Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 27 
 
 
III. TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICES BY MEASURE 
(1) INTRODUCTION  
1. In general, Gabon applies the CEMAC acts with  respect to customs matters.  With a few 
exceptions, its customs duties are based on the CEMAC's common external tariff (CET).  All tariff 
rates are ad valorem  with a simple average of 18.2 per cent.  Gabon bound all its tariff lines at 15 per 
cent for some non-agricultural products and 60 per cent for other goods (including all agricultural 
products), with an average bound rate of 22.1 per cent.   For 39 per cent of tariff lines, the rate applied 
exceeds the bound rate. 
2. Other duties and taxes are also levied on impor ts.  The import surcharges that applied to 
around 25 tariff lines when Gabon's trade policy was firs t reviewed in 2001 have been abolished, with 
the exception of one line (wheat flou r).  The application of internal taxes (VAT and, where applicable, 
excise duty) does not appear, however, to respect the principle of national treatment. 
3. Gabon has made progress in computerizing its cu stoms procedures and in implementing the 
WTO Agreement on Customs Valuation;  technical assi stance is sought to help it improve its customs 
valuation procedures.  As a major importer of food products, Gabon imposes strict sanitary controls 
on such products at the customs cordon, but the measures taken fo r this purpose have not been 
notified to the WTO.  Gabon is one of the count ries whose facilities comply with the European 
Union's sanitary standards for fishery products.  As  regards non-food goods, standardization is in its 
early stages in Gabon.  The provisions on contingency measures have not yet been utilized. 
4. The export of okoumé and ozigo wood has not been a State monopoly since 2006.  In 
July 2007, Gabon introduced a quota system for exports  of logs in order to promote industrialization 
of the subsector.  The ambitious privatization pr ogramme has almost been completed, but the State 
still plays an important role in the economic fabric through its holdings in many enterprises.  Water, 
electricity, some port, airport, postal and trans port services, the import of certain goods (petroleum 
and pharmaceutical products, inter alia ) and the marketing of others (c ement, sugar, mineral water, 
beer and aerated beverages) are still monopolies.  In  several cases, privatization has resulted in the 
monopolies being transferred from State-owned ente rprises to private-law companies, although the 
activities concerned are not open to competition.  An administrative price control regime applies to 
petroleum products, water, electricity, as well as so me essential goods (sugar, bread, textbooks).  In 
2002, the government procurement regime was substantially modified in order to bring it into line with the relevant international rules;  it is expected that improvements will be made to the 
implementation procedures. 
5. Gabon's industrial property regime has been  harmonized with the provisions of the 
WTO TRIPS Agreement through the implementation of  the revised Bangui Agreement (1999);  this 
regime has been reviewed by the TRIPS Council.   However, Gabon's copy right and related rights 
regime has not yet been updated.  The authoritie s are finding it difficult to enforce intellectual 
property rights and lack resources to tack le piracy and infringement effectively. 
(2) M
EASURES DIRECTLY AFFECTING IMPORTS  
(i) Registration 
6. As with any other commercial activity in Gabon, a " fiche circuit " (trader's card), issued by the 
Agency for the Promotion of Private Investment (APIP), is required for exercising the profession of 
trader.  The APIP carries out the necessary procedur es on behalf of operators, for example, obtaining 
technical authorization from the Ministry of Trade,  listing in the commercial register and registration WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
Page 28 
 
 
with the Directorate General of Taxation.1  These requirements are the same for natural and legal 
persons, whether Gabonese nationals  or foreigners;  for nationals, however, the fees are lower.2  
Traders must also possess a business licence.3 
(ii) Customs procedures 
7. Since 2001, Gabon has applied the CEMAC Customs Code.4  The suspensive customs 
regimes provided for in the Code include:  transit;  regular or special temporary admission (one third of the value of imports in 2006)
5;  and in-bond warehousing.  The processing or suspensive economic 
regimes are:  inward processing;  outward processing ;  and drawback.  The Mandji Island free zone in 
Port Gentil remains at the project stage.6  The other customs regimes are:  import or release for 
consumption;   export;  and re-export.  The Code is administered by the customs authority in each 
member State.  In Gabon's case, customs cl earance procedures must be completed by 
CEMAC-approved customs agents.7 
8. The provisions of the WTO Agreement on Customs Valuation are repeated without change in 
the CEMAC Customs Code.8  Gabon has made progress in implementing the Agreement and has used 
its methodology since 12 July 20049;  nevertheless, it maintains a reservation regarding the order of 
the procedures to be used if the transaction value is rejected (Chapter II(3)(i)).10  Gabon seeks 
technical assistance in building its cap acity in this respect (Annex II.1). 
                                                      
1 Ordinance No. 10/89 of 28 September 1989. 
2 The fees are as follows:  for individual undertakings, CFAF 45,000 for Gabonese nationals and 
CFAF 95,000 for foreigners;  for companies, CFAF 95,000 for Gabonese companies and CFAF 200,000 for 
foreign companies. 
3 Annexes I and II to the General Tax Code (January 2007 edition) define the professions and the fees 
for the related licences. 
4 Regulation No. 5/01-UDEAC-097-CM-06.  This Code includes the relevant provisions of the Central 
African Customs and Economic Union (CACEU/UDEAC) on customs valuation (Act No. 2/98-UDEAC), and 
on procedures for clearing goods if there are doub ts concerning their valu e (Act No. 4/98-UDEAC). 
5 Special temporary admission requires the paymen t of customs duties and taxes according to the time 
during which the material and equipment concerned are used in Gabon, plus an interest rate (Article 167 of the 
CEMAC Customs Code). 
6 Law No. 10/2000 of 12 October 2000. 
7 Gabon does not apply Article 113 of the CEMAC Customs Code, which allows the owners of the 
goods to complete customs formalities for imports themselves.  Gabon requires a permanent deposit of 
CFAF 25 million for exercise of the profession of approved customs agent. 
8 Title 1, Chapter IV, Section 4 of the CEMAC Customs Code. 
9 Service Note No. 668/MEFBP/CABME/SG/DGDDI of 12 July 2004. 
10 If the value declared by the importer is not accep ted, the WTO Agreement pr ovides for use of one of 
the following methods:  the transaction value of identical goods (Article 2);  the transaction value of similar 
goods (Article 3);  the value subject to deduction (Article  5);  the computed value (Article 6);  or the last 
recourse method (Article 7).  The foregoing valuation methods must be used in the order in which they are 
listed.  Nevertheless, Article 4 of the Agreement provid es that an importer may request that the order of 
application of Articles 5 and 6 be reversed.  In its notif ication to the WTO, Gabon stated that it reserved the 
right to decide whether Article 4 of the Agreement would apply only if  the customs authorities accede to the 
request for reversal of the order of application of Artic les 5 and 6.  Gabon explains this reservation by the 
difficulty in practice of valuing imported goods on the basis of the computed value provided in Article 6 because of the inadequate k nowledge of the cost elements and refusal by the expor ting country to provide them.  
Gabon considers that the systematic reversal of the order of application of Articles 5 and 6 of the Agreement 
could cause bottlenecks and it only accepts reversal  if the computed value method is possible. Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 29 
 
 
9. Gabon has notified that it has no preshipment inspection regime.11  All imports must be the 
subject of a "detailed declaration" accompanied by the following:  the original invoice;  the bill of lading, i.e. the contract between the consignor and the carrier;  the packing list, which provides a full 
description of the content of the shipment;  insura nce;  the cargo identification note (BIC) issued by 
the Gabonese Shippers' Council
12;  the certificate of origin (the EUR 1 form for products of European 
Union origin);  for food products, a certificate that they are free of radioactive contamination;  a phytosanitary certificate for products of plant origin ;  and a sanitary certificate for products of animal 
origin.
13  The duties and taxes are paid either by means of a clearing credit or by direct payment (in 
cash or by certified bank cheque). 
10. As a complement to the SINDARA+ system, th e new ASYCUDA system makes it possible to 
draw up a computerized provisional declaration as  soon as the goods arrive.  As was the case when 
Gabon's trade policy was first reviewed, there is a fee (RUSID) for using the customs computer 
system, calculated on the basis of the time taken to enter the data needed to process the documentation.
14  All the main customs offices have been  computerized and the authorities indicate 
that for some 85-90 per cent of the volume of customs transactions are computerized. 
11. Using a risk assessment system, some customs agents have access to the "green channel", 
which allows the goods to be cleared when the simp lified import declaration (DIS) is submitted;  the 
customs authorities allow acce ss to this channel on an annual renewable basis.15  The DIS must be 
supplemented by the definitive declaration with in 15 days.  This procedure also meets the 
requirements of imports such as perishable products.  For other customs agents, approval to clear the 
goods is based on the documentation, random insp ections (some 20 per cent of declarations not 
eligible for the green channel) or following a full in spection.  In principle, the time taken for clearance 
is two days after the customs declaration has been submitted, accompanied by all the requisite documents. 
12. As regards customs disputes, Gabon applies th e relevant provisions of the CEMAC Customs 
Code.
16  These cover cases in which the customs authoriti es contest the indications in the declaration 
concerning the type, origin or value of the goods .  The procedure starts with a notice from the 
authorities to the person submitting the declaration, and within 24 hours the latter must inform the 
authorities whether he accepts or rejects the assessment made by the customs authorities.  If he rejects 
it, the matter is brought before the National Director of Customs, who takes a decision.  If the latter's 
decision is contested, the dispute is referred to the Joint Arbitration Commission, a CEMAC body, for 
arbitration.  If the latter's decision is contested, the matter goes to the CEMAC Council of Ministers.  
If the person making the declaration still does not ac cept the assessment made by customs, an appeal 
may be made to the judicial authorities of the Community. 
                                                      
