WORLD TRADE  
ORGANIZATION  IP/C/W/493 
19 September 2007 
 (07-3921) 
Council for Trade Related Aspects 
of Intellectual Property Rights Original:   Spanish 
 
 
 
COMBATING BIOPIRACY – THE PERUVIAN EXPERIENCE 
 
Communication from Peru  
 
 The following communication, dated 13 August 2007,  is being circulated at the request of the 
Delegation of Peru.  
_______________ 
  
I. PERU:  A MEGADIVERSE COUNTRY 
Peru is rich in genetic diversity due to the fact that it is one of the world's centres of origin of 
agriculture and livestock farming.  As a result, it is one of the world's major centres for plant and 
animal genetic resources (CONAM, 1999).  
There are thought to be around 20,000 higher plant species in Peru (10 per cent of the world's 
total), of which 5,509 are endemic (approximately 27 per cent) (Leon, B., 2006).  It ranks fifth in the 
world for number of species, first for number of pl ant species with properties known and used by the 
population (4,400 species) and first for native domesticated species (128).  It has 182 domestic native plant species, with hundreds or even thousands of varieties, of which 174 are of Andean, Amazonian 
and coastal origin and seven are of American or igin, having been introduced centuries ago.  In 
addition, it has the wild forms of these plants (Brack, A., 2005).  
The number of species with a current or potentia l industrial application is high at 2,642.  Of 
those species, 682 are sources of food, 1,044 are me dicinal, 444 provide timber resources, 86 are 
forage plants, 55 are used to obtain fertilizers, 60 are used in oils and fats, 46 in aromas and perfumes, 
75 in cosmetic products, 22 in tanning products, an d 128 in dyes and colorants.  The country ranks 
very highly in terms of fruits (623 species), medici nal plants (1,408 species) and ornamental plants 
(1,600 species) (Brack, A., 2005).  
Peru is a multiethnic and multicultural country, as shown by the fact that it has 14 linguistic 
families and 72 ethnic groups ( Mapa Etnolingüístico Oficial del Perú , Ministry of 
Agriculture/Indigenous Institute of  Peru, 1994).  It is home to approximately 28 million inhabitants 
and, according to the latest statistical data on the indigenous Peruvian  population, there are 
8,793,295 natives, of whom 97.8 per cent are Andean (of whom 90.9 per cent are Quechuan and 
6.9 per cent Aymara) and 2.1 per cent are Amazoni an.  According to these figures, the indigenous 
population represents one-third of the country's inhab itants.  This indigenous  population lives mainly 
in the country's rural area, grouped together in  5,812 rural communities (Andean) and 1,315 native 
communities (Amazonian).  
These indigenous peoples are the heirs to the former Peruvians who, more than 10,000 years 
ago, domesticated and diversified plant and animal  species for different uses, and are at present the 
depositary of a rich heritage of traditional knowledge concerning the use of those species. IP/C/W/493 
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  The rich biological and cultural diversity of Peru  has prompted its interest in protecting it and 
in developing actions such as tho se described in this document.  
 
II. BACKGROUND AND CONTENTS OF THE REPORT 
In mid-2002, the National Institute for the De fence of Competition and Intellectual Property 
Protection (INDECOPI) convened a meeting of Pe ruvian governmental institutions and non-
governmental organizations to analyse the patents gr anted and pending patent a pplications referring to 
Lepidium meyenii  (Maca) and their consequences, and also to  assess alternatives to tackle them.  The 
Working Group drew up a report entitled "Patents referring to Lepidium Meyenii  (Maca):  Responses 
of Peru" which was submitted by the Delegation of Peru at the Fifth Session of the Intergovernmental 
Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore, 
which took place from 7 to 15 July 2003.  
Later, the National Commission for the Protection of Access to Peruvian Biological Diversity 
and to the Collective Knowledge of the Indigenous  Peoples (hereinafter "the National Anti-Biopiracy 
Commission") was created, which, since its creation in May 2004, has been carrying out actions to 
identify and follow up patent applications filed or patents granted abroad that relate to Peruvian 
biological resources or to collective knowl edge of the indigenous peoples of Peru. 
 
