RESTRICTED  WORLD TRADE  
ORGANIZATION  WT/TPR/G/201 
21 May 2008  
 
(08-2295) 
Trade Policy Review Body Original:  English 
   
 
  
 
TRADE POLICY REVIEW 
 
Report by 
 
OMAN 
 
  
 
Pursuant to the Agreement Establishi ng the Trade Policy Review Mechanism 
(Annex 3 of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade 
Organization), the policy statement by Oman is attached. 
 
 
Note: This report is subject to restricted circ ulation and press embargo until the end of the first 
session of the meeting of the Trade Policy Review Body on Oman. Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 3 
 
 
 CONTENTS 
  Page 
I. INTRODUCTION 5 
II. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 5 
(1) E CONOMIC GROWTH  5 
(2) D IVERSIFICATION OF THE ECONOMY  6 
(3) P RIVATIZATION  7 
(4) I NVESTMENT REGIME  8 
(5) M ONETARY AND EXCHANGE RATE POLICIES  10 
(6) F ISCAL POLICY  10 
(7) H UMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT  10 
(8) F UTURE OUTLOOK  11 
III. TRADE POLICY  DEVELOPMENTS 12 
(1) O BJECTIVES  12 
(2) T ARIFFS   13 
(3) O THER MEASURES AFFECTING IMPORTS  13 
(4) I MPORT PROCEDURES , REGISTRATION , AND DOCUMENTATION  14 
(5) T RADE REMEDY LAWS (ANTI-DUMPING , COUNTERVAILING , AND SAFEGUARD 
MEASURES ) 14 
(6) G OVERNMENT PROCUREMENT  14 
(7) M EASURES DIRECTLY AFFECTING EXPORTS  14 
(8) E XPORT SUBSIDIES , DOMESTIC SUBSIDIES , EXPORT CREDIT GUARANTEES , TRIM S 14 
(9) T RADE -RELATED INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (TRIPS) 15 
IV. SECTORAL DEVELOPMENTS 15 
(1) A GRICULTURE  15 
(2) F ISHERIES  15 
(3) O IL SECTOR AND MINING  16 
(4) M ANUFACTURING  16 
 (5) S ERVICES – BANKING AND FINANCIAL , TELECOM , AND TOURISM  16 
(a) Financial Services Sector – Banking Sector 16 (b) Tourism 18 
V. FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS 18 
 (1) R
EGIONAL AGREEMENTS  18 
(a) GCC Customs Union 18 
(b) Pan Arab Free-Trade Area 19 
(2) B ILATERAL AGREEMENTS  19 WT/TPR/G/201 Trade Policy Review 
Page 4 
 
 
   Page 
VI. OMAN, WTO, AND DOHA DEVELOPMENT AGENDA 19 
 (1) O MAN AND WTO 19 
 (2) O MAN'S PARTICIPATION IN DDA 20 
VII. FUTURE DIRECTION OF TRADE POLICY 20 
ANNEX:  TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE NEEDS OF OMAN 22 
 
   Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 5 
 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION 
1. The Renaissance of Oman led by His Majesty th e Sultan ushered in the new and modern age 
for the Sultanate of Oman.  In a short period of l ess than 40 years, Oman has been transformed from a 
less developed economy characterized by a low standa rd of living with subsistence agriculture as the 
main source of income of the population into a modern state with a stable and strong economy, a high 
standard of living and increasing work opport unities for its young and growing population. 
2. In the wise words of His Majesty, the economy is  the main concern of the Sultanate of Oman, 
with the aim of improving the standard of living of the people, ensuring that they benefit from the fruits of development. 
3. Successive Five Year Development Plans have b een pursued towards self-sustained growth in 
a private sector-led, export-oriented economy w ith diversified sources of national income. 
4. The long term goals of Oman are laid down in "Oman Economic Vision 2020", where main 
policy areas are as follows: 
• Development of human resources and upgradin g Omani skills and competencies to keep 
abreast with the technological progress. 
• Creation of a stable macroeconomic framework aimed at development of a private sector 
capable of the optimal use of human and natural resources of Oman. 
• Encouraging the establishment of an e ffective and competitive private sector. 
• Providing appropriate conditions for the r ealization of economic diversification. 
• Enhancing the standard of living of the peopl e, reduction of inequality among regions and 
among various income groups and ensuring that the fruits of development are shared by all 
citizens. 
• Preserving the past achievements and safeguarding and developing them. 
5. Oman received Sultan Qaboos Prize for the main tenance of the environment "first Arab 
Award" granted by UNESCO in the area of caring for the environment at the international level.   
6. Oman was ranked 1
st in the Arab Economic Freedom Index by the International Research 
Foundation, and 18th place in Global Economic Freedom Index by Fraser Institute in the year 2007.  
In addition, Oman has been d escribed as the least politically risked in MENA region as per Aon 
Political risk Map 2007. 
II. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 
(1) ECONOMIC GROWTH  
7. The economy of Oman has witnessed high ec onomic growth coupled with relatively low 
inflation during the past years.  The GDP at mark et prices grew by 7.2% in 2003, 13.6% in 2004, 
24.6% in 2005 and 15.6% in  2006.  The lesser rate of 2006 compared with that of 2005 is because of 
higher oil prices in 2005 as compared with 2006. WT/TPR/G/201 Trade Policy Review 
Page 6 
 
