WORLD TRADE  
ORGANIZATION   
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
10 October 2011 
 (11-4605) 
Sub-Committee on Least-Developed Countries  
  
 
MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST TO 
LEAST-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 
 
Note by the Secretariat
1 
 
I.  INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. .. 3 
II.  LDC EXPORT PROFILE ........................................................................................................ 4  
A.  TRENDS IN LDC TRADE IN GOODS AND SERVICES  ........................................................................ 4  
B.  LDC PARTICIPATION IN WORLD TRADE IN SERVICES  ................................................................. 13  
1.   Global Trends ................................................................................................................. ......... 13 
2.  Tourism ....................................................................................................................... ............. 14  
C.  TRADE BALANCES  ..................................................................................................................... 16  
1.  Evolution by Product Groups ................................................................................................ 16  
2.  Evolution by Export Specialization ....................................................................................... 17  
III. TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST 
TO LDC S .............................................................................................................................. .... 18 
A.  MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES  ............................................................................ 18  
B.  MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPING ECONOMIES  .......................................................................... 21  
C.  TARIFF TREATMENT OF LDC EX PORTS IN SELECTED MARKETS  ................................................. 22  
IV.  RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS FOR LDC 
PRODUCTS ...................................................................................................................... ...... 30 
V.  CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................... .. 32 
ANNEX ......................................................................................................................... ........................ 34  
 
 
                                                      
1 This document has been prepared under the Secret ariat's own responsibility and without prejudice to 
the positions of Members and to their rights and obligations under the WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 2  
 
  List of Tables  
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods an d commercial services, 2000-2010........ ........... 5 
Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods a nd commercial services, 1980-2010.......... ........... 6 
Table 3: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2011................................................... 8 Table 4: Top 20 LDC merchandise exports by  market share, 2010…….............................. 11 
Table 5: Commercial services exports by  LDCs, 2000-2010.............. ............................ ...... 14 
Table 6: Classification of LDCs according to the importance of the tourism sector in their 
balance of payments………………………............................................................ 15 
Table 7: LDCs' merchandise trade balance by  product groups, 2000- 2010.......................... 17 
Table 8: LDCs' coverage of imports by exports, 2000-2010……………............................ 17 
Table 9: Trends in tariff treatment on me rchandises imported by developed countries, 
  1996-2009................................................................................................................ 19 Table 10: Tariff treatment on merchandises imported by selected developing countries,   2005 and 2009 ……………………………………………………........................ 21  
Table 11: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in  selected developed markets, 2009.................. 24 
Table 12: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in  selected developing markets, 2009………..... 27 
Table 13: DFQF access in GSP schemes of  developed Members, 2009…………….……… 31 
Table 14: DFQF access for LDC products in  selected developing countries……………….. 31 
  
List of Charts 
Chart 1:  Evolution of LDCs' exports of  goods and commercial services, 2000-2010……... 4 
Chart 2:  Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2010................................................ 7 Chart 3:  Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing  
  economies, 2000-2010............................................................................................ 9 Chart 4:  Composition of LDC merchandise e xports by major products, 2000-2010........... 10 
Chart 5:  Top 20 markets for LDC exports  of goods, 2000-2010......................................... 12 
Chart 6:  Composition of imports from LDCs by  region, 2010 or most recent year............ 13 
Chart 7:  International tourist arrivals in selected LDCs and world exports of travel,  
  Q1 2008-Q1 2011................................................................................................... 16 Chart 8:  Effective preference margin of  LDCs' exports for selected product groups  
  (developed markets), 1996-2009……………………………………………......... 20 
 
List of Boxes  
Box 1:  The utilization of preferen ces, 2009............... ...................... ...................... ............ 22  
 
List of Annex Tables 
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports  and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2010... 34 
Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary co mmodities, 2000-2011................................................ 36 
Annex Table 3: Leading merchandise exports of  LDCs in 2010...................................................... 38 
Annex Table 4: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2000-2010................. 40 
Annex Table 5: Coverage ratios of imports by exports of the LDCs, 200 0-2010............................ 42 
Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non-recipro cal LDC preference schemes undertaken by  
  Members………………..………………………………………………………… 44   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 3 
 
 
  I. INTRODUCTION 
1. This note prepared by the Secretariat responds  to paragraph 7 of the WTO Work Programme 
for Least-Developed Countries (LDCs), which ma ndates an annual review of market access for 
products originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11).  It builds on previous Secretariat studies by 
updating the information on trends in LDC trade and market access conditions, covering goods and, to 
some extent, trade in services.  
2. The note is divided into three main parts, in  addition to this introduction.  Chapter II, on 
export profile, provides a description of the recent trends of LDC trade flows, both in goods and commercial services.  It includes an analysis of LD C exports by main products and market destination 
and includes specific information on trade in services with special emphasis on tourism.  Chapter III is 
devoted to market access conditions facing LDC exports. A concluding section summarizes the 
findings of the note, while a series of annex ta bles provides Members with additional background 
information and references.  The note does not pret end to be comprehensive in covering all aspects 
that condition market access for LDC products.  It should therefore be read in conjunction with 
previous Secretariat notes prepared on this topic, to  gauge the different factors that determine market 
access for LDCs.
 2    
3. A few words of caution are required about the statistical coverage of LDCs, which is 
characterized by its incompleteness and often not the most up to date despite improvements in the 
production of national data and thei r compilation by the Secretariat.  In many cases, the note has had 
to rely on mirror statistics, using imports reporte d by LDC partners, while re maining data gaps have 
had to be imputed.  The disadvantage of using mi rror data is that it does not allow taking into 
consideration intra-trade among the LDCs, as well as trade with non-reporting developing economies.  
This is a serious handicap, especially when South- South trade is becoming one of the most dynamic 
dimensions of international trade.  In addition,  the total figures based on mirror data may differ from 
figures reported by the LDCs.  Consequently, the Secr etariat has made a special effort to use national 
reported figures for total trade, and presents in this  issue some new data relating to market access in 
developing countries (Chapter III).3 
                                                      
2 Since 2005, the following special topics have been covered: (i) textiles and clothing 
(WT/COMTD/LDC/W/37); (ii) non-ta riff measures (NTMs) (WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 and its addenda); 
(iii) LDC trade in services (JOB(07)/32/Rev.1 and JO B(07)/148); (iv) LDC trade in food and agricultural 
products (WT/COMTD/LDC/W/43 and JOB( 08)/49); (v) preference utilization 
(WT/COMTD/LDC/W/41/Rev.1); and (vi) impact of the global financial crisis 
(WT/COMTD/LDC/W/46/Rev.1); and LDCs' trade balances (WT/COMTD/LDC/W/48/Rev.1). 
3 The Secretariat wishes to ackn owledge the collaboration received from the International Trade Centre 
(ITC) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in devising some of these 
new indicators. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 4  
 
  II. LDC EXPORT PROFILE 
A. 
TRENDS IN LDC TRADE IN GOODS AND SERVICES  
4. The global financial crisis abruptly stopped the accelerated growth that LDCs' exports had 
registered since 2003, largely due to the rise in oil and commodity prices, but attributable also to the 
dynamism of the exports of services after 2006 (see Chart 1).  After a drop of 24 per cent in 2009, 
total exports of goods and services rebounded by 26.5 per cent in 2010.  Overall, these exports grew at 
an average annual rate of 16 per cent over the 2000-2010 period (Table 1).  
Chart 1:  Evolution of LDCs' exports of  goods and commercia l services, 2000-2010 
(Index, 2000=100) 
0100200300400500600700800900
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010Commercial services Other goods Fuels and Mining
 
 
Source :  WTO Secretariat. 
5. Despite the robust recovery, the total exports of LDCs in 2010 remained below the value of 
its pre-crisis level, due to the prices of fuels and minerals which were still significantly below the high 
prices registered in 2008.  In contrast, the upwar d trend in the exports of other goods (principally, 
agriculture and manufacture) and of commercial services was only slightly dented by the crisis, and the export values recorded in 2010 were the highest recorded over a long period.   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 5 
 
 
  Table 1:  Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2000-2010 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 
Values Annual rate of growth 
2000 2010a 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010a 2000-
2010a 
Total goods and commercial 
services 42.0 182.9 3.9 7.9 14.8 29.0 31.0 23.4 29.7 30.3 -24.1 26.5 15.9 
Total goods 35.9 164.0 4.1 8.0 16.2 29.9 34.2 24.1 29.9 31.0 -26.2 28.7 16.4 
Fuels and Mining 14.7 101.6 -2.5 16.5 20.3 52.2 59.7 29.5 31.9 40.8 -34.1 31.6 21.4 
Other goods 21.3 62.4 8.6 2.7 13.4 13.4 8.8 16.2 26.6 14.3 -9.8 24.2 11.4 
Commercial 
services 6.1 18.9 2.7 7.3 6.3 23.1 8.3 16.9 28.1 24.0 -2.6 10.1 12.0 
 a Preliminary estimate. 
Source:   WTO Secretariat . 
6. LDCs remain heavily dependent on the export of a few products where they enjoy some 
degree of comparative advantage (primary commoditi es as far as trade in goods is concerned, and 
tourism for services exporters).  Even when LDCs were able to diversify into manufacturing, the 
range of exported products was usually  limited to a few labour-intensive industries, mostly clothing.  
On average, almost three quarters of total me rchandise exports depended onl y on three main products 
(composition varies from LDC to LDC).  For instan ce, in 2009, nine LDCs derived between 95 and 
100 per cent of their total export receipts from only three products, showing their dependence on very 
few goods (usually oil and minerals) whose interna tional prices tend to fluctuate considerably.  A 
number of LDCs rely heavily on services' exports fo r a sizeable share of their total export receipts 
(tourism receipts, in particular, represent the main  source of export revenues for small islands).  
7. Between 2000 and 2010, the share of LDCs in wo rld trade (exports plus imports) increased, 
from 0.6 per cent to 1.1 per cent, a positive development in a period marked by a favourable orientation for total international trade, which increas ed at an average annual growth rate of 9 per cent 
during the decade (see Table 2).  LDCs' share in wo rld trade in goods stood at 1.12 per cent, while 
their share of world services trade d eclined slightly to 1.04 per cent.  
8. Exports of goods did relatively better than im ports, contrary to what happened during the 
crisis, and LDC exports of goods returned to their pr e-crisis share of 1.08 per cent of world exports in 
2010, while the share of services' exports remained c onstant at 0.51 per cent.  The weight of LDCs in 
world imports retreated relative to the high level they  had registered in 2009.  However, imports still 
outpaced exports in the LDCs in 2009 and 2010.  As  a result, the group continued recording a large 
trade deficit in 2010, albeit somewhat lesser th an the high level registered during the crisis.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 6  
 
  Table 2:  LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 1980-2010 
(billion dollars and percentage)   
 
Value Annual 
percentage 
change 
1980 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2000-2010 
Total trade in goods and commercial servicesa 
   World 2,314 4,209 6,226 7,865 12, 785 14,681 17,078 19,622 15,582 18,569 9.0 
   LDC 49 57 74 95 202 240 308 403 344 409 15.8 
Share in world 1.05 0.68 0.59 0.60 0.79 0.82 0.90 1. 03 1.11 1.10 ... 
Total trade in goodsa 
   World 1,929 3,408 5,047 6,395 10, 353 11,941 13,802 15,909 12,301 14,986 8.9 
   LDC 39 45 57 75 166 199 253 330 276 334 16.0 
Share in world 1.01 0.66 0.56 0.59 0.80 0.83 0.92 1. 04 1.12 1.12 ... 
Total trade in commercial servicesa 
   World 385 801 1,179 1,470 2,431  2,741 3,276 3,712 3,280 3,583 9.3 
   LDC 10 12 17 19 36 41 55 73 69 74 14.5 
Share in world 1.26 0.76 0.71 0.65 0.74 0.75 0.83 0. 98 1.05 1.04 ... 
Goods exports 
   World 1,940 3,434 5,106 6,395 10, 373 11,996 13,895 15,974 12,407 15,128 9.0 
   LDC 16 20 25 36 82 102 132 173 127 164 16.4 
Share in world 0.82 0.57 0.48 0.56 0.79 0.85 0.95 1. 08 1.03 1.08 ... 
Commercial services exports 
   World 367 781 1175 1,483 2,496 2,831 3,408 3,842 3,386 3,692 9.6 
   LDC 2 3 5 6 9 11 14 18 17 19 12.0 
Share in world 0.68 0.42 0.45 0.41 0.38 0.39 0.42 0. 46 0.51 0.51 ... 
Goods imports 
   World 1,917 3,383 4,989 6,395 10, 334 11,885 13,708 15,845 12,196 14,845 8.8 
   LDC 23 25 32 40 84 97 121 157 148 170 15.7 
Share in world 1.21 0.75 0.65 0.62 0.81 0.82 0.88 0. 99 1.21 1.15 ... 
Commercial services imports 
   World 403 820 1,182 1,457 2,367  2,650 3,145 3,582 3,175 3,474 9.1 
   LDC 7 9 11 13 26 30 40 55 51 55 15.6 
Share in world 1.79 1.09 0.97 0.90 1.11 1.14 1.29 1. 54 1.62 1.60 ... 
 a World total trade is calculat ed as the average of world exports and im ports.  Total LDC trade in this table is 
approximated as the sum of their exports and imports.  This measure thus inflates the data  by double counting trade among 
LDCs, which could not be removed owing to the absence of data broken down by origin  and destination.  "Intra-LDC trade" 
is however not so large so as to affect the analytical value of  the data. Total trade shares are calculated in relation to the 
corresponding world exports plus imports. 
Source :  WTO Secretariat. 
(a) Trends in LDC Exports 
9. Both the trends and the composition of LDC exports are strongly influenced by the 
developments in international prices for commoditie s.  The demand for commodities, especially from 
emerging countries, witnessed a phenomenal growth over the past few years.  As a result, emerging 
countries offered new markets of destinations for LDC products.  Chart 2 presents the evolution of 
prices over the 2000-2010 period.4  
10. The most dynamic group of products is constituted by energy (principally oil and coal) and 
minerals.  The price of these commodities experien ced a rapid growth since 2003, and peaked in 2007 
(minerals) and 2008 (energy), before dropping abruptly during the crisis.  The price of minerals 
                                                      
4 Prices are normalized at 100 in year 2000 in order to facilitate comparisons.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 7 
 
 
  rebounded vigorously in 2010, surpassing its pre-crisis peak, while the recovery of oil prices, albeit 
higher than 2007, remained modest relative to the peak recorded in 2008. 
11. The international prices for food products and be verages started to accelerate in 2006.  While 
prices of this product group declined during the cris is, the drop was less accen tuated than for oil and 
minerals.  At the worst of the crisis, food prices were  still higher than in 2007;  similarly, the recovery 
after the crisis was moderate and, in 2010, prices of  food and beverages were slightly lower than their 
pre-crisis peak.  
Chart 2:  Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2010 
(Indices, 2000=100) 
050100150200250300350400
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010Food and beverages
Agricultural raw materials
Minerals and non-ferrous metals  (excluding crude petroleum)
Energy
Memo item: Manufacture Unit Value 
 Source : WTO Secretariat. 
12. The average prices of non-food agricultura l commodities and the average unit value of 
manufacture share very similar patterns.5  They increased very slowly during the 2000s;  but while the 
price of manufactures was only slightly affected by the crisis, those of raw materials dropped down almost back to their 2000 values, before reboundi ng vigorously in 2010 to surpass the pre-crisis 
levels.  
                                                      