11 WTO document G/PSI/N/1/Add.10 of 19 July 2004. 
12 Since 1 June 2005, the Gabonese Shippers' Council (CGC) has once again required a BIC.  This must 
be obtained from a CGC agent in the country where the goods are loaded.  The fees for a BIC are as follows:  
US$120 for goods shipped from the United States or Asia;  €30 for France, and €45 to €61 for other European 
Union countries.  Consulted at:  www.otal.com/gabon/gabonpsi.htm [10 May 2007]. 
13 Maison de l'Afrique (2003).  See also, French Embassy in Gabon, Economic Mission (2005f). 
14 Decree No. 917/PR/MFEBP-CP of 24 June 1997. 
15 Order No. 362/MFBP/DG.DDI/DG of 29 October 1987. 
16 Articles 130 and 131 of the CEMAC Customs Code. WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
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(iii) Rules of origin 
13. Gabon does not have any national rules of origin  for non-preferential purposes.  However, as 
a member of the CEMAC Customs Union (Chapter II(3)(c)), in principle it applies the Community 
rules of origin for non-preferential purposes.17 
14. In order to apply the CEMAC generalized preferential tariff (GPT)18, Community origin is 
conferred on:  (a) products wholly obtained in the CEMAC member States19;  (b) local products;  or 
(c) products substantially transformed within the CEMAC.20  Community origin is in principle 
conferred on industrial products in which at least 40 per cent of the total value of the raw materials 
utilized is composed of raw materials of Commun ity origin.  This is attested by the CEMAC 
movement certificate, completed by the company concerned and authenticated by the customs 
services in the country of origin of the goods;  cu stoms agents in the importing country within the 
CEMAC may travel abroad to verify the content of such certificates.  Once the GPT of the ECCAS 
comes into effect (Chapter II(3)(b)), other rules of origin will in principle apply at the CEMAC level 
and could bring this threshold down to 35 per cent.21 
(iv) Customs levies 
15. Goods imported into Gabon under the release for consumption regime are subject to various 
import duties and taxes.22  The taxable base is the c.i.f. value.  In 2006, customs revenue amounted to 
CFAF 255 billion, of which 89 per cent came from va rious import duties and taxes and the rest from 
exports.  The total amount of goods released for co nsumption was CFAF 903 billion;  consequently, 
the rate of collection of import duties and taxes (inc luding internal taxes) was 25 per cent, which is 
close to the 24 per cent calculated at the time of the first review in 2001.23  The main customs levies 
on imports are:  customs duty (45 per cent);  valu e-added tax (VAT) at 18 pe r cent (49 per cent) and 
excise duty (2 per cent);  other duties and taxes ( section (c)), for example, the CEMAC's Community 
integration tax (TCI), the Community integration contribution (CCI) of the ECCAS and the levy for the OHADA (4 per cent of the total) (Table III.1). 
Table III.1 
Customs revenue by item, 2004-2006 
(in CFAF) 
 2004 2005 2006 
Total payments 205,984,894,246 221,129,747,264 255,053,623,022 
Export duties and taxes 29,655,993,774 28,451,743,912 28,969,730,565 
Export duty 29,572,315,485 28,405,141,819 28,921,143,366 
   Table III.1 (cont'd)  
                                                      
17 Article 22 of the CEMAC Customs Code. 
18 Article 12 of Act No. 7/93-UDEAC-556-CD-SE1, whose provisions are clarified by Circular 
No. 471/SG/DUD. 
19 For example, minerals taken from the soil or the seabed, the products of agriculture, fishing and 
hunting or products wholly manufactured from such products without any imported input. 
20 Act No. 7/93-UDEAC-556-CD-SE1, amended by Act No. 1/98-UDEAC-1505-CD-61.  Products 
obtained in free zones and free areas of the CEMAC are subject to the CET and to internal taxes both in the 
country where they  are produced and in the other member States. 
21 Decision No. 03/CEEAC/CCEG/XI/04 defines rules of origin that determine 35 per cent as the 
threshold for the inclusion of raw materials of Community origin. 
22 The import duties and taxes in effect in Gabon have not been communicated to the IDB 
(WTO document G/MA/IDB/2/Rev.25 of 26 March 2007). 
23 WTO document WT/TPR/S/86 of 28 May 2001, Chapter III(1)(iii)(e). Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 31 
 
 
 2004 2005 2006 
Tax on mineral products 60,199,423 46,583,271 48,568,108 
Interest on arrears 23,444,706 8,054 0 
Customs stamp 34,160 10,767 19,091 
Import duties and taxes 176,328,900,472 192,678,003,352 226,083,892,457 
VAT 84,623,105,695 89,709,321,284 110,006,094,570 
Customs duty 79,406,372,130 89,552,684,023 102,012,682,009 
Import duty 14,470,754 0 0 
TCI 4,262,314,444 463,142,776 5,585,669,602 
Excise duty 4,065,900,088 4,201,631,456 4,429,579,455 
Claims 2,581,251,972 1,780,943,687 824,665,906 
CCI 0 1,889,682,712 2,307,735,707 
Interest on arrears 815,822,076 678,968,151 573,183,254 
Temporary surcharge 388,874,047 0 0 
OHADA levy 0 213,249,263 290,284,974 
Measuring instruments 77,290,400 20,380,000 24,321,400 
Warehouse charges 81,967,323 0 29,675,580 
TCA imports 7,013,318 n.a. n.a. 
Supplementary tax 3,336,910 n.a. n.a. 
CCE contribution 675,045 n.a. n.a. 
Shippers' Council contribution 506,270 n.a. n.a. 
n.a. Not applicable. 
Source : Gabonese authorities. 
(a) MFN applied tariff 
16. Gabon's tariff comprises 5,776 eight-digit tariff lines from the 2002 text of the Harmonized 
Commodity Description and Coding System (HS) (Table  AIII.1).  In the main, the tariff is based on 
the CEMAC's CET.  All rates are ad valorem  and vary according to the cat egory of pro duct:  cultural 
products covered by the Florence Agr eement adopted by UNESCO (zero tariff)24;  staple commodities 
(5 per cent);  raw materials and capital goods (10 pe r cent);  intermediate and other goods (20 per 
cent);  and final consumer goods (30 per cent).  Gabon applies rates that are lower than those in the 
CET to many tariff lines25, but also rates that are higher than those for many CET lines.26  These 
derogations from the CEMAC's CET are a response to social concerns or demands by economic 
agents. 
17. In 2007, the simple arithmetic average of the rates applied was 18.2 per cent (Table III.2).  
The average tariff of 21.9 per cent on agricultural products (WTO definition) is higher than the 
17.6 per cent on non-agricultural products (excl uding petroleum products).  Using the ISIC 
(revision 2) definition, agriculture remains the most  highly protected sector (with an average tariff of 
23.7 per cent), followed by manufacturing (17.9 per cent) and mining (11.3 per cent).  Agricultural 
products account for a large proportion of consumer  spending, especially by those on low incomes, 
and their heavy tax burden adds to their costs. 
                                                      
