Risk Management Proposal :  
Revision of the level of post entry 
quarantine  (PEQ)  for blueberry ( Vaccinium  
spp. excluding V. macrocarpon ) imported as 
tissue culture  from non -accredited facilities 
under the Import Health Standard (IHS)  
155.02.06: Importation of Nursery Stock  
 
 
 
 
14 August 2017  
 
  
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Plant Imports  
Plants, Food & Environment  
Ministry for Primary Industries  
Pastoral House  
25 The Terrace  
PO Box 2526  
Wellington 6140  
New Zealand  
 
Tel: +64 4 894 0100  
Fax: +64 4 894 0662  
 
Email: plantimports@mpi.govt.nz 
Page 3 of 53 
  
 
Disclaimer  
This document does not constitute, and should not be regarded as, legal advice. While every effort has been 
made to ensure the information in this document is accurate, the Ministry for Primary Industries does not accept 
any responsibility or li ability whatsoever for any error of fact, omission, interpretation or opinion that may be 
present, however it may have occurred.  
Requests for further copies should be directed to:  
 
Plant Imports  
Plants, Food & Environment  
Ministry for Primary Industries  
PO Box 2526  
Wellington 6140  
New Zealand  
 
Email: plantimports@mpi.govt.nz  
 
© Crown Copyright – Ministry for Primary Industries.  
   
Page 4 of 53 
 Submissions  
The Ministry for Primary Industries  (MPI) propose to amend the Vaccinium  schedule of the import health standard 
155.02.06: Importation of Nursery Stock  (the IHS)  to allow Vaccinium  tissue cultures imported under option 3.2 of  
the IHS to undergo post entry quarantine (PEQ) in a lower level of physical and operational c ontainment than is 
currently required.  The proposed amendment is supported by this Risk Management Proposal (RMP).  
The purpose of an IHS is defined as follows in section 22(1) of the Biosecurity Act 1993 (the Act): “An import 
health standard specifies requirements that must be met to effectively manage risks associated with importing 
risk goods, including risks arising because importing the goods involves or might involve an incidentally imported 
new organism”.  
MPI must consult with interested parties i n accordance with section 23 of the Act and MPI’s consultation policy 
before issuing or amending an import health standard under section 24A of the Act.  
MPI therefore seeks formal comment on the proposed change to the level of PEQ required for  Vaccinium tissue 
cultures .1 
MPI has developed this RMP based on the best available technical evidence and assessment of this evidence. If 
you disagree with the measures proposed to manage the risks, please provide either data or published 
references to support your comments. Similarl y, if you support the proposed measures, or consider that additional 
measures are required to manage the risks, please provide appropriate evidence to support your comments. This 
will enable MPI to consider additional evidence that  may change how it is pro posed risks are to be managed.  
The following points may be of as sistance in preparing comments:  
 
 Wherever possible, comments should be specific to a particular section/requirement of the standard;  
 Where possible, reasons, data and supporting published references to support comments are 
requested;  
 The use of examples to illustrate particular points is encouraged.   
MPI encourages respondents to forward comments electronically. Please include th e following in your 
submission:  
 
 The title of the consultation document in the subject line of your email;  
 Your name and title (if applicable);  
 Your organisation’s name (if applicable); and  
 Your address.  
Send submissions to:  plantimports@mpi.govt.nz . 
If you wish to forward submissions in writing, please send them to the following address:  
Plant Imports  
Plants, Food & Environment  
Ministry for Primary Industries  
PO Box 2526  
Wellington 6140  
New Zealand  
                                                
1 The proposed amendment applies only to tissue cultures that are imported from non -accredited facilities under option 3.2 of the Vaccinium  
schedule of the IHS. The level of PEQ for Vaccinium  tissue cultures imported from MPI -accredited facilities (option 3 .1 of the IHS) has not 
been considered as part of this assessment. This is because these tissue cultures are already eligible for PEQ in a Level 2 g reenhouse facility 
with a minimum period of six months in PEQ. There are not currently any MPI -accredited fa cilities that are approved for the export of 
Vaccinium nursery stock to New Zealand.   
Page 5 of 53 
 All submissions must  arrive by close of business on 11 September 2017 . Submissions received by the closure 
date will be considered during the development of the final standard. Submissions received after the closure date 
may be held on file for considera tion when the issued standard is next revised/reviewed.  
 
Official Information Act 1982  
Please note that your submission is public information and it is MPI policy to publish submissions and the review 
of submissions on the MPI website. Submissions may also be the subject of requests for information under the 
Official Information Act 1982 (OIA). The OIA specifies that information is to be made available to requesters 
unless there are sufficient grounds for withholding it, as set out in the OIA. Submitter s may wish to indicate 
grounds for withholding specific information contained in their submission, such as the information is 
commercially sensitive or they wish personal information to be withheld . 
Any decision to withhold information requested under the OIA is reviewable by the Ombudsman.   
Page 6 of 53 
 Contents   
Purpose  7 
Scope  7 
Background  8 
Summary  10 
Part 1: Context  12 
Domestic  12 
International  13 
Strength of measures  13 
Part 2: Risk management of regulated organisms on the Vaccinium tissue culture pathway  15 
Insects and Mites  15 
Fungi (inc luding Oomycota)  16 
Bacteria  27 
Viruses  28 
Diseases of unknown aetiology  29 
Phytoplasmas  29 
Organisms on the MPI emerging risk register  30 
Feasibility and practicality of measures  31 
Part 3 Draft IHS schedule for Vaccinium  33 
Part 4: References  42 
Appendix  1 47 
Appendix 2  51 
Appendix 3  52 
    
Page 7 of 53 
 Purpose  
(1) The draft IHS schedule  for Vaccinium  is the subject of consultation  under section 23(3) 
of the Biosecurity Act (1993) . The consultation is restricted to the following c hanges 
that are proposed for the Vaccinium schedule : 
a) the addition of a new part (part 3.3)  to the IHS schedule that will  identify  specific 
post entry qua rantine (PEQ)  requirements for  Vaccinium  tissue cultures from non -
accredited facilities;  
b) a requirement to introduce testing for the fungal pathogen Diaporthe vaccinii . This 
testing will apply to all plant material imported under the Vaccinium schedule;  
c) the addition of the fungal pathogen Exobasidium maculosum  to the pest list in the 
Vaccinium schedule.  
(2) The purpose of t his RMP is to:  
a) Summarise the known biosecurity risk associated with tissue cultures imported  
from non -accredited offshore facilities  under  option 3.2 of the Vaccinium schedule 
of the import health standard (IHS) 155.02.06: Importation of Nursery Stock . The 
summary of risk is limited to disease organisms that are currently listed in the 
Vaccinium  schedule, or that have been recorded in the MPI emerging risk database ; 
b) Evaluate whether the biosecurity risk can be effectively managed using a lower 
level of physical and operational containment than is currently required ; 
c) Show how the measures proposed in the draft IHS schedule (provided in Part 3 of 
this RMP)  will effectively manage known biosecurity risks and a re consistent with 
New Zealand’s domestic legislation and international obligations.  
(3) The RMP assesses the risk managem ent measures required to manage biosecurity risks 
associated with Vaccinium  tissue cultures.  
(4) The RMP provides information to support the consultation on the draft IHS, but is not 
itself the subject of consultation. However,  MPI will accept comments and suggestions 
on the RMP in order to improve future IHS consultations.  
Scope  
(5) The RMP  provides the rat ionale for a proposed  reduction in the level of quarantine  
containment required for deflasked tissue cultures imported under part 3. 2 of the 
Vaccinium  schedule in the nursery stock IHS.  
(6) The RMP applies to all plant species with an import specification of ‘L2, L3 see 
155.02.06 under Vaccinium ” in the  Ministry for Primary Industries ( MPI) Plants 
Biosecurity Index (PBI) . This includes all members of the Vaccinium genus that are 
eligible for import into New Zealand except  V. macrocarpon , which has a separate IHS 
schedule and is not considered here. 
(7) The RMP includes:  
 A summary of disease organisms potentially associated with Vaccinium  nursery 
stock from all countries  (taken from  the current Vaccinium  schedule in the 
nursery stock IHS) .  
Page 8 of 53 
  A summary of organisms that  are not included in the IHS, but  that are recorded 
as being associated with Vaccinium spp. in MPI’s register of emerging risks.   
 An assessment of how the risks associated with these disease organisms will be 
managed in a Level 3A  PEQ greenhouse . 
(8) The RMP excludes:  
 A comprehensive review of potential risk organisms that have been recorded as 
being associated or potentially associated with Vaccinium  nursery stock from all 
countries  since the current schedule was adopted ( i.e. since 1999).  
 Dormant cuttings (from MPI accredited and non -accredited facilities) . 
 Tissue cultures of Vaccinium  imported from accredited facilities.  
 Nursery stock  (including tissue culture material) of Vaccinium  macrocarpon . 
Background  
(9) In March 2016 MPI reissued the Transitional Facility Standard: Post Entry Quarantine 
for Plants . The reissued  standard  include s a new level of quarantine greenhouse facility,  
known as  Level 3A . This type of greenhouse provides an intermediate level of physical 
and operational containment relative to Level 2 and Level 32 greenhouse facilities  that 
were included in the previous ver sion of the standard . The reason for  including a  new 
level of quarantine greenhouse wa s to enable  plants to be held in a level  of quarantine 
more commensurate with the  level of  biosecurity  risk. 
(10) MPI intends to assess  selected genera  of high value  nursery s tock which require Level 
3B PEQ  to identify whether the biosecurity risk can be effectively  managed in a Level 
3A PEQ greenhouse . This will reduce the volume of imports through  Level 3B PEQ 
facilities  (which often do not have sufficient capacity ), and help  to support the import  
into New Zealand  of new plant germplasm . 
(11) The assessments will also provide certainty about which  species can be held in a Level 
3A PEQ  greenhouse.   
(12) High  value genera  of nursery stock have been  prioritised for assessment based on the 
following criteria:  
a) Current frequency of imports into Level 3B PEQ.  
A main aim is to reduce the pressure on existing Level 3B PEQ facilities  and to 
support industry by  reducing unnecessary costs and helping to remove barriers to 
import that arise from  limited PEQ capacity . As such, MPI reviewed the recent 
history of imports to identify the genera  that are using  the most space in Level 3B 
PEQ . Genera  for which there is no current demand to import will not be assessed.  
b) Feasibility  of importing plants in tissue culture . 
                                                
2 Under the previous version of the PEQ standard (MAF Biosecurity Authority Standard PBC -NZ-TRA -PQCON) the highest level of 
greenhouse quarantine facility was referred to as Level 3. The equivalent level under the revised standard is Level 3B. For the remainder of 
this document, the highest level of PEQ is referred to as Level 3B   
Page 9 of 53 
 MPI will only  assess import requirements for plants where tissue culture is a 
known pathway for trade in new germplasm . This is because some groups of 
organism ( for example insects and mites) present a  very low risk on the tissue 
culture pathway. In addition , risks associated with other classes of disease 
organism ( for example wood -inhabiting fungi) are lower for plants in tissue culture  
than for  some  other plant parts (such as whole plants and/or cutti ngs). 
c) Status of current import schedule . 
The only genera  considered for assessment will be those where  imports are allowed 
under the existing IHS schedule . This is because MPI consider that the current 
measures in the IHS will effectively manage biosecurit y risk. Furthermore, any 
new or emerging risks that may be associated with these genera  will have been 
identified by MPI when recent import permits were issued. As such, it is feasible  to 
assess the most appropriate level of PEQ  without undertaking a broad er review of 
the entire schedule . 
d) Review of IHS schedule not included in curren t Plant Imports work programme.  
The assessments will only include genera  that were not otherwise going to be 
assessed in the near future. This mean s that IHS schedules already under  review on 
the current MPI work programme will not be considered. Schedules  on the current 
work programme can be viewed on the MPI website here. 
(13) Species falling under the Vaccinium  schedule of the IHS have been  assessed  for the 
following reasons:  
a) Vaccinium  import s are permitted  under the existing sc hedule in the nursery stock 
IHS; this is the most common genus  of nursery stock imported  into Level 3B PEQ, 
so imports are  increasing the pressure on these facilities ; 
b) Vaccinium  is the most common fruit crop currently undergoing Plant Variety 
Rights testing in New Zealand , with most varieties under test being of overseas 
origin. This highlights the interest in importing overs eas bred  material ; 
c) Vaccinium  nursery stock is commonly imported as tissue cultures. This shows  that 
overseas germplasm is  readily available as tissue cultures , and that these  are a 
practical way of importing Vaccinium  germplasm into New Zealand . 
   
