WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 ANNEX 5 - SWAZILAND 
 WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 CONTENTS 
1   ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT ...................................................................................... 363  
1.1   Main Features of the Economy .................................................................................. 363  
1.2   Recent Econom ic Developments................................................................................ 364  
1.3   Trade Performance ................................................................................................. 367  
1.4   Foreign Dire ct Invest ment ....................................................................................... 368  
2   TRADE AND INVESTMENT REGIMES ......................................................................... 372  
2.1   General ................................................................................................................. 372  
2.2   Trade Agreements .................................................................................................. 373  
2.2.1   WTO .................................................................................................................. 373 
2.2.2   B ilatera l .............................................................................................................  374 
2.2.3   Re gional ............................................................................................................. 375 
2.2.4   Other preferen tial arrangements ............................................................................ 375  
2.3   Investment  Framework ........................................................................................... 375  
3   TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICES BY MEASURE ...................................................... 378  
3.1   Measures Directly  Affecting Import s .......................................................................... 378  
3.1.1   Registration, documentat ion and customs procedures ............................................... 378  
3.1.2   Tariffs an d other ch arges ...................................................................................... 380  
3.1.3   Import prohibitions, restrictions, an d licensing ......................................................... 382  
3.1.4   Anti-dumping, countervai ling, and safeguar d measures ............................................. 383  
3.1.5   Standards and other technical requirements ............................................................ 383  
3.1.6   Sanitary and phytosan itary requiremen ts (SPS ) ....................................................... 384  
3.2   Measures Directly Affecting Exports ........................................................................... 386  
3.2.1   Export procedur es and requirements ...................................................................... 386  
3.2.2   Export taxes, charges, and levies ........................................................................... 387  
3.2.3   Export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing .......................................................... 387  
3.2.4   Export suppo rt and prom otion ............................................................................... 387  
3.2.5   Export finance, in surance, and gu arantees .............................................................. 387  
3.3   Measures Affecting Production an d Trade ................................................................... 388  
3.3.1   Ince ntives .......................................................................................................... 3 88 
3.3.2   Competition policy and price controls ...................................................................... 389  
3.3.2.1   Competition policy ............................................................................................ 389  
3.3.2.2   Price controls ................................................................................................... 39 1 
3.3.3   State trading, state-owned enterprises, and privatization ........................................... 391  
3.3.4   Government  procurement ..................................................................................... 394  
3.3.5   Intellectual property rights .................................................................................... 396  
3.3.5.1   Patents and industrial designs ............................................................................. 397  
3.3.5.2   Trademarks ...................................................................................................... 398  
3.3.5.3   Copyright an d related rights ............................................................................... 398  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 3.3.5.4   Enforcement ..................................................................................................... 399  
4   TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR ................................................................................... 400  
4.1   Agriculture, Fore stry and Fi sheries ............................................................................ 400  
4.1.1   Main features ...................................................................................................... 40 0 
4.1.2   Policy framewor k and developments ....................................................................... 402  
4.1.2.1   Suppor t measur es ............................................................................................. 402  
4.1.2.2   Bord er measures............................................................................................... 403  
4.1.3   Key su bsectors .................................................................................................... 403  
4.1.3.1   Sugar .............................................................................................................. 403 
4.1.3.2   Maize .............................................................................................................. 405 
4.1.3.3   Li vestoc k ......................................................................................................... 4 05 
4.2   Energy, mining  and quarrying .................................................................................. 406  
4.2.1   Energy ............................................................................................................... 406 
4.2.1.1   Electricity ......................................................................................................... 407  
4.2.1.2   Fuels ...............................................................................................................  408 
4.2.2   Mining and quarrying ............................................................................................ 409  
4.3   Manufac turing ........................................................................................................ 41 0 
4.4   Services ................................................................................................................  411 
4.4.1   Main features and multilateral commitments ............................................................ 411  
4.4.2   Financial Services ................................................................................................ 412  
4.4.2.1   Banking institutions ........................................................................................... 412  
4.4.2.2   Non-bankin g institutions .................................................................................... 413  
4.4.3   Telecommunications and postal se rvices ................................................................. 414  
4.4.4   Transport ........................................................................................................... 4 16 
4.4.4.1   Overview ......................................................................................................... 41 6 
4.4.4.2   Road  transport ................................................................................................. 416  
4.4.4.3   Rail transport ................................................................................................... 41 7 
4.4.4.4   Air transport ..................................................................................................... 418  
REFERENC ES ................................................................................................................ 420  
5   APPENDIX TABLES .................................................................................................. 421  
 
CHARTS 
 Chart 1.1 Product composition of merchandise trade,  2008 and 2013 .................................... 370
 
Chart 1.2 Direction of merchandise trade, 2008 and 2013 .................................................... 371  
 
TABLES 
 
Table 1.1 GDP distribution by type of econom ic activity (at 2000 constant basic prices), 
2008-1 4 .......................................................................................................................  363 
Table 1.2 Selected macroeco nomic indicato rs, 2008-14  ....................................................... 364  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 Table 1.3 Balance of payments, 2008-13 ........................................................................... 366  
Table 1.4 FDI stock in Swaziland by economic se ctor, 2008- 13 ............................................. 369  
Table 2.1 Selected trade-related laws enacted since 2007 .................................................... 373  
Table 2.2 Notifications by  Swaziland 2008–April 2015 ......................................................... 374  
Table 3.1 Average processing times at selected border posts, February 2012 .......................... 379  
Table 3.2 Import levies on scheduled agricultural products ................................................... 381  
Table 3.3 Import levies on milk and dairy products ............................................................. 381  
Table 3.4 Swaziland: inve stment ince ntives ....................................................................... 388  
Table 3.5 Swaziland: public enterpri ses and government agencies, 2014 ............................... 392  
Table 3.6 Total central government proc urement, estimates,  2008/09-20 14/15 ...................... 394  
Table 3.7 Government procuremen t methods and th resholds ............................................... 395  
Table 3.8 Membership of WIPO administered tr eaties, 2015 ................................................. 397  
Table 4.1 Agricultural production  and exports, 2008 /09-2013/ 14 .......................................... 400  
Table 4.2 Maize and dairy imports, 2008/ 09-2013/ 14.......................................................... 401  
Table 4.3 Sugar indica tors, 2008/09-2 013/14 .................................................................... 404  
Table 4.4 Beef ex ports, 2009- 13 ...................................................................................... 406  
Table 4.5 Electricity consumption, 2009/10-2013/14 ........................................................... 407  
Table 4.6 Banking institutions' sh areholding stru cture, 2013 ................................................ 412  
Table 4.7 Selected telecommunication indicators, 2008-13 ................................................... 414  
Table 4.8 Bilateral air serv ices agreemen ts, 2014  ............................................................... 419  
 
BOXES 
 Box 4.1 Procedure for obtaining licences related to large-scale mineral operations ................... 410
 
 
APPENDIX TABLES 
 
Table A1.1 Merchandise exports by produc t group, including re -exports, 2008-13 ................... 421  
Table A1.2 Merchandise imports by product grou p, 2008-1 3 ................................................ 423  
Table A1.3 Merchandise exports by destin ation, including re -exports, 2008-13 ....................... 424  
Table A1.4 Merchandise impo rts by origin , 2008-13  ............................................................ 425  
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 1  ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT 
1.1  Main Features of the Economy  
1.1.  The Kingdom of Swaziland is a landlocked country, with a small, mostly open economy. It is 
heavily dependent on international trade, with an average ratio of trade in goods and services to 
GDP of 127.6% in the period 2008-12. Membership to the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 
is a key determinant of the Swazi economy, with SACU revenues representing more than half of 
the government revenue and around 17% of GDP. Swaziland maintains close economic ties with 
South Africa, which is by far its main trading partner.  
1.2.  Services are the most important sector of the economy in terms of value added. Their share 
in GDP (at basic prices) increased from 48.7% to 54.7% between 2008 and 2014 (Table 1.1). The largest services subsectors are public administra tion; wholesale and retail trade; and transport, 
storage and communications. The latter recorded th e highest growth rates over the review period 
(averaging 6.3% per year between 2008 and 2014), mainly on account of the growth in telecommunications services. The share of manufac turing in GDP declined from 35.8% to 28.0% 
between 2008 and 2014, as the sector contracted  at an average annual rate of 1.7% between 
those years. Manufacturing activities remain focused on a few agro-processing industries (sugar products, canned fruit, and timber products) and textiles and clothing, and most of their 
production is for export. Agriculture accounts for 11.4% of GDP, but its importance to the 
Swazi economy is crucial as almost 80% of the population lives in rural areas and depends on subsistence farming. Agriculture is also an important contributor to export earnings and supplier of raw materials for the processing industries.  
Table 1.1 GDP distribution by type of econom ic activity (at 2000 constant basic prices), 
2008-14 
(% of GDP) 
  2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 
Agriculture, hunting and forestry; fishing 10.4 10.1 10.5 12.6 11.5 11.3 11.4 
Mining and quarrying 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 
Manufacturing 35.8 34.3 33.0 29.5 28.9 28.4 28.0 
Electricity, gas and water supply 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 
Construction 3.8 3.6 3.5 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.7 
Services 48.7 50.6 51.7 53.4 54.5 54.7 54.7 
Wholesale and retail trade 10.4 10.8 11.0 11.5 12.1 12.6 12.6 
Hotels and restaurants 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.2 2.1 
Transport, storage and communications 9.8 10.2 10.6 11.2 11.8 12.1 12.3 
Financial intermediation 3.6 3.8 3.6 4.2 3.5 3.4 3.7 
Real estate, renting and business activities 6.9 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 6.9 6.8 
Public administrati on and defence; 
education; health and social care 16.4 17.1 17.7 18.1 17.9 18.0 17.8 
Other community, social and personal 
service activities 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 
less FISIMa -2.4 -2.6 -2.5 -2.8 -2.4 -2.3 -2.5 
a Financial intermediation services indirectly measured. 
Source: Information provided by the Swazi authorities. 
1.3.  With a GDP per capita of US$3,074 (2014), Swaziland is considered a lower-middle-income 
country. Nonetheless, it continues to face important social challenges. Poverty remains 
widespread, especially in rural communities, with  an estimated 63% of the country's population 
living below the poverty line and an unemployment rate of about 28.5%.1 Inequality is also high: 
the GINI coefficient stands at 51.1 (2013)2 and there are huge regional disparities. Furthermore, 
Swaziland continues to have the highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the world (26% of the 
population aged 15-49), which aggravates poverty conditions and seriously constrains economic 
                                               
1 The unemployment rate increases to 40.7% when discouraged workers are accounted for. World Bank 
online information. Viewed at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/10/20405098/swaziland-
country-partnership-strategy-fy2015-2018. 
2 World Bank (2013), World Development Indicators 2013 .  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 growth. In 2013, life expectancy was 49 years, an d Swaziland ranked 148 (out of 187) in the 
UNDP Human Development Index.3 
1.2  Recent Economic Developments 1.4.  During the period under review, the economy of Swaziland recorded weak growth 
performance (Table 1.2). Between 2008 and 2014, real GDP grew at an average annual rate of 
2.1%, less than the annual average of 2.9% recorded during 2003-08.
4 The role of exports as a 
source of growth declined during the years under review, and the ratio of net exports of goods and 
services to GDP recorded negative figures throughout the period. There was also a sustained 
decline in the share of gross fixed capital formation in GDP. 
1.5.  Behind this sluggish growth performance are both exogenous factors and long-standing 
structural constraints, including the economic slowdown in South Africa, lower external demand 
and changing market access conditions for key Swazi exports, a severe fiscal crisis, recurrent 
droughts, and persistently low levels of private investment. Growth performance improved moderately in 2012 and 2013, but decelerated again in 2014 and is insufficient to create 
much-needed jobs in order to reduce poverty leve ls. Moreover, the economy remains vulnerable to 
external shocks and key structural reforms are still pending.  
1.6.  In 2010/11, Swaziland experienced a severe fiscal crisis primarily caused by a sharp decline 
(by 10% of GDP) in its share of SACU revenues (Main Report, Section 1). This led to large fiscal 
deficits in 2010/11 and 2011/12, liquidity constraints, the accumulation of public debt, and eventually the worsening of the external position . In 2011, international reserves were run down 
to 2.3 months of imports.  
1.7.  In response to the crisis, in late 2010, the Government put in place a Fiscal Adjustment 
Roadmap (FAR) to restore fiscal sustainability. The FAR included short-term actions (e.g. tax increases and wage and hiring freezes) as well as medium-term measures such as strengthening 
public finance management (PFM) and reforms in expenditure policy, tax policy and revenue 
administration.
5 Within this framework, the Governme nt established the Swaziland Revenue 
Authority (2011), introduced a value-added tax system (2012) and set up a large taxpayers' unit, 
which together have contributed to improving revenue collection. However, progress in 
expenditure management has been slow.6 A Public Finance Management Bill, approved by Cabinet 
in 2013, is expected to provide for the implementation of remaining fiscal reforms and increase transparency and accountability in public expenditure. At the time of writing, the Public Finance 
Management Bill had not been enacted. 
1.8.  Higher SACU revenues since 2012/13 have helped the Swazi economy recover and improve 
its fiscal position. Real GDP increased by 3% in 2013, led mainly by growth in communications, 
manufacturing and construction (the latter benefiting from a significant increase in the capital 
budget), and the fiscal deficit turned into a surp lus of 4.3% of GDP (2012/13). Growth decelerated 
somewhat to 2.5% in 2014, and the fiscal balance registered a small deficit (0.2%) in 2013/14, as 
spending increased, mainly on account of wage rises and higher capital expenditure. In 2014/15, 
an expansionary budget projected a fiscal deficit of 3% of GDP.  
Table 1.2 Selected macroeconomic indicators, 2008-14  
 2008  2009  2010  2011  2012 2013 2014  
Nominal GDP (E million) 24,947 26,647 25,828 27,642 30,875 34,085 36,904 
Nominal GDP (US$ million) 3,020 3,145 3,528 3,807 3,761 3,530 3,400 
Real GDP growth (%) 2.4 1.3 1.8 1.3 2.7 3.0 2.5 
GDP per capita (US$) 2,927 3,014 3,342 3,565 3,481 3,229 3,074 
Population (million) 1.03 1.04 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.11 
 (% of GDP) 
GDP by type of expenditure        
Final consumption expenditure 102.5 105.7 104.9 99.5 99.9 .. .. 
  Private 95.1 98.2 94.1 88.9 92.4 .. .. 
                                               
3 UNDP (2014), Human Development Report s. Country profiles.   
4 WTO (2009), Trade Policy Review, Southern African Customs Union , Geneva. 
5 The FAR was updated in 2012 and a PFM Acti on Plan is currently  being implemented. 
6 African Development Bank, OECD, UNDP (2014a).  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012 2013 2014  
  Government 7.5 7.5 10.9 10.6 7.5 .. .. 
Gross fixed capital formation 11.1 10.3 10.7 10.0 8.9 .. .. 
Net exports of goods and services -13.6 -16.0 -15.6 -9.5 -8.8 .. .. 
  Exports of goods and services 59.1 55.5 58.8 57.2 56.7 .. .. 
  Imports of goods and services -72.7 -71.5 -74.4 -66.7 -65.6 .. .. 
Prices and interest rates        
Inflation (CPI, % change) 12.6 7.5 4.5 6.1 9.0 5.6 5.7 
Interest rates (% p.a.)        
  CBS discount rate 11.0 6.5 5.5 5.5 5.0 5.0 5.3 
  Prime lending 14.5 10.0 9.0 9.0 8.5 8.5 8.8 
  Deposit rate (31 days) 7.3 3.7 2.4 2.4 1.8 1.8 1.9 
External sector (% of GDP, unless otherwise indicated) 
Current account -7.5 -13.1 -11.4 -8.9 4.1 6.8 .. 
Gross official reserves (US$ million, 
end of period) 855.2 764.6 614.2 575.6 679.6 819.4 729.4 
Months of imports of goods and 
 services  4.6 4.1 2.8 2.3 2.9 3.9 3.6 
SZL/US$ (annual average)  8.3 8.5 7.3 7.3 8.2 9.7 10.9 
Nominal effective exchange rate 
(Annual average: Index 2000=100)a 79.5 80.6 86.0 84.5 80.8 75.0 70.9 
Real effective exchange rate (Annual 
average: Index 2000=100)a 100.1 105.3 113.6 111.2 112.7 107.0 101.5 
Public financeb 2008/  
09 2009/  
10 2010/  
11 2011/  
12 2012/ 
13 2013/ 
14 2014/  
15 
Total revenue and grants (% of 
GDP)c, d 38.1 52.9 18.5 19.9 32.1 43.6 40.8 
Total expenditure and net lending  
(% of GDP)c, d 39.6 60.0 28.0 25.3 27.8 43.8 43.8 
Overall surplus/deficit (% of GDP)c, d -1.5 -7.1 -9.5 -5.4 4.3 -0.2 -3.0 
Total debt (US$ million) 414.2 435.9 626.6 582.4 573.6 582.6 665.6 
  Domestic debt (US$ million) 40.2 53.2 250.3 249.8 266.1 261.1 354.0 
  External debt (US$ million) 374.0 382.7 376.3 332.6 307.3 321.5 311.6 
Total debt as % of GDP 16.0 12.1 14.8 14.9 16.0 17.1 20.0 
  Domestic debt  1.5 1.5 5.9 6.4 7.4 7.7 10.0 
  External debt  14.5 10.6 8.9 8.5 8.6 9.4 9.0 
Domestic debt as % of total debt 9.7 12.2 39.9 42.9 46.4 44.6 53.0 
External debt as % of total debt 90.3 87.8 60.1 57.1 53.6 55.4 47.0 
Debt service:         
  As % of GDP 3.3 2.3 2.0 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0 
  As % of exports of goods and 
services 5.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.1 1.9 .. 
.. Not available. 
a An increase indicates appreciation. 
b Fiscal year runs from 1 April to 31 March. c Estimate for 2013/14. d Based on budget for 2014/15. 
Source: Central Bank (2014), Quarterly Report, March 2014 ; Central Bank, Annual Reports 2012/2013 and 
2013/2014; IMF, World Economic and Financial Surveys, Regional Economic Outlook: Sub-Saharan 
Africa , October 2014 and April 2015; IMF online information, "International Financial Statistics". 
Viewed at: http://elibrary-data.imf.org/DataExplorer.aspx ; and statistical information provided by 
the authorities. 
1.9.  In 2013/14, total revenues and grants represented 43.6% of GDP (Table 1.2). Swaziland 
remains highly dependent on SACU revenues to finance government spending. With a narrow tax 
base and weak economic growth, domestic revenues have traditionally represented less than half of government revenues, although they have increased in the past few years due to efficiencies in 
tax collection. In 2013/14, domestic revenues (from VAT, personal and corporate taxes
7 and 
non-tax revenues) accounted for 43.2% of total revenue, while SACU receipts made up 55.3%, 
and grants the remaining 1.5%.8 In the same fiscal year, total expenditure amounted to 43.8% of 
GDP. Recurrent spending makes up on average 80%  of total expenditure, reflecting high and 
                                               
7 In 2013 the corporate income tax was reduced from 30% to 27.5%.  
8 African Development Bank, OECD, UNDP (2014a). WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 increasing public sector wages.9 Rationalizing the expenditure structure would allow more space 
for critical social and capital spending and help ensure fiscal sustainability. 
1.10.  Overall public debt increased as a result  of the 2011 fiscal crisis, and stood at 20% of GDP 
in 2014/15. The share of domestic debt as a perc entage of GDP grew from 1.5% in 2009/10 to 
10% in 2014/15, as short of liquidity, the Govern ment borrowed from the private sector to meet 
domestic arrears. External debt has decreased compared to its 2008/09 levels, and represented 9.0% of GDP in 2014/15 and about half of total de bt. Currently, there is no explicit ceiling on 
external debt; the Public Finance Management Bill of 2013 is expected to re medy this, if and when 
it is enacted.  
1.11.  By virtue of its membership of the Co mmon Monetary Area (CMA), Swaziland's currency, 
the lilangeni
10, is pegged at par to the South African rand, which is also legal tender in Swaziland 
(Main Report, Section 1). While this provides Swaziland with financial stability, it also limits 
considerably the scope of its monetary policy, which is guided by South Africa's inflation targeting system. The main monetary objective of the Centra l Bank of Swaziland (CBS) is to achieve price 
stability and maintain the peg of the local currency to the rand. Since 2009, Swaziland has 
recorded single-digit inflation, as measured by the consumer price index (CPI), and with food and fuel prices decreasing in recent years, average annual inflation declined from 9.0% in 2012 to 
5.7% in 2014 (Table 1.2).  
1.12.  Over the review period, the CBS policy on interest rates has been largely accommodative in 
an attempt to boost economic growth, and it has closely tracked the South African levels in order to maintain the peg. From mid-2012 to mid-2014, the CBS kept its discount rate at 5%, while the 
commercial banks' prime lending rate was at 8.5%. In July 2014, the CBS increased by 25 basis 
points its discount rate and the prime lending rate increased accordingly to 8.75%. By end-2014, the interest rate differential between Swaziland and South Africa was 50 basis points.
11  
1.13.  Swaziland continues to maintain a foreign exchange restriction on advance payments for 
certain imports, which is subject to IMF approval.12  
1.14.  The country's external position improved from 2012 onwards, with the balance of payments 
recording overall surpluses in 2012 and 2013, after two consecutive years of negative results 
(Table 1.3). The deficit in the current account also turned into surpluses in 2012 (4.1% of GDP) and 2013 (6.8% of GDP). This positive turnaround  was mainly driven by improvements in the 
trade in goods balance and a strong performance in the current transfers account, of which SACU 
receipts are the major contributor. While the capital account remained in surplus throughout the 
review period, the financial account recorded deficits in 2012 and 2013 due to a decline in net foreign direct investment flows and net outflows of "other investment".  
1.15.  Larger SACU receipts over the past few years also helped rebuild the country's gross official 
reserves, which stood at US$729.4 million at end-2014, equivalent to 3.6 months of imports. The increase in foreign reserves was also due to the substantial depreciation of the local currency 
(along with the South African rand) against major trading currencies (Table 1.2). According to the 
CBS, uncertainty about the outcome of ongoing ne gotiations on a revised revenue-sharing formula 
among SACU members may constitute a threat to Swaziland's official reserves.
13  
Table 1.3 Balance of payments, 2008-13 
(US$ million) 
  2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 2013a 
A.  Current account (excluding E) -226 -410 -402 -339 155 239 
    Balance on goods -10 -121 -150 -44 78 202 
     Exports 1,569 1,660 1,805 1,906 1,926 1,895 
                                               
9 In 2013/14, the compensation of employees amount ed to 14.25% of GDP, the second highest in 
Sub-Saharan African co untries. IMF (2014).  
10 In plural emalangeni (E). 
11 Central Bank of Swaziland (2015).  
12 The Swazi authorities have not requested approval for the use of such restriction. IMF (2014). 
13 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014), Annual Report. April 2013-March 2014 , Mbabane. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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   2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 2013a 
     Imports -1,578 -1,781 -1,955 -1,950 -1,848 -1,693 
    Balance on services -449 -403 -432 -569 -584 -503 
     Exports of services 225 200 257 300 242 233 
     Imports of services -673 -603 -689 -868 -827 -736 
    Balance on goods and services -458 -524 -582 -613 -507 -301 
    Net income -5 -76 -226 -256 -314 -361 
     Income: credit 298 291 212 192 201 188 
     Income: debit -303 -366 -439 -448 -514 -549 
    Net current transfers 238 189 405 530 975 901 
     Current transfers: credit 446 415 488 617 1,070 1,038 
     Current transfers: debit -208 -226 -83 -88 -95 -137 
B.  Capital account (excluding E) 39 11 14 20 113 26 
C.  Financial account (excluding E) 448 271 107 115 -80 -6 
     Net direct investment 114 59 135 102 96 24 
     Net portfolio investment -32 26 62 -104 -13 -14 
     Net other investment 366 186 -90 117 -163 -15 
D.  Net errors and omissions -122 129 50 108 -30 -70 
Overall balance (group A through D) 139 1 -231 -95 159 189 
a Preliminary. 
Source: Central Bank of Swaziland (2015), Quarterly Report, December 2014. 
1.3  Trade Performance  
1.16.  Swaziland is highly dependent on international trade, with a trade/GDP ratio of 122% in 
2012. Nonetheless, the country's share in world tr ade remains very small (0.01% for both exports 
and imports). In 2013, Swaziland ranked 110 among world merchandise exporters (counting EU member states as one and excluding intra-EU trade) and 133 among importers. As regards 
trade in services, the country ranked 131 among exporters (excluding intra-EU trade), and 121
 
among importers.14  
1.17.  Swaziland's trade patterns continue to show a high concentration both in terms of products 
and markets. In 2013, merchandise exports (including re-exports) were worth US$1.9 billion, of 
which agricultural products represented 32%.15 However, sugar exports (including sugar 
confectionery and other sugars) alone made up 23.1% of total exports, increasing their share from 17.9% in 2008 (Table A1.1 and Chart 1.1). Manufactures accounted for 62.5% of goods exports 
(down from 65.3% in 2008), with sugar-based products such as soft-drink concentrates 
representing 26.6% of total export earnings.
16 Textiles and clothing represented 10.1% of total 
merchandise exports in 2013 (up from 8.5% in 2008) and roughly half of them went to 
South Africa.17 Mineral exports, comprising iron ore and coal, have performed well since 2012 but 
remain small (5.5% of total exports in 2013). 
1.18.  Total merchandise imports were US$1.7 billion in 2013. Manufactures accounted for almost 
59% of total imports, food (maize, rice and other cereals) for 16.1%, and fuels for 15.3% 
(Table A1.2 and Chart 1.1). Within manufacturing, the most important category was machinery 
and transport equipment, which contributed 17.6% to total merchandise imports, reflecting the 
Government's implementation of several capital projects. Chemicals and other semi-manufactures 
(e.g. cement, and iron and steel structures) re presented 12.8% and 10.0% of total imports, 
respectively. 
1.19.  In terms of markets, South Africa remains by far Swaziland's largest trading partner, 
followed by the European Union. According to 2013 figures, 63% of total merchandise exports 
                                               