5 Unit values, as in the case of manufacture, are influe nced by the evolution of both the prices and the 
composition of trade flows.  For example, the drop of unit value observed during the crisis could be explained 
either by lower prices and/or by demand switching towards cheaper  options for the same range of products.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 8  
Table 3:  Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2011 
(Annual and quarterly percentage changes) 
 
 
2000  2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009  2010 2010 Q-o-Q 2011  Annual average  
2000-2010                         Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Food and beverages -0.4  0.4 2.7 5.1 13.2 1.5 10.3 15.1 23.3 -13.1  11.8 1.3 1.0 7.2 10.8 11.0 0.2 6.6 
Agricultural raw materials 4.7  -5.0 1.8 3.8 5.4 1.6 8.6 5.0 -0.8 -16.8  32.6 8. 3 6.3 0.6 13.9 15.2 1.0 3.0 
Minerals and non-ferrous metals  
(excluding crude petroleum) 12.1  -9.7 -2.7 12.3 36.2 26.5 55.9 17.5 -7.8 -19.4  48.1 33.1 5.0 -3.7 16.0 10.9 -2.8 13.1 
Total of above 4.5  -4.0 0.8 6. 9 18.6 10.3 23.1 14.1 7.5 -15.7  26. 2 12.2 3.3 2.1 13.1 11.7 -0.7 8.1 
Energy 56.1  -11.6 -0.4 16.7 31.1 38.7 19.2 10.5 40.2 -36.8  25.9 4.1 1.8 -3.2 12.4 16.4 9.8 10.6 
All primary commodities 32.6  -8.9 0.1 13.0 26.6 29.1 20. 6 11.8 27.7 -30.0  26.0 7.1 2.4 -1.2 12.7 14.5 5.7 9.9 
Memo item: Manufacture Unit Value -2.1  -2.9 -1.3 7.5 6. 9 0.0 1.6 4.7 6.7 -5.6  2.5 ... ... ... ... ... ... 1.9 
Note : Period averages calculated from IMF indices  based on dollar prices.  The data for manufacture corresponds to unit values.  Th e quarterly figures are not seasonally adjusted. 
Source :  WTO Secretariat. 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 9 
 
 
  13. The annual average variations in export pr ices shown in Table 3 illustrate the large 
year-to-year fluctuations observed for primar y commodities over the 2000-2010 period.  The table 
also provides disaggregated quarterly price devel opments in percentage change over the previous 
quarter for 2010 and the first semester of 2011.  They indicate that the recovery in prices was particularly strong in the last quarter of 2010, and that it continued in the earlier part of 2011.   
14. Finally, Chart 3 shows that the 2008-2009 crisis affected LDC trade more in terms of prices 
than in quantities.  Trade volumes slowed down, but  kept increasing by nearly 3 per cent in 2009, as a 
result of both stagnating exports a nd growing imports (5.4 per cent).   The combination of stagnating 
exports and rising imports led to  a huge trade deficit in 2009.
6    
Chart 3:  Development in merchandise trade vol ume of LDCs and developing economies, 2000-2010 
(Indices, 2000=100) 
 
50100150200250
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
LDCs exports LDCs imports LDC trade other developing economies' trade
 
Source :  WTO Secretariat.  LDCs' data have been co mputed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD. 
(b) Major Products 
15. Chart 4 shows clearly that the dominance of ex tractive activities, already evident in 2000, 
gained in strength during the decade, with fuels a nd minerals representing nearly 60 per cent of all 
LDC exports in 2010.  Its dynamism, driven prin cipally by better prices and by an increase in 
capacity, dwarfed all other products.  Clothing is  the second category of exports representing about 
12 per cent of all LDCs' merchandise export revenu es.  Over the period, this group increased its 
exports by an annual rate of close to 11 per cent.   Considering the quasi-stability of the prices of 
textile and clothing products over the whole period,  it indicates that almost all progress in exports was 
due to larger exported volumes.  Food, the thir d important category of LDC products, accounted for 
                                                      
6 See WT/COMTD/LDC/W/48/Rev.1, Chapter III, for an analysis of LDCs' trade balance through the 
decade. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 10  
 
  10 per cent of LDCs' total exports in 2010.  Higher  international prices for food products explain in 
part the sustained annual rate of growth  (15 per cent) over the 2000-2010 period. 
Chart 4:  Composition of LDC merchandi se exports by major products, 2000-2010  
(percentage) 
 
10.118.513.2 14.817.415.110.723.5
010203040506070
Textiles Machinery and
transportAgr. raw
materialsProcess
manufacturesOthers Food Clothing Fuels and
minerals2000
2010
 
Note:   Data may include re-exports.  The number over 2010 bar indicates average annual grow th rate for the period 
2000-2010.  In addition to minor differences in composition, data for textiles and clothing here differ from (HS 61 and 62) in 
Table 4 and Annex Table 3, mainly due to compilation methods, which in the case of  Table 4 and Annex Table 3 are strictly 
based on imports of trad ing partners of LDCs. 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
16. The concentration of LDC exports on a few produc t groups is clearly apparent when looking 
at more disaggregated figures (Table 4 and Annex Table 3).  Chapter 27 of the HS nomenclature 
(mineral fuels, mineral oils and derivatives) made up 57 per cent of total exports in 2010.  Its weight 
was even much higher (77 per cent) in 2008, when oil prices reached a peak.  Textiles and clothing 
(HS 61 and 62), the second activity in order of importa nce, represented only 17 per cent of their total 
merchandise exports in 2010.  Copper and articl es of copper (HS74) followed with a share of 
4.3 per cent.  Food and agricultural exports were more diversified.  While clubbed together they 
represented about 15 per cent of total LDCs exports  (see Chart 4 above), the most important product 
within this sub-category (coffee) only represented 1 per cent of total LDCs exports.  As mentioned 
previously, most LDCs are highly dependent on a few products: some are heavily dependent on oil, 
while others rely more on agriculture or manufact ure.  Services also constitute an important export 
activity for a good number of LDCs.  In general,  one could say that country specificities and 
endowment in natural resources often influence the evolution of LDCs' trade performance.   
17. Despite the low rate of participation in worl d trade on the average, for some products the 
LDCs maintain a considerable market share.  This is mainly due to the abso lute advantage that some 
exporters enjoy for rare metals, such as cobalt and derivatives or to the abundance of non-renewable 
natural resources, such as oil.  For other produc ts, as in the case of clothing, some LDC exporters 
have been able to successfully compete in  low-cost segments of the markets.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 11 
 
 
  Table 4:  Top 20 LDC merchandise exports by market share, 2010 
(million dollars and percentage) 
 
HS07 Product Description (HS04) LDC exports World exports 
Value Share 
in Total 
Exports Value LDCs' 
Share in 
Total 
2709 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bitu minous minerals, crude. 62,306 50.9 916,530 6.8 
2711 Petroleum gases and other gaseous hydrocarbons. 4,374 3.6 237,627 1.8 
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, waistcoats and similar articles, 
knitted or crocheted. 4,078 3.3 43,278 9.4 
6109 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, kn itted or crocheted. 3,436 2.8 26,096 13.2 
6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, j ackets, blazers, trousers, bib and 
brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear). 3,293 2.7 30,139 10.9 
7403 Refined copper and copper allo ys, unwrought. 3,102 2.5 5,1674 6.0 
2710 Petroleum oils and oils obtain ed from bituminous minerals, other 
than crude; preparations not el sewhere specified or included, 
containing by weight 70 % or more of petroleum oils or of oils 
obtained from bituminous minerals, these oils  being the basic  2,136 1.7 450,734 0.5 
6204 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, 
divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts 
(other than swimwear). 2,040 1.7 41106 5.0 
7601 Unwrought aluminium. 1,550 1.3 38,188 4.1 
2603 Copper ores and concentrates. 1,389 1.1 32,186 4.3 
6205 Men's or boys' shirts. 1,386 1.1 10,994 12.6 
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, including roas ted iron pyrites. 1,251 1.0 116,618 1.1 
0901 Coffee, whether or not roasted or decaffeinated; coffee husks and 
skins; coffee substitutes containing coffe e in any proportion. 1,180 1.0 20,787 5.7 
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or not stripped of bark or sapwood, or 
roughly squared. 1,056 0.9 11,857 8.9 
6104 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, 
divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts 
(other than swimwear), knitted or  crocheted. 1,046 0.9 14,883 7.0 
2605 Cobalt ores and concentrates. 961 0.8 1,135 84.7 
7102 Diamonds, whether or not worked, but not  mounted or set. 787 0.6 75,468 1.0 
1207 Other oil seeds and oleaginous fruits, wh ether or not broken. 768 0.6 2,230 34.4 
8105 Cobalt mattes and other inte rmediate products of cobalt 
metallurgy; cobalt and articles thereof, in cluding waste and scrap. 714 0.6 2,405 29.7 
0306 Crustaceans, whether in shell or not, live, fresh, chilled, frozen, 
dried, salted or in brine; crusta ceans, in shell, cooked by steaming 
or by boiling in water, whether or not chilled, frozen, dried, salted 
or in brine; flours, meals and pellets of crus 713 0.6 14,280 5.0 
Source : Annex Table 3. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 12  
 
  (c) Geographical Distribution of Exports and Major Markets 
18. The geographical landscape of exports changed dramatically during the first decade of the 
21st century, especially with regard to the top five markets of destination.  Chart 5 shows that China 
moved to the first place, followed by the EU and th e US.  These three economies clearly dominated as 
market destinations for LDC exports in 2010, w ith imports from LDCs ranging from more than 
US$25 billion each by US and the EU to US$43 billion (China).  India's imports from LDCs have 
been increasing rapidly during the period, placing it in the fourth position in 2010 (US$8.5 billion)
7, 
while Thailand stands at the fifth position, mainly  due to large imports of energy products from 
Myanmar.  
Chart 5:  Top 20 markets for LDC exports of goods, 2000-2010  
(billion dollars) 
 
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45PakistanSingaporeChileEgyptMalaysiaRussian FederationMali  bNigeriaBrazilZambiaKorea, Republic ofSouth AfricaJapanCanadaChinese TaipeiThailandIndia  aUSAEU(27)China
2010
2000
 
a 2000-2009 only.  
b 2000-2008 only.  
Source:   WTO, based on UN Comtrade Database. 
19. It is worthwhile to note that Zambia a nd Mali are ranked eleventh and fourteenth, 
respectively, among the top 20 markets for LDC ex ports.  While Zambia mainly imported minerals, 
such as copper and cobalt ores, from the De mocratic Republic of Congo worth around 
US$800 million in 2010, Mali has been importing petr oleum and cement from Senegal which stood at 
US$500 million in 2008.  The existence of these LDCs in  the top market destinations for the LDCs, as 
a group, indicates the importance of intra-LDC trade. 
                                                      
7 2009 figure.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 13 
 
 
  20. The product composition of LDC exports varies widely according to markets of destination.  
Developing economies, with a 51 per cent share (b ased on mirror data), have now become the main 
destination of LDCs' exports.8  The composition of trade to developing economies by product groups 
varies from region to region, and from country to country, depending on the degree of complementarity between LDCs' supply and impor ters' demand and the relative advantages (see 
Annex Table 4).  
21. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS),  the EU and developed Asia have a more 
balanced composition of imports from LDC, betw een agricultural, mining and manufacture products.
9  
LDCs' exports to developing Asia  and South and Central America exhibit a high concentration in 
fuels and mining products, with the remaining impor ts of developing Asia be ing mainly agricultural 
products.  Africa and North America stand in the middle.  North America's imports from LDCs are 
predominantly manufactures.  Although, the level of development of the importing market is not the 
only determinant for the structure of imports from LD Cs, it can be said that the higher the income in 
the importing market, the larger the share of  manufacture goods imported from the LDCs (see 
Chart 6).  
Chart 6:  Composition of imports from LDCs by region, 2010 or most recent year 
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%EU 27North AmericaCISDeveloped AsiaAfricaSouth and Central AmericaDeveloping Asia
Agriculture Fuels and mining Manufactures
 
Source : Annex Table 4.  
B. LDC PARTICIPATION IN WORLD TRADE IN SERVICES   
1.  Global Trends 
22. Although exports increased by 12 per cent annua lly over the 2000-2010 period and imports 
increased by 16 per cent, the participation of LDCs  in international trade in commercial services 
                                                      
8 Considering that some regional transactions, in pa rticular cross-border trad e, are under-reported in 
official statistics, it is possible that this share could even be higher. 
9 A balanced composition is measured by a low variance between product groups. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 14  
 
  remained limited (1 per cent).  The share of LD C exports in services trade was estimated to be 
0.5 per cent in 2010, only marginally improved from the level in 2000 (0.4 per cent).
10  
23. Commercial services exports have sustained high rates of growth during 2007 and 2008 (see 
Table 5).  The rise was particularly strong in the exports of travel (a close indicator of tourism receipts).  The 2008-2009 crisis affected only marg inally LDCs' commercial services exports and the 
drop was limited to less than 3 per cent, before rebounding to 10 per cent in 2010.  Transport services, 
closely related to the evolution of merchandise trad e, were relatively more volatile during the past 
years, falling 8.5 per cent during the crisis before rising by a hefty 18 per cent in 2010.  
Table 5:  Commercial services exports by LDCs, 2000-2010 
Value 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010a 
Commercial services 6,077 6,244 6,700 7,121 8,766 9,496 11,100 14,219 17,627 17,165 18,892 
Transport 1,202 1,245 1,332 1,467 1,696  2,111 2,414 2,816 3,495 3,199 3,777 
Travel 2,853 3,156 3,444 3,711 4,612 5,053 5,824 7,753 9,715 9,593 10,198 
Other commercial 
services 2,021 1,843 1,924 1,943 2,458  2,332 2,861 3,650 4,418 4,372 4,917 
Growth Rate 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010a 
Commercial services ... 2.7 7.3 6. 3 23.1 8.3 16.9 28.1 24.0 -2.6 10.1 
Transport ... 3.5 7.0 10.1 15. 6 24.5 14.4 16.6 24.1 -8.5 18.1 
Travel ... 10.6 9.1 7.7 24.3 9.6 15.3 33.1 25.3 -1.3 6.3 
Other commercial 
services ... -8.8 4.4 1.0 26. 5 -5.2 22.7 27.5 21.0 -1.0 12.5 
Composition 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010a 
Commercial services 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 
Transport 19.8 19.9 19.9 20.6 19. 3 22.2 21.8 19.8 19.8 18.6 20.0 
Travel 47.0 50.5 51.4 52.1 52. 6 53.2 52.5 54.5 55.1 55.9 54.0 
Other commercial 
services 33.3 29.5 28.7 27.3 28. 0 24.6 25.8 25.7 25.1 25.5 26.0 
 a Preliminary estimate. 
Source :  WTO Secretariat.  
 