Page 10 of 53 
 Summary  
(14) Quarantine in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse, in conjunction  with some specific additional 
risk management measures , will effectively man age the biosecurity risk for the types of 
risk organism that are  likely to be associated with Vaccinium tissue cultures for the 
following reasons:  
a) Importing plants in tissue culture effectively manages the risk associated with  
regulated insects, mites and n ematodes given that these classes of organism are 
highly unlikely to be transferred into  tissue culture .  
b) Regulated bacteria that may be associated with Vaccinium tissue cultures will be 
effectively managed in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse  for a combination  of the 
following reasons:  
i) Waste water will be treated  to ensure that soil or waterborne bacteria do not 
escape from the facility via the waste water stream3; 
ii) Mesh screening on Level 3A PEQ greenhouses will exclude the v ectors of 
insect transmitted  bacteria;  
iii) Greenhouses will be moni tored for insect vectors, and appropriate control 
measures will be taken in the event that vectors are present within a facility . 
Based on the above, if regulated bacteria were present, they could not escape from 
the facility.  
c) Regulated viruses that may be associated with Vaccinium tissue cultures will be 
effectively managed in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse for the following reasons:  
i) Imported plants will not be allowed to flowe r until they have been tested for 
pollen -borne viruses ; 
ii) Mesh screening on Level 3A PEQ greenhouses will exclude the adult stages 
of insect  vectors  of these viruses ; 
iii) Greenhouses will be monitored for insect vectors, and appropriate control 
measures will be  taken in the event that vectors are present within a facility . 
Based on the above, if regulated viruses were present they would not be able to 
escape from the facility. This rationale is also considered to apply to blueberry fruit 
drop disease (currently listed in the IHS as a disease of unknown aetiology), on the 
basis of recent research showing that the causal agent is likely to be an aphid -
transmitted virus.  
d) Regulated phytoplasmas that may be associated with Vaccinium tissue cultures will 
be effectively managed in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse because insect vectors will 
be exclude d from the facility (as noted in clauses c)i i) and c)i ii) of the  preceding 
paragraph) . As such, i f regulated phytoplasmas were present they could not escape 
from the facility.  
e) Regulated fungi and oomycetes will be effectively managed in a Level 3A PEQ 
greenhouse for some or all  of the following reasons:  
                                                
3 Note: MPI is currently re -evaluating requirements for disposal of waste water from Level 3A P EQ greenhouse facilities to ensure that all 
biosecurity risk will be effectively managed. MPI will undertake public consultation before making any changes to the require ments for 
disposal of waste water from this type of facility.   
Page 11 of 53 
 i) To prevent signs or symptoms of fungal contamination from being masked in 
the tissue culture vessels, the addition of antibiotics, fungicides or charcoal to 
tissue culture medium will be prohibited;  
ii) The particular organism is unlikely to be transferred into t issue culture  (for 
example inhabits roots or woody tissue only) , meaning that the likelihood of 
entry is very low ; 
iii) Fungal  spores are unlikely to be produced whilst in quarantine  (based on 
specific epidemiological characteristics of a particular fungal org anism) ; 
iv) Operational restrictions will be applied to minimise the likelihood of  spore s 
being dispersed outside the PEQ facility . In particular, overhe ad irrigation 
will be prohibite d; this will minimise the chances of  fungi which are aerially 
dispersed (e.g. by rain splash ) from escaping from the facility ; 
v) All p lants in PEQ will be regularly inspected for disease symptoms ( at least 
twice per week), with contingency plans in place to contain fungal /oomycete  
disease organisms if these are detected ; 
vi) Specific risk management measures will be applied to manage  risk associated 
with two disease organism s (Monilinia vaccinii -corymbosi and Phytophthora 
ramorum ) before plants are transfer red to the PEQ greenhouse as follows:  
1) Imported tissue culture plants will be tested for M. vaccinii -corymbosi 
before plants are transferred to a Level 3A greenhouse. This is because 
conidia  of this organism  are wind dispersed and would not readily be 
contained within a Level 3A greenhouse ; 
2) Tissue cultures will be incubated for four weeks at 17 -25C before 
plants are transferred to a Level 3A greenhouse. If present,  mycelium of  
P. ramorum is expected to become visible during this time, meaning that 
infected plants would not b e transferred to the greenhouse . 
(15) The additional risk management measures to help manage certain disease organisms 
(for example prohibition of overhead irrigation and contingency planning) will be 
evaluated by MPI at the time of facility approval (and before imports commence). 
Ongoing compliance will be verified through regular audits by MPI as described in the 
Facility Standard: Post Entry Quarantine for  Plants.  
(16) The current testing and inspection requirements for Vaccinium (as listed in the IHS) are 
consider ed appropriate to detect all regulated organisms before plants are given a 
biosecurity clearance (aside from the exceptions listed in the following paragraph).  
(17) When preparing  this risk management proposal MPI noted some additional changes that 
should be made to the Vaccinium schedule to ensure ongoing effective management of 
biosecurity risk on this pathway . These changes , which are summarised below, will 
apply to all types of  Vaccinium nursery stock and are described in full in Part 2 of this 
document.  
a) The IHS should be updated to require specific testing for the fungus Diaporthe 
vaccinii on all Vaccinium nursery stock imported into New Zealand;  
b) The IHS should be amended to include the fungus Exobasidium maculosum as a 
regulated pest, with a requirement for all imported Vaccinium nursery stock to 
undergo growing season inspection for this organism .  
Page 12 of 53 
 Part 1: Context  
DOMESTIC  
(18) New Zealand operates a biosecurity system for which the phytosanitary aspect 
(covering plant health) is a key component . 
(19) The biosecurity system is r egulated through the Biosecurity Act 1993. Section 22 of the 
Act describes an import health standard (IHS) and outlines the types of matters that 
should be considered in an  IHS.  
(20) MPI is the government authority responsible for maintaining biosecurity standards for 
the effective management of risks associated with the importation of risk goods into 
New Zealand (Part 3, Biosecurity Act 1993).  
(21) The biosecurity system in New Zealand operates a series of components or layers (pre -
border, border and post bord er) that together provide a high level of assurance that pests 
are unlikely to establish in New Zealand. No one part of the system is able to achieve 
the necessary assurance on its own.  
(22) No biosecurity system is capable of reducing risk to zero. The objecti ve of 
New  Zealand’s biosecurity  system is to reduce to an acceptable level the likelihood of 
unwanted impacts occurring.  Within this system, the objective of IHSs is to reduce to 
an acceptable level the likelihood  of entry and establishment of regulated o rganisms 
(includi ng pests, diseases and weeds).  
(23) An organism is ‘regulated’ by MPI if it could cause unacceptable consequences (i.e. 
likely to cause unacceptable economic, environmental, socio -cultural or human health 
impacts in New Zealand) if it were to e nter and establish in New  Zealand, provided the 
organism is:  
a) not present in New Zealand ; or  
b) if present in New Zealand is under official control;  
For organisms  that represent a phytosanitary risk , entry and establishment is defined as 
‘introduction’ by t he International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC).  
(24) The New Zealand phytosanitary system focuses on ensuring that the most significant 
pests, for examp le Xylella fastidiosa , are unlikely to ever establish in New Zealand. The 
system also manages risk associated with all other regulated pests.  
(25) The focus of an IHS for plant -based goods is to manage unacceptable phytosanitary 
risks before the goods  arrive  at the New Zealand border. The expectation is that , to the 
greatest extent possible,  commercial consignments of plants and plant products meet 
New Zealand’s phytosanitary import requirements on arrival (risk is managed off -
shore).  
(26) In the case of plant material imported for propagation, disease organisms  can su rvive in 
living plant material that does not show any signs of infection. Therefore , if specified in 
an IHS, material  for propagation must be held in PEQ for growing season inspection  
and/or test ing to verify freedom from regulated organisms before receivi ng a biosecurity 
clearance .   
Page 13 of 53 
 (27) MPI monitors the pathway performance related to each IHS to ensure it provides the 
expected level of protection. This is achieved through verification and inspection 
activities at the border and, where necessary, audits of offs hore production systems.  
(28) MPI is committed to the principles of transparency and evidence -based technical 
justification for all phytosanitary measures, new and amended, imposed on importing 
pathways.  
INTERNATIONAL  
(29) Where possible, phytosanitary import requir ements are aligned with international 
standards, guidelines, and recommendations as per New Zealand’s obligations under 
Article 3.1 of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement on the Application of 
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures; WTO, 1995  (SPS Ag reement).  
(30) The SPS Agreement sets in place rules that protect each country’s sovereign right to 
take the measures necessary to protect the life or health of its people, animals, and 
plants while at the same time facilitating trade. It embodies and promotes the use of 
science -based risk assessments to manage the risks associated with the international 
movement of goods.  
(31) In keeping with New Zealand ’s obligations under the SPS Agreement and the IPPC, 
phytosanitary measures must:  
a) be justified and can only be fo r regulated pests. The strength of any phytosanitary 
measure will depend on the assessment of risk, with an emphasis on the 
consequences of the pest establishing in New Zealand ; 
b) not discriminate unfairly between countries or between imported and domestical ly 
produced goods ; 
c) be based on international standards wherever possible, but WTO members can 
adopt a measure that is more stringent than an international standard, provided the 
measure is scientifically justified.  
(32) Note that international standards, guidel ines or recommendations referred to in the 
WTO agreement are those of Codex, OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health) and 
the IPPC , including regional standards developed by Asia Pacific Plant Protection 
Commission.  
STRENGTH OF MEASURES  
(33) Measures  are required for regulated pests where the ‘probability of introduction and 
spread’ on a pathway is unacceptable (i.e. if a regulated organism is able to enter 
through the pathway, find a suitable host, and establish and spread in New Zealand).   
(34) The grea ter the risk or consequence a pest can cause, the greater the level of assurance 
MPI requires that the pest is not present in a consignment.  
(35) The required strength of a measure depends on the risk posed by a particular regulated 
organism on the pathway. Thi s risk is determined by a combination of the consequences 
the pest may cause if it was introduced into New Zealand and the likelihood that the 
pest will enter and establish from a pathway.   
Page 14 of 53 
 (36) Plant s imported for propagation are one of the most high risk pathw ays for the 
inadvertent introduction of pests and diseases to new areas. Part of the reason for this is 
that plant pests can survive in living plant material that does not show any signs of 
infection , and this living material is the entity  that allows the pests to establish . In 
addition, because plants imported for propagation may be further multiplied and/or 
widely distributed throughout the country, the likelihood of pests surviving and being 
transferred to suitable hosts in the wider environment is highe r than for many other 
import pathways. This is why, if required in an IHS, plant s for propagation must be held 
in PEQ before receiving a biosecurity clearance.  
(37) The physical design, safeguards and operating procedures for a PEQ facility are based 
on pest bi ology. However, when  identifying the most appropriate level  of PEQ , the 
following factors should also be  taken into account:  
 disease organism biology:  
- mode of transmission;  
- whether vectors are present (or likely to be present) in New Zealand;  
- whether vectors are likely to be present in close proximity to the PEQ  
facility;  
- whether the same (or related) species as the imported plants are likely to 
be present in  close proximity to the PEQ  facility . 
 likelihood of entry of a quarantine pest via an import pathway:  
- whether a particular quarantine pest is likely to be associated with the plant 
parts being imported ( for example seeds vs. tissue cultures vs. bulbs vs. 
whole plants);  
- presence or absence of the quarantine pest in the exporting country;  
- assurances provided by the exporting country in regards to freedom from 
quarantine pests;  
- whether material is from an MPI -accredited offshore facility, and if so the 
history of the facility and what testing has been done ; 
- available treatment methods ( for example fungicide , insecticide or other 
treatment before plants enter  PEQ).  
 likelihood of establishment of a quarantine pest via an import pathway ; 
 potential environmental and/or economic consequences of establishment;  
 available testing methods ( for example growing season inspection, biological 
indexing, PCR).  
(38) A combination of t he above factors have been considered when reviewing the level of 
PEQ for Vaccinium tissue cultures.  
 