 
 8. The growth rate of real GDP in 2006 at cons tant 1988 prices was 7.2% as compared with 
6.0% in 2005, 5.4% in 2004 and 2% in 2003. 
9. An analysis of the composition of GDP shows th at in 2006, the share of oil and gas in GDP 
was 44.9% while that of non-petroleum activities was 53.1%.  The share of agriculture was only 
1.3%, that of industry was 14.2%, while services account for 37.7%. 
10. Provisional data for 2007 indicates that nominal GDP of Oman in the first six months of 2007 
increased by 8.3% compared with the first six months  of 2006.  The growth rate of non-oil sector in 
the first six months of 2007, compared with the corresponding period of 2006, was 16.9%.   
11. The long term growth of real GDP, as envi saged in Oman Vision 2020 and in the Seventh 
Five Year Development Plan (2006-2010) is project ed at not less then 3%, coupled with an average 
inflation rate of not more than 2%. 
(2) DIVERSIFICATION OF THE ECONOMY  
12. As stated in the introductory part of this report, one of the four pillars of the economic policy 
of Oman is diversification.  Oman Vision 2020 sti pulated that Oman would no longer be an oil-reliant 
economy in 2020.  It is envisaged to be a divers ified economy with higher levels of savings and 
investments.  The sources of national income will be diversified with the non-oil sector assuming the 
primary role. 
13. The targets of Oman Vision 2020 are: 
(i) Crude oil sector's share of GDP is estimated to drop to around 9% in 2020 compared 
 with 44.9% in 2006; 
(ii) The gas sector is expected to contribute around 10% to GDP in 2020 compared to 
 3.6% in 2006;  and  
(iii) Non-oil industry's contribution is expected to rise from 14.2% in 2006 to 29% in  2020. 
14. These are ambitious targets and progress is being made to achieve these targets. 
15. The share of gas sector in GDP over the last five years has increased from 2.1% in 2002 to 
3.6% in 2006.  The share of industry has increased from 11.5% of GDP in 2002 to 14.2% in 2006.  The share of services sector, howev er, declined from 46.8% in 2002 to 37.7% in 2006.  It is worth 
noting that the share of industry and services would have been higher but for the steep rise in oil prices between 2002 and 2006.  Non-oil industrial activity increased from 11.5% of GDP in 2002 to 
14.2% in 2006.  The manufacturing sector increased fr om 4% of GDP in 1995 to 11.3% in 2006.   
16. The progress and success of diversification is borne by the fact that the share of non-oil and 
non-gas exports to total exports of Oman increased from 6.8% in 2003 to 9.8% in 2006.  Whereas the 
total exports increased by 85% between 2003 and 20 06, non-oil exports increased by 167% over the 
same period.  The percentage incr ease of non-oil exports for the last four years is as follows:  16.2% 
in 2003, 38.2% in 2004, 32.1% in 2005 and 46.3%  in 2006.  These are impressive figures by any 
account. 
17. A conscious policy effort has been made to ach ieve diversification of the economy.  The gas 
sector, industry and tourism are the main areas for achi eving diversification.  A major achievement in 
this direction was completion of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) project at a cost of US$2.5 billion.  It Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 7 
 
 
 is the single biggest project for economic diversifica tion.  LNG is set to become the country's major 
non-oil earner and expected to generate US$24 b illion over the coming 25 years.  Other gas based 
project include:  Oman-India Fertilizer Project, So har International Urea and Chemical Industries, 
Methanol Project, Sohar Oil Refinery, Polypropylene Project, Aluminium Project, Ethylene 
Dichloride Project and Iron and Steel Plant. 
18. The LNG project has also provided the stimulus for the setting up of Oman Shipping 
Company for carrying LNG in tankers. 
19. Tourism is another promising area for achieving diversification.  A number of big tourism 
projects are under implementation or in planning st ages which would enhance the share of Services in 
Gross Domestic Product of Oman. 
20. Economic diversification is one of the important pillars of  Oman's economic policy and it will 
continue to occupy centre stage in Oman's Economic Development Plans leading to 2020. 
(3) PRIVATIZATION  
21. The privatization programme of Oman has the tw in objectives of reducing the role of state in 
economic activity and fostering the development of an efficient and competitive private sector, 
unleashing its vigour and vitality thus contributing to overall efficiency and dynamism of the 
economy.  The Government is implementing the priv atization programme as an important and high 
priority policy area. 
22. Privatization as a policy measure has been adopted  by the Government as part of the overall 
liberalization programme and diversification in the non-oil sector to broaden the base of the economy.  
The legal foundation of the privatization programme is the Privatization Law promulgated by Sultani 
Decree in July 2004.  The objectives of the Law are:  
• Diversification of national income resource and expansion of the production base of the 
country. 
• The provisions of opportunities to the private sector to contribute to the development of the 
national economy and encouragement of foreign investment and attraction of technical and 
administrative expertise and modern technology. 
• Mobilization of  the market activity and cr eation of competition a nd enhancement of the 
efficiency of resource utilization. 
• Reduction of the financial and admi nistrative burden on the general.  
• The government to undertake the required strategi c investments in the areas of basic services 
which could not be undertaken by the private sector.  
• Promotion and development of the capital market. 
• Increase employment opportunities fo r citizens in the private sector. 
23. The most notable success achieved in privatizati on has been in the electricity sector where a 
number of independent power projects have been contracted to the private sector. WT/TPR/G/201 Trade Policy Review 
Page 8 
 
 
 24. Other important areas and sectors of privatization are the following: 
• Power and Related Water Sector, where Mana h Power Project and Salalah Power System 
were contracted (BOOT), while Al-Kamil Inde pendent Power and Water Desalination Project 
and Sohar Independent Power a nd Water Desalination Project were privatized (BOO).  Three 
other Independent Power Projects are under implementation. 
• Water Desalination Project in Sur.  The proj ect is privatized and under implementation. 
• Telecommunications Sector, where the Govern ment telecommunication organization (GTO) 
was converted into a commercial company (Omantel),  as a first step leading to privatization.  
30% of the company's shares have been offered to the public as well as to the Pension Fund.  
Part of the Government share in the company w ill be sold to a strategic investor this year. 
• Land phone and mobile phone opera tions were split into two separ ate companies in 2004.  A 
second mobile phone license has been given to a foreign investor by the Telecommunication Regulatory Authority (TRA). 
• Transport Sector is another major area of privatization: 
(1) Salalah, Sohar and Sultan Qaboos  ports have been partially privatized by inducting 
 private sector including foreign investors in management and operation of these ports.   
(2) A committee has been formed in 2006 to rest ructure and supervise the business plan 
 of Oman National Transport Company, a nd to take necessary actions required to 
 prepare the company for privatization. 
(3) The Government is in the process of appoi nting consultants to restructure transport 
 sector throughout the Sultanate, establis h appropriate law and legislative and 
 regulatory environment to allow private sector investment in the sector. 
• Postal service has been restructured by est ablishing Oman Postal Company which will be 
prepared for privatization. 
• Water and Wastewater Sector:  (1) the Govern ment is working on restructuring the sector;  
(2) independent companies, Salalah Sanitary Drainage Services and Muscat Waste Water 
Company (currently fully owned by Government ) are already operating in the waste water 
sector.  They will be taken up for privatization once their operations stabilize. 
• Solid and Hazardous Waste Sector:  The Government is working on restructuring the sector 
and a holding company has been formed to overlook the project.   
25. Privatization process will remain an important area of economic policy in the coming years 
and the government will vigorously pursue the privatization programme. 
(4) I
NVESTMENT REGIME  
26. Oman has pursued an open and liberal investme nt policy by welcoming and encouraging both 
domestic and foreign investment.  The objective of  the policy is to achieve diversification by 
gradually reducing dependence on oil as the domin ant source of income and by promoting the Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 9 
 