14 WTO online information. Viewed at: http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfiles/SZ_e.htm . 
15 2013 was the latest year for which data was available at the time of writing. 
16 Under the SITC Rev.3 system, soft-drink concentr ates are classified as chemical products under 
item 5514 "Mixtures of odoriferous substances, industrial use".  
17 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014), Annual Report, April 2013-March 2014 , Mbabane. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 (including re-exports) were destined for South Africa and 12.3% for the European Union, 
consisting mostly of sugar (Table A1.3 and Chart 1.2). Within Africa, other important markets for 
Swazi exports are Mozambique (4%), Nigeria (2.6%) and Kenya (2.3%), while exports to the rest of the SACU countries are very small (1.3%). Exports to China have increased their relative 
importance, representing 3.1% of total Swazi expo rts in 2013, while the share of exports to the 
United States has decreased. Imports are even more concentrated, with South Africa supplying almost 89%, followed by China (whose share in total imports increased from 1% in 2008 to 3.8% 
in 2013), and the EU (1.6%) (Table A1.3 and Chart 1.2). According to the CBS, merchandise 
imports from non-SACU countries declined in 2013, reflecting the effect of the depreciation of the exchange rate vis-à-vis major world currencies. 
1.20.  Throughout the review period, Swaziland registered a deficit in the services account of the 
balance of payments, which by end-2013 stood at US$503 million (Table 1.3). The deficit was 
mainly attributable to an increase in transport services imports and a decline in exports of travel services. Other business services (miscellaneous business, professional and technical services) 
consistently posted a net outflow during the years under review. 
1.4  Foreign Direct Investment 1.21.  Swaziland has received little new foreign di rect investment (FDI) inflows over the past few 
years, in particular since its 2010-11 fiscal crisis. This situation may be in part explained by strong 
competition for FDI in the region, and by Swazil and's weak economic performance and slow pace 
of structural reforms, including with regard to improvements in the business climate. According to 
UNCTAD statistics, in 2013, Swaziland received only 0.7% of FDI flows into SACU countries (down 
from 2.9% in 2010).
18 Nonetheless, Swaziland's stock of FDI increased from US$610.4 million in 
2008 to US$836.4 million in 2013, with reinvestment of earnings accounting for around half of the total stock. 
1.22.  Data on the stock of FDI by sector (in US dollars) indicates that manufacturing is the main 
recipient with 61.8% of total FDI stock or US$517 million in 2013, up from US$324.9 million in 2008 (Table 1.4). It is followed by the agricultural sector, which accounted for 14.3% of total stock 
in 2013, reflecting increased FDI associated with efforts to revive the forestry industry. Services as 
a group (excluding finance) are the third-largest recipient accounting for 9.8% of total FDI stock, but down from the 13.1% recorded in 2008. The contribution of the financial sector to the stock of FDI also declined during the review period to 8.7% (2013). Although its share in total FDI stock is 
the smallest, the mining sector has substantially increased its participation since 2011, with the 
reopening of an iron ore mine and the enactment of new legislation allowing for new entrants into the industry (section 4.2.2). South Africa is  the source of most FDI into Swaziland. 
1.23.  Notwithstanding efforts made by the Government in recent years to improve the business 
climate and attract both domestic and foreign investments, the strong presence of the public sector in key industries across the Swazi economy leaves little room for private investment to 
expand and lead economic growth. Indeed, be it  through state-owned enterprises that directly 
compete with private companies or through significant shareholding in private corporations, the Government and the royal family have a notable influence in the economy that tends to crowd out private investment, distort competition and increase production costs.  
1.24.  Pushing ahead the reform of state-owned enterprises and establishing independent 
regulators in key economic sectors should contribute to attracting more foreign and local private investments. Improving Swaziland's governance re cord could also be he lpful in this respect.
19 
1.25.  The Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Policy launched by the Government in 2013 is a step in 
the right direction and may help increase private investment participation in the economy. The aim of the PPP Policy is to accelerate provision of ph ysical infrastructure by using private sector 
resources and by the same token providing investment opportunities for the private sector. The 
                                               
18 UNCTADstat database. Viewed at: http://unctadstat.unctad.org/EN/Index.html .  
19 According to the Ibrahim Index of African Governan ce (IIAG) which provides an annual assessment of 
the quality of governance in African countries, in 2013 Swaziland ranked 26 out of 52 countries, and lower than 
all the other SACU countries. Viewed at: www.moibrahimfoundation.org/iiag/ . WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 Ministry of Finance is responsible for the overa ll implementation of the policy, with a PPP Unit 
expected to be created under its supervision.  
Table 1.4 FDI stock in Swaziland  by economic sector, 2008-13 
(US$ million) 
  2008 2009  2010  2011  2012 2013a 
 (US$ million) 
Manufacturing  324.9 357.0 528.7 612.9 523.6 517.0 
Services 80.2 106.9 107.1 138.2 111.6 82.3 
Investment 29.0 30.1 27.6 24.8 23.9 25.1 
Agriculture 87.2 102.1 87.8 145.2 218.4 120.0 
Finance 88.5 109.2 78.8 93.4 87.8 73.0 
Mining 0.6 -0.7 9.4 8.7 26.8 19.0 
Total  610.4 704.6  839.4  1023.1  992.1 836.4  
 (% of total) 
Manufacturing  53.2 50.7 63.0 59.9 52.8 61.8 
Services 13.1 15.2 12.8 13.5 11.2 9.8 
Investment 4.8 4.3 3.3 2.4 2.4 3.0 
Agriculture 14.3 14.5 10.5 14.2 22.0 14.3 
Finance 14.5 15.5 9.4 9.1 8.8 8.7 
Mining 0.1 -0.1 1.1 0.8 2.7 2.3 
Total  100.0 100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0 100.0  
a Preliminary. 
Source: Central Bank of Swaziland, Annual Reports 2012/13 and 2013/14. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 Chart 1.1 Product composition of merchandise trade, 2008 and 2013  
2008 2013
(a)    Exports including re-exports (f.o.b.)
Other 
manufactures
4.2%
Manufactures
65.3%Other 
manufactures
2.6%
Manufactures
62.5%
Chemicals
46.3%Beet/cane sugars 
(SITC 0611)
18.8%Textiles & 
clothing 
10.1%
Mining
5.5%Agricultural 
raw 
material
3.6%
Other 
agriculture
9.6%Other semi-
manufactures
2.0%Machinery & 
transport 
equip.
1.6%
Total:   US$1.4 billion Total:  US$1.9 billion
(b)    Imports (c.i.f.)
Manufactures
61.0%Non-
electrical 
machinery
6.0%
Iron and 
steel 
2.2%Other semi-
manufactures
10.6%Food
19.2%Other 
1.5%
Fuels
16.7%Transport 
equip.
6.8%Agricultural 
raw material
1.5%
Chemicals
15.5%Other 
consumer 
goods
8.4%
Textiles & 
clothing
6.0%
Electrical 
machines
5.5%
Non-
electrical 
machinery
5.6%Iron and 
steel 
2.0%
Other semi-
manufactures
10.0%Food
16.1%Other 
8.6%
Fuels
15.3%
Transport 
equip.
7.2%Agricultural 
raw 
material
1.3%
Electrical 
machines
4.8%
Chemicals
12.8%Other 
consumer 
goods
7.9%
Textiles & 
clothing
8.4%
Manufactures
58.7%
Total:   US$1.3 billion Total:   US$1.8 billionChemicals
45.9%Beet/cane sugars 
(SITC 0611)
15.4%Textiles & 
clothing 
8.5%
Mining
2.1%Agricultural raw 
material
7.4%
Other 
agriculture
9.7%Other semi-
manufactures
2.3%Machinery & 
transport 
equip.
4.3%
 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on da ta provided by the authorities (SITC Rev.3) WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 Chart 1.2 Direction of merchandise trade, 2008 and 2013 
2008 2013
(a)    Exports including re-exports (f.o.b.)
EU (28)
12.3%Asia 3.4%
United 
States
3.0%
South Africa
62.6%Mozambique
4.1%
Other Africa
14.1%
Middle East
0.4%
Africa
80.8%Other 0.2%
Total:   US$1.4 billion Total:  US$1.9 billion
(b)    Imports (c.i.f.)
Other 1.0%
EU (28)
1.3%Other Africa 
0.5%
Africa
94.2%
South Africa
93.7%Asia 3.4%
Other 
1.1%
EU (28)
1.6%Other Africa 
1.7%
South Africa
88.6%Asia 6.9%
Africa
90.3%
Total:   US$1.3 billion Total:   US$1.8 billionEU (28)
5.1%Asia
4.5%
United States
6.3%
South Africa
67.1%Mozambique
4.8%
Other Africa
9.5%
Middle East
2.4%
Africa
81.5%Other 0.2%
 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities. 
 WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  2  TRADE AND INVESTMENT REGIMES 
2.1  General 2.1.  Swaziland is an absolute monarchy, where a modern and a traditional state co-exist. The 
King is head of state and holds executive, legisl ative and judicial powers, but no longer rules by 
decree. The modern state, based on the Cons titution of 2006, consists of a democratic 
parliamentary system with separation of powers  between the executive, legislature (bicameral) 
and judiciary. The Constitution does not recognize political parties. Election of the members of the 
House of Assembly is done through a non-party traditional system (Tinkhundla). The King directly 
appoints 10 of the 65 representatives to the House and 20 of the 31 members of the Senate.
1  
2.2.  Swaziland's trade policy is mainly formulated within the framework of the Southern African 
Customs Union (SACU). The country also participates in the Common Monetary Area (CMA) 
(Main Report, Section 2). The economy of Swaziland is closely linked to South Africa, its main 
trading and investment partner. Developments in its neighbour, therefore, have a significant impact on Swaziland's trade and overall economic performance.  
2.3.  The Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Trade (MCIT) is the main government agency 
responsible for trade and industrial policies. The International Trade Department (ITD) of the MCIT 
is at the forefront of trade negotiations and export promotion. It is the focal point for Swaziland's 
regional and multilateral trade relations and for the provision of support services to exporters. 
Other government bodies also involved in diffe rent aspects of trade policy formulation and 
implementation include: the Ministries of Ag riculture; Finance; Economic Planning and 
Development; Foreign Affairs; and Tourism and Environmental Affairs; the Revenue Authority; the 
Central Bank and a number of public enterprises such as the National Agricultural Marketing 
Board, the Dairy Board and the National Maize Corporation.  
2.4.  The main private sector umbrella organizati on is the Federation of Swaziland Employers and 
Chamber of Commerce (FSE&CC). It works on a wide  range of issues of interest to the private 
sector and seeks to build partnerships with the Government in development matters. Through FSE&CC the private sector is represented in a number of national working committees, including 
the National Trade Negotiations Team (NTNT). Among other organizations representing the private 
sector are the Chamber of Commerce and the Fe deration of the Swazi Business Community. In 
2011, Cabinet approved the Swaziland Trade Consultative Forum to provide a consultative platform where Swaziland's national interests,  negotiating positions and trade negotiating 
strategies are deliberated among a range of stakeh olders, including government and private sector 
representatives. The authorities indicated that the Fo rum has not been very active in recent years.  
2.5.  Although Swaziland is heavily dependent on trade, it does not have a comprehensive foreign 
trade policy document, rather trade-related po licy objectives are scattered among various 
documents. The National Development Strategy (NDS ) recognizes the role of trade and investment 
towards the achievement of the long-term national  development goals, and identifies strategies 
such as improving the business environment, investment promotion and economic diversification 
for the achievement of said goals. In the area of trade, the NDS recommends the formulation of 
import and export policies for agro-based and agricultural products that ensure a safe balance between domestic supply and demand, and the deve lopment of export opportunities, particularly 
in the Southern African region.
2 A National Export Strategy (NES), formulated in 2007, set specific 
objectives to improve export performance, but was never implemented; the authorities intend to review it.  
2.6.  The MCIT is currently working on a new Industrial and Trade Policy 2015-22. The document, 
still in draft form, sets out a number of trade policy objectives, including to: increase the contribution of exports to GDP by harnessing co mparative advantage in priority sectors; expand 
and diversify the export base through enhanced value-addition in non-traditional sectors; 
strengthen relationships with existing export mark ets to take full advantage of trade preferences; 
explore new markets in the context of ongoing regional integration initiatives (i.e. COMESA/EAC/SADC Tripartite FTA, African Union, and SACU); secure Swaziland's interests in trade 
                                               
1 African Development Bank (2013).  
2 The NDS elaborates the vision of the country over a 25-year horizon (1998 to 2022). It can be found 
at: www.tralac.org/files/2012/12/The-National-Development-Strategy.pdf . WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 373 - 
 
  negotiations; promote exports through branding and improved product quality; improve trade 
facilitation; play an effective role in SACU trade and tariff policy processes; and introduce technological innovation to enhance export competitiveness. The Policy is being considered by stakeholders and is expected to be submi tted to Cabinet in the second half of 2015. 
2.7.  Since its last Trade Policy Review in 2009, the Government has made some efforts to 
improve the trade and investment environment in th e form of new or updated legislation in several 
sectors, such as: electricity, taxation/customs, sanitary measures and food safety, government 
procurement, competition policy, telecommunications, financial services and air transport. Other 
pieces of legislation have been drafted but have not yet been approved or have not entered into 
force, such as the Copyright and Neighbouring Ri ghts Bill of 2009 and the Plant Health Protection 
Act of 2013. Some of the main trade-related laws enacted or that entered into force since the last 
Review are captured in Table 2.1. 
Table 2.1 Selected trade-related laws enacted since 2007  
Area Name of legislation and date 
Electricity 
 Electricity Act 2007  
Swaziland Electricity Company Act 2007 
Taxation/Customs 
 Value Added Tax Act 2011 
Value Added Tax Amendment of Schedules 2012 
Business Companies Act 2009 
Sanitary measures and food safety  Veterinary Public Health Act No. 17, 2013 
Plant Health Protection Act 2013 
Competition policy Competition Commission Act 2007 
Competition Regulation Act 2010 
Government procurement Procurement Act 2011 
Communications Electronic Communications Act 2013  
Communications Commission Act No. 10, 2013 
Financial Sector Financial Services Regulatory Act No. 2, 2010  
Securities Act 2010 
Air transport Civil Aviation Authority Act of 2009 
Source: WTO with informatio n from Swazi authorities. 
2.2  Trade Agreements 
2.2.1  WTO 2.8.  Swaziland is an original Member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Human resources 
and financial constraints, however, have prevented it from fully participating in the organization. 
Likewise, the country's implementation of some WTO agreements (e.g. the TRIPS Agreement) is 
limited due to the lack of technical capacity and resources. Swaziland's Permanent Mission in 
Geneva is understaffed and not in a position to adequately cover all the activities taking place in 
the WTO.  
2.9.  Up-to-date compliance with the various WTO notification obligations remains a challenge for 
Swaziland. As at March 2015, there were quite a number of notifications outstanding according to 
the WTO Central Registry of Notifications. During the review period, Swaziland did manage to meet 
some of its notification obligations in the areas of agriculture, SPS, subsidies and countervailing measures, and regional trade agreements. Table 2.2 shows the country's notifications between 
2008 and 2015. 
2.10.  Swaziland has never been directly involved as a party to a dispute in the WTO, but it did 
participate as a third party in three related cases brought by Australia (2002), Brazil (2002) and 
Thailand (2003) against export subsidies on suga r provided by the European Union (at the time 
European Communities) in the framework of its Co mmon Organization of the Market for the Sugar 
Sector.
3  
2.11.  Swaziland has continued to receive trade-re lated technical assistance (TA) from the WTO, 
other international organizations and donor partners. A large part of this assistance has come from 
                                               
3 EU - Export Subsidies on Sugar (D265); EU - Expo rt Subsidies on Sugar (DS266); and EU - Export 
Subsidies on Sugar (DS283). WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  the WTO, where, as a developing country member, Swaziland has benefited from numerous 
national or regional TA programmes. Government officials and other national stakeholders have received capacity building in areas such as agricu lture, NAMA, TRIPS, Trade Facilitation, TBT, SPS, 
Trade Negotiations Skills and Trade in Services. Institutional capacity-building and infrastructural 
support have also been received from the World Bank and the African Development Bank. 
Table 2.2 Notifications by Swaziland 2008–April 2015  
Agreement Area of notification Date of 
circulation Notification symbol 
Agriculture Export subsidy commitments 16 October 2012 G/AG/N/SWZ/1 
Sanitary and Phytosanitary 
Measures Import permits on bees and 
bee products 
 
Veterinary Public Health Bill 
2010 
 
Correction of item 12 of 
G/SPS/N/SWZ/2 
 27 July 2009 
 
 
20 December 2011 
 
 
10 January 2012 G/SPS/N/SWZ/1 
 
 
G/SPS/N/SWZ/2 
 
 
G/SPS/N/SWZ/2/corr.1 
 
Subsidies and 
Countervailing Measures 
(ASCM) Semi-annual report of 
countervailing measures  
 
Semi-annual report of  countervailing measures  Subsidies   Semi-annual report of countervailing measures 5 January 2011 
 
 
29 June 2011   16 October 2012  20 December 2012 G/SCM/N/219 
 
 
G/SCM/N/228   G/SCM/N/155/SWZ G/SCM/N/186/SWZ G/SCM/N/220/SWZ  G/SCM/N/250/SWZ 
Technical Barriers to Trade Motor vehicles 16 April 2012 G/TBT/N/SWZ/1 
Article XXIV of GATT 1994 Agreement between SACU 
States and EFTA States 3 November 2008 WT/REG256/N/1 
Source: Elaborated by the WTO Secretariat on  the basis of Swaziland's notifications. 
2.12.  Swaziland lacks the capacity to adequa tely implement the WTO Agreements. One of the 
most serious implementation challenges is the protection of intellectual property rights, which is inadequate at the moment, as national laws are either weak or too old. It is however worth noting 
that the Government has started the drafting of some laws in this area (section 3.3.5). 
2.13.  Like other developing countries, Swaziland  needs technical assistance to address a number 
of supply-side constraints with a view to divers ifying its economy and improving competitiveness. 
These constraints and measures to overcome them have been identified in several documents, 
including the Investor Road Map of 2005
4 (re-launched in 2012)5, the National Export Strategy 
(2006-09), the Private Sector Development Strategy (2011)6, and the Swaziland Economic 
Diversification Study (EDS) 2013.7 
2.2.2  Bilateral 
2.14.  By virtue of its SACU membership, Swazilan d shall not negotiate on its own any preferential 
trade agreements with third territories or regi ons. Since the advent of the SACU Agreement in 
2002, the customs union has approached all trade negotiations as a bloc (Main Report, Section 2). 
This allows Swaziland to realize savings in scarce negotiating resources. 
                                               
4 USAID online information. Viewed at: http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadw920.pdf . 
5 Trademark Southern Africa on line information. Viewed at: 
http://www.trademarksa.org/print/news/key-objectives-investor-road-map-2012-trading-across-borders . 
6 Trademark Southern Africa online information. Viewed at 
http://www.trademarksa.org/news/swaziland s-private-sector-development-strategy .  
7 DNA Economics (2013), Swaziland Economic Diversification Study , Final Report, Pretoria. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  2.2.3  Regional 
2.15.  Swaziland enjoys significant preferential market access in the Southern African region under 
several economic integration arrangements. Like the other members of SACU, Swaziland is a part of the Southern African Development Comm unity (SADC) (Main Report, Section 2). 
2.16.  Swaziland is also part of the Common Ma rket for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
8, 
where it enjoys unilateral preferential market access. COMESA's ultimate objective is to create a fully integrated, internationally competitive and unified single economic space, within which goods, 
services, capital and labour are able to move freely across national frontiers.
9 This is to be 
achieved through gradual stages: the creation of a free trade area, the establishment of a customs 
union, the free movement of capital and labour within a common market, and the eventual establishment of a monetary union. The COMESA free trade area was launched in 2000, and the 
customs union was launched in 2009. Intra-COMESA exports amounted to US$9.9 billion in 2013, 
while imports totalled US$10.9 billion.
10 
2.17.  Swaziland cannot participate in the COMESA Customs Union since it is already a member of 
SACU. Therefore, the Treaty establishing COME SA grants Swaziland a derogation from the 
application of some of its provisions and allows it to benefit from unilateral trade preferences from COMESA members without having to reciprocate.
11 On the other hand, under the SACU 
Agreement, Swaziland can only grant preferen tial treatment to COMESA members with the 
concurrence of its SACU partners. In the absence of such concurrence, Swaziland's COMESA derogation has been extended on several occasions, and will continue to apply until the COMESA/EAC/SADC Tripartite FTA is concluded.
12  
2.18.  Through SACU, Swaziland has trade agreements with: the members of the European Free 
Trade Area (EFTA); MERCOSUR; and the Trad e and Investment Development Cooperation 
Agreement (TIDCA) with the United States. Swaziland participates in the negotiations towards a 
Tripartite Free Trade Area between COMESA, th e East African Community (EAC) and SADC (Main 
Report, Section 2).  
2.2.4  Other preferential arrangements 
2.19.  Swaziland, as part of the SADC group, has negotiated an Economic Partnership Agreement 
(EPA) with the European Union (Main Report, Section 2). Swaziland's exports to the EU are dominated by sugar and beef. The EU preferential  regime for sugar exports has been subject to 
considerable changes in recent years, increasing  competition for Swazi exports (section 4.1.3). 
2.20.  Swaziland enjoyed preferential market acce ss under the United States unilateral preferential 
scheme known as the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), since its inception in 2001 until 2014. Swazi exports of textile and apparel (mainly knit and woven) were the items that most 
benefited from AGOA preferences. However, Sw aziland was removed from the list of AGOA 
beneficiary countries as of 1 Janua ry 2015 for failing to meet eligibi lity criteria regarding workers' 
rights.
13 This move is expected to have a significant impact on Swaziland's garment industry, 
which is primarily oriented to the U.S. market.  
2.3  Investment Framework  2.21.  The Government of Swaziland views foreign investment as an important vehicle to spur 
economic growth, gain access to export markets,  and improve the country's competitiveness. The 
                                               
8 COMESA is made up of 19 member States: Burundi,  Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 
Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Seyc helles, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Sudan, 
Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. 
9 COMESA online information. Viewed at: 
http://programmes.comesa.int/index.php?optio n=com_content&view=article&id=83&Itemid=106 . 
10 COMESA online information. Viewed at: 
http://comstat.comesa.int/Docu ments/COMESA%20at%20a%20glance.pdf . 
11 Under COMESA, Swaziland benefits from trade pref erences for its exports of sugar to Kenya and 
Uganda; fridges and freezers to Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe; and zippers to Mauritius and Madagascar. 
12 COMESA Council Decision 2010. 
13 USTR online information. Viewed at: https://us tr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/press-
releases/2014/June/President-Obama-removes-Swazi land-reinstates-Madagascar-for-AGOA-Benefits. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 376 - 
 
  2006 Constitution encourages foreign investment within the confines of national laws. The 
Swaziland Investment Promotion Act of 1998, which remains the main legal framework for attracting investment, grants local and foreign investors equal treatment and protects investments from undue expropriation.  
2.22.  The Swaziland Investment Promotion Author ity (SIPA) is responsible for formulating and 
implementing schemes to attract foreign and local investment and aims to become a single-window service to assist investors. Incentives available to all investors alike include: a 
concessional corporate tax rate of 10% (instead of 27.5%) and a 10-year exemption from 
withholding tax on dividends; exemption of import duty for capital goods for new investors; duty-free import of raw materials for manufacturing goods to be exported outside SACU; accelerated depreciation; a rebate of 150% of work ers' training costs written off against taxes; 
repatriation of profits; provision of factory shells with subsidized rent and fully-serviced industrial 
estates (section 3.3.1).  
2.23.  Government approval is required for fore ign investments. Most economic sectors are open 
to foreign investment, without limitations on the percentage of capital owned by foreigners. 
However, public utilities are restricted to foreign investment participation, and there is a 50% cap on foreign investment shareholding in mining activities. In addition, the Constitution forbids 
foreign ownership of land, although for projects where land is a significant factor, foreign investors 
may be allowed to acquire title to land subject to approval by the Land Board. Foreign investors are also required to hire local workers wherev er possible. All foreign nationals working in 
Swaziland must have residence and work permits; the process for obtaining them can be 
burdensome and lengthy.  
2.24.  During the review period, the Government continued its efforts to improve the investment 
environment and Swaziland's ranking in the glob al indices on the ease of doing business and 
competitiveness.
14 A Foreign Private Capital and Investor Perception Survey was launched for the 
first time in February 2010 by multiple govern ment agencies. An Investors Road Map (IRM), 
originally issued in 2005, was re-launched by King Mswati III in 2012 to address procedural and 
regulatory impediments to investment.15 Specifically, the IRM aims to improve the efficiency and 
expedience of trade across borders; simplify procedures and shorten the time required to register a company and obtain work permits; strengthen the legal protection for investments; increase transparency of labour inspections; and improve SME's access to finance. A taskforce made up of 
high-level government officers was created to monitor progress on reforms and report regularly to 
Cabinet. Implementation of the IRM is progressing, albeit slowly and improvements have not kept pace with other countries in the region.  
2.25.  The World Bank's Ease of Doing Business 2015 index ranked Swaziland 110 out of 
189 economies; up only one place from the previous year, and the second lowest among SACU countries. Starting a business in Swaziland requires 30 days and 12 procedures, which ranks 
the country in the 145
th position (146 in 2014), behind all other SACU members. Low rankings 
indicate that there is still much work to do in other areas such as contract enforcement, which can take up to 956 days and require 40 lengthy procedures (ranking 173); getting electricity (140); and trading across borders (127).
16  
2.26.  The Global Competitiveness Report 2014/ 15 ranked Swaziland 123 out of 144 economies. 
That meant an advancement of 12 places from two years earlier, which was mainly due to improvements in the macroeconomic environment.
17 Nonetheless, Swaziland ranked lower than its 
SACU partners, all of which made it to the top ten in the Sub-Saharan Africa region.18  
 2.27.  Swaziland does not have any free trade zones, but it has several industrial estates 
(section 3.3.1).  
                                               
14 Ministry of Economic Planning and Development (2014), National Development Plan 2014/15-
2016/17 , Swaziland: Africa's New Promise , Mbabane, March. Document pr ovided by the authorities. 
15 IRM (2005). 
16 World Bank online information. Viewed at: http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings . 
17 World Economic Forum online information. Viewed at: http://reports.weforum.org/global-
competitiveness-report-2014-2015/economies/#economy=SWZ . 
18 Global rankings: South Africa (56), Botswana (74), Namibia (88), and Lesotho (107). World Economic 
Forum online information. Viewed at http://www3.weforum.org/d ocs/img/WEF_GCR2014-
15_SubSahara_Image.png . WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  2.28.  Swaziland is a member of the Multilatera l Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) of the 
World Bank and the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). 
2.29.  Swaziland has signed double taxation agr eements with some African countries, including 
Botswana, Mauritius and South Africa, and with two European countries, namely Sweden and the 
United Kingdom. Most of these agreements cover income and capital.  
2.30.  Swaziland has concluded bilateral investment treaties with Egypt, Mauritius, Chinese Taipei, 
Germany and the United Kingdom. However, only the last two have entered into force. In addition, 
Swaziland has entered into ten International Inve stment Agreements (IIAs) between groups of 
countries.19  
 