   
Page 15 of 53 
 Part 2: Risk  management  of regulated organisms on the 
Vaccinium tissue c ulture pathway  
(39) The purpose of this section is to:  
a) Assess the likelihood of each disease organism  (or each class of disease organism ) 
listed in the Vaccinium  schedule in the IHS being present on the tissue culture 
pathway;  
b) Based on the above assessment, evaluate whether the biosecurity risk associated 
with Vaccinium  nursery stock imported as tissue cultures from a non -accredited 
offshore facility can be managed in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse ; 
c) Identify whether any risk manageme nt measures additional to those already 
specified in the IHS are required  to manage risk . 
(40) The following information sources were  used in developing this risk management 
proposal : 
a) Import health standard (IHS) 155.02.06: Importation of Nursery Stock ; 
b) Relevan t literature (scientific journals, webpages, books, databases etc.);  
c) The MPI emerging risk database . 
(41) If a regulated organism was considered to present a risk on this pathway, an assessment 
was made of the level of PEQ facility which could safely contain the organism.  Factors 
outlined in the Strength of measures  section of this document  were consider ed when 
making the assessment . 
(42) As noted in the scope of this document, the Vaccinium schedule was developed around 
1999 and has not been significantly amended  since then. A comprehensive hazard 
identification was not done as part of this risk management proposal, but the MPI 
emerging risk register (which has been active since 2012) was searched for diseases of 
Vaccinium . Aside from the proposed additions to the IHS that are described in this 
document , MPI is not aware of any additional risk organisms that should be added to  
the Vaccinium schedule of the IHS.  
Insects  and Mites  
(43) The IHS records  numerous regulated insect pests  as potentially being associated with 
Vaccinium  nursery stock.  One species of mite ( Acalitus vaccinii , blueberry bud mite) is 
also recorded as a regulated pest.  
(44) Transfer of plants in to tissue culture , and the subsequent multiplication of these plants 
in vitro , will reduce to an acceptable level the likelihood of insects  or mites  being 
present on plants in tissue culture  for the following reasons : 
a) Selection and subsequent processing of mother plant material (for example surface 
sterilisation) will minimise  the likelihood of insects  or mites  being transferred into 
tissue culture;  
b) If any insects or mites were present they would be likely to move  from the plant  
onto the tissue culture medium . This would result in the growing medium 
becoming contaminated with b acteria or fungi that are associated with the insects  
or mites ;  
Page 16 of 53 
 c) Cultures that are contaminated with microorganisms would be discarded as a 
normal part of in vitro  plant management ; 
d) Discarding contaminated cultures would act to remove any insect or mite 
populations that were present.  
(45) Plants must be inspected by the National Plant Protection Organisation (NPPO) of the 
exporting country prior to export to verify freedom from any visually detectable 
regulated pests. Plants must also be inspected on arrival i n New Zealand. Insects or 
mites would be detected either directly or  indirectly  because of contaminating fungi or 
bacteria , during these inspections . 
(46) Based on the above, insects or mites will not be present in tissue cultures, so biosecurity 
risk will be m anaged prior to export. As such no additional measures are considered 
necessary to manage the risk associated with these classes of organism . 
Fungi  (including Oomycota)  
(47) The Vaccinium schedule in the IHS records 3 3 fungi and one Oomycete as regulated 
pests.  Some of these organisms may be present in tissue cultures  because : 
a) Some of the regulated fungal pathogens of Vaccinium are known to have latent or 
endophytic phases . This means that they could be present in symptomless  mother 
plants from which tissue cultures are derived , and  hence could be transferred into 
tissue cultures;  
b) There is evidence that some disease organisms , including fungi,  remain latent and 
may not induce symptoms on plants in vitro  (for example Ganley et al., 2015; 
Leifert and Cassels, 2 001; Purmale et al., 2012). It is known that some pathogens 
which remain latent in vitro  may become virulent once plants are removed from 
tissue culture  (Liefert and Cassells , 2001  and references therein).  
(48) At present,  Vaccinium tissue cultures imported from a non -accredited offshore facility  
must be deflasked into a Level 3B PEQ greenhouse and undergo regular growing season 
inspections for a minimum period of 9 month s active growth . All outgoing air from a  
Level 3B PEQ greenhouse must be HEPA (high efficien cy particulate air) filtered. This 
will contain  the spores of any fungal disease organisms that may be present . A Level 3A 
PEQ greenhouse does not require filtration of outgoing air. This means that airborne 
fungi would not necessarily be contained within a Level 3A  greenhouse . However, as 
noted in paragraphs (33) to (38), in addition to basic pest biology various other factors 
can also be considered when assigning the level of PEQ, and it may be possible to apply 
other measures which will effectively manage the risk . 
(49) Based on the above,  an assessment  was made of each fungus listed as a regulated pest of 
Vaccinium  to evaluate  the following:  
a) Likelihood of transfer into tissue culture (for example root inhabiting fung i versus 
stem- or leaf - inhabiting ); 
b) Likelihood of detection in tissue culture (for example superficial leaf -inhabiting 
fungi versus fungi with a known endophytic stage ); 
c) Significance of the disease organism (for example lower phytosanitary risk  versus a 
significant disease of Vaccinium  or other plant genera );  
Page 17 of 53 
 d) Host range of the disease organism ( for example restricted to the Vaccinium  genus 
versus wide host range) ; 
e) Suitability of a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse  to contain  the disease organism based on 
the physical and operational requirements for this level of  facility ; 
f) Whether any additional measures can be applied to effectively manage the risk.  
(50) The assessment  (summarised in Appendix  1) showed  for 27 of these fungi , passage into 
tissue culture combined with regula r growing season inspection s of deflasked plants in a 
Level 3A PEQ  greenhouse  is considered justified and sufficient to manage biosecurity 
risk for the following reasons :  
a) They are restricted to the Vaccinium genus;  and/or  
b) They are considered unlikely to have an adverse impact on other plant species 
important to the New Zealand environment and/or economy ; and/or  
c) Transfer into tissue culture will reduce the likelihood of these 27 species of fungi 
being present  because :  
i. the particul ar fungal species are considered very unlikely to be transferred to 
tissue culture ( for example in the case of root -inhabiting fungi);  and/or  
ii. material from obviously diseased mother plants is unlikely to be used to initiate 
tissue cultures. Material needs to be healthy and actively growing to maximise 
the chances of successful plant growth a nd/or rooting in tissue culture;  
iii. plants are surface sterilised before initiation of tissue cultures, which will help 
to remove any s uperficial fungal contamination;  
iv. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs of contamination (either on the 
plants or in the tissue culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine  
culture maintenance.  
d) Visible infection of plants , or fungal contamination of growing medium , would be 
detec ted before plants are transferred to a PEQ greenhouse:  
i. plants must be inspected by the NPPO of the exporting country prior to export 
to verify freedom from any visua lly detectable regulated pests;  
ii. plants must be inspected  by an MPI inspector  on arrival in New Zealand .  
e) Plants will be deflasked and grown in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse for a minimum 
of 9 months before a biosecurity clearance is given : 
i. plants will be regularly inspected for any signs or symptoms of disease 
organisms by the MPI ins pector  (a minimum of five growing season 
inspections)  throughout the PEQ period ; 
ii. the PEQ facility operator (or a suitably qualified delegate) will inspect plants 
for signs of pests and disease at least twice per week throughout the  entire  PEQ 
period ; 
iii. if symptoms did become evident  during PEQ , these would be identified at a  
very early stage,  and appropriate measures would be taken to contain any 
disease organism (s) within the PEQ facility.  
(51) A summary of the evaluation of each of the 27 species  of fungi  that f ell into the above 
category  is included in  Appendix  1 of this document.  In some cases, there is very limited 
information about fungal disease organisms listed in Appendix 1, and these appear  to be  
Page 18 of 53 
 of low impact . This is partly why basic measures (such as transfer into tissue culture) 
were considered sufficient to manage the risk. However, these fungi will remain 
regulated until MPI does a full assessment of the risk associated with each disease 
organism.  This assessment is beyon d the scope of this risk management proposal.  
(52) The assessment showed that additional risk management measures may be needed  for 
the seven  remaining regulated fungi if plants are to be eligible for quarantine in a Level 
3A PEQ greenhouse . These  seven  species  needed  further assessment for a combination 
of the following reasons:  
a) Higher likelihood of being present  on the tissue culture pathway;  and/or  
b) A particularly high impact in countries where they are known to occur;  and/or  
c) Additional measures may be require d to manage the risk if held in a Level 3A  PEQ 
greenhouse ; and/or  
d) Potential significant impact on the environment and/or economy.  
(53) The species identified as requiring further assessment were:  
a) Botryosphaeria corticis ; 
b) Diaporthe vaccinii ; 
c) Gloeosporium minus ; 
d) Godronia cassandrae  (including G. cassandrae f.sp. vaccinii ); 
e) Monilinia vaccinii -corymbosi ; 
f) Phytophthora ramorum ; 
g) Septoria albopunctata . 
 
Botryosphaeria corticis  
(54) B. corticis causes cane blight of Vaccinium in some parts of the USA, which is the only 
countr y from which this disease organism  is known to occur . B. corticis  has only been 
reported from members of the Vaccinium genus (Philips et al. (2013). It can be a serious 
disease, and may cause the destruction of new plantations (Moore, 2015).  
(55) Symptoms of B. corticis become evident as small stem lesions in the early stages of 
infection, about a  week after infection (Moore, 2015; Caruso and Ramsdell, 1995), and 
in susceptible cultivars lesions develop over the next several months into large swollen 
cankers whi ch may kill infected stems. Fruiting bodies do not become evident until 
several years after infection. This means that even if symptoms were expressed in a 
Level 3A PEQ greenhouse , the disease organism is unlikely to escape from the facility 
due to the del ay in fruiting body production.  
(56) Various members of the Botryosphaeriaceae  family  cause latent infections in 
Vaccinium , but no records were found of latent infections of B. corticis . For example, 
Botryosphaeria vaccinii is recorded as causing latent infections of cranberry (Jeffers, 
1991). No records were found in the Crop Protection Compendium ( CPC ; CABI, 2016 ), 
or in a literature search, of any members of the Botryosphaeria genus  being transmitted 
in tissue cultures. Ganley et al.,  (2015) identified  PCR products with a high sequence 
identity to certain species of Botryosphaeria in tissue cultures  of Pinus radiata , 
although  viable fungi were not isolated from these samples.   
Page 19 of 53 
 (57) Spores of many members of the  Botryosphaeriaceae  can be induced by incubation in a 
humid incubation chamber. As such, if present in tissue culture, the disease organism 
may be visually detectable, given the humid conditions under which tissue cultures are 
maintained.  
(58) Passage into tissue culture followed  by quarantine in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse is 
considered justified and sufficient to manage biosecurity risk associated with B. corticis 
because:  
a) The known host range is restricted to members of the Vaccinium  genus;  
b) It is unclear whether B. corticis  would  successfully establish and/or have an impact 
in New Zealand given that optimal growth temperatures are between 25°C – 28°C . 
At a lower temperature (16 C) symptoms were restricted to small  red flecks 
(Millholland, 1972) ; 
c) The likelihood of B. corticis being present in tissue cultures is low because:  
i. no records were found of B. corticis causing latent infections in Vaccinium ; 
ii. material from obviously diseased mother plants is unlikely to be used to initiate 
tissue cultures  given that infected plants are r ecorded as showing symptoms 
around one week after infection  occurs . Material needs to be healthy and 
actively growing to maximise the chances of successful plant growth and/or 
rooting in tissue culture;  
iii. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs of contam ination (either on the 
plants or in the tissue culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine 
culture maintenance.  
d) The pathogen is not expected to develop fruiting bodies during the PEQ period, so 
would be very unlikely to escape from a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse  even if 
diseased plant s were  present;  
e) All plants in PEQ must  be actively inspected for signs or symptoms of the disease 
organism at least twice per week throughout the PEQ period. This will ensure that 
if disease symptoms do become evident they will be  detected as soon as possible, 
and before  the disease organism could spread beyond the PEQ facility.  
Diaporthe vaccinii  
(59) D. vaccinii causes Phomopsis canker and dieback, twig blight and fruit rot  of various 
species of blueberry and cranberry . The organism  is recorded as  being restricted to 
members of the Vaccinium  genus . 
(60) The fungus is present in the USA, Canada , Chile , and China , and as having a restricted 
distribution in Latvia.  D. vaccinii  is included on the EPPO A2 pest list (as of September 
2015). Although  introduced via the nursery stock pathway  to Romania and Scotland , the 
disease organism did not  establish in either of these countries  (EFSA, 2014 ). 
(61) In the USA, D. vaccinii is recorded as being a serious pathogen that can ki ll infected 
plants under favourable conditions  (EFSA, 2014) . There is little recent information 
about the impacts of the disease , although Cline (2002) recorded yield losses of up to 
70%. It is not clear what impacts this organism would have in New Zealand.  
(62) Nursery stock is a known  means of spread of D. vaccinii . The fungus can have a latent 
phase and has been  detected in  up to  90% of isolations from stems of healthy plants  
Page 20 of 53 
 (CABI, 2016).  Plants in vitro  are recorded as liable to transmit  D. vaccinii in trade 
(CABI, 2016) , although  no evidence was provided  to support this statement . 
(63) When symptoms become evident, infected shoots are recorded as wilting and becoming 
covered in minute lesions. Pycnidia appear within two weeks of infection  (Anon, 2009).  
(64) Infections are initiated when conidia are released from pycnidia on plant debris from 
previous infections. Secondary infections may occur throughout the growing season 
from conidia produced at the site of new infections (EFSA, 2014) . Conidia are dispersed 
by water splash via rain or overhead irrigation.  
(65) Based on the above, pa ssage into tissue culture followed by q uarantine in a Level 3A 
PEQ greenhouse is considered justified and sufficient to manage biosecurity risk 
associated with D. vaccinii  because:  
a) The known host range is restricted to members of the Vaccinium  genus;  
b) Transfer into tissue culture will reduce (but not eliminate) the likelihood of D. 
vaccinii  being present  because : 
i. material from obviously diseased mother plants is unlikely to be used to ini tiate 
tissue cultures. Material needs to be healthy and actively growing to maximise 
the chances of successful plant growth and/or rooting in tissue culture;  
ii. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs of contamination (either on the 
plants or in the tissu e culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine 
culture maintenance . 
c) Operational measures can be implemented in PEQ to decrease the likelihood of  the 
disease organism from spreading beyond the facility if it is present : 
i. all plants must  be actively i nspected for signs or symptoms of the disease 
organism at least twice per week throughout the PEQ period4. This will ensure 
that if disease symptoms do become evident they will be  detected as soon as 
possible, and before conidia are produced . Level 3A PEQ greenhouse facilities  
will be required to develop contingency plans to contain infections ( for 
example by segregating plants in a manner which will prevent spore dispersal ) 
as part of the facility approval process ; 
ii. overhead irrigation will not be permitted  whilst plants are in PEQ. This will 
ensure that even if for some reason conidia were not detected during visual 
inspection they would be very unlikely to disperse beyond the facility.  
(66) The current requirement of the Vaccinium schedule in the IHS is for imp orted plants to 
undergo growing season inspection to verify freedom from D. vaccinii . However, as 
noted above the disease organism is known to have a latent phase, and d iagnosis based  
on symptom expression is not always considered reliable (EFSA, 2014) . 
(67) Based on the above MPI recognise that relying on growing season inspection to detect 
this disease organism is  not the most appropriate diagnostic technique because : 
a) There is a widespread occurrence of latent infections ; 
                                                
