WORLD TRADE  
ORGANIZATION  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 22 February 2006 
 
(06-0731) 
Sub-Committee on Least-Developed Countries 
Negotiating Group on Market Access  
 
  
MARKET ACCESS ISSUES RELATED TO PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST 
ORIGINATING FROM LEAST-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 
 
Note by the Secretariat
1 
 
Table of Contents 
 
I. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... .........3  
II. METHODOLOGY AND DATA ISSUES ......................................................................................3  
III. LDC EXPORT PROFILE............................................................................................................. ..4 
A. MAJOR PRODUCTS ..............................................................................................................................7  
B. MAJOR MARKETS .............................................................................................................................11  
IV. TARIFF ME ASURES................................................................................................................ ....15 
A. MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPED COUNTRY MARKETS ....................................................................15  
B. MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRY MARKETS ..................................................................16  
C. SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... ..........18  
V. RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARK ET ACCESS.................................................20  
 
                                                      
 1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's own responsibility and without prejudice to the 
positions of Members and to their rights and obligations under the WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 2 
 
 
  List of Tables  
 
Table 1:  Merchandise exports and imports of least-developed countries by selected country 
 grouping, 2004 ................................................................................................................ .................6
 
Table 2:  Exports of commercial services of least-developed countrie s by category, 2003 ............................7  
Table 3:  Leading merchandise exports of  least-developed co untries in 2003 ................................................9  
Table 4:  Top 10 markets for LDC exports, 1995-2004............................................................................ .....11  
Table 5:  Imports of agricultural products, fuels and manufactures of the EC,  
 Asia and North America from leas t-developed countries, 2003 ....................................................12  
Table 6:  Tariff treatment of LDC exports in  selected developed country markets, 2003.............................16  
Table 7:  MFN tariff profile of leadin g developing country markets, 2003...................................................17  
Table 8:  Dutiable imports into  selected developing country ma rkets, latest available year .........................19  
 
 
List of Annex Tables  
 Annex Table 1:  Availability of tariff and trade data in WTO IDB and   UN Comtrade Databases....................................................................................................21
 
Annex Table 2:  Measures in favour  of exports origin ating from LDCs .......................................................22  
 
 
List of Charts 
 Chart 1:  Growth in the value of LDC merchandise trade, 1990-2004 ............................................................5
 
Chart 2:  Exports of least-developed coun tries by major produc t, 1995 an d 2003 ..........................................8  
Chart 3:  Share of top three exports in total merc handise exports for LDCs, latest available year................10  
Chart 4:  Share of developi ng countries in merchandise exports of LDCs, 2003 ..........................................13  
Chart 5:  Composition of LDC exports to developed and developing country markets, 2004 ......................14  
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
 Page 3 
 
 
  I. INTRODUCTION 
1. This Note has been prepared by the Secretariat in response to paragraph 7 of the WTO Work 
Programme for Least-Developed Countries (LDCs), wh ich mandates an annual review of market access 
for products originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11).   It builds on previous Secretariat studies by 
updating the information on trends in LDC trade and market access conditions.2  While previous studies 
have focused largely on market access conditions in developed countries, this Note introduces information 
on the prevailing market access conditions in developing countries.   
2. The next section presents issues related to methodology and data.  It is followed by an 
examination of the LDC export prof ile (Section III) for the purpose of identifying the major markets and 
products of export interest to LDCs.  Section IV  reviews the market access conditions in developed and 
developing countries for products originating from LDCs, based on available tariff information.  Recent 
initiatives by Members to improve market acce ss for LDCs are reported in Section V.   
II. METHODOLOGY AND DATA ISSUES 
3. Data difficulties associated with this Note can be divided into two parts;  those relating to trade 
data and those related to market access data.  The overall situation of tariff and trade data related to market 
access and export performance for LDCs is nothing short of  poor.  An accurate assessment of the market 
access situation requires good quality tariff and import data .  More detailed data is required if the market 
provides different types of duty treatments for LDC exports, such as reciprocal or non-reciprocal preferential market access.  These data should ideally be supplemented with information on whether or not 
products eligible for pref erential treatment eventually receive such treatment.
3   
4. Most developed countries voluntarily provide thei r preferential duty and import data to the WTO's 
Integrated Data Base (IDB).4  Unfortunately, tariff and trade data for developing countries is often 
hampered by availability and quality.  Not surprisingly, LDCs in particular are at an extreme on this point.  
Annex Table 1 sets out the current availability of trade data in the United Nations Statistical Division 
database on trade (Comtrade) and tariff data in the IDB.   
5. The state of data portrayed by Annex Table 1 is rather disappointing.  Out of 50 LDC countries, 
only 11 reported data through till 2004, and only 21 countries provide time series data with at least five consecutive years.  Sometimes, data reported by some LDCs do not necessarily comply with international 
standards as laid out by the United Nations International Merchandise Trade Statistics Concepts and 
Definitions (IMTS, Rev.2).  Data vary in coverage as, for example, some countries report only domestic exports, while others do not provide estimates of unr ecorded trade (cross-border and illicit trade).  Most 
LDCs do not include export-processing zones in their merchandise trade statistics.   
6. Lack of export data for specific countries may mean applying generalisations to individual country 
situations that may be incorrect.  This problem can be mitigated to some extent by basing estimates on partner countries' trade statistics or inverted trade flows.
5  The UN Comtrade Database contains a full 
coverage of the developed countries' trade, and a very good coverage for trade of significant developing 
economies and economies in transition, thereby allowing the possibility of estimating the share of the 
LDCs trade with developing economies.  A disadvantage  of this approach, however, is that intra-trade 
between LDC countries as well as tr ade of the LDCs with other non-reporting developing countries cannot 
be taken into account.  Also, due to the time lag in reporting of some developing economies, the coverage 
                                                      
2 The previous studies are contained in documen ts WT/COMTD/LDC/W/35, WT/COMTD/LDC/W/31 and 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/28.   
3 This figure, the ratio of imports receiving preferentia l treatment over the imports eligible for preferential 
treatment, is more commonly referred to as the utilization ra te.  The issue of preference utilization is covered in the 
previous Note prepared by the Secretariat, contained in document WT/COMTD/LDC/W/35.  
4 WTO Members only have the obligation to provide MFN tariff information to the WTO Secretariat.  
5 This is also sometimes known as 'mirror data'. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 4 
 
 
  of LDC trade flows by inverted trad e tends to decrease for the most recent years (e.g. 90 per cent in 2001, 
79 per cent in 2003). 
7. Annex Table 1 also provides information on the availability of import and tariff data in the WTO 
Integrated Database.  These data are important for assessing the extent to which LDCs impose barriers on the imports from other LDCs.  Seventeen LDCs have reported tariff data for at least one year after 2002.  Three of these LDCs have reported tariff data for 2005.  
8. Good trade policy analysis and hence, good trade policy advice depends fundamentally and 
critically on the availability of high quality and accessible trade data.  The analysis in this Note used the 
best available data and adopted various methodologies to correct for any deficiencies.  While some data difficulties can be overcome with robust methodologies, others cannot.  Data availability for the most recent year in the context of duty tr eatment in markets and also in terms of imports was the most serious 
data deficiency that could not be overcome.  The small number of lines that remain dutiable in developed 
country markets allowed us to make the relevant changes by hand.  Lack of data for developing countries for the most recent years meant that, in some cases, data  for the year 2001 was used.  This is not ideal, and 
has been noted in cases where it was used.  Nevertheless, this approach still allows us make estimates of 
some important numbers.   
9. Another difficulty related to tari ff data in markets that grant n on-reciprocal access is the time 
interval between a policy announcement and the availability of relevant data.  In this respect, market analysis related to barriers facing exports from LDCs is  slightly easier due to the fact that many recent 
initiatives are predominantly duty free and quota free.  In such cases, as was done in the World Trade 
Report 2004  (WTO, 2004), duty rates can be set to zero.  However, this cannot be done for all cases.  The 
approach taken in this Note is to use only the reported tariff data for a given year.  No adjustments were made to take into account policies announced after the relevant time period for the data. 
III. LDC EXPORT PROFILE
6 
10. In 2004, LDCs as a group accounted for 0.6 per cent of world exports and 0.8 per cent of world 
imports (Table 1).  In growth terms, their performance has been mixed over the past 15 years (Chart 1).  Between 1990 and 1999, the growth of LDC exports and imports was less than that of world exports, but since then the growth of LDC exports exceeded that of world exports.   
11. Of particular note is the significant growth rate  of exports posted by LDCs in 2004, which was 
34 per cent, compared to 21 per cent for world exports (Table 1).  This figure, however, is for all LDCs and masks considerable variance in the performance of individual countries.  Five oil exporters as a group, which account for 47 per cent of total LDC exports, experienced a growth rate of 52 per cent, whereas 
manufacturing and commodity exporters experienced growth rates of 19 and 22 per cent, respectively.  
Eight LDCs, all commodity  exporters, experienced negative growth rates.
7  
                                                      
6 More detailed data on the LDC pattern of trade can be found in Section III.9 of the International Trade 
Statistics 2005 , which is available at www.wto.org. 
7 These commodity exporters are:  Malawi, Liberia, Central African Republic, Comoros, Samoa, São Tomé 
and Principe, Kiribati and Tuvalu.     WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
 Page 5 
 