                                               
19 These IIAs are: the EU-SADC Interim Agreement; the COMESA Investment Agreement; the SACU-US 
TIFA; the SADC Investment Protocol; the EFTA-SACU FTA; the COMESA-US TIFA; the Cotonou Agreement; the COMESA Treaty, the SADC Treaty and the African Union Treaty . All have entered into force except the first two. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  3  TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICES BY MEASURE 
3.1  Measures Directly Affecting Imports  3.1.1  Registration, documentation and customs procedures 3.1.  In order to operate in Swaziland, all bu sinesses must be registered and licensed by the 
Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Trade (MCIT) under the Trading Licences Order No. 20 of 
1975 and the Trading Licences Amendment Act No. 9 of 2011 (the latter enables applications for trading licences to be advertised within three working days instead of 21 days).
1 Any individual or 
company engaged in importing and/or exporting go ods requires a trading licence. In addition, any 
person wishing to engage in importing, exporting or transiting certain controlled agricultural products ("scheduled agricultural products") must register with, and obtain a permit from, the National Agricultural Marketing Board under the NAMBOARD Act No. 13 of 1985 (section 3.1.3).  
3.2.  For customs clearance purposes, importers (a nd exporters) must register with the Swaziland 
Revenue Authority (SRA), established in 2011.
2 Customs clearance is mostly done through 
customs agents, who must be licensed by the SRA; although some companies rely on their own 
import-export units. Documentation required for custom clearance includes: the import declaration 
using the single administrative document (SAD 500) and supporting documents such as the bill of lading, invoice, road manifest and packaging list. In some instances, certificates of origin, import 
permits, and SPS certificates may also be required.  
3.3.  Goods may be cleared within seven days of the date of importation under one of four 
customs procedures: home use, temporary admission, transit or warehousing (in this case, they will remain stored in bond until the importer enters them for home use or re-export). These 
procedures are governed by the Swaziland Custom s and Excise Act and the Customs Regulations. 
3.4.  Goods imported into Swaziland from outside SACU are liable to import duty and, for some 
types of goods, also excise duty. Value added tax (VAT) is payable on all imports, including from 
SACU. Given Swaziland's condition as a landlocked country, most of its overseas imports arrive via 
the port of Durban (South Africa) and from ther e are transported by road or rail to Swaziland.
3 An 
alternative route for Swazi imports is through the port of Maputo (Mozambique), which is closer 
than Durban, but road infrastructure is suboptimal.4 In addition, Swaziland has an inland dry port 
at the Matsapha Industrial Estate, where customs clearance can be conducted.  
3.5.  Imports into Swaziland from other SACU countries are cleared for VAT collection purposes at 
land borders, the international airport, the parcel post, or the railway station. No import duties 
apply on these goods. 
3.6.  Since the last Review, Swaziland has made progress towards customs automation by 
completing the roll out of ASYCUDA++ in 2009. Im porters (and exporters) are required to lodge 
customs declarations electronically through ASYCUDA++. The function of capturing data has been 
outsourced to a private company, which charges a fee of E 35.00 per each declaration. Customs data may be captured at the border post, airport or any of the Customs Clearance Offices. 
Alternatively, since 2011, data may be lodged by remote connection at the trader's own premises 
through the so-called Direct Trader Input (DTI). In order to use the DTI, traders must register with ASYCUDA (tax clearance certificate, trading licence and contact details are required). However, 
                                               
1 Under the Trading Licences Order of 1975, an application is submitted to the MCIT, which places an 
advertisement in the media and sets a date for a hearing at which the applicant presents the Memorandum and 
Articles of Association, a bank statement, a tax cl earance certificate and othe r relevant documents. The 
advertising fee is E 50.00. The trade licence must be renewed annually. The renewal does not involve the advertisement and hearing. Food sellers are required to produce he alth certification. Requirements for 
obtaining different types of trading licences are found on the Ministry  of Commerce, Industry and Trade 
website at: http://www.gov.sz/index.php?option=com_content&id=378&Itemid=184 .  
2 The SRA was established with the introduction of the VAT system. It result s from the merger of the 
previous revenue services (Customs and Inland Revenue) and has a new or ganizational structure and powers.  
3 For imports transiting by road, a security bond must be lodged. This is not required for goods 
transported by rail given the very low likelihood that they would be diverted for use in the South African 
market. 
4 Maputo serves mainly as a transit port for Swazi  exports of sugar and iron ore. Swaziland owns a 
sugar warehouse at the Maputo port.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  businesses which have the new taxpayer identity number (TIN) for VAT may also use their TIN for 
customs purposes and do not need to register with ASYCUDA.  
3.7.  Swaziland is using an automated risk management system under ASYCUDA++ that covers 
the entire declaration-processing path, including ca rgo and transit. It uses sophisticated tools to 
select the examination procedures and allocate the declared goods to a control channel: green 
(release of goods without examination); yellow (d ocumentary checks prior to goods release); red 
(physical examination of goods prior to release); or blue (goods are released but subjected to a 
post-clearance audit). The system allows for periodic assessment of risk management processes in 
order to measure the effectiveness of selection criteria and change, extend or eliminate risk management parameters as needed. The authorities indicated that the information on the proportion of declarations going through each selection channel was not available. 
3.8.  According to a time release study conducted by the authorities in 2012, average processing 
times for exports and imports vary depending on the border post. The results pertaining to the three main border stations are presented in Table 3.1.  
Table 3.1 Average processing times at selected border posts, February 2012  
Border post Exports Imports 
Ngwenya 45 minutes 3 hours 30 minutes 
Lomahasha 1 hour 12 minutes 1 hour 50 minutes 
Lavumisa 1 hour 20 minutes 1 hour 5 minutes 
Source: SRA, Time Release Study Report , Swaziland, February 2012. Report provided by the authorities. 
3.9.  The World Bank Doing Business Report 2015 indicates that in Swaziland customs clearance 
and inspection for imports takes three days. Overall, import procedures take on average 23 days and represent a cost of US$2,245 per container; this ranks Swaziland 127 out of 189 economies as 
regards trading across borders.
5 Some of the frequent complaints voiced by the private sector 
regarding cross-border trade are: delays in service delivery, insufficient staff at the border, the duplication of documentation, the lack of a database to evaluate goods, and the lack of a fully 
automated declaration system linking Swaziland's borders.
6 
3.10.  Aggrieved importers/exporters may appeal  against customs decisions to the Commissioner 
General (CG) of the Swaziland Revenue Authority (SRA), and appeals against the SRA's decisions 
may be heard in the courts. Under Section 91 of the Customs and Excise Act, an importer or 
exporter can voluntarily choose to have a case dealt with administratively by the CG to avoid legal proceedings. This means, however, forgoing the ri ght to challenge the CG's decision in court.  
3.11.  Swaziland has been a member of the World Customs Organization (WCO) since 
15 May 1981, and it became a party to the Revised Kyoto Convention on 31 October 2012, when it 
deposited its instrument of accession.  
3.12.  During the period under review, Swazilan d undertook a number of reforms to facilitate 
trade. These include the modernization of customs procedures as a result of the establishment of 
the SRA (2011); the gradual implementation of an electronic data interchange system for customs at border posts; the decentralization and streamlining of the issuance of certificates of origin 
(2012); the extension of border operation times; th e upgrading of border posts; and initiatives to 
facilitate VAT payment across borders. A National Working Group on Trade Facilitation was established in 2008 to coordinate work relating to trade facilitation in the WTO; the group is composed of key government and private sector stakeholders. 
3.13.  Based on the findings of the time release study of 2012, the SRA established a prioritized 
action plan to modernize customs. One of the main ongoing projects is the migration from 
ASYCUDA++ to the more comprehensive and effici ent ASYCUDA World system, which will improve 
customs clearance and data collection. At the time of writing this report, migration was expected 
to take place in September 2015.  
                                               
5 World Bank (2014). 
6 Speech by Zodwa Mabuza, CEO of the Federation of Swaziland Employers and Chamber of Commerce, 
at the launch of the Swaziland-World Ba nk Time Release Study, 24 January 2012.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  3.14.  Another significant step is the implemen tation of a VAT refund administration scheme, 
whereby importers of goods into Swaziland from South Africa, who present a valid South African tax invoice at any designated commercial border post , do not have to pay for VAT in cash at entry 
into Swaziland, as the SRA will claim the VAT refund directly from the South African Revenue 
Service (SARS). The VAT refund system was successfully implemented on 1 April 2015 at 
six border posts.
7 It is expected to increase Swaziland's revenue, reduce waiting times at border 
crossings, and help alleviate traders' cash flow shortages. 
3.15.  The Swaziland Revenue Authority is also working on the establishment of a trade data 
exchange system with SARS, which should help reduce under-declaration by importers (and ghost exports), resulting in more revenue for Swaziland and less discrepancies in bilateral trade data. There is also a pilot project for a preferred trad er programme (PTP) that would grant preferential 
treatment to traders on the basis of their level of  customs compliance and the risk associated with 
their operations (Main Report, section 3.2). Other projects include work on reducing trade documentation and setting up a single window for trade, incorporating other agencies' processes, 
in particular the Ministry of Agriculture; the development of a trade portal; and provision of 
e-training for customs clearance agents.  
3.16.  Another objective of the customs modernization programme is redrafting customs legislation 
in order to bring customs control in line with  the recommendations of the WCO Revised Kyoto 
Convention and incorporate trade facilitation provisions. The redrafted legislation is based on the SACU models and will consist of two Acts: the Cust oms Control and Duty Act and the Excise Duty 
Act. The authorities could not indicate when the bills will be submitted to Parliament.  
3.17.  As of end-June 2015, Swaziland had not yet submitted to the WTO its Category A 
notifications under the new Trade Facilitation Agreement.  
3.18.  In 2007, Swaziland notified the WTO that it was implementing the WTO Customs Valuation 
Agreement under Part IX of its Customs and Excise Act No. 21 of 1971.
8 Customs valuation is 
among the trade measures that have been harmonized within SACU.  
3.1.2  Tariffs and other charges 
3.19.  SACU members have harmonized tariffs, excise duties, rules of origin, and contingency 
measures. Therefore, as a member of SACU, Swaziland applies the common external tariff (Main Report, section 3.3.1).  
3.20.  In the Uruguay Round, Swaziland bound 96.6% of its tariff lines at the same levels as those 
bound by South Africa. On around ten tariff line s, including both agricultural and manufactured 
products, the imposition of non- ad valorem  duties might result in applied MFN tariff rates that 
exceed bound rates (Main Report, Table 3.5). Swaziland also bound other duties and charges at 
zero, except for a few tariff lines bound at higher rates (Main Report, section 3.3.2).  
3.21.  A fee of E 35.00 per import declaration is  charged by a private company (contracted by 
SRA) for capturing customs data into the ASYCUDA++ system. 
3.22.   Under Article 26 of the SACU Agreement, Swaziland may temporarily levy additional duties 
on imported goods from any country for the protection of infant industries. Swaziland has exercised this right and applies import levies to a number of agricultural goods ("scheduled 
agricultural products") and milk and dairy products.  
3.23.  Under the National Agricultural Mark eting Board (NAMBOARD) Act No. 13 of 1985 (as 
amended) and the Regulation Notice No. 8 (amendments effective 1 June 2013), NAMBOARD collects levies on imports of scheduled agricultural products, such as maize, rice, wheat, and fruits 
and vegetables, poultry and turkey. The levy rates vary depending on the availability of products 
                                               
7 Lavumisa, Ngwenya, Mahamba, Matsamo, Mananga and Sandlane. 
8 WTO document G/VAL/N/1/SWZ/1, 25 April 2007. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  in the country, and range from 1% to 25% (Table 3.2).9 The levies are applied to all imports, 
including those from SACU member countries. 
Table 3.2 Import levies on sc heduled agricultural products  
Product category Applied levy 
(%) 
Maize excluding seed maize, yellow maize and popcorn   1 
Maize products excluding starch, processed poultry and animal feed   7.5 
Rice  3.5 
Fresh fruit excluding apples, pears,  peaches, grapes and bananas  7.5 
Apples, pears, peaches and grapes  3.5 
Bananas  10 
Fresh vegetables excluding cabbages, toma toes, potatoes, and seed potatoes  7.5 
Cabbages, tomatoes and potatoes  7.5 
Poultry and poultry products excluding turkey  15 
Wheat  3.5 
Wheaten products  5.5 
Turkey 25 
Edible oil from sunflower, groundnuts and cotton 24 
Source: NAMBOARD online information. Viewed at: http://namboard.co.sz/index.php/inspectorate/levies. 
3.24.  In accordance with the Dairy Act No. 28 of 1968 and Legal Notice No. 27 of 2011, the 
Swaziland Dairy Board (SDB) charges import levies on milk and dairy products at rates of 10% or 
12% of the invoice value (Table 3.3).  
3.25.  Under the Fuel Oil Levy Act of 1979, a fuel levy of E 0.70 per litre (and a fuel tax of E 2.20 
per litre) are charged on imports of petrol and diesel; part of the proceeds from the levy are used 
to finance the Motor Vehicle Accident Fund.  
Table 3.3 Import levies on milk and dairy products  
Products Import levy 
(% of the invoice value) 
Full cream milk UHT/Flavoured milk  10 
Low fat UHT 10 
Fresh full cream milk, low fat or skim milk 12 
Fermented milk/Emasi/Butter milk 12 
Fresh/Sour cream or UHT 10 
Yoghurt/Sip 10 
Margarine  10 
Honey  10 
Condensed milk 10 
Dessert/Ice cream/Mixtures 10 
Baby formulas 10 
Milk substitutes (e.g. Cremora) 10 
Full cream milk powder 10 
Skim milk powder/Dairy powder blends 10 
Whey/Buttermilk powder 10 
Cheese (Cheddar, Gouda or other) 10 
Butter  10 
Edible products of animal origin not elsewhere 
specified or included in the Tariff Book 10 
Source: Swaziland Dairy Board, Legal Notice No. 27 of 2011, SDB online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.dairyboard.co.sz/index176d.html?op tion=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=29 .  
3.26.  A key development since the last Review was the introduction in April 2012 of a value added 
tax (VAT) system in Swaziland, replacing the sales tax.10 The legal basis is the Value Added Tax 
Act No. 12 of 2011 and the Value Added Tax Regula tions of 2012. The VAT is levied on most 
products and services at a standard rate of 14%.  The zero rate applies to exports, certain food 
supplies, prescription drugs and medicines, and an imal feeds, and exemptions apply to passenger 
transport, education, financial, insurance and medical services.  
                                               
9 NAMBOARD online information. Viewed at: http ://namboard.co.sz/index.ph p/inspectorate/levies. 
10 Value Added Tax Act No. 12 of 2011 and Valued Added Tax Regulations of 2012.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  3.27.  The VAT applies to both local products an d imports at the same rates. For local products, 
the VAT is levied on the net selling price (plus excise duty, if applicable). For imports, VAT is levied on the sum of: the FOB value, the duties and taxe s paid or payable in Swaziland, the cost of 
transportation (i.e. freight, including Durban port  charges) and the cost of insurance from the FOB 
point to Swaziland. The SRA collects the VAT on imports at the port of entry. 
3.28.  The SACU Agreement provides for the applicat ion of harmonized excise duties on selected 
products (Main Report, Table A3.2) 
3.1.3  Import prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing 
3.29.  Swaziland prohibits the importation of ce rtain products on security, safety and health 
grounds or to comply with international conventions. Prohibited products are: drugs and narcotics; pornographic materials; pirated copyright goods; fake currency, bonds and coins; 
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) and chlorofluorocarbons containing HCFC.  
3.30.  Import restrictions apply on a number of products for safety, health and environmental 
reasons; and in some cases for infant industry pr otection. Under the Import Control Order of 1976, 
the Import Control Regulations of 1980 and Legal Notice No. 60 of 2000, the following products 
from outside the SACU customs union are subject to prior import permits: arms; drugs; mineral fuels; mineral oils; gold and other precious metals; specified agricultural products (wheat, wheat 
flour, dairy products, maize and rice); electrical appliances; automotive parts; used motor 
vehicles
11; used earthmoving equipment; used tyres and tyre castings; used clothing; used 
footwear; used textiles; and wild animal produc ts. The Ministry of Finance issues the import 
permits for the products listed above. Any person, company or non-commercial institution may 
apply for a permit. Applications and attendant documents are submitted to the principal Secretary 
of the Ministry of Finance12, and are examined by the Import Pe rmit Committee (IPC), chaired by 
the Ministry of Finance.13 Import permits are valid for one year and must not be transferred, 
negotiated, sold or used by any person other than the person named in the permit. 
3.31.  Imports of live animals and plants, meat and edible meat offal, honey, fertilizers, and other 
products of animal and plant origin are restricted on sanitary and phytosanitary grounds and 
require an import permit/certificate issued by the Ministry of Agriculture. Import permits for 
pharmaceutical products are issued by the Ministry of Health. 
3.32.  Under the SACU Agreement (Article 26), Swaziland used its right to protect its local 
industries for dairy products, vegetables, wheat flour and wheat during the review period. 
3.33.  Under NAMBOARD Act No. 13 of 1985 (as amended), NAMBOARD may control imports of 
"scheduled agricultural products" by setting quanti tative limits and/or by raising import levies. 
Currently, a number of agricultural goods are subj ect to import levies (section 3.1.2). These 
measures are determined taking into account the availability of local production and their main 
purpose is to protect local farmers and help develop agricultural production in Swaziland. 
3.34.  In addition, under the Dairy Act of 1968 and the Animal Diseases Act of 1965, the 
Swaziland Dairy Board (SDB) issues import permits (and charges levies) for all scheduled imported 
dairy products (section 3.1.2). The purpose of these measures is to protect human and animal 
health as well as the local dairy industry. These requirements are to be reviewed periodically to determine the stage of development of the nation al dairy industry as well as possible human and 
animal health risks. Where amendments are deem ed necessary, consultations are undertaken with 
the Dairy Industry Stakeholder Coordinating Commi ttee, comprising representatives of consumers, 
retailers, producers and government officials. The representatives are given 90 days to make 
submissions regarding possible changes to the re gulations. Importers who have been refused a 
permit may initiate an appeal process; this is initiated before the SDB permit office and may end up at a court of law.  
                                               
11 Except motor vehicles older than 15 ye ars, whose importation is prohibited. 
12 Requirements and conditions for application can be found at the Ministry of Finance's website. Viewed 
at: http://www.gov.sz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=327&Itemid=31 .  
13 The IPC also comprises representatives of the International Trade Department, the Customs and Tax 
Department of the SRA, the Department of Commerce (Licensing), and the Central Bank (Foreign Exchange 
Department).  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  3.1.4  Anti-dumping, counterva iling, and safeguard measures 
3.35.  Swaziland has no legislation on trade remedies. As part of the SACU Customs Union, 
Swaziland applies the anti-dumping, countervailing or safeguard measures imposed by South Africa on the basis of investigations carried out by the International Trade Administration 
Commission (ITAC) of South Africa (Main Report, section 3.3.7). 
3.1.5  Standards and other technical requirements 3.36.  The Swaziland Standards Authority (SW ASA), established in 2007 as mandated by the 
Quality and Standards Act (2003), is a statutory body under the Ministry of Commerce, Industry 
and Trade (MCIT). SWASA is responsible for developing, publishing and monitoring the implementation of standards, performing confor mity assessments, providing testing facilities and 
obtaining affiliation to relevant international bodies. It is governed by a ten-member Council, 
comprising representatives from the Government and the private sector.
14 
3.37.  SWASA's precursor, the Standardization and Quality Assurance Section in the MCIT, was 
restructured in 2011 and renamed the Regulatory and Quality Infrastructure Development Section. 
Its task is to develop, maintain and review the legal and institutional framework for 
standardization, quality assurance, accreditat ion, metrology and technical regulations in 
accordance with the National Regulatory and Qu ality Policy (2010) and its 2013 Implementation 
Plan. Under the Metrology Act of 1991, the Weights and Measures (Legal Metrology) Department in 
the MCIT is mandated to supervise and control metrology in trade and provide metrological industry support services to ensure equitable and uniform trade dealings conducted on the basis of 
measurement and the promotion of standardized units. 
3.38.  Swaziland notified the WTO's Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) of its 
acceptance of the Code of Good Practice in October 2008.
15 SWASA serves as the national enquiry 
point under the TBT Agreement.16  
3.39.  Swaziland is a correspondent member of th e International Organization for Standardization 
(ISO), of which it expects to obtain full membership in the near future. It is an affiliate member of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and a full member of the African Organisation 
for Standardisation (ARSO). SWASA also partic ipates in the SADC programme on standards, 
quality assurance, accreditation and metrology (SQAM), whose goal is to harmonize member countries' standards and technical regulations. Additionally, it has a memorandum of understanding with the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS). 
3.40.  SWASA promotes and coordinates the deve lopment of national standards. Interested 
producers, consumers and government agencies may submit proposals for new standards to SWASA. A standards advisory committee selects a proposal to be developed and directs it to the 
relevant technical committee. Currently, there ar e 46 technical committees for different economic 
sectors
17, with over 200 members, including a range of public and private sector representatives 
(local authorities, industry, trade, consumers, ac ademia and civil society). Once a standard project 
has been drafted and agreed on by the technical committee, SWASA publishes it for public 
comment during a period of 60 days. The feedback from the public enquiry is considered by the 
technical committee and the final text is subm itted to the SWASA Council for approval. Once 
approved, the new standard is adopted and pub lished in the Swaziland Government Gazette.  
3.41.  Since its inception in 2007, SWASA has adopted some 160 national standards, and another 
100 are in the pipeline. All standards are voluntary. However, Section 17 of the SWASA Act permits the Minister of Commerce, Industry and Tr ade to declare a standard compulsory whenever 
                                               
14 The Council comprises representatives of the Ministries of Commerce, Industry and Trade; 
Agriculture; Natural Resources and Energy; and Fina nce, and private-sector representatives from the 
Federation of Swaziland Employers, the Chamber of Commerce, and the University of Swaziland. 
15 WTO document G/TBT/CS/N/174, 23 October 2008. 
16 The Quality Assurance Unit of the Ministry of Enterprise  and Employment is listed as the national 
enquiry point in WTO document G/TBT/ENQ. The Swazi authorities need to notify this change. 
17 Sectors include: general services, food and agricu lture, health and safety, information technology, 
environment, electrical and mechanical engineering, building and construction ma terials, and chemicals and 
textiles. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 384 - 
 
  it becomes necessary; so far none have been declared compulsory. According to the authorities, 
this is due to the lack of funds for undertaking regulatory impact assessment and compliance monitoring. Given that Swaziland did not have any national standards previously, SWASA has been using standards from neighbouring national bodies (especially the South African Bureau of 
Standards), regional bodies, and international bodies as a reference in the elaboration of local 
standards. A list of Swazi national standards can be found on SWASA's website.
18 Swaziland has 
made one notification to the TBT Committee relating to requirements for examination and testing 
of vehicles used on public roads.19 
3.42.  SWASA's conformity assessment and certific ation functions are still under development and 
face significant challenges, including the lack of infrastructure for inspection and testing facilities, insufficient financial resources, and the shortage of trained personnel. SWASA's Quality Assurance 
Department will be in charge of carrying out qua lity testing and certification. Established in 2009, 
the Department is Swaziland's first certification body. In March 2012, it launched three certification marks.
20 However, it has not been internationally  accredited yet. SWASA relies on the South 
African Bureau of Standards (SABS) for conformity assessment and on the South African National 
Accreditation System (SANAS). Nonetheless, Swaziland has not concluded any mutual recognition arrangements (MRAs) in the TBT area. 
3.43.  Currently, Swaziland has three accredited testing laboratories, and there are plans to 
establish five additional laboratories for electronics, chemistry, microbiology, materials and metrology. The authorities have indicated that the Quality and Standards Act (2003) is being reviewed, and that one possible outcome might be that the functions of accreditation and 
enforcement of technical regulations be removed from SWASA's competence. The Metrology Act is 
also under review to separate the components of industrial, scientific and legal metrology.  
3.44.  Labelling and marking for industrial and pharmaceutical imports must be done in English. 
Labelling and pre-packaging regulations are being reviewed in order to harmonize them with SADC 
recommendations.  
3.1.6  Sanitary and phytosanitary requirements (SPS) 
3.45.  The office of the Principal Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for overall 
policy and the implementation of SPS measures; it is the national notification authority for the purposes of the WTO Agreement on SPS.
21 Animal health matters are handled by the Department 
of Veterinary and Livestock Services, and plant health issues are the responsibility of the 
Department of Agricultural Research and Spec ialist Services, both under the Ministry of 
Agriculture. These two departments have been notified as enquiry points to the WTO.22 Food 
safety issues are dealt with by the Department of Environmental Health in the Ministry of Health, 
although the other two departments are also involv ed. According to the authorities, each of these 
departments develops relevant SPS measures based on international standards in consultation with local stakeholders.  
3.46.  Swaziland has a mutual recognition arrangement on SPS issues  with South Africa.   
3.47.  Imports of live animals and plants, meat and edible meat offal, honey, and other products 
of animal and plant origin are restricted on SPS grounds and require an import permit (i.e. an SPS certificate) issued by the Ministry of Agriculture through the corresponding department.  
3.48.  Overall, Swaziland has submitted two SPS notifications to the WTO: one was an emergency 
measure concerning bees, honey and honey products
23; the other provided for a 60-day period for 
Members' comments on the Veterinary Public  Health Bill 2010 concerning food safety.24 
                                               