 
 development of manufacturing, services, tourism and fisheries sectors.  The objectives also include 
job creation for the expanding, well educated Oman i work force, the development of management 
skills and transfer of technology. 
27. The investment regime is underpinned by Fore ign Capital Investment Law.  A number of 
WTO-consistent incentives are provided to enc ourage domestic and foreign investment.  These 
include no personal income tax, while the rate of cor porate income tax is a flat rate of 12% applicable 
to all companies registered in Oman, whether who lly Omani owned, wholly foreign owned or joint 
venture companies with any percentage of foreign equity However, branches of foreign companies are 
taxed at a different rate which is  under review.  Tax holiday for a period of five years, which is 
extendable for another five years, is allowed bot h for foreign and domestic investment projects. 
28. Omani legislation provided that foreign in vestment projects cannot be expropriated or 
confiscated except in case of public interest and that  too against fair compensation.  Repatriation of 
capital and profits is allowed freely with out any restrictions or controls.   
29. One Stop Shop (OSS) is an e-Government initia tive to provide on-line company registration 
facilities through the Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MOCI).  The OSS is a highly useful 
service which will enable investors to set up comp anies in Oman while minimizing paperwork, saving 
costs and time.  Time taken for registration of new companies is drastically reduced to less than a day 
as against 10-14 days in the past.  The number of commercial registration has increased from 
733 per month to 1,306 per month which is around 93% growth within one year of OSS 
implementation.  Six Ministries and entities participate in the OSS:  
• Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MOCI). 
• Royal Oman Police (ROP) Civil Defense and Immigration. 
• Ministry of Manpower. 
• Muscat Municipality. 
• Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry (OCCI). 
• Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs. 
30. Oman is a member of international instituti ons concerned with investment protection and 
guarantee such as New York based Internationa l Centre for Settling Investment Disputes and 
Multinational Investment Guarantee Agency. 
31. Encouragement of foreign investment is one of the important pillars of Oman's economic 
policy.  Oman believes in the role that could be fulfilled by foreign investment in economic 
development, creation of jobs for Omanis, transfer  of technology and opening of markets for Omani 
products. 
32. Foreign direct investment was RO 0.9 billion in 2003 which increased to RO 2.3 billion in 
2006 showing an increase of about 143%. 
33. Oman would continue its policy of encouragi ng foreign and domestic investment.  Foreign 
Capital Investment Law is being revised to make it even more liberal and investor friendly.   WT/TPR/G/201 Trade Policy Review 
Page 10 
 
 
 (5) MONETARY AND EXCHANGE RATE POLICIES  
34. The Monetary Policy of Oman is conducted by  the Central Bank of Oman (CBO), which 
primarily dovetails into liquidity management because  of the fixed peg of the Rial Omani (RO) to the 
U.S. dollar.  The nominal exchange rate of the RO ag ainst the U.S. dollar is the intermediate target of 
monetary policy, and defending the ex change rate peg is the primary objective of the CBO to achieve 
thereby the goals of price stability, financial stability and growth in an open economy.  Imported 
monetary discipline embodied in the fixed peg h as been a strong source of monetary and financial 
stability.  Credibility and certainty of the exchange ra te has helped in promoting trade and investment 
as well as stability in the financial system. 
35. In recent years, there has been a shift from the use of direct instruments of monetary control 
(primarily in the form of reserve requirement and le nding ratios) to market-based indirect instruments 
involving open market operations mainly through the purchase and sale of government securities and 
CBO certificates of deposits (CDs).  Banks can re po CDs treasury bills and development bonds and 
have access to foreign exchange swap facility, re discounting and other standing lending facilities.  
These measures ensure injection of li quidity to the financial system wh en the liquidity situation gets 
tight.  In turn, when the market liquidity conditions  remain in surplus, CBO  absorbs those surpluses 
through CBO CDs. 
36. At the present time, Oman will continue with its current exchange rate regime and Rial 
Omani will remain pegged to the U.S. dollar. 
37. The current policy of the Government of Om an is to remain out of the proposed GCC 
Monetary Union while still being part of the GCC Common Market Process.    
(6) FISCAL POLICY     
38. The fiscal policy of Oman is aimed at striking a healthy balance in revenues and expenditure.  
Since 2002, Oman has witnessed budget surplus thanks to high oil prices.  Sustained fiscal surplus 
positions have allowed the Government  to continue with debt restructuring policy, which is evidenced 
by the general decline in both debt to GDP ratio and debt service ratio. 
39. Favourable budgetary position has also enable d the Government to increase current and 
investment expenditures, especially the latter which increased by 24% in 2006. 
40. Surplus fiscal balance as percentage of GDP  ranged from 0.7% to 2.6% between 2002 and 
2006.  Total revenue and total expenditure as percentage of GDP were about 36%. 
41. Budget for 2007 was based on a conservative price of oil.  It provided for increase of 15.4% 
in expenditure compared with 2006, which was aime d at promoting growth in various sectors of the 
economy as part of economic diversification strategy  and improving provision of government services 
to the public.  The major source of government reve nues is oil and gas whose share in total revenues 
in 2006 was 76%.  The share of customs duties in total revenue was 10% while that of corporate 
income tax was 7.6%. 
42. The position on personal and corporate income tax is described in paragraph 27 above. 
(7) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT  
43. Development of human resources and upgrading the skills of Omani nationals to keep abreast 
of technological changes, to meet the demands of a knowledge-based economy and of increasing Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 11 
 