 
  Chart 1:  Growth in the value of  LDC merchandise trade, 1990-2004 
(Indices 1990 = 100) 
70120170220270320
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004LDC Exports
LDC Imports
World Exports
 
Source :  WTO. 
12. The diversity of export performance across countries is also important in absolute terms.  Two 
LDCs accounted for 36 per cent of all LDC exports in 2004 - Angola, which is a fuel exporter and 
Bangladesh, which is predominantly a clothing exporter.   Their performance, due to their size, determines, 
to a significant degree, the overall performance of the LDCs as a group.   
13. Data on the exports of commercial services orig inating from LDCs is not widely available.  
Table 2 presents data based on estimations for many LDCs.  It shows that in 2003, LDCs account for 0.4 per cent of world trade in commercial services.  Se venty per cent of this value was in the transport and 
travel sectors.  In 1995, these two sectors accoun ted for 62 per cent of total services exports. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 6 
 
 
  Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of le ast-developed countries by selected country 
grouping, 2004 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
 
     Exports    Imports 
  Value    Annual percentage change  Value    Annual percentage change 
 2004   2000-04 2002 2003 2004  2004    2000-04 2002 2003 2004 
                            
Least-developed countries    61825   14 10 16 34   71233   13 5 22 17 
Oil Exporters                               29168   18 17 20 52   16945   22 25 27 19 
Angola                                     13850   15 27 14 46   6500   21 18 46 19 
Equatorial Guinea                    5190   47 21 33 76   1410   33 -29 142 15 
Yemen                                      4150   0 -1 12 11   4190   16 18 26 14 
Sudan                                       3778   20 15 30 49   4075   27 25 18 41 
Chad                                         2200   86 -2 141 393   770   25 142 -38 -24 
Exporters of manufactures           17022   9 5 9 19   23728   7 -6 18 14 
Bangladesh                              8150   6 1 14 17   12026   8 -5 21 15 
Myanmar                                  2850   15 28 -18 15   2220   -2 -18 -11 6 
Cambodia                                 2798   19 28 10 32   3170   13 11 12 22 
Madagascar                              990   5 -48 76 16   1230   5 -37 84 11 
Nepal                                        756   -2 -23 17 14   1870   4 -4 24 7 
Lesotho                                    726   35 33 29 51   1400   15 9 38 26 
Haiti                                         391   5 2 24 13   1306   6 12 5 10 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.           361   2 -10 20 1   506   -1 -18 12 5 
Exporters of commodities            15635   15 7 17 22   30561   14 6 24 19 
Zambia                                     1576   24 -6 2 67   2143   21 -4 24 38 
Senegal                                    1529   14 6 25 15   2710   16 17 18 13 
Mozambique                            1504   43 -6 58 44   1970   14 19 39 12 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of               1413   17 14 19 10   1873   16 35 28 33 
Tanzania                                  1338   19 13 39 10   2490   13 -1 30 14 
Mali                                          1123   19 21 5 22   1320   13 -12 31 16 
Togo                                         771   21 20 44 25   1050   17 7 46 21 
Guinea                                      700   1 -3 -14 15   690   3 11 -4 8 
Benin                                        672   14 20 24 21   865   9 23 10 16 
Ethiopia                                    639   7 5 5 27   3080   25 -8 29 44 
Uganda                                     635   8 4 12 19   1491   -1 -29 14 15 
Burkina Faso                            445   21 10 33 37   1155   17 13 25 25 
Malawi                                     441   4 -9 13 -4   792   10 23 1 13 
Afghanistan                              420   23 150 40 20   2300   43 50 53 0 
Mauritania                                410   3 -8 4 22   400   6 -5 1 11 
Niger                                        370   7 3 22 9   560   9 8 23 14 
Somalia                                    310   13 4 -25 39   610   15 1 14 18 
Liberia                                      235   -8 -4 15 -13   900   8 -2 11 32 
Maldives                                  172   12 20 15 13   645   13 0 20 37 
Bhutan                                      165   13 7 18 24   400   23 3 26 61 
Sierra Leone                             139   81 69 88 51   286   18 45 15 -5 
Central African Republic         120   -7 4 -17 -2   150   6 12 9 15 
Rwanda                                    99   17 -24 -3 57   285   8 -12 4 10 
Solomon Islands                      97   9 23 28 31   100   2 -26 22 22 
Guinea-Bissau                          81   7 -14 28 17   86   10 -6 19 25 
Burundi                                    47   -2 -22 25 24   176   4 -7 21 13 
Djibouti                                    41   7 13 3 11   275   7 1 21 16 
Vanuatu                                    37   9 0 35 37   128   10 -13 18 22 
Eritrea                                      35   -1 174 -33 0   650   8 27 10 10 
Gambia                                    22   10 30 -8 83   200   2 10 25 8 
Cape Verde                              15   8 10 18 15   386   14 18 27 10 
Comoros                                  15   21 33 25 -25   115   13 20 33 -4 
Samoa                                      11   -6 -7 7 -27   168   12 4 1 23 
São Tomé and Principe            6   19 90 33 -10   45   11 9 36 7 
Kiribati                                     2   -16 -29 -22 -20   48   5 5 -7 20 
Tuvalu                                      0   78 736 9 -33   18   38 217 40 16 
Timor Leste ...  ... ... ... ...  ...  ... ... ... ... 
Memorandum item:               
World  a                                       9153000   9 5 16 21   9495000   9 4 16 21 
                            
a  Includes significant re-expor ts or imports for re-export.           
Note:  Data for 2004 are largely estimated.            
Source :  WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
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Table 2:  Exports of commercial services of  least-developed countri es by category, 2003  
(Million dollars and percentage) 
 
 Value  Share in commercial services 
                    
 Commercial  Transport  Travel  Other services 
  services          
 2003  2000 2003  2000 2003  2000 2003 
                      
Total LDCs 7400  20 22  47 50  33 28 
Afghanistan ...  ... ...  ... ...  ... ... 
Angola ...  6 ...  ... ...  94 ... 
Bangladesh 398  32 18  18 14  50 68 
Benin 159  14 ...  61 ...  25 ... 
Bhutan 25  ... ...  ... ...  ... ... 
Burkina Faso 44  13 ...  67 ...  20 ... 
Burundi 2  43 32  37 32  20 36 
Cambodia 518  17 16  72 75  11 9 
Cape Verde 211  44 50  40 40  16 9 
Central African Republic 6  4 ...  51 58  45 ... 
Chad 48  2 3  65 65  33 32 
Comoros ...  13 ...  81 ...  6 ... 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 148  ... ...  ... ...  ... ... 
Djibouti 87  76 78  12 8  12 14 
Equatorial Guinea 24  3 ...  50 80  47 ... 
Eritrea ...  18 ...  64 ...  18 ... 
Ethiopia 588  56 51  15 19  30 30 
Gambia 61  ... ...  76 79  ... ... 
Guinea 55  58 12  7 ...  34 88 
Guinea-Bissau 5  12 15  ... 37  ... 48 
Haiti 116  ... ...  81 80  ... ... 
Kiribati ...  ... ...  ... ...  ... ... 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 110  15 23  85 77  0 0 
Lesotho ...  2 ...  67 ...  31 ... 
Liberia ...  ... ...  ... ...  ... ... 
Madagascar 202  16 29  39 37  45 34 
Malawi 36  26 ...  74 ...  0 ... 
Maldives 429  6 5  93 94  1 2 
Mali 208  36 21  44 62  20 18 
Mauritania ...  1 ...  20 ...  79 ... 
Mozambique 300  30 30  23 33  47 37 
Myanmar 277  17 29  35 21  48 50 
Nepal 302  15 12  38 66  47 22 
Niger 57  ... ...  ... ...  ... ... 
Rwanda 54  34 34  57 56  8 10 
Samoa ...  ... ...  90 ...  ... ... 
São Tomé and Principe ...  2 ...  76 ...  22 ... 
Senegal 489  10 ...  44 ...  47 ... 
Sierra Leone 66  46 5  27 91  27 5 
Solomon Islands 25  2 8  8 6  90 86 
Somalia ...  ... ...  ... ...  ... ... 
Sudan 31  63 29  22 56  15 15 
Tanzania 627  10 12  65 71  25 17 
Timor Leste ...  ... ...  ... ...  ... ... 
Togo 92  23 ...  18 ...  59 ... 
Tuvalu ...  ... ...  ... ...  ... ... 
Uganda 284  15 15  81 65  4 20 
Vanuatu 92  24 24  47 57  28 19 
Yemen 245  12 21  42 57  46 22 
Zambia 165  37 ...  58 ...  5 ... 
M e m o r a n d u m  i t e m :            
World 1804700  23 23  32 29  45 48 
                      
Note:   Data are estimated for most countries. The improvement of the quality of data in recent years may have resulted in changes re lating to the breakdown of exports  
of commercial services by category of services.  See the Technical Notes.        
Source : WTO. 
 