18 SWASA online information. Viewed at: 
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/b28566ce16d66474920d30b e0/files/National_Standards_Catalogue_opt.pdf . 
19 WTO document G/TBT/N/SWZ/1, 16 April 2012. 
20 The Lihawu Mark (management system mark); and the quality marks Ligcebesha and Lijozi. 
21 WTO document G/SPS/NNA/8, as of 20 March 2015. 
22 WTO document G/SPS/ENQ/16, as of 20 March 2015. 
23 WTO document G/SPS/N/SWZ/1, 27 July 2009. 
24 WTO documents G/SPS/N/SWZ/2, 20 December 2011 and G/SPS/N/SWZ/2/Corr.1, 10 January 2012. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  3.49.  Animal health is primarily regulated by the Animal Disease Act No. 7 of 1965 (as amended) 
and its regulations. The Act sets out provisions for general animal disease control as well as for specified diseases. Control measures include moni toring and reporting of diseases, quarantine 
measures, notification procedures, importation of animals and animal products (food and 
non-food), and obligations for animal owners concerning disease prevention and control. The 
Livestock Identification Act No. 13 of 2001 provid es for the identification and traceability of 
livestock. The Regulation and Control of Veterinary Drugs and Medical Substances Act of 2012 
governs the importation, sale and use of veterinary drugs and medical substances.  
3.50.  The Veterinary Public Health Act No. 17 of  2013, which entered into force in January 2014, 
seeks to ensure that all food of animal origin released to the public is safe for human consumption. It applies to unprocessed and processed animal products for human consumption at the primary 
production stage, both of national origin and imported. The Act also provides for official inspections 
of slaughter facilities and food establishments, quality control requirements for locally produced and imported products as well as exports, and the certification of imports and exports. The Act 
establishes the Veterinary Public Health Unit under the Ministry of Agriculture, which after a 
three-year transition period will have the task of conducting inspections of slaughterhouses and 
establishments (now under the Ministry of Health).  
3.51.  All imports of live animal s and food and non-food products of animal origin require an 
import permit from the Veterinary Services Divi sion (VSD) of the Department of Veterinary and 
Livestock Services, as well as a health certificate from the country of origin.  
3.52.  The Veterinary Field Services Section of the VSD is responsible for issuing import permits 
and export certificates for live animals (except wildlife and cattle for immediate slaughter), 
handling government quarantine facilities and conduc ting inspections at designated ports of entry. 
Import permits for wild animals and cattle for immediate slaughter are issued by the Senior 
Veterinary Officer (at the headquarters of the Ve terinary Field Services Section). All imported 
livestock, except those brought for immediate slaughter, are subject to a quarantine period of 30 days and must be disembarked directly into the quarantine facilities.
25 Importers are required 
to notify the competent veterinary office before animals arrive in the country. Swaziland has been 
recognized by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) as a foot-and-mouth-disease-free country since May 2010. 
3.53.  The Veterinary Public Health Section of th e VSD regulates the import and export of raw and 
primary processed food of animal origin (meat, me at products, milk and milk products). Imports of 
these products are subject to an import permit on SPS grounds. Upon arrival, large import consignments of food products of animal origin are required to go directly to the Meat Hygiene 
Services (of the Veterinary Public Health Section) for product and document inspection. No 
inspection fees apply, but the importer must pay for the issuance of the import permit/SPS 
certificate. 
3.54.  Imports and exports of animals and products of animal origin must come through one of the 
ten designated commercial ports. Any consignments of animals or products of animal origin that arrive at a non-designated port of entry are turned back by customs officials. VSD officials stationed at ports of entry only carry out product and documentation inspection, since there are no 
testing facilities at ports of entry. For products requiring further testing and analysis, the VSD 
conducts the necessary tests at its laboratories in  Manzini and Matsapha. The Government is trying 
to build capacity to expand the number of ports of  entry with sanitary and phytosanitary services.  
3.55.  Phytosanitary measures remain regulated by the Seeds and Plants Varieties Act of 2000 
(and its 2002 Regulations) and the Plant Control Act No. 7 of 1981. A new development since the previous Review is the passing of the Plant Health  Protection Act 2013, yet to be published. The 
new Act is intended to align Swaziland's phyt osanitary regime with the International Plant 
Protection Convention (IPPC), to which the country has been a signatory since 2005. It establishes a new unit referred to as the National Plant Health Inspectorate Service. The 2013 Act will replace the Plant Control Act 1981, once it enters into force.  
3.56.  The Department of Agricultural Research and Specialist Services (through the Specialist 
Services Division) is responsible for the implementation of phytosanitary measures and related 
                                               
25 There are two main government quaran tine stations: Mpisi and Maphiveni. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  services, and for the conservation of Swaziland's plant genetic resources. Phytosanitary measures 
are published in the Government Gazette and updated as new diseases/pests are identified. 
3.57.  In order to prevent the introduction and spre ad of pests into Swaziland, all imports of plants 
and plant products require a permit or phytosanitary certificate. These products include live plants, 
seeds (cuttings, vines and other propagation ma terial), all kinds of grains, fresh fruit and 
vegetables, timber, wood packaging material, soil  and plant-based handcraft. However, plants 
from state-registered nurseries, fruit and vegetables (no more than 20 kg of citrus per person), 
cut flowers, wreaths and herbaceous pot plants  bought by individuals in South Africa for 
immediate use or consumption, and not for sale, do  not require an import permit or phytosanitary 
certificate. Imports of plant and plant products must enter Swaziland through designated commercial ports of entry. Procedures at points of entry consist of product and document 
inspection; no testing is carried out at border posts.  
3.58.  The Seeds and Plant Varieties Act of 2000 broadly outlines the requirements, procedures 
and practices of the seed value chain. Its regulati ons detail the procedures for engaging in any of 
the seed value chain activities as well as minimum standards for seed certification and testing. The 
Act designates the Seed Quality Control Services Section of the Ministry of Agriculture (located at the Malkerns Research Station) as the seed certification agency and testing station. The 
requirements for importation and exportation of seeds are set out in Part VII of the Seeds and 
Plant Varieties Act of 2000. Both importers and ex porters must register with the Registrar of 
Seeds. Any person intending to import seed into Swaziland must obtain a phytosanitary certificate from the Department of Agricultural Research and Specialists Services of the MOA; the seed must 
be of a variety entered in the Recommended Variet y List of the Seed Registrar and comply with 
prescribed requirements relating to seed, packaging materials, seals and labels. Any person wishing to export seed from Swaziland must apply for authorization from the Registrar, who may 
undertake inspection and testing of the seed as deemed necessary, before an export certificate 
can be issued.  
3.59.  The Seeds and Plant Varieties Act of 2000 prov ides for the recognition of certain varieties of 
plants. Accordingly, Swaziland has a list of recogniz ed seed and plant varieties. For a variety to be 
added to the list it must be distinct, uniform, stable, have value for cultivation and be tested by the Agricultural Research Station and then considered by the Variety Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture. The list includes certified crops such  as maize, beans, sorghum, groundnuts, tobacco, 
cotton and cowpeas. The list is currently being reviewed.  
3.60.  Swaziland is a member of the Convention on Biological Diversity and a party to the 
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, which entered into force for the country in April 2006. The 
Biosafety Act 2012 was passed into law by Swaziland's Parliament and received royal assent in 
December 2012. The draft regulations of the Bi osafety Act are currently awaiting approval. 
Imports of genetically modified organisms (GMO s) require an import permit issued by the 
Swaziland Environmental Authority.  
3.61.  Swaziland faces some important challenges regarding its SPS system, including the lack of 
accredited laboratory facilities, inadequate infras tructure and inspection services at the ports of 
entry, lack of extensive pest risk analysis, and staff that are inadequately trained to provide SPS 
information and extension services.
26  
3.2  Measures Directly Affecting Exports 3.2.1  Export procedures and requirements 
3.62.  Exporters are required to register with the Swaziland Revenue Authority (SRA). For customs 
clearance purposes, exporters must submit an export declaration (form SAD500) and supporting 
documents, including the exchange control form F 178 (provided by the exporter's bank indicating 
the value of the goods to be exported), invoice, road manifest, permits and certificates of origin. 
Customs declarations are made through the ASY CUDA++ system. Most exporters use customs 
clearance agents or freight forwarders who take care of the export logistics in South Africa, which include the deposit of a security bond covering goods in transit to Durban.  
                                               
26 SADC (2014).  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 387 - 
 
  3.63.  As in the case of imports, most exports from Swaziland are transhipped through the port of 
Durban (where they arrive by road); while sugar is usually exported through the port of Maputo. 
Export consignments may be inspected by Customs, in particular if there is a duty/tax refund or a discharge of security to be claimed after the go ods are exported. Following document processing 
and inspection of the goods, the transport unit is sealed by Customs and cleared for export. 
3.64.  There are no requirements on repatriation  or conversion of funds from export earnings. 
3.2.2  Export taxes, charges, and levies 
3.65.  On 30 September 2009, Swaziland removed the sugar export levy it used to impose on all 
net ex-mill export sales to the European Union under the Sugar Protocol, which itself ceased to operate on the same date. The levy was collecte d from millers and growers by the Swaziland 
Sugar Association (section 4.1).  
3.2.3  Export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing 
3.66.  Swaziland applies export prohibitions on products regulated by international conventions, 
such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 
(CITES). Export prohibitions may also be imposed in case of food shortages resulting from drought 
or other natural disasters, but the authorities have indicated that they are not applied in practice.  
3.2.4  Export support and promotion  
3.67.  Input materials imported into Swaziland to manufacture products for export outside the 
SACU area may be eligible for customs duty rebates subject to the conditions specified in the SACU Tariff Schedules for each industrial sector, commodity or usage; duty rebates may be full or partial. In addition, registered VAT vendors may claim a refund for VAT paid on imported inputs 
that are incorporated into an export product; refunds are normally given as duty credits.  
3.68.  Exports of goods (and services) are zero-rated for VAT purposes according to the Second 
Schedule of the VAT Act 2011.  
3.69.  The Textile and Clothing Industry Development Programme (TCIDP – DCCS), an export 
incentive programme under which exporters could earn tradable duty credit certificates equal to 25% of the value of their exports, was terminated on 31 March 2010. 
3.70.  Swaziland does not maintain export processing zones. 
3.71.  Until recently, the Trade Promotion Unit (T PU), within the Ministry of Commerce, Industry 
and Trade, served as the national focal point for export promotion. Its functions included primarily 
the identification of new export products and markets, promotion of Swazi products on world 
markets and financing the participation of local enterprises in international trade fairs (covering 
shipment costs and exhibition space). In April 2014,  the activities of the TPU were transferred to 
the Swaziland Investment Promotion Authority (SIPA), which is now in charge of all export 
promotion activities. SIPA is also responsible fo r hosting the Swaziland International Trade Fair 
(SITF), which aims to promote Swaziland's goods and services; develop links between Swazi and international businesses; provide local business exposure; and promote the development of SMEs. 
The SIFT takes place annually. 
3.2.5  Export finance, insurance, and guarantees 3.72.  The Export Credit Guarantee Scheme (E CGS) enables exporters, including those with 
inadequate collateral security, to obtain loans from commercial banks at concessionary interest 
rates in order to meet their capital requirements. The scheme is placed under the Central Bank of 
Swaziland, which guarantees the loans made by commercial banks. The ECGS covers both political and commercial risk.  
3.73.  To access the ECGS funds, exporters must be registered in Swaziland and submit complete 
project proposals to their bank, including all requ ired supporting documents such as export orders, 
a business plan, audited accounts and security/colla teral. The ECGS covers 70% of the FOB value WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 388 - 
 
  of the goods to be exported in the case of pr e-shipment, and 75% of the loan in the case of 
post-shipment. The maximum guarantee that the ECGS can issue to a single exporter is E 2.5 million (approximately US$210,000).
27 Interest is applied at the prime interest rate per year, 
and a premium charge and a filing fee are appl ied. The ECGS has not been used since 2009. 
Apparently, this is because the conditions of the scheme are quite onerous, SMEs' business 
proposals are not always viable, and they seldom participate in export trade; a disincentive from the point of view of banks is that margins are lower than with normal loans. 
3.3  Measures Affecting Production and Trade 
3.3.1  Incentives 3.74.  Several incentives schemes are available to national and foreign investments alike. The 
Swaziland Investment Promotion Authority (SIPA) is responsible for designing and implementing 
investment incentives. Investments in certain economic areas have been identified as crucial for 
development and are granted special tax conces sions. The incentives schemes include both 
financial and non-financial benefits (Table 3.4).  
3.75.  There are no performance requirements for establishing, maintaining or expanding an 
investment. Likewise, there are no technology transfer requirements or requirements on 
composition of ownership or equity.  
3.76.  The Industry Department of the MCIT provides support for local and foreign investors 
through provision of industrial sites and land allocation. The Department is responsible for the establishment, servicing and administration of industrial estates, by providing infrastructure such as access to water, sewer, road, electricity and telephone services. Currently, there are three 
industrial estates (Matsapha, Nhlangano and Ngwenya). Further, in accordance with the Crown 
Land Disposal Act 1910 and its Regulations 2003, the Department is charged with the allocation of fully-serviced industrial land to both domestic and foreign investors at concessionary rates. The 
Department is currently involved in the process of formulating an Industrial Policy which is 
expected to be adopted in the second part of 2015.  
Table 3.4 Swaziland: investment incentives  
Investment incentives 
Corporate tax concession - development approval order 
The Minister of Finance is empowered to issue a de velopment approval order to a new investment in 
manufacturing, mining, agribusiness, tourism or international financial services, which is considered crucial for the development of Swaziland. The approval order grants an investor a concessional corporate tax rate of 10% 
(the normal rate is 27.5%) for ten ye ars, and an exemption from withholdin g tax on dividends for ten years for 
non-resident shareholders.  
Duty-free imports and duty rebates 
The majority of capital goods are duty-free. Input ma terials may be imported under customs duty rebates 
subject to the conditions attached to each industrial sector, commodity or usage.  
Accelerated depreciation 
Special deductions are allowed in respect of new indust rial buildings and new plant and machinery brought into 
use in a manufacturing process or the hotel industry. Sp ecial deductions also apply in respect of second-hand 
machinery which has not been previously used in Swaziland and to leased plant and machinery.  
Provision of factory shells 
Provision of factory shells at competitive rates.  Generally, rent is not paid until the company starts operations 
and its amount depends on the location of the factory and the conditions negotiated with SIPA (the subsidy 
may vary between 25% and 40% of the market rate).  
Human resources training rebate 
Through approval by the Commissioner of Taxes, a rebate equivalent to 150% of training costs may be written off against tax liabilities. 
Unlimited loss carry forward 
A company may carry forward a loss incurred in the year of assessment and set it off against future assessable 
income. 
Export credit guarantee scheme 
Investors who manufacture/process for export markets can obtain funds from local banks to process their 
orders. The Central Bank of Swaziland gu arantees these loans (section 3.2.5).  
                                               
27 US$1=E 11.97 as at mid-April 2015. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 389 - 
 
  Investment incentives 
Five-year work and residence permits 
Permits are available for expatriate directors, seni or management and key technical personnel of new 
enterprises. 
Repatriation of profits 
Full repatriation of profits and dividends of enterprises operating in the country. Repatriation is also allowed for salaries of expatriates and capital repayments.  
Legal protection of investments 
Investments in Swaziland are protected from undue expropriation under the Swaziland Investment Promotion 
Act of 1998. In addition, Swaziland is a member of the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) of 
the World Bank which provides for a dded legal protection  of investments.  
Source: SIPA online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.sipa.org.sz/index2.php?opti on=com_content&task=view&id=25&pop=1. 
3.77.  Swaziland Industrial Development Corporation (SIDC), a joint venture formed between the 
Swazi Government and several international and local financial institutions28, supports incoming 
companies by financing equity participation, joint ventures, asset leasing, and providing factory 
shells. It provides assistance in project appraisal and identification of local or foreign joint venture 
partners. It also offers medium-term and long-term loans at competitive interest rates and leasing of factory buildings, mostly at the Matsapha Industrial Estate.  
3.78.  Financial support for SMEs is available through the Small Scale Enterprise Loan Guarantee 
Scheme, re-launched in December 2010 and administered by the Central Bank. The objective of the scheme is to enable SMEs (many of which have no access to credit due to lack of collateral) to obtain financing from commercial banks, by reducing the financial risk to be taken by these 
institutions. Eligible SMEs must have a business turnover of no more than E 8 million. The 
maximum credit to be granted to any SME is E 500,000. The scheme guarantees up to 95% of the credit for start-up businesses and 85% for existing businesses. Interest is charged at prime rate 
plus 2% to 5%, depending on the risk profile of th e applicant. A guarantee fee is charged at a rate 
of 1% per annum. The WTO Secretariat could not find information regarding the amount of credit guaranteed under this scheme during the period under review.  
3.3.2  Competition policy and price controls 
3.3.2.1  Competition policy 3.79.  Swaziland's competition policy legislation comprises the Competition Act 2007, the 
Competition Commission Regulations Notice 2010, and the Fair Trading Act 2001.  
3.80.  The Competition Act 2007 is aimed at preventing anti-competitive trade practices and 
regulating mergers and acquisitions with a view to fostering economic growth and enhancing consumer welfare. The Swaziland Competition Commission (SCC), set up in 2010, is an 
independent statutory body responsible for administrating and enforcing the Competition Act. 
According to the authorities, the Commission's enforcement actions remain inadequate due to a 
lack of financial and staff resources.  
3.81.  The SCC deals with complaints against anti-competitive trade practices
29 and regulates 
mergers and acquisitions. Carrying out anti-competitive trade practices is punishable with a fine and/or a prison sentence. The Act provides for a maximum prison term of 5 years and a fee of up to E 250,000 for failure to comply with directives.
30 Appeals against the Commission's decisions 
may be brought before the High Court.31 The authorities indicated that the Competition Act and its 
Regulations are to be amended in 2015 in order to, inter alia , improve the powers of the 
Commission in imposing administrative fines for anti-competitive trade practices and harmonize 
domestic law with regional legislation such as the COMESA Competition Regulations.  
                                               
28 Participants in SIDC: Govern ment of Kingdom of Swaziland 34.9%, German Investment and 
Development Company (DEG) 22.1%, International Finance Corporation (IFC) 13.7%, Commonwealth 
Development Corporation (CDC) 10.9%, Netherlands Development Finance Company (FMO) 10.2%, French Development Finance Institution (PROPARCO) 5%, Stan dard Bank of Swaziland 1.6%, Nedbank (Swaziland) 
Limited 1.6%. 
29 Anti-competitive trade practices are listed in Sections 31 and 32 of the Competition Act 2007. 
30 Competition Act 2007, Section 42.  
31 Competition Act 2007, Section 40.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  3.82.  The SCC may start an investigation in relati on to anti-competitive trade practices on its own 
initiative or on receipt of a complaint. Complaints may be filed on the SCC's website free of charge.
32 T h e  r e s p o n d e n t  c o m p a n y  i s  n o t i f i e d  o f  t h e commencement of an investigation by the 
SCC, which may also issue a press statement. During the investigation, the SCC may hold 
consultations with the parties to try to reach a settlement agreement. Investigations must be 
terminated within a 90-day period, which may be extended for a maximum of 60 days, if the SCC 
determines the initial timeframe is not adequate.  
3.83.  The SCC has initiated three investigations since 2010; these were conducted upon receipt of 
complaints and concerned the following areas: retail space in shopping centres; egg production and distribution; and medical insurance. The investigation into retail space in supermarkets involved a vertical restraint in the form of an exclusionary provision in a lease agreement which 
the supermarket sought to extend for a long period after it expired. After considering the effects of 
the provision on competition in the supermarket retail market, the SCC resolved that the provision was anti-competitive and this led to the entry of  a second supermarket into the shopping centre, 
which benefited consumers with wider choice. The investigation into the egg production and 
distribution market involved collusive conduct. The SCC adjudicated on the matter and determined 
that the parties had entered into an anti-compe titive agreement. The parties challenged this 
decision including the proposed sanction. The Cour ts are expected to make a final determination 
once the matter goes to trial. As regards the investigation into the medical insurance industry, the SCC investigated the all-or-nothing clause in the rules of the largest medical aid provider. The matter was still ongoing at the time of writing.  
3.84.  All mergers and acquisitions, regardless of size, must be notified to, investigated, assessed, 
and approved by SCC prior to implementation. Applications for the consideration of a merger must be submitted by the parties.
33 An application fee is charged for mergers exceeding E 8 million; the 
fee amounts to 0.1% of the companies' combin ed annual turnover or assets (whichever is 
greater), capped at E 600,000. Upon filing, an application undergoes a two-phase investigation. In the pre-review phase, the SCC determines whether it has jurisdiction to review the merger and 
subsequently conducts a formal examination. Un der the substantive phase, the SCC contacts key 
customers, competitors, and other interested parties in relation to the proposed merger. 
Assessment is carried out on the basis of several criteria, for example, post-merger market concentration, entry into the market, and availability of substitute products. The parties are 
allowed to contact the SCC during the investigation. Mergers may be approved with or without 
specific conditions.
34  
3.85.  Mergers must be assessed and approved within a 90-day period which may be extended 
further if the timeframe is considered to be insufficient or additional information is required. 
According to the SCC, mergers are mainly assessed and approved within the initial timeframe. The SCC may revoke an authorization for a merger if it  considers the decision was driven by misleading 
information or the parties have not complied with a material condition for the execution of the 
merger. In the latter case, the SCC must give the parties the opportunity to present an adjustment plan. During the review period, the SCC investigated 59 merger transactions, of which all were approved, but some under certain conditions.
35 When there is reasonable doubt, the SCC may 
enter premises on the production of a court warrant to search for evidence of anti-competitive 
trade practices and actual or potential mergers.36  
3.86.  Competition issues are also addressed at sectoral level. For example, the Swaziland 
Communications Commission may impose regulatory interconnection and access obligations on 
telecom licensees holding a dominant position.37 The Swaziland Communications Commission Act 
No. 10 of 2013 provides that the Communications Commission shall ensure that all communication 
services are provided in a manner that will best  promote economic and social development. While 
the Competition Act of 2007 can be applied to all sectors of the economy, under the 
                                               
32 SCC's website can be viewed at: http://www.compco.co.sz/Index.html . 
33 Either party may file and submit the application for a joint merger. The acquirer is entitled to submit 
the application in non-consensual mergers. 
34 Competition Commission Regulations Notice 2010, and SCC online information, "External Merger 
Guidelines". Viewed at: http://www.compco.co.sz/MergersAcquisitions.html .   
35 For example, in 2014, the SCC approved under certain conditions the acquisition by UK-based 
Premier Foods of the wheat and flour milling operation of the Swazi Ngwane Group. 
36 Competition Act 2007, Section 39.  
37 Electronic Communications Act 2013.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  Communication Commission Act of 2013, the newly established Communications Commission has 
the power to administer certain aspects of the Competition Act 2007 and certain aspects of the Fair Trading Act 2001, as they relate to the sectors regulated by the Communications Commission. The Competition Commission aims to sign MOUs with sector regulators; none has been signed yet 
but the process is ongoing. 
3.87.  The Fair Trading Act 2001 prohibits misleading conduct and false representations, including 
in trademarks (section 3.3.5). The Fair Trading Act will be amended and Fair Trading Regulations 
will be developed alongside the amendment of the Competition Act and Competition Commission 
Regulation. A draft Consumer Protection Bill is currently at the Office of the Attorney General.
38  
3.3.2.2  Price controls 3.88.  Swaziland continues to appl y maximum retail prices for a series of goods and services under 
the Price Control Order 1973. Goods and services subject to maximum retail prices include bread, 
dairy products, gasoline and postal and telecomm unication services. The price of sugar is no 
longer regulated. 
3.3.3  State trading, state-owne d enterprises, and privatization 
3.89.  So far Swaziland has not submitted any notifications pursuant to Article XVII:4(a) of the 
GATT 1994. Nevertheless, some state-owned enterprises or parastatals such as the National 
Agricultural Marketing Board and the Swaziland Dairy Board have the statutory power to regulate 
imports and exports of several agricultural products.  
3.90.  State participation in the economy through public enterprises or parastatals remains 
substantial and has in fact increased in recent ye ars. Public enterprises accounted for 8% of GDP 
in 2011 and collectively held assets worth almost EUR 10 billion.   
3.91.  Currently, there are 72 public enterprises operating across key economic sectors, including 
agriculture, transport, finance, public utilities,  business promotion, tourism, health and education 
(Table 3.5). The Government holds shares ranging from 75% to 100% in 50 of these enterprises 
(Category A enterprises) and has minority shares in the remaining 22 (Category B). As many as 32 public enterprises are heavily reliant on government subsidies for carrying out their activity, 
while only a few are self-sustained. Most Category B enterprises are profit-making.
39 
3.92.  Each public enterprise is governed by a board of directors, which is accountable to the 
relevant line Minister. Many public enterprises are statutory companies created by Acts of Parliament and are subject to the Public Ente rprise Control and Monitoring Act 1989; some 
recently corporatized companies are governed by the Company Law 2009.
40 
3.93.   The Public Enterprise Unit (PEU) in the Ministry of Finance is tasked with monitoring, 
reporting and providing advice on the performance of public enterprises. These are required to 
submit financial information to the line Ministry and the PEU; they must also submit annual 
audited statements to Cabinet, Parliament and the Auditor General (although they are not included in the Public Accounts of the Government).
41  
3.94.   Efforts to rationalize and privatize the pa rastatal sector began in the mid-1990s, within the 
framework of the Economic and Social Reform Agenda, but they were not carried out due to 
unfavourable economic and political conditions.42 A privatization policy was approved by Cabinet in 
2006 and was supplemented by a Privatization Road Map (PRM) in 2007. The PRM identified which 
public enterprises should be restructured or divested, as well as sectors where the establishment 
                                               
38 For further detail see Siboniselizulu Maseko, (2014). 
39 Ministry of Finance (2015). 
40 Two state corporations, Tibiyo Taka Ngwane and Tinsuka Taka Ngwane, both established by royal 
charter, operate as corporate social investment entities. They are accountable to the King who controls them in 
trust for the Swazi nation, and are cons idered separate from the Government.  
41 According to the Auditor General, 12 Category A public enterprises did no t submit their audited 
financial statements for 2013/14, and Royal Swazi National Airways has never submitted such statements. 
42 Dlamini (2005) . WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  of an independent regulator was needed. Implem entation of the PRM has been very slow as 
necessary legislative reforms often encounter considerable delays.  
3.95.  During the review period, the Government continued the implementation of the PRM, 
focusing on corporatization and restructuring of some public utilities, rather than on divestiture. 
For example, in 2007 the Swaziland Electricity Boar d, which had both operational and regulatory 
functions, was replaced by the new state-ow ned Swaziland Electricity Company and a new 
regulatory authority for the electricity sector was created. Similarly, legislation passed in 2013 
separated the regulatory and commercial function s of the Swaziland Post and Telecommunication 
Corporation (SPTC) and established the Swaziland Communication Commission as an independent regulator for the sector, while SPTC continued operations as a state-owned corporation (Section 4).  
3.96.  Nevertheless, some public enterprises cont inue to have regulatory functions in sectors 
where they compete with private companies, giving  rise to conflicts of interest and an uneven 
playing field for competition. For instance, certain public enterprises have the power to issue 
import permits and collect import levies on prod ucts with which they compete themselves. These 
products include maize, rice, milk, fruit and vegetables, and poultry. 
3.97.  Poor performance, lack of commercial orientation, and insufficient transparency
43 and 
accountability are some of the problems facing the parastatal sector. Moreover, given that about 
half of public enterprises depend on governme nt subsidies to conduct their activities, they 
represent a heavy financial and administrative burden to the Government and ultimately the tax-payers. In early 2015, the Ministry of Finance developed a Dividend Policy on Public Enterprises 
which sets out guidelines for the payment of di vidends by all public enterprises based on the 
nature of their activities, in order to ensure that an appropriate return is made to the Government as a shareholder. The policy will become effe ctive after it is approved by the Cabinet.  
3.98.  Moving ahead with the implementation of privatization plans would not only free resources 
to pursue alternative social and economic policy objectives, but would also contribute towards creating a more enabling environment for private investment and economic growth.  
Table 3.5 Swaziland: public enterprises and government agencies, 2014  
Public enterprises Ministry or sector 
Public enterprises – Category A  
Agriculture   
Swaziland Dairy Board  Agriculture 
National Maize Corporation  Agriculture  
Swaziland Cotton Board  Agriculture  
National Agricultural Marketing Board  Agriculture  
Swaziland Water and Agri cultural Development 
Enterprise Agriculture  
Transport   
Royal Swazi National Airways Corp.  Public Works and Transport 
Swaziland Railway  Public Works and Transport  
Central Transport Organization  Public Works and Transport  
Swaziland Civil Aviation Authority Public Works and Transport  
Finance   
Swaziland National Provident Fund  Labour and Social Security 
Swaziland Development and Savings Bank  Finance 
Swaziland Revenue Authority Finance  
Swaziland Development Fina nce Corporation Finance  
Motor Vehicle Authority Finance  
Financial Services Regulatory Authority  Finance  
Public Service Pension Fund Public Service 
Utilities   
Swaziland Electricity Board  Natural Resources and Energy 
Swaziland Post and Telecommunications Corporation  Information, Communications and Technology 
Swaziland Water Services Corporation  Natural Resources and Energy 
                                               