24 Act No. 28/94-UDEAC-556-CD-56. 
25 Medicines, medical appliances and equipment;  corr ective spectacles;  laminated products in iron or 
steel;  minibuses. 
26 Wheat flour or meslin;  biscuits;  various paints and varnishes. WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
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Table III.2 
MFN tariff structure, 2007 
   MFN tariff Uruguay Round 
1 Bound tariff lines (as a percentage of all tariff lines)a 100.0 n.a. 
2 Duty-free tariff lines (as a percen tage of all tariff lines) 2.2 0.0 
3 Non- ad valorem tariffs  (as a percentage of all tariff lines) 0.0 0.0 
4 Tariff quotas (as a percentage of all tariff lines) 0.0 0.0 
5 Non- ad valorem  tariffs with no AVEs (as a percen tage of all tariff lines) 0.0 0.0 
6 Simple average tariff rate 18.2 22.1 
 Agricultural products (WTO definition)b 21.9 59.8 
 Non-agricultural products (WTO definition)c 17.6 15.5 
 Agriculture, hunting and forestry (ISIC 1) 23.7 44.5 
 Mining and quarrying (ISIC 2) 11.3 15.0 
 Manufacturing (ISIC 3) 17.9 20.1 
7 National tariff peaks (as a percentage of all tariff lines)d 0.0 0.0 
8 International tariff peaks (as a percentage of all tariff lines)e 49.2 15.9 
9 Overall standard deviati on of applied rates 9.8 16.4 
10 Nuisance duties (as a percentage of all tariff lines)f 0.0 0.0 
n.a. Not applicable. 
a Gabon only bound the DDI at the WTO. 
b WTO Agreement on Agriculture. 
c Excluding petroleum. 
d National tariff peaks are duties that are higher than three time s the simple average of all the rates applied (indicator 6). 
e International tariff peaks are duties that exceed 15 per cent. 
f Nuisance rates are those of over 0 per cent but not exceeding 2 per cent. 
Source : WTO Secretariat calculations  based on data provided by the Gabonese authorities. 
18. The coefficient of variation of 0.5 indicates m oderate dispersion of tariff rates, with around 
45 per cent of tariff lines at a rate of 10 per cent (Chart III.1).  Overall, the tariff shows mixed 
escalation, negative for raw materials (because of the relatively high degree of protection afforded to 
agricultural products), with an average level of protection of 19.9 per cent for semi-finished goods 
(average level of protection of 14. 6 per cent), and then positive with an average tariff of 19.9 per cent 
on finished products (Table III.3). 
19. A more detailed breakdown shows mixed escalati on, with average rates that are relatively 
lower on semi-finished products in the food industr y (including beverages and tobacco), non-metallic 
mineral products, inter alia  (Chart III.2);  and relatively higher average rates on semi-finished 
products in the wood and wood articles industries.  There is positive escalation in the other industries.  
Such a tariff structure either discourages investme nt in certain industries (processing industries) or 
reduces the competitiveness of some of Gabon' s processed products in foreign markets 
(Chapter IV(4)).  The tariff structure does not  therefore encourage economic diversification. Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
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(2.1)(3.6)(45.1)
(12.3)(36.9)
05001,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,500
Duty free 5 10 20 300102030405060708090100Chart III.1
Breakdown of MFN applied tariffs, 2007
Number of tariff lines Percentage
Number of lines
Cumulative percentage (right-hand scale)
Note:          The figures within brackets correspond to the percentage of total lines.
Source :   WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the Gabonese authorities. 
05101520253035Chart III.2
Tariff escalation, 2007
Percentage
Not applicabl eUnprocessed
productsSemi-processedproductsFinished products
Note:           The groups of products are defined by the two-digit ISIC
Source :     WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the Gabonese authorities.
All product s
Agricultur e
Mining an d
quarryin g
Food product s
Textiles an d
clothin g
Wood an d
articles of wood
Paper and articles o f
paper;  printing an d
publishin g
Chemicals
Non-metalli c
mineral product s
Basic metal
industr y
Articles of metal,
machinery an d
equipment
Othe r
manufacturin gNot applicabl e
 WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
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Table III.3 
Summary of tariffs, 2007 
Customs duty in 2007 
Description Number of 
lines Number of 
lines used Simple average 
duty 
(percentage) Range of duty 
(percentage)Standard 
variation 
(percentage) CV Imports 2004 
(US$ 
millions) 
Total 5,776 5,776 18.2 0-30 9.8 0.5 959.3a 
By WTO categoryb               
Agricultural products 862 862 21.9 0-30 10.2 0.5 226.9 
Live animals and animal products 103 103 20.0 5-30 9.0 0.4 53.9 
Dairy products 28 28 22.9 5-30 11.5 0.5 23.5 
Coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar, etc. 203 203 25.0 0-30 9.2 0.4 36.1 
Cut flowers and plants 40 40 10.0 5-30 5.1 0.5 0.9 
Fruit and vegetables 174 174 29.6 5-30 3.1 0.1 12.3 
Cereals 27 27 12.0 5-30 10.9 0.9 44.0 
Oilseeds, fats and oils 73 73 19.4 5-30 10.6 0.5 18.4 
Beverages and alcohol 63 63 28.4 0-30 5.4 0.2 17.2 
Tobacco 13 13 19.2 10-30 10.4 0.5 17.6 
Other agricultural products 138 138 12.9 5-30 8.1 0.6 3.0 
Non-agricultural products 
(excluding petroleum) 4,893 4,893 17.6 0-30 9.5 0.5 710.4 
Fish and fish products 135 135 23.7 5-30 5.3 0.2 9.9 
Minerals, precious stones and 
metals 345 345 18.8 0-30 10.6 0.6 33.6 
Metals 636 636 15.9 5-30 7.9 0.5 97.8 
Chemicals and photographic 
products 903 903 11.4 0-30 6.7 0.6 108.6 
Leather, rubber, footwear and 
travel articles 169 169 20.5 0-30 10.4 0.5 25.8 
Wood, wood pulp, paper and 
furniture 410 410 22.9 0-30 10.2 0.4 36.6 
Textiles and clothing 868 868 22.5 0-30 8. 6 0.4 19.1 
Transport equipment 167 167 15.1 0-30 8.9 0.6 113.0 
Non-electrical machinery 552 552 12.2 0-30 5.6 0.5 148.4 
Electrical machinery 255 255 16.7 10-30 7.8 0.5 78.1 
Non-agricultural products n.e.s. 453 453 22.4 0-30 10.5 0.5 39.5 
By ISIC sectorc         
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and 
fishing 491 491 23.7 5-30 9.7 0.4 36.5 
Mining and quarrying 113 113 11.3 0-30 5.4 0.5 2.7 
Manufacturing 5,171 5,171 17.8 0-30 9.6 0.5 920.1 
By stage of processing        
Raw materials 840 840 19.9 0-30 10.2 0.5 82.5 
Semi-finished products 1,847 1,847 14.6 0-30 7.7 0.5 102.7 
Finished products 3,089 3,089 19.9 0-30 10.2 0.5 774.1 
a The total imports exceed the su m of the sub-lines because some products, amounti ng to US$5.6 million, are not classified in t he 
Harmonized System. 
b There are 21 tariff lines for petroleum produc ts that have not been taken into account. 
c International Standard Classification of All Economic Activitie s (Rev. 2).  Excluding electricity, gas and water (one tariff line). 
Note: CV = coefficient of variation. 
Source : Estimates by the WTO Secretariat, based on data prov ided by the Gabonese authorities;  and the Comtrade 
database of the United Nations Sta tistical Division on imports in 2005. 
(b) Other import duties and taxes 
20. Other import duties and taxes are imposed on the c.i.f. customs value of imported goods.  
These are the CEMAC TCI at 1 per cent, applicable to imports originating in non-CEMAC countries;  
the 0.4 per cent CCI of the ECCAS, applicable to imports originating in non-ECCAS countries;  and Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 35 
 
 
the 0.05 per cent OHADA levy.  The surcharge, which affected 25 tariff lines at the time of the first 
review of Gabon's trade policy in 200127, is no longer applied. 
(c) Bindings 
21. During the Uruguay Round, Gabon bound all the tariff lines in its Schedule of 
Concessions XLVII, annexed to the GATT 1994.  Th ese bindings were at a ceiling of 60 per cent for 
tariffs on agricultural products and 15 per cent for those on non-agricultural products, with the 
exception of a few tariff lines bound at 60 per cent;  the "other duties and taxes" were bound at a 
ceiling of 150 per cent. 
22. In 2007, the rates applied to 2,229 tariff lines (38.6 per cent of Gabon's tariff) are higher than 
those bound in Gabon's Schedule XLVII.  This is the case for many non-agricultural products, in 
particular, for which the applicable rates are 20 or  30 per cent, thus higher than the bound rate of 
15 per cent.  This problem of consistency already aro se at the time of the first review of Gabon's trade 
policy in 2001. 
(d) Internal taxes 
23. Since 1994, Gabon has applied VAT, the standard  rate for which in 2007 is 18 per cent.28  In 
accordance with the CEMAC regulations29, VAT is levied on goods released for consumption, 
irrespective of their origin (including goods of CE MAC origin).  The taxable base for imports is the 
customs value plus customs duty and excise duty, wh ere applicable, whereas for local products it is 
the ex-factory price.30  Some staple commodities, whether imported or produced locally, are in 
principle exempt from VAT.31  Other goods, whether imported or produced locally, are subject to a 
reduced VAT rate of 10 per cent.32  Some local products are taxed at a lower rate of 10 per cent or are 
exempt from VAT, unlike competing imports (Table III.4);  this deviation from the principle of national treatment already existed at the time of the first review of Gabon's trade policy in 2001.  It should also be noted that some companies are given a lower rate of 10 per cent or exemption from VAT for their output under customs taxation agreements .  Exports are subject to the zero rate regime 
(section (3)(ii)). 
                                                     
 
27 WTO document WT/TPR/S/86 of 28 May 2001, Chapter III, Table III.1. 
28 Article 177, General Code of Direct an d Indirect Taxes, January 2007 edition. 
29 Act No. 1/92-UDEAC-556-CD-SE1, amended by Act No. 4/94-UDEAC-556-CD-SE1 and Act 
No. 1/96-UDEAC-556-CD.  The VAT rate may be between 15 and 18 per cent (standard rate) and the zero rate applies to exports and international transport services. 
30 Articles 171 and 172, General Code of Direct  and Indirect Taxes, January 2007 edition. 
31 Article 166, General Code of Direct and Indirect Taxes, January 2007 edition.  These include the 
following goods, inter alia :  liquid, powdered, concentrated, sweeten ed and non-sweetened milk;  margarine, 
butter and yoghurt;  newspapers and newsprint;  exercise books and textbooks;  bread, flour, yeast and gluten;  
rice;  medicines and pharmaceuticals;  canned sardines, pilchards and macker el;  edible pasta;  edible oils 
manufactured locally (see Table III.3);  salt;  capital goods to be used in agriculture and stockbreeding (except 
for the forestry and fishery subsectors);  capital g oods and personalized supplies for approved tourist hotel 
companies. 
32 Article 177, Code of Direct and Indirect Taxes,  January 2007 edition.  These include the following 
goods, inter alia :  mineral water produced in Gabon (see Table III.3);  imported meat and poultry (see 
Table III.3);  imported chickens (see Table III.3);  im ported table oil (see Table III.3);  sugar, imported 
groundnuts (see Table III.3);  cement;  washing powder, concrete reinforcing rods;  fishing equipment;  
outboard motors;  spare parts for automobiles;  automobile axles;  building tiles;  steel tips:  raincoats:  tomato concentrate;  canned dried vegetables, green vegetables and fruit. WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
Page 36 
 