A. MAJOR PRODUCTS  
14. Chart 2 illustrates a distinct shift in the relative importance of different product groups in the total 
exports of LDCs.  In 1995, food was the most important export, representing 21.7 per cent of total exports, 
followed closely by fuels representing 21.5 per cent.  By 2003, food became the fourth largest export 
behind fuel, which accounted for 36 per cent of ex ports.  Clothing became the second most important 
export, representing 19.9 per cent of total exports.  Much of this significant shift is due to changes in oil prices, but at the same time, it also represents a structural shift towards clothing exports. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 8 
 
 
   
Chart 2:  Exports of least-developed countries by major product, 1995 and 2003 
(Percentage) 
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40OthersTextilesOther semi-manufacturesRaw  materialsFoodClothingFuels
1995
2003
 
Source :  WTO. 
 
15. Table 3 provides a more detailed product breakdown of the broad categories in Chart 2.  It shows 
that the clothing exports of LDCs are predominantly knitted and crocheted clothes and that the broad category of food exports is dominated by fish.  The ta ble also provides information on some of the more 
traditional LDC exports that are not captured in the broad categories shown in Chart 2, such as footwear 
and leather products.  One peculiar product in the ta ble is ships, since LDCs are not notable for their 
productive capacity in this area.  A possible explanatio n for the appearance of this product on the list is the 
international sale of used ships that were registered in a particular LDC.  This explanation would be consistent with the observation that the export of transport services accounts for approximately one fifth of 
total LDC commercial serv ices exports (Table 2). 
16. The figure in brackets that is reported beside each product in Table 3 is the Standard Industrial 
Trade Classification (SITC) code for that particular pr oduct.  If the figure contains three digits, it is more 
disaggregated product definition.  For example, clothing in the table has the number 84, but men's and 
boys' clothing has the number 841.  Chart 3 uses this coding system to examine the export concentration of 
individual LDCs.  It shows that the top three products , measured at the SITC three-digit level account for 
more than 50 per cent of the total exports of almost all the LDCs.  For some LDCs, the figure is 100 per cent.   
17. The data in Chart 3 also takes into account the possibility that the top three products could be 
variants of the same product.  For example, the top three exports of Cambodia account for 72.1 per cent of 
its total exports.  A closer examination of the data show s that these three products are essentially similar in 
terms of their production characteristics:  women's and girls' clothing (843), men's and boys' clothing (844), and other textile apparel not elsewhere specified (845).  Therefore, not only has Cambodia a high 
concentration factor for its exports, its  export structure is not diversified.  Countries that have at least two 
of their top three exports in the same two-digit product category, such as Cambodia, are identified in Chart 3 with a lighter bar.    WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
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Table 3:  Leading merchandise exports of least-developed countries in 2003a 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
 LDCs Exports  WORLD 
  Share in  Exports to    Share in 
Product description (SITC Rev. 3)  Total  Developed Developing   Total 
  Value Exports   Economies   Value World 
All Commodities (0 to 9) 55823 100  35586 18873  8777693 1 
Petroleum, Petroleum Product (33) 23924 43  10870 12508  798501 3 
Petroleum Oils, Crude (333) 23233 42  10488 12205  554542 4 
Petroleum Products (334) 682 1  382 294  225907 0 
Clothing And Accessories (84) 12892 23  12588 281  264081 5 
Other Textile Apparel, Nes (845) 5498 10  5375 118  90202 6 
Men's, Boys' Clothing, X-Knit (841) 3025 5  2950 64  46338 7 
Women's, Girl's Clothing, X-Knit (842) 2557 5  2510 42  61197 4 
Women's, Girl's Clothing, Knit (844) 893 2  866 26  22064 4 
Men's, Boys' Clothing, Knit (843) 705 1  680 24  11496 6 
Fish, Crustaceans, Mollusc (03) 2216 4  1837 335  68182 3 
Crustaceans, Molluscs Etc (036) 1231 2  1096 130  20782 6 
Fish Fresh, Chilled, Frozen (034) 754 1  571 146  31510 2 
Non-Ferrous Metals (68) 2142 4  1496 496  166582 1 
Aluminium (684) 1095 2  1087 8  66971 2 
Copper (682) 600 1  32 425  48072 1 
Metalliferous Ore, Scrap (28) 1757 3  1001 480  114809 2 
Aluminium Ore, Concentrates Etc. (285) 605 1  409 6  9044 7 
Iron Ore, Concentrates (281) 432 1  337 95  29140 1 
Ore, Concentrates Base Metals (287) 339 1  161 177  12785 3 
Ship, Boat, Floating Structures (793) (b) 1488 3  1361 99  31247 5 
Textile Fibres (26) 1294 2  220 1050  28044 5 
Cotton (263) 1198 2  192 985  10954 11 
Non-Metal. Mineral Manufactures (66) 1149 2  1029 119  165758 1 
Pearls, Precious Stones (667) 1080 2  990 90  72554 1 
Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, Spices (07) 1068 2  892 169  37696 3 
Coffee, Coffee Substitute (071) 542 1  514 24  11880 5 
Spices (075) 329 1  247 81  2904 11 
Cork And Wood (24) 976 2  226 716  51255 2 
Wood Rough, Rough Squared (247) 775 1  122 621  12032 6 
Textile Yarn Fabric, Etc. (65) 876 2  669 199  175216 1 
Textile Articles Nes (658) 382 1  338 43  25897 1 
Vegetables and Fruit (05) 869 2  281 579  107106 1 
Vegetables (054) 438 1  133 301  30321 1 
Fruit, Nuts Excl. Oil Nuts (057) 408 1  130 273  45433 1 
Tobacco, Tobacco Manufactures (12) 568 1  372 150  24117 2 
Tobacco, Unmanufactured (121) 531 1  372 113  7118 7 
Oil Seed, Oleaginous Fruit (22) 387 1  192 164  25963 1 
Footwear (85) 352 1  339 11  64212 1 
Inorganic Chemicals (52) 331 1  138 193  53094 1 
Leather (611) 304 1  132 144  18755 2 
Crude Vegetable  Materials, Nes (292) 264 0  211 50  21711 1 
         
Total of above c 52858 95  33857 17745  2216332 2 
                  
a  Data shown are imports from LDCs by 124 countries and economies reporting their trade to the UNSD Comtrade Database. 
b  Data refer to imports flag of convenience by re porting countries and economies from Liberia.    
c  Since this is the total of the reported data , it does not match the total figure in Table 1.  
Source:  UNSD Comtrade Database.         WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 10 
 
 
  Chart 3:  Share of top three exports in total merc handise exports for LDCs, latest available year 
(Percentage) 
 
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Nepal Senegal Uganda Somalia Tanzania Togo Afganhistan  Djibouti Bhutan Madagascar  Mozambique  Lao, P.D.R.  Myanmar  Zambia Ethiopia Bangladesh  Cambodia  Eritrea Burkina Faso  Haiti Benin Lesotho Rwanda Maldives D.R. Congo  Malawai Niger Guinea Bissau  Vanuatu Liberia Sudan Burundi C. African Republic  Samoa Guinea Chad Mali Yemen Mauritania  Kiribati Sierra Leone  Eq. Guinea  Angola Comoros Gambia São Tomé Principe  Tuvalu Solomon Islands  
 
Source:   WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
 Page 11 
 
 
  B. MAJOR MARKETS  
18. In terms of specific country markets, Table 4 shows that the European Communities and the 
United States continue to be the most important destinations for LDC exports.  Although the EC's share of 
total LDC exports declined in 2004 to 29.2 per cent from 39.6 per cent in 1995, it is still the most important market.  The share of LDC exports to the US has fluctuated over the ten-year period reported in Table 4, but is still, approximately, one fifth of tota l exports.  China is the third most important market and 
after that the top ten markets have approximately the sa me share.  These markets are:  Thailand;  Japan;  
India;  Republic of Korea;  the Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei);  Canada and Singapore.   
Table 4:  Top 10 markets fo r LDC exports, 1995-2004  
(percentage) 
 
Rank   1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
*
1 EU 15 39.6 36.9 34.9 37.3 34.6 31.1 33.4 32.8 30.6 29.2
2 USA 20.5 21.5 22.8 23.5 24.7 26.4 25.6 23.8 24.8 22.7
3 China 3.5 4.2 6.1 3.5 4.9 10.7 7.7 8.7 13.5 17.8
4 Thailand 3.9 3.5 3.8 3.1 3.8 3.7 4.9 4.9 5.1 5.0
5 Japan 6.5 6.4 4.7 4.0 3.6 3.3 2.9 4.0 3.4 4.2
6 India 2.7 2.6 2.7 3.0 4.1 2.5 3.4 3.3 3.1 2.9
7 Chinese Taipei 1.7 2.4 1.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.9
8 Korea, Rep. of 2.8 2.5 3.8 2.0 4.8 4.9 2.6 2.5 1.9 1.8
9 Canada 0.9 1.2 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.7 1.5
10 Singapore 2.8 2.2 1.5 2.7 2.0 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.1 1.2
*  Preliminary estimates. 
Source : WTO. 
 