The National Anti-Biopiracy Commission has dr awn up various documents  which have been 
submitted by the delegation of Peru  in various international fora  (including WIPO and the WTO): 
 
- At the Eighth Session of the Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and 
Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge a nd Folklore, held from 6 to 10 June 2005, 
document WIPO/GRTKF/IC/8/12
1 was submitted, entitled "Patent System and the 
Fight against Biopiracy – The Peruvian Experience", which sets out the results of the 
search for potential cases of biopiracy of six resources of Peruvian origin (hercampuri, 
camu camu, yacón, caigua, sacha inchi and chancapiedra) that was made using the 
databases accessible through the web sites of  the United States Patent and Trademark 
Office, the European Patent Office and the Japan Patent Office. 
- At the Ninth Session of the Intergovernme ntal Committee on Intellectual Property and 
Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowle dge and Folklore, held from 24 to 
28 April 2006, document WIPO/GRTKF/IC/9/102 was submitted, entitled "Analysis of 
Potential Cases of Biopiracy:  The Case of Camu Camu ( Myrciaria Dubia )", describing 
the progress made in identifying and anal ysing patent appli cations and patents 
concerning inventions obtained or developed through the use of camu camu (Myrciaria 
dubia).  It also contained some comment s on the limitations and problems that 
countries such as Peru faced or may face in  identifying, monitoring and studying patent 
applications or patents that involve impr operly granted rights (because they do not meet 
patentability criteria) or weaken regim es for access to genetic resources and/or 
protection of traditional knowledge. 
Peru has been one of the main  driving forces behind the idea of modifying and adjusting the 
international patent system to include requirement s on disclosure of the origin and legal source of 
genetic resources and traditional knowledge.  In the case of Peru, these requirements were originally 
incorporated in Supreme Decree 008-06-ITINCI (1996), establishing regulations for the Andean 
protection regime for the rights of breeders of new plant varieties.  Almost successively, Decision 391 
                                                      
1 A similar document was submitted to the World Trade Organization (WTO), with reference 
IP/C/W/441, dated 8 March 2005, and its revised version IP/C/W/441/Rev.1, dated 19 May 2005. 
2 A similar document was submitted to the WTO, with reference IP/C/W/458, dated 7 November 2005.  IP/C/W/493 
 Page 3 
 
 
  of the Andean Community of Nations, establis hing a Common Regime on Access to Genetic 
Resources (July 1996), also incorporated these require ments in a much more explicit manner, linking 
the intellectual property regimes to the regime for access to genetic resources and protection of 
traditional knowledge.  A few years later, Deci sion 486 of the Andean Community of Nations, 
establishing a Common Industrial Property Regi me (September 2000), included, among the 
documents that must accompany patent applicati ons, where applicable:  (a) a copy of the access 
contract, where the products or processes which ar e the subject of the patent application were 
obtained or developed usi ng genetic resources or byproducts originating in any of the Member 
Countries, and (b) a copy of the document that ce rtifies the licence or authorization to use the 
traditional knowledge of indigenous, African Am erican, or local communities in the Member 
Countries where the products or processes whose prot ection is being requested were obtained or 
developed using the knowledge originating in any of the Member Countries, pursuant to the 
provisions of Decision 391 and its effective amendments and regula tions.  Finally, in August 2002, 
Law No. 27811 was adopted, introducing a Protecti on Regime for the Collective Knowledge of 
Indigenous Peoples Derived from Biological Resources. 
 
At the international level, since 1994, Peru has been submitting proposals on the need to link 
the patent system to the regime for access to ge netic resources and to th e protection of traditional 
knowledge in the CBD, WIPO and WTO, as well as in  other fora (including regional processes).  In 
this regard, in the context of the Doha Round and with document IP/C/W /447, dated 8 June 2005, 
Peru proposed that the TRIPS Agreem ent be amended to include the re quirement that an applicant for 
a patent relating to biological material or tr aditional knowledge disclose the source and country of 
origin of the resource used in the invention, as well as evidence of prior informed consent and of fair 
and equitable benefit-sharing.  
On May 29, 2006, Peru, Brazil, India, Paki stan, Thailand and Tanzania also presented 
document WT/GC/W/564/TN/C/W/41 to the Trade Negotiations Committee, which rightly proposes 
amendments to the TRIPS Agreement in line with  the proposals outlined.  These proposals were 
subsequently supported by the large majority of developing countries. 
 