 
24. In accordance with the CEMAC regulations33, Gabon levies excise duty on alcoholic 
beverages, perfumes and cosmetics and cigarettes and tobacco.  In 2007, the rates were:  20 per cent 
on local or imported beer, 25 per cent on local or imported wine, 32 per cent on champagne and other 
alcoholic beverages;  25 per cent on perfumery and co smetic products;  25 per cent on caviar, foie 
gras and salmon;  and 30 per cent on cigarettes, cigars  and tobacco.  It is indicated that the taxable 
base for locally-produced products (in practice, ci garettes manufactured by SOCIGA, beer and wine 
produced by SOBRAGA) is the ex-factory price befo re tax, with a 30 per cent deduction, whereas the 
taxable base for imported products is the customs va lue plus the customs duties and taxes, with the 
exception of VAT.34 
Table III.4 
Differences in internal taxation of imported and local products, 2007 
Product VAT (Local products) VAT (Imports) 
Groundnuts 0 10 
Coffee 0 18 
Cocoa 0 18 
Pork, beef, mutton and other meat 0 10 
Chicken 0 10 
Ducks and poultry 0 10 
Eggs 0 18 
Fresh, frozen, smoked, salted fish 0 18 
Cassava 0 18 
Plantains 0 18 
Bananas 0 18 
Yams, taro, potatoes 0 18 
Various fruits and vegetables 0 18 
Table oils 0 10 
Mineral waters 10 18 
Note: Does not include VAT exemptions or the lower VAT rate  for products made by local companies under customs taxation 
agreements (for example, SIGALI, SIAT-Gabon, SUCAF-Gabon, etc.). 
Source : Code of Direct and Indirect Taxes, 2007 edition. 
(e) Preferences 
25. In principle, Gabon grants preferences under the CEMAC generalized preferential 
tariff (GPT) (Chapter II(3)(c)).35 
                                                      
33 Act No. 1/92-UDEAC-556-CD-SE1, as amended by Act No. 4/94-UDEAC-556-CD-SE1 and Act 
No. 1/96-UDEAC-556-CD.  Tobacco, tobacco prod ucts (HS chapter 24) and alcoholic beverages 
(HS chapter 22) are compulsorily subj ect to excise duty;  other products may be included in the list (for 
example, perfumes and cosmetics).  The rate of excise duty is freely decided by each member State within a 
range of zero to 25 per cent. 
34 Annex, General Code of Direct and Indirect Taxes, January 2007 edition. 
35 Pursuant to Decision No. 03/CEEAC/CCEG/XI/04,  the GPT is to be introduced over three and 
half years from 1 July 2004 to 1 January 2007.  The deduction is:  100 per cent for traditional handicrafts and 
local products other than mining products, as of 1 July 2004;  for mining products and manufactures, the 
deduction is 50 per cent as of 1 July 2004, 70 per cent as of 1 January 2005, 90 per cent as of 1 January 2006 and 100 per cent as of 1 January 2007. Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 37 
 
 
(f) Duty and tax exemptions and concessions 
26. Gabon allows entry free of customs duties and taxes for gifts to the Head of State, imports by 
diplomatic missions and charita ble organizations, among others.36  It allows suspension of duties and 
taxes for goods in transit, those under the regular or  special temporary admission regime or in in-bond 
warehouses.  Exemptions from customs duties and ta xes are granted to approved enterprises under the 
special SME/SMI regime (Chapter II(4)), the Forestry Code (Chapter IV(2)(ii)), the regime applicable 
to investment in tourism (Chapter IV(5)(ii)), co mpanies engaged in oil pr ospecting and exploration 
operations (Chapter IV(3)(i)), as well as various  companies under customs taxation agreements.37  
Government procurement financed by exte rnal funds is exempt from customs duty. 
27. In all, the amount of customs exemptions was CFAF 80.3 billion in 2006, meaning a shortfall 
of around 36 per cent of customs revenue from im ports.  In 2006, exemptions and lower duties on 
materials and equipment needed for oil prospectin g and exploration operations accounted for some 
91 per cent of the total amount of customs exemptions (Table III.5). 
Table III.5 
Customs exemptions, 2002-2006 
Product 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 
Reduced rate under agreements (o il/mining) 29.5 19. 5 34.7 42.5 41.4 
Exemptions, Act 13/65 15.1 19.3 9.2 10.1 17.2 
Exemptions under agreements (oil/mining) 8.9 7.8 7.8 11.9 14.5 
Exemptions under special agreements 0.5 1.0 1.2 2.5 2.9 
Exceptional exemptions 4.5 4.3 1.7 2.9 1.8 
Exemptions, other legal provi sions 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.7 0.7 
Government procurement exemptions 1.2 0.4 2.3 1.8 0.6 
Exemption from VAT 1.1 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 
Exemptions, CACEU acts 3.1 4.5 3.4 0.3 0.3 
Stabilized regime 0.3 0.9 0.8 2.3 0.2 
Reduced rate other than under agreements 1.4 1.1 0.2 0.6 0.2 
Other 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 
Total revenue shortfall 65.7 60.1 62.5 75.8 80.3 
Source : Gabonese authorities. 
(v) Prohibitions, quantitative restrictions and licensing 
28. In principle, import and export activities are unrest ricted, subject to the regulations in effect.38  
Nevertheless, Gabon imposes prohib itions and licensing for imports of the common categories of 
arms, explosives and narcotics.  For example, ther e is a ban on importing weapons of war, which can 
only be done by the Ministry of Defence;  an authorization from the President of the Republic is required to import sidearms;  and imports of huntin g weapons and ammunition must be authorized by 
the Ministry of the Interior.  Narcotics imports  are prohibited and the import of explosives is 
regulated. 
                                                     
 
36 Article 276 of the CEMAC Customs Code. 
37 Article 15 of the 2004 Finance Law stipulates that , with the exception of legally established regimes, 
"fiscal benefits of any nature granted to natural or legal persons under regulations, administrative decisions or 
conventions, without parliamentary approval, shall be abolished as of 1 January 2004". 
38 Law No. 14/98 of 23 July 1998, Article 4. WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
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29. Gabon also imposes prohibitions and licensing pursuant to the multilateral environmental 
agreements it has signed.39  Within the country, hunting permits must conform to the provisions of the 
Convention on International Trade in  Endangered Species of Wild Fa una and Flora (CITES) and this 
rule consequently also applies to official expor ts of hunting trophies.  At the customs cordon, Gabon 
has applied control measures on ozone-depleting subs tances since 1 January 2005 in accordance with 
the common framework adopted by the countries be longing to the CEMAC.  It also applies the 
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Cons ent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals 
and Pesticides in International Trade and the C onvention on the Prohibition of Development, 
Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons  and on their Destruction.  Implementation of 
the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollu tants is under way.  Gabon has not yet ratified 
the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, but it applies a bilateral agreement with France on this subject. 
30. Since its first trade policy review, Gabon h as notified the WTO of the abolition of all 
quantitative import restrictions, except those on suga r, for which the time-limit was the end of 2004
40;  
this time-limit was not observed, however, and the prohibition was extended until the end of 2007.  
The extension was granted in response to a request  by the private company SUCAF-Gabon, the sole 
producer and holder of the monopoly on the import and marketing of sugar in Gabon.41  From 2008 
onwards, this prohibition will affect  sugar imports from countries out side the CEMAC, in accordance 
with the regulations of the CEMAC Common Market Organization (CMO) for sugar (Chapter II(3)(ii)(c)). 
31. Gabon is one of the largest markets for medicin es per capita in Africa.  Medicines can only be 
imported by the Gabon Medicines Board (OMG) and they usually enter duty-free and tax-free for 
social reasons (section (iv)(a)).  The introduction of new pharmaceuticals on Gabon's market requires their registration together with an operating author ization given by the Ministry of Health on the 
recommendation of the World Health Organization, following examination of the administrative and 
technical background file.
42  The operating authorization is valid for five years. 
32. Gabon is not one of the 46 participants in the Kimberley Process for trade in rough 
diamonds43, but regulates the import, certificati on and marketing of rough diamonds.44  For the time 
being, Gabon does not produce rough diamonds.  In  addition, the import of cellphones and other 
communications equipment must in principle be authorized by the Regulatory Authority for Telecommunications. 
(vi) Standardization, accreditation and certification 
33. Gabon has not made any notification to the WTO regarding its standardization regime or its 
accreditation and certification procedures.  It has, neve rtheless, indicated that such a regime has been 
introduced through the creation of the Standardi zation and Technology Transfer Centre (CNTT)
45, 
which became operational in January 2007.  Th e CNTT has drawn up an action programme for 2007-
2008, whose priorities are standardization in the are as of health, consumer sa fety and environmental 
                                                      