4 Note that the Facility Standard for Post Entry Quarantine for Plants identifies actions that must be taken if signs or symptoms of disease 
organisms are observed in a PEQ facility.   
Page 21 of 53 
 b) Nursery stock is a known pathway for t ransmission of the disease organism ; 
c) D. vaccinii can cause significant crop losses under favourable con ditions (up to 
70%) in the USA.  
(68) It is proposed to amend the IHS to require pre -determined testing as a mandatory  
requirement for  D. vaccinii . This will be required for all types of Vaccinium nursery 
stock  (i.e. tissue cultures and cuttings) . It should be noted that the EPPO has developed 
a testing protocol for D. vaccinii  (Anon, 2009 ). 
Gloeosporium minus  
(69) Recorded as a serious disease of blueberries in the south eastern  USA (Moore, 2016) 
that is restricted to members of the Vaccinium genus. The organism is also recorded 
from  blueberry fruit in Latvia (Vilka et al., 2009). No quantitative information was 
found about  yield loss caused by the fungus.  
(70) Infection causes leaf flecks, stem dieback and stem canker (Caruso and Ramsdell, 
1996). Caruso and Ramsdell (1996) note that G. minus  is recorded as the most severe 
foliar disease of blueberry in the south eastern  United States.  
(71) Optimum temperatures for disease development are recorded as being between 25 – 
30°C (Milholland, 1974).  Artificial inoculation of stems showed that symptoms 
developed within 14 days at these temperatures (Milholland, 1973). In artificial cu lture, 
growth occurs at temperatures between 12 – 36°C. (Milholland, 1970).  
(72) Spores are believed to be dispersed during windy rainy periods  (Frost, 2008), although 
little further information was found about  spore dispersal of this species.  
(73) Passage into tiss ue culture followed by q uarantine in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse is 
considered justified and sufficient to manage biosecurity risk associated with G minus 
because:  
a) The likelihood of G. minus being present in tissue cultures is low:  
i. material from obviously diseased mother plants is unlikely to be used to initiate 
tissue cultures. Material needs to be healthy and actively growing to maximise 
the chances of successful plant growth and/or rooting in tissue culture;  
ii. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs of  contamination (either on the 
plants or in the tissue culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine 
culture maintenance.  
b) All plants in PEQ must  be actively inspected for signs or symptoms of the disease 
organism at least twice per week throughout th e PEQ period. This will ensure that 
if disease symptoms do become evident they will be  detected as soon as possible, 
and before  the disease organism is likely to  spread beyond the PEQ facility . Level 
3A PEQ greenhouse  facilities will be required to develop  contingency plans to 
contain infections (for example by segregating plants in a manner which will 
prevent spore dispersal) as part of the facility approval process ; 
c) Overhead irrigation will not be permitted whilst plants are in PEQ. This will ensure 
that even if for some reason spores  were not detected during visual inspection they 
would be unlikely to disperse beyond the facility.   
Page 22 of 53 
 Godronia cassandrae  
(74) Both G. cassandrae and the formae speciales  G. cassandrae f.sp. vaccinii are listed as 
regulated pests in  the Vaccinium  schedule of the IHS. Stromeng and Stensvand (2011) 
note that members of the Godronia  genus are generally host specific , and that G. 
cassandrae f.sp. vaccinii  is responsible for disease of blueberry known as ‘Godronia 
canker’.  Although G. cassandrae is listed separately in the Vaccinium IHS schedule,  it 
is not clear whether forms of G. cassandrae other than f.sp. vaccinii  can cause disease 
on Vaccinium . 
(75) G. cassandrae  f.sp. vaccinii  can cause severe stem dieback of highbush blueberry  and 
may be particularly severe in young plantings.  Plant mortality of up to 40% has been 
reported, along with severe yield loss  in plants that are not killed (Stromeng and 
Stensvand, 2011 and references therein).  
(76) The disease has been reported from the USA, Can ada and various countries in Europe.  
There are varying reports of disease significance. For example in Canada it is reported 
as the most serious disease of highbush blueberry in British Columbia (Sabaratnum, 
2016) . In the USA it is recorded as being a limi ting factor of production in Michigan 
(Caruso and Ramsdell , 1995 ), but is not considered a significan t pest in New Jersey, 
where  it is also present . 
(77) Stromeng and Stensvand (2011) state that in artificial culture optimal growth of 
mycelium occurs at 20°C, a nd note that the pathogen seems to be well adapted to 
growth at low temperatures.  
(78) Infections generally occur on young non -lignified stems  around ground level.  Infections 
are initiated when conidia are released from pycnidia on infected stems following 
rainfall  or as a result of overhead irrigation . Conidia are recorded as infecting leaf scars, 
petioles, buds, wounds or stomata ( Moore , 2015).  Stromeng  and Stensv and (2011) 
noted that pycnidia generally appeared after lesions were at least one month old.  
(79) Leaf infections have been reported (Lockhart, 1970), but there are few subsequent 
reports of this being a problem.  On cranberry ( V. macrocarpon ), there is evidenc e that 
G. cassandrae  can cause latent infections of leaves  (Jeffers, 1991) . In contrast, 
experimental evidence suggests that leaves of highbush blueberry develop symptoms 
within two weeks of inoculation (Stromberg and Stensvand, 2011 and references 
therein ). Given that plants with obviously diseased leaves are unlikely to be used to 
initiate tissue cultures , the likelihood of the organism being present in tissue cultures  
imported under the Vaccinium  schedule  seems low . Some evidence for this is provided 
by Stromeng (1999 ; cited in Stromberg and Stensvand, 2011 ), who reported that in 
Norway ‘micropropagated disease  free planting material developed far less Godronia 
canker a few years after planting than planting material propagated by cuttings’  
(although this statement does not exclude the possibility of the disease organism being 
present in tissue cultures ). 
(80) Passage into tissue culture followed by q uarantine in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse is 
considered justified and sufficient to manage biosecurity  risk associated with G. 
cassandrae because:  
a) The likelihood of G. cassandrae being present in tissue cultures is low:  
i. plantations  derived from micropropagated plants  are much less likely to 
develop Godronia canker;   
Page 23 of 53 
 ii. material from obviously diseased mother plants is unlikely to be used to initiate 
tissue cultures  given that infected plants are likely to show symptoms around 
two weeks after infection occurs . Material needs to be healthy and actively 
growing to maximise the chances of successful plant growth a nd/or rooting in 
tissue culture;   
iii. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs of contamination (either on the 
plants or in the tissue culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine 
culture maintenance.  
b) All plants in PEQ must  be actively inspected for  signs or symptoms of the disease 
organism at least twice per week throughout the PEQ period.  This will ensure that 
if disease symptoms do become evident they will be  detected as soon as possible, 
and before  the disease organism could  spread beyond the PE Q facility . Level 3A 
PEQ greenhouse facilities will be required to develop contingency plans to contain 
infections (for example by segregating plants in a manner which will prevent spore 
dispersal) as part of the facility approval process ; 
c) Pycnidia (fruiti ng bodies which contain spores) do not develop until lesions are  at 
least 1 month old, which means that spores are highly unlikely to produced. 
However, to manage residual risk, o verhead irrigation will not be permitted whilst 
plants are in PEQ. This will  help to ensure that even if for some reason conidia are 
not detected during visual inspection they would be  very unlikely to disperse 
beyond the facility.   
Monilinia vaccinii -corymbosi  
(81) M. vaccinii -corymbosi  causes a disease known as ‘mummy berry’  and is the most 
economically important Monilinia species which infects blueberry . Mummy berry  is 
one of the most prevalent and important diseases of blueberry in North America (Ngugi 
et al., 2002)  and can cause 70 -80% crop loss in organic blueberry production  (Florence, 
2014). The pathoge n was detected in Austria in 2003 and Slovenia in 2004 (Munda, 
2011) , where it is recorded as causing losses of up to 50 %. 
(82) M. vaccinii -corymbosi  infect s common commercially grown species of Vaccinium  (for 
example V. corymbosum  and hybrids , Vaccinium  angustifolium  and Vaccinium  ashei ), 
as well as other members of the Vaccinium  genus and the related genera, Gaylussacia  
and  Rhododendron  (Batra, 1983) . Rhododendron spp. are commonly grown as 
ornamental plants in New Zealand, and New Zealand has native genera ( for example 
Gaultheria and Pernettya  spp.) in the same subfamily (Vaccinioideae) as Vaccinium . It 
is not known  whether M. vacci nii-corymbosi would affect these gene ra. 
(83) Foliar symptoms  are initiated by ascospores which overwinter on mummified berries  on 
the ground . Leaf blight  become s evident around 10 -17 days after initial infection 
(Shinners and Olsen, 1996). Infected leaves and shoots, which become covered with 
conidia, eventually dry up and fall off infected plants. Conidia initiate infections on  
open flowers , which cause  the subsequent mummification of fruit (Ngugi et al., 2002) .  
(84) The dry conidia are transmi tted by insects, wind and rain , so may not be contained in a 
Level 3A PEQ greenhouse . 
(85) The likelihood of M. vaccinii -corymbosi being present on the tissue culture pathway is 
unclear. No evidence was found as to whether the pathogen remains as a latent infec tion 
within seemingly healthy leaf and shoot tissue  (from which tissue cultures could be 
selected) . However, there is a latent period before symptoms are expressed on mature  
Page 24 of 53 
 berries.  In addition, Vilanova et al. (2016) note that other members of the Monili nia 
genus may cause latent infections which do not develop until conditions favour disease 
development. There is no evidence as to  whether symptoms of infection would become 
evident  if the disease organism was transferred i nto tissue culture . 
(86) The CPC  notes that the related  species, Monilinia  fructigena , is not known to be 
transmitted in micropropagated plants, but no specific evidence was provided to support 
this statement (CABI, 2016 ). Stems and leaves are recorded as being capable of 
transmitting M. fructigena in trade.  Some studies have isolated members of the 
Monilinia  genus , including M. fructigena , living as endophytes within leaf tissue ( for 
example  Gherbawy and Gashgari, 201 4; Shebany et al., 2014; Hema et al., 2015 ). 
(87) It is unclear from the lit erature exactly how long the delay is between disease symptoms 
becoming evident and conidia being produced. However, artificial inoculation s (Batra, 
1983) showed that after infection with ascospores, visible symptoms of infection first 
appeared 5 days afte r inoculation, blight was evident on the 6th day, and conidia became 
evident on the 11th day after inoculation. No other evidence was found in regards to the 
timing of  conidia production.  
(88) Mummy berry is a significant disease of blueberry that could have large  impacts on the 
industry in New Zealand. As noted above, the disease organism is not restricted to 
members of the Vaccinium genus, and native genera that belong to  the same subfamily 
as Vaccinium  are present in New Zealand .  
(89) An additional risk  managem ent measure is proposed if tissue cultures of Vaccinium spp. 
are to be  held within a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse  because:  
a) The disease organism is not restricted to the Vaccinium genus and can infect other 
members of the same plant family ( Ericaceae) , which has  some native genera in 
New Zealand;  
b) There is evidence that members of the Monilinia genus may survive as endophytes 
in leaf tissue . M. vaccinii -corymbosi is known to have a latent period in infected 
berries;  
c) Conidia of M. vaccinii -corymbosi  are wind -disper sed and may not be contained 
within a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse ; 
d) M. vaccinii -corymbosi is a serious disease of blueberry which causes  yield losses of 
up to 70%.  
(90) As such  it is proposed that o n arrival in New Zealand,  all tissue culture plantlets must be 
tested for the presence of M. vaccinii -corymbosi  before transfer to a Level 3A 
greenhouse as follows:  
a) Representative leaf samples should be taken from each plantlet (or clump of 
plantlets and plated on agar medium  suitable  for the isolation of M. vaccinii -
corymbosi ; 
b) Samples must be taken when plants arrive in New Zealand, and testing must be 
completed before plants are deflasked into a Level 3 A greenhouse ; 
c) If sufficient leaf material is not available on imported tissue cult ures, these must be 
bulked up so that representative samples can be taken for testing before plants are 
deflasked into the Level 3A greenhouse .  
Page 25 of 53 
 (91) Passage into tissue culture followed  by testing for the presence of M. vaccinii -
corymbosi  and q uarantine in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse is considered justified and 
sufficient to manage biosecurity risk associated with M. vaccinii -corymbosi  because:  
a) The likelihood of M. vaccinii -corymbosi  being present in tissue cultures is low:  
i. material  from obviously  diseased mother plants is unlikely to be used to initiate 
tissue cultures. Material needs to be healthy and actively growing to maximise 
the chances of successful plant growth and/or rooting in tissue culture;  
ii. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs o f contamination (either on the 
plants or in the tissue culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine 
culture maintenance.  
b) The disease organism would be expected to be detected by plating leaves onto 
isolation medium  before plants are transferred to the Level 3A greenhouse ; 
c) All plants in PEQ will be required to be actively inspected for signs or symptoms 
of the disease organism at least twice per week throughout the PEQ period.  This 
will ensure that if disease symptoms do become evident they will be  detected as 
soon as possible , and before conidia are produced . Level 3A PEQ greenhouse 
facilities will be required to develop contingency plans to contain infections (for 
example by segregating plants in a manner which will prevent spore dispersal) as 
part of the facility approval process . 
Phytophthora ramorum  
(92) Three members of the Vaccinium genus ( V. vitis -idaea , V. myrtillus and V. ovatum ) are 
known hosts of the oomycete, P. ramorum . Given the wide host range of P. ramorum , it 
seems likely that other membe rs of the Vaccinium genus are potential hosts.  
(93) P. ramorum , along with other members of the Phytophthora genus, is  considered by 
MPI to be very high risk pest. MPI are currently assessing  the risk associated with 
various  members of the Phytophthor a genus on imported nursery stock and will 
undertake public consultation on these measures in due course. The outcomes of that 
work will be incorporated as necessary into the import requirements for Vaccinium  
nursery stock.  
(94) At present, MPI does not require  any specific measures to be taken to manage the 
biosecurity risk associated with P. ramorum  on plants in tissue culture, although there is 
a requirement for all tissue culture medium to be free from fungicides and antibiotics. 
All other classes of nursery  stock are considered a potential pathway for P. ramorum , 
and all known host genera (including Vaccinium ) must meet the requirements set out in 
part 2.2.1.11 of the IHS for importation of nursery stock.  
(95) If the disease organism is present  in tissue cultures , disease symptoms are considered 
likely to become evident either directly in tissue cultured plantlets, or indirectly by 
colony growth on the tissue culture medium, when cultures are incubated between 17 – 
25°C (for example see Linderman and Davis; 2007).  
(96) Based on the above, passage into tissue culture is considered justified and sufficient to 
manage biosecurity risk associated with  P. ramorum because:  
a) The likelihood of P. ramorum  being present in tissue cultures is low:   
Page 26 of 53 
 i. material from obviously diseased mother plants is unlikely to be used to initiate 
tissue cultures. Material needs to be healthy and actively growing to maximise 
the chances of successful plant growth and/or rooting in tissue culture;  
ii. plants are surface sterilised before initiation of tiss ue cultures, which will help 
to remove any superficial fungal contamination;  
iii. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs of contamination (either on the 
plants or in the tissue culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine 
culture maintenance.  
b) Antib iotics, fungicides and/or charcoal will not be permitted in the tissue culture 
medium;  
c) Before plants are transferred to the greenhouse, all tissue cultures will be incubated 
at temperatures between 17 – 25°C  for four weeks.  If P. ramorum was present, 
mycel ium would be expected to become visible during the incubation period.  
Septoria albopunctata  
(97) S. albopunctata is recorded as being a serious problem in south eastern  USA and parts 
of Canada ( Caruso and Ramsdell, 1995; Moore , 201 5). It has also been recorded from 
South Korea (CABI, 2016).  As well as infecting various members of the Vaccinium 
genus, Rhododendron minus  is also recorded as a host (Andrianova and Minter, 2005).  
(98) Infection can cause leaf spotting, severe defoliation and poor growth, and is most 
serious in rooting beds (Caruso and Ramsdell, 1995).  No quantitative information was 
found in regards to yield loss caused by the fungus.  
(99) Symptoms develop throughout the year (Ojiambo, 2004), and become visible as leaf 
spots and stem cankers.  
(100)  Pycnidiospores are recorded as only being released following rain (Ojiambo, 2004).  
(101)  Passage into tissue culture followed by q uarantine in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse is 