43 Humayun and Adelopo (2012), "Corporate Governan ce Disclosure Practices by Swaziland Public 
Enterprises", African Journal of Business Management,  Vol. 6 (24), 20 June.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  Public enterprises Ministry or sector 
Business promotion   
National Industrial Development Corporation of 
Swaziland  Commerce, Industry and Trade 
Small Enterprises Development Compan y  Commerce, Industry and Trade  
Commercial Board *  Commerce, Industry and Trade  
Swaziland Investment Promotion Authority  Commerce, Industry and Trade  
Swaziland Standards Authority  Commerce, Industry and Trade  
Swaziland Youth Enterprise Revolving Fund  Commerce, Industry and Trade  
Competitions Commission  Commerce, Industry and Trade  
Swaziland Communications Commission Information, Communications and Technology 
Swaziland Energy Regulatory Authority Natural Resources and Energy 
Swaziland Public Procurement Regulatory Authority Finance 
Tourism and environment   
Pigg's Peak Hotel  Tourism and Environmental Affairs 
Swaziland National Trust Commission  Tourism and Environmental Affairs  
Swaziland Environment Authority  Tourism and Environmental Affairs  
Swaziland Tourism Authority  Tourism and Environmental Affairs  
Royal Science and Technology Park  Information Communication and Technology  
Swaziland Tourism Development Companya Tourism and Environmental Affairs 
Information   
Swaziland Television Authority  Information Communication and Technology 
Housing   
Swaziland National Housing Board  Housing and Urban Development 
Labour   
Commission for Arbitration, Mediation and Conciliation  Labour and Social Security 
Education   
University of Swaziland  Education 
SEBENTA National Institute  Education  
Swaziland Christian University  Education  
Southern Africa Nazarene University  Education  
Health   
National Emergency Committee on HIV/AIDS Prime Minister's Officer 
Swaziland Nazarene Health Institutions  Health 
Siteki Good Shepherd Hospital  Health 
Sports   
Swaziland National Sports and Recreati on Council  Sports and Youth Affairs 
Arts and culture   
Swaziland National Council of Arts and Culture  Sports and Youth Affairs 
Youth affairs   
Swaziland National Youth Council  Sports and Youth Affairs 
Disaster management  
National Disaster Management Agency Deputy Prime Minister's Office 
Health  
Baphali Swaziland Red Cross Deputy Prime Minister's Office 
Health 
 
Public enterprises – Category B  
Central Bank of Swaziland Finance 
Royal Swaziland Sugar Corpor ation Limited Agriculture 
Swaziland Industrial Development Company Commerce 
Swaziland Royal Insurance Corporation Finance 
Standard Bank Swaziland Finance 
Ned Bank (Swaziland) Limited Finance 
Manzini City Council Housing 
Mbabane City Council Housing 
Swazi Airlink Public Works and Transport 
AON Swaziland Finance 
Macmillan Swaziland Education 
Swaziland Fruit Canners Finance 
Swaziland Building Society Finance 
Lulote-BMEP Commerce, Industry and Trade  
Swaziland Economic Policy Analysis and Research 
Centre Economic Planning and Development 
Financial Intelligence Unit Finance 
a Dormant. 
Source: Ministry of Finance (2015), Public Enterprises Unit, Dividend Policy on Public Enterprises for the 
Government of Swaziland . Viewed at: http://www.gov.sz /images/stories/finance.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 394 - 
 
  3.3.4  Government procurement 
3.99.  According to estimates provided by the authorities, total procurement by the central 
government (including goods, services and domestically financed capital projects) represented on average 12.2% of GDP during the period 2009 to 2014.
44 In fiscal year 2014-15, the total value 
procured by the central government was estima ted at E 4,892 million, of which E 2,458 million 
was spent on purchases of goods and services, and E 2,462 million on domestically financed capital projects (Table 3.6).  
Table 3.6 Total central government procurement, estimates, 2008/09-2014/15
a 
(E million) 
 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 
Purchases/use 
of goods and services 1,821 2,074 1,658 1,427 1,923 2,204 2,458 
Domestically 
financed 
capital 
projects 1,860 2,012 1,807 940 1,328 2,007 2,462 
Domestically 
financed capital projects not goods and services  93 101 90 47 66 100 123 
Inventories 63 76 30 18 40 41 44 
Purchase of 
fixed assets 68 103 43 11 46 35 51 
Total 
procured  3,719 4,165 3,448 2,349 3,271 4,187 4,892 
a Fiscal year runs from 1 April to 31 March. 
Source: Information provided by the Swazi authorities. 
3.100.  Swaziland is neither a signatory nor an observer to the WTO Government Procurement 
Agreement (GPA). It has not undertaken any commitments to open its government procurement market under RTAs.
45  
3.101.  During the review period, Swaziland passed new legislation setting the country's legal and 
institutional framework for government procurem ent. The Public Procurement Act No. 7 of 2011, 
which entered into force on 27 May 2013, seeks to bring the procurement system in line with international standards.
46 New regulations to implement the Act have been drafted but they are 
yet to be submitted to Parliament for approval (as at April 2015). Hence, the Regulations on Public 
Procurement of 2008 (issued under the former Fina nce and Audit Act of 1967) are still applied.  
3.102.  The Public Procurement Act 2011 applies to  all procurement made by government entities 
(i.e. ministries, departments, Category A public  enterprises, and local governments). The main 
changes brought about by the Act include the esta blishment of the Swaziland Public Procurement 
Regulatory Agency (SPPRA), an independ ent regulatory body in charge of, inter alia , regulating 
and monitoring government procurement; and independent review committees responsible for 
hearing applications for administrative reviews and appeals from unsatisfied bidders. The Act also 
provides for the establishment of three levels of authority for approval of procurement procedures 
based on thresholds: (a) the controlling officer or the chief executive officer of the procuring 
                                               
44 According to an independent source, public proc urement accounted for 65.9%  of Swaziland's GDP in 
2010. International Institute for Sustainable Development (2012), Sustainable Procurement in Fragile States , 
August. 
45 Swaziland is a signatory to four RTAs of whic h only one contains provisions on government 
procurement. The SACU-EFTA FTA, which entered into force in May 2008, provides for the Parties to hold 
consultations "no later than five year s after the entry into force of this Agreement (…) to consider possible 
steps to be taken with a view to mutually liberali zing their procurement mark ets" (Article 29(3)). The 
consultations had not initiated at the time of writing. WTO RTA Database. Viewed at: 
http://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicMaintainRTAHome.aspx .  
46 OECD (2012). WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 395 - 
 
  entity; (b) an entity tender board; and (c) the Government Tender Board - replacing the National 
Tender Board (NTB). The SPPRA and the Government Tender Board were established on 9 April 2013.
47  
3.103.  Swaziland promotes the participation of domestic suppliers in government procurement 
contracts. Under current regulations, a 15% price preference is granted to Swazi companies in the 
bidding process.48 Foreign companies may also be granted a price preference of up to 7.5% if they 
subcontract to Swazi companies or supply Swazi manufactured goods.49 There are no specific 
provisions granting preferential treatment to SMEs.  
3.104.  Procurement is carried out by each ministry or department, except for the procurement of 
common use items, which is conducted by lead procuring entities.50 Under current regulations, 
contracts exceeding E 20,000 for goods and non-consulting services and E 50,000 for works must 
be approved by the NTB. The remaining contracts are approved by the controlling officer appointed 
in each procuring entity.51 
3.105.  Five procurement methods may be used depending on the nature and threshold of the 
procurement (Table 3.7). Procuring entities ma y request the National Tender Board (NTB) to 
deviate from a procurement method or procedure in exceptional circumstances.52  
Table 3.7 Government procurement methods and thresholds  
Method Description Thresholds  
Open 
tendering Tenders are open to participation, on equal 
terms, by all eligible tenderers, through advertisement of the opportunity. Goods: > E 200,000 
Non-consultancy services: > E 200,000 Works: > E 500,000  
Limited 
tendering Tenders are obtained by direct invitation to a 
shortlist of tenderers, without open 
advertisement. Goods: < E 200,000 
Non-consultancy services: < E 200,000 
Works: < E 500,000 
 
Request for proposals  Proposals are obtained from a shortlist of 
tenderers, which may be developed with or without advertisement of the opportunity. Consultancy services with publication of a 
notice: > E 200,000 Consultancy services without publication of a notice: < E 200,000 
 
Request for 
quotations  Quotations from a number of tenderers are 
compared. Goods: < E 20,000 
Non-consultancy services: < E 20,000 
Works: < E 50,000 
 
Single 
source procurement  A tender is obtained directly from a single 
tenderer, without competition. Goods: < E 2,000 
Non-consultancy services: < E 2,000 Consultancy services: < E 2,000 Works: < E 5,000  
Source: Regulations on Public Procurement 2008, Section 40 and Schedule 2. 
3.106.  Most government procurement is done through open tendering and requests for proposals 
(RFPs) which, as stated in the Procurement Act 2011, "shall be the preferred procurement 
methods". The WTO Secretariat was unable to obtain information on the percentages of total government procurement carried out through each procurement method. 
3.107.  Open tendering must be international where the goods, works or services are not available 
under competitive price and other conditions from at least three suppliers in Swaziland, or regional 
or international participation is required in accordance with an agreement entered into by the Government of Swaziland. Open tendering may be  conducted through a pre-qualification process, 
inter alia , where the goods, works or services are highly  complex or specialized; or the evaluation 
                                               
47 Legal Notice No. 63 of 2013 and Legal Notice No. 62 of 2013. 
48 A Swazi company is a company registered in Swazi land, of which at least 51% of the controlling 
shares are owned by citizens of Swaziland.  
49 Regulations on Public Procurement 2008, Section 22. 
50 Lead procuring entities are the Mi nistries of Health, Agriculture, Tr ansport, and Public Works as well 
as the Government Central Stores and the Ministry of Finance's Technical Secretariat.  
51 Regulations on Government Procurement 2008, Schedule 1.  
52 Procurement Act 2011, Section 6; and Regulations on Government Procurement 2008, Section 6.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  of a large number of tenders would require excessi ve time and resources. Tenders must be invited 
through the publication of a tender notice, or from a shortlist of pre-qualified applicants when pre-qualification has been conducted. Tender do cuments must include a clear explanation of the 
evaluation methodology and criteria to be applied.  
3.108.  Limited tendering may be used where the goods, works or non-consulting services are only 
available from a limited number of suppliers; there is insufficient time for the use of open tendering in an emergency situation; or the estimated value does not exceed the specified 
thresholds.
53 The regulations establish minimum periods fo r submitting tenders in open and limited 
tendering procedures, which allow for longer timeframes when international tenderers are 
involved.54  
3.109.  Request for proposals (RFP) is the only procurement method used for consulting services. 
Proposals are obtained from a shortlist of tenderers. If the estimated value of the services is above 
E 200,000, tenderers are shortlisted through a published notice. Tenderers are directly invited if the estimated value is below E 200,000.  
3.110.  The request for quotations (RFQ) method compares quotations from three tenderers for 
goods, works and non-consulting services; it may be used where the estimated value does not exceed the specified thresholds.  
3.111.  Single sourcing may be used where: the goods, works or services are only available from a 
single source; in an emergency situation; when additional goods, works or services must be procured from the same source due to compatibility, standardization or continuity; an existing contract is extended; or the value of the pr ocurement is less than the specified threshold.
55  
3.112.  Tender submissions are opened by the NTB in public. An appointed committee (one in each 
procuring entity) evaluates tenders on the basis of  the methodology and criteria contained in the 
tender document. These consist of formal, technical, and financial criteria, and may also include 
other requirements (e.g. delivery schedule and maintenance cost). The committee reports to the 
NTB which is responsible for approving the committee's recommendations and awarding contracts. Negotiations are not permitted under the open and limited tendering methods. 
3.113.  In the RFP procedure, proposals are not opened in public. However, upon request by a 
participant, the NTB may disclose the names of the other participants who submitted proposals. An appointed committee carries out the evaluation process on the basis of the methodology and criteria stated in the RFP documents, which include formal, technical, and financial criteria. The 
financial evaluation is based either on a quality- and cost-based selection (the proposal that offers 
the optimum balance of quality and cost is chosen); or a least-cost selection (the lowest priced proposal is chosen).
56 The committee makes a recommendation to the NTB (or the controlling 
officer) for approval and contract award. Prior to awarding the contract, limited scope negotiations 
may be held with regard to minor arrangemen ts (e.g. work plan and completion schedule).57 
3.114.  Under the 2008 Regulations, one of the functions of the NTB is to decide on the 
management of disputes with tenderers and su ppliers. Existing practice seems to be that 
complaints are channelled through the Permanent Secretary's office of the Ministry of Finance.58 
The WTO Secretariat could not obtain information on complaints arising during the review period.  
3.3.5  Intellectual property rights 
3.115.  Swaziland's IPR regime remained unchanged during the review period and is still not 
comprehensive in scope. Since 2009, the authorities have been reviewing the legal framework for 
                                               
53 Regulations on Government Procurement 2008, Section 41. 
54 Open tendering: 30 days where notice is publ ished in Swaziland, and 45 days where notice is 
published internationally. Li mited tendering: 21 days wh ere shortlisted tenderers are national and 30 days 
where the shortlist includes foreign tenderers. 
55 Regulations on Government Procurement 2008, Section 44. 
56 Quality- and cost- based selection is the preferred method; least-cost selection is used for standard or 
routine procurements. 
57 Regulations on Government Procurement 2008, Sections 67-91. 
58 African Development Bank (2013). WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  patents, trademarks, and copyright. However, new draft laws are yet to be approved and 
implemented. There is no legislation on the prot ection of geographical indications (GIs), plant 
breeders' rights59, topographies of integrated circuits, undisclosed information, or utility models. At 
the time of the previous Review, the authorities were considering drafting legal provisions on GI 
protection.60  
3.116.  The Intellectual Property Office (IPO), formerly the Central Registrar's Office, is the contact 
point for all IPR matters in Swaziland. In 2009, IP O was transferred from the Ministry of Justice 
and Constitutional Affairs to the Ministry of Commerce, Industry, and Trade following a 
realignment of government portfolios. The new IPR focal point has yet to be notified to the WTO. 
3.117.  Currently, Swaziland is formulating a Na tional Intellectual Property Strategy which 
encompasses all IPRs and issues. It is at the stakeholder consultation phase at present.61  
3.118.  There has been no change to Swaziland's participation in international IPR arrangements 
since 2009 (Table 3.8). Swaziland is still in the pr ocess of acceding to the WIPO Copyright Treaty 
and the Performances and Phonograms Treaty ("WIPO Internet treaties").  
Table 3.8 Membership of WIPO administered treaties, 2015  
Treaty Entry into force/signature 
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works 14 December 1998 
Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks and 
its Protocol  14 December 1998 
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property 12 May 1991  
Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) 20 September 1994 
Patent Law Treaty Signed in 2000 but not yet 
ratified  
Trade Mark Law Treaty Signed in 1994 but not yet 
ratified 
Source: WIPO online information. Viewed at: http://www.wipo.int/wipol ex/en/profile.jsp?code=SZ .  
3.119.  At the regional level, Swaziland is a member of the African Regional Industrial Property 
Organization (ARIPO). It has signed the Banjul Protocol (trademarks) and the Harare Protocol 
(patents, industrial designs, and utility models). ARIPO is in the process of acceding to the UPOV 
Convention and formulating a regional legal framework on the protection of new plant varieties.62  
3.3.5.1  Patents and industrial designs 
3.120.  The Patents, Copyright, and Designs Act 1936 remains the legal framework for the 
protection of patents and industrial designs in Swaz iland. Under the Act, it is not possible to claim 
protection in Swaziland without prior registration in South Africa or the United Kingdom. Patents 
and industrial designs registered in South Africa require re-registration in Swaziland, subject to 
formal examination conducted by the IPO. Patents and industrial designs registered in the United Kingdom are automatically protected in Swaziland (without need for local re-registration).
63 
According to the authorities, 26 patents and 3 industrial designs were re-registered over the period 
2009-14. The term of protection for patents is 20 years and 15 years for industrial designs.   
                                               
59 The Seeds and Plant Varieties Act of 2000 regulates the sale, import and export of seeds 
(section 3.1.6).  
60 WTO document WT/TPR/M/222/Add.1, 9 December 2009.  
61 Swaziland's statement at the Assemblies of the Member States of WIPO, 54th Series of Meetings, 
22 to 30 September 2014, Geneva. Viewed at: http://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/statements.jsp?meeting_id=32482 .  
62 UPOV online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.upov.int/meetings/en/doc_details.jsp?doc_id=269279  and 
http://www.upov.int/export/sites /upov/members/en /pdf/status.pdf .  
63 MCIT online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.gov.sz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=521&Itemid=254 ; Adams & Adams 
(2012), Practical Guide to Intellectual Property in Africa ; and African Technology Policy Studies Network 
(2012).  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  3.121.  In 2004, Swaziland notified the Patents, Utility Models, and Industrial Designs Act 1997 to 
the WTO as one of the "main dedicated IP laws and regulations".64 However, in the context of this 
Review, the authorities reported that the Act had never come into force since it did not comply with the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).  
3.122.  Currently, Swaziland is reviewing patent le gislation in order to introduce an independent 
registration system. A Patent Bill is being considered by Cabinet before it is submitted to Parliament. It has been reported that under the bill, IPO would conduct formal examinations and 
rely on substantive examinations carried out by ARIPO.
65 The bill is expected to provide protection 
for pharmaceutical and agricultural chemical products.  
3.3.5.2  Trademarks 3.123.  The legal framework for the protection of trade and services marks is the Trade Marks 
Act 1981 (effective since 1 July 1994) and the Trad e Marks Regulations 1989. The authorities have 
indicated that they are working on a Trade Mark s Amendment Bill. Swaziland has not yet enacted 
legislation to implement the filing system under th e Madrid Agreement and Protocol; however, it is 
possible that applications designating Swaziland will be recognized.
66  
3.124.  Protection is granted through registration  with the IPO. For this purpose, marks must 
comply with the international classification for goods and services (Nice Classification). 
Applications must be filed through local trademark agents who are registered with the IPO. The 
Trade Marks Act provides for the claim of priority  rights under the Paris Convention. Applications 
are examined as to: formalities, inherent registrability and conflicts with prior registrations. Successful applications are published for three months in the Official Gazette to allow for 
opposition to be lodged.  
3.125.  According to the authorities, 2,668 trademark applications were filed over the period 
2009-14. A total of 1,970 trademarks were registered, of which 95% were foreign.  
3.126.  The term of protection for trademarks is ten years from the registration date, renewable 
for subsequent periods of ten years, indefinite ly. However, renewal is subject to the owner 
providing evidence of the use of the mark. A regist ered mark may be removed from the register if 
it has not been used for three consecutive years. The owner of a registered mark has the exclusive 
right to the use of the mark in relation to the goods or services in respect of which it is registered, including sale, importation and offer for sale or importation. Any assignment or transmission of the trademark must be registered by the assign ee. Appeals against IPO's decisions regarding 
trademarks may be made to the High Court. Parallel imports are authorized. 
3.127.  Protection against misleading trademarks or trade descriptions is contained in the Fair 
Trading Act 2001. Under this Act, it is an offence to forge a trademark and use falsely a trademark 
that resembles a registered trademark in order to mislead buyers.
67 In addition, the Merchandise 
Act (No. 24) 1937 and related Regulations (No. 24) 1937, providing for protection against false trade description, remain in force. 
3.3.5.3  Copyright and related rights  
3.128.  Copyright protection continues to be addressed by three old statutes: the Copyright 
Act 1912, the Copyright (Prohibited Importation) Act 1918
68 and the Copyright (Rome Convention) 
Act 1933.69 These statutes have been notified to the WTO.70 
                                               
64 WTO document IP /N/1/SWZ/1, 5 May 2004.  
65 African Technology Policy Studies Network (2012).  
66 Adams & Adams (2012), Practical Guide to Intellectual Property in Africa . 
67 Fair Trading Act 2001, Section 10. 
68 The 1918 Act was passed to implement Section 14 of  the U.K. Copyright Act 1911, which deals with 
imports of infringing copies. 
69 The 1933 Act extends the application of the Copyright Act 1912 to States that are not part of the 
Commonwealth.  
70 WTO document IP/N/1/SWZ/1, 5 May 2004. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  3.129.  The Copyright Act 1912 covers literary, dramatic, and artistic works as well as 
performances and sound recordings. Protection is automatic and does not require registration with 
IPO. However, to qualify for copyright protection, works must have been first published in the Commonwealth. Copyright protection may also be conferred to works that do not comply with the 
publishing requirement but the author is a British citizen or a Commonwealth resident. The term of 
protection is the author's lifetime plus 50 years after his/her death. The Copyright Act 1912 does not seem to comply with the Berne Convention or Article 9 of the TRIPS Agreement. There are no 
provisions for royalties to be paid to musicians, authors or performers. 
3.130.  A Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Bill, based on the WIPO model, was drafted in 2009 
but has not yet been approved by Parliament. Re portedly, the bill would provide for criminal 
prosecution/sanctions for deliberate infringement of copyright for commercial gain.
71 It would also 
address audiovisual works, expression of folklo re and computer programs, and provide for the 
formation of a voluntary copyright society for the management of copyright and neighbouring rights and the promotion of the interest s of authors, artists, and performers.
72  
3.3.5.4  Enforcement 
3.131.  Swaziland is planning to establish an Intellectual Property Tribunal to deal with 
IPR cases.73 The Intellectual Property Tribunal Bill has been drafted but is still being considered by 
Parliament. At present, the High Court is competent to hear cases of IPR infringement. Appeals 
against its decisions may be brought to the Supreme Court.74  
3.132.  Swaziland's IPR legislation provides for fines and/or prison sentences for infringement. 
Infringement under the Trade Mark Act 1981 is su bject to penalties of up to E 2,000 and/or a 
six-month prison sentence. In addition, the misleading  use of trademarks is subject to a fine of up 
to E 100,000 and/or a five-year prison sentence under the Fair Trading Act 2001. Violation of copyright is subject to fines of up to E 4 per count erfeit copy sold on the domestic market, within a 
maximum limit of E 100; a two-month prison sentence may also be dictated. Civil suits may also 
be brought for copyright violation.  
3.133.   Copyright piracy is reported to be high in Swaziland. There are copyright steering 
committees that work closely with the police to conduct raids to seize counterfeit material.
75 
Customs are authorized to seize suspected IPR-infringing goods at ports of entry; no statistics on these actions were provided.  
 