39 Environmental Treaties and Resource Indicators (ENTRI), Country profile:  Gabon, Consulted at:  
sedac.ciesin.org/entri/Countr yISO.jsp [24 April 2007]. 
40 WTO document G/LIC/N/1/GAB/2 of 13 March 2002. 
41 This ban was introduced in 1999 at the request of SUCAF-Gabon, which took over the assets of the 
State-owned enterprise Société sucrière du Haut-Ogooué (SOSUHO), wh en it was privatized. 
42 French Embassy in Gabon, Economic Mission (2005d). 
43 Consulted at:  www.kimberleyprocess.com [15 July 2007]. 
44 Decree No. 190/PR/MMEPRH of 17 February 2004. 
45 Ordinance No. 3/PR/2005 of 11 August 2005. Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 39 
 
 
protection.  It should also be noted that a subreg ional standardization project is under preparation at 
the CEMAC level.  Gabon has been a member  of the International Organization for 
Standardization (ISO) since 1 July 2007. 
(vii) Sanitary and phytosani tary (SPS) measures 
34. The same sanitary regulations apply to domestic  products and to imports and exports of any 
type of food product.46  These ban the sale of any food that has passed its sell-by date, or is 
adulterated or toxic, as well as food that does not meet  the standards in force (for example, the sale of 
non-iodized salt).  In principle, a product inspected  and certified abroad is not inspected again in 
Gabon unless there are doubts concerning its quality.  The control and quality laboratory undertakes 
this task for foodstuffs.  Gabon has also  introduced animal health standards47, a sanitary inspectorate 
for their enforcement48, and sanitary standards for meat, the slaughter of animals, and fish products.49  
There is a phytosanitary inspectorate for imports a nd exports of plants and the packaging used to 
transport them.50  The importer must pay the inspection and control costs. 
35. Foodstuffs of avian or porcine origin and th eir by-products are the subject of a special 
procedure in order to prevent the outbreak of avian influenza.51  They must be the subject of a prior 
import declaration and are inspected without charge within a period not exceeding 48 hours after their 
arrival in Gabon.  Gabon has suspended the impor t of meat products and their by-products from 
countries declared by the World Organization for Animal  Health to be infected with avian influenza.  
In July 2007, this ban affected the United Kingdom;  Hungary;  Cameroon;  and Nigeria. 
(viii) Rules on packaging, marking and labelling 
36. In Gabon, eggs must be marked.52  All perishable foodstuffs, cosmetics or pharmaceuticals 
sold must also bear a label in French showing thei r origin, the time-limit for their consumption or use, 
and the specification of the substances used.53  The metric system and the French language are 
mandatory in Gabon. 
(ix) Contingency measures 
37. When its trade policy was first reviewed , Gabon already had some provisions on anti-
dumping measures, adopted under the national competiti on regime (section (4)(ii)).  According to the 
regulations in force, after hearing the opinion of the Competition Commission, the Government may 
take contingency measures or impose surcharges on products whose import threatens to cause injury 
to an existing domestic industry or jeopa rdizes the start-up of a domestic industry54;  however, the 
                                                      
46 Ordinance No. 50/78 of 21 August 1978. 
47 Law No. 15/65 of 12 December 1965. 
48 Law No. 73/77 of 15 December 1977. 
49 Law No. 15/65 of 12 December 1965. 
50 Law No. 2/65 of 5 June 1965. 
51 Presidential Decree of 28 October 2005. 
52 Pursuant to Article 73 of Law No. 15/65 of 12 D ecember 1965, the word "egg" is restricted to hens' 
eggs, whereas eggs from other animals must be marked "egg, followed by the name of the bird which laid it". 
53 Article 30, Law No. 14/98 of 23 July 1998. 
54 Law No. 14/98 of 23 July 1998.  "The scope is explicitly stated as the Members of the WTO.  
However, the essential elements of the WTO Agreements on this subject are missing in relation to definitions, 
modalities, procedures and application of duties.  For example, on the subject of the WTO Agreement on the 
Implementation of Article VI, the decree does not contain all the elements laid down for the determination of dumping (Article 2), nor the existence of injury (Artic le 3), nor the method for instituting and conducting an WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
Page 40 
 
 
Competition Commission has not yet been establishe d and no contingency measures had been adopted 
by Gabon by July 2007.  According to the notifications to the WTO, Gabon has not yet taken any anti-dumping measures.
55 
(x) Other measures 
38. The authorities have notified the WTO that no trade-related investment measures (TRIMs) 
have been taken.56  No agreement has been signed with fo reign governments or companies with a 
view to influencing the volume or value of goods  or services exported to Gabon.  Likewise, the 
authorities are not aware of any such agreements  between Gabonese and foreign companies.  Gabon 
complies with the international trade sanctions d ecided by the United Nations Security Council and 
the regional bodies to which it belongs. 
(3) MEASURES DIRECTLY AFFECTING EXPORTS  
(i) Customs procedures 
39. The registration formalities applicable to the import of goods for commercial purposes also 
apply to export (section (2)(i) above).  All exports re quire a customs declarati on.  A "green channel" 
for simplified export declarations (DES) is available for perishable goods such as wood, coffee and 
cocoa;  the customs authorities allow access to  this channel on an annual renewable basis.57  The DES 
must be supplemented by the definitive declaration w ithin 15 days.  A fee (RUSID), based on the time 
taken to enter the data needed to process the documentation, is levied.58  A document showing the 
foreign exchange commitment, endorsed by the bank with which the transaction is domiciled, is also 
required for all export transactions.  The foreign ex change commitment consists of the obligation to 
repatriate export earnings from countries outside th e CEMAC and to convert them into CFA francs 
within 30 days following shipment of the goods. 
40. The holders of permits for operating hydrocar bon deposits may export their output freely.  
Pursuant to the Mining Code and its implementing decree59, mining products may be freely exported 
if the mining company holds an operating permit or a concession for the mining product concerned;  if this is not the case, an export authorization issued by  the Minister of Mines is required.  The export of 
precious substances requires a certificate of origin issued at a cost of CFAF 50,000 for diamonds and 
CFAF 25,000 for other precious substances, as we ll as endorsement by the customs authorities. 
(ii) Export duties and taxes 
41. Gabon has abolished most of its export duties and taxes.  Only logs and manganese are 
subject to export tax of 17 per cent and 3.5 per cent of their reference value, respectively. 
(iii) Prohibitions, quantitative restrictions , export controls and licensing 
42. Gabon has taken the necessary measures to impl ement the various multilateral environmental 
agreements (section (2)(v)).  Hunting permits incl ude the right to export the carcasses and trophies of 
                                                                                                                                                                    
 
investigation, nor the duration of measures."  (WTO document WT/TPR/S/86 of 28 May 2001, Chapter III, 
paragraph 59.) 
55 WTO document G/ADP/N/65/Add.1/Rev.6 of 25 October 2005. 
56 WTO document G/TRIMS/N/2/Rev.9/Add.2 of 8 March 2002. 
57 Order No. 362/MFBP/DG.DDI/DG of 29 October 1987. 
58 Decree No. 917/PR/MFEBP/CP of 24 June 1997. 
59 Law No. 05-2000 of 12 October 2000, as amended, and the implementing decree for the Mining Code. Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 41 
 
 
the common game hunted.  In addition, the marketi ng of okoumé and ozigo wood has been liberalized 
and since 2006 has no longer been a State monopoly.60  With the aim of encouraging the processing of 
wood in Gabon, a new Forestry Code (2001) requires all holders of forestry permits to respect a 
minimum processing quota, the level of which is de termined annually in an order issued by the 
Minister of Water Resources and Forests.  The objec tive is gradually to reach a figure of 75 per cent 
for processing of logs produced as of 2012 (Chapter  IV(2)(v)).  According to the authorities, this 
scheme should start to operate in July 2007.  It al so appears that the authorities support certification of 
timber from forests exploited in accordance with environmental sustainable management criteria (for example, those of the Forest Stewardship Council)
61 in order to meet importers' expectations. 
(iv) Sanitary and phytosanitary measures 
43. The sanitary regulations (section (2)(vii)) also a pply to exports.  Special regulations apply to 
fishery products unloaded in Gabon and then exported.62  Gabon is on the positive list of countries 
from which the EU accepts imports of fisher y products, under its regime based on the Hazard 
Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principle.63  Since the first trade policy review in 2001, 
Gabon has moved from List II to List I of countries authorized to export to the EU64 and undergoes 
annual sanitary inspections in order to remain on this list. 
(v) Export subsidies, promotion and assistance 
44. Exports are eligible for the zero VAT rate regi me.  VAT is refunded at the request of the 
economic agents concerned;  the repayment peri od is three months.  Under the CEMAC Customs 
Code, customs duties may be suspended for expo rt-oriented activities under the inward processing 
regime, and the same applies to materials and e quipment under the temporary admission regime.  The 
drawback regime allows full or partial refund of import duties and taxes levied on inputs used in 
goods exported.65 
45. The Mandji Island free zone (ZFI), envisaged at the time of the first review of Gabon's trade 
policy, has still not started to operate. 
(4) MEASURES AFFECTING PRODUCTION AND TRADE  
(i) Incentives 
46. Gabon's notification to the WTO on subsidies and aid dates from 2001 and indicates that no 
aid or subsidies contrary to its commitments under the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing 
Measures or under the GATT 1994 are granted.66  Around 20 per cent of the State's annual budget 
goes to finance "transfers and aid"67, including CFAF 13.9 billion in subsidies in 2006.68  In addition, 
in 2006 a subsidy amounting to CFAF 110 billion was given to the Gabonese Refining Company 
                                                      