considered justified and sufficient to manage biosecurity risk associated with S 
albopunc tata because:  
a) The likelihood of S. albopunctata being present in tissue cultures is low:  
i. material from obviously diseased mother plants is unlikely to be used to initiate 
tissue cultures. Material needs to be healthy and actively growing to maximise 
the chances of successful plant growth and/or rooting in tissue culture;  
ii. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs of contamination (either on the 
plants or in the tissue culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine 
culture maintenance.  
b) All plants in  PEQ will be required to be actively inspected for signs or symptoms 
of the disease organism at least twice per week throughout the PEQ period.  This 
will ensure that if disease symptoms do become evident they will be  detected as 
soon as possible, and befo re the disease organism could spread beyond the PEQ 
facility . Level 3A PEQ greenhouse facilities will be required to develop 
contingency plans to contain infections (for example by segregating plants in a 
manner which will prevent spore dispersal) as part of the facility approval process ;  
Page 27 of 53 
 c) Overhead irrigation will not be permitted whilst plants are in PEQ. This will ensure 
that even if for some reason pycnidia  were not detected during visual inspection 
spores  would be very unlikely to disperse beyond the fac ility.  
Bacteria  
Agrobacterium rubi  
(102)  Agrobacterium  spp. inhabit the roots  or bases of canes of Vaccinium spp. and may cause 
galls on these plant parts.  
(103)  A. rubi can cause plants to be stunted or weak. Symptoms are recorded as becoming 
evident within two to f our weeks after infection when temperatures are above 20°C, 
although it is noted that temperatures below 15°C can delay the development of 
symptoms.  
(104)  No information was found about the distribution of A. rubi  within infected Vaccinium 
plants, although recen t research (Johnson et al., 2016) showed that in infected Vitis 
plants the organism was widely distributed including in shoot tips and meristems.  
(105)  There are reports that the related species, A. vitis and A. tumefasciens can remain latent 
in micropropagated  plant s (for example Poppenberger et al., 2002).  
(106)  Based on the above information it is considered that A. rubi has the potential to be 
transferred into tissue culture, although the likelihood of this seems  low if tissue 
cultures are initiated from plants with no visible symptoms.  
(107)  The bacterium is soil -borne, so would be contained within a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse  
if present in infected plants.  
(108)  Growing season inspection in PEQ , which is the current phytosanit ary measure,  is 
considered justified and sufficient to manage the risk associated with this disease 
organism.  
Xylella fastidiosa  
(109)  X. fastidiosa  is a very high -risk pest , and  MPI policy is to regulate the bacterium  at the 
genus level (i.e. when a single plant species within a genus is know n to be a host , the 
disease organism will be regulated on all members of that genus) . 
(110)  X. fastidiosa  subsp p. multiplex  and fastidiosa  can infect  southern highbush blueberry 
(Oliver et al., 2015) . 
(111)  Tissue culture is a potential  pathway by which  X. fastidiosa could enter New Zealand  
given that the bacterium primarily resides in the xylem tissue of infected plants, and 
tissue cultures may include xylem tissue.  
(112)  The IHS currently requires that all deflasked tissue cultures of Vaccinium  are tested for  
X. fastidiosa by PCR.  
(113)  Quarantine in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse , combined with growing season inspection 
and PCR testing is considered justified and sufficient to manage the risk associated with 
X. fastidiosa  because:  
a) The likelihood of X. fastidiosa  being present in tissue cultures is low:   
Page 28 of 53 
 i. material from obviously diseased mother plants is unlikely to be used to initiate 
tissue cultures. Material needs to be healthy and actively growing to maximise 
the chances of successful plant growth and/or rooting in tissue culture;  
ii. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs of contamination (either on the 
plants or in the tissue culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine 
culture maintenance.  
b) All openings in Level 3A PEQ greenhouses  must be covered by insect proof mesh 
with a maximum aperture of 0.2 mm . This  is an appropriate mesh size to manage 
risk associated with X. fastidiosa given that:  
i. the adult stages of all known vectors of the disease organism  will be excluded 
by mesh that me ets th e above  specification;  
ii. the smallest (nymph) life stages of insect vectors are also likely to be excluded 
from a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse , especially given that nymphs are usually 
closely physically associated with host vegetation and no vegetation wil l come 
into contact with t he exterior of the PEQ facility . 
c) If present, X. fastidiosa  would detected by PCR testing before plants are released 
from PEQ.  
d) All plants in PEQ will be required to be actively inspected for signs or symptoms 
of the disease organism at least twice per week throughout the PEQ period.  This 
will ensure that if disease symptoms do become evident they will be detected as 
soon as possible.  
Viruses  
(114)  Eight viruses are regulated pests in the Vaccinium  schedule of the nursery stock IHS , as 
listed in Appendix 2 .  
(115)  Viruses of Vaccinium  are known to be present on the tissue culture pathway in 
international trade . For example, Blueberry mosaic associated  virus was detected in 
imported Vaccinium  tissue cultures that had been deflasked into a PEQ greenhouse in 
New Zealand.  
(116)  Pre-determined testing is required for all virus species listed as regulated in the IHS.  
(117)  Level 3A PEQ is considered justified and suffic ient to contain all regulated viruses, or 
vectors of regulated viruses listed in the Vaccinium  schedule . This is based on the 
following known methods of transmission of regulated viruses of Vaccinium : 
a) Pollen borne or spread by honey bees.  
This type of virus can be contained in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse  if flowering i s 
not allowed in PEQ, or if flowering is only allowed after testing has been done  for 
all pollen borne viruses  (as is required under the PEQ facility standard for Level 
3A green house  facilities) . 
b) Aphid transmitted.  
All openings and vents in Level 3A PEQ greenhouses must be screened using  
stainless steel mesh with a maximum aperture of 0.2 mm. A mesh size of 0.35 x 
0.35 mm will exclude the adult stages of aphids.   
Page 29 of 53 
 All Level 3A PEQ greenhouses must use insect traps to monitor for the presence of 
any flying insects. These traps must be inspected at least once per week, and the 
MPI Inspector notified if any insects, apart from Sciarid flies, are detected. This 
provide s an additional ri sk management measure in case any insect vectors do enter 
a PEQ facility.  
c) Nematode transmitted . 
Nematodes are unlikely to be present in tissue cultures. The requirement for all 
plants in Level 3A PEQ greenhouses to be grown on pasteurised or inert growing 
medium will manage any risk associated with nematode vectors being  
inadvertently introduced into a facility. As such, any nematode -vectored viruses of 
Vaccinium  will be sufficiently managed within a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse . 
(118)  A summary of virus species that are regulated on Vaccinium , including  the known 
mode s of transmission , is given in  Appendix 2 . 
Diseases of un known aetiology  
Blueberry fruit drop disease  
(119)  Blueberry fruit drop disease is listed  in the IHS as a disease of unknown aetiology with 
a requirement for growing season inspection to detect this disease in PEQ.  This is 
because at the time the IHS was issued the causal agent of the disease had not been 
identified.  
(120)  Recent research (Diaz -Lara et al., 2016) shows  that the disease is likely to be cause d by 
a newly identified virus named Blueberry fruit drop associated virus (BFDaV). Staff at 
the MPI Plant Health and Environment  Laboratory are currently evaluating PCR 
primers for the detection of this virus and it is likely that the Vaccinium  schedule  of the 
IHS will shortly be updated to list BFDaV as a regulated virus which is the causal agent 
of blueberry fruit drop disease.  
(121)  Diaz-Lara et al. (2016)  proposed that BFDaV should be classified as a new genus within 
the Caulimoviridae family. Other viruses within this family are known to be in sect 
transmitted ( for example by aphids; Whitfield et al., 2015) .  
(122)  Until the IHS is updated to record BFDaV as the causal agent of blueberry fruit drop 
disease, the requirement for growing season inspection will remain in place. MPI 
consider that this dise ase can be adequately contained within a Level 3A PEQ 
greenhouse , given that it is likely that this virus will be transmitted by aphid vectors . 
Phytoplasmas  
(123)  Three species of phytoplasma are regulated in the Vaccinium  schedule of the IHS.  
(124)  Pre-determined tes ting is required for all three species, using phytoplasma -specific  PCR 
primers.  
(125)  Phytoplasma vectors all fall within the Hemiptera order of insects, and are either 
leafhoppers, planthoppers or psyllids. Psyllids are the smallest phytoplasma vectors, and 
are generally around 1 -2 mm long. Adult leafhoppers are generally regarded as being a 
minimum of around 2 mm in length, whereas planthoppers are generally a minimum of 
around 1 cm in length.  Known vectors of phytoplasmas  of Vaccinium , namely 
leafhoppers wh ich belong to the  Scaphytopius  or Scleroracus  genera, are generally  
Page 30 of 53 
 around 3 -4 mm long and 1 -2 mm wide ( Nielson, 1968) . The vector(s) of Vaccinium  
witches broom phytoplasma have not been identified.  
(126)  None of the  abov e vectors  are recorded as being present in New Zealand . If present, 
they would be excluded  by the  0.2 mm  insect mesh used in Level 3A PEQ greenhouses . 
(127)  All Level 3A PEQ greenhouse facilities must  use insect traps to monitor for the 
presence of any flying insects. These traps must be inspected at least once per week, and 
the MPI Inspector notified if any insects, apart from Sciarid flies, are detected. This will 
provide an additional risk managemen t measure in case any i nsect  vector s do enter a 
PEQ facility.  
(128)  Based on the above, quarantine in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse  combined with pre -
determined testing and visual inspection of plants for disease symptoms is considered 
justified and sufficient to ma nage the risk associated with regulated phytoplasmas of 
Vaccinium . 
Organisms on the MPI emerging risk  register  
(129)  The emerging risk register was checked for all organisms recorded as being a s being 
associated with Vaccinium .  
(130)  Of the organisms in the emerging risk register, one fungal pathogen, Exobasidium 
maculosum , was identified as need ing further assessment . The remaining organisms 
were either  managed by existing measures , or were classes of organism that were not 
considered likely to be associated with nur sery stock  (for example insects) , or were 
already present in New Zealand and non -regulated . A summary of these organisms is 
given  in Appendix 3 . 
Exobasidium maculosum  
(131)  E. maculosum has been identified as the causal agent of a leaf and fruit spot disease that 
was first reported in the USA (North Carolina) in 1997. The disease can also  cause 
lesions and blighting of young expanding shoots (Ingram et al., 2016).  
(132)  The disease has increased in prevalence  over recent years, and is to be an emerging 
disease in the south eastern  USA (Brewer et al, 2014) . It causes  yield losses of up to 
70% in certain locations (Brannen, 2013) . 
(133)  Rabbit eye blueberry ( Vaccinium virgatum ) is most susceptible, although V. 
corymbosum and hybrids are also affected.  
(134)  The disease cycle is not yet fully understood, but it seems that the fungus may not be 
systemic within plant tissue, and may instead survive through the winter as blastospores 
on the plant surface or in shallow lesions . Blastospores are thought to  initiate  new 
infections in spring (Scherm, 2014; Brannen, 2013).  Airborne basidiospores are 
produced on current season infections.  
(135)  Stewart et al (2015) commented that E. maculosum  may have the potential to persist as 
an endophyte before becoming pathogenic, but di d not provide any evidence for this. 
Similarly, based on field studies, Ingram et al (2016) suggested that the disease 
organism may be capable of overwintering epiphytically on blueberry tissue, but went 
on to note that primary infection does not seem to b e the result of infection fr om the 
previous season.   
Page 31 of 53 
 (136)  Based on the above, there is no specific evidence that E. maculosum has an endophytic 
stage. Epiphytic infections should be managed when plants are surface sterilised before 
passage into tissue culture. A s such, based on the current information, the disease 
organism seems unlikely to be present on the tissue culture pathway.  
(137)  Passage into tissue culture followed by quarantine in a Level 3A PEQ greenhouse is 
considered justified and sufficient to manage bios ecurity risk associated with E. 
maculosum  because:  
a) The likelihood of E. maculosum being present in tissue cultures is low:  
i. no evidence has been found that the fungus is capable of causing latent 
infections;  
ii. material from obviously diseased mother plants is  unlikely to be used to initiate 
tissue cultures. Material needs to be healthy and actively growing to maximise 
the chances of successful plant growth and/or rooting in tissue culture;  
iii. plants are surface sterilised before initiation of tissue cultures, whi ch will help 
to remove any superficial fungal contamination (for example if the disease 
organism does overwinter epiphytically);  
iv. plants in tissue culture with obvious signs of contamination (either on the 
plants or in the tissue culture medium) will be discarded as part of routine 
culture maintenance . 
b) All plants in PEQ must  be actively inspected for signs or symptoms of the disease 
organism at least twice per week throughout the PEQ period.  This will ensure that 
if disease symptoms do become evident th ey will be detected as soon as possible . 
Level 3A PEQ greenhouse facilities will be required to develop contingency plans 
to contain infections (for example by segregating plants in a manner which will 
prevent spore dispersal) as part of the facility appro val process.  
(138)  E. maculosum is not listed as regulated in the Vaccinium schedule  of the IHS . As noted 
above, the disease organism is unlikely to be present on the tissue culture pathway. For 
plants  imported as cuttings, current generic measures for fungi (gr owing season 
inspection  in Level 3B PEQ ) are considered sufficient to manage the risk associated 
with the organism. MPI is actively monitoring information about this organism, and will 
reassess current measures  if any new information becomes available.  In the meantime, 
as part of this review of the Vaccinium schedule  of the IHS, and based on the above 
information, MPI will amend the pest list to include E. maculosum as a regulated fungus 
of Vaccinium . 
FEASIBILITY AND PRAC TICALITY OF MEASURES  
(139)  Many measures proposed in the revised IHS are the same as those already required. 
MPI do not anticipate any difficulties complying with  these measures.  Likewise, it is 
not anticipated that the proposed new risk management measures will present a barrier 
to imports for t he following reasons:  
a) The four week incubation required for P. ramorum is within  the temperature  range 
under  which tissue cultures of Vaccinium are generally grown . As such, this 
requirement should not have a negative effect on plant  health . It is not anti cipated 
that there will be any difficulty in securing space in a Level 3 tissue culture facility 
to hold imported tissue cultures for this period of time.  This is because imported   
Page 32 of 53 
 Vaccinium tissue cultures are usually held in a tissue culture facility and  further 
propagated throughout the PEQ period.  
b) The prohibition of overhead irrigation is a practical way to  help manage residual 
risk associated with rain -dispersed organisms . This is seen as unlikely to have an 
adverse impact on the operations of a PEQ facility.  
c) Imported tissue culture plantlets will be tested  for M. vaccinii -corymbosi before 
plants are transferred to the greenhouse . The test will consist of plating leaf 
samples on agar isolation medium. This will cost $75 for the first sample and $25 
for each subsequent sample. If morphological examination reveals fungal colonies 
that require identifying, this would be an additional cost of $255 for the first fungal 
isolate and an additional $145 for subsequent isolates  (all prices excluding GST). If 
insufficient leaf material is available on the originally imported tissue culture 
plants, these may need to be multiplied before transfer to the PEQ greenhouse so 
that representative samples can be taken for testing.  
d) All imp orted Vaccinium nursery stock will be tested for D. vaccinii during the PEQ 
period. The costs will be similar to those described for M. vaccinii -corymbosi . 
(140)  The revised IHS  will include  additional risk management measures to help manage 
residual  risk associ ated with certain disease organisms (for example  this includes 
specific contingency planning and prohibition of overhead irrigation) . Each PEQ facility 
operator will be required to demonstrate  to MPI how they will meet any such 
requirements  before imports can occur . This will be assessed by  MPI when the 
operating manual is approved  for each PEQ facility ; each operating manual will be 
expected to show how specific requirements of the IHS will be implemented and how 
ongoing compliance will be measured. PEQ facility operators will also be required to 
demonstrate their understanding of import requirements as part of the PEQ operator 
training programme. Ongoing compliance will be monitored by MPI during regular 
inspections  of ea ch PEQ facility, and by the operator through the internal audit process  
(as described in the Facility Standard: Post Entry Quarantine for Plants) . 
   