19. Table 4 indicates that, broadly, the three most important regions for LDC exports are Asia, North 
America and Western Europe.  Table 5 provides a breakdown of LDC exports to each of these regions by three broad product categories.  It shows that We stern Europe primarily im ports agricultural and 
manufactures, whereas exports to Asia and North Ameri ca are dominated by fuels (broadly mining).  Only 
5 per cent of exports to North America are agricultural products.   
20. Despite the dominance of the EC and the US as markets, the importance of developing countries 
as markets for LDC products should not be underestimated.  When export data for individual LDCs are examined, the point can be further emphasized, as illustrated in Chart 4.  It shows that 15 LDCs from 
different regions export more than 50 per cent of their products to developing countries. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 12 
 
 
   
Table 5:  Imports of agricultural products , fuels and manufactures of the EC, Asia and 
North America from least- developed countries, 2003 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
 
   Annual     Annual     Annual 
   percentage     percentage     percentage 
 Value  change   Value  change   Value  change 
                          
 2004  2003         2004  2003  2002     2003  2004        2003 2004  b 
                                  
 European Union (25)    Asia  a   North America 
A. Agricultural products                
Total LDCs 3176  13 3  Total LDCs 3023  -13 37  Total LDCs 705  22 8 
Madagascar 376  28 0  Myanmar 925  -13 23  Bangladesh 191  -3 107 
Senegal 313  4 -7  Tanzania 206  -8 41  Madagascar 156  53 -20 
Tanzania 295  13 4  Benin 164  2 118  Liberia 95  30 58 
Uganda 287  13 9  Solomon  
Islands 113  8 48  Cambodia 47  -6 1946 
Bangladesh 233  22 -5  Mali 110  -33 182  Ethiopia 43  20 24 
Malawi 194  16 -14  Lao People's  
Dem. Rep. 104  -80 466  Malawi 36  -8 -43 
Ethiopia 189  21 20  Equatorial  
Guinea 96  -40 67  Uganda 25  141 -37 
Sudan 144  11 23  Mauritania 92  -1 62  Haiti 18  -7 0 
Mozambique 121  15 3  Burkina  
Faso 91  6 163  Comoros 16  -10 237 
Mauritania 115  6 -7  Bangladesh 91  -6 2  Tanzania 14  1 -19 
Congo, Dem.  
Rep. of 83  32 64  Mozambique 90  75 -15  Mozambique 8  -14 31 
Others (39) 826  6 5  Others (39) 942  -14 24  Others (39) 56  19 -53 
B. Fuels and mining products              
Total LDCs 4174  -3 23  Total LDCs 10627  -7 63  Total LDCs 7322  35 21 
Angola 1059  -36 6  Angola 3390  59 46  Angola 4755  37 6 
Mozambique 919  24 65  Yemen 3372  -34 114  Equatorial  
   Guinea 1410  75 20 
Equatorial  
Guinea 854  41 -5  Sudan 2040  11 33  Chad 818  976
50 4082 
Mauritania 306  2 30  Myanmar 780  -93 135
7  Congo, Dem.  
   Rep. of 107  -19 -25 
Guinea 295  -13 18  Equatorial  
Guinea 369  -11 -7  Guinea 81  6 -14 
Congo, Dem.  
Rep. of 225  47 -5  Zambia 243  -32 53  Yemen 60  -74 -8 
Tanzania 105  18 838  Rwanda 79  199 4  Zambia 28  102 178 
Zambia 101  64 79  Tanzania 71  124 -6  Guinea- 
   Bissau 28  ... 1271 
Others (42) 311  10 123  Others (42) 283  8 -11  Others (42) 35  862 -39 
C. Manufactures                
Total LDCs 9232  16 16  Total LDCs 1381  -11 19  Total LDCs 6077  12 8 
Bangladesh 5064  35 30  Bangladesh 435  -6 26  Bangladesh 2649  4 10 
Cambodia 736  16 31  Nepal 209  3 9  Cambodia 1651  21 18 
Liberia 718  143 -33  Myanmar 186  -8 61  Lesotho 502  23 18 
Congo, Dem.  
   Rep. of 503  -46 -5  Cambodia 164  18 -8  Haiti 374  35 13 
Myanmar 497  4 34  Senegal 138  34 -11  Madagascar 357  114 64 
Madagascar 247  7 32  Tanzania 40  -19 127  Nepal 165  12 -14 
Lao People's  
   Dem. Rep. 159  3 21  Bhutan 37  15 38  Equatorial  
   Guinea 103  70 -3 
Equatorial  
   Guinea 147  250 -13  Vanuatu 27  290
0 39  Maldives 86  -16 -15 
Angola 145  -47 -48  Zambia 18  46 -15  Angola 33  610 54 
Niger 137  35 64  Lao People's 
   Dem. Rep. 17  -69 456  Malawi 30  106 20 
Sierra Leone 127  55 20  Sudan 15  51 -24  Congo, Dem.  
   Rep. of 22  30 -41 
Sudan 125  1 187  Angola 14  -56 100
07  Tanzania 13  11 6 
Nepal 114  5 18  Congo, Dem.  
   Rep. of 11  190 173
9  Myanmar 13  -22 -96 
Others (37) 1753  170 15  Others (37) 70  -77 8  Others (37) 78  11 24 
                                  
a  Australia;  China;  Hong Kong, China;  India;  Indonesia;  Japan;  Korea Rep. of;  Malaysia;  New Zeala nd;  Philippines;  Si ngapore and Chinese Taipei.    
b  Excludes Mexico.                  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
 Page 13 
 
 
  Chart 4:  Share of developing countries  in merchandise exports of LDCs, 2003 
(Percentage) 
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100CAPE VERDE  TUVALU  LESOTHO  EQ.GUINEA  HAITI DEM.RP.CONGO  CAMBODIA  SIERRA LEONE  SAMOA COMOROS  ANGOLA  BANGLADESH  MADAGASCAR  SAO TOME PRN  NIGER CENT.AFR.REP  KIRIBATI  GUINEA  CHAD MAURITANIA  UGANDA  ETHIOPIA  MALAWI  SENEGAL  TANZANIA  ERITREA  MALDIVES  SUDAN TIMOR-LESTE  MOZAMBIQUE  BURUNDI  AFGHANISTAN  LAO P.DEM.R  NEPAL MALI SOLOMON IS  GAMBIA  GUINEA BISSAU  MYANMAR  BURKINA FASO  LIBERIA  BHUTAN  ZAMBIA  VANUATU  BENIN TOGO RWANDA  YEMEN DJIBOUTI  SOMALIA  
 
 
Source :  UN Comtrade;  IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics and estimates based on partner statistics.  
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 14 
 
 
  21. A number of features beyond the value of exports  differentiate LDC exports to developed and 
developing country markets (Chart 5).  First among these is the concentration of low value-added products 
to developing country markets.  Food, raw materials and oil make up almost 85 per cent of the total.  In 
contrast, these products make up 50 per cent of exports to developed country markets.   
Clothing exports 
to developed country markets, which have a  slig htly higher value-added component to them, than 
primary products, account for almost a third of total exports to developed countries.  A second 
observation is that LDCs export to approximately the sa me absolute value of agricultural products to both 
markets in 2004.8  This implies that agriculture as a share of total exports to developing countries is larger 
than that in developed country markets.   
Chart 5:  Composition of LDC exports to deve loped and developing co untry markets, 2004 
 
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%DevelopingDevelopedFood
Raw Material
Mining (oil)
Iron/Steel
Chemicals
Other semi-manufactures
Machinery and transport
Textiles
Clothing
Other Consumer Goods
nes
 
 
Source: WTO .
                                                      
8 The definition of agricultural products used in the calculation is contained in the Technical Note.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
 Page 15 
 
 
   
IV. TARIFF MEASURES 
22. The overall market access conditions facing produc ts originating from LDCs are determined by a 
combination of tariff and non-tariff measures.  However, like in the last study by th e Secretariat, tariffs are 
the focus of this Note.9  They are simpler to identify and measur e than non-tariff measures.  Consequently, 
the market access landscape that is drawn using only ta riffs will not provide the full picture of all market 
access barriers facing LDC products.  The protectionist role played by various standards imposed by 
countries on products, as well as the pernicious effects of domestic support and export subsidies which can 
affect world prices in such a way as to frustrate LDC exports, should not be discounted.  Unfortunately, not 
only is the protective effect of these barriers difficu lt to measure, it is also difficult to identify precise 
policy initiatives that can be undertaken to discipline such measures.  Focussing efforts on tariffs, while 
not complete liberalization, will at least remove the visible barriers.   
23. Tariffs can be applied on imports in three different ways:  on a most-favoured-nation basis, on a 
reciprocal preferential basis and on  a non-reciprocal basis.  The patt ern of tariff treatment towards LDC 
products by developed country markets is typically a combination of MFN and non-reciprocal treatment.  
Developing country markets, in general, apply MFN treatment to LDC products, although as will be shown 
later, some developing countries do offer reciprocal and non-recipr ocal preferential treatment.   
A. MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPED COUNTRY MARKETS  
24. Developed countries provide preferential market access to products originating from LDCs on a 
non-reciprocal basis through their GSP schemes.  Annex Table 2 presents a non-exhaustive list of 
preferences granted to LDC exports in developed an d developing countries.  The levels of depth and 
coverage of the preferences vary from one scheme to  another.  For instance, Australia and New Zealand 
are the only developed countries that offer a single market access scheme for LDC products that is free of 
tariffs and quotas.  Canada, Japan, Iceland, Norway and Switzerland offer specific schemes for LDCs, but 
their programmes fall short of complete duty-free and quota-free market access.  The EC offers duty-free 
and quota-free market acce ss for all products from LD Cs, except arms, with th ree additional products 
facing different phasing-in periods between 2006 and 2009 for complete elimination of tariffs.10   
25. One issue of interest is how to measure the dist ance between the current status of the tariff 
treatment of LDC exports in developed country markets and comple te duty-free and quota-free treatment.  
Table 6 provides a number of indicators for selected country markets.  The simplest indicator is the 
percentage of imports from LDCs into developed markets that are duty free.  Using data from Table 6, this figure was 82.2 per cent in 2003.  Consequently, one could conclude that nearly 18 per cent of LDC 
exports, or $4.9 billion, could benefit from enhanced tariff treatment.
11  But, as indicated in Table 6, 97 
per cent of this value is  imports into just two markets – Japa n and the US.  Japan provides duty-free 
treatment to 51 per cent of its imports from LDCs and the US to 62 per cent.  Other developed countries offer duty-free access to 100 per cent or at least 95 per cent of products originating from LDCs.   
26. Another indicator would be the number of duty-free tariff lines over the total number of tariff 
lines.  However, this could be slightly misleading.  For example, in terms of value, 38 per cent of LDC exports to the US are dutiable.  Yet, using the line coun t, the US can claim to have almost 82 per cent of its 
total lines duty free.  And, if those lines with posit ive duties but no imports from LDCs are eliminated, this 
figure jumps to 94 per cent.  Hence, all that is remaining is six per cent of the lines.  Similarly, Japan can 
claim to have only 1 per cent of its lines applying a duty to LDC imports, or 86 per cent of its lines duty 
free.  Yet, in value terms, almost 50 per cent of imports are dutiable. 
                                                      