Later, 2 November 2006, document IP/C/W /484 was submitted, entitled "Response to 
Comments Contained in Document IP/C/W/469 Relating to the Peruvian Communication 
IP/C/W/458", in which it is concluded that Peru's position is clear in considering that, even though 
there are useful tools to improve the patent system – and to verify compliance with the obligations in 
place relating to patentability requirements, in partic ular relating to novelty and inventive step – the 
inclusion of the requirement to disclose the source and/or origin of biological resources proposed in document IP/C/W/473 is an imperative if the aim is for the patent system to complement fully the 
obligations arising from the CDB, which Peru and all Member States are obliged to fulfil. 
 
This report describes the process carried out  by the Commission to identify cases of 
biopiracy, as well as the administrative actions initiate d against pending patent applications referring 
to inventions obtained or developed through the use of  a resource of Peruvian origin (in some cases 
using traditional knowledge of Peru 's indigenous peoples), where it has been identified that the 
patentability requirements have not been fulfilled.  
 
It also sets out the limitations and problems faced in identifying, monitoring and analysing 
patent applications or patents that involve im properly granted rights because they do not meet 
patentability requirements or because they weaken regimes for access to genetic resources and/or 
protection of traditional knowledge. 
 IP/C/W/493 
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  III. PROCEDURE FOLLOWED BY THE COMM ISSION TO IDENTIFY CASES OF 
BIOPIRACY 
Due to the Commission's limited resources and also  as a result of Peru's enormous biological 
and cultural wealth, the country's National Anti- Biopiracy Commission was obliged to focus its 
efforts on particular resources, choosing to give pr iority to 35 resources (33 plant and 2 animal) to 
identify possible cases of biopiracy in pate nt applications and patents granted. 
 
The criteria for selecting those resources included the following: 
 
- Volume of internal and external commercialization; 
- endemism; 
- resources or traditional knowledge which are the subject of investigation; - rights granted (known patents). The Commission has carried out, and carries out  periodically, searches on four databases, 
using as search criteria the most well-known commo n names, the scientific name, the synonyms and 
sometimes the genus of the species to which th e 35 resources belong.  The following databases are 
used:  
- Database of the United States Patent  and Trademark Office (www.uspto.gov
); 
- database of the Japan Patent Office (http://www.jpo.go.jp ); 
- database of the European Pate nt Office (http://ep.espacenet.com ); 
- database of the World Intellectual Property Organization (http://www.wipo.int ). 
Such searches make it possible to identify the pa tent applications or patents which make any 
reference to the resource.  A preliminary analysis  of the references found is then carried out, to 
identify in which there is really a direct reference to the resource that is the subject of the search.  
Once this has been carried out, the references are evaluated to determine the level of use of the 
resource or traditional knowledge, whether there is any reference to the origin of the resource or 
traditional knowledge, as well as what the claims ar e.  Once this information has been gathered, 
experts in the resource in question are contacted, as well as businesses working with that resource, so 
that they may provide the Commission with informati on to enable it to identify the most relevant prior 
art.  
Once the most relevant prior art has been identif ied, the application is analysed to determine 
whether the patentability requirements, in particul ar novelty and inventive step, have been met. 
 
All this information is submitted to the Commi ssion for its consideration so that it may 
determine whether the case analysed should be regard ed as a case of biopiracy, and if so, what action 
should be taken.  The help of an expert in the res ource may be sought to determine whether there is a 
case of biopiracy.   IP/C/W/493 
 Page 5 
 
 
  IV. ACTION CARRIED OUT BY THE COMMISSION IN IDENTIFIED CASES OF 
BIOPIRACY 
The cases of biopiracy identified by the Commission  to date are detailed below, as well as the 
action taken by the Commission in those cases.  1. Functional Food Product Containing Maca (Publication No. 2004-000171) 
TYPE:  Patent application 
APPLICANT:  Towa Corp (Japan) COUNTRY:  Japan DATE OF PUBLICATION:  1 January 2004 
 
MAIN CLAIM:  Functional food product, character ized by its maca content and its effect of 
increasing growth hormone levels in blood.   PRIOR ART FOUND BY THE COMMISSION:  A publication by a Peruvian scientist ( Revista 
Peruana de Biología , 1990) mentioning  experimental testing of the effect of extracts of maca on 
growth and development in rats.  The author in ques tion suggests that the maca extract is effective on 
the production of hormones in the pituitary gland.  It is known that one of the hormones produced by this gland is the growth hormone.  ACTION:  On 8 March 2006, an e-mail and fax were sent to the Japan Patent Office (JPO), requesting 
that it consider the texts mentioned as support for a d eclaration that the patent application did not meet 
the requirements of novelty and inventive step.  The technical documentation supporting the claim was also sent to the Japan Patent Office.  CURRENT STATUS:  Application rejected.  Howe ver, the Japan Patent Office did not use the 
information that was sent to it in good time. 
 
