other conformity assessment 
 
Part V 
A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
F 
G 
H 
I 
J 
K 
L Specific limitations  
Quantitative restrictions  
Embargoes and other restrictions of similar effect 
Screen-time quotas and other mixing regulations Exchange controls 
Discrimination resulting from bilateral agreements 
Discriminatory sourcing Export restraints 
Measures to regulate domestic prices 
Tariff quotas Export taxes 
Requirements concerning marking, labelling and packaging 
Others  
Part VI 
A 
B C 
D 
E 
 Charges on imports
 
Prior import deposits 
Surcharges, port taxes, statistical taxes, etc. Discriminatory film taxes, use taxes, etc. 
Discriminatory credit restrictions 
Border tax adjustments 
Part VII 
A 
B 
C 
D 
E 
 Other  
Intellectual property issues Safeguard measures, emergency actions 
Distribution constraints 
Business practices or restrictions in the market Other 
 
Source : WTO document TN/MA/S/5/Rev.1, 28 November 2003 . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 8  
 
  19. A classification scheme, which lumps the whole set of NTMs together without any 
differentiation can be improved upon by grading th e various measures according to objective criteria.  
One step in this direction is the distinction be tween "core" and "non-core" NTMs put forward by 
UNCTAD.  "Core" NTMs are defined as most measures that fall into the categories of tariff, price, finance, monopolistic  and quantity control.  Measur es within these categories that are not "core" are 
by definition "non-core", as are automatic licensing and technical measures.  However, it is possible 
to argue with this distinction and wh at should be in this category.   
20. Work on addressing the above two issues is curre ntly underway in various international 
organizations.  It is being done in  conjunction with work on measuring NTMs, which is the focus of 
the next subsection.  
21. UNCTAD's TRAINs database is subject to much criticism because of its limited country and 
instrument coverage.  Nevertheless, as it is the only cross-country and time-series NTM database, it 
can provide some insights into the landscape of  NTMs, especially if caution is exercised in 
interpreting the results obtained using its data.  UNCTAD (2005) uses the database to illustrate the 
changing incidence of NTMs between 1994 and 2004 .  Their findings support the general perception 
of trade policy analysts that there has been a ge neral decline in the use of quantitative instruments 
combined with an increased incidence of technical st andards.  The identification exercise in the next 
section also confirm this fact. 
22. Bacchetta and Bora (2001) use the data to exam ine the inter-regional pattern of NTMs.  They 
stratify exporters into three groups based on their export profile and then ex amine the incidence of 
NTMs.  They find a higher incidence of NTMs in developed countries than in some developing 
country regions.  They also find a much higher incidence in agricultural products relative to 
manufacturing products.  Fontagne et. al (2005)  use the database to ex amine the incidence of 
environmentally-related NTMs.  Caution, however, need s to be exercised when interpreting the results 
of these studies, since they are frequency, not im pact measures.  As such, they only identify the 
incidence of NTMs and are silent as to the degree to which they affect trade flows.  
23. One of the more interesting approaches to ex amining the landscape of NTMs, especially to 
see if there is a bias against developing country expor ts is contained in OECD (2005).  Their approach 
was to combine the data contained in the reverse notification exercise conducted within the context of 
the DDA negotiations with the results from the litera ture, including those obtained from surveys of 
the private sector.  The study concluded that cu stoms and administrative procedures and technical 
barriers to trade were the main NTMs faced by de veloping country exporters in developed country 
markets.  Customs and administrative proce dures also rank very highly as barriers amongst 
developing countries.  Although the identification ex ercise in the next section to some extent support 
these findings, further work is requi red in the context of LDCs.  
B. Q
UANTIFICATION AND IMPACT  
24. Difficulties in developing a precise definition of  an NTM, especially in the form of an 
ad valorem  equivalent, create many problems when it comes to quantifying NTMs and estimating 
their impact on key economic variables, especia lly at aggregate levels (Bora et. al, 2002).  
Consequently, a number of different methodologies have been adopted to study NTMs.  These can be classified into three broad categories:  price gap,  price-based econometric methods and quantity-based 
econometric methods.
10  
25. The price-gap method is based on a simple me thodology of measuring the difference between 
the domestic price of an imported good and its world price on a product by product basis.  Any 
                                                      
10 Ferrantino (2006) classifies these into four different categories: price-gap method, price-based 
econometric methods, quan tity-based econometric met hods and simulation methods.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 9 
 
 
  difference that cannot be explained through factors su ch as mark-ups, transport costs and tariffs are 
attributed to the effects of NTMs.  One advantage of the price-gap methodology is that it can be used 
to focus on specific instruments, so that an estimate of how a particular policy affects a number of products can be estimated.  While this methodology can work on a product basis, it has the disadvantage of being cumbersome when a la rge number of products are involved.   
26. On the other hand, econometric methods require a reasonable number of products in order to 
obtain statistically significant estimates.  As pointed  out by Ferrantino (2006) , the dependent variable, 
could be either price vari ations that can be attributed to NT Ms, or trade of products affected by 
NTMs.  Not surprisingly, the data requirements for this methodological approach are demanding and 
can also be prohibitive. 
27. Kee, Nicita and Olarreaga (2005abc) have deve loped an approach to estimating NTMs based 
on the framework of the Trade Restrictiveness Inde x (TRI) of Anderson and Neary (1992 and 1994).
11  
The TRI is a single tariff value that has the same  impact on economic welfare as the existing tariffs 
and NTMs.  It differs from the concept of a simple or weighted average tariff, since the benchmark is welfare.  Another useful measure is the overall trad e restrictiveness index (OTRI), which is the single 
value which keeps imports at their same level when they are affected by both tariffs and NTMs.   
28. Tables 3a to c present some of the results derived from this approach for broad categories of 
exporters and markets.  The tables  are particularly in structive with respect to the topic of this paper, 
since it shows LDC-specific results.  From an expor ter perspective, LDCs face the second highest or 
the highest OTRI in each market when both agriculture and manufacturing are taken into account.  In contrast, high-income exporters face  the lowest OTRI in each market.  The market with the highest 
OTRI for LDC exports is Sub-Saharan Africa.  The ta bles also show that the OTRI in LDC markets is 
above the world average.  
Table 3a:  Bilateral OTRI: Agriculture and Manufacturing 
 
   Importers    
Exporters QUAD  
High 
Income 
 Middle 
Income Low 
Income LDC Sub-
Saharan 
Africa 
(SSA) World 
        
Quad 0.08 0.08 0.19 0.23 0.21 0.23 0.14 
High Income 0.08 0.08 0.19 0.23 0.21 0.23 0.14 
Middle Income 0.09 0.09 0.22 0.25 0.22 0.25 0.15 
Low Income 0.14 0.14 0.25 0.26 0.22 0.26 0.20 
LDC 0.12 0.12 0.24 0.25 0.22 0.26 0.18 
SSA 0.11 0.11 0.23 0.24 0.21 0.24 0.17 
World 0.10 0.09 0.22 0.24 0.22 0.25 0.15 
 
                                                      
11 Details of their index can be found in their papers and also in Ferrantino (2006). It should be noted 
that this index differs from the one that is used by the International Monetary Fund.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 10  
 
  Table 3b:  Bilateral OTRI: Agriculture 
 
   Importers    
Exporters QUAD  
High 
Income Middle 
Income Low 
Income LDCSub-
Saharan 
Africa World
        
Quad 0.30 0.31 0.46 0.37 0.29 0.34 0.37 
High Income 0.34 0.29 0.46 0.36 0.28 0.34 0.38 
Middle Income 0.49 0.47 0.42 0.36 0:28 0.33 0.43 
Low Income 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.34 0.27 0.31 0.39 
LDC 0.38 0.38 0.39 0.32 0.26 0.30 0.37 
SSA 0.35 0.34 0.38 0.33 0.26 0.30 0.35 
World 0.43 0:42 0.42 0.35 0.28 0.33 0.41 
 
Table 3c:  Bilateral OTRI or MA-OTRI: Manufacturing 
 
   Importers    
Exporters QUAD  
High 
Income Middle 
Income Low 
Income LDCSub-
Saharan 
Africa World
        
Quad 0.06 0.06 0.15 0.21 0.20 0.21 0.11 
High Income 0.05 0.06 0.15 0.21 0.20 0.21 0.10 
Middle Income 0.04 0.04 0.19 0.23 0.21 0.24 0.11 
Low Income 0.04 0.04 0.20 0.22 0.21 0.24 0.13 
LDC 0.03 0.03 0.20 0.22 0.21 0.24 0.12 
SSA 0.02 0.02 0.16 0.19 0.18 0.21 0.09 
World 0.04 0.04 0.18 0.22 0.20 0.23 0.11 
          Source : Kee, Nicita and Olarrega (2006). Country groupi ngs are based on the World Bank classifications . 
 