9 NTBs were highlighted in previous notes prepared by the Secretariat in documents 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/28 and WT /COMTD/LDC/W/31.   
10 The phase-in periods are:  January 2006 for banana, July 2009 for sugar, and September 2009 for rice. 
11 This figure is calculated as the total value of dutiable imports.  It also does not take into account the 
utilization rate from preferential access. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 16 
 
 
  27. While a significant share of LDC imports still attr act positive duties in some developed countries, 
it is also important to look at the level of such remaining duties.  For instance, in Japan, out of the $766 
million of imports that are dutiable, $640 million is pe troleum, which attracts a specific duty of 170 yen 
per kilolitre.  Angola, Sudan and Yemen are the only three LDCs that export this product to Japan.   
28. Canada's programme of treatment of LDC pr oducts is another example of how different 
indicators can send different messages.  Canada exem pts 97 out of a total of 8,497 tariff lines from its 
GSP scheme for LDCs, which fall predominantly in their supply managed indus tries of dairy, meat, 
poultry and eggs.  The total level of imports that  is dutiable is only US$9,000, which means that 
duty-free imports from LDC as a ratio of total im ports into Canada round up to 100 per cent.  
However, the 100 per cent figure could be misleadin g as an openness indicator, since the prohibitive 
nature of the existing duties in the 97 lines are not known.   
Table 6:  Tariff treatment of LDC exports in  selected developed country markets, 2003 
 
  Number of Tariff Lines Imports (millions $US) Duty-Free Status 
(per cent) 
     MFN LDC MFN LDC  
Market Sector  
Total Dutiable With 
Imports Dutiable 
with 
Imports Total Total Dutiable Tariff 
Lines  
Imports 
Australia   6,102 0 655 0 84,366 89 0 100 100 
Australia Agri 773 0 73 0 3,975 14 0 100 100 
Australia NonAg 5,329 0 582 0 80,392 135 0 100 100 
Canada   8,497 97 1569 1 234,984 769 0 98.9 100 
Canada Agri 1,372 97 194 1 14,531 36 0 92.9 100 
Canada NonAg 7,125 0 1375 0 220,454 733 0 100 100 
European 
Communities   10,404 67 3517 19 992,010 13,705 120 99.4 99.1 
European 
Communities Agri 2,115 42 505 17 66,248 1,562 120  
98.0  
92.3 
European Communities NonAg 8,289 25 3012 2 925,762 12,143 0  
99.7  
100 
Japan   9,296 1,350 776 89 376,941 1,564 766 85.5 51.0 
Japan Agri 1,858 938 121 31 37,152 177 5 49.5 97.2 
Japan NonAg 7,438 412 655 58 339,789 1,387 760 94.5 45.2 
New Zealand   7,414 59 521 3 18,439 31 0 99.2 100 
New Zealand Agri 1,026 36 51 2 1,543 7 0 96.5 100 
New Zealand NonAg 6,388 23 470 1 16,896 24 0 99.9 100 
Norway   7,165 261 509 2 39,765 81 0 96.4 100 
Norway Agri 1,337 258 55 2 2,724 12 0 80.7 100 
Norway NonAg 5,828 3 454 0 37,041 70 0 99.9 100 
Switzerland   8,477 1,167 818 47 96,177 118 5 86.2 95.7 
Switzerland Agri 2,227 1,156 185 47 6,418 41 5 48.1 87.8 
Switzerland NonAg 6,250 11 633 0 89,759 77 0 99.8 100 
United States   10,496 1,911 1421 581 1,196,833 10,489 3,991 81.8 62.0 
United 
States Agri 1,808 274 183 3 49,988 361 2 84.8 99.4 
 NonAg 8,688 1,637 1238 578 1,146,845 10,128 3,989 81.2 54.5 
Source: WTO . 
 
B. MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRY MARKETS  
29. The growing importance of developing country markets for LDC exports was already mentioned 
in Section IIIB.  While some developing countries provide preferential market access to products 
originating from LDCs, the depth and coverage of th ese preference schemes are often limited.  Annex 
Table 2 also provides information on preferential market access schemes by developing countries for 
LDCs.  These preferences by develo ping countries can generally be classified into three categories:  
(i) non-reciprocal preferential market access schemes;  (ii) preferential market access granted on a bilateral 
or regional basis;  and (iii) the Global System of  Trade Preferences (GSTP).  As for non-reciprocal  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
 Page 17 
 
 
  schemes, for instance, China, Republic of Korea,  Morocco and Turkey grant duty-free access to limited 
numbers of products from LDCs.12  Other developing countries, such as India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, 
South Africa, Thailand, as well as China and Repu blic of Korea, provide preferential access to 
neighbouring LDCs in a bilateral or regional context.13  The GSTP also provides a framework whereby 
developing countries provide greater market access for LDC participants.  In the last (and only) Round of the GSTP negotiations that took place in 1988, 11 developing countries made specific concessions 
exclusively to the LDCs, which were in addition to those concessions made to other developing country 
participants.  When evaluated in terms of market access,  the results of the negotiations can be described as 
modest, and by now obsolete.  A new Round of the GSTP  negotiations, launched at UNCTAD XI in Brazil 
in 2004, is currently underway.  The participants in the GSTP negotiations have committed to providing preferential measures in favour of LDCs.
14   
30. Since preferential access offered by developing countries to LDCs is limited in terms of its 
depth and coverage, the market a ccess conditions facing LDC exports in these markets are determined 
primarily by MFN rates.  One way to identify if a pa rticular tariff structure is biased against a certain 
group of exporters is to calculate a weighted tariff av erage.  Two options are available in this regard.  
The first uses actual imports from LDCs, and th e second uses an import structure based on all LDC 
exports, as if a particular market is importing from all LDCs.  Table 7 illustrates the results from this 
calculation for a number of the leading markets as id entified in Table 4, as well as Brazil, Mexico and 
South Africa to provide a broader regional persp ective.  The four columns in the table are, 
respectively, the simple MFN average, the weight ed MFN average using trade from all partners, the 
weighted MFN average using actual imports fro m LDCs and the weighted MFN average using 
average LDC exports to the world between 2001 and 2003.15  In Table 7, the weighted MFN average 
values for all the listed Members, except Singapore, are below the simple average.  If the weighted 
average value using actual LDC imports is below th e weighted average using all imports, this would 
indicate a tariff structure in favour of LDC exports.  Table 7 shows that this is the case for all the 
developing countries, with the exception of India and Chinese Taipei.  
Table 7:  MFN tariff profile of leading developing country markets, 2003 
 
Trade weighted average  
Member          Simple average All partners LDC partners only  All LDCs  
Brazil 14.6 11.2 2.0 9.9 
China 15.9 14.2 6.5 19.3 
Taipei, Chinese 7.8 3.7 6.3 8.8 
India 31.9 24.5 27.3 20.6 
Indonesia 6.9 4.3 0.6 5.2 
Korea, Rep. of  12.4 8.9 5.1 9.2 
Malaysia 7.3 4.2 2.0 6.6 
Mexico* 17.9 15.6 15.6 20.0 
Singapore 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
South Africa* 5.8 4.5 3.7 2.9 
 
Note: All calculations are at the six-digit level.  *  Reference year 2000.  
Source :  WTO.   
                                                      
12 The Republic of Korea and Morocco have notified their respective schemes under the waiver granted by 
the General Council (WT/L/304) to allow developing country Members to provide preferential tariff treatment to LDC products.    
13 These include both reciprocal and non-reciprocal scheme s.  In reciprocal arrangements, LDCs are usually 
granted with deeper preference margin or greater product coverage vis-à-vis  other participants. 
14 LDC participants in the GSTP negotiations include:  Bangladesh, Benin, Guinea, Mozambique, Myanmar, 
Sudan and Tanzania.  
15 The weight was calculated at the six-digit level of the Harmonized System.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 18 
 