2. Extract of Lepidium meyenii roots for pharmaceutical applications (US 6297995)  
TYPE:  Patent  
APPLICANT:  Pure World Botanicals, Inc. (USA) COUNTRY:  United States 
DATE OF PUBLICATION:  31 July 2001 
 DERIVED PATENTS:   Treatment of sexual dysfunction with an extract of Lepidium meyenii roots (US 6,428,824)  Compositions and methods for th eir preparation from Lepidium (US 6,552,206) 
 
MAIN CLAIM:  An isolated co mposition obtained by extracting Lepidium meyenii roots, said 
composition being substantially free of cellulose and comprising:  
(a) Between about 5 per cent and about 9 per cent of benzyl isothiocyanate; 
(b) between about 1 per cent and about 3 per cent of Lepidium sterol component;  
(c) between about 20 per cent and about 30 per cent of Lepidium fatty acid component;  
and  
(d) about 10 per cent or more of macamide component. 
ACTION:  Action is being carried out to request that the patent be challenged. IP/C/W/493 
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  CURRENT STATUS:  Patent granted. 
 
3. Preserves of fruit of Myrciaria dubia  (Publication No. 09 – 215475) 
TYPE:  Patent application 
APPLICANT:  T Hasegawa Co. Ltd. (Japan) 
COUNTRY:  Japan 
DATE OF PUBLICATION:  August 18, 1997  MAIN CLAIM:  Preserves containing whole fruit of camu camu, minerals and peptic substances.  
 
PRIOR ART FOUND BY THE COMMISSION:  The following publications were found: 
 
Alvarado (1969)3[1] and Calzada (1980), mentioning the use of the fruit of camu camu in the 
preparation of juices and strong alcohols using the pu lp, as well as in the preparation of ice creams 
and jams. 
 
Thesis by Sanjurjo (1990), describing the process of producing juice, jam and jelly from the 
pulp of camu camu.  It is also indicates that jam contains the pulp of camu camu, pectin and sugar, 
adding bits of other fruits such as pineapple to improve flavour.  
Villachica (1996), citing the thesis by González (1987) entitled " Estudio técnico sobre la 
elaboración de conservas de camu camu  (Myrciaria dubia)".  [Technical study on the preparation of 
preserves using camu camu ( Myrciaria dubia ).] 
 ACTION:  A communication was sent to the Japan Pate nt Office requesting that the patent application 
be rejected due to lack of novelty.  The documen tation supporting the request was enclosed with the 
communication. 
 CURRENT STATUS:  Application abandoned.  
4. Utilisation d'huile et de protéines extraites de graines de Plukenetia volubilis linneo dans 
des préparations cosmétiques, dermatologiques et  nutraceutiques.  [Use of oil and proteins 
extracted from the seeds of Plukenetia volubi lis linneo in cosmetic, dermatological and 
nutraceutical preparations.]  (FR 2880278) 
TYPE:  Patent application 
APPLICANT:  Greentech SA. (France) COUNTRY:  France 
DATE OF PUBLICATION:  7 July 2006 
 MAIN CLAIM:  Utilisation d'huile ou de protéin es extraites de la graine de Plukenetia volubilitis 
Linneo, appelé communément Inca Inchi, pour la pr éparation d'un ingrédient actif entrant dans la 
composition de produits cosmétiques ou dermatologiqu es. [Use of oil or proteins extracted from the 
seeds of Plukenetia volubilis linneo, known commonly as "Inca Inchi", for the preparation of an active 
ingredient present in the composition of  cosmetic or dermatological products.] 
 PRIOR ART FOUND BY THE COMMISSION:  A publication in which it is stated that "the old Mayoruna, Chayuhuita, Campa, Huitoto, Shipib o, Yagua and Bora (indigenous peoples of the 
Peruvian Amazon) mix the oil of Plukenetia volubilis with flour from this same kernel and prepare a 
special cream to revitalize and rejuvenate the skin" ("Especies Vegetales Promisorias de los Países del 
Convenio Andrés Bello", 1992).   IP/C/W/493 
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  ACTION:  A document was submitted to the National Intellectual Property Institute of France (INPI) 
requesting that the patent application be rejected  due to lack of novelty.  The documentation 
supporting the request was enclosed.   CURRENT STATUS:  Application being assessed by INPI. 
 