29. One of the many advantages of this approach is  that the aggregate measure of protection can 
be decomposed into its tariff and non-tariff component s.  Furthermore, specific measures of protection 
for a market can be obtained for each exporter to that market.  The recently released World Bank 
Global Monitoring Report 2006  shows that when NTMs are taken into account the overall level of  
protection increases.  When these figures are compar ed over time, they show that tariffs represent a 
smaller share of the overall figure, confirming th e common perception that the relative importance of 
NTMs is increasing alongside a decline in the overall level of protection. 
30. A perennial problem with the analysis of NTMs, which has certain asymmetries with tariff 
analysis is the distribution of welfare when an NT M is imposed.  Traditional tariff analysis yields the 
result that the country imposing the tariff is usua lly worse off as a result of the protection.  The 
reverse, however, can be true for some NTMs such as standards and subsidies.  These instruments can 
be applied to correct different types of market failu res, which could result in an increase in the welfare 
of the implementing country.  Conversely, if NTMs  are removed and trade increases, the country that 
had implemented the NTM could experien ce a reduction in its welfare.   
31. An extensive analysis of the economics of standa rds and how they affect trade is contained in 
the World Trade Report 2005  (WTO, 2005).  One of the key messages from that study is that the link 
between standards and trade is not always one of  trade diminishing and we lfare deterioration for  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 11 
 
 
  exporting countries.  Some standards can have the e ffect of increasing trade, especially when they are 
applied to correct information problems.  There is  also evidence to show that higher standards can 
increase product quality, thereby improving the compe titiveness of the product in the market place.  
32. One aspect of the analysis of standards, which is  of particular importance to LDC exporters is 
the role of conformity assessment.12  If legitimate economic reasons , such as those cited in the 
WTO Trade Report  2005  (WTO, 2005) support the imposition of a standard, and that standard is 
consistent with various internati onal regulations it could have an asymmetric impact on exports from 
developing countries, if these countries do not have th e capacity to comply with such standards.   
33. Another NTM which has been studied extensivel y is subsidies.  Dom estic support and export 
subsidies continue to be two of the most contentious  issues in the multilateral trading system.  As with 
standards, the analysis of subsidies differs from that of tariffs in unique ways.  In the case of 
subsidies, the major impact on exporters is the s uppression of world prices that is the consequence of 
such policies.  Artificially lower prices make it just  as difficult to compete in a market as increased 
prices for imports through tariffs.  The trade policy literature is replete with examples of the price 
impacts of subsidies.  One of the more well know n cases, which is specific to LDCs is the suppression 
effects of subsidies on cotton prices.  
34. The above literature survey on efforts to de velop a taxonomy of NTMs and estimate their 
impact on trade has shown that considerable ga ps remain in understanding how NTMs affect LDC 
exports.  These gaps can be filled, to some extent , by a process of identification of specific products 
and specific NTMs, which is the objective of the next section. 
III. NTMS FACED BY LDC EXPORTS13 
35. The previous section reviewed the literature on NT Ms.  The focus of this section is to identify 
NTMs on products of export interest to LDCs.  In this regard, two approach es were taken.  First, 
measures taken by LDCs' major tradi ng partners on principal exports (see  next paragraph) of LDCs in 
certain areas have been identified.  The result of th is exercise is contained in the addendum to this 
document.14  Second, in addition to notifications, a numb er of other sources such as Diagnostic Trade 
Integration Studies (DTISs) undertaken under the In tegrated Framework (IF), Trade Policy Reviews 
(TPRs) of several LDCs, and other available studies have been reviewed to gather information on the 
types of NTMs faced by LDC exports.   
36. Annex Table 5 lists the "principal" exports of LDCs using the HS sub-heading classification.  
It represents the export profile of LDCs as a whole to the world (2003).15  An aggregate version of 
Annex Table 5 is presented in Table 4 (below), where principal exports of LDCs are listed in order of 
value.  Although oil accounts for a large share of aggregate LDC exports, it has been observed that 
NTMs are not a key concern as far as oil exports are concerned, and therefore have not been included in this Note.  It can be seen from Table 4 that othe r than oil, the principal exports of LDCs include 
apparel, fish, pearls, ores, coffee, wood, cotton, al uminium, tobacco, chemi cals, etc.  The addendum 
to this document lists notificati ons on sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures, technical barriers to 
trade (TBT) measures as well as notifications on quantitative restrictions and import licensing 
procedures adopted by the LDCs' major trading partne rs (mainly China, India, EU(15), Japan and the 
United States) on the products mentioned above.  Several points should be noted here.  First, the 
purpose of this exercise is solely to identify th e NTMs on products of export interest to LDCs.  
                                                     
 
12 See pages 75 to 128 of the World Trade Report 2005  (WTO, 2005). 
13 The Note only examines merchandise exports of LDCs. 
14 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39/Add.1. 
15 These are called "principal"exports since they omit oil products (Chapter 27), which are the largest 
export of LDCs, based on value, and vessels (Chapter 89).  The chapter on "cargo vessels other than tanker or refrigerated" has been omitted since these are ships that were flag ca rriers in an LDC that have been 
decommissioned and exported for scrap, and is no t relevant for the current scope of the Note. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 12  
 
  Second, the measures identified in those notifica tions are not specific to LDCs.  Third, the 
compilation does not attempt to assess the extent to which the measures identified in those 
notifications affect the market access opportunities of LDCs.  
Table 4:  Principal Exports of LDCs to the World at the HS Sub-heading Level, 2003 
(excluding oil and vessels) 
 
HS 
Chapter Chapter description Percentage 
of principal 
export Total chapter 
exports ($) 
62 Articles of apparel, accessories, no t knit or crochet 23.5% 3,998,095,618 
61 Articles of apparel, accessories, knit or crochet 20.4% 3,474,665,427 
03 Fish, crustaceans, mollusc s, aquatic invert ebrates, nes 8.4% 1,421,840,445 
71 Pearls, precious stones, metals, coins, etc 5.5% 938,609,787 
26 Ores, slag and ash 5.1% 866,461,565 
09 Coffee, tea, mate and spices 4.8% 815,999,126 
44 Wood and articles of wood, wood charcoal 4.8% 810,187,849 
52 Cotton 4.4% 750,792,255 
76 Aluminium and articles thereof 2.8% 471,960,478 
24 Tobacco and manufactured tobacc o substitutes 2.5% 432,909,979 
74 Copper and articles thereof 2.3% 390,466,657 
28 Inorganic chemicals, precious metal compound, isotopes 1.8% 305,199,549 
41 Raw hides and skins (other than furskins) and leather 1.5% 254,313,893 
07 Edible vegetables and certain roots and tubers 1.4% 242,617,415 
65 Headgear and parts thereof 1.3% 218,748,252 
53 Vegetable textile fibres nes, paper yarn, woven fabric 1.3% 212,718,946 
15 Animal,vegetable fats and oils, cleavage products, etc 1.1% 195,478,202 
63 Other made textile articles, sets, worn clothing etc 1.0% 162,057,741 
Others  6.1% 1,044,519,183 
Source :  WTO 
 
37. Notifications by LDCs regarding NTMs are li mited.  This can be seen in the following 
sections which show that only a few LDCs have raised concerns or notified NTMs in the WTO 
bodies.  To supplement information on NTMs faced  by LDC exports, the DTISs, TPRs, as well as 
other available studies on NTMs have been reviewed .  Although information on NTMs is scant and at 
different levels of detail, an atte mpt has been made in Table 5 to summarize the types of NTMs that 
LDC exports face in different markets. 
38.  A review of Table 5 indicates that SPS measure s are the most frequently cited NTMs faced 
by LDC exports, in particular for their agricultura l exports (e.g. fruits, vegetables), fish and fish 
products, wood and wood products, etc.   Rules of origin associated with preference schemes represent 
the major NTM of concern to a number of LDCs fo r their non-agricultural exports (mainly clothing).  
Other types of NTMs which are of concern to LDCs are TBT, customs and administrative measures and trade remedies (anti-dumping measures).
16  In describing these NTMs in the following section, 
one point regarding the LDCs' export structure needs to be borne in mind.  Approximately, two-thirds 
of LDC exports go to developed country markets.17  Since these markets are major destinations for 
agricultural as well as for non-agricultural products from LDCs, it is likely that the incidence of 
NTMs would be higher in these markets than in ot her markets.  However, as will be shown below, 
LDC exports  face a number of NTMs in other markets as well.   
                                                      
16 This enumeration is not exhaustive.  
17 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 13 
 
 
  Table 5:  NTMs Faced by LDC Exportsa 
 
 
 
LDC Members  
Country applying 
measures  
 
Products affected  
 
Types of measures 
Bangladesh Not identified Jute yarn/twine TBT (packaging requirement, labelling 
requirement, etc.), SPS, customs and 
administrative procedures, import licensing 
requirement 
 Not identified Toiletry products Cons ular formalities and documentation 
 Not identified 
 Pharmaceutical finished 
formulations/products Registration and procedural problems 
 Not identified 
 Juices, drinks, jam, jelly, 
pickles, spices, snacks Attestation fees and testing requirement 
 
 EU Garments Rules of origin (EBA) 
 Brazil Sacks and bags of jute, 
knitted or crocheted Anti-dumping measure 
 India Lead acid batt eries Anti-dumping measure 
Benin Not identified Cashew nuts SPS  
Burkina Faso Not identified Fruits, vegetables, 
groundnut, cotton, gold Product quality standards 
Burundi Western markets Co ffee SPS and product quality 
Cambodia China Rice SPS (risk analysis and assessment)  
 Vietnam & 
Thailand Rice Government purchase and subsidies 
 China Confirel products Administrative/import licensing 
 EU Fish and fish products SPS, conformity assessment and 
administrative 
 EU Clothing Rules of origin (EBA) 
 Japan Black peppers SPS (cer tification of sterilisation) 
 Australia Organic foods SPS (Giant Africa Snail preven tive measure)  
 Not identified Rubber Certification 
 Not identified Pharmaceutical Standard requirements (Good Manufacturing 
Practices, and Bioequivalent Study) 
Chad Cameroon Livestock, fisheries SPS 
 CEMAC Members Not identified Transit procedures through the Douala Port, 
informal fees and charges on regional roads, 
over regulated and restri ctive transit freight 
in Naoudéré,  CEMAC rules of origin 
 US Arabic gum SPS 
Djibouti Regional markets Livestock SPS (veterinary services) 
 EU Fish SPS 
Ethiopia Quad  Agriculture, livestock, 
coffee, sheep and goat meat SPS, labelling requirements 
Gambia US Fish Difficulty with the Hazardous Analysis and 
Critical Control Project (HAACP) 
 EU Ground nuts, dried fruits SPS (e.g. levels for aflatoxins) 
Guinea EU Coffee, fruits and vegetables, 
fish SPS and other standards  
Laos Japan Scarf, pl acemat, runne r, silk 
fabric TBT ( quality requirement and testing) 
 France Trousers TBT (The use of only recognized/certified 
laboratories) 
 US Trousers TBT (The use of only recognized/certified 
laboratories) 
 Thailand Imported raw materials Admi nistrative (slow, extra charges) 
 China Imported raw materials Certification of origin 
 Pakistan Imported raw materials Certification of origin 
 EU T-shirts TRQs 
TBT (prescriptive requirement) 
 US T-shirts Marking requirements 
 Thailand Crafted seats TBT (N on-acceptance of wood products 
made from naturally grown wood) WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 14  
 