                                               
71 African Technology Policy Studies Network (2012). 
72 WTO document WT/TPR/M/222/Add.1, 9 December 2009.  
73 WTO document WT/TPR/M/222/Add.1, 9 December 2009.  
74 WTO document IP/N/6/SWZ/1, 20 July 2007. 
75 African Technology Policy Studies Network (2012).  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  4  TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR 
4.1  Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 4.1.  The agricultural sector continues to be ch aracterized by the coexistence of, on the one hand, 
large-scale, well irrigated estates producing mostly for export, and on the other hand, rain-fed 
small subsistence farms with low productivity, on which the majority of the population depend for 
their livelihood. Swaziland remains a net importer of some staple food products, so increasing productivity and ensuring food security are majo r government policy goals. Support for the sector 
consists mainly of extension services and irrigation works. Some of the main challenges facing 
agriculture are climate change, high input cost s and lack of access to credit and marketing 
networks. Key agricultural exports, such as sugar and beef, face changing access conditions in some of their main markets. 
4.1.1  Main features 
4.2.  Agriculture remains a crucial sector of the ec onomy. Almost 80% of the population still live in 
rural communities, deriving their livelihoods from  subsistence farming and livestock breeding.
1 At 
the same time, commercial agriculture generates over a third of merchandise export earnings and 
supplies raw materials to manufacturing indust ries. In 2014, 26% of the labour force was 
employed in agriculture.2 During the review period, agriculture faced challenging conditions, 
including severe droughts that disrupted crop prod uction. The sector's contribution to real GDP (at 
basic prices) was 11.4% in 2014.  
4.3.  The Constitution of the Kingdom of Swaz iland establishes a dual land tenure system. The 
"Swazi Nation Land" (SNL) is held in trust by the King for the Swazi Nation. It accounts for 63% of 
cultivated land, is mostly used for subsistence farming and has little or no access to irrigation. On 
the other hand, "Title Deed Land" (TDL) is privately held, commercially-oriented and well irrigated; it comprises large farming estates (sugar cane, citrus, and pineapple), forestry and cattle farming.  
4.4.  Under SNL tenure, land is allocated to citizens by local tribe chiefs, on behalf of the King. The 
majority of SNL allocations are less than one hectare in size. Traditionally, SNL has been used for growing maize (the staple food) and other cereals,  but recent policies encourage small farmers to 
shift towards commercial crops, such as sugar cane.
3 SNL land is highly susceptible to drought due 
to its reliance on rain-fed cultivation. Livestock grazing of cattle, sheep and goats remains the 
principal land usage, and overgrazing is a major cause of soil erosion. 
4.5.  The bulk of Swaziland's agricultural production is focused on sugar cane, maize, citrus 
(oranges, grapefruit and lime) and cotton. Additional crops include wheat, sorghum, other fruit and vegetables. Livestock, dairy production and forestry are also important components of the 
country's agricultural sector (Table 4.1).  
Table 4.1 Agricultural produc tion and exports, 2008/09-2013/14
 
Commodity 2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12 2012/13 2013/14  
Production ('000 tonnes)  
Sugar  626.9 605.6 582.0 646.7 658.1 653.3 
Maize  70.7 75.1 84.7 76.0 82.0 101.0 
Citrus  80.7 75.6 69.1 78.4 56.8 57.5 
Cotton 1.5 2.3 2.1 1.9 2.5 1.8 
Exports (E million)  
Sugar 1,153.3 1,097.6 1,103.9 1,185.3 1,818.3 2,205.1 
Citrus  100.0 95.4 95.0 103.5 87.4 84.0 
Beef 52.4 50.3 62.1 70.6 85.9 85.2 
Source: Central Bank of Swaziland, Annual Repo rts, April 2011-March 2012; April 2012-March 2013; and 
April 2013-March 2014; and information provided by the Swaziland Cotton Board.  
4.6.  Main agricultural exports comprise raw and refined sugar, sugar confectionery and other 
sugar products (soft-drink concentrates), foll owed by citrus and beef. Over two decades, 
                                               
1 United Nations Population Division (2012).  
2 FAO (2013).  
3 Forsyth (2013), page 69.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 Swaziland's agricultural exports enjoyed preferen tial treatment under the United States' African 
Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and the European Union's preferential regime for ACP countries (the Cotonou Agreement), now replaced by the Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA). Since the last TPR, preferential treatmen t for sugar exports to the EU has been modified, 
and Swaziland has been removed from AGOA's li st of beneficiaries (effective from 1 January 
2015).  
4.7.  Swaziland remains a net importer of several food products. As production has declined in 
past years due to the adverse effects of climate change and poor farming practices, import 
demand for some crops and other food items has increased. Some of the main agricultural imports 
are maize, dairy products, bovine meat, rice and wheat (Table 4.2).
4  
Table 4.2 Maize and dairy imports, 2008/09-2013/14  
Commodity 2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13 2013/14  
Imports       
Maize ('000 tonnes) 45.0 40.0 33.2 23.9 22.8 26.4 
Dairy (million litres of LME)a  44.2 44.3 45.8 48.6 55.9 58.3 
a LME stands for liquid milk equivalent. 
Sources: Central Bank of Swaz iland, Annual Reports, April 2011-Ma rch 2012; April 2012- March 2013; and 
April 2013 – March 2014; and information provided by NAMBOARD and the Swaziland Dairy Board.  
4.8.  Livestock is an important source of inco me and food for subsistence farmers. Since most 
cattle are held on communal lands under poor bree ding practices and pastures, productivity has 
been affected preventing the sector from deve loping its full potential. On the other hand, a 
positive development in recent years has been the emergence of a modern poultry meat and egg industry, with some exports being shipped to countries in the region.  
4.9.  Swaziland has abundant forest resources, covering 32% of the total land area. Forestry 
provides raw materials for manufacturing industries and some export products (mainly wood - sawn or chipped). During the years under review, th e sector suffered from severe forest fires that 
destroyed large plantations and led to the closur e of a major pulp mill in 2010 and the end of 
unbleached kraft pulp production, formerly an im portant export commodity. Forestry activity has 
recovered during the last few years, supported by increased investment and the opening of a new company in 2011. Most plantations have now shifted from pine to eucalyptus, which has a shorter 
maturity span. 
4.10.  Swaziland's subsistence agricultural sector faces a number of challenges that explain its low 
production levels. These include land fragmentation, low labour productivity, persistent drought, 
high input costs (seed and tractor hire), poor infrastructure, insufficient access to credit and a lack 
of technology and marketing networks.    
4.11.  For large-scale agriculture, one of the main challenges is producing quality products that 
meet high sanitary and phytosanitary standards, pa rticularly for exports. The lack of capacity of 
Swaziland's agricultural research station to conduct scientific studies remains one of the major 
challenges. Ongoing efforts to convert the Malkerns research station into a National Agriculture Research Authority would provide it with more autonomy and resources to conduct its work. 
4.12.  While international markets for exports of  sugar, citrus and beef are relatively well 
developed, Swaziland has not been able to maximize trade opportunities due to poor farming practices and inadequate marketing. The erosion or  loss of preferences for Swazi exports in certain 
developed markets could further damage some productive subsectors.  
4.13.  The fisheries subsector is entirely inland and its contribution to GDP negligible. Capture 
fishery is practiced in a number of dams; volumes are very small, but they constitute an important 
source of food for some poor communities. The most commercially important capture fish species 
are tilapia and catfish, while other species are targeted for sport fishing. Aquaculture is practiced 
in fishponds that are on average 200 square metres; farmed species include tilapia, catfish, rainbow trout and carp. Swaziland does not export fishery products, and almost all fish with 
                                               
4 Ministry of Agriculture (2013). WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  economic value are imported from neighbouring countries.5 The Fisheries Division of the Ministry 
of Agriculture and Cooperatives is mandated to ensure optimal and sustainable exploitation of 
fishery resources and to promote fish consumption in order to enhance food security. A Freshwater Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy was adopted in 2012, with the key objective of maximizing, in a 
sustainable manner, the value and opportunities from freshwater fishing so as to reduce food 
insecurity and poverty, and support the growth of small-scale commercial fishing. Among other 
strategies, the policy proposes modernizing regulatory, institutional and management frameworks 
for fishing and encouraging the development of aquaculture.
6 A new Freshwater Fisheries Bill has 
been drafted and is currently with the Attorney General. 
4.1.2  Policy framework and developments 4.14.  Swaziland's policy framework for the agri cultural sector includes the Comprehensive 
Agricultural Sector Policy, the National Food Security Policy and the Irrigation Policy, all three 
issued in 2005.
7 Since the last TPR, the Government has developed new instruments aimed at 
boosting agricultural production and job creation, including the Economy Recovery Strategy 
(2011), the National Agricultural Research Policy (2013), the draft National Agricultural Extension 
Policy (2013) and the draft Swaziland National Agriculture Investment Plan (2014). Effective 
implementation and coordination of this range of policies and plans remain a big challenge.8  
4.15.  The Swaziland Agricultural Developmen t Programme (SADP), implemented between 2009 
and 2014, helped improve smallholder production  and commercialization networks. A Marketing 
Investment Fund was established to strengthen farmers' and small agribusinesses' links to markets.
9 
4.16.  The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) is the sector's lead agency. It is responsible for policy and 
plan formulation and implementation, providing agricultural extension services and for the overall administration of the sector. Its main task is to ensure food security and increased agricultural 
productivity through diversification and enhancement of commercial agricultural activities. Other 
government ministries, parastatal organizations (such as the National Agricultural Marketing Board (NAMBOARD), the Swaziland Dairy Board, and the National Maize Corporation) as well as industry 
associations (such as the Swaziland Sugar Association) are also active in the agricultural sector. 
4.17.  Parastatals, some with statutory monopoly  powers, are involved in the marketing of farm 
products, including maize, cotton, fresh produce and dairy products. For example, NAMBOARD controls imports and exports of a range of agri cultural products, and provides an outlet for 
farmers' produce by organizing their marketing in the local and international markets. It is also 
involved in facilitating production, processing, storage and transportation of certain agricultural products.
10 Cotton and maize are subject to price cont rols. The MOA sets the price at which the 
Swaziland Cotton Board purchases cotton from growers in order to ensure that these have a 
market for their product and also to provide raw material for the domestic textile industry. The price at which the National Maize Corporation buys the grain from farmers is also regulated 
(section 4.1.3.2). 
4.1.2.1  Support measures 4.18.  Support for the sector is modest and consists  mainly of agricultural R&D, extension services, 
and infrastructure development. Input subsidies for small-scale growers of maize and other cash 
crops are also provided (section 4.1.3.2). Be tween 2008 and 2013, overall agricultural sector 
                                               
5 ACP Fish II. Viewed at: http://acpfish2-eu.org/index.php?page=swaziland . 
6 The policy was prepared by the ACP Fish II  programme, funded by the EU. Viewed at: http://acpfish2-
eu.org/uploads/projects/id3/Annex%209%20-% 20Swaziland%20Final%20Draft%20Policy.pdf . 
7 Ministry of Agriculture onli ne information. Viewed at: 
http://www.gov.sz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=357&Itemid=342 . 
8 For example, a mid-term evaluation of the SADP, commissioned by FAO, concluded that 
implementation of the programme had been slow, with most activities remaining at the development stage. 
9 The fund amounts to 1 million euros. FAO online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/241640/icode/ .  
10 NAMBOARD Act No. 13 of 1985. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 expenditure averaged 4.4% of the budget. A su bstantial proportion of it (45%) was capital 
expenditure associated with significant investments in irrigation development.11 
4.19.  The MOA provides agricultural extension se rvices through the Department of Agriculture and 
Extension (DAE) and the Department of Veterinary and Livestock Services (DVLS). The Malkerns 
Research Station conducts agricultural R&D an d also operates a training centre. Under the 
Swaziland Agricultural Development Programme, trai ning on good agricultural practices (such as 
conservation, seed multiplication and agro-fores try) has been conducted in 17 rural development 
areas, benefiting some 2,000 farmers.12 Some parastatal organizations also offer support services 
to farmers. For example, NAMBOARD is involv ed in training and creating awareness among 
vegetable producers and exporters regarding adherence to international standards, quality requirements, packaging and marketing.  
4.20.  A significant gap still exists between the provision of agricultural extension services and the 
actual needs of small farmers. There seems to be room for improvement in the provision of 
services such as dissemination of market information, marketing infrastructure development, the 
application of quality and food safety standards, product diversification and training for farmers.
13 
The National Agricultural Extension Policy envisages a comprehensive reorganization of extension services under a new National Extension Regulatory Authority. 
4.21.  Efforts have been made to further develop irrigation infrastructure. The first phase of the 
Lower Usutu Smallholder Irrigation Project was completed in 2010. This E 1.6 billion project enables irrigation on 11,500 hectares of land, benefiting some 30,000 farmers. It adds to the 
6,000 hectares of irrigable land already provided by the Maguga Dam in the north of the country.
14  
4.1.2.2  Border measures 
4.22.  In 2015, the simple average applied MFN tariff for agriculture (WTO definition) was 9.9%. 
The product groups bearing the highest average tariffs were: beverage, spirits and tobacco 
(20.4%), animals and animal products (15.1%), dairy products (12.7%) and sugars (12.6%). Under the ISIC (Rev. 2) definition, the simple average applied MFN tariff was 3.5%, with rates 
ranging from zero to 35% (Main Report, Table 3.4) . A number of agricultural products are subject 
to non- ad valorem  duties (Main Report, section 3.3.1). 
4.23.  Imports of certain agricultural products (wheat, flour, dairy products, maize and rice) from 
outside the SACU area require a permit from the Mi nistry of Finance (section 3.1.3). In addition, 
ad valorem  import levies are collected on a range of milk products by Swaziland's Dairy Board, and 
on other farm products by the National Agricultural Marketing Board (NAMBOARD) (section 3.1.2). NAMBOARD has statutory power to control imports of specified agricultural commodities by raising 
import levies in order to protect local production or on food security grounds. 
4.24.  For sanitary and phytosanitary reasons, the importation of live animals, products of animal 
origin and plant products requires an import permit (i.e. sanitary or phytosanitary certificate) 
(section 3.1.6).  
4.25.  Swaziland notified the WTO that it did not provide export subsidies to agricultural products 
over the period 1996-2011.
15 Its notifications on domestic support measures are still pending. 
4.1.3  Key subsectors 
4.1.3.1  Sugar 
4.26.  Sugar is Swaziland's largest industry. It accounts for almost 60% of agricultural production, 
and 35% of agricultural wage employment.16 It also accounts for about 23% of total merchandise 
exports. Swaziland is Africa's fourth largest suga r producer (after South Africa, Egypt and Sudan). 
                                               
11 Ministry of Agriculture (2014).  
12 Forsyth (2013), page 69.  
13 Ministry of Agriculture (2014). 
14 Forsyth (2013), page 69.  
15 WTO document G/AG/N/SWZ/1, 16 October 2012. 
16 Ministry of Agriculture (2014). WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  In 2013/14, it produced 653,337 metric tonnes, up from 626,984 in 2008/09 (Table 4.3). The area 
cultivated with sugar cane has continued to increase (58,979 ha in 2013/14), and although most sugar production still takes place on large estate s on TDL, small-scale farmers are increasingly 
shifting to sugar cane cultivation taking advantage of new irrigation facilities and funding from 
international donors. There are three sugar mills (Mhlume, Simunye and Ubombo) with a 
combined annual production capacity of over 600,000 metric tonnes of raw, refined and brown 
sugar.
17  
Table 4.3 Sugar indicators, 2008/09-2013/14  
 2008/09  2009/10  2010/11  2011/12  2012/13 2013/14  
Cultivated area (ha) 52,068 52,822 53,372 54,876 57,263 58,979 
Production (metric tonnes, MT) 626,984 605,657 582,019 646,781 658,137 653,337 
Exports (MT) 298,392 273,360 333, 192 305,377 363,666 339,250 
Value of exports (E million) 1,253.7 1,097.5 1,103.9 1,185.3 1,818.3 2,205.1 
Domestic (SACU) sales (MT) 319,716 321,783 309,483 309,611 302,043 307,918 
Value of domestic (SACU) sales 
(E million) 1,099.3 1,268.0 1,330.6 1,481.7 1,574.9 1,662.8 
Source: Central Bank of Swaziland, Annual Report April 2013–Mar ch 2014. Viewed at: 
http://www.centralbank.org.sz/publications/annua l/2013-14.pdf; and Swaziland Sugar Association. 
Viewed at: http://www.ssa.co.sz/index.php/industry-statistics/2013-12-11-06-16-55/sugar ; and 
WTO (2009). 
4.27.  The structure of the industry is defined by the Sugar Act 1967. The Act establishes the 
Swaziland Sugar Association (SSA) as a private no n-profit organization, where both growers and 
millers are represented. SSA regulates the sugar indu stry and is responsible for selling, exporting 
and marketing all sugar and molasses produced in the country. SSA also provides technical 
services to assist the industry in raising sugar cane productivity.  
4.28.  About half of the sugar available for sale is  exported, mainly to the European Union. Despite 
smaller volumes of sales and declining sugar prices in the EU market, export earnings increased by 
21% to E 2.2 billion in 2013/14, aided by a weak lilangeni/euro exchange rate.18 The remaining 
sugar production is sold on the SACU market an d locally. Under the Swazi Economic Empowerment 
Initiative, SSA's local sugar customers who add value to the sugar in Swaziland before exporting it to the rest of SACU receive a rebate on the st andard price of sugar. They may add value by 
pre-packing sugar into small packs, producing inte rmediate/industrial products (e.g. icing sugar, 
biscuit blends) or producing finished products (e.g. canned fruits, soft drinks, confectionary). The size of the rebate depends on the extent of the value addition that takes place. The SSA is 
currently reviewing the Swazi Economic Empowerment Initiative.  
4.29.  The retail price of sugar is no longer regulated by the Government.  4.30.  The preferential conditions for Swaziland's sugar exports to the EU were modified during the 
review period. Under the former Sugar Protocol (up to 30 September 2009), Swaziland and 19 
other ACP countries each benefited from duty-free access to the EU market for specific quantities 
of sugar at a guaranteed price. Upon expiry of the Protocol, a transition period (from 1 October 
2009 to 30 September 2015) followed during which gu aranteed prices were gradually eliminated, 
country-specific quotas were increased with a view to eventually removing them, and preferential 
treatment was extended to 67 countries. At the end of the transition period, sugar from the 67 countries will have duty- and quota-free access to the EU market, with the only restriction being a 
volume-based safeguard clause. The current suga r regime has been maintained under the SADC-
EU EPA Agreement.  
4.31.  The authorities acknowledge that the eventu a l  r e m o v a l  o f  t h e  q u o t a  s y s t e m  i s  l i k e l y  t o  
affect the competitiveness of Swazi sugar export s in the EU market, hence the need to improve 
efficiency and find alternative markets.
19 They are engaged in an adaptation strategy, whose main 
pillars are the promotion of productivity in sm allholder cane growing, exploration of premium 
markets and sugar by-product diversification.  
                                               
17 Swaziland Sugar Association. Viewed at: http://www.ssa.co.sz/index.php/industry-statistics/ . 
18 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014). The Central Bank estimates the devaluation of the currency at 
21.6% in 2013. 
19 Ministry of Agriculture (2014).  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 4.32.  Swaziland's sugar exports are also allowed access to the US market under a preferential 
tariff quota, which is approximately at least 17,000 tonnes per annum. During the review period, Swaziland exported sugar to the US in 2010/11 (25,518 tonnes) and in 2014/15 (34,000 tonnes, combining the quotas for the marketing years 2013/14 and 2014/15. No further exports are 
envisaged for 2015/16 due to the loss of AGOA benefits, but they may resume under the U.S. GSP 
scheme.  
4.33.  Under SACU, the simple average applied MFN tariff on sugar and sugar confectionery is 
12.6%, with rates ranging from zero to 39.9%; non- ad valorem  tariffs apply as well (Main Report). 
The export levy charged on sugar exports to the EU was abolished in 2009, concurrently with the 
expiry of the Sugar Protocol (section 3.2.2).  
4.1.3.2  Maize 
4.34.  Maize is Swaziland's staple food and the most cultivated crop. It is mainly grown by 
subsistence farmers in SNL with little or no access to irrigation, and is hence heavily dependent on climate conditions. Average maize yields (1.5 tonnes/ha) are low due to insufficient rainfall, 
depleted soil fertility, delayed planting, poor quality seeds and low use of fertilizers.
20 Production 
has been erratic during the review period and insufficient to meet domestic demand. The annual shortfall needs to be supplied through imports, mainly from South Africa. In 2013, imports of 
maize amounted to almost US$20 million.  
4.35.   The Government policy aims to increase maize production to reduce reliance on imports, 
while still meeting food security objectives. In October 2014, under the National Programme on Food Security, the Government launched a support scheme whereby it subsidized 50% of the cost 
of agricultural inputs (seeds, lime and fertilizer) used by small-scale maize producers. The 
measure is aimed at encouraging increased use of quality inputs and enhancing maize 
productivity.
21 The MOA also provides a tractor hire service for small farmers. It has been 
reported, however, that the service has not been suffici ent or effective, and that it in fact results in 
delays in planting.22  
4.36.  The National Maize Corporation (NMC), a state-owned corporation under the Ministry of 
Agriculture, aims at guaranteeing a market to loca l maize farmers at competitive prices as well as 
providing good quality maize meal at reasonable prices to the Swazi people. As established under the Control of Cereals Act No. 28 of 1959, the Corporation's functions include purchase, storage 
and marketing of maize. It also has the exclusiv e right to import maize and hence is responsible 
for importing the grain to meet persistent domestic shortfalls. The NMC is responsible for keeping a reserve of 4,000 metric tonnes. 
4.37.  The Minister of Agriculture sets a minimum price at which the NMC purchases maize from 
farmers. The price is determined taking into account the South African Futures Exchange (SAFEX) benchmark price and the local costs of production. The retail price of maize is not regulated.  
4.38.  Under the Import Control Order of 1976 an d Legal Notice No. 60 of 2000, maize is subject 
to an import permit issued by the Finance Minist ry. In addition, NAMBOARD collects an import levy 
on maize and maize products (section 3.1.2).  
4.39.  The authorities indicated that imports of genetically modified maize are allowed provided 
their importation is in accordance with the provisions of the Bio-Safety Act of 2012.  
4.1.3.3  Livestock 4.40.   Informal livestock breeding (mainly cattle) remains the dominant practice. It is a source of 
food and income for about 80% of the population , and provides draught animal power and manure 
for crop fields. Nevertheless, the sector suffers from low productivity mainly caused by 
                                               
20 Ministry of Agriculture (2014). 
21 Specifically, input subsidies are provided through a turnkey project loan (of US$37.9 million) from the 
Exim Bank of India, for a three-year term. Through the same project, 100 tractors are to be purchased to 
improve the Government's tractor hire service. Information provid ed by the Swazi authorities. 
22 Ministry of Agriculture (2014). WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 406 - 
 
  overgrazing, bad management and poor nutrition.23 Moreover, the traditional belief that cattle 
ownership represents wealth contributes to holding back the commercial development of the sector. As livestock production falls short of do mestic demand, Swaziland continues to rely on 
imported animal products, mainly meat and dairy.   
4.41.  In order to create employment in rural area s, commercialization of livestock (cattle, poultry, 
pigs and goats) is actively promoted by the Ministry of Agriculture under the Livestock Development Policy (1995). Initiatives include programmes for good animal husbandry and feeding 
practices, encouraging farmers to expand beyond rearing livestock into the processing stage, and 
marketing activities. During the review period , the Government put in place the Swaziland 
Livestock Information and Traceability System (SLITS)
24, which aims to help farmers meet uniform 
standards, avoid propagation of diseases and minimize local and cross-border theft.  
4.42.  Some industrial-scale livestock production takes place on Title Deed Land. Main products 
include beef, pork, and poultry and eggs. In fact, an important development in recent years has 
been the emergence of a modern poultry meat and egg industry, with some exports being sent to 
countries in the region. However, the poultry industry remains heavily reliant on imported inputs (feeds, feed ingredients, chicks and hatching eg gs), which are sourced mainly from South Africa. 
4.43.  Swaziland's food-and-mouth disease (FMD) free status and the fact that it produces 100% 
hormone-free meat have enabled it to export boneless beef to the EU, Norway, South Africa, 
Mozambique and other African countries. All meat exports are handled by the state-owned Swaziland Meat Industries (SMI), which operates the Simunye abattoir, the only export abattoir. 
4.44.  Swaziland's beef exports benefit from prefer ential access to the EU market, as well as from 
a tariff-free quota of 500 tonnes in the Norwegian market.
25 So far, however, Swaziland has not 
been able to take full advantage of such preferen ces, mainly due to low productivity and lack of 
marketing skills.26 Although the overall value of exports increased during the years under review 
(on account of the depreciation of the local cu rrency), export volumes fluctuated (Table 4.4). 
Approval by the EU of Swazilan d's standards and procedures for the domestic beef industry may 
help to boost exports.27 
Table 4.4 Beef exports, 2009-13  
 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Volume of exports (MT) 1,238 1,400 1,339 1,402 1,146 
Value of exports (E '000) 50,338 62,178 70,637 85,888 85,252 
Source: Central Bank of Swaziland, Annual Re ports April 2012–March 2013 and April 2013–March 2014. 
4.45.  Imports of live animals and food and non-food products of animal origin require an import 
permit (section 3.1.6). The average MFN tariff for live animals and some products of animal origin 
is zero; while the average tariff rate for meat is 20.7% and 10.6% for dairy products (Main Report Table A3.1).  
4.2  Energy, mining and quarrying 
4.2.1  Energy 
4.46.  Swaziland is a net importer of energy. The sources through which the country meets its 
energy needs include electricity, petroleum produc ts, coal and waste. The use of renewable energy 
is  m in imal . F ire wood  is  t he  main s ou rc e  of e ne r gy used in rural households where it serves as 
                                               
23 Ministry of Agriculture (2014). 
24 Online information from the Minist ry of Agriculture. Viewed at: 
http://www.gov.sz/index.php?option=com_content&v iew=article&catid=80%253Aagriculture&id=865%253Asli
ts&Itemid=594 . 
25 Norwegian Directorate of Agricultur e, online information. Viewed at: 
https://www.slf.dep.no/en/trade/ import-regime#basic-goods. 
26 In 2013, Swaziland did manage to meet its beef quota to Norway, with exports totalling 629 tonnes.  
27 Government of the Kingdom of Swaziland, Budget Speech 2014. Viewed at: www.gov.sz . WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 407 - 
 
 heating and cooking fuel, while kerosene (paraffin) is mostly used in urban areas. In 2013, the 
electrification rate was 61% (77% in urban areas and 50% in rural areas).28 
4.47.  Swaziland has no oil reserves or oil refining facilities, and relies entirely on imports from 
neighbouring nations to meet its consumption requirements. Natural gas is not consumed in the 
country.  
4.48.  The Ministry of Natural Resources and Ener gy (MNRE) is responsible for the formulation and 
implementation of the sector's policies, and for ensuring optimal utilization of natural resources.29 
The overall policy framework for the sector continues to be determined by the National Energy 
Policy of 2003, which was under review at the time of writing this report.  
4.2.1.1  Electricity 
4.49.  Domestic generation of electricity satisfies only a third of demand, while the rest is imported 
mostly from South Africa and a smaller part from Mozambique, with the attendant risk of 
shortages if there is any disruption in foreign supply. Electricity is more expensive than in any 
other SACU country.  
4.50.  Over the past few years, imports of electricity showed a persistent upward trend 
(Table 4.5). In 2013/14, electricity sales rose substantially, reflecting an increase in consumption, 
mainly for irrigation power and commercial uses. Domestic generation also rose to a record 346.6 GWh on account of abundant rains that supported hydro-power generators, however, an additional 859.9 GWh had to be imported to satisfy demand. The volume of domestic electricity 
generation remains unstable and highly dependent on weather conditions. A major challenge for 
the sector is to increase local production so as to diminish reliance on imports, especially in the face of frequent electricity supply shortages in the region. Imports of electricity are duty-free. 
Table 4.5 Electricity co nsumption, 2009/10-2013/14
 
 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 
Domestic generation (GWh) 288.1 333.4 312.8 277.4 346.6 
Imports (GWh) 909.4 805.5 813.4 821.9 859.9 
SEC sales (GWh) 1,018.6 976.8 955.1 939.9 1,035.0 
Source: Central Bank of Swaziland, Annual Repo rts April 2012-March 2013 and April 2013–March 2014. 
4.51.  Since 2007, the electricity sector has undergone regulatory restructuring aimed at 
liberalizing the industry, improving governance an d avoiding conflicts of interest within public 
entities involved in the sector. One of the most important changes has been the separation of the 
operative and regulatory functions of the former Swaziland Electricity Board (SEB). 
4.52.  The legal framework for the electricity sect or comprises three pieces of legislation, all 
enacted in 2007. The Electricity Act No. 3 opened up the markets for generation, transmission, 
distribution and supply of electricity.30 It establishes the conditions for the licences required to 
participate in each market segment and the acti vities subject to tariff regulation. The Energy 
Regulatory Act created an independent regula tor for the sector, the Swaziland Electricity 
Regulatory Authority (SERA); and the Electricity Company Act transformed the former SEB into the 
Swaziland Electricity Company (SEC). 
4.53.  SERA is empowered to issue, modify or revoke licences for the generation, transmission, 
distribution, supply (including off-grid and mini -grid supplies), importation and exportation of 
electricity, and for performing the role of integr ated power system operator. It is responsible for 
regulating the electricity prices charged by licensees31 and for monitoring their performance, as 
                                               