2. Tourism 
24. Tourism, measured as trade in "travel" services, is the leading sector of LDC services exports, 
representing 54 per cent of commercial services revenues in 2010.11  Based on available data, between 
2000 and 2010, receipts from international tourism in LDCs expanded by more than 14 per cent 
annually, higher than the growth rate observed for other developing economies (10 per cent) and 
double the total world average (7 per cent).  Their market share (1.1 per cent of the respective world 
total in 2010), almost doubled in ten years, and is growing rapidly, indicating the existence of 
comparative advantage in this area of export activity. 
                                                      
10 Trade in services in this note refers only to commercial services. 
11 A recent inter-agency study published by UNDP (Tourism and Poverty Reduction Strategies in the 
Integrated Framework for Least Developed Countries, 2011) sheds light on how LDCs can maximize pro-poor 
gains from tourism. It analyses LDCs' tourism devel opment aspirations as set out in the Diagnostic Trade 
Integration Studies that were completed under the Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical 
Assistance to Least-Developed Co untries, predecessor to the Enhanc ed Integrated Framework (EIF).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 15 
 
 
   
Table 6:  Classification of LDCs according to the importance of the  
tourism sector in their balance of payments (per cent) 
 
LDCs in which tourism 
remained or became the 
largest export sector, 
2000–2008  LDCs in which tourism 
remained or became the 
second or third largest 
export sector, 2000–2008  LDCs with a 
comparatively smaller 
tourism sector, but 
demonstrating progress in 
tourism performance, 
2000–2008LDCs without significant 
tourism up to 2008  
Maldives (76.6)  Sao Tome & Príncipe (34.7)   Sierra Leone (10.4)  Guinea-Bissau (1.1)  
Samoa (69.8)  Haiti (33.5)  Kiribati (6.3)  Burundi (1.0)  
Vanuatu (52.1)  Liberia (25.5)  Lao PDR (5.4)  Solomon Islands (0.7)  
Eritrea (51.4)  Cambodia (19.2)  Niger (5.2)  Angola (0.4)  
Comoros (42.6)  Benin (15.3)  Togo (3.8)  Afghanistan (…)  
Tuvalu (34.8)  Madagascar (12.1)  Ma lawi (3.6)  Central African Republic (…) 
Gambia (32.8)  Mali (11.5)  Lesotho (3.5)  Chad (…)  
Rwanda (30.4)  Ethiopia (10.7)  Zambia (2.8)  Congo (Dem. Rep. of the) 
(…)  
Tanzania (26.0)  Yemen (8.7)  Dji bouti (2.1)  Equatorial Guinea (…)  
Uganda (20.0)  Mozambique (5.9)  Myanmar (0.8)  Guinea (…)  
Nepal (19.6)  Sudan (2.7)  Bangladesh (0.5)  Somalia (…)  
Senegal (18.7)   Bhutan (...)  Timor-Leste (…)  
  Burkina Faso (...)   
  Mauritania (...)   
Note:  Gross tourism earnings in percentage of total exports of goods and services in 2008. 
Sources :  UNCTAD, based on UNCTAD,  IMF and national sources. 
 
25.  Table 6 provides a classification of LDCs ac cording to the role of tourism in their 
balance-of-payment receipts.  As can be observed, in many countri es, tourism is now among the top-3 
export sector in revenue generation (two first columns of Table 6).   Tourism is also labour-intensive, 
which makes it very relevant when it comes to st rengthening the trade-development relationship. 
26. The 2008-2009 crisis did not spare the tourism indus try, but affected it by a lesser degree than 
the other sectors.   The quarterly figures availa ble for selected countries indicate a significant rebound, 
starting in the third quarter of 2009 and continui ng through the first quarter of 2011 (see Chart 7). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 16  
 
  Chart 7:  International tourist arrivals in  selected LDCs and world exports of travel, 
Q1 2008-Q1 2011 
 
-25-20-15-10-5051015202530
Q1
2008Q2
2008Q3
2008Q4
2008Q1
2009Q2
2009Q3
2009Q4
2009Q1
2010Q2
2010Q3
2010Q4
2010Q1
2011Percentage change, year-on-year
Cambodia Maldives World travel exports
Source:  UNWTO and WTO Secretariat estimates. 
 
C. TRADE BALANCES  
1. Evolution by Product Groups  
27. The review of trade balances by product groups  (see Table 7) shows that LDCs as a group 
have a surplus in fuels and minerals, and a defic it in agricultural and manufacture products.  Between 
2006 and 2008, this trend led to an overall positive trade balance.  But, as 2009 confirmed, the 
surplus, based on an increasing reliance on oil expor ts, is vulnerable to international market 
fluctuations.  Additionally, the evolution in the structure of exports and imports by product groups 
shows a rising specialization in extractive commodities, and growing imbalances in manufacture and in agricultural products.  The deficit in the manufac tures trade can be explained by the low level of 
domestic industrialization and the rising domestic demand - driven by both population and income 
growth.  The agricultural coverage ratio, whic h was close to 100 per cent in 2000, dropped to 
60 per cent in latest years.  The deficit in agri cultural products reflects basically the fact that 
household consumption has been rising faster than domestic production.  More recently, increases in 
international food prices have compounded the difficulties for importing countries.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 17 
 
 
  Table 7:  LDCs' merchandise trade balance by product groups, 2000-2010 
(billion dollars) 
 
  2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 
Total merchandise -7.5 -11.4 -10.0 -14.4 -10.8 -5.2 2.3 3.0 6.6 -27.1 -9.4 
Agriculturea -1.0 -1.0 -2.0 -2.0 -3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0 -10.0 -11.0 -12.0 
Fuels 9.0 9.0 11.0 14.0 21.0 36.0 46.0 62.0 88.0 51.0 62.0 
Non-fuel minerals 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 7.0 14.0 
Manufactures -17.0 -18.0 -20.0 -25.0 -31.0 -39.0 -48.0 -59.0 -79.0 -76.0 -89.0 
a Includes forestry and fishery products. 
Note:  Trade balances for the respective product groups are es timated based on WTO networ k of world merchandise 
trade by products and regions and refer to FOB valuation on bot h export and import sides. These estimates do not add up to 
the total merchandise trade balances, which are calculated from official statistics and calculated as FOB-based exports minus 
CIF-based imports. 
Source : WTO Secretariat.  
2. Evolution by Export Specialization 
28.  Table 8 regroups LDCs by their export specializ ation, differentiating fi ve sub-groups, such as 
agricultural or fuel exporters. The last sub-group,  "diversified and others", includes services exporters 
as well as those LDCs which did not have a clear expor t specialization.  The data show the appearance 
of a merchandise trade surplus after 2006, and large deficit in 2009 when exports plunged but imports 
kept on increasing.  The table indicates clearly that this deterioration can be explained by the situation 
of fuel exporters, whose trade surplus was severely a ffected and fell below their 2000 level, in relative 
terms.12  
29. Besides the year-to-year variation, the striking pattern emerging from Table 8 is the persistent 
deficit of LDCs which are agricultural and diversifie d exporters, which barely cover one third of their 
imports of goods through their merchandise exports .  The difference can be partially covered by 
services exports, as in the case of some small isla nd economies specializing in tourism activities.  But 
for others, the financing of their import bills remains a major challenge. 
 
Table 8:  LDCs' coverage of  imports by exports, 2000-2010 
(percentage) 
 
  2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 
Developing economies 105  109 112 111 108  106  106
Least-developed countries 83 94 102 102 104 82 95 
  Agricultural exporters 40 33 32 33 32 32 33 
  Fuel exporters 164 195 207 207 215 138 176 
  Mineral exporters 69 68 84 78 74 73 85 
  Manufacture exporters 65 61 65 60 56 57 56 
  Diversified and others 42 36 35 28 28 34 35 
Note:  Indicators based on total exports a nd imports for the reference group. 
Source:  WTO Secretariat. 
                                                      
12 The coverage ratio calculates the capacity to finance imports out of export revenues; a value 
higher/lower than 100 indicates a surplus/deficit. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 18  
 
  III. TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO 
LDC
S 
30. The objective of this chapter is to analyse the market access conditions that LDCs face in 
their main export markets.  LDCs continue to benefit from non-reciprocal preferences for their 
merchandise exports in developed country markets.  Emerging countries have also come forward and 
have undertaken measures to increase imports from LD Cs.  As mentioned earlier, LDCs' exports to 
developing countries today represent slightly over half  of their total merchandise export revenues.  As 
a result, South-South trade assumes special importance to the LDCs. 
A. MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES  
31. Table 9 shows that in 2009, 80 per cent of LDC exports (excluding arms and oil) entered duty 
free into developed country markets.  This percentage  is very close to the percentage of exports from 
developing countries that entered developed co untry markets without imposition of any duty 
(77 per cent in 2009).13  While the LDC exports still enjoy some  margin of preference as compared to 
exports from developing countries, this pr eference margin is fast getting eroded.14  This strengthens 
the need for an early and expeditious implementa tion of the Decision on the DFQF market access for 
LDCs taken at the Hong Kong Ministerial Conference in 2005. 
32. To disentangle DFQF arising from MFN treatment from preferential duty-free access, Table 9 
shows the extension of "true" preferential DFQF treatment.  "True" preferential duty-free access is 
defined as the percentage of exports offered duty-free treatment under the GSP-LDC and other 
preferential schemes, as compared to products offere d duty-free entry under the MFN treatment.   The 
share of true preferential duty-free access for developing countries has been fluctuating around 
20 per cent for the last ten years.  The LDCs, how ever, have been increasingly benefiting from true 
preferential access, which represented only 35 per cen t of their exports in the late 1990s to some 
53 per cent in 2009.  The share of true preferential duty-free exports was particularly high for textile 
and clothing products in 2009 (63 and 67 per cent, respectively) as compared to developing countries 
(27 and 22 per cent, respectively).  "True" prefer ential duty-free exports amounted to 32 per cent for 
agriculture, six percentage points higher than for other developing countries in 2009.  It should be 
mentioned that those average resu lts for the LDCs as a group may m ask large heterogeneities at the 
individual country level. 
                                                      
13 This was mainly because of exports of products on which th e MFN rate of duty was zero.  
14 More and more products are now routinely imported duty free under the MFN treatment and includes 
not only raw products, but also manufactures, such as electronic equipment.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 19 
 
 
  Table 9:  Trends in tariff treatment on me rchandises imported by developed countries, 
1996-2009 (percentages) 
 
  1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 
a. Duty-free treatment of exports (excluding arms and oil)                     
Developing countriesa 53 54 53 63 65 64 68 70 75 74 76 77 79 77 
    of which true preferenceb 19 20 20 18 16 17 19 19 21 22 20 19 19 19 
Least-developed countries 78 77 78 72 70 71 74 78 80 80 79 80 81 80 
    of which true preferenceb 35 35 40 33 35 40 43 48 51 49 53 52 49 53 
Agricultural goods   
Developing countriesa 64 67 64 62 62 64 61 63 66 58 66 67 70 71 
    of which true preferenceb 24 26 27 16 16 19 16 18 23 17 24 25 25 26 
Least-developed countries 93 92 96 86 88 98 96 94 92 92 93 93 92 93 
    of which true preferenceb 54 49 53 13 16 29 28 30 26 27 31 33 26 32 
Textiles   
Developing countriesa 16 16 17 24 23 21 25 25 37 41 33 34 34 35 
    of which true preferenceb 13 13 14 19 19 17 21 21 30 37 26 26 27 27 
Least-developed countries 68 66 62 55 50 47 47 57 66 67 71 74 77 74 
    of which true preferenceb 54 53 50 45 40 38 37 48 51 51 56 59 63 63 
Clothing   
Developing countriesa 5 6 6 12 12 11 20 19 31 25 25 25 23 22 
    of which true preferenceb 5 6 6 12 12 11 20 19 31 25 25 24 23 22 
Least-developed countries 57 53 51 47 45 46 52 60 66 63 63 62 64 67 
    of which true preferenceb 57 53 51 47 45 46 52 60 65 63 63 62 64 67 
                              
b. Average tariff on ex ports (trade weighted)c                         
Agricultural goods   
Developing countries 10.6 10.0 10.0 9.6 9.4 9.3 9.6 9.6 9.3 9.0 8.7 8.5 8.2 7.9 
Least-developed countries 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.7 3.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 3.0 3.0 2.7 1.9 1.6 1.2 
Textiles   
Developing countries 7.4 7.3 7.0 6.7 6.6 6.7 6.1 5.9 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.2 5.2 5.2 
Least-developed countries 4.6 4.6 4.4 4.3 4.1 3.9 3.8 3.5 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 
Clothing   
Developing countries 11.7 11.6 11.5 11.2 11.0 11.6 10.3 10.0 8.8 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.3 8.3 
Least-developed countries 8.2 8.1 8.0 7.9 7.8 7.7 7.4 7.0 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 
a All developing countri es, excluding LDCs. 
b The true preference margin is to tal duty-free access minus products recei ving duty-free treatment under the MFN 
regime.  The indicators are based on the best available treatment, including regional and preferential agreements. 
  cThe average tariffs are weighted by trade flows and based on best applicable tariffs (MFN and preferential 
treatments granted to LDCs an d developing countries).  Average tariffs were  weighted using a standard export structure 
based on 2000-2001 data, to limit the impact of the year-to-year  changes in export composition and relative prices on the 
indicators. 
Source : Based on CAMAD compiled by  ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 20  
 
  33. When looking at average tariffs (Table 9) , it appears that duties faced by developing 
countries' exports continued to decrease, albeit at a slow pace, in absence of any major tariff initiative 
during a period dominated by the global crisis.  The decreases observed were due to a few initiatives, 
such as the implementation of measure concerning some agricultural products by the EU.  The LDC 
group benefited from preferential access in all the key products reviewed and recorded a further 
reduction in the average preferential tariff applied to their agricultural exports.  
34. The average level of tariff paid by LDC exports  to developed markets on agriculture in 2009 
was slightly above 1 per cent.  The tariffs on te xtile and clothing products  were 3 per cent and 
6 per cent, respectively.  When comparing the specific LDC treatment relative to the overall 
preferences received by developing countries in gene ral, it appears that the largest difference, in 
favour of LDC exports, corresponds to agriculture (Chart 8).  Here, LDCs ' exports to developed 
markets enjoy a 6.6 per cent advantage compared to the average exports of the larger group of 
developing countries.  It should be noted that this  difference may occur either because of differences 
in preferences received, or because  of the assortment of export products.  In the case of agriculture, 
both factors explain the margin, as LDCs benefit from more generous tariff treatments and export 
mainly tropical products that are generally not  levied high duties by the developed countries. 
Chart 8:  Effective preference margin of LDCs ' exports for selected product groups (developed 
markets), 1996-2009 
 