   
 
LDC Members  
Country applying 
measures  
 
Products affected  
 
Types of measures 
Laos (cont.) Thailand Knock down furniture  TBT (Non-acceptance of wood products 
made  
from naturally grown wood) 
TRQs 
Customs procedures (changing enforcement of rules and regulations; delays related to 
operating hours of customs; expenses to 
obtain customs clearance; expenses paid to 
get cargo managed, etc.) 
 EU Raw coffee beans SPS (requirement for toxin), safeguard, 
government participation in trade 
 France Raw coffee beans SPS (requirement for toxin), safeguard. 
government participation in trade  
 Thailand Raw coffee beans  
Gums, and resins, medical 
herbs High cost of transit cargo 
Cargo handing and port procedure 
 
Lesotho EU Clothing Rules of origin 
 SADC Clothing, motor vehicle 
components, sugar Rules of origin 
Madagascar Quad  Food and raw material s Product quality standards, packaging  
requirements 
 Quad  Agricultural products SPS 
Malawi Not identified Tea, tobacco, sugar, coffee SPS and other standards 
 OECD Groundnut Standards 
 South Africa Bed line n Anti-dumping measures 
Mali Not identified Cotton, livestock Packaging difficulties, other standards  
Mauritania Japan, EU Dairy products, fish fl ours SPS (e.g. zoosanitary problems), labelling 
requirements 
 Regional markets Livestock SPS (e.g. veterinary services) 
 Canada, Japan   Flat rolled ir on products Non-automatic licences 
Mozambique South Africa Banana, mandarin SPS 
 South Africa Tires Anti-dumping measure 
 Quad markets Groundnuts, cotton, 
sugar, maize, fish and fish 
products Rules of origin, SPS, quotas,  
Nepal India Zinc oxide, acrylic  fibres Anti-dumping measure 
Tanzania United States Toba cco, sugar Tariff quotas  
 EU Fish and fish products SPS, Rules of origin 
Senegal Japan & US Vegetables and fruits SPS (fumigation requirements) 
 EU Fishery product (shrimps, 
fish fillets, whole fish, 
crustaceans, molluscs), 
vegetables and fruits Sanitary regulations and quality standards 
Solomon Islands EU Fish Rules of origin 
 Not identified Fish and honey SPS 
Togo Not identified Fruits, vegetables, fish 
products, cotton, cocoa, 
coffee, phosphates Standards 
 EU Fish SPS 
Uganda East African 
countries Not identified Customs formalities 
 EU Fish, honey SPS, product standard 
 Kenya Milk Import licensing 
Yemen EU, US, Japan Fish, fruits and vegetables SPS 
Zambia Quad, SADC and 
COMESA Cut flowers, vegetables and 
other agricultural products; 
cotton, coffee, paprika SPS and other standards including pest risk 
assessment 
 
a It should be noted that the NTMs listed cover different periods of time and some of them may no longer be in force. 
 
Source : DTISs of the IF, TPRs, notifications to the Secretariat, previous Secretar iat studies and other available studies .  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 15 
 
 
   
A. SPS  MEASURES  
39. Table 5 shows that one of the major challeng es facing LDC exporters is their difficulty in 
meeting SPS requirements mainly in developed country ma rkets, and to some extent in other markets.  
The box below illustrates examples of some of the SPS measures that LDC exports face.  Most of the SPS measures pose challenges to exports of agricu ltural, fish and livestock products from LDCs 
(e.g. Djibouti and Ethiopia with livestock exports, Senegal with fish, fruit and vegetable exports, 
Guinea with fish exports, etc).  Some LDCs (e.g . Tanzania and Uganda) have experienced export 
restrictions due to health and safety requirements imposed by the importing countries.  A review of 
standards-related issues identified in the DTISs is made in document G/SPS/GEN/545.  A 
complementary objective of this exercise was to en sure synergy in the work of the Standards and 
Trade Development Facility (STDF) (see Section IV) which,  inter alia , seeks to address SPS-relatled 
needs identified by LDCs in their DTISs. 
 
 
SPS measures faced by LDC exports:
 
 
• During 1996-2000, fish exports from Tanzania were subject to a series of import restrictions 
from the EC due to concern over food safety, in pa rticular regarding its Nile perch exports.   
 
• During 1998-2000, fish exports from Uganda were subject to a series of import restrictions 
from the EC in response to safety concerns.   
 
• Dairy products (camel milk cheese) from Mauritani a could not be exported into the EC due to 
sanitary requirements.   
 
• Fruit and vegetable exports from Senegal to the US and Japanese markets face challenges due 
to fumigation requirements.   
 
• Exports of banana and mandari n from Mozambique to South Africa were discontinued due to 
problems related to plant pests. 
 
• Mauritania’s livestock exports to its regional ma rkets are limited due to lack of modern 
slaughterhouse facilities and weak veterinary services.  
 
Source : DTISs of the IF, TPRs. 
 
40. In March 1998, two specific trade concerns were raised by LDCs in the Committee on 
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (the SPS Co mmittee).  The Gambia and Senegal, along with 
other Members, raised concerns about an EC propo sal setting new maximum levels for aflatoxins in a 
variety of products including ground nuts, dried fruits and some cereals.18  The other specific trade 
concern was raised by Tanzania with respect to r estrictions imposed by the EC on imports of fruit, 
vegetables and fish products in light of a cholera outbreak in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and Mozambique.
19   
41. Although specific trade concerns raised by LD Cs in the SPS Committee ha ve been limited, it 
is likely that a number of concerns raised by other Members reflect the difficulties faced by the LDCs.  
For example, among the nine concerns raised regard ing measures maintained by China, are concerns 
                                                      
18 In light of comments received from a number of  Members, the EC revised its proposed new 
maximum levels for most products and also revised the accompanying testing and inspection procedures. 
19 In July 1998, the EC adopted measures restor ing trade with these four African countries. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 16  
 
  relating to restrictions on citrus  products, tolerance levels of e-coli  in certain food stuffs, and 
quarantine measures on aquatic products.  Over 50 c oncerns have been raised related to measures 
maintained by the EC, and a number of these are with  regard to products that are also of export 
interest to LDCs, including citrus products, ground nuts, pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables, 
shellfish and squid, coffee, wood packaging mate rials, tea and spices.  Among the 20 specific 
concerns raised regarding measures taken by Japan , are concerns relating to various fruits and 
horticultural products, food additives, and pesticid e residues in various food products.  Twenty-two 
concerns have been raised regarding measures ma intained by the United States, including measures 
affecting wood packaging materials, citrus and other fresh fruits, vegeta bles, and live plants, in all of 
which LDCs too have an interest.   
42. Since 1995, out of nearly 6,200 SPS notifications , 26 notifications have explicitly identified 
one or more LDCs as being potentially affected by  the proposed measure, or by including emergency 
measures.  These are listed in Annex Table 1.  LDCs have often been directly identified as being potentially affected in notifications of an urgent measure taken in response to an animal or plant 
health emergency situation.  For example, Cambodia has been identified in six notifications relating to 
import restrictions on live birds and products taken to  prevent the spread of avian influenza.  It may 
also be noted that some LDCs have been iden tified as potentially affected by SPS measures taken by 
another LDC.  In 2000, Zambia had identified Ug anda as potentially affected by its SPS measures 
taken with respect to cassava seedlings and cassava plan ts.  Similarly, in 2001, Malawi had identified 
Zambia as a potentially affected country in re lation to SPS measures taken on poultry and poultry 
products.   
43. In the addendum to this document, Table 1 lists  SPS notifications that relate to measures on 
major export products of LDCs (fish, coffee, spices , wood, vegetables and fruits), submitted by their 
major trading partners (the EC, the United States,  Japan and China) between the years 2000 and 2006.  
It may be noted that the notifications by the EC and the US, which are among the important markets for LDC products, are far greater in number than those of other countries.  However, a detailed 
analysis would be required to assess whether and to what extent measures listed in these notifications 
have (or will have) an impact on the exports from LDCs. 
B. P
REFERENTIAL RULES OF ORIGIN  
44. As has been noted before, rules of origin asso ciated with some non-reciprocal preference 
schemes represent a major concern mainly for non-a gricultural exports from LDCs.  Preference 
granting countries have the prerogative to design their respective rules of origin criteria, foremost to 
ensure that only products from countries benef iting from the particular scheme are granted 
preferential access.  It is also argued that rules of origin should promote vertical integration and facilitate diversification of productio n in LDCs.  However, high percen tages of value-added criteria or 
requirements for starting a manufacturing process from an early stage of production raise the threshold that LDC exports need to fulfil in orde r to gain the preferential access.  This has been 
argued to have restrictive effects on the market ac cess for some LDCs, particularly with regard to 
exports of clothing.  A few LDCs have also experienced difficulties in  satisfying rules of origin for 
fish. 
45. Concerns relating to preferential rules of orig in have been expressed by LDCs in WTO bodies 
as well as in other fora.  In addition, the LDCs have recently submitted a proposal on rules of origin in 
three negotiating bodies (see Section IV).
20  In the submission, the LDCs state that they have not been 
able to take advantage of preferential mark et access schemes because of the associated, often 
stringent, rules of origin.  
                                                      