60 Decree No. 488/PR/MEFEPPN of 22 May 2007. 
61 International Tropical Timber Organization (2006). 
62 The products of fishing in Gabon's exclusive econo mic zone by ships register ed abroad, either under 
the Agreement with the EU or under that with Japan, and not destined for Gabon, must meet the sanitary 
requirements of the country in which they are unloaded. 
63 This regime has been implemented by Council Directives 91/493/EEC and 93/43/EEC. 
64 By Decision 2002/26/EC of 11 January 2002 of the European Commission. 
65 Law No. 10/2000 of 12 October 2000. 
66 WTO document G/SCM/N/71/GAB of 7 June 2001. 
67 World Bank (2006). 
68 Ministry of the Economy, Finance, Budget a nd Privatization (2006a), accompanying the rectified 
Finance Law for 2006, 7 July 2006. WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
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(SOGARA) (Chapter IV(3)(ii)).69  Other support measures are provided to companies approved under 
the SME-SMI regime (Chapter II(4)), the Forestry Code (Chapter IV(2)(iii)(x)), the Mining Code (Chapter IV(3)(i)), the oil prospecting and explora tion regime (Chapter IV(3)(ii)), or the special 
regime for tourism investment (Chapter IV(5)(ii)).   In principle, private-law companies must pay 
35 per cent tax on their profits, lowered to 20 per cent for government establishments and approved 
real estate promotion companies, and to 18 per cent for the Gabonese Development Bank.  Public services such as electricity (Chapter IV(3)(iii)), wa ter (Chapter IV(3)(iv)), urban transport services 
(Chapter IV(5)(i)) and postal services (Chapter IV(5)(iii)) also receive State support.  The 
privatization programme has also written off the lia bilities of the companies concerned (section (iv)). 
(ii) Competition and price control regime 
47. Gabon's regulatory framework for competition dates from 1998 and has not changed since.
70  
The law prohibits anti-competitive pr actices such as unlawful unders tandings or abuse of a dominant 
market position71 and certain trade practices72, including dumping (section (3)(ix)).  Economic 
concentration73 must be notified to the Minister of the Economy, who may decide, after having sought 
the opinion of the Competition Commission, to prohibit or accept it under certain conditions.  
Nevertheless, the planned Competition Commission has not yet been set up and the regulatory 
framework is not therefore in effect. 
48. Gabon's price control regime dates back to 196374 and was made more flexible by the 
1998 competition law75, which laid down the general principle of free pricing and trade within Gabon;  
prices must be transparent and an invoice must be pr epared and issued to the buyer.  The Government 
may control the price of goods and services if competition is distorted, particularly in sectors where 
monopolies have been established.  It may also take  any measures needed to  prevent excessive price 
increases in crisis situations or if the market is not  operating normally.  The regime is administered by 
the Directorate-General of Competition in the Ministry  of Trade.  In practice, the prices of petroleum 
products (Chapter IV(3)(ii)), pharmaceuticals s upplied by the State and medical and surgical 
equipment, medical eyewear, oxygen and acetylene, urban land transport an d bread (weighing 200 g) 
are determined by regulation. 
49. The Government reserves "the right to review " prices set by economic agents for water and 
electricity (for which the formulas used to modify  prices are determined in the concession agreement 
with the SEEG) (Chapter IV(3)(iii)), textbooks and re nt.  It also has a "right to review" prices for 
goods that are the subject of a monopoly, for exam ple, sugar sold by the private-law company 
SUCAF-Gabon, cement sold by the private-law company CIMGABON, flour (weighing 1 kg) sold by 
the SMAG, yoghurt in pots (weighing 125 g) produced by the private-law company SIGALLI, edible oil produced by the private-law company SIAT-Gabon, mineral water produced by the private-law company EAULECO, and local beer produced by the private-law company SOBRAGA 
                                                     
 
69 IMF (2006e). 
70 Law No. 14/98 of 23 July 1998. 
71 Understandings of minor importance are not covered by the scope of the law;  the following are 
automatically considered as being of minor importance:  understandings between producers of goods and 
services and their distributors when th ey do not account for more than 5 per cent of the domestic market;  or the 
turnover of participating comp anies does not exceed the thre shold of CFAF 150 million. 
72 According to Chapter (2), section (2) of Law No. 14/98 of 23 July 1998, the practices concerned are:  
selling at a loss, refusal to sell, sales subject to conditio ns, so-called "snowball" sales, discriminatory terms of 
sale, minimum prices or para-commercial practices (for example, selling on the public highway). 
73 According to Article 33 of Law No. 14/98 of 23 July 1998, the threshold for such concentration is 
25 per cent of sales, purchases or transactions on the domestic market for the product or service in question. 
74 Law No. 29/63 of 15 June 1963. 
75 Law No. 5/89 of 6 July 1989 and Law No. 14/98 of 23 July 1998. Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 43 
 
 
(Chapter IV(3)(iii)).  Prices for these categories of  goods were already controlled at the time of the 
first review of Gabon's trade policy in 2001. 
(iii) State trading, State-owned enterprises and privatization76 
50. Gabon has not notified the WTO of any State-trading enterprises within the meaning of 
Article XVII of the GATT.  Nevertheless, in area s where there are concessions (namely, the capital 
and urban centres), the private-law Gabon Energy  and Water Company (SEEG) holds a monopoly on 
the transport, distribution, import and export of el ectricity (Chapter III(3)(iii)) and on the production, 
transport and distribution of water (Chapter IV(3)(iv)).  Gabon Télécom holds a monopoly on the supply of basic telecommunications services for a period of five years until 2012.  The monopoly for 
refining petroleum has been given to SOGARA, which also has a monopoly on imports of petroleum 
products.  The private-law company SOBRAGA has a monopoly on the production of beer and aerated beverages;  the private-law compan y SMAG has the monopoly for importing wheat and 
producing flour;  and AGROGABON (taken over by SIAT-Gabon) holds a monopoly on the production of edible oils, as well as the import and ma rketing of edible oils of non-CEMAC origin.  
The private-law company SUCAF-Gabon has the monopoly for marketing sugar in Gabon and the 
private-law company CIMGABON has the monopoly for marketing cement.  The private-law 
company EAULECO has a de facto monopoly on mi neral water production in Gabon.  The monopoly 
for supplying certain postal services belongs to La Poste (Chapter IV(5)(iv).  The OMG is the public 
body responsible for supplying Gabo n's public hospitals with medicines.  Since its first trade policy 
review, Gabon has abolished the monopoly held by the Gabon National Timber Company (SNBG) for 
the export of okoumé and ozigo wood. 
51. Despite the ambitious programme entrusted to th e Interministerial Privatization Commission 
since 1997
77, the State still plays an important role in Gabon's economy (Table III.6).  The State set up 
some 25 large State-owned companies and built up a portfolio of minority stakes through the obligation to cede 10 per cent of stak es under the former Investment Code
78, as well as through its 
activities under the Code on Equity Stakes.79  Consequently, in July 2007, the State still had stakes in 
some 160 companies active in almost all sectors of the economy.  It is planned to put some of these 
minority stakes into a common investment fund.  The State also possesses infrastructure that is the 
subject of concessions (railways, ports, airpor ts, water and electricity networks, hotels). 
52. In addition to the water and electricity concessi on given to the SEEG (Chapter IV(3)(iii)), and 
SUCAF-Gabon's buyout of SOSUHO (Chapter IV(4)), si nce the first trade policy review, the State's 
withdrawal from economic activities in Gabon involve d the following in particular:  in 2000, the sale 
of 75 per cent of Ciments du Gabon to Scancem International, leading to the creation of 
CIMGABON, Gabon's sole producer of cement;  in  2001, the sale of the Gabon Forestry Company 
(CFG), the country's largest producer of plywood, to  Cora Wood;  in 2002;  the concession for the 
Transgabonais Railway Board (OCTRA) was ende d and a 30-year concession was granted to a 
subsidiary of the Ogooué Mini ng Company (COMILOG), which takes manganese out by rail;  and 
EAULECO was sold to the Castel Group;  in 2004; the concession given to the Gabon Ports and 
Harbours Board (OPRAG), which managed the po rts at Libreville-Owendo and Port-Gentil, was 
                                                      