Page 33 of 53 
 Part 3 Draft IHS schedule for Vaccinium  
 
Vaccinium  
 
Note:   The entry conditions in this schedule only apply to species in the Plants Biosecurity 
Index listed under Import Specifications for Nursery Stock as “see 155.02.06 under 
Vaccinium ”, and are additional to those specified in sections 1, 2 and 3 of the import 
health standard.  
 These conditions do not apply to Vaccinium macrocarpon .  
 
1. Type of Vaccinium [excluding Vaccinium macrocarpon ] nursery stock approved 
for entry into New Zealand  
Cuttings (dormant); Plants in tissue culture  
 
2. Pests of Vaccinium  
Refer to the  pest list.  
 
3. Entry conditions for:  
 
3.1 Vaccinium cuttings and tissue culture from offshore MPI -accredited facilities in any 
country  
An offshore accredited facility is a facility that has been accredited to the Standard 
PIT.OS.TRA.ACPQF to undertake phytosanitary activities. The operator of the accredited 
facility must also have an agreement with MPI on the phytosanitary measures to be 
undertaken for Vaccinium . Refer to the “ Vaccinium Inspection, Testing and Treatment 
Requirements”.  
 
(i)  Documentation  
Phytosanitary certificate: a completed phytosanitary certificate issued by the NPPO of the  
exporting country must accompany all Vaccinium  nursery stock exported to New  Zealand.  
Import permit: an import permit is required.  
 
(ii)  Phytosanitary requirements  
Before a phytosanitary certificate is issued, the NPPO of the exporting country must be 
satisfied that the following activities required by MPI have been undertaken.  
 
The Vaccinium cuttings / plants in tissue culture [choose ONE option] have been:  
- inspect ed in accordance with appropriate official procedures and found to be free of any 
visually detectable regulated pests.  
AND  
- treated for regulated insects and mites as described in in section 2.2.1.6 of the basic 
conditions within 7 days prior to shipment [ cuttings only].  
AND  
- held and tested for/classified free from specified regulated pests as required in the 
agreement between MPI and the [name of the MPI-accredited facility].  
AND  
- held in a manner to ensure that infestation/reinfestation does not occur follo wing 
inspection and testing at the accredited facility, and certification.  
  
Page 34 of 53 
 (iii)  Additional declarations to the phytosanitary certificate  
If satisfied that the pre -shipment activities have been undertaken, the exporting country NPPO 
must confirm this by  recording the treatments applied in the “Disinfestation and/or 
Disinfection Treatment” section and by providing the following additional declarations to the 
phytosanitary certificate:  
 
"The  Vaccinium cuttings have been:  
- held and tested for/classified free from specified regulated pests as required in the 
agreement between MPI and the [name of the MPI-accredited facility].  
AND  
- held in a manner to ensure infestation/reinfestation does not occur following inspection 
and te sting at the accredited facility, and certification."  
 
(iv) Special tissue culture media requirements  
The tissue culture media must not contain charcoal.  
 
(v)  Post-entry quarantine  
PEQ : All Vaccinium nursery stock must be imported under permit into post -entry quarantine 
in a level 2 quarantine facility accredited to standard MPI.STD.PEQ: Facilities for Post Entry 
Quarantine for Plants.  
Quarantine Period and Inspection, Testing and Treatment Requirements : The nursery 
stock will be grown for a minimum period of 6 months in post -entry quarantine and will be 
inspected, treated and/or audit -tested for regulated pests, at the expense of the importer. Six 
months is an indicative minimum quarantine period and this period may be extended if 
material is slow gr owing, pests are detected, or treatments/testing are required.  
 
3.2 Vaccinium cuttings  from non -accredited facilities in any country  
 
 (i)  Documentation  
Phytosanitary certificate: a completed phytosanitary certificate issued by the NPPO of the  
exporting country must accompany all Vaccinium nursery stock exported to New  Zealand.  
Import permit: an import permit is required.  
 
(ii)  Phytosanitary requirements  
Before a phytosanitary certificate is issued, the NPPO of the exporting country must be 
satisfied that the following activities required by MPI have been undertaken.  
 
The Vaccinium cuttings have been:  
- inspected in accordance with appropriate official procedures and found to be free of any 
visually detectable regulated pests.  
AND  
- treated for reg ulated insects and mites as described in in section 2.2.1.6 of the basic 
conditions within 7 days prior to shipment . 
AND  
- held in a manner to ensure that infestation/reinfestation does not occur following 
certification.  
  
Page 35 of 53 
 (iii)  Additional declarations to the phytosanitary certificate  
If satisfied that the preshipment activities have been undertaken, the exporting country NPPO 
must confirm this by recording the treatments applied in the “Disinfestation and/or 
Disinfection Treatment” section. No additional d eclarations are required.  
 
(iv)  Post-entry quarantine  
PEQ : All Vaccinium cuttings must be imported under permit into post -entry quarantine in a 
level 3B quarantine facility accredited to standard MPI.STD.PEQ: Facilities for Post Entry 
Quarantine for Plants.   
Quarantine Period and Inspection, Testing and Treatment Requirements : The nursery 
stock will be grown for a minimum period of 16 months in post -entry quarantine. During this 
time it will be inspected, treated and/or tested for regulated pests as specified in the 
“Inspection, Testing and Treatment Requirements for Vaccinium ”, at the expense of the 
importer. These times are indicative minimum quarantine periods and may be extended if 
material is slow growing, pests are detected, or treatments/testing are required.  
 
3.3 Vaccinium tissue culture s from non -accredited facilities i n any country  
 
 (i)  Documentation  
Phytosanitary certificate: a completed phytosanitary certificate issued by the NPPO of the  
exporting country must accompany all Vaccinium nursery stock exported to New  Zealand.  
Import permit: an import permit is required.  
 
(ii)  Phytosanitary requirements  
Before a phytosanitary certificate is issued, the NPPO of the exporting country must be 
satisfied that the following activities required by MPI have been undertaken.  
 
The Vaccinium plants in tissue culture have been:  
- inspected in accordance with appropriate official procedures and found to be free of any 
visually detectable regulated pests.  
AND  
- held in a manner to ensure that infestation/reinfestation does not occur following 
certification.  
 
(iii)  Additional declarati ons to the phytosanitary certificate  
No additional declarations are required.  
 
(iv)  Special tissue culture medium requirements  
The tissue culture medium must not contain charcoal.  
 
(v)  Post-entry quarantine  
PEQ : All Vaccinium tissue cultures must be imported  into post entry quarantine in a level 3A 
or level 3B quarantine facility accredited to standard MPI.STD.PEQ: Facilities for Post Entry 
Quarantine for Plants..  
Special requirements for plants imported  into a level 3A quarantine facility : 
 Before plants are deflasked into a level 3A quarantine facility the tissue cultures must 
be held at a level 3 tissue culture laboratory until the following activities have been 
completed:  
- Tissue cultures must be held between 17 C and 25C for a minimum period of 
four weeks and all plants must be inspected by the MPI inspector for  signs or  
Page 36 of 53 
 symptoms of Phytophthora ramorum  prior to deflasking . This inspection will 
be in addition to  growing season inspections which are required in the 
greenhouse.  Sub culturing must n ot occur during this period.   
- The tissue cultures must be held at the level 3A tissue culture laboratory until 
they have been tested for , and found free from Monilinia vaccinii -corymbosi .  
 Requirements at the l evel 3A quarantine facility : 
- All plants must b e inspected for signs and symptoms of pests and disease at 
least twice per week throughout the entire quarantine period  (including during 
dormancy) . 
- Plants must be irrigated  using a method which prevents water coming into 
contact with plant foliage  (such as drip irrigation). Overhead irrigation must 
not be used.  
- Contingency plans must be developed to identify actions that will be taken to 
contain the propagules of any  fungal or oomycete disease organisms in the 
event of disease symptoms becoming evi dent during the quarantine period. 
These plans must be recorded in the facility operating manual.  
Quarantine Period and Inspection, Testing and Treatment Requirements : 
The imported tissue culture plants must be deflasked and grown for a minimum period of 9 
months in post -entry quarantine.  During this time plants will be inspected, treated and/or 
tested for regulated pests as specified in the “Inspection, Testing and Treatment Requirements 
for Vaccinium ”, at the expense of the importer. This time is the in dicative minimum 
quarantine period and may be extended if material is slow growing, pests are detected, or 
treatments/testing are required.  
 
  
Page 37 of 53 
 Pest List for Vaccinium  
 
REGULATED PESTS (actionable)  
 
Insect  
Insecta  
   Coleoptera  
      Cerambycidae  
 Oberea myops  azalea stem borer  
      Chrysomelidae  
 Altica sylvia  blueberry flea beetle  
 Rhabdopterus picipes  cranberry rootworm  
      Curculionidae  
 Anthonomus musculus  cranberry weevil  
 Conotrachelus nenuphar  plum curculio  
 Pseudanthonomus validus  currant fruit weevil  
      Scarabaeidae  
 Popillia japonica  Japanese beetle  
   Diptera  
      Cecidomyiidae  
 Contarinia vaccinii  blueberry tip midge  
      Tephritidae  
 Rhagoletis mendax  blueberry maggot  
   Hemiptera  
      Coreidae  
 Veneza phyllopus  leaf-footed bug  
   Homoptera  
      Aphididae  
 Illinoia borealis  aphid  
 Illinoia pepperi  blueberry aphid  
      Cicadellidae  
 Euscelis striatulus  Blunt -nosed leafhopper  
 Scaphytopius magdalensis  sharpnosed leafhopper  
   Hymenoptera  
      Tenthredinidae  
 Caliroa annulipes  sawfly  
 Neopareophora litura  gooseberry sawfly  
 Pristiphora idiota  willow redgall sawfly  
 Pristiphora mollis  - 
   Lepidoptera  
      Arctiidae  
 Hyphantria cunea  fall webworm  
      Geometridae  
 Itame ribearia  currant spanworm  
      Noctuidae  
 Acronicta tritona  acronicta caterpillar  
 Actebia fennica  black army cutworm  
      Notodontidae  
 Datana major  azalea caterpillar  
      Pyralidae  
 Acrobasis vaccinii  cranberry fruitworm  
      Sphingidae  
 Paonias astylus  huckleberry sphinx  
      Tortricidae  
 Archips rosanus  rose leafroller  
 Argyrotaenia velutinana  red-banded leafroller  
 Aroga trialbamaculella  leaftier  
 Cheimophila salicella  European carnation tortrix  
 Choristoneura hebenstreitella  tortricid  
 Choristoneura rosaceana  oblique -banded leafroller   
Page 38 of 53 
  Cydia packardi  cherry fruitworm  
 Dichomeris vacciniella  leaftier  
 Hendecaneura shawiana  blueberry tip borer  
 Spilonota ocellana  eyespotted bud moth  
   Thysanoptera  
      Thripidae  
 Catinathrips similis  thrips  
 Catinathrips vaccinicola  thrips  
 Frankliniella bispinosa  flower thrips  
 Frankliniella tritici  eastern flower thrips  
 Frankliniella vaccinii  blueberry thrips  
 Scirtothrips ruthveni  - 
 Taeniothrips vaccinophilus  thrips  
 
Mite  
Arachnida  
   Acarina  
      Eriophyidae  
 Acalitus vaccinii  blueberry bud mite  
 