20 LDCs' proposal on Rules of Origin (TN/CTD/W/30, TN/MA/W/74, TN/AG/GEN/20).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 17 
 
 
  46. There are currently various percentages of va lue-added criteria which are applied in the 
different non-reciprocal preferential schemes.  For example, the EC's Everything But Arms Initiative 
(EBA) and the Cotonou scheme require various rang es of percentages (50 – 80 per cent) of value 
addition on ex-works basis for some products (incl uding profit and general expenses).  In the case of 
the US' African Growth and Opportunity Act ( AGOA), all non-textile products need a 35 per cent 
value addition on the basis of the direct costs of  processing (excluding profit and general expenses).  
Canada's Market Access Initiative for LDCs (MAI) requires a 40 per cent value addition on the basis 
of ex-factory price (including pr ofit and general expenses).   
47. It should, however, be noted that apparel te nds to have a different treatment from the one 
described above.  For example, under the rules of origin of the AGOA, for eligible LDCs, it is 
sufficient to have a single transformation from a non-or iginating fabric (i.e. apparel made from fabric 
from any country), whereas in the EBA it is ne cessary to have a double transformation from a 
non-originating yarn (i.e. the fabric is made in an LDC from yarn from another country, and thereafter 
the apparel is made from that fabric).  In Cana da's MAI scheme, LDCs are allowed to use fabric 
imported from other developing countries, provided that the fabric is made from yarn originating in an 
LDC, a developing country or Canada, and that the fabric is cut and assembled in an LDC. 
48. An examination of the rules of origin for tex tiles and clothing products across non-reciprocal 
preference schemes has been made  in the Secretariat note entitled "Options for the Least-Developed 
Countries to Improve their Competitiveness in the Textiles and Clothing Business" 
(WT/COMTD/LDC/W/37).  Taking the example of the Canadian GSP scheme for LDCs, the note 
shows that by extending the coverage of its pr eference schemes and increasing the margin of 
preference while simultaneously introducing liberal ru les of origin (low value-added criteria), it has 
been possible to increase the exports of textile  and clothing products to Canada from LDCs.  
Similarly, AGOA with its liberal rules of origin (e.g . third-country fabric provision) has contributed to 
a rapid increase in exports from African LDCs to the United States.   
49. It may be noted that rules of origin are also a challenge for some LDCs in the context of their 
participation in regional trade agreements.  For instance, under the Southern African Development 
Community (SADC), special rules of origin are a pplied to certain products (e.g. clothing, motor 
vehicle components, sugar).  In this regard, the DTIS of Lesotho mentions that the higher local content requirement acts as a disincentive for the country to boost exports to SADC markets.   
C. O
THER TYPES OF NTM S FACED BY LDC  EXPORTS  
50. Besides SPS and preferential rules of origin, a number of other NTMs are of concern to 
LDCs.  Table 5 shows that a number of LDCs have  been facing challenges in the area of TBT, for 
example with regard to labelling and packaging re quirements.  From the results of the survey 
conducted by the TBT Committee in 2002 on iden tification and prioritization by developing 
countries, and from concerns expressed by developi ng countries in general in the TBT Committee, it 
appears that LDCs are facing substantial constraints in the area of conformity assessment.21  In fact, 
eight LDCs which responded to this survey emphasized their limited conformity assessment 
infrastructure such as lack of adequate laboratories for testing purposes as well as certification and accreditation bodies.  Two LDCs mentioned market access difficulties relating to requirements on azo-free products, environmental standards and country of origin labelling requirements. 
51. In the addendum to this document, Table 2 lists  TBT notifications from the US, the EC, Japan 
and China from 1 January 2000 until 30 April 20 06 on products of expor t interest to LDCs.
22  A s  
                                                      
21 A brief account of LDC participation in the TBT Committee is presented in Annex Table 2. 
22 Fish, coffee, wood, vegetables, fruits, tobacco, products of the ch emical and allied industries, 
textiles, footwear, metals and electrical products. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 18  
 
  noted earlier, a comprehensive analysis of these notif ications would be require d to determine which of 
these measures could potentially affect the export opportunities of the LDCs.  
52. Customs and administrative measures (other than preferential rules of origin) represent 
another NTM of key concern to LDCs.  The landlocke d LDCs, in particular, ha ve expressed concerns 
over custom processing or clearance delays at the bo rder, which increase their cost of exports.  For 
example, exporters in Uganda have reported cumb ersome custom procedures and payment of multiple 
charges imposed at the border by their neighbourin g countries.  Administrative procedures such as 
excessive use of documentation and mandatory consul arization requirements are also considered to 
act as a deterrent to exports from a number of LD Cs.  Bangladesh has indicated that its toiletry 
exports require attestation of export documents from several institutions incurring extra costs for 
exports.  Cambodia has also raised concerns with regard to complicated document procedures for its 
export of confirel products.   
53. Anti-dumping measures represent another trade policy instrument frequently cited by 
Members as constituting an NTM.  Since 1995, four  LDCs (Bangladesh, Malawi, Mozambique and 
Nepal) have had anti-dumping inves tigations initiated against them.
23  India initiated two cases against 
Nepal (zinc oxides and acrylic fibres) and one against Bangladesh (lead acid batteries).  Both of the 
investigations against Nepal resulted in the adopti on of final anti-dumping measures, which are still in 
force.  Although a final measure was imposed in the Bangladesh's lead acid batteries case, India 
terminated the measure in 2005, following consulta tions with Bangladesh.  The cases against Malawi 
(bed linen) and Mozambique (tires) were brought by South Africa.  While a final measure was imposed in the Malawi's bed linen case, South Afri ca's notifications to the WTO do not reveal the 
outcome of the investigation against Mozambique.   
IV. POSSIBLE AVENUES FOR ADDRESSING NTMS  
54. The previous section made an attempt to identify the types of NTMs faced by LDC exports.  
This section provides a brief summary of the opportunities that are provided in the WTO for Members to raise their concerns vis-à-vis  NTMs.  However, it needs to be bo rne in mind that while some of the 
concerns of LDCs could perhaps be addressed by ra ising them in the relevant committees and through 
bilateral discussions, other problems that they face are related to their lack of capacity to comply with 
certain measures imposed by importing countries.  This section therefore also highlights the 
importance of overcoming capacity constraints (human , institutional and supply- side capacity) and the 
need for increased interaction between  the private sector and governments of LDCs to identify the real 
problems and to seek necessary solutions. 
A. I
NCREASED PARTICIPATION IN THE REGULAR WORK OF THE WTO   
55. The WTO as a forum for trade po licy surveillance, negotiations and dispute settlement, offers 
different mechanisms for addressing NTMs for all Members.  These include the regular WTO bodies 
which monitor implementation of specific agreem ents.  The Trade Policy Review also provides 
opportunities for LDCs to raise issues  related to a Member's trade po licies and practices, including the 
impact and consequences of any NTMs imposed by them.  The WTO is also a forum for trade 
negotiations, by which too, Members can seek so lutions to problems posed by trade barriers.  
Furthermore, WTO is part of several internati onal technical assistance initiatives which provide 
assistance to developing countries to enhance their capacity to increase their participation in world 
trade. 
56. Despite an increase in LDCs' participation in the multilateral trading system in recent years, 
their overall participation in the regular committees  of the WTO that deal with NTMs has been 
                                                      
23 It may be noted that Brazil has continued its imposition of anti-dumping duties against the exports of 
sacks and bags of jute, knitted or crocheted, from Bangladesh, which were originally imposed in 1992.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 19 
 
 
  limited.  This can largely be explained by thei r human resources' constrai nts.  Generally, LDC 
delegations based in Geneva are small in number.   Moreover, attendance of experts from capitals, 
which is often required due to the technical nature  of some committee work, cannot be assured due to 
resource constraints.  This capacity constraint al so affects their ability to  screen and analyze the 
information contained in the notifications from Me mbers and to communicate this to their private 
sectors.   
57. The forum provided in the regular WTO committees  can be used to highlight the difficulties 
that LDCs may be facing with respect to the NTMs adopted by their trading partners.  For instance, 
the SPS and TBT Committees provide regular forums for the identification and discussion of specific trade concerns; yet only a limited use has been made of these opportunities.
24  There are also 
mechanisms, for example in the SPS  Committee, to enhance developing  countries' ability to respond 
to measures adopted by importing countries.  Th e procedure adopted by the SPS Committee in 2004 
allows a developing country Member to request for consultations to find a solution to specific 
problems faced in fulfilling the SPS requirements of an importing Member.  The solution can take the 
form of modifications of a measure, technical a ssistance or through the provision of special and 
differential treatment (G/SPS/33). 
58. LDCs can also utilize the regular committees to a ddress their technical assistance needs.  For 
instance, the TBT Committee adopted a format for the voluntary notification of specific technical 
assistance needs and responses in 2005 (G/TBT/16).  While  LDCs are yet to make any notifications in 
this regard, two LDCs have submitted responses to  the questionnaire circulated in the SPS Committee 
indicating their technical assistance needs.25   
B. MAXIMIZING OPPORTUNITIES THROUGH THE DDA  NEGOTIATIONS  
59. The Uruguay Round brought about a number of resu lts in the area of NTMs, mainly through 
the adoption of a considerable number of multilate ral provisions.  Not only were five of the Tokyo 
Round agreements multilateralized, but several new agreements were  also negotiated to reduce or 
eliminate the trade distorting impact of some NTMs.  In addition, a new Part III was introduced in the 
schedules to allow for the inclusion of commitments relating to NTMs. 
60. Paragraph 16 of the Doha Ministerial Declar ation mandates the reduction, or as appropriate 
elimination, of NTMs, in par ticular on products of export inte rest to developing countries.26  Although 
the Negotiating Group on Market Access for Non- Agricultural Products (NGMA) has a general 
mandate concerning NTMs, it should be noted that  other negotiating bodies such as the Negotiating 
Group on Trade Facilitation and the one on Rules ar e also negotiating on specific NTMs falling 
within their respective mandates.   
61. The NGMA has been working on a process of identification, categorization and examination 
of NTMs notified by Members, with a view to ul timately negotiating appropriate ways to address 
problems raised.27  Although LDCs have been active pa rticipants in several areas of the DDA 
negotiations, their engagement in this area has been  limited.  So far, two LDCs namely Bangladesh 
and Senegal have submitted thei r NTM notifications combining the old and revised formats.  
Moreover, information contained in these notifications is limited as to the specifics of the problems.   
62. It should be noted that Members are developing bilateral, vertical and horizontal approaches 
to the NTM negotiations.  The outcome of these ne gotiations would be multilateralized ensuring that 
                                                      