 
   
31. Table 8 presents data for the latest availabl e year on the status of  duty-free imports into 
developing country markets.  Overall, 72.2 per cent of LDC exports enter developing country markets 
duty free.
16  The data also show that, based on 2003 data, 93.3 per cent of China's imports from LDCs 
enter duty free.  This figure, however, is misleading given the importance of oil in China's import basket from LDCs.  If oil imports are deducted, the duty-free figure becomes 48.4 per cent.  In September 2005, 
China announced new market access measures in favour  of LDCs, granting duty -free treatment to certain 
products of their interest.  The estimated impact of these measures is to incr ease the total duty-free figure 
from 93.3 per cent to 95.2 per cent and the non-oil figure rises from 48.4 per cent to 62.3 per cent.   
32. Other markets, which allow a high percentage of duty-free LDC exports include Chinese Taipei 
(96.5 per cent), Malaysia (98.5 per cent), Brazil (80.9 per cent), Indonesia (87 per cent).  
Hong Kong, China and Singapore allow 100 per cent duty free, but that is because their average tariff is 
zero in any case.  Among the top ten developing countr y destinations, India and Republic of Korea only 
allow a small portion of LDC exports, 3.8 per cent and 2.7 per
 cent, respectively, entering duty free to their 
markets.   
C. SUMMARY  
33. A broad picture of the market access scenario f acing LDCs can be constructed by combining the 
information that was just presented on tariff measures in developing and developed country markets with the information on LDC trade that was presented in S ection III.  The key figures, in the context of the 
value of trade, are the estimates of the proportion of duty-free impor ts originating from LDCs to total 
imports from LDCs.  For developed countries, this figure is 82.2 per cent (Table 6) and for developing countries the figure is 72.2 per cent (Table 8).  From Section III, we  know that total LD C exports in 2004 
was $61.8 billion, of which approximately 32 per cent is imported into developing country markets.  
Accordingly, in 2004 total developed country imports of LDC products are estimated to be $41,423 million 
and developing country imports $2 0,402 million.  Applying  the duty-free and quota-free percentages to 
these figures yields the following result – total dutia ble exports of LDCs in 2 004 are estimated to be 
21.3 per cent or $13,169 million.
17  Developed countries account for 56.6 pe r cent of this total, or a total of 
$7,456 million.  Total dutiable exports to developing country markets is $5,713 million. 
                                                      
16 Note that this figure is calculated across different years.  It is not calculated for a single year.   
17 Calculated as the sum of ($41,423 million *0.18) and ($20,402 million *0.28).   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
 Page 19 
 
 
  Table 8:  Dutiable imports into  selected developing country ma rkets, latest available year 
Name Year Dutiable Duty Free Duty free 
(per cent) Total imports 
(thousands) Share of imports by 
market 
TOTAL Available   3,473,233 9,039,618 72.2 12,512,851 100.0 
China 2003 417,682 5,850,508 93.3 6,268,190 50.1 
India 2001 1,273,956 49,962 3.8 1,323,918 10.6 
Korea, Rep. of 2003 876,225 24,597 2.7 900,822 7.2 
Chinese Taipei 2002 30,158 841,483 96.5 871,641 7.0 
Singapore 2001 12 736,851 100.0 736,863 5.9 
Malaysia 2001 6,517 437,371 98.5 443,888 3.5 
Brazil 2001 55,789 236,931 80.9 292,720 2.3 
Hong Kong, China 2003  275,920 100.0 275,920 2.2 
Indonesia 2001 34,267 229,787 87.0 264,054 2.1 
Zimbabwe 2002 119,118 79,518 40.0 198,635 1.6 
Pakistan 2003 140,899  0.0 140,899 1.1 
Mexico 2001 80,478 37,639 31.9 118,117 0.9 
Philippines 2003 90,171 12,295 12.0 102,466 0.8 
Turkey 2002 34,172 63,921 65.2 98,093 0.8 
Chile 2003 65,942  0.0 65,942 0.5 
Mauritius 2002 15,069 35,425 70.2 50,493 0.4 
Ghana 2002 45,526 1,391 3.0 46,917 0.4 
Sri Lanka 2001 36,238 2,975 7.6 39,213 0.3 
Uruguay 2001 2,400 34,062 93.4 36,462 0.3 
Israel 2003 14,375 18,467 56.2 32,842 0.3 
Colombia 2002 1,376 22,141 94.1 23,517 0.2 
Jordan 2003 11,096 10,230 48.0 21,327 0.2 
Senegal 2001 18,928 15 0.1 18,943 0.2 
Rwanda 2002 15,493 1,958 11.2 17,452 0.1 
Tanzania 2003 5,639 10,084 64.1 15,722 0.1 
Togo 2002 14,531 491 3.3 15,022 0.1 
Croatia 2003 12,788 1,806 12.4 14,594 0.1 
Papua New Guinea 2003 1,059 12,295 92.1 13,354 0.1 
Oman 2001 5,168 7,714 59.9 12,882 0.1 
Argentina 2001 7,128  0.0 7,128 0.1 
Peru 2003 6,302  0.0 6,302 0.1 
Gabon 2001 5,645 4 0.1 5,649 0.0 
Costa Rica 2003 5,628  0.0 5,628 0.0 
Dominican Republic 2002 5,323 180 3.3 5,502 0.0 
Mauritania 2001 4,089 1,152 22.0 5,241 0.0 
Venezuela 2001 4,630 4 0.1 4,634 0.0 
Bulgaria 2001 2,339 539 18.7 2,878 0.0 
Ecuador 2001 2,732 61 2.2 2,792 0.0 
Trinidad and Tobago 2003 709 673 48.7 1,382 0.0 
Cuba 2001 1,149 15 1.3 1,164 0.0 
Guatemala 2001 425 657 60.7 1,081 0.0 
El Salvador 2003 873 14 1.5 887 0.0 
Barbados 2003 459  0.0 459 0.0 
Paraguay 2002 361  0.0 361 0.0 
St. Lucia 2001 40 148 78.8 188 0.0 
Nicaragua 2001 92 83 47.5 175 0.0 
Macao, China 2003  158 100.0 158 0.0 
Dominica 2001 71 50 41.4 122 0.0 
Jamaica 2001 48 45 48.4 93 0.0 
Honduras 2002 90  0.0 90 0.0 
Maldives 2002 16  0.0 16 0.0 
Panama 2002 14  0.0 14 0.0 
Source :  WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 Page 20 
 
 
   
V. RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS 
34. Annex Table 2 provides a non-exhaustive list of preferential  market access initiatives granted by 
developed and developing countries to products originating from LDCs.  Since the last study by the 
Secretariat, no new notification has been submitted by WTO Members to improve market access for products originating from LDCs.  However, there are several developments in 2005 that would have an 
impact on the market access conditions for LDC exports.  First, as already mentioned in an earlier section, 
China, the largest developing country destination for LDC exports, announced in September 2005 to grant 
duty-free treatment to certain products from 39 LDCs.  Second, WTO Members at the Sixth Ministerial 
Conference held in Hong Kong, China in December 2005 reached a decision to provide duty-free and 
quota-free market access for products originating from LDCs.   
35. The Decision reached in Hong Kong, as containe d in Annex F of the Mi nisterial Declaration, 
states that "developed-country Memb ers shall, and developing-country Members declaring themselves in a 
position to do so should:  (a)(i) Provide duty-free and quota-free market access on a lasting basis, for all products originating from all LDCs by 2008 or no later than the start of the implementation period in a manner that ensures stability, security and predictability ".  It further states that  "(a)(ii) Members facing 
difficulties at this time to provide market access as set out above shall pr ovide duty-free and quota-free 
market access for at least 97 per cent of products originating from LDCs, defined at the tariff line level, by 2008 or no later than the start of the implementation period.  In addition, these Members shall take steps to progressively achieve compliance with the obligations set out above, taking into account the impact on other developing countries at similar levels of devel opment, and, as appropriate, by incrementally building 
on the initial list of covered products".
18  Furthermore, "Developing-country Members shall be permitted 
to phase in their commitments and shall enjoy appropriate flexibility in coverage."  WTO Members also agreed to ensure that "preferential rules of origin applicable to imports from LDCs are transparent and simple, and contribute to facilitating market access". 
36. The Ministerial Decision also sets out the notif ication procedure for the implementation of the 
schemes that are adopted under this  decision.  Those schemes are to be notified every year to the 
Committee on Trade and Develo pment, which will annually review the steps taken to provide duty-free 
and quota-free market access to the LDCs and report to the General Co uncil for appropriate action.   
 