Fungus  
Ascomycota  
   Diaporthales  
      Valsaceae  
 Diaporthe vaccinii (anamorph Phomopsis vaccinii ) twig blight  
   Dothideales  
      Botryosphaeriaceae  
 Botryosphaeria corticis  cane blight  
 Botryosphaeria vaccinii (anamorph Phyllosticta elongata ) -- 
      Polystomellaceae  
 Dothidella vacciniicola  twig canker  
   Erysiphales  
      Erysiphaceae  
 Microsphaera vaccinii  powdery mildew  
   Hypocreales  
      Hypocreaceae  
 Calonectria ilicicola (anamorph Cylindrocladium 
crotalariae ) root and stem rot  
   Leotiales  
      Leotiaceae  
 Godronia cassandrae (anamorph Fusicoccum 
putrefaciens ) foliage spot  
 Godronia cassandrae  f. sp.  vaccinii  cane canker  
      Sclerotiniaceae  
 Monilinia baccarum  mummy berry  
 Monilinia fructigena (anamorph Monilia fructigena ) European brown rot  
 Monilinia ledi  twig blight  
 Monilinia megalospora  - 
 Monilinia oxycocci  - 
 Monilinia urnula  brown rot  
 Monilinia vaccinii -corymbosi  brown rot  
   Phyllachorales  
      Phyllachoraceae  
 Ophiodothella vaccinii  fly speck leaf spot  
Meliolales  
      Meliolaceae  
 Asteridiella exilis  black mildew  
   Rhytismatales  
      Rhytismataceae  
 Lophodermium hypophyllum  - 
 Lophodermium maculare  leaf spot   
Page 39 of 53 
  Rhytisma vaccinii  tar leaf spot  
Basidiomycota: Basidiomycetes  
   Agaricales  
      Tricholomataceae  
 Armillaria mellea (anamorph Rhizomorpha subcorticalis ) armillaria root rot  
 Armillaria ostoyae  armillaria root rot  
   Exobasidiales  
       Exobasidiaceae  
 Exobasidium maculosum   
Basidiomycota: Teliomycetes  
   Uredinales  
      Pucciniastraceae  
 Pucciniastrum goeppertianum  rust 
Oomycota  
   Pythiales  
      Pythiaceae  
 Phytophthora ramorum  sudden oak death disease  
mitosporic fungi (Coelomycetes)  
   Sphaeropsidales  
      Sphaerioidaceae  
 Dothichiza caroliniana  double leaf spot  
 Coniothyrium vaccinicola  brand canker  
 Phoma vaccinii  stem blight  
 Piggotia vaccinii  leaf spot  
 Septoria albopunctata  septoria spot  
 Septoria vaccinii  septoria spot  
   unknown Coelomycetes  
      unknown Coelomycetes  
 Gloeosporium minus  leaf spot and stem canker  
 Leptothyrium conspicuum  fly speck  
mitosporic fungi (Hyphomycetes)  
   Hyphomycetales  
      Moniliaceae  
 Gloeocercospora inconspicua  leaf spot  
 Ramularia vaccinii  leaf spot  
   unknown Hyphomycetes  
      unknown Hyphomycetes  
 Aureobasidium vaccinii  twig and leaf blight  
 
Bacterium  
      Pseudomonadaceae  
 Xylella fastidiosa  Pierce’s disease  
      Rhizobiaceae  
 Agrobacterium rubi  cane gall  
 
Virus  
 Blueberry leaf mottle virus  - 
 Bluberry red ringspot virus  (syn. Cranberry ringspot 
virus ) - 
 Blueberry scorch virus  - 
 Blueberry shock virus  - 
 Blueberry shoestring virus  - 
 Peach rosette mosaic virus  - 
 Tobacco streak virus [strains not in New Zealand]  - 
 Tomato ringspot virus  - 
Phytoplasma  
 Blueberry stunt phytoplasma  - 
 Cranberry false blossom phytoplasma  - 
 Vaccinium witches’ broom phytoplasma  - 
Disease of unknown aetiology  
 Blueberry fruit drop disease  -  
Page 40 of 53 
 Inspection, Testing and Treatment Requirements for Vaccinium  
 
ORGANISM TYPES  MPI -ACCEPTED METHODS (See notes below)  
Insects  Visual inspection AND approved insecticide treatments (Refer to section 
2.2.1.6 of the basic conditions)  
Mite  Visual inspection AND approved miticide treatments (Refer to section 
2.2.1.6 of the basic conditions)  
Fungi  Growing season inspection in PEQ  for disease symptom expression  
Diaporthe vaccinii  Plating of twig or leaf material onto suitable isolation medium  
Monilinia vaccinii -corymbosi  Growing season inspection  in PEQ  for disease symptom expression  
Note : Tissue cultures to be imported into a level 3A quarantine facility 
under option 3.3 of the Vaccinium schedule  must be tested  by plating 
onto suitable isolation medium before transfer to the greenhouse  
Oomycota   
Phytophthora ramorum  Growing season inspection  in PEQ  for disease symptom expression  
Note: Tissue cultures to be imported into a level 3A quarantine facility 
under option 3.3 of the Vaccinium schedule  must be actively grown for 
at least four weeks on arrival in New Zealand at a temperature between 
17-25C and inspected for signs or symptoms of P. ramorum by the MPI 
inspector before transfer to the greenhouse  
Bacterium   
Agrobacterium rubi  Growing season inspection in PEQ  for disease symptom expression  
Xylella fastidiosa  Growing season inspection in PEQ for disease symptom expression 
AND PCR  
Virus   
Blueberry leaf mottle virus  Herbaceous indicators Cq and Nc AND ELISA or PCR  
Bluberry red ringspot virus  (syn. 
Cranberry ringspot virus ) ELISA or PCR  
Blueberry scorch virus  Herbaceous indicator Cq AND ELISA or PCR  
Blueberry shock virus  Herbaceous indicators  Nc and Nt AND ELISA or PCR  
Blueberry shoestring virus  ELISA or PCR  
Peach rosette mosaic virus  Herbaceous indicators Cq and Nt AND ELISA or PCR  
Tobacco streak virus  
[strains not in New Zealand]  Herbaceous indicators Cq and Nt AND ELISA or PCR  
Tomato ringspot virus  
 Herbaceous indicators Cq and Nt AND ELISA or PCR  
Phytoplasmas   
Blueberry stunt phytoplasma  Nested PCR or real time PCR usin g universal phytoplasma primers  
Cranberry false blossom 
phytoplasma  Nested PCR or real time PCR using universal phyto plasma primers  
Vaccinium witches’ broom 
phytoplasma  Nested PCR or real time PCR usin g universal phytoplasma primers  
Disease of unknown aetiology   
Blue berry fruit drop disease  Growing season inspection in PEQ  for disease symptom expression  
 
Notes:  
1. The unit for testing is defined in section 2.3.2.1.  
2. Herbaceous indicator hosts: Chenopodium quinoa (Cq), Nicotiana clevelandii  (Nc) and Nicotiana tabacum  
(Nt). At least two plants of each herbaceous indicator species must be used in each test. Tests are to be 
carried out using the new season’s growth in the spring. Plants shall be sampled from at least two positions 
on every stem including a young, fully e xpanded leaf at the top of each stem and an older leaf from a 
midway position. Herbaceous indicator plants must be grown under appropriate temperatures and must be 
shaded for 24 hrs prior to inoculation. Maintain post -inoculated indicator species under app ropriate 
glasshouse conditions for at least 4 weeks. Inspect inoculated indicator plants at least twice per week for 
symptoms of virus infection.   
Page 41 of 53 
 3. Virus testing (herbaceous indexing, ELISA and PCR) must be carried out in the spring or under spring -like 
cond itions using the new flush of growth. Bacteria and phytoplasma testing (PCR) must be carried out at the 
end of the summer or under summer -like conditions.  
4. Vaccinium plants must be sampled from at least two positions on every stem including a young, fully 
expanded leaf at the top of each stem and an older leaf from a midway position.  
5. All PCR and ELISA tests must be validated using positive controls prior to use in quarantine testing. 
Positive and negative controls (including a blank water control for PCR) m ust be used in all tests. Ideally 
positive internal controls and a negative plant control should also be used in PCR tests.  
6. Inspect Vaccinium plants for signs of pest and disease at least twice per week during periods of active 
growth and once per week during dormancy. Note:  plants held in a level 3A quarantine facility under option 
3.3 of the IHS must be inspected at least twice per week for th e entire quarantine period  (including during 
any periods of dormancy ). 
7. With prior notification, MPI will accept other internationally recognised testing methods.    
Page 42 of 53 
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Page 47 of 53 
 APPENDIX  1 
Summary of an assessment  of the fungi that are regulated in the Vaccinium schedule of the nursery stock IHS, but where  passage into tissue culture combined with pre -
export , on-arrival and growing season inspections is considered sufficient to manage any phytosanitary risk.   Further information about the risk management decision is 
provided in paragraphs (49) to (50). 
Disease organism  Notes  
Botryosphaeria vaccinii   
(anamorph  Phyllosticta 
elongata ) - Recorded as mainly infecting cranberry . Caruso and Ramsdell (1995) noted that Phyllosticta elongata and P. vaccinii  are both responsible for 
causing leaf spot, fruit spot and berry speckle of blueberry, but almost no other references to this were found in the litera ture. 
- No records found about  impacts on any species of Vaccinium  other than V. macrocarpon . 
- No records have been found of any members of the Botryosphaeria  genus being transmitted in tissue cultures , although it should be noted that  
B. vaccinii causes symptomless leaf infections on cranberry (Weidemann and Boone, 1983).  
- Little is known about the disease cycle and epidemiology, but Caruso and Ramsdell (1995) stated that fruiting bodies do not develop until 
leaves and fruit senesce and drop from plants.  
- Spores of many members of the Botryosphaeriaceae  can be induced by incubation in a humid incubation chamber. As such, if present in tissue 
culture, the disease organism may be visually detectable, given the humid conditions under which tissue cultures are maintain ed. 
Dothidella vacciniicola  
twig canker  - Very few records  of this disease organism  were  found in an literature  search  (September 2016 ; CAB Abstracts and Google Scholar) . 
- No description was found of symptoms on Vaccinium  following infection by D. vacciniicola . 
- An entry in the CPC for the related species, D. ulei , (causal agent of South American leaf blight of rubber ) notes that symptoms are likely to be 
visible in traded tissue culture plants.  
Microsphaera vaccinii  
powdery mildew  - M. vaccinii  is generally a  minor disease, although Caruso and Ramsdell (1995) note that isolated incidences can be serious.  
- Symptoms are evident as mycelium on upper and/or lower leaf surfaces. Mycelium is recorded as being entirely superficial (Car uso and 
Ramsdell, 1995). Therefor e, the disease organism is considered  unlikely to be transferred to tissue cultures . If present, mycelium is expected to 
be visible in tissue culture.  
Calonectria ilicicola (syn 
Cylindrocladium crotalariae ) 
root and stem rot  - Calonectria ilicicola is a polyphagous species with a wide geographical distribution. There ar e few reports of Vaccinium  being a host, although 
members of the Cylindrocladium  genus (not identified to the species level) are recorded as causing root and stem rots of Vaccinium  spp. 
(Haralson et al., 2007).  
- This species a ppears to be a minor pathogen of Vaccinium , based on the lack of information in the literature.  
- The likelihood of C. ilicicola being present in tissue cultures of Vaccinium  is low,  given that Cylindrocladium  species are reported as causing 
stem girdling and lesions and attacking developing root systems in Vaccinium  (Haralson et al., 2007).  
Monilinia baccarum  - M. baccarum  is recorded as being restricted to Vaccinium  myrtillus  (Batra, 1983),  and has only been r eported from Europe. The disease  causes 
mummification of berries and blight of newly emerging shoots, which turn brown and droop (Munda, 2011).  
- There was little information on the impacts of this disease on V. myrtillus , and it is not expected to have an e ffect on other species of 
Vaccinium . 
Monilinia fructigena  - Although listed in the Vaccinium  schedule of the IHS, Vaccinium  spp. do not appear to be a main host of M. fructigena  and there are few 
records of this organism having an impact on blueberry.  
- M. fructigena is recorded as having a similar biology to M. vaccinii -corymbosi (see paragraphs (81) to (91)).  
Page 48 of 53 
 - Micropropagated plants  are not known to carry the disease organism in trade  (CABI, 2016 ). 
Monilinia ledi  - Although included in the Vaccinium  schedule of the IHS,  almost no references were found about this species in a literature search. Batra 
(1983) noted that the anamorph of M. ledi is found on Vaccinium  uliginosum, whereas the teleomorph is found on Rhododendron  
tomentosum   (syn Ledum palustre ). 
- No information was found about this organism having any  potential adverse effects  on the economy or environment.  
Monilinia megalospora  - Although included in the Vaccinium  schedule of the IHS,  almost no references were found about this species in a literature search. Based on 
genetic analysis, M. megalospora  is considered likely to be most closely related to M. baccarum , M. oxycocci and M. vaccinii -corymbosi  
(Holst -Jensen et al., 1997). Batra (1983) noted that M. megalospora is found only on Vaccinium  uliginosum . 
- No information was found about this organism having any potential adverse effects on the economy or environment.  
Monilinia oxycocci  - M. oxycocci is recorded as an important disease of V. macrocarpon and also infects V. oxycoccus (wild small cranberry; Batra, 1983; Caruso 
and Ramsdell, 1996; Diekmann et al., 1994). No records were found of it infecting other members of the Vaccinium  genus.  
- Symptomatic shoots of infected plants would not be expected to be transferred into tissue cu lture.  
- V. macrocarpon is not included within the scope of this assessment, and there are no records in MPI databases of V. oxycoccus having been 
imported as nursery stock.  
Monilinia urnula  - M. urnula  is recorded as being restricted to Vaccinium  vitis-idaea  (Batra, 1983; Munda, 2011) and causes blight of newly emerging shoots, 
which turn brown and droop, and mummification of berries (Munda, 2011). The disease has been reported from Europe and Japan ( Munda, 
2011).  
- There was little information on the impacts of this disease, which is not expected to have an effect on other species of Vaccinium . 
Ophiodothella vaccinii  
fly speck leaf spot  - Causes a foliar disease of Vaccinium  arboretum in the USA , resulting in large lesions on leaves, few reports of this disease organism in the 
literature . 
- V. arboretum is not an economically important species of Vaccinium , and is not listed on the PBI (so is not eligible for import under the 
Vaccinium  schedule in the IHS).  
Asteridiella exilis  
black mildew  - A single record was found of this species infecting Vaccinium  sp. in Hawaii  (Raabe et al., 1981 ), so this is not considered to be an import ant 
pathogen .  
- Members of the Asteridiella  genus appear to be mildews which affect l eaves and are mostly tropical in distribution.  
Lophodermium hypophyllum 
(syn Lophodermium oxycocci).  - Recorded as causing serious disease of cranberry in Washington and Oregon.  
- Although recorded in the  Vaccinium  schedule of the IHS, the host range appears to be limited to  V. macrocarpon (not considered in this 
assessment) . L. hypophyllum  has also been recorded on a dead leaf of  V. oxycoccus (Minter, 2005) and V. vitis -idaea  is recorded as a potential 
host (Diekmann et al., 1994).  
- No records were found of th is disease organism affecting production of species of Vaccinium  other  than V. macrocarpon . 
- There is a latent period before infections become visible in cranberry, and although infection generally occurs in summer, sy mptoms are 
usually not observed until w inter or the following spring Bristow (Carruso and Ramsdell , 1995 ). 
- Species of Vaccinium  other than V. macrocarpon are considered unlikely to be hosts . If disease symptoms were expressed on material 
imported into PEQ these would be expected to become evident before ascospores were produced, so the disease organism would not be 
expected to disperse beyond the PEQ facility . 
Lopohdermium maculare  - Recorded in the IHS as causing leaf spot.  
- Does not appear to be a major disease organism, with no specific re cords found of this causing disease  symptoms  in Vaccinium . 
Rhytisma vaccinii  - This species is recorded as causing ‘tar spot’ of Vaccinium  in Florida, Oklahoma and Texas (Horst, 2013; Field Manual of Diseases on Trees  
Page 49 of 53 
 tar leaf spot  and Shrubs). No further information was provided.  
- Other members of the genus appear to infe ct leaves of susceptible hosts.  
Armillaria mellea (anamorph 
Rhizomorpha subcorticali s) and 
Armillaria ostoyae  
armillaria root rot  - Members of the Armillaria genus infect  roots and woody tissues.  
- Infections are caused by root contact with mycelium of the disease organism. Basidiospores are not considered to be a common source of 
infection ( Caruso and Ramsdell, 1995).  
- Infections are localised within the trunk, or below the soil line.  
Pucciniastrum goeppertianum  - Recorded as a relatively minor disease (Caruso and Ramsdell, 1995) that is present in North America, Europe and Japan.  
- Causes witches broom symptoms and may cause  total yield loss in infected plants . Because disease incidence is usually very low , crop losses 
are not considered significant . 
- Infections are initiated when aeciospores germinate on leaves or stems of Vaccinium  plants. Aeciospores are produced on the alternative host 
(Abies  spp.) , but are not known to be produced on infected Vaccinium  plants . Disease incidence is highest in plantations located near Abies  
trees.  
- Symptoms do not usually become apparent for approxim ately one year after infection, so recently infected symptomless  plants could 
potentially be selected for passage into tissue culture.  
- It is not clear whether symptoms would be expressed in vitro . No evidence was found of either P. goeppertianum or other members of the 
Pucciniastrum  genus being present in tissue culture.  
- In infected Vaccinium  plants, symptoms become evident before basidio spores are produced, so the disease organism would not be expected to 
disperse beyond the PEQ facility.  
Dothic hiza caroliniana  
double leaf spot  - An uncommon disease, reported from North Carolina (Caruso and Ramsdell, 1995) and more recently Argentina (Baino et al., 2007 ).  
- Causes leaf spotting, recorded as having an optimal temperature for growth of 20 – 27°C.  
- Can result in severe defoliation of highbush cultivars (Caruso and Ramsdell, 1995), but generally regarded as a disease of minor concern.  
- Baino et al. demonstrated expression of symptoms five weeks after plants were inoculated with conidial suspension when pla nts were 
incubated under humid conditions between 25 -29C.   
- Infected plants are considered likely to display disease symptoms, so the disease organism is considered unlikely to be trans ferred into tissue 
culture.   
Coniothyrium vaccinicola  (syn 
Sphaeria v acciniicola ) 
brand canker  - There are very  few records of this disease organism in the literature , and no records of it having an impact on blueberry production . 
- A related species, Coniothyrium  sporulosum  has recently been implicated as potentially being pathogenic towards Vaccinium , but 
pathogenicity has not been determined (Sabaratnam et al., 2009 ). C. sporulosum  is already recorded as being present in New Zealand ). 
- The CPC records  the related organism  Leptosphaeria coniothyrium (present in New Zealand, syn. Coniothyrium fuckelii ) as being a wound 
pathogen of Vaccinium  and notes that tissue culture is not a known pathway for transmission of this disease organism.  
Phoma vaccinii  
stem blight  - A description  of symptoms associated with P. vaccinii  could not be found.  
- Some other members of the Phoma genus have been recorded in association with Vaccinium , although none are recorded as significant 
pathogens.  
Piggotia vaccinii  
leaf spot  - A description of symptoms  associated with P. vaccinii could not be found, although there was one record of Piggotia sp. being isolated from 
fruit of V. macrocarpon in Oregon in 2004.  
- Because of the limited information, this organism was not considered further here.  
Septoria vaccinii  
septoria spot  - There are few records of this disease organism in the literature, although Caruso and Ramsdell (1995) record Septoria  sp. as causing ‘brown 
leaf spot’ of lowbush blueberry and S. albopunctata  as causing leaf spot and stem canker.   
Page 50 of 53 
 - Symptoms are visible on leaves and stems early in the growing season.  
Leptothyrium conspicuum  
fly speck  - Few records of this disease organism in the literature, no records of symptoms.  
- Passage into tissue culture, combined with pre -export and on -arrival inspe ctions are considered sufficient to manage any risk associated with 
this organism.  
Gloeocercospora inconspicua  
leaf spot  - Recorded from wild blueberry and some commercial cultivars in North Carolina . 
- Little information about this disease organism, which does not seem to cause significant impacts . 
Ramularia vaccinii  
leaf spot  - Few records of this disease organism in the literature, with no description of symptoms found during a literature search.  
- The teleomorph ( Mycosphaerella ) is a commonly known genus of  plant pathogen s that generally causes foliar symptoms, but can also cause 
stem cankers or fruit symptoms.  
- Micropropagated plants are considered capable of dispersing members of this genus, although symptoms are considered likely to be visible in 
culture (CABI, 2016 ). 
Aureobasidium vaccinii  
twig and leaf blight  - Few records of this disease organism in the literature.  
- Some members of the genus are recorded as causing stem dieback of Vaccinium  (Caruso and Mika, 1991) . 
 