24 The Committees chosen are merely for illustrative purposes and it is recognized that a number of 
other specialized bodies in the WTO deal with NTMs as well. 
25 Uganda (G/SPS/GEN/295/Add.5) and Senegal (G/SPS/GEN/295/Add.20/Rev.1). 
26 While the Doha Ministerial Declaration refers to non-tariff barriers (NTBs), the term NTMs is used 
to ensure consistency in the Note. 
27 See Job(04)/62/Rev.7 for a compila tion of NTM notifications received. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 20  
 
  benefits accrue to all Members.  Nevertheless, more engagement from LDCs in these area of 
negotiations could ensure ta rgeted benefits including, inter alia , the possibility of improving market 
access conditions in developed as well as developing count ry markets.  It is therefore important that 
the LDCs submit notifications in the NAMA ne gotiations and table specific proposals for the 
elimination or reduction of NTMs. 
63.  An additional means to address NTMs in th e context of the DDA is through the trade 
facilitation (TF) negotiations, which seek to tackle a number of NTMs, especially in the areas of trade 
goods transit, import/export fees and formalities and trade regulations centering on Articles V, VIII 
and X of the GATT 1994.  A few LDCs have tabled  proposals in the TF negotiations.  Rwanda, along 
with Paraguay and Switzerland has submitted proposals on improving and clarifying the provisions of 
GATT Article V with a view to expediting the movement of goods in transit (TN/TF/W/39).
28  
Uganda has co-sponsored a communication along with the United States concerning GATT Article VIII proposing prohibition of requiring consular transacti ons, including consularization-
related fees and charges, in connection w ith the importation of goods (TN/TF/W/22 and 
TN/TF/W/86).
29  LDCs could further consider identifying lacunae in the trade facilitation field and 
make proposals in this regard.  It may be noted that  16 out of the 50 LDCs are landlocked, and many 
of them have called attention to the need to f acilitate transit arrangement s to enhance their export 
competitiveness. 
64. Although preferential rules of origin have so far not been subject to WTO rules, the Hong 
Kong Ministerial Declaration refers to them.30  At the Twenty-Fifth Special Session of the Committee 
on Trade and Development, the LDCs introduced a paper on Rules of Origin (later circulated as 
document TN/CTD/W/30).  The paper proposes usi ng a combination of value addition and local 
content criteria to confer origin and provides a detailed proposal on how value addition and local 
content percentages should be calculated.  It may be noted that the submission is specific to the 
Decision 36 in Annex F of the Hong Kong Ministeria l Declaration relating to  duty-free and quota-free 
(DFQF) market access for LDCs. 
C. STRENGTHENING STANDARDS -RELATED CAPACITY  
65. It has been stated by the LDCs that an importa nt reason why they have not been able to fully 
utilize market access opportunities - MFN or preferentia l - is their weak supply-side capacity.  Even 
though the NTMs adopted by importing countries are not specifically targeted to LDCs, they might 
specially handicap the LDCs because of their lack of capacity to comply with those measures.  It 
would be important for LDCs to  continue their efforts to improve their standards-related 
infrastructure.  
66. Targeted assistance has helped a number of LDCs  meet certain requirements in their major 
markets.  This has, for example, been observed in  the fisheries industry:  in Mauritania's fishing 
sector, the requirements in the Quad markets are met through partnerships with foreign firms;  Angola 
received assistance from the Spanish Government to  strengthen the installations at its National 
Institute of Fisheries Research (INIP);  technical assistance from the EC for Madagascar's sea food 
industry is another example of successful collabora tion.  These examples emphasize the point that 
LDC governments would benefit from focussed and enha nced assistance.  Concerted efforts by LDCs 
and the international community alike could make a significant contribution in addressing some of the 
capacity constraints faced by the LDCs.    
                                                      
28 As a follow-up to this submission, these Members also submitted a textual proposal on the use of 
international trade facilitation standards (TN/TF/W/119). 
29 Building upon this submission on transit, a textual proposal is contained in document TN/TF/W/104. 
30 Paragraph (b) of the "Decision on Measures in Favour of Least-Developed Countries" in Annex F of 
the Hong Kong Ministerial Declaration says that "dev eloped-country Members shall, and, developing-country 
Members declaring themselves in a position to do so should  ensure that preferential rule s of origin applicable to 
imports from LDCs are transparent and simple, an d contribute to facilitating market access".    WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 21 
 
 
  67. A number of initiatives have been taken at the in ternational level to address standards-related 
constraints faced by LDCs.  One such initiative is  the Standards and Trade Development Facility 
(STDF).  The WTO, in partnership with the FAO, WHO, OIE and the World Bank, created the STDF in September 2002.  The aim of this Facility, whic h is both a financing and coordinating mechanism, 
is to assist developing countries in enhancing thei r capacity to meet international SPS standards, 
improve their human health, animal health and phyto sanitary situation, and t hus gain and maintain 
market access.  The STDF provides grant financing fo r private and public organizations in developing 
countries including LDCs seeking to co mply with international SPS measures.
31   
68. In response to constraints outlined in the DTIS s of the IF, the STDF has actively exploited 
synergies with the IF.  By the end of March 2006, 15  project preparation grants and six project grants 
had been approved for LDCs.  Synergies between th e IF and the STDF can clearly be seen in Annex 
Tables 3 and 4, which summarize the various projects and project preparation grants approved to date 
specially benefiting LDCs.  
D. ENHANCING PRIVATE -PUBLIC DIALOGUE  
69. Since it is only the private sector, which can provide first-hand information on the problems 
they encounter in exporting their products, it is v ital that a regular and effective link is established 
with the private sectors/industries in collecting information on relevant NTMs.  Lack of specific 
information about NTMs inhibits delegations from raising the issue in the relevant bodies.  LDCs 
have recently taken steps to conduc t a survey among their exporters.32  A proper identification of 
difficulties through such surveys would help LDCs id entify the actions that need to be taken to 
address the concerns expressed by their exporters. 
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS 
70. The overview of the literature on NTMs shows the complexities involved in the classification 
and measurement of NTMs.  While a broad range of instruments could be classified as NTMs, a common definition of NTMs is yet to be developed.  It is also difficult to say a priori how, and to 
what extent, NTMs affect trade.  At the same ti me the lack of a definition and a taxonomy on NTMs 
is per se  not an impediment in addressing the problems arising from the application of NTMs in the 
context of the WTO.  
71. The Note provides some indication of the types of NTMs LDC exporters face in different 
markets.  Frequency measures of NTMs demonstrat e that the SPS measures affect the greatest number 
of export products, mainly fish and agricultural products, from LDCs.  Other measures of concern 
include preferential rules of origin, TBT measures, and other customs and administrative procedures.   
72. SPS measures seem to pose the biggest challe nge for LDC exporters, who are often required 
to provide detailed scientific information for purposes of pest and disease control in importing 
countries.  Such measures may require the use of  certain production methods or testing techniques 
which are often not readily available to LDC ex porters.  This underlines the need for building 
necessary capacity to conform with such measures.  
73. Rules of origin requirements associated with no n-reciprocal preferential schemes are also of 
concern to LDCs, predominantly for clothing and to a limited extent for fish products.  In their recent 
submission on rules of origin in the negotiations, the LD Cs state that they have not been able to take 
advantage of preferential market access schemes be cause of the associated, often stringent, rules of 
origin.                                                        
 
31 It provides funds for two types of grants:  project preparation grants (PPGs) and project grants. The 
partners in the STDF have committed to devote at least 40 per cent of facility resources to projects from LDCs. 
32 The Secretariat has helped LDCs prepare a model surv ey form that can be used  by the LDCs in order 
to identify the problems facing their exporters. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 22  
 
  74. The need to provide sometimes excessive doc umentation as well as other customs procedures 
have been mentioned to act as deterrents to e xports from LDCs, as these requirements often raise 
costs for exporters.  Negotiations on trade fac ilitation are looking at some of these issues.  
75. The Note also highlights the possible ave nues that LDCs could use for addressing the 
concerns related to these measures.  Discussion in the regular WTO bodies such as the SPS and TBT 
Committees could prove helpful as would addressing sp ecific aspects dealing with NTMs in the DDA 
negotiations.  Other channels which could help to  overcome specific problems related to NTMs could 
be bilateral and regional discussions with tradi ng partners.  The Note mentions the capacity 
constraints that LDCs face, related to human, ins titutional and supply-side capacity.  Concerted efforts 
by the LDCs and the international community c ould make a significant contribution to addressing 
some of these constraints.    WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 23 
 
 
  References 
 
Anderson, J. and P. Neary (1992), "Trade Reforms with Quotas, Partial Rent Retention and Tariffs," 
Econometrica Vol.60, No.1, pp 57-76 
 Anderson, J and P. Neary (1994), "Domestic Distorti ons and International Trade," World Bank Economic 
Review, Vol.8, pp.151-169 
 Bacchetta, M. and B. Bora (2001), "Post-Uruguay Round Market Access Barriers for Industrial Products", 
Policy Issues in International Trade and Commodities, Study Series No. 12 , Geneva, UNCTAD. 
 Baldwin, R. (1970), Non-Tariff Distortions in Internatio nal Trade.   Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution. 
 