5. An extract of a plant belonging to the genus Plukenetia  volubilis  and its cosmetic use.  
(WO/2006/048158 ) 
TYPE:  Patent application 
APPLICANT:  Cognis France S.A.S (France) 
PCT application 
DATE OF PUBLICATION:  11 May 2006  MAIN CLAIMS:  
1. A cosmetic use of an extract of a plant belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae (preferably 
belonging to the genus Plukenetia ). 
2. A cosmetic use of a protein or a mixture of proteins, whereby said protein or said mixture of 
proteins is extractable from a plant belonging to  the family Euphorbiaceae (p referably belonging to 
the genus Plukenetia ).  
PRIOR ART FOUND BY THE COMMISSION:  A publication in which it is stated that "the old 
Mayoruna, Chayuhuita, Campa, Huitoto, Shipib o, Yagua and Bora (indigenous peoples of the 
Peruvian Amazon) mix the oil of Plukenetia volubilis  with flour from this same kernel and prepare a 
special cream to revitalize and rejuvenate the skin" ("Especies Vegetales Promisorias de los Países del 
Convenio Andrés Bello", 1992).   
ACTION:  The documents to submit comments when the application reaches the national phase are in 
the process of being prepared.     CURRENT STATUS:  Application being assessed.   
V. LIMITATIONS AND PROBLEMS FACED 
  Some of the limitations and problems faced by the National Anti-Biopiracy Commission are 
detailed below:  1. In the majority of cases analysed by the Commission no reference is made to the origin of the 
resource or knowledge, nor is it mentioned that such resource or knowledge were used to develop the 
invention. 
2. Often, the description of what the applicant wish es to protect is not clear enough, or in other 
cases the description is ambiguous.  This is the ca se where the applicant wishes to claim a product on 
the basis of at least one resource from a list of va rious possible resources, or  when the resources are 
presented across a very wide range of proportions (between 0.001 and 99.9 per cent). 
3. There is a wealth of literature and informati on about resources of Peruvian origin, but access 
to such information is at times difficult.  This e xplains why patent offices in foreign countries have 
not institutionalized the practice of revising docum ents and literature which could refer to ancestral 
uses of components of biological diversity by indigenous peoples or to different manifestations of indigenous traditional knowledge.  These practical di fficulties affect the possibilities for rigorous and IP/C/W/493 
Page 8  
 
  comprehensive examinations of patent applications , giving rise, in many cases, to the granting of 
rights of doubtful legitimacy. 
4. Even though in the majority of cases the datab ase of the Japan Patent Office provides a literal 
translation into English of applica tions and/or patents, the translati on is often inaccurate, which causes 
confusion and, at times, makes an analysis impossi ble;  in some cases, the database permits access 
only to the original document published in Japan ese (not offering the possibility of accessing the 
English translation of the claims), which prevents an analysis of the document, therefore making it 
necessary to use the services of a specialist translator, which is a situation that proves difficult for the 
National Commission to manage due to the costs th at this entails in terms of time and money. 
5. With regard to the application for a patent for the functional food product containing maca, 
although this application was rejected by the Japan Pa tent Office, the information that we sent in good 
time reporting the existence of prior art relevant to the claims was not taken into account in the 
analysis of the patentability requireme nts for the application concerned. 
6. Guaranteeing the timely detection of cases of biopiracy such as those mentioned in this 
document would require resources which the Commission does not have at its disposal. 
7. Each country has different rules concerning the possibility of third parties intervening in a 
patent application.  Some country's legislation pr ovides for the intervention of third parties only after 
the patent has been granted, which hinders the Co mmission's work enormously since it is much more 
difficult to act when it concerns a pate nt that has already been granted. 
8. The situation is even more problematic when it concerns an international application under 
the PCT system, since this system does not provide for the possibility of opposing a patent when it is 
in the international phase. 
VI. CONCLUSIONS 
Today, the biological diversity of Peru is one of the main pillars of its national economy by 
virtue of the fact that 99 per cent of its fishing activities depend on the country's native 
hydrobiological resources, 65 per cent of its ag ricultural production is based on native genetic 
resources, 95 per cent of its livestock farming uses native natural pastures and 99 per cent of its 
forestry industry uses native woodland and species.  As a result, Peru's biodiversity is an important 
source of direct employment and livelihood for a large part of its population an d is of vital importance 
to national culture, science and technology (CONAM, 1999).  
The defensive protection of genetic resources and traditional knowledge is an extremely 
complex task for a country such as Peru whose terr itory has such broad biodiversity.  However, such 
protection is necessary given that bad patents or potential bad patents can have a very detrimental 
effect on the economic, social and cultural interests of a country such as Peru.  It is by no means a 
question of dismantling the patent system; it is simply a matter of achieving the objective of promoting innovation whilst maintaining a degree of fairness and equity among the stakeholders 
involved in the system. 
 