 
 globalization, has been and will continue to be  a policy area of highest importance in Oman's 
development planning.  In the ringing words of His Majesty the Sultan "the human being is the ultimate goal of the development process and its inst rument and means at the same time".  Expansion 
of university education, raising of enrolment ratio in higher educ ation and professional institutions, 
upgrading and spreading of basic education and yout h programmes will all continue to receive highest 
priorities in development plans.  With updated basi c education, technical and vocational training, skill 
formation and specialization in the relevant fields , the growing number of Omani youths entering the 
labour market will be made well equipped for produc tive employment in the private sector and in the 
labour intensive projects.  Government gives top pr iority in allocating resources for implementation of 
programmes relating to education and training sectors.  Development of human resources and 
upgrading the skills of Omanis will c ontinue to be the primary focus of Oman's development efforts.   
44. Policy wise, Omanization came to be known as a policy through which national workforce's 
education and training are enhanced.  The policy ai ms to reduce the national unemployment, regulate, 
and expand opportunities for nationa l labour to participate in various economic sectors and to make 
national labour available for private companies.   Through such polices the banking sector as an 
example has achieved more than 90% Omanization.   
45. Omanization was formulated to plan national's training, define criteria, procedures and steps 
to implement the plan, employ the national yo uth and women, evaluate experiences and skills, 
coordinate efforts, and make suggestions for pr ograms to encourage Omani individual initiatives 
seeking own employment and developing small project s.  Sanad, Youth Fund, Intilaaqah and other 
similar training and employment program s are within the Omanization policy. 
46. Supply of foreign labour is continuously increasing at a greater rate than the Omani labour 
supply.  Omanization works within set of targets w ith ambitious long term vision which aims not only 
to make the national labour available at an incr easing rate of supply, but also to be competitive 
enough to be able to meet the fundamental chang es and needs in work conditions and environment 
within the private sector.       
(8) F
UTURE OUTLOOK  
47. With sound macro-economic, mone tary and fiscal policies in place, remarkable success and 
all-round achievements of the Fifth and Sixth Five Year Plans and the excellent start of the Seventh Plan (2006-2010), continued buoyancy of oil pr ices since 2003 and favourable medium term 
projections, Oman has a positive future outlook.  In a recent IMF projected  base-line scenario for 
Oman, the real GDP is expected to grow at 5%-6% per annum during 2006-2010 period.  This is 
based on the assumption of continuance of present policies and the oil prices not falling too low in the medium term and remaining around average US$60 a barrel (as per the present international 
projections of oil prices).   
48. The hydrocarbon sector's contribution is expect ed to increase in the next few years, but 
slowing down starting 2009.  The non-hydrocarbon sectors are expected to steadily grow at the rate of 
7.2% and above in the 2007-2011 period.  Fiscal indicators are expected to improve with non-
hydrocarbon revenues rising and the public expenditure  to GDP ratio falling.  On the external side, 
debt is projected to decline and government reserv es to increase.  Growth and employment prospects 
for the rising number of young Omanis would, according to IMF appraisal, depend on "maintaining financial and macro-economic stability and on the success of Oman's ambitious diversification 
programme".  With successful macro-economic polici es, gains of the Plans, and the continuing large WT/TPR/G/201 Trade Policy Review 
Page 12 
 
 
 investments in diversification schemes and in human resource development, Oman faces the future 
with confidence. 
49. However, there are definitely downside ri sks – exogenous and endogenous.  A recognized 
problem is the continuing decline in oil production la rgely dictated by the geological location and the 
age of oil reserves.  To shore up production, plans are being implemented to invest about 
US$13 billion in oil and gas over the next five year s to achieve a 50% ultimate recovery of oil in 
place, tapping heavy oil fields (with higher costs of ex traction), new discoveries etc.  The other risk is 
a sharp fall in oil prices, however improbable it may look now.  A big drop in oil prices would be a serious setback, slowing down growth, generation of employment etc.  With the rapid development of 
gas and the gas based industries and other diversifi cation projects in the last decade, Oman is now 
expected to be far better prepared and resilient to withstand such oil shocks in future and surge ahead 
on her growth path. 
50. The future of Oman's economy is bright as the very policies of the past which transformed 
Oman to its present stage will be continued in the future with emphasis on diversification, 
privatization and liberalization.  Time tested policies are the recipe for future growth and progress.    
III. TRADE POLICY DEVELOPMENTS 
(1) O
BJECTIVES  
51. An ancient trading nation whose ships ruled th e ocean waves for centuri es, the Sultanate of 
Oman appreciates and recognizes the value of open a nd liberal trade policies, and firmly believes in 
these policies. 
52. The Sultanate of Oman joined the World Trad e Organization as a member in November 2000, 
after completing the accession process under Article X II of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the 
World Trade Organization.  The Sultanate of Oman  thus follows WTO rules in the formulation and 
implementation of its trade policies.  Even befo re acceding to the WTO, Oman's trade policies 
followed the basic principles of the multilateral trading system. 
53. The Ministry of Commerce and Industry, headed by His Excellency the Minister, is the focal 
point for implementation of trade policies.  Propos als for formulation of specific trade policies are 
initiated by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry,  where relevant in consultation with concerned 
Ministries, and are submitted to the Cabinet for appr oval, and if necessary, for example by issuance of 
Sultani Decrees, for final approval to His Majesty the Sultan.  Trade policies are implemented at the 
national level.  There are no regional or  sub-regional governments in Oman.   
54. The objectives of trade policies of Oman are to maximize development of Oman's economy 
with a view to ensuring prosperity, raising liv ing standards and providing increased employment 
opportunities to the people.  The trade policies th us aim at expansion of trade by removing or 
reducing barriers to imports and exports, and by securing greater market access for Omani products 
and services. 
55. Oman attaches great importance to standards, conformity assessment and quality for 
facilitating trade, economic and indus trial development, technology tr ansfer, human resource and skill 
upgrading and safety and well being of the populati on at large.  Oman strongly believes in the 
important role of trade and fair treatment to all the stakeholders; it is Oman's endeavours to harmonize 
Omani and Gulf (GCC) standards as-far-as-possible with International Standards and also to use 
International Standards and concepts for confor mity assessment within the requirements of WTO Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 13 
 