Bora, B.  (2005), "Quantification and Impact of Non-Tariff Measures", in P. Dee and M. Ferrantino (eds.), Quantitative Measures for Assessing the Effect of Non-Tariff Measures and Trade Facilitation , pp. 17-40. 
 
Bora, B., A. Kuwahara and S. Laird (2002), "Quantification of Non-Tariff Barriers", Policy Issues in 
International Trade and Commodities, Study Series No. 18 , Geneva, UNCTAD. 
 Deardorff, A.V. and R. M. Stern, (1997).  Measurement of Non-Tariff Barriers.  Economics Department 
Working Paper No. 179, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris. 
 Dee, P. and M. Ferrantino (2005), Quantitative Methods for Assessing the Effects of Non-Tariff Measures and 
Trade Facilitation , Singapore, APEC Secretariat an d World Scientific Publishing. 
 Dourng Kakada and Sok Hach " Non-Tariff Measures Facing Asia Pacific Exporters:  Cambodian Case Study",  
July 2005 
 Ferrantino, M. (2006) "Quantifying the trade and econom ic effects of non-tariff measures" , OECD Trade Policy 
Working Paper No. 28, TD/TC/WP(2005)26/FINAL, OECD, Paris. 
 Fontagne, L, Von Kirchbach, F. and M. Mimouni (2005), "An Assessment of Environmentally-related Non-
Tariff Measures", World Economy , pp. 1417-1439. 
 Kee, H. L., A. Nicita and M. Olarreaga (2005a) , "Import Demand Elasticities and Trade Distortions", 
Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 
 
Kee, H. L., A. Nicita and M. Olarreaga, (2005b) , "Ad Valorem Equivalents of Non-Tariff Barriers", 
Washington, D.C.: World Bank.  
Kee, H. L., A. Nicita and M. Olarrega (2005c), "Estim ating Trade Restrictiveness Indices", Washington, D.C.: 
World Bank.  
Laird, Sam and René Vossenaar (1991), "Porqué nos preocupan las bareras no arancelarias?", Informacion 
Comercial Española , Special Issue on Non-tariff Barriers, November, pp. 31-54. 
 
Lloyd, P. (1996) "The Changing Nature of RTAs" in B. Bora and C. Findlay (eds.), Regional Integration and 
Asia Pacific , Melbourne, Oxford University Press. 
 
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2005), "Analysis of Non-Tariff Barriers of 
Concern to Developing Countries", TD\TC\WP(2004)47\Rev1, Paris, OECD.  
Thiphapone Phetmany and Lus Julieta Rio " Non-Triff Measures Facing Laos Exporters ", June 2005 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 24  
 
  United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2005), "Methodologies, Classifications, 
Quantification and Development Impacts of Non-Tariff  Barriers", TD/B/COM.1/EM.27/2, Geneva, UNCTAD. 
 
World Bank (2006), Aid, Trade and Accountability - Strengthening Mutual Accountability-Aid, Trade and 
Governance , Washington, World Bank. 
 
World Trade Organization (WTO ) (2005), "Trade, Standards and the WTO", World Trade Report 2005 , 
Geneva, Switzerland. pp. 29-170. 
 
*******  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
 Page 25 
 
 
   
ANNEX 
Table 1 
SPS Notifications Identifying LDCs as Potentially Affected by a Measure  
LDC (s) Identified Trading partner Product Year Document 
symbol 
Bangladesh 
Tanzania United States Wheat and rela ted products 2005 G/SPS/N/USA/1078 
Cambodia Kenya Domestic and wild birds, their products and by-
products, hatching eggs, meat and meat products of domestic and wild birds 2006 G/SPS/N/KEN/17 
Cambodia 
Myanmar Thailand Live goat and sheep 2005 G/SPS/N/THA/131 
Cambodia Iceland Live poultry and bird s, fertile eggs and raw 
poultry and bird products which can carry Avian Influenza 2004 
2005 G/SPS/N/ISL/4 
G/SPS/N/ISL/4/Rev.1 
Cambodia Switzerland Live birds and products thereof. Exceptions for 
heated bird meat and heated animal feed as well as live birds allowed with the precaution of safeguards 2004 
2005 G/SPS/N/CHE/36 
G/SPS/N/CHE/36/Rev.2 
Cambodia Cyprus Fresh meat of poultry; farmed and wild 
feathered game; eggs for human consumption; meat preparations containing poultry 2004 G/SPS/NCYP/10 
Cambodia United States Bird and bird  products 2004 G/SPS/N/USA/856 
Congo European 
Communities Live fish for farming 2003 G/SPS/N/EEC/198 
Djibouti Jordan Live domestic and wild ruminants, and animal 
products not treated according to Appendix 3.6.2 of the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health code 2003 2006 G/SPS/N/JOR/15 
Madagascar Mauritius Livestock feed 2003 G/SPS/N/MUS/10 
Madagascar China Swine and its products 2002 G/SPS/N/CHN/P/40 
Malawi  
Zambia Kenya Domestic and wild birds, their products and by-
products, hatching eggs, meat and meat products of domestic and wild birds 2005 G/SPS/N/KEN/9/Add.1 
Mali  
Mauritania Zambia Republic of Latvia Sheep, goat, pigs, cattle, other ruminants and 
their products; milk and dairy products; corn produced and stored; animal fodder 2001 G/SPS/N/LVA/37 
Mozambique 
Tanzania Uganda European 
Communities Fishery products 1998 G/SPS/N/EEC/54 
Myanmar Philippines Live poultry, poultry meat, day-old chicks, eggs 
and semen 2006 G/SPS/N/PHL/104 
Senegal China Swine and swine products 2002 G/SPS/N/CHN/P/43 
Solomon Islands New Zealand Plant derived oil-extracted meals for animal feed 2003 G/SPS/N/NZL/256 
Solomon Islands New Zealand Sawn wood, including timber, lumber, half 
rounds, mouldings, doweling and certain laminated beams 2003 G/SPS/N/NZL/213 
Solomon Islands New Zealand Cooked breadfruit 2002 G/SPS/N/NZL/168 
Togo Republic of Latvia Live pigs; slaughter products of pigs; products 
of animal origin obtained from the above mentioned animals 2001 G/SPS/N/LVA/39 
Uganda New Zealand Frozen Nile perch skinless, boneless fillets for 
human consumption 2000 G/SPS/N/USA/1078 
Uganda Zambia Cassava seedlings and cassava plants 2000 G/SPS/N/ZMB/3 
Zambia United States Baby corn and baby carrots 2006 G/SPS/N/USA/1208 
Zambia United Arab Emirates Equi dae family 2004 G/SPS/N/ARE/1 
Zambia Malawi Poultry and poultry products 2001 G/SPS/N/MWI/1 
Source:  WTO.WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 26  
 
  Table 2 
 
LDC Participation in the TBT Committee 
 
 
 
LDC WTO 
Member  
Number of 
notifications 
made  
Article 15.2 
statement a  
Notificatio
n of 
enquiry 
point Notification. of 
acceptance of 
the Code of 
Good Practice b  
Responses to  
TBT TA survey c 
1 Angola     Job(02)/99/Add.28 
2 Bangladesh   Yes Yes Job(02)/99/Add.37 
3 Benin   Yes Yes  
4 Burkina Faso   Yes Yes  
5 Burundi   Yes   
6 Cambodia      
7 Central African 
Republic 6  Yes   
8 Chad     Job(02)/99/Add.23 
9 Congo, DRC  G/TBT/2/Add.79    
10 Djibouti   Yes   
11 Gambia      
12 Guinea   Yes   
13 Guinea Bissau      
14 Haiti      
15 Lesotho   Yes  Job(02)/99)Add.20 
16 Madagascar  G/TBT/2/Add.80 Yes  Job(02)/99/Add.9 
17 Malawi   Yes Yes Job(02)/99/Add.21 
18 Maldives      
19 Mali   Yes   
20 Mauritania      
21 Mozambique   Yes Yes  
22 Myanmar   Yes   
23 Nepal   Yes   
24 Niger   Yes Yes  
25 Rwanda  G/TBT/2/Add.85  Yes  
26 Senegal 3   Yes Job(02)/99/Add.27 
27 Sierra Leone  G/TBT/2/Add.83 Yes   
28 Solomon Islands      
29 Tanzania   Yes Yes  
30 Togo      
31 Uganda  G/TBT/2/Add.23 Yes Yes Job(02)/99/Add.41 
32 Zambia   Yes Yes  
 
a Article 15.2 of the TBT Agreement provides that: "Each Member shall, promptly after the date on 
which the WTO Agreement enters into force for it, inform the Committee of m easures in existence or 
taken to ensure the implementation and administra tion of this Agreement.  Any changes of such 
measures thereafter shall also  be notified to the Committee." 
b Annex 3, Paragraph C of the TBT Agreement requir es that standardizing bodies having accepted the 
Code of Good Practice notify this fact to the ISO/IEC Information Center in Geneva. 
c During 2002 the TBT Committee c onducted a survey on needs identification and prioritization by 
developing country Members.   
 