Note : The effective preference margin is computed as the diffe rence, in percentage points, between the average tariffs 
faced by LDCs in developed markets and those paid by all developing countries. 
Source : Based on CAMAD compiled by  ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
35. These average figures suggest the clear advantag e of agricultural exports enjoyed compared 
to other products.  Again, heterogeneities exist at different regions.  The average tariffs facing small 
island LDCs were the lowest, close to zero for agri culture and clothing, and slightly above 1 per cent 
for textiles.  In all three sectors, LDC islands  have a competitive margin ranging from 4 to 8 
percentage points against similar exports from deve loping countries.  African LDCs benefit also from 
an almost complete exemption of duties on clothi ng and a reduced average tariff on their agricultural 
exports (1 per cent), generating a competitive margin of 8 and 7 percentage points, respectively.  The 
tariffs for their textile exports were  close to 3.5 per cent, 1.7 percentage point lower than the average 
tariffs paid by developing countries.  The average tariffs for Asian LDCs were about 3 per cent for 
agriculture and textiles, and 7 per cent for clothing in 2009.  This relatively high tariff was due to the  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 21 
 
 
  exclusion of textile and clothing products from the US GSP scheme which is the only preference 
scheme available to the Asian LDCs.15  
B. MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPING ECONOMIES  
36.   Developing countries have been providing preferential access to LDC products, including a 
significant degree of duty-free access, through a vari ety of channels - bilateral, regional and 
non-reciprocal multilateral schemes.  Despite the progress, statistical information on preferences 
effectively received by LDC exports in developing  economies is still sparse.  In addition, some 
preferential schemes, although a nnounced, are still not implemented.   The information provided in 
this section is therefore partial.16  As a result, Table 10 has indicators available for only two years, 
2005 and 2009. 
Table 10:  Tariff treatment on merchandises imported by selected developing countries, 
2005 and 2009 (percentages) 
 
2005 2009 
Average tariffsa   
Agriculture 17 14 
Textile 10 8 
Clothing 20 20 
Preference Marginb 
Agriculture 1 2 
Textile 2 2 
Clothing 3 4 
 aWeighted average of best tariff appli cable, based on imports of seven developi ng economies: Brazil, China, India, 
Mexico, South Africa, Chinese Taipei and Turkey; excluding oil and arms. 
 bAs compared to MFN tariffs . 
Source : Based on CAMAD compiled by  ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
37. As can be observed from Table 10, tariffs paid by LDCs to othe r developing countries are still 
close to their MFN levels, even if the margin of preference has been increasing between 2005 and 
2009.  The best preference margin is noted for cl othing products, largely due to preferences granted 
by China, India, South Africa and Turkey.  In the case of agriculture and textile products, LDCs 
tended to concentrate their exports in the tariff lines with the lowest tariffs, wh ich are also those with 
the lower degrees of processing.17 
 
                                                      
15 Nonetheless, the market share of  Asian LDC exports of clothing to the US increased from 6 per cent 
to 8 per cent between 2000 and 2010. 
16 The indicators have been produced thanks to a joint effort by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO Secretariats. 
In order to minimize the endogeneity bias affecting weighted averages (the lower the tariff, the higher the 
volume of trade, other things being equal), national ta riffs have been weighted by a standard LDC export 
structure, based on their total exports to developing economies.  The same procedure was applied for market 
access to developed countries. 
17 The simple average of best tariffs in agricultu re granted to LDCs exports is 20 per cent, and 
12 per cent for textiles.  The respective weighted average shown in Table 10 for these products is significantly 
lower, indicating that the export structure was concentrated in low tariffs.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 22  
 
  C. 
TARIFF TREATMENT OF LDC EX PORTS IN SELECTED MARKETS  
38. The information on preferential treatment pr esented in Table 11 focuses on the GSP treatment 
specific for LDCs, excluding other preferential agreem ents.  For this reason, it is important to note 
that data are not always comparable across countri es.  Some countries, like Australia, Canada, Japan 
or Switzerland, rely almost exclusively on thei r GSP-LDC treatment to grant preferences, while 
others, like the EU and the US also gran t preferences to LDCs under other schemes.18  Some products 
excluded in the general GSP-LDC treatment may be  included in the regional schemes; this is, for 
example, the case for textile and clothing products in the US.19  Another factor which affects any 
inter-country comparison of tariffs comes from different  definitions of import values used by customs' 
Box 1.  The utilization of preferences:  The analysis of LDCs' market access presented in this chapter is based 
on the hypothesis that "best tariffs" (i.e, the lowest ta riffs available, either under  LDC or other preferential 
schemes) are fully utilized. This is not always the case, as some preferential regimes may concern products that 
are not commonly exported by LDCs, or have conditions that impede their use (for example rules of origin or other non-tariff measures). 
1/  They may also be of limited interest for exporters relative to other options; for 
example, when preferences are granted for a limite d period of time and therefore may not justify the 
administrative costs of shifting from one scheme to another.   
Preparing an indicator on the utiliza tion of preferences poses several statistical difficulties.  One is the 
availability of comprehensive and comparable official data on preferential schemes.  In addition, a product 
exported by an LDC can be eligible to more than on e preferential regime, a low rate of utilization for one 
specific regime is not necessarily an indication of a low rate of preference utilizati on for preferential schemes in 
general. 
The following table presents the aggregate results obta ined for four developed economies: Australia, Canada, 
the EU and the US for 2009.  On average, 54 per cent of LDC imports were  eligible to some sort of preferential 
scheme (this indicator excludes duty exemption extended as part of the MF N treatment).  The average rate of 
utilization of the preferential schemes is 87 per cent.  As can be seen, rates of utilization vary according to 
countries, but are over 80 per cent in all cases.   
Table Box 1:  Utilization of preferences, 2009 
Market a Per cent of total LDC imports Imports entering under preferential regime as 
a per cent of eligible imports  Eligible to any 
preference Entering under any 
preference 
Australia 66.1 59.1 89.4 
Canada 36.7 32.7 89.1 
EU (low estimate) b,c 48.2 40.1 81.9 
EU (high estimate) 49.0 41.4 85.9 
US d 69.5 60.9 87.5 
      a Results are not directly comparable between preferential schemes, due to difference in coverage and reporting. 
      b Includes GSP and other preferential schemes. 
      cThe range depends on the handling of "unknown treatments"  that were compiled for the EU countries due to, inter alia,  
the variety of their preferential schemes and the manner of publication of their preference.  The higher limit of the interval 
was obtained when the "unknown treatments" are considered as entering the market under preferential treatment; the lower 
limit is obtained when " unknown treatments" are treat ed as MFN treatment. 
      dAll preferential programmes:  AGOA; CBI ; Generalized System of Preferences (GSP);  and GSP for Least-developed 
beneficiary developing countries (GSP-LDBC). 
Source :  WTO. 
___________________ 
1/ For an overview of non-tariff measures on products of expor t interest to the LDCs, s ee WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 and its 
addenda;  for a review on preference utilization on sect ors of interest to LDCs, see WT/COMTD/LDC/W/41/Rev.1. 
                                                      
18 For example, the Economic Partnership Agreements offer additional trade benefits to the LDCs in 
the ACP countries.  The status of EPA negotiations could be seen at:  ec.europa.eu. 
19 The African Growth and Opportunity Act (A GOA) or the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 23 
 
 
  administrations to calculate the duty.  While the entry price (equivalent to CIF) is used by many 
customs' authorities to base the import duty, some countries define it as the price actually paid or payable for merchandise when sold for exportation (FOB, or FAS).
20 
 (a) Market Access Conditions Faced by LDC E xports in Selected Developed Countries 
39. The first two columns of data in Table 11 pr esent the number of duty-free tariff lines granted 
to LDCs under GSP-LDC treatment; these can be compar ed with the MFN regime detailed in the last 
columns of the table.  These statistics are furthe r broken down to tariff lines with actual imports from 
LDCs, both under MFN and under the GSP-LDC scheme.   The second panel of data indicates the 
resulting average tariffs, weighted by LDC imports.  It is important to note that these indicators are 
based on the preferential tariff, under the assumption th at existing preferences are fully utilized by 
exporters; this is not always the case and Box 1 pr ovides additional information on the extent of actual 
utilization of the preferential schemes (GSP and other preferential treatment).  
40. Most developed countries have been providing to tal or nearly total duty-free status to LDC 
exports, both in terms of tariff lines and import va lue.  The exceptions to  duty-free treatment are 
limited to a few sectors and in a few developed countries.  For the US, the share of duty-free imports 
in 2009 was lower (17 per cent) for non-agricultura l products (excluding ores and petroleum) since 
561 traded tariff lines remain dutiable under the general GSP-LDC scheme.
21  Positive duty was also 
found for some agricultural imports from LDCs by the EU and for some non-agricultural imports by 
Japan in 2009.  On the other hand, almost 100 pe r cent of agricultural imports from LDCs entered 
duty free in 2009 into the US market (only six tariff lines were dutiable out of a total of 229 registered 
imports from LDCs).   
41. The US also grants duty-free access to AGOA beneficiaries, 24 of which are LDCs (Annex 
Table 6).  As per the US tariff notification to th e IDB (2011), 1,683 tariff lines have been designated 
as AGOA duty-free lines.  In addition, the AGOA be neficiaries have access to duty-free lines under 
GSP (3,431 tariff lines) as well as those granted on an MFN basis (3,738 tariff lines).  In total, 
therefore, the duty-free tariff lines under AGOA cons titute around 91.3 per cent (taking into account 
some 530 tariff lines under HS Chapters 61-62 whic h could be duty free under certain conditions) .22  
The duty free status under the US GSP scheme was 82.4 per cent in 2009 (Table 11). 
 
                                                      
20 Excluding the costs of freight and insurance (as done by some countries, e.g., Australia, Canada, the 
US) lowers the dutiable amount, and is particularly advantageous to the LDCs which are susceptible to high 
transportation costs.   
21 It should be noted that for some tariff lines, imports originating from LDC can be very small and 
fluctuate from year-to-year.  When flows are very low, they are not reported, thus, the number of dutiable lines 
may vary accordingly from year-to-year, but w ill not have large economic significance. 
22 This duty-free figure could be higher for LD C AGOA countries, since some dutiable lines in 
Chapters 50 through 60 and Chapter 63 could become AGOA eligible under certain conditions.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 24  
Table 11:  Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developed markets, 2009 
Market Sector GSP-LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDCsb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Memo items 
Number of tariff 
lines Number of tariff lines with 
imports from LDC 
beneficiariesa Number of MFN tariff lines 
Imports 
from World 
(million 
US$)  Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Total Dutiable 
under 
MFN Dutiable 
under 
GSP- 
LDC 
scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Weighted 
applied 
duty1 TOTAL Duty- 
free 
tariff 
lines 
(%) Tariff 
lines with 
world 
imports 
Australia2 Total 0 100.0 924 580 0 186.6 0.0 100.0 0.0 6,002 46.2 5,517 187,023 
Agriculture 0 100.0 116 37 0 18.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 748 71.3 629 8,370 
Non-agriculturec 0 100.0 806 543 0 168.3 0.0 100. 0 0.0 5,219 42.2 4,863 163,210 
Ores 0 100.0 2 0 0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 33 100.0 24 424 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 2 100.0 1 15,019 
Canada Total 96 98.8 2,021 1,165 0 2,746.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 8,309 53.6 8,064 312,266 
Agriculture 96 93.0 299 134 0 39.5 0. 0 100.0 0.0 1,370 41.5 1,250 24,580 
Non-agriculture c 0 100.0 1,712 1,031 0 1,127.6 0. 0 100.0 0.0 6,905 55.8 6,782 267,325 
Ores 0 100.0 9 0 0 72.4 0. 0 100.0 0.0 33 100.0 31 1,785 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 1,506.8  0.0 100.0 0.0 1 100.0 1 18,576 
European 
Union Total 63 99.3 3,632 2,814 28 26,022.1 429.6 98.3 0.1 9,569 24.3 9,276 1,516,545 
Agriculture 41 97.9 581 437 24 2,857.6 241.8 91.5 0.0 1,990 18.1 1,775 102,912 
Non-agriculture c 22 99.7 3,032 2,377 4 13,713.3 187.8 98.6 0.2 7,536 25.5 7,459 1,167,586 
Ores 0 100.0 17 0 0 857.8 0. 0 100.0 0.0 41 100.0 40 16,921 
Petroleum 0 100.0 2 0 0 8,593.5  0.0 100.0 0.0 2 100.0 2 229,126 
Japan Total 393 95.6 840 562 22 3,526.7 7.7 99.8 0.0 9,026 40.9 7,855 528,295 
Agriculture 126 93.2 136 76 3 247.5 0. 0 100.0 0.0 1,857 25.6 1,417 47,944 
Non-agriculture c 267 96.3 700 486 19 1,846.9 7.7 99.6 0.0 7,130 44.6 6,409 380,716 
Ores 0 100.0 3 0 0 47.0 0. 0 100.0 0.0 37 100.0 27 19,893 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 1,385.3  0.0 100.0 0.0 2 100.0 2 79,742 
New 
Zealand Total 0 100.0 660 431 0 27.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 7,286 57.7 6,338 24,871 
Agriculture 0 100.0 59 21 0 6.6 0. 0 100.0 0.0 1,000 63.6 793 2,631 
Non-agriculture c 0 100.0 601 410 0 20.7 0.0 100. 0 0.0 6,252 56.6 5,532 20,403 
Ores 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 33 100.0 12 1 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 1 100.0 1 1,836  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51
 Page 25Market Sector GSP-LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDCsb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Memo items 
Number of tariff 
lines Number of tariff lines with 
imports from LDC 
beneficiariesa Number of MFN tariff lines 
Imports 
from World 
(million 
US$)  Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Total Dutiable 
under 
MFN Dutiable 
under 
GSP- 
LDC 
scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Weighted 
applied 
duty1 TOTAL Duty- 
free 
tariff 
lines 
(%) Tariff 
lines with 
world 
imports 
Norway Total 1 100.0 689 263 1 494.2 6.3 98.7 2.6 7,042 83.5 6,364 68,444 
Agriculture 1 99.9 77 33 1 14.7 6.0 59.0 86.7 1,351 36.6 1,057 5,013 
Non-agriculture c 0 100.0 609 230 0 209.2 0.2 99. 9 0.0 5,656 94.6 5,294 62,506 
Ores 0 100.0 2 0 0 12.4 0.0 100.0 0.0 33 100.0 12 346 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 257.8 0.0 100.0 0.0 2 100.0 1 578 
Switzerland Total 6 99.9 818 687 0 252.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 8,373 17.0 7,717 155,500 
Agriculture 6 99.7 163 121 0 75.3 0. 0 100.0 0.0 2,284 14.9 1,856 10,244 
Non-agriculture c 0 100.0 655 566 0 176.7 0.0 100. 0 0.0 6,054 17.3 5,841 143,114 
Ores 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 33 100.0 19 3 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 2 100.0 1 2,139 
United 
States Total 1,834 82.4 1,635 1,077 567 20,661.5 6,509.7 68.5 5.2 10,44
9 35.8 9,995 1,484,075 
Agriculture 278 84.5 229 138 6 351.3 0.5 99.9 0.0 1,792 20.3 1,491 74,880 
Non-agriculture c 1,556 81.9 1,398 937 561 7,826.9 6,509 .2 16.8 13.8 8,612 38.8 8,464 1,264,331 
Ores 0 100.0 6 0 0 96.5 0. 0 100.0 0.0 43 76.7 38 2,468 
Petroleum 0 100.0 2 2 0 12,386.8  0.0 100.0 0.0 2 0.0 2 142,395 
 a Beneficiaries are countries eligible for the national GSP-LDC scheme, excluding other preferential agreements; some UN-LDCs ma y be excluded; on the other hand, some countries not 
necessarily UN-LDCs  may be included. 
 b Forty-nine LDCs as listed by the UN. 
 c "Non-agriculture" covers NAMA products with  the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
 1 Excludes non-ad valorem dut ies (except for the US). 
 2 Data related to the year 2008. 
Source:   IDB-WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 26  
 