The patent system as it operates today results, in  many cases, in inventions generated, directly 
or indirectly, from genetic resources of Peruvian origin or from the trad itional knowledge of its 
communities, passing the examinations of novelty or inventive step when they should not.  Moreover, 
it is not taken into account that those resources or traditional knowledge may have been obtained in an 
irregular or overtly illegal manner.  This is partic ularly true of Peru, which has had a regime for 
access to genetic resources and another for protec tion of traditional knowledge in force for a number 
of years.  IP/C/W/493 
 Page 9 
 
 
  The patent system works only if the rights of those who made the invention possible are 
acknowledged.  The system does not work (or at l east does not work as it should) if it acknowledges 
only the rights of those who have achieved an inve ntion using the materials developed by others, 
thereby infringing their rights.  
There is an urgent need to rethink the patent system and to consider how to make it more 
balanced.  The current intellectual property sy stem does little to ensure fair and equitable 
compensation for benefits derived from the use of genetic resources and traditional knowledge.  
Although it is true that the patent system does not  have the function of guaranteeing compensation for 
benefits and regulated access to genetic resources, it is necessary to create synergies between these 
needs and the functionality of the system in order to make it a fairer system. 
 
The measures taken at the national level are not enough.  There is a need for regulations and 
obligations at the international level to guarantee the incorporation, implementation and fulfilment of 
these requirements. 
 
In this regard, we consider it appropriate for internationa l agreements to include the 
requirement that a patent applicant for an inven tion containing, directly or indirectly, biological 
resources or traditional knowledge, disclose the sour ce and country of origin of the resource or 
knowledge used in the invention, as well as proof of the legal access to such resource or knowledge.  
This is necessary to prevent biopiracy and to avoi d bad patents.  This position has been demonstrated 
in multiple declarations and interventions (individu ally or in conjunction with countries with similar 
interests) in various fora, in particular in the WTO, by Peru and by many other countries such as 
Brazil, India, Thailand, Colombia and China.  
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Biocomercio Perú, crop data sheets (n/d). 
 Brack Egg, A., 'Biodiversidad:  Firmeza necesaria', Actualidad Económica  (2005), September edition.  
 Brako, L. & J. L. Zarucchi, Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru  (St. Louis, 
USA:  Missouri Botanical Garden, 1993). 
 
Comisión Nacional de Biopiratería, 'Análisis de Potenciales Casos de Biopiratería en el Perú', Documentos de Investigación , Year 1, No. 3 (Iniciativa de Prevención de la Biopiratería, 2005).   
 CONAM, Biodiversidad y desarrollo  (1999).  Working document. 
 
CONAM, Perú megadiverso, prioridades en uso y c onservación de nuestra diversidad para el 
desarrollo sostenible  (1999). 
 León B. et al, 'El libro rojo de las plantas endémicas del Perú', Revista Peruana de Biología , special 
edition, Vol. 13, No. 2: 9s-22s (National Univers ity of San Marcos (UNMSM), Biological Sciences 
Faculty:  2006), ISSN 1561-0837. 
 Ministry of Agriculture/Indigenous Institute of Peru, Mapa Etnolingüístico Oficial del Perú  (1994). 
 Tratado de Cooperación Económica, Plantas Medicinales Amazónicas: Realidad y Perspectiva  
(1995). 
 
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