76 This section is mainly based on information provided by the authorities and the following 
documents:  "La privatisation au Gabon", Gabon, March 2007.  Consulted at:  www.legabon.org 
[27 April 2007];  French Embassy in Gabon, Economic Mi ssion (2005b);  French Embassy in Gabon, Economic 
Mission (2006h). 
77 Law No. 1/96 of 13 February 1996.  See Ministry of the Economy, Finance, Budget and 
Privatization (1999). 
78 Law No. 41/72 of 10 June 1972. 
79 Law No. 8/83 of 31 December 1983. WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
Page 44 
 
 
transferred to Progosa Investment y Puertos de las Palmas (PIP) for 25 years;  and the company SIAT 
took over the assets of the Gabon Hevea Develo pment Company (HEVEGAB), AGROGABON and 
the Nyanga Ranch (SOGADEL).  In February 20 07, the privatization of 51 per cent of Gabon 
Télécom concluded with a bid won by Maroc Télécom,  which became the State's strategic partner for 
fixed telephony. 
53. The State is currently continuing to liquidate  Gabon Poste and has established La Poste to 
provide public postal service.  The liquidation of Air Gabon (with substantial liabilities) started in 
March 2006 and continues in 2007;  the State has tr ansferred the traffic rights and other privileges 
previously held by Air Gabon to the new company Gabon Airlines, a private-law company.  Ground 
handling at Libreville airport has been awarded to the concession-holder, Gabon Handling, under an 
exclusive arrangement for 20 years.  According to the authorities, these various transactions were the 
subject of prior studies on the available options (liquidation by selling off the assets and writing off 
the liabilities, privatization, or reorganization).  In general, invitations to tender were issued;  the 
private treaty method was used in only a few cases. 80 
Table III.6 
State holdings in the capital of companies, July 2007 
Sector of activity Company Percentage of equity 
shares owned by 
the State Total State equity shares 
(in local currency) 
Agriculture/livestock SMAG 34.00 510,000,000 
Timber CFA 1.00 50,000 
  EGG 0.60  
  ROUGIER GABON 1.23 14,790,688.5 
  SBL 1.00 4,000,000 
  SEFO 1.00 2,000,000 
  SNBG 51.00 2,040,000,000 
  THANRY CEB 4.10 63,037,500 
Mining COMILOG 25.00 10,202,898,125 
Hydrocarbons MOBIL OIL 10.00 54,650,000 
  TOTAL GABON 25.00 10,710,000,000 
  TOTAL MARKETING 10.00 26,500,000 
  SGEPP 25.00 225,000,000 
  SOGARA 25.00 300,000,000 
  PIZOLUB 52.83 464,338,000 
  SHELL GABON 25.00 3,750,000,000 
  FORAID GABON 10.00 1,000,000 
  PIZO SHELL 10.00 187,500,000 
Automobiles HERTZ CAR 10.00  
  CFAO GABON 2.00 42,801,800 
  TECHNOTO 10.00  
Transport ADL 26.50 540,600,000 
  
 Table III.6 (cont'd) 
 
                                                      
80 SOSUHO, EAULECO and the Gabon Forestry Comp any (CFG).  The sale of the State's share 
(49 per cent) in the National Lighterage and Transit Comp any (SNAT) to the majority  shareholder, the Bolloré 
Group, will also be effected by private treaty. Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 45 
 
 
Sector of activity Company Percentage of equity 
shares owned by 
the State Total State equity shares 
(in local currency) 
  DHL 10.00 1,000,000 
  HELI GABON 10.00 3,000,000 
  SAM GABON 10.00 40,000,000 
  SNAT 51.00 306,000,000 
  SOCOPAO 10.00 6,003,000 
  ASECNA NATIONALE 100.00  
  OPRAG 100.00  
  CNI 100.00 5,000,000 
  PSM 100.00 10,000,000 
  SDV 3.00 135,450,000 
Public works COLAS GABON 10.00 8,100,000 
  DRAGAGES 10.00 122,500,000 
  SOBEA GABON 10.00 5,000,000 
  SOGAPRA Liquidation  
  SITRAM 10.00 10,000,000 
  SNGE 30.00 15,000,000 
Trade/industry/services GABOSEP 10.00 2,000,000 
  GABON MECA 10.00 40,000,000 
  PHARMACIE LES 
FORESTIERS 10.00 12,000,000 
  SRMG 10.00 1,000,000 
  CHIMIE GABON 10.00 15,100,000 
  COGIMEX 9.64 1,600,240 
  GPL 30.00 118,800,000 
  NESTLE GABON 10.00 34,400,000 
    
  SOCIGA 10.00 33,500,000 
  SOVINGAB 10.00 5,000,000 
  SOGAMAR 10.00 2,000,000 
  BERNABE GABON 10.00 100,000,000 
  COTEGA 1.71 10,773,000 
  DAVUM GABON 6.45 14,190,000 
  MATERIAUX DU GABON 20.00 44,000,000 
  MIAG SA 10.00 6,000,000 
  CIM BATON 25.00 4,750,000,000 
  LBTPG 100.00  
  CECA-GADIS 9.10 79873,885 
Commercial banks BGFI 8.00 2,005,230,080 
  BICIG 26.35 362,000,000 
  UGB 26.90 1,990,600,000 
Development banks BGD 69.01 17,390,520,000 
Insurance companies AXA GABON 7.97 43,041,985 
  GRAS SAVOYE 7.30 6,664,900 
   Table III.6 (cont'd)  WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
Page 46 
 
 
Sector of activity Company Percentage of equity 
shares owned by 
the State Total State equity shares 
(in local currency) 
  OGAR 8.52 78,384,000 
Other finance companies  S OGACA/SOGABAIL 12.17 132,691,944 
Posts and telecommunications GABON TELECOM 49.00  
  LA POSTE 100.00  
Social services CNSS 100.00  
  CNGS 100.00  
Other AFRICA No1 35.00  
  GABON INFO 73.59  
  SONAPRESS 73.00  
  SNI 70.14 876,750,000 
Note: Excludes real estate and State infrastruc ture that is the subject of a concession. 
Source : Gabonese authorities. 
(iv) Government procurement 
54. Since the first trade policy review, Gabon's govern ment procurement regime has been revised 
and the Code adopted in 2002 takes into account  certain relevant international standards.81  
Nevertheless, it is still incomplete and is not system atically observed by all ministries, even though 
there has been significant progress since 2004;  the institutional framework for administering 
government procurement has a number of shortcomings.82  Gabon is neither a party nor an observer to 
the WTO Plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement. 
55. In principle, the Code applies to purchases by the State, local authorities, public institutions, 
State bodies whose resources come from government f unds (with the exception of the Ministry of 
Defence), and enterprises in which the State has a majo rity financial stake (Table III.6).  In practice, 
however, the latter do not apply the Code and have th eir own procedures;  the same applies to local 
authorities, particularly for their expenditure  on rotating regional independence celebrations ( fêtes 
tournantes ).  The threshold for applying the Code is a minimum of CFAF 30 million 
(CFAF 10 million for local authorities).  Procurement fina nced by external funds is also subject to the 
Code unless the clauses in the relevant financing agreement specify otherwise. 
56. The Directorate-General of Government Procur ement (DGMP) is responsible for ensuring 
compliance with the regulations and, if necessary, for completing them.83  To that end, the DGMP is 
responsible for creating a database on the methods fo r awarding procurement contracts.  It controls 
procurement of over CFAF 30 million and under CFAF 500 million.  The DGMP also settles disputes.  
The National Government Procurement Commission (CNMP) is responsible for approving government procurement exceeding CFAF 500 million.
84  The DGMP and the CNMP do not have 
sufficient human and financial resources to fulfil all their responsibilities and their capacity needs 
strengthening.85 
                                                      
81 Decree No. 0001140/PR/MEFBP of 18 December 2002. 
82 World Bank (2006);  and IMF (2006e). 
83 Decree No. 1102/PR/MEFBP of 4 October 2003. 
84 Decree No. 1044/PR/MEFBP of 1 October 2003. 
85 World Bank (2006). Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 47 
 
 
57. In principle, procurement contracts are awarded through an open (national or international) or 
selective invitation to tender or "exceptionally"  through direct agreement (private treaty).  
Nevertheless, many procurement c ontracts are still awarded by direct agreement, although the number 
fell substantially between 2004 and 2006 (Table III.7).  Approximately 54 per cent of the 731 cases 
dealt with by the DGMP in 2006 concerned direct agreement (53 per cent of the amount of 
procurement covered by the new contracts, est imated to amount to CFAF 165 billion).  The 
authorities expect invitations to tender to become the main method of awarding government procurement contracts as the ministries become more familiar with the regulatory framework in 
effect.
86  In principle, open invitations to tender must be brought to the attention of economic agents.  
Since early 2007, they have been published on line on a dedicated government procurement site.87  
Gabonese bidders are given preferences. 
Table III.7 
Intervention by the Directorate-General of Government Procurementa, 2004-2006 
2004 2005 2006 
 
Number Amount Number Amount Number Amount 
Total contracts processed 182 74 403 148 941 228 
Direct agreement 160 51 192 88 396 88 
Invitation to tender 22 23 187 52 335 77 
Renewal of multi-year 
procurement 0 0 24 8 165 57 
Administrative autonomy 0 0 0 0 40 6 
Disputes 0 0 0 0 5 0 
a Government procurement relating to th e investment budget, the operating budget, the highway maintenance fund, rotating 
regional independence celebrations ( fêtes tournantes ) and common expenditures. 
Source : Gabonese authorities. 
(v) Protection of intellectual property rights 
(a) Overview 
58. Gabon is a member of the African Intellectual Property Organization (OAPI/AIPO), set up by 
the Bangui Agreement (1977).88  It ratified the revised Bangui Agreement (1999) on 
27 December 1999.  This Agreement is directly  applicable in Gabon pursuant to its Constitution 
(Chapter II(1)) as an automatically enforceable St ate law.  In addition to the revised Bangui 
Agreement (1999), Gabon has national legislation on  copyright and related rights, dating from 1985, 
which has not been updated since the first review of its trade policy.89  This set of regulations was 
examined by the TRIPS Council at its session on 27 and 28 November 2001.90 
59. At the same time as the revised Bangui Agreemen t (1999) entered into force, Annexes I to 
VIII also came into effect covering the followi ng: patents (Annex I), utility models (Annex II), 
                                                      