28 Information provided by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy with data from the Swaziland 
Household Energy Access Survey. 
29 Ministry of Natural Resources and En ergy, online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.gov.sz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=203&Itemid=234 . 
30 A special provision for hydropower plants requires the transfer to the Government of all installations, 
property and rights needed for generation after the expi ry of a licence (40 years for a generation licence).  
31 The Electricity Act requires prices to be determin ed in accordance with a defined and approved tariff 
methodology. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  well as for protecting consumers.32 Participation by individual power producers (IPP) is encouraged 
by the new legislation, but so far only one IPP (Ubombo Sugar Ltd.) has received a licence to 
generate electricity for its own use with the possibility of selling surpluses to the national grid.33  
4.54.  SEC is a state-owned enterprise regulate d by SERA. It continues to hold a de facto 
monopoly on transmission, distribu tion, supply, and import of electr icity, and operates the national 
grid. SEC has a load capacity of 200 MW and a transmission capacity of 700 MW. The Matraco 
400 kv transmission line crosses Swaziland allo wing electricity imports from Mozambique.34 The 
opening of the Maguga Power Station in 2010 added 20 MW to the national grid.  
4.55.  SEC is the sole purchaser of electricity in the market. It purchases power from a few local 
private producers, for which the terms of operation are settled in a power purchasing agreement. 
The largest IPP is the Ubombo Sugar co-generation project, a mostly privately owned company, which sold 44.4 GWh in 2013/14, representing 12.7% of domestic production (or roughly 4% of 
total demand).
35  
4.56.  The electricity tariff structure applies different rates to various categories of users; rates for 
domestic consumers are subsidized. SEC undertakes studies and proposes a final-user tariff to 
SERA, which approves or rejects the proposed rate by evaluating if it is cost-reflective and fair.36 
Swaziland currently has the highest tariffs of electricity in the region.37 
4.2.1.2  Fuels 
4.57.  All petroleum products consumed in Swaziland are imported, mostly from the Durban 
refineries in South Africa, and occasionally from Mozambique. Distribution is in the hands of 
private oil companies. The prices of petroleum, di esel and paraffin are regulated by the Ministry of 
Natural Resources and Energy (MNRE), as they are considered to be strategic commodities. Petrol and diesel are subject to a fuel oil levy of E 0. 70 per litre and a fuel tax of E 2.20 per litre. The 
proceeds are deposited in a special fund; the amount collected from the tax is used by the 
Government for the rehabilitation of infrastructure, while the levy amount is used to cushion hikes 
in international fuel prices. 
4.58.  The MNRE has been working for several years on a comprehensive Petroleum Bill that will 
consolidate all relevant legislation and address matters such as the regulation of the oil industry; 
ensuring stable and reliable petroleum availability for the economy; achieving regional competitiveness and fair pricing of petroleum fuels; and encouraging local participation in the 
industry.
38 The bill has not yet been submitted to Parliament.  
4.59.  Under the 2009 National Bio-Fuels Developm ent Strategy and Action Plan, the authorities 
are considering the introduction of a requirement that 10% of total fuel be mixed with ethanol. They expect this measure would help diversify en ergy supply, induce the use of cleaner energy 
and support local production of ethanol, which is extracted from sugar molasses.  
4.60.  Oil companies are required to store a mini mum quantity of stocks to ensure security of 
supply in the event of disruptions. The Govern ment's own fuel storage capacity is by far 
insufficient, which remains a concern given the country's import dependency. The MNRE has 
started the construction of an 80-million-litre (90-da y) strategic fuel storage facility in Phuzumoya.  
4.61.  As required by the Import Control Orde r of 1976 and Legal Notice No. 60 of 2000, imports 
of mineral fuels require an import permit from th e Ministry of Finance. In 2013, imports of mineral 
fuels accounted for 15.3% of Swaziland's merchandise imports. 
                                               
32 Energy Regulatory Act of 2007 (Article 5). 
33 The authorities indicated that a new po licy promoting IPPs is being drafted. 
34 Swaziland Energy Regulatory Authority, online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.sera.org.sz/index.php?option= com_content&view=article&id=7&Itemid=30.  
35 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014).  
36 Information provided by the Swazi authorities. 
37 African Development Bank (2013). 
38 Ministry of Natural Resources and En ergy, online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.gov.sz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=482&Itemid=361 . WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 4.2.2  Mining and quarrying 
4.62.  The mining and quarrying sector accounts for 0.1% of GDP and its main products are coal, 
iron ore and quarried stone. After a period of sluggish performance, the sector has seen an 
expansion in the past few years owing to the commencement of iron ore production and 
improvements in the production of coal; this has been reflected in the growth of mineral exports. 
The simple average MFN tariff in mining and quarrying (ISIC Rev.2 definition) is 0.1%, with rates ranging from zero to 10% (Main Report, Table 3.4).  
4.63.  The Ngwenya iron ore mine was reopened in 2011, after almost four decades of closure. 
Important investments by the mine company resulted in a significant increase in production, which rose from 0.079 metric tonnes (MT) in 2011 to 1.2 million MT in 2013. As iron ore quality increased so did the value of sales. Exports of  iron ore were worth E 558.6 million in 2013, up 
from E 393.7 million in 2012. All exports were destined for the Chinese market.
39  
4.64.  Coal production was erratic during the first few years under revi ew. However, following 
improvements at the only active coal mine, Maloma Colliery, linking it to a higher yielding coal 
seam, production has increased to record highs, reaching 257,090 metric tonnes in 2013 (up from 
121,050 in 2011). Coal sales were worth E 245.7 million in 2013.40 All local production of high-
quality anthracite coal is exported to South Afri ca for industrial purposes, while domestic demand 
is met with imports from South Africa (mainly cheaper bituminous coal for use as fuel); the reason 
for this being that local coal is not compatible with most industrial/boiler equipment used in 
Swaziland.41  
4.65.  Quarry stone production also fluctuated during the review period. It was 292,704 cubic 
metres in 2013 (down from 308,440 in 2012). Despite this drop, sales increased to E 28.5 million in 2013 on account of price and quality increases. Quarried stone is mostly used locally for road 
construction and repair as well as for private sector construction projects. Other mineral deposits 
in Swaziland include gold, diamond, kaolin, nickel, and silica, but they are not currently exploited.  
4.66.  The Ministry of Natural Resources and En ergy is responsible for overseeing the mining 
sector. Swaziland became a full participant in the Kimberley Process in May 2011. 
4.67.  As established in the Constitution, all mining rights are vested in the King and held in trust 
for the Swazi nation; mining royalties are paid to a royal trust fund. During the review period, a new Mines and Minerals Act No. 4 of 2011 was passed to regulate the management of minerals 
and mineral oils, including the granting of mineral rights. Any corporate or legal entity must be 
registered to operate in Swaziland in order to apply for a mineral right. In conducting their operations, the holders of mineral rights must give preference to the maximum extent possible to 
materials and products made in Swaziland and service agencies located in Swaziland and owned 
by its citizens and by companies incorporated in Swaziland.  
4.68.  The Mines and Minerals Act No. 4 of 2011 makes a distinction between large-scale and 
small-scale mining operations. Small-scale operations may be granted prospecting and mining 
permits; they are reserved for Swazi citizens and body corporates which are majority-owned by citizens of Swaziland. Small-scale operations are required to exploit the minerals in an economically and environmentally sustainable manner.  
4.69.  Large-scale operations require a licence for reconnaissance, prospecting and mining 
activities. The application information required for each type of licence differs but the procedures 
are the same (Box 4.1). Under the Act, the King has the right to acquire, in trust for the Swazi 
Nation, a 25% shareholding without any monetary consideration in any large-scale mining project 
for which a licence is granted, and the Government has the obligation to acquire an additional 25% share (of which 15% is maintained in a fund, and the remaining 10% may be acquired by any 
                                               
39 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014). 
40 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014). 
41 Ministry of Natural Resources and En ergy, online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.gov.sz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=479&Itemid=361.   WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  person who is a citizen of Swaziland).42 A number of mining licences have been granted since the 
entry into force of the Mines and Minerals Act in 2011. 
Box 4.1 Procedure for obtaining licences related to large-scale mineral operations  
Applications for reconnaissance, prospecting and mining licences:  
1. An application is lodged with the Commissioner of Mines stating the type of licence sought: 
reconnaissance, prospecting or mining.  
2. The Commissioner of Mines acknowledges receipt of th e application, appraises the project's contents, 
suitability and relevance to the targeted area and makes a report based on th e specific requirements. 
3. The Commissioner of Mines forwards the applic ation to the Minerals Management Board (MMB).a 
4. The MMB considers the application and invites the project proponent to make a presentation of its project, 
including financial, technical, and marketing information. 
5. After the presentation, the MMB evaluates the application using criteria developed within the legislative 
framework, and makes a recommendation to the King.  
6. The King makes the final decision, based on the MMB' s recommendation and other supporting information, 
which may have been supplied at the ti me of application or the presentation. 
7. The project proponent is notified, in writ ing, of the outcome of its application. 
a The MBB consist of the Commissioner of Mines, a mine engineer, an economist, a lawyer, and three 
other persons, including the chairperson, who are appointed by the King on the advice of the Minister of Natural Resources and Energy. 
Source: Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy. Viewed at: 
http://www.gov.sz/index.php?option=com _content&catid=84:natural-resources-a-
energy&id=405:mining-department&Itemid=232 . 
4.3  Manufacturing 
4.70.  The share of manufacturing in real GDP declined during the review period from 35.8% in 
2008 to 28% in 2014, as the sector contracted at an annual average rate of 1.7% between those 
years. Nevertheless, it still contributes about 60%  to merchandise exports (Appendix Table A1.1). 
It is estimated that manufacturing accounts for ar ound 60% of total FDI in Swaziland and employs 
about a quarter of the labour force.43  
4.71.  Manufacturing activity remains focused on agro-processing industries, namely value-added 
sugar products (confectionery and soft drinks), ca nned fruit, and timber products (furniture, doors, 
floor fittings, pallets). Textile and clothing is also an important industry, although it has faced 
some difficulties in recent years. Given the limited size of the domestic market, a substantial part of manufacturing output is exported. The main export market remains South Africa.  
4.72.   The value-added sugar industry is dominated by soft drinks processing. Coca Cola 
Swaziland (Conco Ltd.) exports soft-drink concentr ates to 20 countries in southern and eastern 
Africa, using local sugar raw materials. Processing of fruit is another important industry; production includes canned fruit, juice concentrates, jams, fruit cups and jars. The main producing 
firm and exporter of canned products is a So uth African company. Exports of preserved and 
processed fruit increased from US$18 million in  2008 to US$34.6 million in 2013, representing 
almost 2% of total merchandise exports.
44 
4.73.  Traditionally, the Swazi textile and clothing industry has been a major contributor to 
employment and foreign exchange earnings, bene fiting from preferential trade schemes, FDI 
inflows and government incentives. During the re view period, however, the sector faced a number 
of challenges, including increased international competition, a volatile currency, a slowdown in 
foreign demand, the phase-out of export incentives45, and the removal of Swaziland's AGOA 
eligibility status (as of January 2015). The combination of these factors has resulted in erratic performance of the textile and clothing industry. Company closures and job losses have been 
reported, while exports under the AGOA scheme declined to less than US$50 million in 2013 (17% 
less than in 2012).
46 This has led the industry to seek alte rnative outlets. Largely focused on the 
                                               
42 Mines and Minerals Act No. 4 of 2011 (Section 133). 
43 Forsyth (2013). 
44 Refers to products under HS headings: 0811, 0812, 0814, 2007, 2008 and 2009. 
45 Under the Textile and Clothing Industry Developmen t Programme, exporters could earn tradable duty 
credit certificates equal to 25% of the value of thei r exports. This sc heme was terminated in March 2010. 
46 AGOA (2014).  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 US market until recently, the apparel industry is  now turning towards the domestic and regional 
markets, especially that of South Africa, and although knit articles have traditionally dominated exports, manufacturers are now producing a wider range of products for the South African market.
47 Exports of textiles and clothing actually increased during the review period, amounting 
to US$193 million in 2013 or 10.1% of total merchandise exports (Table A1.1). The industry is 
largely dependent on imports of fabric and raw materials. 
4.74.  The Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Trade (MCIT) is responsible for formulating and 
implementing policies for the industrial sect or. The MCIT encourages the development of 
manufacturing activities by establishing industrial estates and selling fully-serviced industrial land at concessionary rates. In collaboration with SIPA , the MCIT also encourages the establishment of 
industries by promoting domestic and foreign investment in manufacturing. Investment incentives 
provide financial and non-financial benefits, including concessional corporate tax rates, duty-free 
imports or duty rebates, and accelerated depreciation, among other benefits (section 3.3.1). 
4.75.  The MCIT is in the process of formul ating a new Industrial and Trade Policy 2015-22. 
According to a draft version of the document, the in dustrial policy objectives would include: more 
than doubling the manufacturing sector's contribu tion to GDP by achieving robust annual growth 
rates until 2022; increasing employment in manufacturing activities by 5% per year; promoting 
utilization of local and regional raw materials in the production of goods for domestic and export 
markets; increasing value addition in traditional and non-traditional tradable services; promoting diversification of industrial activities and widening the industrial base; increasing domestic and foreign investment; and promoting the participation of SMEs in manufacturing.
48 
4.76.  Maximization of value addition and industry diversification are considered crucial for 
Swaziland's economic development, especially in light of the need to reach out to new markets. A recent Economic Diversification Study identified ad ditional sugar and sugar-based products such as 
chewing gum, solid sugar and alcoholic solutions, as having a competitive advantage and thus 
suitable for diversification.
49  
4.77.  The simple average SACU tariff on manufactured products is 8.7% (ISIC definition). Rates 
range from: 0-39.9% for sugar and sugar confectionery; 0-55% for preparations of fruit and vegetables; 0-624% for textiles, and 0-45% for clothing. (Main Report, Table 3.4). The apparel industry might stand to benefit from lower tariffs on imports of fabrics (from outside SACU), which 
are currently at about 22%.  
4.4  Services 4.4.1  Main features and multilateral commitments 
4.78.  Services remain the most important sect or of the Swazi economy and saw their share in 
real GDP grow from 48.7% to 54.7% in 2014; the largest services component is "public administration, defence, education, health and social care". Swaziland remains a net importer of 
services. Over the review period, Swaziland cont inued updating the regulatory and institutional 
frameworks for services, including the financial, telecommunications and transport subsectors.  
4.79.  Swaziland's specific commitments under th e GATS are limited to some business services, 
hospital services, and hotel and restaurant services.
50 Its horizontal commitments comprise nine 
sectors/subsectors.51 For all of them, there are no market access limitations for consumption 
abroad or commercial presence, while measures affecting cross-border supply are unbound. Under 
                                               
47 African Cotton and Textile Industries Federation (2010), Impact of AGOA on the Swaziland Textile 
Industry , August. Viewed at: 
http://www.cottonafrica.com/documents/ACTIF% 20Report%20on%20Impact%20of%20AGOA%20on%20the%
20Textile%20Industry%20in%20Sw aziland_Jack%20Kipling_2010.pdf . 
48 Information provided by the Swazi authorities. 
49 Study quoted in African Development Bank, OECD, UNDP (2014a).  
50 WTO document S/DCS/W/SWZ/, 24 January 2003. 
51 Engineering services, integrated  engineering services, medical an d dental services, consultancy 
services related to the installation  of computer hardware, research and experimental services on natural 
science and engineering, management consulting services, technical testing and analysis services, hospital services, and hotel and restaurant services.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  movement of natural persons, Swaziland bound the supply of services by senior staff in several 
professional services.   
4.80.  Swaziland lodged MFN exemptions in relation to financial services and road transport. The 
former covers preferential access for member s of the Common Monetary Area (CMA) to 
Swaziland's capital and money markets and the ma intenance of exchange controls by the CMA. 
The latter covers any existing or future bilateral agreements on international road/rail transport reserving or limiting the supply of a transport se rvice between Swaziland and the members of such 
agreements.  
4.4.2  Financial Services 4.81.  The financial services sector comprises banking institutions (commercial banks and building 
societies) and non-banking institutions (pension  funds, saving and credit cooperatives and 
insurance companies). Two institutions are responsible for the regulation of the financial sector: 
the Central Bank of Swaziland oversees and regulates banking institutions, and the new Financial Services Regulation Authority (FSRA) is in charge of the regulation and supervision of non-banking 
institutions (NBIs). 
4.4.2.1  Banking institutions  4.82.  No major changes took place in the structure of the banking sector during the review 
period: there are four commercial banks, one building society and three licensed credit 
institutions
52 (Table 4.6). The banking sector's total assets amounted to E 12.9 billion in December 
2013.53 
4.83.  The sector is characterized by a strong foreign presence. Three commercial banks are 
subsidiaries of South African holding companies; they account for about 85.5% of the banking 
sector's assets.54 On the other hand, the Swaziland Development and Savings Bank (known as 
Swazibank) is entirely owned by the Government . Restructuring of Swazibank in an effort to 
improve governance and efficiency has been envisaged for several years, but no concrete actions 
have been taken so far. Nedbank (Swaziland) Limited is the sole banking institution to be listed in the Swaziland Stock Exchange. The Swaziland Buil ding Society focuses on providing mortgage 
financial services for urban estate development on Title Deed Land. 
Table 4.6 Banking institutions' shareholding structure, 2013  
(%) 
Banking institution Government 
of Swaziland  Foreign Public 
Commercial banks    
First National Bank Swaziland Ltd. -- 100 -- 
Nedbank (Swaziland) Ltd. 23 67 10 
Standard Bank Swaziland Ltd. 25 65 10 
Swaziland Development and Saving s Bank (Swazibank) 100 -- -- 
Other financial services institutions    
Swaziland Building Society -- -- 100 
Blue Financial Services -- 100 -- 
First Finance  100 -- -- 
Source: Central Bank of Swaziland, Annual Report 2013/14. 
4.84.  Banking entities must hold a licence issued  by the Central Bank of Swaziland to operate. 
The Financial Institutions Act of 2005 lists the requirements for obtaining a banking operator 
licence, which include a statement of business purposes, capital adequacy and sound financial integrity, balance sheets, and in the case of a foreign financial institution, evidence that it is 
subject to comprehensive supervision or regulation on a consolidated basis by the appropriate 
                                               
52 A fourth credit company lost its conditional licence in 2013 after failing to start operations within the 
fixed deadline. 
53 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014). 
54 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014). WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 authorities in its home country.55 Fees for a first time licence are E 6,000 and to renew a licence 
costs E 1,000 plus E 500 per each branch; licences must be renewed every year. 
4.85.  A bank incorporated in Swaziland is required to have an initial paid-up capital of not less 
than E 15 million, or paid-up shares and reserves amounting to the greater of E 15 million or 5% 
of its liabilities to the public in Swaziland as per the most recent balance sheet. The minimum 
statutory capital adequacy ratio (CAR) for banks is  8% of total risk-weighted assets. In December 
2013, all four commercial banks showed robust adequa cy ratios, with the total capital ratio of the 
industry standing at 24.4%.56 Liquidity requirements are 20% of total liabilities to the public for 
the private banks and 17% for Swazibank. By end-2013, banks' non-performing loans and advances represented 7.6% of gross loans, a slight improvement from the 10.6% recorded in December 2012.
57 
4.86.  The Central Bank expects to implement th e Basel II Agreement (a compilation of banking 
laws and regulations issued by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision), although no specific date for implementation has been established. It should be noted that South African banks which 
own subsidiaries in Swaziland are already operating under Basel III in their home country. 
4.87.  Access to financial services in Swaziland remains difficult for the majority of the population. 
Credit lending is concentrated in the sugar subsector
58, and banking institutions seem wary of 
enlarging their prospective clientele. Moreover, bo rrowing fees and rates are high. Difficulty of 
access to banking credit has boosted the emergence of NBIs, especially savings and credit cooperatives (SACCOs). Nonetheless, over a third of the population still lacks access to any form 
of financial services.
59  
4.4.2.2  Non-banking institutions 
4.88.  The non-banking sector comprises 237 retirement funds, 67 SACCOs and 10 insurance 
companies.60 Non-banking institutions account for about two-thirds of the financial sector's 
assets.61  
4.89.  Reform of the NBI sector started in 2005 with the enactment of the Retirement Funds Act 
and the Insurance Act. The Retirement Funds Act (2005) allowed for the use of retirement fund 
benefits as collateral to obtain loans for building on Swazi Nation Land (SNL), and required 
retirement funds to invest at least 30% of their assets in Swaziland.62  
4.90.  The Insurance Act (2005) put an end to  the monopoly held by the Swaziland Royal 
Insurance Company (SRIC), in which the Government has a stake, and opened the insurance 
market to competition. In 2014, the SRIC still accounted for 44.3% of the insurance market in 
terms of premium income.63  
4.91.  Compulsory public liability motor vehicle insurance is the main product in the market. 
Workman's compensation insurance is also compulsory. An insurance company cannot provide 
both life and non-life insurance products. However, a non-life insurance company may offer life insurance products but only as a supplement to th e main product. The SRIC enjoys an exemption 
allowing it to provide both life and non-life insu rance because it was selling both types of products 
before the entry into force of the Insurance Act 2005. Insurance companies determine their own premium tariffs, without the need for government approval. A risk located in Swaziland cannot be 
covered by a non-resident insurance company. Ho wever, upon request by a Swazi insurer, the 
Financial Services Regulatory Authority (see below), may grant dispensation for contracting 
reinsurance with a non-resident insurance company. 
                                               
55 Financial Institutions Act of 2005 (part II). 
56 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014).  
57 Central Bank of Swaziland (2014). 
58 African Development Bank, OECD, UNDP (2014a), page 10.  
59 African Development Bank, OECD, UNDP (2014a), page 10. 
60 Information provided by the Swazi authorities. 
61 IMF (2014). 
62 The pace of compliance by the industry has be en slow; the compliance rate was 28% in 2012 and 
29% in 2013. Financial Services Regulatory Authority (2013), page 40. 
63 Information provided by the Swazi authorities. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  4.92.  Foreign investors may participate in the insurance market, provided the following conditions 
are met: only public companies with paid-up share capital of at least E 2 million may apply for registration as insurers; at least 25% of the shares of the company must be held either by natural persons who are citizens of Swaziland or by juridi cal persons; and at least 51% of the shares or 
interest of juridical persons must be held by citizens of Swaziland.
64 Additionally, at least 25% of 
the directors of the company must be citizens of Swaziland, and any insurer registered in 
Swaziland must maintain a principal office and appo int a principal representative in the country.  
4.93.  The main development during the review period was the enactment of the Financial Services 
Regulation Authority Act 2010 and the establishment of the Financial Services Regulatory Authority 
(FSRA) in 2010. Under its mandate, the FSRA is responsible for supervising and regulating all NBIs, including insurance companies, retirement funds, and SACCOs, all previously overseen by 
different entities. Currently, the FSRA is developing legislation to regulate SACCOs, and, in the 
meantime, it has issued guidelines to address SACCOs' licensing, governance and reporting issues.
65 
4.94.  The establishment of the FSRA is expected  to strengthen the institutional and regulatory 
framework for the NBI sector. This was of high pr iority to the Government as the number of NBIs 
expanded considerably in the last decade, and the lack of regulation of their activities posed a 
significant risk to the financial sector. NBIs are vulnerable and have no capacity to react to 
external shocks to the economy, since they cannot resort to the Central Bank as an emergency lender and do not have insurance guarantees. Moreover, insolvency in the NBI sector could have a contagion effect on commercial banking.
66 Swaziland does not have an insurance deposit scheme. 
4.95.  During the review period, there were no  changes in the Swaziland Stock Exchange (SSE) 
listings. The SSE continues to host 6 equity companies. Domestic market capitalization of stocks in Swaziland reached E 2.05 billion in 2013.
67  
4.4.3  Telecommunications and postal services 
4.96.  The telecommunications sector continued to grow during the review period. Mobile 
subscriptions increased rapidly, reaching a penetration rate of 71.4% (Table 4.7). Internet 
broadband uptake also grew fast, albeit from a very low base; thus its penetration rate remains 
low and lags behind other SACU countries. 
Table 4.7 Selected telecommunication indicators, 2008-13  
 2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 2013  
Fixed-line subscriptions 45,162 45,162 52,966 75,825 45,565 46,000 
Fixed-line subscriptions per 100 
inhabitants 3.91 3.85 4.44 6.26 3.70 3.68 
Mobile subscriptions 531,643 664,432 725,802 766,540 805,000 893,000 
Mobile subscriptions per 100 
inhabitants 46.07 56.61 60.83 63.24 65.39 71.47 
Fixed (wired) Internet 
subscriptions 20,000 3,507 4,200 4,700 3,812 n.a. 
Fixed (wired) Internet 
subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 1.73 0.30 0.35 0.39 0.31 n.a. 
Fixed (wired) broadband 
subscriptions  772 1,504 1,970 2,778 3,429 4,200 
Fixed (wired) broadband 
subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 0.07 0.13 0.17 0.23 0.28 0.34 
Individuals using the Internet  
(% of the population) 6.85 8.94 11.04 18.13 20.78 24.7 
Source: International Telecommunications Union, ICT-EYE Statistics Database. Viewed at: 
http://www.itu.int/net4/itu-d/icteye/ .  
4.97.  The sector is characterized by the existence of de facto monopolies in the fixed-line and 
mobile telephone markets. This has undermined price competition and the introduction of new 
                                               