  (b)  Market Access Conditions Faced by LDC E xports in Selected Developing Countries 
42. The information on developing countries' preferen ce schemes for LDCs rema ins scant.  As is 
evident from Table 12, information on LDC duty scheme  is limited to three reporters, the Republic of 
Korea, Chinese Taipei and Turkey.  As a result, analysis of LDCs' market access conditions relies 
mainly on MFN treatment.  India recently made a notification on its duty-free scheme for LDCs 
which has been in operation since August 2008 (See Section IV).  
43. The limited information available on preferences granted by developing countries shows a 
significant degree of heterogeneity.  The extent of preferential duty-free treatment varies from 32 to 79 per cent;  thanks to the LDC scheme, the number of dutiable lines drops by more than 90 per cent 
in Turkey (from 520 to 45 tariff lines), 56 per cent in the Republic of Korea, and 10 per cent in 
Chinese Taipei.  It is to be noted that other than these three reporters of LDC duty schemes, the 
duty-free import figures in Table 12 refers to MFN duty-free imports by developing countries from LDCs.   
44. Table 12 also shows that weighted applied duty on agriculture is close to 11 per cent (after 
excluding duty-free treatment extended by Hong K ong and Singapore), while it was 6 per cent for 
manufacture (excluding oil and ores, which are genera lly levied low duties).  In general, LDCs face 
higher tariffs for their agricultural exports in deve loping countries as compared to other export items.  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51
 Page 27Table 12:  Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing markets, 2009 
Market Sector LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDCsb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Memo items 
Number of tariff 
lines Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa  Number of MFN tariff lines 
Imports 
from World 
(million 
US$)  Dutiable Duty 
free 
(%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under 
LDC 
scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied duty1 TOTAL Duty-free 
tariff 
lines (%) Tariff lines 
with world 
imports 
Brazil Total - - 254 241 - 504.1 108.7 78.4 5.1 9,782 7.4 8,317 126,695 
Agriculture - - 12 12 - 8.1 8.1 0.0 13.2 945 8.4 714 6,511 
Non-agriculturec - - 238 227 - 190.9 99.5 47.9 13.0 8,790 7.3 7,574 110,180 
Ores - - 2 2 - 1.0 1.0 0.0 2.0 45 0.0 27 798 
Petroleum - - 2 0 - 304.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 2 100.0 2 9,206 
Chile Total - - 253 253 - 214.3 214.3 0.0 6.0 7,714 0.5 6,401 38,364 
Agriculture - - 15 15 - 0.9 0.9 0.0 6.0 1,048 0.0 780 3,140 
Non-agriculturec - - 235 235 - 170.7 170.7 0.0 6.0 6,623 0.5 5,599 30,782 
Ores - - 2 2 - 0.3 0.3 0.0 6.0 41 0.0 20 488 
Petroleum - - 1 1 - 42.5 42.5 0.0 6.0 2 0.0 2 3,954 
China2 Total - - 1,123 964 - 27,482.7 3,127.2 88.6 0.8 7,867 8.3 7,264 1,002,618 
Agriculture - - 131 123 - 807.7 802.1 0.7 14.1 1,092 6.9 872 47,592 
Non-agriculturec - - 971 841 - 2,964.5 2,325.1 21.6 3.1 6,735 8.2 6,363 795,783 
Ores - - 20 0 - 1,984.9 0.0 100 0.0 39 71.8 28 69,960 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 21,725.5 0.0 100 0.0 1 100.0 1 89,283 
Hong Kong, 
China Total - - 770 0 - 479.4 0.0 100.0 0.0 6,990 100.0 5,961 351,388 
Agriculture - - 68 0 - 15.7 0.0 100.0 0.0 942 100.0 798 14,070 
Non-agriculturec - - 699 0 - 452.5 0.0 100.0 0.0 6,013 100.0 5,144 337,290 
Ores - - 3 0 - 11.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 34 100.0 19 28 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 1 100.0 0 0 
India3 Total - - 1,671 1,585 - 6,620.6 6,242.3 5.7 7.6 11,277 2.8 9,495 311,821 
Agriculture - - 276 255 - 1,491.3 1,169.9 21.6 14.7 1,431 4.3 946 9,108 
Non-agriculturec - - 1,383 1,318 - 2,079.1 2,022.1 2.7 6.8 9,785 2.6 8,504 217,826 
Ores - - 11 11 - 202.0 202.0 0.0 2.0 60 0.0 44 4,922 
Petroleum - - 1 1 - 2,848.3 2,848.3 0.0 5.0 1 0.0 1 79,965 
Kenya Total - - 679 543 - 214.3 161.2 24.8 14.2 5,265 22.8 4,407 10,090 
Agriculture - - 143 130 - 104.3 92.3 11.5 18.1 704 9.8 541 1,591 
Non-agriculturec - - 534 412 - 109.4 68.9 37.1 10.7 4,527 24.9 3,855 8,495 
Ores - - 2 1 - 0.6 0.1 82.6 2.6 33 9.1 10 3 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 1 100.0 1 0  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 28 
Market Sector LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDCsb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Memo items 
Number of tariff 
lines Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa  Number of MFN tariff lines 
Imports 
from World 
(million 
US$)  Dutiable Duty 
free 
(%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under 
LDC 
scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied duty1 TOTAL Duty-free 
tariff 
lines (%) Tariff lines 
with world 
imports 
Korea, 
Republic of Total 3,320 72.1 1,093 944 411 1,710.3 1,041.8 39.1 1.4 11,881 16.6 10,684 323,084 
Agriculture 1,309 17.5 129 127 104 77.7 29.5 62.0 4.8 1,586 5.8 1,328 14,923 
Non-agriculturec 1,992 80.5 955 816 306 1,586.6 982.1 38.1 1.3 10,237 18.0 9,308 248,651 
Ores 9 81.3 8 0 0 15.7 0.0 100.0 0.0 48 79.2 39 8,753 
Petroleum 10 0.0 1 1 1 30.3 30.3 0.0 3.0 10 0.0 9 50,757 
Malaysia2 Total - - 2,075 368 - 502.9 43.1 91.4 1.1 10,389 60.3 9,415 153,248 
Agriculture - - 170 63 - 151.4 17.1 88.7 0.3 1,193 71.1 1,078 10,852 
Non-agriculturec - - 1,902 305 - 238.8 26.0 89.1 2.0 9,146 58.7 8,300 134,667 
Ores - - 2 0 - 8.4 0.0 100.0 0.0 48 100.0 35 726 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 104.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 2 50.0 2 7,003 
Mexico Total - - 885 738 - 255.4 206.6 19.1 22.8 12,102 22.4 11,020 229,924 
Agriculture - - 45 39 - 29.4 26.0 11.7 20.7 1,198 14.9 999 18,559 
Non-agriculturec - - 832 693 - 225.8 180.5 20.1 23.1 10,858 23.3 9,988 210,864 
Ores - - 8 6 - 0.3 0.1 48.5 2.6 44 11.4 32 501 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 2 0.0 1 0 
Pakistan Total - - 514 419 - 376.7 108.9 71.1 4.5 6,803 6.1 5,895 31,697 
Agriculture - - 134 91 - 204.3 84.3 58.7 6.0 804 15.2 593 4,212 
Non-agriculturec - - 379 328 - 172.4 24.6 85.7 2.8 5,965 4.8 5,286 24,276 
Ores - - 1 0 - 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 33 9.1 15 76 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 1 100.0 1 3,133 
Singapore Total - - 777 1 - 818.8 0.1 100.0 0.0 8,300 99.9 3,630 122,278 
Agriculture - - 201 1 - 73.1 0.1 99.8 0.0 1,145 99.5 572 7,766 
Non-agriculturec - - 574 0 - 624.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 7,118 100.0 3,039 94,340 
Ores - - 1 0 - 0.7 0.0 100.0 0.0 34 100.0 18 72 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 120.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 3 100.0 1 20,099 
South Africa Total - - 2,113 998 - 2,737.1 292.5 89.3 1.7 6,702 56.1 6,233 60,262 
Agriculture - - 222 122 - 132.7 103.4 22.1 5.2 919 41.6 811 4,228 
Non-agriculturec - - 1,873 876 - 719.6 189.2 73.7 6.5 5,749 58.2 5,394 45,623 
Ores - - 17 0 - 17.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 33 100.0 27 116 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 1,866.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 1 100.0 1 10,294  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51
 Page 29Market Sector LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDCsb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Memo items 
Number of tariff 
lines Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa  Number of MFN tariff lines 
Imports 
from World 
(million 
US$)  Dutiable Duty 
free 
(%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under 
LDC 
scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied duty1 TOTAL Duty-free 
tariff 
lines (%) Tariff lines 
with world 
imports 
Chinese 
Taipei Total 5,976 31.5 652 504 453 1,779.5 54.9 96.9 0.4 8,730 30.1 7,942 167,977 
Agriculture 1,074 24.2 88 64 61 41.9 22.3 46.8 7.5 1,417 23.6 1,108 8,246 
Non-agriculturec 4,901 32.6 558 440 392 532.1 32.6 93.9 0.6 7,271 30.9 6,803 138,942 
Ores 0 100.0 5 0 0 0.4 0.0 100.0 0.0 40 100.0 29 1,180 
Petroleum 1 50.0 1 0 0 1,205.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 2 50.0 2 19,609 
Thailand Total - - 1,569 1,401 - 4,711.3 3,431.8 27.2 2.1 8,300 18.3 7,666 131,602 
Agriculture - - 197 188 - 200.8 130.3 35.1 9.8 1,145 3.3 950 6,170 
Non-agriculturec - - 1,363 1,208 - 3,418.2 3,274.4 4.2 3.5 7,118 20.6 6,686 106,182 
Ores - - 6 5 - 27.2 27.2 0.0 1.0 34 44.1 27 242 
Petroleum - - 3 0 - 1,065.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 3 100.0 3 19,008 
Turkey Total 2,522 79.1 632 520 45 769.2 132.4 82.8 3.9 12,065 23.5 9,664 129,146 
Agriculture 1,779 17.8 51 33 32 123.0 116.4 5.3 22.7 2,164 12.5 1,126 7,521 
Non-agriculturec 740 92.5 579 487 13 646.1 16.0 97.5 0.3 9,858 25.6 8,515 114,248 
Ores 3 92.7 2 0 0 0.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 41 92.7 22 962 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 2 100.0 1 6,415 
a  Beneficiaries are countries eligible for the national LDC scheme,  excluding other preferential agreements. 
b  Forty-nine LDCs as listed by the UN. 
c "Non-agriculture" covers NAMA products with  the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
1 Excludes non-ad valorem duties. 
2 Provisional data. 
3 Reference year in 2008. 
 '-' Data on preferential treatment of LDC exports is not available/not relevant.  
Source :  IDB-WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 30  
 
  IV. RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS FOR LDC PRODUCTS 
45. Annex Table 6 provides a succinct, non-exhaustiv e list of major multilateral non-reciprocal 
market access schemes undertaken by Members in fa vour of LDCs.  It contains information mostly 
based on notifications made to the WTO.  Th e Table does not include regional or bilateral 
agreements/initiatives under which, too, LDCs receive preferences. 
46. Since the last report, a number of new notifica tions have been made by Members relating to 
market access schemes for LDCs.  India has recen tly made a formal notification of its Duty-Free 
Tariff Preference (DFTP) scheme for LDCs - the firs t of its kind by a developing country since the 
launch of the Doha negotiations in 2001.  The scheme, which became operational in August 2008, 
will provide duty-free access to the LDCs for 85 per cen t of its tariff lines over a period of five years 
through equal annual redu ctions (WT/COMTD/N/38).  In addition, LDCs will receive preferential 
market access for about 9 per cent of their tari ff lines on the basis of a prescribed margin of 
preference, over a period of five years through e qual annual reductions.  China has indicated in WTO 
meetings that it would expand covera ge of its duty-free treatment for LD Cs to the level of 95 per cent, 
which at present covers 60 per cent of its tariff lines. 
47. Steps have been taken by Members towards e nhancing stability, security and predictability of 
preference schemes provided to the LDCs.  For inst ance, Japan has recently notified its decision to 
extend the duration of the GSP scheme until 31 Ma rch 2021.  The notification is contained in 
document WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.15.   
48. There has also been progress in the area of pr eferential rules of origin.  One of the LDCs' 
major trading partners, the EU, has undertaken reforms to the rules of origin criteria associated with 
its GSP scheme.  The EU's revised GSP rules of or igin, which became operati onal as of January 2011, 
offers a number of simplifications and relaxations , especially for the LDCs.  For example, in the 
textiles and clothing sector, LDCs are now allowed to use a single stage of transformation in many 
cases (i.e. manufacturing from fabric), instead of the two stages of transformation required by the previous rules.
23  It is to be noted that the LDCs have continued their efforts for a simplified 
preferential rules of origin framework under Doha Round of negotiations.  To this effect, a revised 
proposal from the LDC Group was submitted in June 2011 (TN/CTD/W/30/Rev.2). 
49. Despite lack of progress in the negotiations, there has been increm ental progress in the 
implementation of DFQF market access for LDC products.  In line with the Hong Kong Decision, 
most developed Members today provide either 100 per cent or close to 100 per cent DFQF access to the LDCs.  As a result, product exclusions from duty-free access have narrowed down; with a few 
developed Members maintaining pos itive duty on some products of e xport interest to LDCs (see 
Table 13).   
                                                      
23 The new rules of origin applicable within the frame work of the EU's GSP were notified by the EU in 
April 2011, which has been circ ulated as WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 31 
 
 
  Table 13:  DFQF access in GSP schemes of developed Members, 2009 
Country Duty-free coverage and exclusions Number of Dutiable lines 
(national tariff lines) 
Australia 100 per cent None 
Canada 98.8 per cent (dairy, eggs and poultry) 93  
EU 99.3 per cent (arms and ammunitions, rice and 
sugar)  63 
Japan 95.6 per cent (rice, sugar, fishery products, 
articles of leather, some textile articles, footwear, 
etc.) 393  
New Zealand 100 per cent None 
Norway 100 per cent (except roses)  1  
Switzerland 99.9 per cent (some sugar and cheese items)  6  
United States 82.4 per cent (dairy products, sugar, cocoa, 
articles of leather, cotton, articles of apparel and 
clothing, other textiles and textile articles, 
footwear, watches, etc.) 1,834  
 
Note:  The full implementation of EU's EBA (i.e. duty-free ac cess to all products other than arms and ammunitions) 
came into effect on October 2009.  The gradual introduction of duty-free access to LDC products had also been completed 
by Switzerland in September 2009 since when it ha s been providing duty-free access to all LDC products. 
Source :  WTO Secretariat. 
 