                                                      
18 The Ministerial Conference took note of the unde rstanding that the text concerning the duty-free 
quota-free decision in sub-paragraph a(ii) of Annex F is a framework, and that developed Members and developing 
Members declaring themselves in a position to do so are urged to set out, by the end of 2006, the means by which they will implement this decision.    WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
 TN/MA/S/19 
 Page 21 
 
 
   
Annex Table 1:  Availability of tariff and trad e data in WTO IDB and UN Comtrade Databases 
 
Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 
Afghanistan*           
Angola         Z Z 
Bangladesh X X XY XZ X X X X X  
Benin   X X X X X Z   
Bhutan*   X X       
Burkina Faso X X X X X X X Y   
Burundi X X X X X X XY Y X  
Cambodia     X X X X X  
Cape Verde*  X X X X X     
Central African Republic  X X X X X X X   
C h a d            
Comoros* X X X X X      
D. R. of Congo           
D j i b o u t i    Z  Z        
E q u a t o r i a l  G u i n e a *            
E r i t r e a *         X    
Ethiopia*  X X X X X X X   
Gambia X X X X X X X XY   
Guinea XY X X X X X X  Z Z 
G u i n e a - B i s s a u            
Haiti X X         
Kiribati* X X X X       
L a o  P . D . R . *            
Lesotho     X X X    
L i b e r i a *            
Madagascar XY XY XY X XY X XY XY XY Z 
Malawi X X X X XZ X X XY X  
Maldives X X X X X X XY X X  
Mali XY XY XY XY X X     
M a u r i t a n i a       Y      
Mozambique X X   X X X    
Myanmar Z Z Z Z Z Z Y Y   
Nepal   X X X  Z XY   
Niger X X X X X X XY X   
Rwanda X X X X XZ X Y Y   
Samoa*      X X X X  
S ã o  T o m é  &  P r i n c i p e *            
S e n e g a l        Y     
S i e r r a  L e o n e          Z   
Solomon Islands   Z        
S o m a l i a *            
S u d a n *            
T i m o r  L e s t e *            
Togo XY XY XY XY XY XY XY X XY  
Tuvalu*  X X X       
Uganda X X X X X XY X X X  
U.A.R. Tanzania X X X X X X X X X  
Vanuatu*     X      
Y e m e n *          X   
Zambia  XY X X X XY XY    
 
X – trade data is available in UN Comtr ade database;  Y – tariff and trade data  available in WTO IDB Database;   
Z - tariff data are available in WTO IDB but no imports;  * - not a WTO Member. 
  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 
Page 22 Annex Table 2:  Measures in favour of exports originating from LDCs19 
Preference granting country 
 Description Beneficiary(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference  Reference 
(latest notification in bold) 
Algeria  
 Global System of Trade Preferences 
(GSTP);
20 
Entry into force:  14 April 1989 LDC Participants of GSTP 
(Bangladesh, Benin, Guinea, Haiti, 
Mozambique, Sudan and Tanzania) In addition to 8 tariff concessions 
available for all GSTP participants, 3 
concessions are exclusively granted to 
LDC participants  L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989) 
 
Argentina GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC Participants of GSTP  In addition to 4 tariff concessions 
available for all GSTP participants, one 
concession is exclusively granted to LDC participants L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989) 
 
Australia 
 Duty- and quota-free entry   
Entry into force:  1 July 2003 LDCs  All products WT/COMTD/N/18 
(21 January 2004) 
 
Bangladesh GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC Participants of GSTP  In addition to 6 tariff concessions 
available for all GSTP participants, one 
concession is exclusively granted to LDC participants L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989) 
 
Belarus GSP  LDCs  50% reduction from the MFN rate is 
granted to all GSP beneficiaries, and duties are exempted for goods originating from LDCs.   
Bulgaria GSP  LDCs Concessions of 70% of the MFN rate 
are granted on 917 tariff (HS 8 digit) for all GSP beneficiaries, duties are exempted for LDCs  WT/TPR/S/121 
WT/GC/M/55 WT/LDC/HL/M/1 (1997) 
Cameroon GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989  LDC Participants of GSTP In addition to one biding concession 
available to all GSTP participants, 2 binding  concessions are exclusively granted to LDC participants L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989) 
 
Canada GSP – preferential  
scheme for LDCs;  duty-free and quota-free access    Entry into force:  January 2003 LDCs  All products except dairy, poultry and 
egg products WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.2 
(11 May 2004) 
China  Bangkok Agreement21  
Entry into force of the accession to the agreement:  1 January 2002 Bangladesh  In addition to 739 tariff  concessions 
(HS 6-digit) available to all Bangkok Agreement members, 18 tariff concessions are exclusively granted to LDC members WT/COMTD/N/19 (29 July 2004) 
 
 Framework Agreement on 
Comprehensive Economic Co-operation between ASEAN and China Cambodia  324 lines (HS 8-digit)   
                                                      
19 This table updates the information contained in the previous re port by the Secretariat, as cont ained in document WT/COMTD/LDC/ W/35.   
20 Participants to the GSTP include: Algeria, Argentina, Banglades h, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Cameroon, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dem ocratic People's Republic of Korea, Ecuador, 
Egypt, Ghana, Guyana, India, Indonesia, Iran, Libya, Malaysia , Mexico, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Nigeria. Pakist an, Peru, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Romania, 
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisi a, Tanzania, Venezuela, Vietnam. Yugoslavia and Zimbabwe.   
21 Members of the Bangkok Agreement are: Bangladesh, Chin a, India, Lao PDR, Republic of Korea and Sri Lanka.  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38
 TN/MA/S/19
 Page 23Preference granting country 
 Description Beneficiary(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference  Reference 
(latest notification in bold) 
  Lao PDR 234 lines  (HS 8-digit)  
  Myanmar  129 lines (HS 8-digit)  
 Duty-free for LDCs, announced by 
President Hu Jintao at the Meeting on Finance for Development of the UN Summit, 14 September 2005    39 LDCs
22 190 tariff (HS 8-digit) which cover 
most of LDCs exports to China  
Korea, Dem. People's Rep. of GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC Participants of GSTP In addition to 7 tariff concessions 
available for all GSTP participants, 9 concessions are exclusively granted to 
LDC participants  L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989)  
European Communities Everything but Arms (EBA) initiative - 
duty and quota-free market access Entry into force:  5 March, 2001   LDCs  All products except bananas, sugar and 
rice which are subject to transition periods between 2006 and 2009   WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2 
(5 October 2001) 
WT/TPR/S/128 
 Cotonou Agreement  
Entry into force:  1 April 2003 79 African, Caribbean and Pacific 
(ACP) countries, 40 of which are LDCs Duty-free treatment is granted on 
industrial, processed agricultural, and fishery products, subject to a safeguard 
clause.  For certain products (bananas, 
beef and veal, and sugar), special market access is governed by commodity protocols WT/TPR/S/136  
Egypt  GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC Participants of GSTP In addition to 20 tariff concessions 
available for all GSTP participants, 4 concessions are exclusively granted to LDC participants  WT/COMTD/W/47& 
Add.1 (1998/1999) 
 
Iceland GSP – duty- and quota-free market 
access  Entry into force:  29 January 2002   LDCs  Essentially all products  with some 
exceptions in agricultural products (HS chapters: 04, 15, 18, 19, 21 and 22) and non-agricultural products (HS sub-headings:  3502 and 3823, and all of HS 16 with the exception of sub-headings 1603 to 1605)    WT/COMTD/N/17.Corr.1 
(20 January 2004)  
India Bangkok Agreement 
Entry into force:  16 June 1976 Bangladesh 
Lao PDR In addition to 188 tariff concessions 
(HS 6-digit;  0-35% lower than the base rate) available to all Bangkok Agreement members, 33 tariff concessions (0-35% lower than the standard rate) are exclusively offered 
to LDC members  L/4418 and Corr.1 
(2 November 1976) 
WT/TPR/S/100 
 
                                                      
22 This number includes 25 African LDCs which received duty-free access to China since January 2005, and additional 14 LDCs which  are newly added to the list of 
beneficiaries.  The African LDCs are: Benin, Burundi, Cape Verd e, Central African Republic, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Con go, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Guinea 
Bissau, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambiq ue, Niger, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda and Zambia.  The newly added beneficiary LDCs 
are: Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Samoa, Somalia, Timor-Leste, Vanuatu  and Yemen.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 
Page 24 Preference granting country 
 Description Beneficiary(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference  Reference 
(latest notification in bold) 
 South Asian Preferential Trade 
Agreement (SAPTA)23  
Entry into force:  7 December 1995 Bangladesh 
Bhutan Maldives Nepal    In addition to 475 tariff concessions 
(HS 6-digit;  generally 10% lower than the standard rate) available to all SAPTA members, 2210 concessions (generally, 50% lower than the standard date) are exclusively granted to LDC members    WT/COMTD/10 
(22 September 1993) 
WT/TPR/S/100 
 GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC participants of GSTP 
 Special tariff concessions of 50% apply 
to specific tariff lines HS 4104.21, 4104.22 and 4104.29, in addition to tariff concessions of 10-50% on 53 tariff lines offered to other GSTP participants.  L/6564 and Add.1 (25 September 
1989) 
WT/TPR/S/100 
 Bilateral agreement Myanmar 
 Standard duty of 5% for rice, pulses 
and beans, Chana, mustard and rapeseed, ground nuts, fresh vegetables 
and fruit, garlic and onions, reed 
brooms, sesame seeds, betel nuts, turmeric, dried ginger, coriander, fried chillies, poppy seeds, and wood in the rough. WT/LDC/HL/M/1  
WT/TPR/S/100  
 Bilateral agreement Nepal 
 In addition to duty exemption on 
mutually agreed primary products on a reciprocal basis, duty-free entry is granted to most of Nepal's industrial products on a non-reciprocal basis.  WT/LDC/HL/M/1  
WT/TPR/S/100 WT/ACC/NPL/16 
Iran GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC participants of GSTP In addition to 8 tariff concessions 
available to all GSTP participants, 4 tariff concessions are exclusively granted to LDC participants L/6564 and Add.1 (25 September 
1989) 
 