 
 principles on TBT and SPS.  The Directorate Gene ral for Specifications and Measurements (DGSM) 
under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry is actively assisting Omani trade and industry and entities in this regard and is progressively wideni ng into SMTCQ (Standards, Metrology, Testing, 
Conformity Assessment and Quality) services ba sed on international approach and WTO-TBT-SPS 
principles.  The Omani National Enquiry Point a nd Information Centre (NEPIC) for WTO-TBT-SPS 
is also operating at DGSM.  The Annual Report 2006  of DGSM Oman has already been submitted to 
WTO separately.  
(2) T
ARIFFS  
56. Oman has bound import tariffs on all agricultura l and non-agricultural products, without any 
exceptions.  Thus 100% of its duties are bound. 
57. The simple average of its bound tariffs for all products is 13.8%.  The simple average of 
bound tariffs for non-agricultural pr oducts is 11.6%, whereas for agricu ltural tariffs it is 28%.  It is 
interesting to note that a little more then 88% of  Oman's imports are of non-agricultural products for 
which, as noted earlier, the average bound tariff is 11.6%. 
58. The actually applied MFN tariffs of Oman are considerably low:  simple average for non-
agricultural products is 4.8% and for agricultural products is 5.3%.  The weighted average applied 
tariffs for non-agricultural products is 4.7%  and for agricultural products it is 3.5%. 
59. Bound tariffs for agricultural products range from 5% to 200%, whereas for non-agricultural 
products these range from 0% to 25%.  However, bound tariffs for more than 97% of non-agricultural 
tariff lines are 15% or less. 
60. Preferential tariffs treatment is accorded to imports from GCC Member States and from Arab 
countries members of the Pan Arab Free-Trade Area by allowing duty free imports.  Duty free 
treatment will also be applicable to imports from USA when the US-Oman Free-Trade Agreement 
becomes operational. 
61. Oman does not apply any tariff quotas and does not apply any variable levies.  Tariff revenues 
are a minor source of public revenue.  Their share in public revenue is 2.3%.       
(3) OTHER MEASURES AFFECTING IMPORTS  
62. Oman does not apply any other duties and charges on imports which are bound at zero in its 
Schedule of Tariff Concessions and Commitments. 
63. Oman also does not apply any internal tax es to imports such as VAT, sales tax or excise 
duties. 
64. There are only a handful of import prohibitions  and restrictions, justified under Articles XX 
and XXI of GATT 1994 for security, health and safety r easons or necessary to protect public morals.  
A notification on Quantitative Restrictions was submitted to the WTO Secretariat. 
65. Oman does not apply import licensing and this has been confirmed in its recent notification.   
66. Oman has implemented the WTO Agreement on Cu stoms Valuation for valuation of imported 
goods.  The rules and procedures of the Agreem ent are applied by the Custom Department. WT/TPR/G/201 Trade Policy Review 
Page 14 
 
 
 67. Preferential rules of origin are applicable to imports from GCC Member States and from Arab 
countries members of the Pan Arab Free-Trade Area.  Origin is conferred if at least 40% value is 
added in GCC or Arab countries.  There are no rules of origin for MFN imports. 
(4) IMPORT PROCEDURES , REGISTRATION , AND DOCUMENTATION  
68. Oman does not have any special or specific procedures or documentati on for imports nor does 
it require any special registration for imports.  Any firm or individual, whether Omani or foreign, 
which has commercial registration in the Ministry  of Commerce and Industry for engaging in any 
commercial activity can engage in importation if import trade is one of the activities mentioned in its commercial registration.  Any firm or individual can inscribe or add import trade in its commercial 
registration.   
(5) T
RADE REMEDY LAWS (ANTI-DUMPING , COUNTERVAILING , AND SAFEGUARD 
 M EASURES ) 
69. GCC Member States have a common Trade Remedy Law which is applicable in all GCC 
countries including Oman.  However, Oman has neve r taken an action under this law, as yet.   
(6) GOVERNMENT PROCUREMENT  
70. Government procurement is regulated under Gove rnment tender regulations and unified rules 
granting preferences in Government purch ases to national and GCC origin products. 
71. Government purchases exceeding RO 10,000 are made by public tendering, except for 
Ministry of Defence and for Defence Forces.  Te ndering procedures are laid down in the law.  The 
tender procedures and purchases are administered by a high level Tender Board which has jurisdiction 
over higher level tenders (RO 250,000 and more) wh ile lower level tenders were administered by 
tender committees within the Ministries. 
72. Oman tender regulations provide for price preferen ce to be given to pr oducts of Omani origin, 
and in the absence of Omani products, to products of  GCC origin.  The preference margin amount to 
10% compared to the price of similar foreign products. 
(7) MEASURES DIRECTLY AFFECTING EXPORTS  
73. Like imports, there are no special or specific procedures or documentation requirements for 
exports.  As in the case of imports (described earlier),  any firm or individual, Omani or foreign, who 
has commercial registration and whose commercial registration mentioned the activity of trading 
could engage in export trade. 
74. Export prohibitions are very few.  These include  antiques, ancient manuscripts, old coins and 
date seedlings.  Export restrictions are applied to three species of fish during the breeding and 
reproduction season for environmental reasons. 
75. Oman does not apply any export duties or taxes.  Nor does it apply any export licensing 
procedures.  Nor does Oman apply any export performance requirements. 
(8) EXPORT SUBSIDIES , DOMESTIC SUBSIDIES , EXPORT CREDIT GUARANTEES , TRIM S 
76. Oman does not apply any export subsidies.  It has given a commitment that it neither would 
maintain nor introduce prohibited subsidies as defined in the Agreement on Subsidies and 
Countervailing Measures. Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 15 
 