50. A number of developing countries have also come forward in announcing schemes which 
grant DFQF market access for LDC products in line with the Hong Kong Decision.24  The depth and 
coverage of this duty-free access differs from one deve loping country to anothe r.  Moreover, many of 
these schemes provide for a gradual phasing in of  the duty-free access for LDC exports.  Table 14 
provides some information on the duty-free coverage  by emerging markets based on notifications as 
well as statements made in the WTO. 
Table 14: DFQF access for LDC products in selected developing countries 
 
Country Duty-free coverage 
China 60 per cent of all tariff lines are curren tly covered, with gradual phasing-in of up 
to 95 per cent   
India 85 per cent of tariff  lines to be covered under duty-free access by 2012   
Korea, Republic of Nearly 72 per cent of tariff lines (2009) 
Chinese Taipei Nearly 32 per cent of tariff lines (2009) 
Turkey Nearly 80 per cent of tariff lines (2009) 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat.  
 
51. The DFQF market access for LDC products con tinues to receive priority attention from the 
international community, including by the G 20.  Leaders at the G-20 Seoul Summit in 
November 2010 adopted a Declaration committed to  making progress towards DFQF access in line 
with Hong Kong commitments.  The Istanbul Progra mme of Action for the LDCs for the decade 
2011-2020 called for a timely implementation of DFQF  access for all LDCs, consistent with the 
Hong Kong Declaration.  A number of studies have shown that full implemen tation of the Hong Kong 
Decision on DFQF market access for LDC products, along with simplified rules of origin would 
further enhance the participation of LDCs in world trade. 
                                                      
24 In addition, these countries continue to offer/im prove preferential market access to the LDCs through 
regional and bilateral initiatives. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 32  
 
  V. CONCLUSIONS 
52. While it is still too early to claim that the ef fects of the 2008-2009 global crisis are over, one 
of the main conclusions that can be drawn from th is note is that LDC exports in goods and services 
have recuperated most of the ground lost during the tu rmoil.  After a drop of 24 per cent in 2009, total 
exports of goods and services rebounde d to 26.5 per cent in 2010.  Notwithstanding this recovery, the 
value of total exports in 2010 remained below the pr e-crisis level, due to the international prices of 
fuels and minerals, which were still significantly belo w the peak registered in 2008.  Nevertheless, in 
2010, the value of exports of agriculture, manufactur e and commercial services were higher than their 
pre-crisis levels.  Despite some recovery in ex ports, the trade balance remained negative in 2010 
(US$9 billion).  In 2010, the share of LDC expor ts in world merchandise trade was 1.08 per cent, 
which represented a marginal increase compared to th e previous year (1.03 per cent).  The share of 
LDC exports in world commercial services remained static at 0.51 per cent in 2010 which was also 
the figure for the previous year.   
53. Both the trends and the composition of LDC exports are strongly influenced by the 
developments in international prices for commoditi es.  The rising demand for commodities, especially 
from emerging countries, has had a strong influence on their prices.  The export structure of LDCs 
remains concentrated, with fuels and minerals re presenting 60 per cent of all LDC exports in 2010.  
Food and agriculture (including raw materials) ac counted for 15 per cent of all LDCs' merchandise 
export revenues in 2010, while clothing represented 12 per cent.  Exports of services have been 
increasing, albeit from a low initial base;  in many LDCs, tourism has become one of the top three sources of export revenues.  The economic crisis, which principally affected demand from developed 
countries, reinforced the importance of LDCs' exports to developing countries.  China retains its first 
position as LDCs export destinations, with imports ri sing to US$43 billion in 2010, followed by the 
EU and the US (more than US$25 billion each).  Indi a's imports from LDCs increased rapidly during 
the period, placing it in the fourth position in 2010 (US$8.5 billion).  
54. LDC exports to developing and developed markets are nevertheless very differentiated. 
Developing economies have become the major destina tion for LDC exports of mineral fuels, copper, 
wood products, cotton and some f ood products like vegetables and o il seeds.  Interestingly, these 
products, where South-South trade has become partic ularly important for LDCs, are also those where 
international prices have been increasing in the p ast decade.  On the other hand, developed economies 
remain largely a dominant export destination fo r manufactured articles such as clothing, where 
changes in prices have been much more moderate .  Developed country markets are also the main 
destination of exports for some agricultural and fo od products such as fish and crustaceans, beverages 
and tobacco.  
55. Whether in terms of tariff lines or in terms of  import value, most of the developed Members 
of the WTO grant close to 100 per cent DFQF access  to LDC products.  The duty-free coverage by 
the US to all LDCs was 82.4 per cent in 2009.  This c overage is higher for the LD Cs in Africa as they 
could benefit from AGOA provisions, which offer dut y-free access over and above the GSP coverage.  
The US has reiterated its commitment to implem ent the Hong Kong Decision on DFQF market access 
to LDCs with the final results of the Doha negotiations.   
56. During the period under review, concrete progress has been made in the area of preferential 
rules of origin as one of the top trading partners of LDCs - the EU- has made a number of simplifications and relaxations in its rules of origin  associated with its GSP scheme.  This is expected 
to further enhance LDC exports to the EU markets as well as increase the preference utilization rate of 
the LDCs.   
57. Emerging countries, in particular China a nd India have made incremental progress in 
providing preferential market access including duty-free access to LDC products.  India became the  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 33 
 
 
  first developing country to notify its preference scheme for the LDCs since the launch of the Doha 
negotiations in 2001.  The DFTP scheme by India will cover 85 per cent of its tariff lines under 
duty-free access by 2012.  China, which has been gr anting duty-free coverage to 60 per cent of its 
tariff lines to the LDCs, has indicated its intention to expand this duty-free coverage to 95 per cent.  It 
is also worthwhile to mention that these deve loping countries are also improving market access 
opportunities for LDCs, through bila teral and regional channels.  However, overall information on 
developing countries' preferen ce scheme remains limited.  
58. Given the continued concentration of LDCs' export structure, enhanced market access 
opportunities for the LDCs is of significant valu e to them.  Any decisions taken to increase 
preferential market access for LDCs, including at  the Eighth WTO Ministerial Conference, will help 
increase their share of trade;  integrate them more fully into the multilateral trading system;  and help 
them in their economic growth  and developmental efforts. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 34  
 
  ANNEX 
Annex Table 1:  Merchandise exports and imports  of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2010 
(million dollars and percentage) 
 
 
  Exports Imports 
  Value Annual percentage change Value Annual perc entage change 
  2010 2000-10 2008 2009 2010 2010 2000-10 2008 2009 2010 
LDCs 165,163 16.4 31.7 -24.6 29. 5 17,4564 14.8 29.6 -4.8 12.9 
Exporters of agricultural products 10,286 11.9 22.6 -3.3 15.6 30,896 14.0 27.4 -3.9 12.2 
Afghanistan 430 12.1 8.7 -25.3 6.6 4,400 14.1 7.1 10.5 31.9 
Benin 1,200 11.8 22.5 -7.1 0.8 2,200 13.6 12.4 -9.8 6.6 
Burkina Faso 1,288 19.9 11.3 29. 9 43.0 2,048 12.9 20.2 -7.3 9.5 
Burundi 100 7.2 -2.4 11.2 57.3 509 13.2 26.2 -0.1 26.6 
Central African Republic 140 -1.4 - 15.6 -20.0 16.7 340 11.3 20.5 0.0 13.3 
Comoros 18 2.5 -34.8 77.8 12.5 190 16.0 26.5 -2.9 11.8 
Ethiopia 2,238 16.5 25.4 1.0 38. 3 8,552 21.1 42.5 -7.4 11.5 
Gambia 15 0.0 9.2 9.7 0.0 276 4.0 0.4 -5.7 -9.3 
Guinea-Bissau 125 7.3 19.8 -6.8 4.7 220 14.1 18.4 15.7 -4.3 
Kiribati 11 11.9 53.4 40.0 -47.6 100 9.6 -0.2 -2.8 46.9 
Liberia 231 -3.5 21.1 -38.6 55.3 700 0.5 62.9 -32.2 26.9 
Malawi 1,066 10.9 21.3 25.6 -1 .3 1,900 13.6 19.8 9.1 5.6 
Rwanda 297 19.0 51.4 -28.0 54. 3 1,431 21.1 52.3 11.5 9.4 
Sao Tome and Principe 11 13.9 56. 4 -23.7 35.5 112 14.1 44.2 -9.4 8.6 
Solomon Islands 227 12.6 28.0 - 21.7 37.3 405 16.0 11.8 -18.3 51.2 
Somalia 410 7.8 20.0 -4.8 2.5 830 9.2 22.2 -15.9 12.2 
Timor-Lestea 17 11.1 55.4 -34.7 96.3 298 12.6 47.1 9.9 1.0 
Togo 800 8.2 33.0 -11.1 0.0 1,550 10.7 22.0 -0.1 2.7 
Uganda 1,612 14.9 29.0 -9.1 2.8 4,550 11.5 29.6 -6.2 7.1 
Vanuatu 49 6.5 13.8 0.0 -13.6 285 12.6 36.7 -6.2 -3.1 
Fuel exportersb 96,891 19.1 37.8 -33.1 30.6 55,112 18.3 32.3 4.7 2.1 
Angola 53,500 21.0 44.0 -36.1 31. 0 21,500 21.6 53.6 8.0 -5.1 
Bhutan 550 18.2 -22.7 -4.9 10.9 760 15.8 3.3 -2.6 43.6 
Chad 3,450 34.1 18.1 -38.8 30.2 2,600 23.4 5.6 21.1 13.0 
Equatorial Guinea 10,500 25.3 55.7 -42.8 15.4 5,700 28.9 65.0 33.0 9.6 
Myanmar 8,749 18.2 9.5 -3.3 30.4 4,807 7.2 29.5 2.4 9.4 
Sudan 11,443 20.3 31.4 -30.2 40.4 10,045 20.5 6.6 3.6 3.7 
Yemen 8,700 7.9 20.4 -17.5 39. 0 9,700 15.4 23.9 -12.9 5.6 
Manufacture exporters 27,630 10.7 18.6 -4.9 22.3 48,909 12.2 26.5 -6.5 23.5 
Bangladesh 19,191 11.6 23.4 -1.9 27.2 27,819 12.1 28.3 -8.5 27.4 
Cambodia 5,030 13.7 15.2 -8.6 16.9 7,500 14.5 19.7 -9.7 27.6 
Haiti 580 6.2 -8.1 20.1 0.6 3,150 11.8 37.7 -8.3 48.3 
Lesotho 820 14.1 14.7 -18.9 14. 5 2,200 10.5 15.4 -2.7 12.8 
Madagascar 1,090 2.8 5.8 -19.7 3.6 2,650 9.2 43.5 -15.3 -17.2 
Nepal 860 0.7 8.1 -12.4 4. 5 5,280 12.9 15.0 22.1 20.4 
Samoa 60 -0.9 -26.1 -36.1 29.4 310 11.3 8.4 -19.9 34.4 
Exporters of non-fuel mineralsc 27,888 18.8 23.3 -13.6 42.7 32,643 16.3 31.2 -12.8 21.6 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 5,300 20.7 41.9 -20.5 51.4 4,500 20.8 26.5 -9.3 15.4 
Guinea 1,250 6.5 11.6 -21.8 19.1 1,100 6.0 12.2 -22.4 3.8 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 1,600 17.1 18.3 -5.4 54.9 1,800 12.9 31.7 0.6 27.3 
Mali 2,350 15.7 34.8 1.1 10. 8 2,850 13.5 52.8 -20.8 7.8 
Mauritania 2,033 19.1 27.5 -23.4 48.3 1,822 14.9 21.7 -26.3 27.4  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 35 
 
 
    Exports Imports 
  Value Annual percentage change Value Annual perc entage change 
  2010 2000-10 2008 2009 2010 2010 2000-10 2008 2009 2010 
Mozambique 3,200 24.3 10.0 -19.1 49.0 4,500 14.5 31.4 -6.1 19.5 
Niger 930 12.6 37.2 -5.5 8. 1 2,150 18.5 47.7 12.0 13.2 
Sierra Leone 338 38.5 -12.1 7. 0 46.4 770 17.9 20.1 -2.6 48.0 
Tanzania 3,687 17.5 36.4 -3.6 26.0 7,830 17.8 33.5 -10.0 22.1 
Zambia 7,200 23.2 10.4 -15.4 67.0 5,321 19.6 26.3 -25.1 40.3 
Diversified and othersd 2,468 8.4 30.8 -11.9 8.5 7,003 10.5 30.8 -26.1 4.0 
Djibouti 95 11.6 18.4 12.5 22. 8 420 7.4 21.2 -21.4 -6.8 
Eritrea 12 -10.6 -16.8 0.0 9.1 690 3.9 17.6 -1.7 16.9 
Maldives 200 6.3 45.0 -48.9 18. 3 1,095 10.9 26.6 -30.3 13.2 
Senegal 2,161 8.9 29.7 -7.1 7.1 4,782 12.2 34.0 -27.8 1.5 
Tuvalu 0 40.5 117.4 50.0 0. 0 16 12.3 68.9 -47.0 14.3 
Worlde 15,237,000 9.0 15.1 -22.4 21.7 15,402,000 8.6 15.5 -23.0 21.1 
a  2003-2010, as no 2000-2002 data were available. 
b Includes exporters of electricity (Bhutan). 
c Includes exporters of gold (normally classified in n. e.s. according to the UN Standard International Trade 
Classification) and diamonds (normally included in manufactures according to the UN classification). 
d Includes exporters without a clear spec ialization in a specif ic category of goods. 
e Includes significant re-exports  and imports for re-export. 
Note :  Groups and countries ranked by value.  Data for 2010 are largely estimates. 
Source :  WTO Secretariat.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 36  
Annex Table 2:  Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2011 
(Indices 2005=100) 
 