64 In the case of a retirement fund, at least 51% of its membership must be citizens of Swaziland. 
65 Financial Services Regulatory Authority (2013).  
66 International Monetary Fund (2014).  
67 Financial Services Regulatory Authority (2013), page 57. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 technologies.68 The parastatal Swaziland Post and Telecommunications Corporation (SPTC) 
maintains a dominant position in the sector. Swazi Telecom, owned by SPTC, has the monopoly of fixed-line services, while Swazi MTN is the only mobile services provider. Swazi MTN's ownership structure is: SPTC (51%), MTN South Africa (30%) and a fund called Swaziland Empowerment 
Limited (19%).  
4.98.  The Ministry of Information, Communica tions and Technology (MICT) is the leading 
government body for telecommunications. It is responsible for defining strategies for the 
development and expansion of the sector, monitori ng the implementation of ICT-related treaties 
and recommending draft regulations to the Cabinet, among other tasks.
69 
4.99.  During the review period, the telecommunications sector underwent important institutional 
and legal reforms. Two long-awaited Acts were passed in 2013, the Electronic Communications Act 
and the Communications Commission Act. Together both acts repealed the previous Post and 
Telecommunications Corporation Act of 1983.  
4.100.  The Electronic Communications Act 2013 provides a framework for the development and 
regulation of electronic communications networks and services. It includes provisions on licensing 
requirements and procedures, obligations of do minant operators (e.g. access to networks, 
transparency and non-discrimination), universal service obligations, and management of the radio 
frequency spectrum, among others. The authorities are currently working on the draft of the 
interconnection and access principles and regulations.  
4.101.  The Communications Commission Act 2013 created an independent regulator for the 
sector, the Swaziland Communications Commission (SCCOM). By the same token, the Act brought 
an end to the dual role played by the SPTC as sole market operator and regulator. However, the 
SPTC has maintained its status as a state-owned company and still supplies the entire fixed-line services market. The SCCOM will be responsible for issuing licences for the different types of 
telecommunication services. The Commission has yet to become fully operational and perform its 
tasks in an independent manner.  
4.102.  The new legislation should enable market access for new mobile and fixed telephone 
operators and Internet services providers, theref ore promoting competition, price reductions and 
improved service quality for the benefit of final users. The Swaziland Economic Recovery Strategy of 2011 pointed out that Swaziland is the very last  country in the region to still have only one 
mobile services provider.
70 Without competition in the telecommunications sector, Swaziland may 
miss opportunities for the introduction of new technologies and for lowering tariffs for citizens and 
businesses. 
4.103.  The prices of telecommunication services in Swaziland are high by regional standards, 
affecting local firms and users. Tariffs are less a ffordable for households in Swaziland than in 
South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. Swaziland's ICT price basket (IPB) index is 10.3, compared to those of South Africa (3.2), Botswana (3.3) and Namibia (4.9).
71 The price of a fixed broadband 
subscription in Swaziland is equivalent to 22.2% of GNI per capita, for a mobile telephone 
subscription 6.6%, and for a fixed-line subscription 2%.72  
4.104.  Swazi Post, also under the SPTC, handles all traditional postal services in the country. 
However, the market is open to express courier services. The MICT is currently preparing new 
regulations in order to separate postal services from telecommunications.73  
                                               
68 African Development Bank (2014b). 
69 Electronic Communications Act of 2013 (Article 9).  
70 This situation "seriously undermines the country's prospects of attaining first world status" . Ministry of 
Economic Planning and Development (2011), Economic Recovery Strategy, Final Draft  provided by the 
authorities. 
71 The ICT price basket (IPB) index measures the pr ices of a basket of telecom services (fixed-
telephone, mobile-cellular an d fixed-broadband services) as a percentage  of a country's gross national income 
(GNI) per capita adjusted by PPP. International Telecommunications Union (2014), page 167.  
72 ITU (2014), page 167.  
73 Information provided by the Swazi authorities. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  4.4.4  Transport 
4.4.4.1  Overview 4.105.  Transport services and infrastructure in Swaziland, a landlocked country, are crucial for 
regional integration and trade expansion. The country depends on its neighbours for access to 
overseas markets, hence the importance of having  an extended and reliable transport network as 
well as efficient cross-border procedures. Most of Swaziland's trade is transported by road, although export cargo is often transported by rail to the port of Maputo (Mozambique). At present, 
air freight is almost non-existent, but the Government has plans to introduce cargo freight services 
following the recent opening of the King Ms wati III International Airport at Sikhuphe.  
4.106.  The Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MPWT) is the lead agency for the sector. Road 
transport is managed by the Road Transportation Department of MPWT. Two parastatals, 
Swaziland Railway and the Swaziland Civil Aviation Authority (SWACAA) are in charge of 
supervising rail and air transport, respectively. The legislative framework consists mainly of four pieces of legislation: the Roads and Outspan Act of 1931, the Public Transport and Traffic Act of 
2007, the Swaziland Railways Act No. 15 of 1962 and the Swaziland Civil Aviation Act of 2009. 
4.107.  The National Transport Policy of 2000 (NTP) remains the referential framework for the 
sector, although some local authorities have stressed the need for updating it. One of the main 
challenges facing the sector is inadequate maintenance of the transport infrastructure, particularly 
of the railway network, which has been underused in recent years. 
4.108.  In 2013, the Government prepared a Transport Master Plan, which, based on an 
assessment of the implementation of the NTP, prop oses actions for the sector's development over 
a 20-year time period. It recommends investme nt programmes in all transport subsectors, 
maintenance and rehabilitation programmes, institutional reforms and the revision of policies and legislation.
74 The authorities indicated that the Master Plan was ready for submission to the 
relevant government structures to start the process of its adoption. Both the NTP and the 
Transport Master Plan highlight the need for reducing high transport costs that adversely affect the climate for doing business in the country. 
4.109.  Swaziland participates in the SADC Transport, Communications and Meteorology Protocol 
aimed at establishing an integrated transport policy and infrastructure in the SADC region that will further guarantee the right of freedom of transit of  persons and goods, and the right of landlocked 
countries to have unimpeded access to and from the seas. The protocol also promotes inter-and-
intra modal cooperation between all stakeholders in the development of regional transport 
corridors to facilitate traffic and travel between member States. Swaziland is also a signatory to the SACU Memorandum of Understanding on Road Transportation of 1990 (section 4.4.4.2). 
4.110.  Transport costs in Swaziland remain high owing to several factors. These include: 
relatively low volumes of imports and exports, particularly for rail transport, thus resulting in high unit costs; traffic flow imbalances, resulting in a large proportion of empty return hauls, and 
additional costs for repositioning empty containers; and congestion in air and sea ports in 
neighbouring countries, which increases transportation time.  
4.4.4.2  Road transport 4.111.  Road transport is the backbone of the national transport system, as most people and 
merchandise are transported through this means. Private companies, mainly multinational 
enterprises, handle most road freight and cross- border operations through 14 border posts with 
South Africa (12) and Mozambique (2). More than 90% of cargo carried by road in cross-border 
movements goes to South Africa.  
4.112.  The national road network consists of  3,594 kilometres, of which 1,078 are paved roads.
75 
The Roads Department of the MPWT is responsible for planning, construction and maintenance of 
the national road network. MPWT expenditure on roads amounted to an estimated E 250 million in 
                                               
74 Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013). 
75 KPMG Services (Pro prietary) Limited, Swaziland Country Profile (2012) .  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 2011/12. The number of registered vehicles of all ty pes grew by an average of 7% per year during 
the period 2001-11, reaching 153,448.76 Stronger and more comprehensive road safety policies 
and enforcement are among the challenges iden tified by the road transport authorities. 
4.113.  Since the last Review, no new legislation on  road transport has been enacted. Although the 
NTP pleaded intensively for the establishment of a Roads Authority, the Road Authority Bill and the 
Roads Fund Bill of 2008 have stalled. Both bills are crucial for the maintenance and development of roads. While the Roads Fund Bill would provide a sound basis for management and investment 
in road infrastructure, an independent new author ity under the Road Authority Bill would manage 
the control of overloaded vehicles (a main cause of the poor state of roads) thus contributing to lowering maintenance costs.  
4.114.  In addition to the Public Transport and Traffic Act of 2007 regulating general traffic, the 
Road Transportation Act of 2007 sets the rules for acquiring a permit for freight or public 
passenger transport. Enforcement of both acts  is supervised by the Road Transportation 
Department of the MPWT, pending the creation of a new Roads Authority.  
4.115.  Swaziland is a signatory to the SACU Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on Road 
Transportation (1990). The main objective of the MoU is to regulate the transport of goods and 
passengers by road, for payment, between or across the SACU countries to ensure an equal 
distribution of traffic among SACU-registered carriers. A permit is required for the transport of 
passengers or goods, issued in a standardized format by the respective transport authorities in each SACU country. A carrier of one SACU country is not allowed to carry goods between two points in another SACU country or between another SACU country and a third country unless the 
vehicle transits its country of registration. The authorities have indicated that there are ongoing 
negotiations to liberalize cabotage services within SACU. As regards the transportation of passengers, the conditions regarding the routes, frequency of service, stopping points, tariffs, etc. 
are set out in the permit. Once issued by the co mpetent authority in one SACU country, the permit 
is valid in the other SACU countries for the duration for which it is issued.  
4.116.  Swaziland does not maintain price regulations for cargo transportation. In the case of 
passenger transport, private operators submit fa re proposals to the MPWT, which then issues a 
decree through the Swaziland Gazette esta blishing maximum fares per kilometre.  
4.117.  In 2014, Swaziland obtained approval  for a US$45.9 million loan from the African 
Development Bank for the construction of a highway connecting Manzini and Mbadlane (in the 
east) on the national road MR3. The total cost of  the project is estimated at US$132.2 million, with 
the rest of the funds to be provided by the Swazi Government and other donors.
77 The major 
activities include upgrading a 30-km band of the MR 3 road from a two-lane single carriageway to a 
two-lane dual highway; the construction of a new 32-kilometre two-lane single road; new rural 
feeder roads enabling access to health services; th e implementation of institutional reforms; and 
technical assistance. Upon completion by mid-2018,  the project is expected to increase trade 
activities and mobility of traffic; reduce transport and trade cost; create jobs; and improve access 
to health facilities.78  
4.4.4.3  Rail transport 4.118.  Swaziland has 301 kilometres of railway ne twork. It connects Swaziland's main industrial 
areas with the Durban, Richards Bay and Maputo ports. The authorities are currently evaluating 
the prospect of rehabilitating unused rail lines and also building a railway link between west Swaziland and South Africa (Lothair). 
4.119.  The parastatal Swaziland Railway owns an d operates the entire railway network and is 
responsible for its maintenance. According to the Transport Master Plan, improvement of the 
                                               
76 Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013), page 5.  
77 Funding partners include the Kuwait Fund, the Abu Dhabi Development Fund, the Arab Bank for 
Economic Development and the OPEC Fund for International Development. 
78 African Development Bank (2014c).  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  parastatal's governance is needed, as is the implementation of independent rail safety 
regulations.79  
4.120.  Traditionally, local rail transport has relied on leased wagons and locomotives from 
companies in South Africa. However, Swaziland Railway has recently purchased new locomotives 
and wagons for its own use. Only nationals are allowed to work as locomotive drivers. 
4.121.  Most of the international rail traffic transp orted by Swaziland Railway is transit traffic. In 
2012, the parastatal transported some 4.9 million tonnes of cargo, of which roughly 80% was 
transit traffic carrying mining materials from the region of Phalaborwa to the port of Richards Bay 
(both in South Africa). Freight traffic originating in or destined for Swaziland consists of containers and bulk cargo (fuel, cement, and sugar) transpor ted to and from Swaziland Railway's main yard 
and inland container depot (dry port) at Matspha.  The dry port provides the services associated 
with a sea port such as handling containers, customs clearance facilities, and temporary container 
storage. It handles around 10,000 TEUs per year. An  additional two million tonnes of iron tailings 
are transported by rail to the ports of Maputo or Richards Bay.
80  
4.122.  A joint agreement between Transnet (a pr ivate railway operator from South Africa) and 
Swaziland Railway will allow for the development of a new 146-kilometre line from Lothair (in the South African region of Mpumalanga) to Swaziland,  enabling up to 200 wagons of freight to be 
transported between both places. At the time of writing, the project was still at the feasibility 
study phase. 
4.4.4.4  Air transport 4.123.  Air freight services are virtually non-existent because of their high cost. Instead, 
Swazi exporters send their shipments to the Johannesburg air hub by road transport, and from 
there link to airfreight services to overseas ma rkets. Air services are provided for passenger 
transport.  
4.124.  Since the last Review, the Civil Aviation Authority Act of 2009 has come into force and a 
new air transport regulator, the Swaziland Ci vil Aviation Authority (SWACAA), has been 
established (replacing the former Department of Civil Aviation). The new Authority's mandate 
includes: regulation of the civil aviation industry, operation and management of airport facilities, 
issuing of air licences and negotiation of bilateral air services agreements.
81 The Transport Master 
Plan indicates that, after an interim phase, full separation of SWACAA's operational and regulatory functions must be achieved.  
4.125.  Another significant development since the last Review was the opening of the new King 
Mswati III Airport in Sikhuphe in 2014. It is located a few kilometres from the railway line linking Swaziland with Durban in the South and with the Mananga border post in the north. Works are 
under way for the dual carriage highway that w ill link the commercial city of Manzini and the 
airport in Sikhuphe. The Government expects the ne w airport will help attract tourism and foreign 
investment. It is unclear, however, whether the facility will be able to attract enough passenger 
traffic to break even, given competition from neighbouring air hubs in Durban and Nelspruit (South 
Africa) and the airport in Maputo (Mozambique). Swaziland has another smaller airport near Manzini, which also links to Johannesburg, but it is only open to private and charter flights.  
4.126.  SWACAA is responsible for the regulation  and operation of the aerodrome and attendant 
airport services. However, the private sector may participate in the provision of certain services 
such as ground handling.  
4.127.  Airlink Swaziland, the national carrier, is a joint venture between the Government of 
Swaziland (60% of the shares) and Airlink South Africa (40%).
82 It is currently the only airline 
operating from the new King Mswati III Airport, providing three daily return flights to Johannesburg. At present, Airlink is the sole provider of ground handling services. 
                                               
79 Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013). 
80 Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013). 
81 Civil Aviation Authority Act of 2009 (Articles 7 to 10). 
82 Airlink Swaziland took over operations from Royal Swazi National Airways Corporation. Viewed at: 
http://www.flyswaziland.com/about_airlink.php.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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 4.128.   SWACAA is currently reviewing licence applications submitted by some airlines in the 
region that wish to operate from the new airport to Maputo and Durban; at the time of writing no new licences had yet been granted.  
4.129.  Air traffic rights are allocated on the basi s of the Decision Relating to the Implementation 
of the Yamoussoukro Declaration Concerning the Liberalization of Access to Air Transport Markets 
in Africa (1999) and under the bilateral air services agreements to which Swaziland is a party.  
4.130.  Swaziland maintains bilateral air serv ices agreements (BASAs) and/or Memoranda of 
Understanding (MoUs) with 18 countries from Africa and Asia. At the time of writing of this report, 
Swaziland had signed BASAs with 9 partners, almost  all of which were signed during the review 
period (Table 4.8). 
Table 4.8 Bilateral air services agreements, 2014
 
Country BASA status MoU status Freedoms covered 
Botswana Discussed and initialled Signed 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th  
Ethiopia Signed 18 October 2011 Signed 18 October 2011 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th  
Kenya Signed 27 November 2010 Signed 27 November 2010 3rd, 4th, 5th  
Kuwait Signed (date n.a.) Signed (date n.a.) 3rd, 4th, 5th 
Libya Discussed Signed 12 December 2013 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th 
Mozambique Signed 23 September 2005 Signed 23 September 2005 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th 
Namibia Discussed and initialled Signed 11 December 2013 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th  
Qatar Signed December 2011 Signed December 2011 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th 
Rwanda Signed 12 December 2012 Signed 12 December 2012 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th 
Saudi Arabia Discussed and initialled Signed 11 December 2013 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th 
Seychelles Discussed and initialled Signed 11 December 2013 1st, 2nd, 3rd 
South Africa Discussed and initialled Signed December 2012 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 
Sudan Signed 10 December 2012 Signed 10 December 2012 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th 
Tanzania Discussed and initialled Signed 11 December 2013 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th 
Turkey Signed 1 May 2013 Signed 1 May 2013 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th 
UAE Signed 9 December 2012 Signed 24 March 2011 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th 
Zambia Discussed and initialled Signed 12 December 2013 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th 
Zimbabwe Discussed and initialled Signed 11 December 2012 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th 
n.a. Not available. 
Source: Information provided by the authorities.  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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5  APPENDIX TABLES 
Table A1.1 Merchandise exports by prod uct group, including re-exports, 2008-13 
(US$ million and %)  
 2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 2013  
Total (US$ million) 1,352 1,566 1,964 1,689 1,761 1,917 
 (% of total) WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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   2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 2013  
Total primary products 34.6 34.7 27.9 31.5 39.6 37.4 
 Agriculture 32.5 33.7 26.6 30.1 32.5 32.0 
  Food 25.1 28.7 23.9 26.6 28.9 28.4 
   0611 Sugars, beet/cane, raw, solid, no added 
flavour/colour 15.4 14.0 13.1 17.7 19.6 18.8 
   0622 Sugar confectionery, not containing cocoa 1.2 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.4 2.2 
   0612 Other beet, cane and chemically pure sucrose, 
solid form 0.8 7.1 3.6 1.3 2.0 1.3 
   0581 Jams, fruit jellies, marmalades, fruit or nut 
puree, etc. 0.1 0.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.8 
   0619 Other sugars 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 
   0589 Fruit, nuts, n.e.s., whether or not sweetened 1.0 1.1 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 
  Agricultural raw material 7.4 5.1 2.7 3.5 3.6 3.6 
   2484 Wood of non-coniferous, sawn of a thickness > 
6 mm 1.3 0.8 0.7 1.3 1.4 1.3 
   2483 Wood, coniferous (incl. for parquet flooring) 
shaped 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.8 
 Mining 2.1 1.0 1.3 1.5 7.1 5.5 
  Ores and other minerals 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.7 6.1 4.1 
   2815 Iron ores and concentrates, not agglomerated 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 5.6 3.8 
  Non-ferrous metals 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
  Fuels 1.5 0.6 0.9 0.8 1.0 1.3 
   3212 Other coal, whether or not pulverized, not 
agglomerated 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.6 1.3 
Manufactures 65.3 65.2 72.0 68.4 60.3 62.5 
 Iron and steel 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
 Chemicals 45.9 48.4 56.2 51.6 42.5 46.3 
   5514 Mixtures of odoriferous substances, industrial 
use 24.1 24.4 29.8 28.1 24.1 26.6 
   5989 Chemical products and preparations, n.e.s. 15.8 17.3 20.7 18.1 14.2 15.7 
   5139 Carboxylic acids, etc. 0.7 1.1 1.3 1.7 1.9 1.9 
 Other semi-manufactures 2.3 1.7 1.5 1.8 1.8 2.0 
   6421 Packing containers, of paper, paperboard, 
cellulose wadding etc. 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 
 Machinery and transport equipment 4.3 3.5 3.1 2.6 1.7 1.6 
  Power generating machines 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
  Other non-electrical machinery 1.8 0.8 1.3 1.7 0.9 0.8 
   Agricultural machinery and tractors 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 
  Office machines and telecommunication equipment 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 
  Other electrical machines 1.3 1.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.4 
  Automotive products 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.3 0.4 0.3 
  Other transport equipment 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
 Textiles 0.9 0.4 0.5 1.5 1.6 1.7 
   6581 Sacks/bags, of textile, for packing goods 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.7 1.0 1.0 
 Clothing 7.6 8.2 8.3 8.8 9.3 8.4 
   8454 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, knitted or 
crocheted 2.2 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.2 1.8 
   8426 Trousers, breeches, etc., women's/girls', not 
knitted/crocheted 1.5 1.5 1.8 1.2 1.5 1.3 
   8414 Trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and 
shorts 0.8 0.3 0.5 1.4 1.4 1.2 
   8432 Suits, ensembles, jackets, trousers, etc. 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 
 Other consumer goods 4.2 3.0 2.4 2.1 3.4 2.6 
   8921 Printed books, pamphlets, maps, etc. (excl. ad. 
material) 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.9 2.2 1.6 
Other 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on da ta provided by the authorities (SITC Rev.3). WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
- 423 - 
 
  Table A1.2 Merchandise imports by product group, 2008-13  
(US$ million and %) 
 2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 2013  
Total (US$ million) 1,325 1,431 2,024 2,000 1,817 1,797 
 (% of total) 
Total primary products 38.3 32.7 31.6 33.3 34.7 33.4 
 Agriculture 20.7 19.6 20.1 18.8 18.2 17.4 
  Food 19.2 18.6 19.2 18.0 17.3 16.1 
   0449 Other maize, unmilled 1.7 1.5 1.2 0.9 1.2 1.1 
   0423 Rice, milled, semi-milled 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.8 
   0481 Cereal grains, prepared n.e.s. 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 
   0819 Food waste, animal feeds n.e.s. 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.6 
  Agricultural raw material 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.9 1.3 
 Mining 17.6 13.2 11.5 14.6 16.5 16.0 
  Ores and other minerals 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 
  Non-ferrous metals 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 
  Fuels 16.7 12.5 10.8 13.7 15.8 15.3 
Manufactures 61.0 60.2 59.2 57.6 55.7 58.7 
 Iron and steel 2.2 2.1 2.3 1.8 1.8 2.0 
 Chemicals 15.5 14.6 14.1 14.2 13.5 12.8 
   5429 Medicaments, n.e.s. 1.3 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.5 1.6 
   5514 Mixtures of odoriferous substances, industrial 
use 1.5 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.4 
   5621 Mineral or chemical fertilizers, nitrogenous 1.3 0.7 0.6 0.6 1.0 0.8 
   5541 Soap 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 
 Other semi-manufactures 10.6 9.9 10.3 10.1 9.4 10.0 
   6612 Portland cement and similar hydraulic cements 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0 
   6911 Iron or steel structures, tubes and the like, for 
use in structures 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 
   6414 Kraft paper, etc., uncoated, n.e.s., rolls/sheets 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.5 
 Machinery and transport equipment 18.3 19.3 17.9 17.1 16.5 17.6 
  Power generating machines 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.8 0.3 0.3 
  Other non-electrical machinery 5.6 5.8 5.7 4.9 5.1 5.3 
   Agricultural machinery and tractors 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 
  Office machines and telecommunication equipment 2.7 3.9 2.8 2.3 2.4 2.2 
  Other electrical machines 2.8 3.0 3.2 2.9 2.8 2.7 
   7731 Insulated wire, cable etc.; optical fibre cables 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.6 
  Automotive products 6.3 5.7 5.1 5.4 5.3 6.6 
   7821 Goods vehicles 2.0 1.8 1.3 1.6 1.2 2.5 
   7812 Motor vehicles for the transport of persons, 
n.e.s. 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.4 
   7843 Other motor vehicle parts and accessories of 
722, 781 to 783 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.1 
  Other transport equipment 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.6 
 Textiles 3.7 2.2 3.0 3.4 4.6 6.0 
   6552 Other knitted/crocheted fabrics, not 
impregnated/coated, etc. 0.9 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.7 1.0 
   6513 Cotton yarn, excluding thread 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 
   6531 Fabrics, woven, of synthetic filament yarn, excl. 
pile/chenille 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.6 
 Clothing 2.3 2.3 3.0 2.2 2.2 2.3 
 Other consumer goods 8.4 9.7 8.6 8.7 7.6 7.9 
   8931 Plastics containers, stoppers, lids, etc. 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 
   8921 Printed books, pamphlets, maps, etc. (excl. ad. 
material) 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.8 
Other 0.7 7.0 9.1 9.1 9.7 7.9 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on da ta provided by the authorities (SITC Rev.3).  WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  Table A1.3 Merchandise exports by dest ination, including re-exports, 2008-13  
(US$ million and %)  
 2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 2013  
Total (US$ million) 1,352 1,566 1,964 1,689 1,761 1,917 
 (% of total) 
 America 6.4 7.0 6.8 4.1 3.8 3.0 
 United States 6.3 6.9 6.7 4.1 3.8 3.0 
 Other America 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 
 Europe 5.1 12.2 9.1 10.4 12.3 12.4 
 EU(28) 5.1 12.2 9.1 10.4 12.3 12.3 
  Italy 0.1 1.1 1.5 3.6 2.4 3.3 
  Spain 0.2 1.4 1.0 1.1 2.2 2.3 
  Romania 0.0 1.6 1.1 0.3 1.2 1.9 
  Portugal 3.3 4.3 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.5 
  Finland 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 
  Hungary 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.7 
  United Kingdom 0.9 1.4 3.1 0.7 0.7 0.6 
 EFTA 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 
 Other Europe 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
 Africa 81.5 72.7 76.7 80.9 82.6 80.8 
  South Africa 67.1 51.1 57.7 63.8 69.7 62.6 
  SACU (excluding South Africa) 1.4 0.8 1.4 1.7 1.1 1.3 
  Mozambique 4.8 5.3 3.5 4.2 8.3 4.1 
  Nigeria 0.0 1.9 3.0 2.3 0.0 2.6 
  Kenya 1.9 4.3 2.7 2.1 1.2 2.3 
  Angola 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.3 0.0 1.8 
  United Republic of Tanzania 0.9 1.8 1.5 1.5 0.8 1.4 
  Zimbabwe 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.0 1.3 
  Ethiopia 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.6 
  Zambia 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.6 
  Uganda 0.5 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.6 
  Malawi 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.4 
  Mauritius 0.2 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.4 
 Middle East 2.4 0.0 2.5 2.4 0.3 0.4 
 Asia 4.5 8.1 4.6 1.8 1.0 3.4 
 China 1.0 2.5 0.2 0.0 0.7 3.1 
 Japan 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
 Six East Asian Traders 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 
 Other Asia 2.8 5.2 4.4 1.7 0.2 0.2 
 Other 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities. WT/TPR/S/324/Rev.1 • Swaziland 
 
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  Table A1.4 Merchandise imports by origin, 2008-13  
(US$ million and %) 
 2008  2009  2010  2011 2012 2013  
Total (US$ million) 1,325  1,431  2,024  2,000  1,817  1,797  
 (% of total) 
 America 0.9 0.8 1.0 1.9 1.0 0.7 
 United States 0.7 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.7 0.5 
 Other America 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.1 
 Europe 1.3 3.0 2.0 2.6 2.5 1.8 
 EU(28) 1.3 3.0 1.9 2.4 2.3 1.6 
  Germany 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 
  Italy 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 
  The Netherlands 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 
  United Kingdom 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 
  France 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 
  Ireland 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.8 0.1 
  Sweden 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 
  Belgium 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 
 EFTA 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 
  Switzerland 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 
 Other Europe 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 
 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
 Africa 94.2 91.7 91.9 89.7 89.6 90.3 
  South Africa 93.7 90.5 91.2 88.7 88.7 88.6 
  SACU (excluding South Africa) 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6 
  Egypt 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 
  Mozambique 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 
  Mauritius 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 
 Middle East 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 
  United Arab Emirates 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 
 Asia 3.4 4.4 4.6 5.1 6.7 6.9 
 China 1.0 1.7 1.8 2.8 3.9 3.8 
 Japan 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 
 Six East Asian Traders 1.3 1.6 1.0 0.8 1.6 2.0 
  Chinese Taipei 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.4 1.1 1.3 
  Malaysia 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 
  Hong Kong, China 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 
  Korea, Republic of 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 
 Other Asia 0.7 1.0 1.7 1.2 1.1 1.1 
  India 0.4 0.9 1.6 1.1 0.9 1.0 
 Other 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.7 0.0 0.0 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities. 
 
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