 
 77. Oman Development Bank provides soft loans to industries.  However, these soft loans are 
available to all enterprises and all industries.   There is no specificity in these loans. 
78. The Export Credit Guarantee Agency (ECGA) which commenced its operations since 1991 
plays a vital role in promoting Omani non-oil ex ports by providing credit insurance and financial 
services to exporters.  Export facilities extended by ECGA include export credit insurance which 
covers the risks of non-payment due to commer cial and non-commercial risks, domestic credit 
insurance covers the risks for local buyers, and post-shipment financing of exports through bills 
discounting with commercial banks as well as pre-shipment export credit guarantee. 
79. There are no trade-related investment measures (TRIMs) applicable in Oman. 
(9) TRADE -RELATED INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (TRIPS) 
80. Oman had enacted and implemented Intellect ual Property Laws and has been actively 
enforcing these laws.  Oman is now in the process of issuing some revised IP laws providing for higher level of protection.  These revised la ws would soon be promulgated.      
IV. SECTORAL DEVELOPMENTS 
(1) A
GRICULTURE  
81. Agriculture sector in Oman consists of agricultu re and livestock.  It is a relatively smaller 
sector of Oman's economy.  Its share in Oman's economy is 0.9%.  However, the sector has social 
implications as a proportionately larger section of the population 226,542 persons is dependent on 
agriculture.  This explains the importance of th is sector in providing work opportunities and its 
importance in the national economy. 
82. The current food security and self-sufficiency ra tes are encouraging.  The latest estimates 
indicate that Oman is fully self sufficient in some fruit (dates and bananas) and some vegetables when 
they are in season; but only 53% self-sufficiency in milk, 50% in eggs, 46% in beef, 23% in mutton, 13% in poultry and 75% in feedstuff.  Despite the harsh climate and difficult environment for 
agriculture with attendant disadvantages for farmer s, Oman does not provide trade distorting domestic 
support to agriculture.  Oman has also given a commitment not to apply export subsidies to 
agriculture.  The only form of support to agricultu re is through Green-Box measures, mostly in the 
form of general services.  In 2006, the Green-B ox support amounted to RO 764,514 (a little less than 
US$2 million).  Oman has also provided liberal mark et access for agricultural products by binding its 
tariffs at a relatively low level. 
(2) F
ISHERIES  
83. Fisheries is a sector that makes an important contribution to domestic income and provides 
Omani citizens food and jobs.  Fisheries sector is considered as the most important source of protein 
production.  Furthermore, 2.4% national employees are working in the fisheries sector.  The number 
of fishermen increased during the previous five years from 28,576 in the year 2000 to 32,744 in the year 2005. 
84. The Ministry's plans include searching for a fleet that is able to exploit fisheries resources, 
raise production and improve quantit y and quality, thus increasing the employees' income in the 
sector.  To reach these goals, a number of fishing gears and necessities have been distributed for 
updating the industrial fishing fleet and increasing fishery quality. WT/TPR/G/201 Trade Policy Review 
Page 16 
 
 
 85. The value of fisheries sector in GDP increas ed from US$147 million in the year 2003 to 
US$198.9 million in 2006.  This comes as a result of  the implementation of government investments 
in the infrastructure and also by using procedures to  increase the fisheries quality.  The private sector 
plays an important role in development of this sector. 
86. Exports of fish and fish products increased from 69,000 tons in 2003 to 82, 375 tons in 2006.  
The share of fish in non-oil exports of Oman was 4.7% in 2005. 
87. The economic vision 2020 envisages development of  fisheries sector raising its contribution 
to GDP to 2% by the year 2020. 
(3) OIL SECTOR AND MINING  
88. Oil is the mainstay of Oman's economy.  Its share in Oman's GDP is 44.9%.  Oil accounts for 
about 67% of total exports, while oil and gas account  for about 81% of total exports.  The mining and 
quarrying sector registered average annual growth rate  of 6% which is more than the Plan target of 
4.5%. 
(4) MANUFACTURING  
89. The share of manufacturing in Oman's GDP is a bout 10.4%.  Oman's industrial policy aims to 
increase this share to 15% of GDP in 2020.  Permi ssible type of investment incentives were provided 
for establishment of industries, such  as, soft loans to all sectors, fully serviced industrial estates and 
reliable supplies of power, natural gas and sewage treatment at reasonable rates. 
90. The principal manufacturing industries of Oman are fertilizer, petrochemical and aluminium. 
91. A number of mega industrial projects are at diffe rent stages of planning and implementation.  
These include petrochemical, aluminium and iron a nd steel.  Manufacturing grew by 44.6% in 2006 
as compared with 22.6% in 2005.  The share of ma nufacturing in non-oil industrial activities was 73% 
in 2006 as compared with 68% in 2005. 
(5) SERVICES – BANKING AND FINANCIAL , TELECOM , AND TOURISM  
92. Services is an important sector of Oman's econom y.  Their share in GDP is 37.7%.  Banking 
and financial services, telecommunication, business services and tourism related services are the 
major services of Oman.  Oman encourages the services sector by providing market access and 
national treatment to foreign services and foreign service suppliers.  Of a total of 17 commercial 
banks, 10 are branches of foreign banks which ope rate alongside 7 locally incorporated banks.  
Telecom sector has also been opene d up to foreign service suppliers. 
93. Even though Oman's domestic services are not fully developed and competitive, as part of its 
accession package Oman has made specific commitments on 10 sectors and some 95 sub-sectors of 
services, which increases investment opportunities. 
(a) Financial Services Sector – Banking Sector 
94. Sound macroeconomic policies, prudent and fo rward looking banking regulations and fine 
tuned monetary policy measures have supported the st ability and resilience of the financial system in 
the Sultanate of Oman and enabled the developmen t of financial products, services and markets.    Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 17 
 