  2000  2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008  2009 2010 2010  2011  
                        Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Food and beverages 80 81 83 87 98 100 110 127 157 136 152 142 143 153 170 189 189 
Food 81 82 84 88 100 100 111 127 157 134 149 139 140 151 168 186 186 
Cereals 78 82 94 95 102 100 122 159 222 161 166 152 140 168 203 230 241 
Wheat 75 83 97 96 103 100 126 167 214 147 147 128 116 156 186 217 222 
Maize 90 91 101 107 114 100 124 166 227 168 189 165 161 185 245 288 318 
Rice 71 60 67 69 85 100 106 116 243 205 181 200 166 171 187 182 176 
Barley 81 99 115 110 104 100 123 181 211 135 167 151 155 170 191 208 220 
Vegetable oils and 
protein meals 72 70 82 96 111 100 103 143 193 154 170 157 158 168 199 221 216 
Meat 79 85 80 82 100 100 95 99 103 98 117 110 121 120 117 130 136 
Beef 74 81 80 76 96 100 97 99 102 101 128 120 131 126 136 156 156 
Lamb 70 81 91 99 103 100 96 101 106 91 91 92 87 91 93 93 96 
Swine meat 88 91 70 79 105 100 94 94 96 82 110 101 119 120 100 118 137 
Poultry 80 86 85 90 102 100 94 106 115 116 116 113 117 119 116 116 117 
Seafood 112 99 85 84 88 100 121 113 113 114 136 124 137 139 143 154 154 
Fish 90 71 72 74 82 100 125 112 119 121 151 137 154 155 159 173 173 
Shrimp 180 181 124 117 105 100 105 116 91 85 76 73 72 78 81 81 81 
Sugar 81 82 70 77 83 100 133 102 117 152 172 170 138 164 216 225 192 
Bananas 73 101 91 65 91 100 118 117 146 147 153 140 154 160 158 171 175 
Oranges 43 71 67 81 101 100 98 114 132 108 122 118 129 138 104 98 102 
Beverages 78 66 76 80 83 100 108 123 152 154 176 169 170 180 186 216 213 
Coffee 76 54 54 59 70 100 112 129 150 132 165 138 153 179 191 235 246 
Cocoa beans 59 70 115 114 100 100 103 127 167 187 203 213 208 198 192 216 199 
Tea 115 92 83 90 92 100 112 98 125 145 146 155 133 140 158 162 152 
Agricultural raw materials 93 88 90 93 98 100 109 114 113 94 125 115 122 123 140 161 162 
Timber 90 83 82 86 96 100 108 107 109 102 102 97 100 104 105 107 107 
Cotton 107 87 84 115 112 100 105 115 129 114 188 147 163 169 272 376 331 
Wool 83 78 101 113 105 100 104 144 138 115 153 153 144 144 171 223 258 
Rubber 46 40 51 72 87 100 140 153 174 128 243 212 249 225 288 380 353 
Hides and skins 122 129 123 104 102 100 105 110 98 68 110 103 111 111 115 120 134  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51
 Page 37  2000  2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008  2009 2010 2010  2011  
                        Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Minerals and non-ferrous 
metals (excluding crude 
petroleum) 59 53 52 58 79 100 156 183 169 136 202 190 200 193 223 248 241 
Copper 49 43 42 48 78 100 183 194 189 141 205 197 191 198 235 262 249 
Aluminium 82 76 71 75 90 100 135 139 136 88 114 114 110 110 123 132 137 
Iron ore 44 46 45 49 58 100 119 130 219 285 522 466 566 489 566 636 625 
Tin 74 61 55 66 115 100 119 196 250 184 276 233 241 278 351 405 390 
Nickel 58 40 46 65 94 100 163 251 143 99 148 135 152 144 160 182 165 
Zinc 82 64 56 60 76 100 237 235 137 120 157 165 147 146 168 174 163 
Lead 47 49 46 53 91 100 132 265 215 177 221 227 200 209 245 267 262 
Uranium 30 31 35 40 65 100 171 355 230 167 165 151 147 161 199 230 202 
Total of above 74 71 72 76 91 100 123 140 151 127 161 150 155 158 179 200 198 
Energy 54 47 47 55 72 100 119 132 185 117 147 143 146 141 159 185 203 
Natural gas 60 60 48 63 70 100 115 117 174 110 113 110 113 114 117 129 147 
Crude petroleum 53 46 47 54 71 100 121 133 182 116 149 145 147 142 161 188 207 
Coal 53 65 54 57 113 100 104 138 266 149 206 196 206 195 226 269 255 
All primary commodities 59 54 54 61 77 100 121 135 172 121 152 146 149 147 166 190 201 
Note : The indices are period averages based on dollar prices. The quarterly figures are not seasonally adjusted. 
Source : WTO Secretariat.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 38 Annex Table 3:  Leading merchandise exports of LDCs in 2010a 
(million dollars and percentage) 
HS07 Product Description LDC Exports  World Exports 
Value Share in 
Total Exports Exports to 
Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World Developed 
Economies Developing 
Economies 
TOTAL All Commodities 122,481 100.0 59,430 62,337 11,882,892 1.0  
27 Mineral fuels, mineral oils and products of th eir distillation; bitumi nous substances; mineral 
waxes 69,496 56.7 27,245 42,251 1,764,359 3.9  
2709 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous  minerals, crude. 62,306 50. 9 25,602 36,705 916,530 6.8  
2711 Petroleum gases and other gaseous hydr ocarbons. 4,374 3.6 896 3,479 237,627 1.8  
2710 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bitumi nous minerals, other than crude; preparations 
not elsewhere specified or include d, containing by weight 70 % or more of petroleum oils or 
of oils obtained from bituminous minerals, these oils  being the basic  2,136 1.7 748 1,388 450,734 0.5  
61 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories, knitted or crocheted 11,780 9.6 10,932 727 145,011 8.1  
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, waistcoats and similar articles, knitted or crocheted. 4,078 3.3 3,683 344 43,278 9.4  
6109 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, knitted or crocheted. 3,436 2.8 3,227 166 26,096 13.2  
6104 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, 
bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear), knitted or crocheted. 1,046 0.9 999 37 14,883 7.0  
6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or crocheted. 710 0.6 663 44 6,188 11.5  
62 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories, not kn itted or crocheted 8,708 7.1 8,051 587 143,608 6.1  
6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches 
and shorts (other than swimwear).  3,293 2.7 3,093 178 30,139 10.9  
6204 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, 
bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear). 2,040 1. 7 1,899 127 41,106 5.0  
6205 Men's or boys' shirts. 1,386 1.1 1,247 130 10,994 12.6  
74 Copper and articles thereof 5, 235 4.3 197 5,038 130,039 4.0  
7403 Refined copper and copper alloys, unw rought. 3,102 2.5 118 2,984 51,674 6.0  
26 Ores, slag and ash 4,972 4.1 1,313 3,658 188,147 2.6  
2603 Copper ores and concentrates. 1,389 1.1 19 1,370 32,186 4.3  
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, including roasted iron pyrites. 1,251 1.0 579 672 116,618 1.1  
2605 Cobalt ores and concentrates. 961 0.8 1 961 1,135 84.7  
2606 Aluminium ores and concentrates. 439 0.4 437 1 2,730 16.1  
03 Fish and crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic  invertebrates 1,993 1.6 1,266 713 68,717 2.9  
0306 Crustaceans, whether in shell or not, live, fresh, chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in brine; 
crustaceans, in shell, cooked by steaming or by boiling in water, whether or not chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in brine; flours, meals and pellets of crus 713 0.6 588 114 14,280 5.0  
0303 Fish, frozen, excluding fish fillets and other fish meat of heading 03.04. 510 0.4 151 358 14,983 3.4  
76 Aluminium and articles thereof 1,587 1.3 1,523 64 113,401 1.4  
7601 Unwrought aluminium. 1,550 1.3 1,521 29 38,188 4.1   
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51
 Page 39HS07 Product Description LDC Exports  World Exports 
Value Share in 
Total Exports Exports to 
Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World Developed 
Economies Developing 
Economies 
09 Coffee, tea, mate and spices 1,485 1.2 1,248 208 28,676 5.2  
0901 Coffee, whether or not roasted or decaffein ated; coffee husks and skins; coffee substitutes 
containing coffee in any proportion.  1,180 1.0 1,110 45 20,787 5.7  
71 Natural or cultured pearls, precious or semi-precious stones, precious metals, metals clad with 
precious metal, and articles thereof; imitation jewellery; coin 1,491 1.2 1,142 348 258,876 0.6  
7102 Diamonds, whether or not worked, but not mounted or set. 787 0.6 724 62 75,468 1.0  
44 Wood and articles of wood; wood charco al 1,451 1.2 147 1,304 91,794 1.6  
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or not stripped of bark or sapwood, or roughly squared. 1,056 0.9 70 986 11,857 8.9  
24 Tobacco and manufactured tobacco substitutes 1,126 0.9 540 408 27,794 4.1  
12 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruits; miscellaneous gr ains, seeds and fruit; industrial or medicinal 
plants; straw and fodder 934 0.8 217 716 58,899 1.6  
1207 Other oil seeds and oleaginous fruits, whethe r or not broken. 768 0.6 162 605 2,230 34.4  
64 Footwear, gaiters and the like; parts of such articles 822 0.7 769 48 86,446 1.0  
6403 Footwear with outer soles of rubber, plastics,  leather or composition leather and uppers of 
leather. 583 0.5 557 23 42,850 1.4  
28 Inorganic chemicals; organic or inorganic compounds of precious metals, of rare-earth metals, 
of radioactive elements or of isotopes 795 0.6 355 284 93,145 0.9  
81 Other base metals; cermets; articles thereof 724 0.6 223 501 12,865 5.6  
8105 Cobalt mattes and other intermediate products of cobalt metallurgy; cobalt and articles 
thereof, including waste and scrap. 714 0.6 218 496 2,405 29.7  
52 Cotton 761 0.6 72 689 36,886 2.1  
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed. 702 0.6 59 643 11,407 6.2  
63 Other made up textile articles; sets ; worn clothing and worn textile artic les; rags 711 0.6 631 71 37,075 1.9  
6302 Bed linen, table linen, toilet linen and kitchen linen. 446 0.4 432 7 13,711 3.3  
40 Rubber and articles thereof 542 0.4 240 289 139,244 0.4  
4001 Natural rubber, balata, gutta-percha, guayule, chicle and similar natural gums, in primary 
forms or in plates, sheets or st rip. 512 0.4 227 272 19,574 2.6  
53 Other vegetable textile fibres; paper yarn and wove n fabrics of paper yarn 493 0.4 83 386 2,473 20.0  
99 Commodities not specified according to kind 416 0.3 390 25 169,178 0.2  
  Total of above 115,522 94.3 56,585 58,314 3,596,631 3.2  
a  Based on imports from LDCs by 120 countries and economies reporting their trade to the UN Comtrade database. 
Source :   WTO, based on UNS D Comtrade database.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 40 Annex Table 4:  Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2000-2010 
(million dollars and percentage) 
  All Commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Regions and major 
markets1 Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change 
  2000 2010 2010 2010 2000-
2010 2000 2010 2010 2010 2000-
2010 2000 2010 2010 2010 2000-
2010 2000 2010 2010 2010 2000-
2010 
Africa 1,181 8,239 100 13 21 425 1,325 16 19 12 455 4,999 61 20 27 297 1,908 23 -6 20 
South Africa 174 3,147 100 15 34 50 163 5 11 13 47 2,730 87 14 50 78 252 8 26 12 
Zambia 35 1,343 100 137 44 4 20 1 44 17 25 1,085 81 127 46 5 238 18 215 47 
Nigeria 120 886 100 -26 22 86 203 23 66 9 3 12 1 -70 14 31 671 76 -35 36 
Mali2 83 713 100 7 31 3 33 5 -54 35 52 514 72 51 33 28 166 23 -35 25 
Egypt 100 554 100 41 19 78 171 31 39 8 17 292 53 24 33 6 91 16 166 31 
Kenya 47 328 100 328 22 21 171 52 55 23 11 49 15 56 17 15 107 33 36 22 
Côte d'Ivoire 64 321 100 0 18 48 276 86 5 19 4 24 7 -16 20 11 21 7 -29 7 
Sudan3 25 247 100 27 29 10 34 14 253 15 2 88 36 - 51 14 122 49 -34 28 
Malawi 23 192 100 -54 24 9 103 54 8 27 3 12 6 -94 13 10 77 40 -41 22 
Ethiopia 247 142 100 40 -5 5 13 9 98 9 236 119 83 46 -7 5 10 7 -21 7 
Ghana2 137 134 100 8 0 30 17 13 -16 -7 31 23 17 45 -4 73 94 70 7 3 
Tanzania 17 97 100 53 19 2 34 35 57 30 4 30 31 40 24 11 34 35 62 12 
Morocco 53 60 100 -51 1 51 51 84 -41 0 0 0 0 - - 2 9 15 -16 19 
Mauritius 53 51 100 5 0 25 30 58 -18 2 20 11 21 177 -6 7 11 21 22 4 
Senegal 4 23 100 37 19 2 6 28 1 11 0 11 49 614 45 2 5 23 -40 13 
Americas 10,625 32,641 100 21 12 692 830 3 15 2 4,811 21,568 66 24 16 5064 9,963 31 16 7 
North America 10,167 30,597 100 19 12 556 800 3 17 4 4,530 19,756 65 20 16 5024 9,760 32 17 7 
US 9,825 26,488 100 17 10 495 681 3 20 3 4,486 17,389 66 17 15 4788 8,245 31 15 6 
Canada 288 3,798 100 38 29 36 83 2 5 9 44 2,315 61 46 49 207 1,297 34 27 20 
Mexico 54 312 100 20 19 25 36 11 10 4 0 52 17 35 66 29 218 70 17 23 
South and Central 
America 458 2,044 100 61 16 136 30 1 -26 -14 281 1,812 89 80 20 41 202 10 -9 17 
Brazil 179 1,143 100 127 20 80 18 2 106 -14 85 1,023 89 157 28 14 102 9 5 22 
Chile 102 553 100 158 18 0 0 0 -74 28 95 536 97 169 19 7 16 3 18 9 
Peru 7 229 100 0 43 2 1 0 -30 -6 4 223 97 1 49 1 5 2 -26 25 
El Salvador 1 31 100 118 37 1 1 4 329 10 0 28 93 115 98 1 1 3 84 2 
Venezuela 26 29 100 -50 1 19 0 1 -63 -38 0 0 1 -51 - 7 29 99 -50 15 
Argentina 25 25 100 -24 0 2 4 17 -38 9 16 0 1 -64 -34 7 20 82 -18 11 
Colombia 34 22 100 129 -4 33 2 9 -9 -24 0 1 6 - 46 1 19 85 151 34 
Costa Rica 2 5 100 7 11 0 0 10 -52 11 0 0 0 - - 2 4 90 71 11 
Uruguay 64 5 100 -94 -23 0 1 12 404 14 63 0 0 - - 1 4 88 38 19  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51
 Page 41  All Commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Regions and major 
markets1 Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change 
Guatemala 0 2 100 -93 22 0 1 67 -36 21 0 0 0 - - 0 1 33 -82 26 
Ecuador 19 1 100 -99 -25 0 0 28 -98 0 17 0 3 - -47 1 1 69 -81 -3 
Asia and Pacific 11,886 69,520 100 36 19 2702 7384 11 23 11 8,042 58,676 84 39 22 1,12
2 3,360 5 18 12 
China 4,007 43,309 100 58 27 274 2,445 6 55 24 3,650 40,414 93 58 27 83 448 1 50 18 
India3 1,202 8,540 100 24 24 617 2,114 25 13 15 293 5,583 65 41 39 287 838 10 -20 13 
Thailand 1,398 4,827 100 2 13 337 665 14 20 7 1,027 3,971 82 -2 14 27 191 4 74 22 
Chinese Taipei 660 3,875 100 115 19 91 121 3 31 3 539 3,698 95 122 21 29 56 1 29 7 
Japan 1,239 3,753 100 5 12 588 625 17 9 1 448 2,242 60 -3 17 200 870 23 35 16 
Korea, Republic of ,1828 2,465 100 44 3 74 149 6 15 7 1,691 2,015 82 42 2 64 300 12 88 17 
Malaysia 177 561 100 15 12 115 302 54 31 10 43 219 39 14 18 18 36 6 -45 7 
Singapore 585 495 100 -42 -2 158 98 20 -10 -5 239 248 50 -47 0 186 82 17 -1 -8 
Pakistan 157 460 100 22 11 131 370 80 38 11 18 61 13 -28 13 8 29 6 24 14 
Indonesia 178 430 100 -49 9 121 248 58 120 7 28 126 29 -82 16 29 55 13 26 7 
Hong Kong, China 227 368 100 -23 5 137 140 38 -7 0 3 30 8 59 26 87 197 53 -36 9 
Australia 172 302 100 27 6 27 51 17 45 6 59 26 9 570 -8 86 224 74 14 10 
Philippines 43 98 100 16 9 26 45 46 -1 6 4 42 43 83 27 13 9 9 -47 -4 
New Zealand 12 38 100 38 13 6 12 31 25 7 0 1 3 64 36 6 25 66 44 16 
Europe and CIS 12,477 30,093 100 6 9 2872 4,891 16 6 5 2,403 12,109 40 7 18 6863 12,508 42 3 6 
EU 27 11,902 28,683 100 7 9 2769 4392 15 5 5 2,237 11,833 41 10 18 6560 11,875 41 2 6 
Switzerland 100 295 100 17 11 33 95 32 21 11 3 0 0 5 -31 65 199 68 18 12 
Norway 244 215 100 -57 -1 12 25 12 28 8 3 14 6 -95 15 227 174 81 -7 -3 
CIS 231 900 100 26 15 59 378 42 17 20 160 262 29 22 5 11 259 29 50 37 
Russian 
Federation 134 677 100 29 18 37 298 44 15 23 86 156 23 35 6 10 223 33 50 36 
Ukraine 62 182 100 14 11 12 55 30 8 17 50 106 58 14 8 0 21 12 36 56 
Kazakhstan 4 13 100 -29 14 3 6 50 -19 7 0 0 1 -99 28 0 6 50 77 35 
Belarus 7 25 100 143 14 7 18 72 226 11 0 0 0 86 - 0 7 28 49 31 
Kyrgyzstan 0 2 100 53 19 0 0 0 - -48 0 0 0 - - 0 2 100 293 34 
Azerbaijan 24 1 100 11 -29 0 1 93 117 22 23 0 1 - -55 0 0 6 -88 25 
  1Regional totals are based on the information available, and may not coincide with aggregated trade figures elsewhere.  
 22000-2008 only, as neither 2009 nor 2010 data were available. 
32000-2009 only, as no 2010 data were available. 
Sources :  UN Comtrade database and Global Trade Information Services (GTIS). 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 42  
 