Source : WTO. 
  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39
 Page 27Table 3 
 
Approved STDF Project Grants Specifically Benefiting LDCs  
 
Project 
number Title Description Implementing 
agency Beneficiary Budget in 
US$ Approval 
date Start 
date End date Status 
STDF 48 Quality control for 
shea and cashew nut 
products in Benin  The aim of the project is to train 
farmers in good agricultural practice 
and to sensitize actors in the supply 
chain so as to overcome problems of 
mycotoxin contamination for shea 
and cashew nut production.  The 
project will be implemented by a 
consortium including the International 
Institute for Tropical Agriculture 
(IITA). WTO Benin 261,000 Feb-06 To be 
agreed  Discussions on 
contracting and final 
budget underway. 
STDF 69 SPS capacity-building 
for the Yemen 
Seafood Exporters 
Association  The aim of the project is to assist the 
Yemen Seafood Exporters 
Association to introduce an industry-
wide food safety and quality scheme 
and so become more responsive to the 
requirements of export markets. World Bank Yemen 371,075 Feb-06 To be 
agreed  
 Discussions on-going 
with World Bank about 
contracting. 
STDF 64 Facilitating livestock 
trade in Djibouti The aim of the project is to strengthen 
veterinary services in Djibouti with a 
view to assisting the livestock trade, 
in particular with Gulf countries. The 
project will be focused around training for both the public and 
private sector on SPS issues in trade. . FAO Djibouti 560,000 Sep-05 To be 
agreed  Delay has been 
encountered in 
implementation.  
Awaiting further 
information from FAO on arrangements to 
implement the project.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 28 Project 
number Title Description Implementing 
agency Beneficiary Budget in 
US$ Approval 
date Start 
date End date Status 
STDF 65 Support compliance 
with official and 
commercial standards 
in the fruit and 
vegetable sector in 
Guinea The project is focused on assisting the 
public and private sector in Guinea 
through training to meet official and 
commercial standards for fruit and 
vegetable exports.  UNCTAD Guinea 600,000 Sep-05 Dec-05 Dec-07 Project contracted.  
Implementation on-
going.  
STDF 20 Country-based plans 
for SPS-related 
development The aim of the project is to undertake 
baseline studies of SPS capacity and 
to apply cost-benefit analysis to 
examine potential  returns on 
investment in terms of foreign trade 
and an improved SPS situation.  
Fieldwork in Uganda and Peru.   WTO Peru and 
Uganda 170,862 Sep-03 Nov-04 Sep-06 General methodology 
for cost benefit 
analysis has been 
developed.  Fieldwork 
is on-going in Peru.  
Fieldwork in Uganda 
planned for 2006 and 
should build on work 
by World Bank to 
prepare the Diagnostic Trade Integration 
Study under the 
Integrated Framework. 
STDF 10 International Portal on 
Food Safety, Animal 
and Plant Health 
project Establishment of national windows to 
the International Portal on Food 
Safety, Animal and Plant Health.  
Fieldwork undertaken in Turkey and  
Uganda.   FAO Turkey and 
Uganda 59,400 Sep-03 Mar-05 Sep-06 Fieldwork in Uganda 
and Turkey has been 
completed.  Project 
being finalized.  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39
 Page 29Table 4 
 
STDF:  Status of Approved Project P reparation Grants Benefiting LDCs 
Project 
number Title Description Implementing 
agency Beneficiary Budget in 
US$ Approval 
date Start 
date End date Status 
STDF 46 Project preparation 
grant on 
implementation of 
Codex standards 
(WHO Africa) A project preparation grant to assist 
WHO's Africa office to develop a 
project proposal assisting selected 
African countries to implement 
Codex standards. WHO/WTO/Wo
rld Bank Selected 
African 
countries 20,000 Feb-06 To be 
agreed  Discussion on-going 
between WTO, World 
Bank and WTO on 
necessary arrangements 
and Terms of 
Reference. 
STDF 113 Project preparation 
grant to survey food 
safety needs in 
Burundi  A project preparation grant will be 
used to apply the joint WHO/FAO 
evaluation tool of official food 
control services to survey the food 
safety situation and recommend a 
trade-related project in Burundi. WTO/ Burundi 
Standards 
Bureau Burundi 20,000 Feb-06 To be 
agreed  Awaiting confirmation 
from Burundi Bureau 
of Standards. 
STDF 126 Study on pesticide 
policy in Tanzania 
and the East African 
Community The project preparation grant will be 
used to undertake a study on pesticide 
registration in the East African 
Community for the Tanzanian 
Horticulture Association (TAHA) . WTO/ TAHA Tanzania 5,500 Feb-06 To be 
agreed    
STDF 88 Nepal SPS training 
project preparation 
grant Preparation activities will focus on 
evaluating the training needs of 
Nepal's SPS control authorities and 
designing a training programme 
which responds to those needs. WTO Nepal 20,000 Sep-05 To be 
agreed  WTO to follow up with 
Nepalese authorities.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 30 Project 
number Title Description Implementing 
agency Beneficiary Budget in 
US$ Approval 
date Start 
date End date Status 
STDF 100 Project preparation 
grant for Cape Verde Fieldwork to be focused on applying 
the FAO/WHO developed 
"Guidelines to Assess Capacity 
Building Needs in Official Food 
Control Systems" and designing a 
project on the basis of findings.   WTO Cape Verde 20,000 Sep-05 To be 
agreed  In abeyance.  Awaiting 
decision on list of 
consultants provided by 
WTO. 
STDF 101 Eritrea project 
preparation grant Fieldwork is focused on applying the 
FAO/WHO developed "Guidelines to 
Assess Capacity Building Needs in 
Official Food Control Systems" and 
designing a project on the basis of 
findings. WTO Eritrea 20,000 Sep-05 Jan-06 Apr-06 Consultant contracted 
and fieldwork 
completed.  Project 
being evaluated by 
WTO and FAO before 
submission to STDF 
Working Group in 
June 2006 
STDF 102 Project preparation 
grant for Mali  Preparation activities are focused on 
project design in the fruit and 
vegetable sector wh ich will support 
current initiatives to address SPS 
constraints. WTO Mali 20,000 Sep-05 Mar-06 May-06 Consultant recruited 
and fieldwork 
underway.   
STDF 103 Project preparation 
grant for Rwanda Preparation activities are focused on 
project design in the fruit and 
vegetable sector. WTO Rwanda 20,000 Sep-05 Feb-06 Apr-06 Consultant recruited 
and fieldwork 
underway.   
STDF 52 Project preparation 
grant on aflatoxin in 
Malawi and Zambia Terms of Reference developed with 
FAO to design project to address 
post-harvest aflatoxin contamination 
problems in the paprika and 
groundnut sectors in Malawi and 
Zambia.  Project preparation grant 
builds on needs expressed in the 
Integrated Framework Diagnostic 
Integration Study. WTO Malawi and 
Zambia 30,000 Mar-05 To be 
agreed  In abeyance pending 
examination of IITA 
project in Malawi and 
Zambia looking at 
similar issues  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39
 Page 31Project 
number Title Description Implementing 
agency Beneficiary Budget in 
US$ Approval 
date Start 
date End date Status 
STDF 63 Project preparation 
grant in Benin  Fieldwork concentrated on 
application of F AO/WHO developed 
"Guidelines to Assess Capacity 
Building Needs in Official Food 
Control Systems".   WTO Benin 20,000 Mar-05 Apr-05 Aug-05 Grant applications 
presented in August 
2005 and one project 
accepted in February 
2006. 
STDF 61 Project preparation 
grant in Cambodia  Fieldwork undertaken in Cambodia.   WTO Cam bodia 20,000 Mar-05 Apr-05 Jul-05 Grant application 
presented in July 2005, 
but not accepted for 
funding. 
STDF 64 Project preparation 
grant in Djibouti  Field research and design of project 
in the livestock sector in Djibouti.  WTO Djibouti 20,000 Mar-05 Apr-05 Jul-05 Project accepted for 
funding in September 
2005. 
STDF 65 Project preparation 
grant in Guinea  Consultant contract ed to build on 
UNCTAD evaluation of costs of 
compliance in the tropical fruit sector 
and design project application.  UNCTAD Guinea 20,000 Mar-05 Apr-05 Aug-05 Grant application 
presented and accepted 
in September 2005. 
STDF 66 Project preparation 
grant in Mozambique  Consultant contract ed to build on 
UNCTAD evaluation of costs of 
compliance in the tropical fruit sector 
and design project application.  UNCTAD Mozambique 20,000 Mar-05 Apr-05 Aug-05 Grant application 
presented and accepted 
in August 2005. 
STDF 69 Project preparation 
grant in Yemen  Survey of SPS issues in the fisheries 
sector and project design.  Project 
accepted for funding in Feb 2006.  WTO Yemen 20,000 Mar-05 Sep-05 Dec-05 Grant application 
presented and accepted 
for funding in February 
2006.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 32 Table 5 
 
Principal Exports of LDCs to the World at  the HS Sub-heading Level, 2003  
(excluding oil and vessels)  
 