Japan GSP – duty- and quota-free market 
access Entry into force:  1 April 2003 LDCs All products with some exceptions in  
agricultural products (HS chapters from 01-04 and 07-24) and non-agricultural products (HS chapters:  03, 16, 25, 27, 29, 35, 42, 43, 44, 50, 64, 72, 75, 76, 90 and 91), accounting for   90% LDC products entering Japan WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.12 (12 May 
2003) 
Kazakhstan GSP LDCs While goods  originating in developing 
countries are subject to a duty rate which is 50% of the tariff rate, goods 
produced in and imported from LDCs 
are free of duty.  
Korea, Rep. of Presidential Decree on Preferential 
Tarriff for LDCs 
Entry into force:  1 January 2000 LDCs Duty-free access is granted on 87 tariff 
items (HS 6-digit).  WT/COMTD/N/12/ 
Rev.1 (28 April 2000)  
WT/TPR/S/137 
                                                      
23 Members of SAPTA are:  Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.    
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38
 TN/MA/S/19
 Page 25Preference granting country 
 Description Beneficiary(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference  Reference 
(latest notification in bold) 
 Bangkok Agreement 
Entry into force:  16 June 1976 Bangladesh 
 In addition to concessions on 223 tariff 
items (HS 6-digit) at 62%-78% of the MFN rate available to all Bangkok Agreement members, special concessions on 19 items at 50-80% of the MFN duty are granted to LDC participant.  L/4418 and Corr.1 
[2 November 1976] 
WT/TPR/S/137 
 
  L a o  P D R  
 In addition to concessions on 223  
tariff items (6-digit) at 62%-78% of the MFN rate available to all Bangkok Agreement members, special concessions are granted exclusively to LDCs on 8 items at 66-69% of the 
MFN rate.  L/4418 and Corr.1 
[2 November 1976] 
WT/TPR/S/137 
 
 GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC participants of the GSTP In addition to 22 tariff concessions 
available to all GSTP participants, 4 
concessions are exclusively granted to 
LDC participants L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989) 
 
Mauritius Market access for LDCs 
Entry into force:  11 September 1998 LDCs 5 tariff lines at the HS 6-digit level, 
comprising certain crustaceans;  
guavas, mangoes, mangosteens; axes 
and billhooks; handsaws and files. WT/COMTD/W/53 
(3 December 1998)  
 
Moldova GSP – duty free LDCs  All products WT/ACC/MOL/37  
Morocco Preferential tariff treatment for LDCs 
Entry into force:  1 January 2001 33 African LDCs  Duty-free access on 61 products (at the 
HS 4 to 10 digit level)  WT/LDC/SWG/IF/18 and G/C/6 
(9 May 2001) 
 
 GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989  
 LDC participants of the GSTP In addition to 12 tariff concessions 
available to all GSTP participants, 6 concessions are exclusively granted to LDC participants L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989) 
 
New Zealand Duty- and quota-free market access 
Entry into force:  1 July 2001 LDCs All products WT/COMTD/27 
(20 November 2000) 
WT/TPR/S/115 
Norway  GSP – Duty-  and quota-free market 
access Entry into force:  1 July 2002 LDCs All products, except  flour, grains, and 
feeding stuffs which are subject to a special safeguard mechanism.  WT/TPR/S/138 
WT/COMTD/N6/Add.2 
(18 January 2001)  
Pakistan Unilateral duty exemptions in excess of 
25% ad valorem  tariff rates Afghanistan 
Nepal  17 product categories, including all 
manufactured articles, manufactured tobacco, silk, motor vehicles and parts thereof, tea, apples, etc., which are 
imported by land only.  WT/TPR/S/95 
 SAPTA  
Entry into force:  7 December 1995 Bangladesh 
Bhutan Maldives 
Nepal In addition to 287 tariff concessions 
(HS 6-digit;  generally 10% lower than the standard rate) available to all 
SAPTA members, 408 concessions 
(15-30% lower than the standard date) are exclusively granted to LDC members    WT/COMTD/10 
(22 September 1992) 
WT/TPR/S/95  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38 
TN/MA/S/19 
Page 26 Preference granting country 
 Description Beneficiary(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference  Reference 
(latest notification in bold) 
 GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989  LDC participants of GSTP In addition to 6 tariff concessions 
available to all GSTP participants, one  concession is exclusively granted to LDC participants L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989) 
 
Romania GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC participants of GSTP In addition to 88 tariff concessions 
available to all GSTP participants, 22 concessions are exclusively granted to LDC participants L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989)  
Singapore   
 Duty-free  LDCs In addition to the almost duty-free 
regime accorded on an MFN basis, 107 items (HS 6 digit) of export interest to LDCs enter duty-free   WT/LDC/HL/M/1 
 
 
South Africa Bilateral agreement  
Entry into force:  1990 Malawi  Duty free for all products, but subject 
to preferential quotas for some products (e.g. tea)  WT/TPR/S/114 
 Bilateral agreement Mozambique Duty-free for fish, shrimp, prawns, 
rock lobsters, cashew nuts, citrus fruit, coconut oil, wooden furniture, cigarettes, tyres and tubes, clothing, 
textiles, and cotton-seed oilcake, but 
subject to annual quota  WT/TPR/S/114 
Sri Lanka SAPTA  
Entry into force:  7 December 1995 Bangladesh 
Bhutan 
Maldives Nepal    In addition to 152 tariff concessions 
(HS 6-digit;  generally 10% lower than 
the standard rate) available to all SAPTA members, 105 concessions (10-50% lower than the standard date) are exclusively granted to LDC members    WT/COMTD/10 
(22 September 1992) 
WT/TPR/S/128 
 Bangkok Agreement 
Entry into force:  16 June 1976 Bangladesh 
Lao PDR In addition to concessional entry to 
288 items (HS 6 and 8 digit levels) available to all Bangkok Agreement members, concessions are granted to Bangladesh on 30 tariff lines, and to the Lao PDR on seed lac and stick lac (HS 1301.10.01) and cotton linters (HS 1404.20) L/4418 and Corr.1 
(2 November 1976) 
WT/TPR/S/128 
Switzerland Duty free for all industrial products 
and reduction of duties on agricultural products  
Entry into force:  1 March 1997  LDCs Agricultural products enter at 55-100% 
reduction on normal rate, and non-agricultural products enter duty-free 
with the exception of HS chapters 35 
and 38  WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.2 
(16 July 2004) 
  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38
 TN/MA/S/19
 Page 27Preference granting country 
 Description Beneficiary(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference  Reference 
(latest notification in bold) 
Sudan GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC participants of GSTP In addition to 29 binding concessions 
available to all GSTP participants, two  concessions are exclusively granted to LDC participants  L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989) 
 
Tajikistan GSP LDCs All products  
Thailand Bilateral agreement 
Entry into force:  20 June 1991 Lao PDR Preferential tariffs are granted on 
specific goods which are decided by 
Thailand L/6949 (29 November 1991) 
Tunisia GSTP  
Entry into force:  19 April 1989 LDC participants of GSTP In addition to 7 tariff concessions 
available to all GSTP participants, one  
concession is exclusively granted to LDC participants L/6564 and Add.1 
(25 September 1989) 
 
Turkey GSP 
Entry into force:  1 January 2002 All LDCs In addition to duty-free entry on 2,174 
items (HS-12 digit), including mainly 
raw materials and semi-finished products, granted to all GSP beneficiaries, LDCs are granted with duty-free on 710 items where preferences of 3.5% reduction from the MFN rate is grated to others.  WT/TPR/S/125 
 
Russia GSP – duty free All LDCs All goods   
United States GSP – duty-free market access 
Entry into force:  30 May 1997 Designated LDCs:  41 LDCs24 in 2005  In addition th e standard approximately 
4,650 duty-free tariff items available for all GSP beneficiaries, additional approximately 1,770 tariff items are available for LDC beneficiaries  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.2 
(8 December 1998) 
WT/TPR/S/126 
 African Growth and Opportunities Act 
(AGOA) Entry into force:  December 2000 To be determined by the President 
every year based on the eligibility criteria;  in 2005, there are 37 Sub-Saharan African Countries (including 25 LDCs
25) beneficiaries  In addition to the standard GSP 
benefits described above, 1,835 tariff items, including textiles and apparel, are duty free   WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3 
(1 March 2001) 
WT/TPR/S/126 
 U.S.-Caribbean Basin Trade 
Partnership Act (CBTPA) Entry into force:  1 October 2000 24 designated beneficiaries (including 
one LDC, i.e. Haiti) in  Central America and the Caribbean  Duty free for most products, including 
textiles and apparels.  WT/TPR/S/126  
 
 
 
__________  
 
 
                                                      
24 Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Bu rundi, Cambodia, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, C omoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, 
Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Biss au, Haiti, Kiribati, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauri tania, Mozambique, Nepal, Niger, Rwanda, Samoa, 
São Tomé and Principe, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzan ia, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Yemen and Zambia. 
25 Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Chad, Democratic Re public of Congo, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau , Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, 
Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Princi pe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Ta nzania, Uganda and Zambia.