   
Annex Table 5:  Coverage ratios of imports by exports of the LDCs, 2000-2010 
(percentage) 
  
  2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 average 
2000-
2010 
LDC (Least-developed countries)a 83 94 102 102 104 82 95 92 
Agricultural exporters 40 33 32 33 32 32 33 34 
Afghanistan 12 16 16 18 18 12 10 12 
Benin 64 57 60 51 56 58 55 57 
Burkina Faso 34 37 45 37 34 48 63 42 
Burundi 34 22 14 18 14 16 20 19 
Central African Republic 138 73 78 71 50 40 41 73 
Comoros 33 12 9 10 5 9 9 15 
Ethiopia 39 22 20 22 19 21 26 23 
Gambia 8 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 
Guinea-Bissau 105 85 58 64 64 52 57 70 
Kiribati 9 6 10 14 21 31 11 12 
Liberia 49 42 34 40 30 27 33 40 
Malawi 71 44 45 51 52 60 56 56 
Rwanda 25 29 27 23 23 15 21 23 
Sao Tome and Principe 10 14 11 9 9 8 10 11 
Solomon Islands 75 56 56 56 64 62 56 62 
Somalia 56 49 44 49 48 54 49 51 
Timor-Lesteb 6 7 8 5 5 3 6 5 
Togo 65 62 58 55 60 53 52 60 
Uganda 26 40 38 38 38 37 35 37 
Vanuatu 30 25 22 22 18 19 17 22 
Fuel exporters 164 195 207 207 215 138 176 177 
Angola 261 289 363 325 305 180 249 260 
Bhutan 59 67 99 128 96 94 72 81 
Chad 58 324 248 204 228 115 133 156 
Equatorial Guinea 243 539 406 431 407 175 184 302 
Myanmar 69 198 179 191 162 153 182 148 
Sudan 116 71 70 101 125 84 114 95 
Yemen 176 104 110 74 72 68 90 92 
Manufacture exporters 65 61 65 60 56 57 56 60 
Bangladesh 72 67 74 67 64 69 69 68 
Cambodia 72 79 77 75 72 73 67 75 
Haiti 31 32 31 31 21 27 18 26 
Lesotho 27 46 46 44 44 37 37 42 
Madagascar 75 50 55 47 35 33 41 49 
Nepal 51 38 34 28 26 19 16 30 
Samoa 61 37 24 37 25 20 19 34 
Mineral exporters 69 68 84 78 74 73 85 76 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 118 89 94 91 102 90 118 99 
Guinea 109 104 108 99 98 99 114 104 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 62 63 83 86 78 73 89 75 
Mali 68 71 85 71 63 80 82 75 
Mauritania 78 44 117 88 92 96 112 85 
Mozambique 31 74 83 79 66 57 71 68 
Niger 72 52 54 58 54 45 43 52  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 43 
 
 
    2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 average 
2000-
2010 
Mineral exporters cont'd  
Sierra Leone 9 46 59 55 40 44 44 42 
Tanzania 48 51 45 42 43 46 47 47 
Zambia 100 71 123 115 101 114 135 105 
Diversified and others 42 36 35 28 28 34 35 35 
Djibouti 15 14 16 12 12 17 23 16 
Eritrea 8 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 
Maldives 28 22 24 21 24 17 18 23 
Senegal 61 45 43 34 33 43 45 44 
Tuvalu 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 
aWeighted average. 
b2003 instead of 2000, as no 200 0 data were available. 
Note :  Coverage ratio of imports by exports= (exports/imports*100). 
Source :  WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 44  
 
  Annex Table 6:  Major multilateral non-reciprocal  LDC preference schemes undertaken by Members
a 
 
Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Beneficiary(ie s) Coverage/margin  of 
preference References 
 
Australia 
 Duty- and quota-free 
entry. Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 LDCs  All products. WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada GSP – Least-developed 
Countries' Tariff 
Programme (LDCT) 
Entry into force: 
1 January 2003, 
extended until 
30 June 2014  LDCs  With the exception of over-
quota tariff items for dairy, 
poultry and egg products, 
Canada provides duty-free 
access under all tariff items for 
imports from LDCs. 
 WT/COMTD/W/159 
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1 
and Add.2 
 
China Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs LDCs  As of 1 July 2010, China has 
granted zero-tariff treatment to 4,762 tariff lines - which 
accounts for nearly 60 per cent 
of its total tariff lines. China 
intends to continue to expand 
this coverage with the aim of 
achieving the final objective of 
reaching 95 per cent of tariff 
lines under zero-tariff 
treatment.   WT/COMTD/W/164 
WT/COMTD/M/80 WT/COMTD/LDC/M/57 
EU GSP - Everything But 
Arms (EBA) initiative 
Entry into force:  
5 March 2001 
   LDCs  Since 1 October 2009, the 
EBA has been granting DFQF 
access for all products from all 
LDCs (except arms and 
ammunitions). The EU 
introduced revised rules of 
origin for the GSP, as of 1 
January 2011, simplifying 
rules specially for the LDCs.  WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2, 
Add.4 and Add. 5 
WT/TPR/S/214/Rev.1 
ec.europa.eu 
Iceland GSP – Tariff 
Preferences in Regard 
to the Importation of 
Products Originating in 
the World's Poorest 
Developing Countries  
Entry into force:  
29 January 2002  LDCs  
 Essentially all products with 
some exceptions in agricultural 
products (HS chapters: 04, 15, 
18, 19, 21 and 22) and non-
agricultural products (HS 
sub-headings:  3502 and 3823, 
and all of HS 16 with the 
exception of sub-headings 
1603 to 1605).  WT/COMTD/N/17 and 
Corr.1  
WT/TPR/S/164/Rev.1  
 
India   
 Duty-Free Tariff 
Preference Scheme 
(DFTP) 
Entry into force: 
13 August 2008 LDCs  Duty-free access on 
85 per cent tariff lines at HS 
6-digit level over a period of 
five years. WT/COMTD/N/38  
 
Japan GSP – Enhanced duty- 
and quota-free market 
access 
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007 
Extended till 2021 
 LDCs Duty-free access on 8,859 
tariff lines (or 98 per cent at 
the tariff line level), covering 
over 99 per cent in terms of the 
import value from LDCs. WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14  
and Add..15  
Korea, Rep. of  Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2000 LDCs As of January 2009, Korea has 
provided duty-free access to 
nearly 80 per cent of its tariff 
lines. WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1   
WT/GC/M/120 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
 Page 45 
 
 
  Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Beneficiary(ie s) Coverage/margin  of 
preference References 
 
Kyrgyz Republic Harmonized system of 
preference by the 
Eurasian Economic 
Community (EAEC) 
Entry into force:  
May 2001  LDCs Duty free for all imports.  WT/TPR/S/170/Rev.1
 
Morocco Preferential tariff 
treatment for LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2001 
 33 African LDCs  Duty-free access on 61 
products (at the HS 4 to 
10-digit level). 
Under the Global System of 
Trade Preferences among 
Developing Countries (GSTP), 
signed by Morocco, a special 
treatment is provided to LDCs. WT/LDC/SWG/IF/18 and 
G/C/6  
WT/TPR/S/217/Rev.1  
New Zealand GSP- Tariff  Treatment 
for LDCs Entry into 
force:  1 July 2001 
 LDCs All products. WT/COMTD/27, 
WT/GC/36  
WT/TPR/S/216/Rev.1  
Norway  GSP – Duty - and 
quota-free market 
access 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 LDCs All products.  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
Switzerland GSP – Revised 
Preferential Tariffs 
Ordinance  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007  LDCs Duty-free access for all 
products originating from all 
LDCs as of September 2009. TN/CTD/M/28 
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.2 
and Add.3  
Chinese Taipei Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs LDCs Limited duty-free access on 
items of LDCs. WT/TPR/S/232/Rev.1 
Turkey 
 GSP  
Entry into force:  
31 December 2005 LDCs Duties are eliminated for 
LDCs on the basis of EU's 
EBA Initiative. WT/TPR/S/192/Rev.1 
United States GSP for least-
developed beneficiary 
developing countries 
(LDBDC) 
Entry into force: 
1 January 1976.  The 
GSP reauthorization is 
awaiting confirmation 
by the Congress, as it 
expired on 
31 December 2010.   42 designated 
LDCsb Preferential duty-free 
treatment for over 3,451 
products from 129 designated 
beneficiary countries (BDCs) 
and territories, including 42 
least developed beneficiary 
developing countries 
(LDBDCs). An additional 
1,430 products are GSP-
eligible for LDBDCs.  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7 
WT/TPR/S/235/Rev.1 
www.ustr.gov 
 African Growth and 
Opportunity Act 
(AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000, extended 
until 
30 September 2015c 
 37 designated 
Sub-Saharan 
African Countries 
(including 24 
LDCsd) 1,835 products, available for 
duty-free treatment, in addition 
to products designated for 
duty-free treatment under 
GSP.e WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/TPR/S/235/Rev.1 
WT/L/754 
WT/L/818 and Corr.1 
 Caribbean Basin Trade 
Partnership Act 
(CBTPA) 
Entry into force:  
1 October 2000, 
extended until 
30 September 2020 17 designated 
beneficiaries 
(including one 
LDC, i.e. Haiti) in 
Central America 
and the Caribbean Duty-free for most products, 
including textiles and 
apparels.  The Haitian 
Hemispheric Opportunity 
through Partnership 
Encouragement (HOPE) Act 
of 2006 provided new trade WT/TPR/S/235/Rev.1 
WT/L/753 
WT/L/817 
www.ustr.gov 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51 
Page 46  
 
  Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Beneficiary(ie s) Coverage/margin  of 
preference References 
 
benefits, especially of apparel imports from Haiti.  The 
HOPE II Act of 2008 
enhanced duty-free treatment 
for qualifying apparel imports 
from Haiti.  The Haiti 
Economic Lift Program 
(HELP) Act of 2010 provided 
duty-free treatment for 
additional textile and apparel 
products from Haiti. 
 a This table represents a non-exhaustive list of non-reciprocal multilateral mark et access initiatives undertaken in 
favour of LDCs.  For those measures taken in favour of e xports originating from LDCs prior to 2001, see document 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38.   
 b Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burk ina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic, 
Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, East  Timor, Ethiopia, The Gambia , Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, 
Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Maurit ania, Mozambique, Ne pal, Niger, Rwanda , Samoa, São Tomé 
and Principe, Sierra Leone, Solomon Is lands, Somalia, Tanzania, Togo, Tuvalu , Uganda, Vanuatu, Yemen and Zambia. 
 c The Africa Investment Incentive Act of 2006 or AGOA IV extended the third-country fabric provision from 
September 2007 until September 2012;  added an  abundant supply provision;  designate d certain denim articles as being in 
abundant supply;  and allows le sser developed beneficiary Sub-Sa haran African countries to ex port certain textile articles 
under AGOA.  See more information on th e official AGOA website at:  www.agoa.gov 
 d Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Chad, Comoro s, Djibouti, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, 
Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Rwanda, São Tomé and Princi pe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, 
Tanzania, Togo, Uganda and Zambia. 
 e The LDCs eligible for AGOA apparel be nefits are:  Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Lesotho, 
Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Rwa nda, Senegal, Sierra Leone,  Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia.  
 
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