HS 
Chapter Chapter description Percentage 
of principal 
export Total chapter 
exports ($) HS sub-
heading Sub-heading description Total Subheading 
export ($) 
03 Fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic invertebrates nes 8.4% 1,421, 840,445 030269 Fish nes, fresh or chilled, whole 90,721,39 5 
    030343 Skipjack,stripe-bellied bonito, frozen, whole 47,587,375 
    030379 Fish nes, frozen, whole 128,742,670 
    030410 Fish fillet or meat, fresh or chilled, not liver, roe 92,195,196 
    030420 Fish fillets, frozen 106,794,982 
    030559 Dried fish, other than cod, not smoked 54,353,379 
    030613 Shrimps and prawns, frozen 720,378,840 
    030749 Cuttle fish, squid, frozen, dried, salted or in brine 83,181,999 
    030759 Octopus, frozen, dried, salted or in brine 97,884,609 
06 Live trees, plants, bulbs, roots, cu t flowers, etc. 0.3% 49,690,967 060310 Cut flow ers and flower buds for bouquets, etc., f resh 49,690,967 
07 Edible vegetables and certain roots and tubers 1.4% 242,617,415 071339 B eans dried, shelled, nes 38,920,419 
    071390 Leguminous vegetabl es dried, shelled 203,696,996 
08 Edible fruit, nuts, peel of citrus fruit, mel ons 0.3% 58,037,957 080131 Cashew nuts, in shell dr 58,037,957 
09 Coffee, tea, mate and spices 4.8% 815,999,126 090111 Coffee, not roasted, not decaffeinated 465,405,521 
    090240 Tea, black (fermented or partly) in packages > 3 kg 47,360,764 
    090500 Vanilla beans 170,148,331 
    090700 Cloves (whole fruit, cloves and stems) 133,084,510 
12 Oil seed, oleagic fruits, grain, seed, fruit, etc, nes 0.8% 140,851,884 120740 Sesamum seeds 140,851,884 
13 Lac, gums, resins, vegetable saps and ex tracts nes 0.3% 43,501,375 130120 Gum Arabic 43,501,375 
15 Animal,vegetable fats and oils , cleavage products, etc 1.1% 195, 478,202 150810 Ground-nut oil, crude 89,179,176 
    151620 Veg fats, oils or fracti ons hydrogenated, esterified 50,474,085 
    151800 Processed animal, vegetabl e oils, industrial preps nes 55,824,941 
16 Meat, fish and seafood food preparations nes 0.4% 70,751,832 160414 Tuna, skipjack, bonito, prepared/preserved, not minced 7 0,751,832 
17 Sugars and sugar confectionery 0. 7% 116,216,340 170111 Raw s ugar, cane 70,626,481 
    170199 Refined sugar, in solid form, nes, pure sucrose 45,589,859  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39
 Page 33HS 
Chapter Chapter description Percentage 
of principal 
export Total chapter 
exports ($) HS sub-
heading Sub-heading description Total Subheading 
export ($) 
24 Tobacco and manufactured tobacco subs titutes 2.5% 432,909,979 240110 Tobacco, unmanufact ured, not stemmed or stripped 56,621 ,455 
    240120 Tobacco, unmanufactured , stemmed or stripped 376,288,524 
26 Ores, slag and ash 5.1% 866,461,565 260111 Iron ore, con centrate, not iron pyrites,unagglomerated 205,422,283 
    260300 Copper ores and concentrates 52,751,374 
    260500 Cobalt ores and concentrates 85,562,277 
    260600 Aluminium ores and concentrates 475,505,315 
    261590 Niobium, tantalum and vana dium ores and concentrates 47,220,316 
28 Inorganic chemicals, precious meta l compound, isotopes 1.8% 305,199,549 280920 Phosphor ic acid and polyphosphoric acids 118, 369,777 
    281820 Aluminium oxide, exce pt artificial corundum 119,071,755 
    284410 Natural uranium, its compounds, mixtures 67,758,017 
29 Organic chemicals 0.3% 56, 907,822 290511 Methyl alcohol 56,907,822 
31 Fertilizers 0.3% 44,304,761 310210 Urea, including aqueous solution in packs >10 kg 44,304,761 
40 Rubber and articles thereof 0.3% 48,720,776 400110 Natura l rubber latex, includi ng prevulcanised 48,720,776 
41 Raw hides and skins (other than furski ns) and leather 1.5% 254,313,893 410221 Sheep or lamb skins, pickled, without wool 40, 433,932 
    410410 Bovine skin leather, whole 54,739,917 
    410422 Bovine leather, otherwis e pre-tanned except whole skin 67,678,210 
    410431 Bovine and equine leather,  full or split grain, nes 43,257,788 
    410439 Bovine and equi ne leather, nes 48,204,046 
44 Wood and articles of wood, wood charcoal 4. 8% 810,187,849 440349 Logs, tropical woods nes 364,304,079 
    440399 Logs, non-coniferous nes 260,340,194 
    440729 Lumber, tropical wood ne 114,075,811 
    440799 Lumber, non-coniferous nes 71,467,765 
52 Cotton 4.4% 750,792,255 520100 Cotton, not carded or combed 750,792,255 
53 Vegetable textile fibres nes, paper yarn, woven fabric 1. 3% 212,718,946 530310 Jute and other textile bast fibres, raw or re tted 48,108,457 
    530710 Yarn of jute or textile bast fibres nes, single 43,334,408 
    530720 Yarn of jute, textile bast fibre nes, multiple, cabled 58,699,486 
    531010 Woven fabric of jute/bas t fibres, unbleached/bleached 62,576,595 
57 Carpets and other textile floor cove rings 0.7% 120,958,075 570110 Carpets of wool or fine animal hair, knotted 120,958,075  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 
Page 34 
HS 
Chapter Chapter description Percentage 
of principal 
export Total chapter 
exports ($) HS sub-
heading Sub-heading description Total Subheading 
export ($) 
61 Articles of apparel, accessories, knit or crochet 20.4% 3,474,665,427 610462 Womens, girls trousers & shorts, of cotton, kni t 51,924,474 
    610510 Mens, boys shirts, of cotton, knit 218,070,589 
    610520 Mens, boys shirts, of manmade fibres, knit 56,717,421 
    610610 Womens, girls blouses & shirts, of cotton, knit 84,400,957 
    610821 Womens, girls briefs or  panties, of cotton, knit 105,097,417 
    610831 Womens, girls nightdress or  pyjamas, of cotton, knit 56,664,918 
    610910 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, of cotton, knit 856,189,337 
    610990 T-shirts, singlets etc,  of material nes, knit 57,659,192 
    611010 Pullovers, cardigans etc of wool or hair, knit 178,376,657 
    611020 Pullovers, cardigans etc of cotton, knit 884,764,520 
    611030 Pullovers, cardigans et c of manmade fibres, knit 856,460,076 
    611120 Babies garments, accessories of cotton, knit 68,339,869 
62 Articles of apparel, accessories, not knit or crochet 23.5%  3,998,095,618 620192 Mens, boys anoraks etc, of cotton, not knit  45,061,846 
    620193 Mens, boys anoraks etc, of manmade fibres, not knit 262,250,942 
    620293 Womens, girls anoraks etc of manmade fibres, not knit 122,628,619 
    620342 Mens, boys trousers & shorts, of cotton, not knit 847,595,486 
    620343 Mens, boys trousers shor ts, synthetic fibr e, not knit 197,950,554 
    620442 Womens, girls dresse s, of cotton, not knit 48,474,877 
    620452 Womens, girls skirts, of cotton, not knit 74,680,318 
    620462 Womens, girls trousers & shorts, of cotton, not knit 628,969,051 
    620463 Womens, girls trousers, shorts, synth fibres, not knit 180,776,941 
    620469 Womens, girls trousers, s horts, material nes, not knit 43,612,571 
    620520 Mens, boys shirts, of cotton, not knit 589,333,540 
    620530 Mens, boys shirts, of  manmade fibres , not knit 231,856,024 
    620630 Womens, girls blouses & shirts, of cotton, not knit 213,352,057 
    620640 Womens, girls blouses, shir ts, manmade fibre, not knit 75,261,579 
    620821 Womens, girls nightdress, pyjamas, of cotton, not knit 56,905,755 
    620920 Babies garments, accesso ries of cotton, not knit 84,233,998 
    621040 Mens, boys garments nes, made up of impregna ted fabric 60,506,887 
    621111 Mens, boys swimwear, not knit 67,354,468  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39
 Page 35HS 
Chapter Chapter description Percentage 
of principal 
export Total chapter 
exports ($) HS sub-
heading Sub-heading description Total Subheading 
export ($) 
62 Articles of apparel, accessories, not knit or crochet   621133 Mens, boys garments nes, of manmade fibres, not knit 41,194,4 61 
    621142 Womens, girls garments nes, of cotton, not knit 51,083,117 
    621210 Brassieres and parts thereof 75,012,527 
63 Other made textile articles , sets, worn clothing etc 1.0% 162,057,741 630260 Toile t or kitchen linen, of cotton terry towell ing 42,950,151 
    630510 Sacks & bags, packing, of jute or other bast fibres 59,103,776 
    630622 Tents, synthetic fibres 60,003,814 
64 Footwear, gaiters and the like, parts thereof 0.9% 146,295,975 640299 Footwear, outer soles/uppers of rubber or plastic, nes  47,646,693 
    640399 Footwear, sole rubber, plas tics uppers of leather, nes 98,649,282 
65 Headgear and parts thereof 1.3% 218,748,252 650590 Hats and other headgear, knit or crochet, nes 218,748,252 
71 Pearls, precious stones, metals, coins,  etc 5.5% 938,609,787 710210 Diamonds, unsorted 104,161,759 
    710231 Diamonds (jewellery) unworke d or simply sawn, cleaved 785,190,644 
    710310 Precious, semi-precious stones unworked, partly worked 49,257,384 
74 Copper and articles thereof 2.3% 390,466,657 740311 Copper ca thodes and sections of  cathodes unwrought 329,140,568 
    740919 Plate, sheet, strip, re fined copper, flat, t > 0.15mm 61,326,089 
76 Aluminium and articles thereof 2.8% 471, 960,478 760110 Aluminium unwrought, not alloyed 471,960,478 
81 Other base metals, cermets,  articles thereof 0.6% 102,380, 681 810510 Cobalt, unwrought, matte, waste or scrap, powders 102,3 80,681 
85 Electrical, electronic equipment 0.3% 45,900,738 854430 Igniti on/other wiring sets for vehicles/aircraft/ship 45,900,738 
 
 
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