 
 95. By and large, the most important class of financial intermediaries in Oman are the 
commercial banks.  As at the end of 2006, the fi nancial system included 14 commercial banks (of 
which 5 are locally incorporated and 9 are branches  of foreign banks) as well as 3 specialised banks.  
Ten commercial banks were engaged in specific in vestment banking activities, namely, corporate 
finance, project finance, investment brokerage  and investment advisory service, portfolio 
management, underwriting and invest ment management while also pr oviding custodian and fiduciary 
services.  The commercial banks are well capitalized and provisioned, hold high quality assets and generally record strong profits.  The total assets of  commercial banks reached RO 10.3 billion at the 
end of December 2007.  With the high rates of ec onomic growth witnessed in Oman in the past few 
years, the net profits of commercial banks soared  from RO 79.4 million in 2004 to RO 123.2 million 
in 2005, and further to RO 162.9 million in 2006.   
96. The degree of financial deepening in the econom y has increased during the past decade, with 
the application of technology opening up the opportunity to offer a wide range of banking services and changing banking habits progressively replacing the use of currency in favour of non-cash modes 
of payments in financial settlements.  The use of AT Ms, credit cards, debit cards, smart cards, internet 
banking, phone banking, payment of utilities and ot her transfers through electronic means, and 
advanced payment and settlement systems have a dded depth and sophistica tion to the financial 
system.  The behaviour of the ratio of bank deposits to GDP indicates the progress on financial deepening, and this ratio improved from 31.7% in 2005 to 34.2% in 2006.  Similarly, the ratio of bank 
credit to overall GDP increased to 34.3% in 2006 fro m 32.9% in 2005.  When seen in relation to non-
oil GDP, the ratio is seen to have improved from 62.5% to 64.6%.     
97. A number of measures were taken to encourage reforms and progressive liberalization of the 
financial sector.   These measures incl ude the process of deregulation of interest rates initiated by the 
Central Bank of Oman (CBO) in 1993.  The inter est rate ceilings on commercial bank deposits and 
lending were gradually lifted over time, however, an in terest rate ceiling of 9% per annum is currently 
in effect in the personal loan segment.  Other meas ures taken to allow greater foreign participation as 
part of the liberalization process include raising the foreign equity limit to 70% from 49% in a locally 
incorporated company effective 1 January 2001 as we ll as allowing commercial presence in the form 
of wholly foreign-owned subsidiaries and branch es of foreign banks and other financial services 
suppliers starting from 1 January 2003.    
98. Financial sector reforms have also been s upported by the enactment of the new Banking Law 
decreed in December 2000 (Sultani Decree 114/2000) .  The new Law elaborates banking business to 
cover new areas and opens up investme nt banking for commercial banks. 
99. On the supervisory front, supervisory and re gulatory norms have been strengthened and 
aligned with international best practices.  The regul atory regime in the Sultanate largely complies with 
international standards, as noted by the Internat ional Monetary Fund (IMF) in the context of 
compliance with the Basel Core Principles for E ffective Banking Supervisi on under the Financial 
Stability Assessment Programme (FSAP) .  The current supervisory appr oach consists of on- and off-
site monitoring by the CBO.  The off-site surve illance system has been strengthened with the 
construction of a set of "Financial Soundness Indicat ors" to assess the systemic vulnerability of the 
financial sector, in addition to bank-specifi c vulnerabilities.  During 2006, the guidelines on 
International Convergence of Capital Measurement a nd Capital Standards (Basel II) were finalized by 
CBO and, in January 2007, the Standardized Approa ch for credit and market risks and Basic Indicator 
Approach for operational risk were adopted.  Th e CBO is expected to migrate to risk-based 
supervision by the end of 2008. WT/TPR/G/201 Trade Policy Review 
Page 18 
 
 
 (b) Tourism 
100. The overall objective of the National Tourism Deve lopment Plan is to assist in the social and 
economic development of the Sultanate, and the de tailed objective for the pl an is to establish a 
comprehensive development vision for the tourism s ector including identification of opportunities for 
future growth, and implementation mechanisms.   
101. The Vision statement was "to develop touris m as an important and sustainable socio-
economic sector of the Sultanate in a manner that  reflects the Sultanate's historic, cultural and 
environmental heritage and sense of traditional hos pitality and values", and the Mission statement was 
"to help facilitate economic diversification, pr eservation of cultural integrity and environmental 
protection of the Sultanate".    
102. The figures for hotels in the Sultanate of Oman, in 2007, reached 190 hotels, 9298 rooms and 
14,665 beds, with an average growth  rate of about 8.6%.  There were  roughly 70 travel agents, 32 tour 
operators, 53 classified restaurants and 169 fast food outlets in the same year operating in the 
Sultanate.  There were 1.21 million tourist arriva ls in 2006, about 592,900 of them were hotel 
residents, with an average length of stay 2 nights pe r tourist per trip, and a to tal expenditure of about 
RO 160 million.   
103. The Markets data analyses indicated that Om an needs to capitalize on the market of GCC 
tourists as it represents the major tourist market visiting Oman.  GCC tourists represented 50.8% of 
the total tourists in 2006 (as part of its Visi on 2020, the Omani government has the intention to 
achieve an annual GDP growth of 7.4%). 
104. The objectives suggested for tourism sector for the period 2006-2010 are as follows:      
• to increase the level of employment of Omani nationals in the sector from the current 37% to 
80% by the year 2010; 
• to achieve an average annual growth rate  for the tourist income by about 7%; 
• bring substantial economic benefits to  local communities and  residents; 
• conserves and protect the natural environment as well as assuring respect of customs, 
traditions and cultural heritage; 
• creates community awareness, understanding  and support for tourism development; 
• promote close cooperation between the government and the private sector;  and 
• to Increase Oman's Share of visitors from the GCC and increase its recognition as a high 
quality tourism destination in its own right. 
V. FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS 
(1) REGIONAL AGREEMENTS  
(a) GCC Customs Union 
105. Oman is one of the six members of the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) customs union.  
The other members are Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Sa udi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.  The Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 19 
 
 
 GCC Member States had established a Free-Trade Area in 1981.  Tariffs and restrictive regulations of 
commerce on trade between the Member States had been eliminated. 
106. The GCC Member States upgraded the FTA and established GCC Customs Union from the 
beginning of 2003.  The Customs Union is fully operational.  It has a common external tariff which 
meets the requirements of paragraph 8 of Ar ticle XXIV of GATT 1994.  The rates of common 
external tariff are 0% and 5% for more than 85%  of tariff lines of Member States.  The agreement 
envisages that the common external tariff will in  due course be applicable to all tariff lines. 
107. From the beginning of 2008, GCC Common Market has been established.  A common 
currency will also be adopted, the mechani cs and timing of which are under study.   
108. GCC Member States have also liberalized ser vices trade within the GCC, in terms of 
Article V of the GATS.  About 100 sub-sectors of services are liberalized between GCC Member States including banking and ot her financial services, telecommunication services, professional 
services, many business services, di stribution services, tourism services, education services, health 
services etc.  More sub-sectors will be liberalized progressively. 
(b) Pan Arab Free-Trade Area 
109. Oman is a member of the Pan Arab Fr ee-Trade Area which was established from the 
beginning of 1998.  It provided for elimination of  tariffs and restrictive regulations of commerce 
between members of the FTA within a period of ten years.  However, the elimination time table was 
accelerated and tariffs were eliminated on substant ially all trade between the members with effect 
from the beginning of January 2005.  At presen t Oman is negotiating within PAFTA a regional 
agreement for trade in services. 
(2) B
ILATERAL AGREEMENTS  
110. The Sultanate of Oman has also concluded and signed a Free-Trade  Agreement with the 
United States. 
111. GCC, of which Oman is a member, has conclude d an FTA with Singapore, and is in the final 
stages of negotiations of a Free-Trade Agreement w ith the European Union.  GCC is also in the 
process of FTA negotiations with some other c ountries including Australia, New Zealand, China, 
Japan, India, Pakistan, Turkey, European Free  Trade Association (EFTA) and Southern Common 
Market (MERCOSUR). 
112. Oman is also a member of the Indian Ocean Rim arrangement.  However, this arrangement is 
neither an FTA nor a preferential trade agreement. 
VI. OMAN, WTO, AND DOHA DEVELOPMENT AGENDA 
(1) OMAN AND WTO 
113. Since joining the WTO on 9 November 2000, Oman  has been an active member participating 
in different WTO bodies and activities to promote and protect its trade interests.  It has collaborated on different issues with different WTO Members, de veloping and developed.  The closest cooperation 
has been with GCC Member States. 
114. Oman has not been a party to any dispute in WT O either as a defendant or as a complainant.   WT/TPR/G/201 Trade Policy Review 
Page 20 
 