86 In 2006, the DGMP was obliged to regularize 130 government procurement contracts for a value of 
CFAF 18 billion awarded before the budget came into effect.  Regularization was through direct agreement. 
87 DGMP, information online.  Consulted at:  www.marchespublics.gouv.ga [27 April 2007]. 
88 The Bangui Agreement (1997) established the Afri can Intellectual Property Organization (OAPI) to 
replace the African and Malagasy Indust rial Property Office, set up in 1 962.  The members of the OAPI are 
Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Repub lic, Chad, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, 
Gabon, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Togo.  See:  http://www.oapi.wipo.net. 
89 Law No. 1/87 of 29 July 1987. 
90 WTO documents IP/Q/GAB/1, IP/Q2/GAB/1, IP/Q3/GAB/1, IP/Q4/GAB/1 of 18 May 2004. WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
Page 48 
 
 
trademarks and service marks (Annex III), industria l designs (Annex IV), trade names (Annex V), 
geographical indications (Annex VI), copyright and related rights (Annex VII),  and protection against 
unfair competition (Annex VIII).  Annex X on new plant varieties, which must be patentable pursuant 
to Article 27 of the WTO TRIPS Agreement, entered into force on 1 January 2006.  The 
OAPI Administrative Council has deferred the entry in to force of Annex IX dealing with layout-
designs (topographies) of integrated circuits, for which protection must be provided under Article 35 
of the TRIPS Agreement, because of the lack of the necessary competence to examine applications for 
protection that might be filed under this Annex. 
60. The revised Bangui Agreement (1999) does no t in principle allow parallel imports.91  
Nevertheless, an ex officio licence may be granted when  this is of vital interest to the economy of the 
country, public health or national defence.92 
61. The revised Bangui Agreement (1999) contains provisions on the penalties for infringement 
of intellectual property rights (Table III.8) and the national authorities are responsible for imposing 
them.  For repeat offences, terms of imprisonment of  one to six months are provided.  The penalties 
may only be imposed by the competent Office of the Public Prosecutor on the basis of a complaint by 
the injured party. 
Table III.8 
Fines and terms of imprisonment und er the revised Bangui Agreement (1999) 
Offence Bangui Agreement (1999) 
Infringement of patents Fine of CFAF 1,000,000 to 3,000,000 and, if the o ffence is repeated, a term of imprisonment of 
1 to 6 months 
Infringement of utility models Fine of CFAF 1,000,000 to 6,000,000 and, if the o ffence is repeated, a term of imprisonment of 
1 to 6 months 
Unlawful exploitation of registered trademarks Fine of CFAF 1,000,000 to 3,000,000 and a term  of imprisonment of 3 months to 2 years 
Unlawful use of compulsory marks 
and prohibited signs Fine of CFAF 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 and a term  of imprisonment of 15 days to 6 months 
Infringement of rights in industrial 
designs Fine of CFAF 1,000,000 to 6,000,000 and, if the o ffence is repeated, a term of imprisonment of 
1 to 6 months 
Infringement of rights in trade names Fine of CFAF 1,000,000 to 3, 000,000 and/or a term of imprisonment of 3 months to 2 years 
Infringement of rights in appellations 
of origin Fine of CFAF 1,000,000 to 6,000,000 and/or a te rm of imprisonment of 3 months to 1 year 
Layout-designs (topographies) of 
integrated circuitsa Fine of CFAF 1,000,000 to 6,000,000 and/or a term of imprisonment of up to 6 months 
Protection of new plant varieties Fine of  CFAF 1,000,000 to 3,000,000 and/or a term  of imprisonment of 1 to 6 months 
a The regime under the revised Bangui Agreement is not in force. 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
(b) Industrial property 
62. In undertaking the revision of the Bangui Agre ement, the member States of the OAPI wished 
"to make its provisions consistent with the require ments of international intellectual property treaties 
to which the member States belong, in particular  the TRIPS Agreement;  to simplify procedures for 
issuing titles;  to broaden the scope of prot ection;  and to make good certain legal gaps".93  T h e  
subjects and terms of protection ha ve been harmonized with the provisions of the TRIPS Agreement 
(Table III.9). 
                                                      
91 Revised Bangui Agreement (1999), Article 7. 
92 Ibid., Article 56. 
93 OAPI (undated). Gabon WT/TPR/S/188 
 Page 49 
 
 
Table III.9 
Subjects and terms of protection under the revised Bangui Agreement (1999) 
Subject Protection under the Bangui Agreement (1999) 
Patents 20 years 
Utility models 10 years 
Trademarks or service marks 10 years, renewable every 10 years 
Industrial designs 5 years, renewable twice 
Trade names 10 years, renewable every 10 years 
Copyright Lifetime of the author + 70 years 
Films, radio and audiovisual programmes 70 years 
Photographs 25 years 
Related rights for performances 50 years 
Related rights for phonograms 50 years 
Related rights for radio broadcasts 25 years 
Layout-designs (topographies) of integrated 
circuitsa 10 years 
Protection of new plant varieties 25 years 
a Annex XI to the revised Bangui Agreement regime is not in force. 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
63. For each of its member States, the OAPI serves as the national industrial property office and 
provides a common system of administrative procedures for registering rights.  The procedure 
commences with the filing of an application which,  in the case of applicants domiciled outside the 
OAPI member States, must be submitte d to the OAPI, either through an  agent appointed in one of the 
member States or under the procedures laid down in the Patent Cooperation Treaty.94  For persons 
domiciled in Gabon, applications are filed with the Industrial Property Centre of Gabon (CEPIG) 
(within the Ministry of Trade)95, which acts as the national structure for liaison (SNL) with the OAPI.  
The CEPIG mostly deals with applications to file trade names (Table III.10). 
Table III.10 
Industrial property titles registered by the CEPIG, 2002-2006 
Title 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 
Trade names  2,053  1,166  1,036  602  395 
Patents  4  1  1  4  0 
Trademarks  5  4  19  31  16 
Industrial designs  2  1  2  4  2 
Source : Gabonese authorities. 
64. After the application has been received by the Director General, the OAPI initiates the 
procedure, registers the application and examines it.  Any decision to reject an application may be the 
subject of an appeal to the High Commission for App eals, whose decision is final.  If an intellectual 
property protection title is issued, the relevant ri ghts remain in force subject to payment of the 
requisite fees to the OAPI.  In the event of any di spute, the national courts alone are empowered to 
rule on the plaintiff's case;  according to info rmation provided by the CEPIG, trade names and 
                                                      
94 The lists of approved agents are available on the OAPI site (http ://www.wipo.oapi.net). 
95 Law No. 14/2002 of 28 January 2003. WT/TPR/S/188 Trade Policy Review 
Page 50 
 
 
trademarks may be referred to the Gabonese courts for protection.96  Penalties are provided in the 
Civil Code. 
65. The CEPIG also undertakes missions to prom ote awareness and provide information to 
economic agents.  For the time being, it does not have sufficient resources to combat counterfeiting, 
but hopes to establish a unit for this purpose.  In Gabon, counterfeiting particul arly affects fashion and 
luxury products, film and music CDs and DVDs and wage goods.97  However, the level of domestic 
market penetration by counterfeit pharmac euticals is estimated to be quite low.98  Counterfeit goods 
are mainly imported through informal channels.  Article 52 of the CEMAC Customs Code describes 
counterfeit goods as prohibited, thus authorizing seizure by customs.  The CEPIG also seizes goods 
on local markets. 
(c) Copyright and related rights 
66. The regulatory framework for copyright in Ga bon is harmonized neither with Annex VII to 
the revised Bangui Agreement (1999), nor with the relevant provisions of the 
WTO TRIPS Agreement.  This affects, in particular , the term of copyright protection, which is the 
author's lifetime and 50 years after his death acco rding to Gabon's regime.  The National Agency for 
Promotion of the Arts and Culture (ANPAC) is resp onsible for administering and protecting copyright 
and related rights.  In 2001 it was decided to re sume the ANPAC's activities, which had been 
suspended in 1982. 
(d) Multilateral intellectual property protection treaties 
67. Gabon does not only belong to the OAPI but has also been a member of the World 
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) since 1975 and a party to the Paris Convention since 1964.  
Since the first review of its trade policy in 20 01, Gabon has become a party to several multilateral 
treaties:  the Hague Agreement in August 2003;  the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) in March 2002;  
and the WIPO Performances and Phon ograms Treaty (WPPT) in May 2002.99  The CEPIG would like 
to receive technical assistance for its work on ratification of multilatera l intellectual property 
protection treaties and their enforcement in Gabon. 
                                                      
96 French Embassy in Gabon, Economic Mission (2006b). 
97 French Embassy in Gabon, Economic Mission (2006a). 
98 Meach, F., Marc, C., Maillant, J., Lenoir V. (2005). 
99 WIPO (undated).