  
Page 51 of 53 
 APPENDIX 2  
Summary of  virus species that are regulated in the Vaccinium schedule of the IHS for importation of 
nursery stock.  
Virus  Notes  
Blueberry leaf mottle 
virus  (BLMoV)  
  - Pollen borne/spread by honeybees, seed transmissible and sap transmissible to a 
limited host range (Caruso and Ramsdell, 1995; Martin et al., 2012).  
- Martin et al. (2012) note that nematode and aphid transmission studies were 
unsuccessful, although other members of the genus (Nepovirus) are transmitted by 
these vectors.  
- Can be contained within  Level 3A PEQ provided that flowering is not permitted 
in PEQ, or is only allowed after testing for BLMoV has been completed.  
Blueberry red ringspot 
virus  (syn. Cranberry 
ringspot virus ) 
 - Graft transmissible and spread through propagation of infected plants (Martin et 
al., 2012).  
- No reports of transmission by insect vectors. Gillet and Ramsdell (1988) noted 
that aphid and/or mealybug transmission is suspected, although experimental 
transmission by these organisms was not successful (Caruso and Ramsdell , 1995).  
- Level 3A PEQ would be sufficient to contain the putative insect vectors.  
Blueberry scorch virus  
 - Aphid transmitted ( Aphis pomi . A. spiraecola , Ericaphis fimbriata , Myzus 
ornatus , M. persicae , Illinoia pepperi , Rhopalosiphum padi  (Jan van der Gaag et 
al., 2012) ; some of these vectors are present in New Zealand.  
- 0.2 mm mesh size of Level 3A greenhouses  is considered sufficient to contain and 
exclude all aphid vectors . 
Blueberry shock virus  
 - Pollen borne/spread by honeybees (Martin et al., 2012; Bristow and Martin, 
1999).  
- Appropriately contained within Level 3A PEQ provided that flowering is not 
permitted, or is only allowed after testing has been completed.  
Blueberry shoestring 
virus  
 - Known to be aphid transmitted, unclear if there  are any other vectors (Martin et 
al,. 2012).  
- Level 3A PEQ would be sufficient to contain and exclude potential aphid vectors.  
Peach rosette mosaic 
virus  
 - Spreads in soil via nematode vector  (Martin et al., 2012) .  
- Level 3A suitable as nematode vectors wi ll not be present, or would be contained 
within the facility.  
Tobacco streak virus 
[strains not in New 
Zealand]  
 - Pollen -transmitted via thrips carriers , seed transmitted in other hosts . 
- Level 3A PEQ does not necessarily exclude all thrips species.  
- Appropriately contained within Level 3A PEQ provided that flowering is not 
permitted, or is only allowed after testing has been completed.  
Tomato ringspot virus  
 - Spreads in soil via nematode vector.  
- Level 3A suitable as nematode vectors will not be present, or would be contained 
within the facility.  
Blueberry fruit drop 
associated virus  - Not currently listed in the IHS, but now considered likely to cause  Blueberry fruit 
drop disease (recorded as a disease of unknown aetiology, for which there is a 
requirement for growing season inspection).  
- MPI anticipate that the IHS will be updated in the near future to include this virus 
as a regulated organism with a requirement for specific testing in PEQ.  
- Vectors not yet identified, but other members of this family of viruses are aphid 
transmitted.  
- 0.2 mm mesh size of Level 3A facilities is sufficient to contain and exclude 
potential aphid vectors.  
 
  
Page 52 of 53 
 APPENDIX 3  
Summary of organisms recorded in the MPI emerging risk register as potentially bei ng present on Vaccinium nursery stock  
Disease organism  Summary  Conclusion  
Blueberry mosaic disease or blueberry mosaic associated 
virus (BlMaV).  This was included in the emerging risk register as a result of 
an expansion of distribution within the USA. This disease is 
already regulated.  Already included on the regulated pest list, IHS schedule up 
to date for this organism.  
Blueberry necrotic ring blotch virus  (BNRBV)  BNRBV is a relatively recently described virus of 
blueberry, first recorded in 2006. The virus causes 
defoliation of plants, but is not known to be systemic. 
Recent evidence suggests that the virus is not transmitted 
through vegetative propagation (Robinson et al., 2016). If 
present, experimental evidence shows that symptoms would 
be expec ted to become evident within two to three weeks. 
Mites have been identified as a possible vector in the field 
(Burkle et al., 2012)  Given the evidence that the disease is not transmitted 
through vegetative propagation, this virus is considered 
highly unlik ely to be present on the tissue culture pathway. 
Although the disease may be transmitted by mites, 
inspection for symptoms is considered sufficient to manage 
the risk in a Level 3A PEQ facility given the extremely low 
likelihood of BNRBV being present.  
MPI will assess whether this organism should be included 
on the regulated pest list when the IHS schedule is next 
reviewed.  
Blueberry scorch virus (BlScV)  This organism was included in the emerging risk register as 
a result of it being detected in a new part of the USA.  Already included on the regulated pest list, IHS schedule up 
to date for this organism.  
Blueberry shock virus (BlShV)  This organism was included in the emerging risk register as 
a result of it being detected in a new part of the USA.  Already included on the regulated pest list, IHS schedule up 
to date for this organism.  
Candidatus  Phytoplasma solani  Symptoms identified on diseased blueber ry plants in Serbia 
in 2009 were identified as being caused by a phytoplasma 
belonging to the 16SrXII -A (stolbur) subgroup ( Starović et 
al., 2013) .  Generic measures for phytoplasmas described earlier in 
paragraphs (123)  to (128)  of this RMP are considered 
sufficient to manage the risk.  
MPI will assess whether this organism should be included 
on the regulated pest list when the IHS schedule is next 
reviewed.  
Diaporthe vaccinii  This organism was included in the emerging risk regi ster as 
a result of a change in distribution.  Already included in the IHS, see paragraphs (59) to (68) of 
this RMP.   
Page 53 of 53 
 Exobasidium maculosum  This is an emerging fungal disease of Vaccinium that may 
cause yield losses of up to70%. The disease is increasing in 
significance in the USA.  Because of the potential significance of this disease 
organism, a more detailed assessment is provided in 
paragraphs (131)  to (138)  of this RMP.  
Thekopsora minima  (blueberry leaf rust)  There are two entries for this rust fungus  in the emerging 
risk register, both relating to changes in the worldwide 
distribution of this organism.   T. mini ma is already present in New Zealand, so is non -
regulated. No measures required in the IHS.  
Totricid moths  (four species)  Four totricid moth species ( Clarkeulia deceptiva , C. 
bourquini , Platynota meridionalis  and Argyrotaenia 
sphaleropa ) are now known to be present on Vaccinium , 
and are not currently listed on the Vaccinium pest list.  As with other insect pests of Vaccinium , risk is considered 
appropriately managed by passage into tissue culture  
Xylella fastidiosa subsp. multiplex  and fastidiosa  This was included in the emerging risk register when X. 
fastidiosa subsp. fastidiosa was identified as infecting 
Vaccinium. This disease organism is already regulated in 
the Vaccinium  schedule of the IHS.   Already included in the IHS, see paragraphs (109)  to (113)  
of this RMP.