 
 (2) OMAN 'S PARTICIPATION IN DDA 
115. Oman has been an active participant in Doha round negotiations.  It is active member of 
RAMs Group.  Oman is also a participant in Fish eries sectoral.  Oman joined some WTO members in 
a statement to liberalize financial services.  In a ddition, Oman participated actively in friends of 
energy group negotiation.  Other than that Oman is  also a member of the GCC and the Arab group.  
Oman  supports the objectives of the negotiations a nd desires their early conclusion.  Oman, however, 
regrets the long delay in the negotiations whic h is sending wrong signals about the WTO.  All 
Members should redouble their efforts to achieve a fair, equitable and balanced result in consonance 
with the promises and commitments in  the Doha Ministerial Declaration. 
116. Oman is in favour of further substantial liberali zation of trade in agricultural, non-agricultural 
products and services.  In this context, Oman had already made a very major and signification 
contribution in its accession negotiations by maki ng concessions and commitments on goods and 
services.  Oman has been in the forefront of effo rts by recently acceded countries so that they are 
accorded special treatment in recognition of their substantial commitments in the accession process.  
Oman on its part is not satisfied with the propo sals made by the chair persons of Agriculture and 
NAMA on RAMs.  These do not fully take into acco unt the commitments on tariffs and services made 
by Oman which are far better than those of most WTO Members. 
VII. FUTURE DIRECTION OF TRADE POLICY 
117. Oman's future trade policy will continue to be open and liberal based on the principles and 
rules of the multilateral trading system as enshrined in the WTO.  The multilateral trading system has 
served the international community very well over the p ast 60 years and is the best system available; 
there is no better alternative.  Oman str ongly supports the WTO and would work towards 
strengthening the multilateral trading system. 
118. Oman is a member of some preferential trading arrangements.  However, it is concerned with 
the increasing proliferation of preferential tr ading arrangements which would undermine the 
multilateral trading system.  There is a disturbing trend where most-favoured nation treatment and 
non-discrimination, which are the bedrock of th e multilateral trading system, are becoming the 
exception rather than the rule.  Unfortunately , the present developments in the Doha round 
negotiations on review and improvement of the rules on regional trading arrangements are not 
encouraging.  What is needed is not only the improvement of notification procedures, but also that of the rules and particularly the approval process.   In Oman's view, only those regional trading 
arrangements should take effect which are found by the competent WTO body to be fully compatible 
with the revised rules.  This should also apply to  those arrangements which are already in force and 
under implementation. 
119. Doha round negotiations would be an excellent opportunity to rectify some of the inequities 
in WTO disciplines. 
120. Oman is in favour of preserving and strengthe ning the multilateral trading system but the 
rules and procedures should be equitable and the bene fits of the system should also flow to and be 
shared by small developing countries. Oman WT/TPR/G/201 
 Page 21 
 
 
 ANNEX:  TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE NEEDS OF OMAN 
1. As a developing country, Oman needs technical assistance from the WTO and from other 
available sources so as to ensure more effective participation in th e multilateral trading system.  Oman 
is grateful to the WTO Secretariat for organizing se minars and workshops in Oman, and in the region, 
for Omani and GCC officials.  Oman would need th e following types of technical assistance in the 
future:  
• Assistance in meeting numerous notification obligations. 
• Assistance in drafting or revising some WTO-related laws, such as competition legislation. 
• Analysis of the implications for Oman of different specific proposals submitted by Members 
either in the context of DDA negotiations or the regular work of the WTO. 
• Advisory missions to Oman on specific issues,  as requested by Oman from time to time. 
• A periodic, brief summary of developments in different WTO bodies.  For a small developing 
country like Oman with a small WTO mission, it is neither possible to attend meetings of all 
WTO bodies nor to wade through the voluminous documentation issued by the WTO.  Thus 
the need for periodic summaries. 
• Advising Omani officials on how Oman can secure  more benefits from its participation in 
WTO activities. 
• More training facilities for Omani officials in Trade Policy Courses.   
• Attachment of Omani officials to the WTO Secret ariat, each for three months, so as to get a 
good knowledge of and insight into the meani ng and operation of WTO rules and procedures. 
• Settings up a cooperative programme between the WTO and Sultan Qaboos University and 
other private universities in Oman teaching WTO issues in the Departments of Law, Economics or International Business.   
• Organizing seminars for Business Community an d Academics with targeted messages on the 
advantages and rights as well as the cons traints and obligations emanating from WTO 
membership.   
• Organizing national seminars and workshops, eith er by the WTO Secretariat or in cooperation 
with other international organizations, on: 
• Customs Valuation and Trade Facilitation and Rules of Origin. 
• SPS and TBT. 
• Trade in Services: classification of some service sectors e.g. energy services and 
 maritime transport;  evaluation of trade in services. 
• IPR:  familiarization of the Judicial and Customs authorities with the protection of 
 IPR, legal and institutional impacts of the adherence to new international agreements 
 on IPR.   
__________