RESTRICTED
WT/TPR/S/312
3 March 2015
(15-1149)  Page: 1/155
Trade Policy Review Body  
 
 TRADE POLICY REVIEW 
REPORT BY THE SECRETARIAT 
AUSTRALIA  
This report, prepared for the seventh Trade Policy Review of Australia, has been drawn up by the 
WTO Secretariat on its own responsibility. The Se cretariat has, as required by the Agreement 
establishing the Trade Policy Review Mech anism (Annex 3 of the Marrakesh Agreement 
Establishing the World Trade Organization), sought clarification from Australia on its trade policies 
and practices.  Any technical questions arising from this report may be addressed to Mr Sergios Stamnas 
(tel: 022/739 5382) and Ms Katie Waters (tel: 022/739 5067). 
 Document WT/TPR/G/312 contains the policy statement submitted by Australia. 
 
 
Note: This report is subject to restricted circulation and press embargo until the end of the first 
session of the meeting of the Trade Policy Review  Body on Australia. This report was drafted in 
English. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 2 - 
 
  CONTENTS 
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................... . 7 
1   ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................................ 12  
1.1   Overview ................................................................................................................. 12 
1.2   Recent Econ omic Developments.................................................................................. 14 
1.2.1   Growth, inco me, and employment ............................................................................ 14 
1.2.2   Prices ................................................................................................................... 16 
1.3   Main Macroeconomic Policy Developments .................................................................... 17 
1.3.1   Monetary and exchange ra te policy .......................................................................... 17 
1.3.2   Fiscal policy ......................................................................................................... . 17 
1.4   Main Structural Policy Developments an d Challe nges ..................................................... 18 
1.4.1   Tax reform ............................................................................................................ 19 
1.4.2   Pension system re form ........................................................................................... 19 
1.4.3   Labour market re form ............................................................................................ 19 
1.5   Balance-of-Payments Developments ............................................................................ 20 
1.6   Developments in Merchandise Trade ............................................................................ 21 
1.7   Trends and Patterns in Foreign In vestment .................................................................. 23 
2   TRADE AND INVE STMENT RE GIME ............................................................................ 26  
2.1   Overview ................................................................................................................. 26 
2.2   Genera l Framework .................................................................................................. 26 
2.3   Trade Policy Form ulation and Ob jectives ...................................................................... 27 
2.4   Trade Agreements and Arrangements .......................................................................... 28 
2.4.1   WTO ................................................................................................................... . 28 
2.4.2   Regional and pr eferential agreements ....................................................................... 29 
2.4.2.1   Regional trade agreements ................................................................................... 29 
2.4.2.2   Preferential  trade agr eements ............................................................................... 31 
2.5   Other Agreements .................................................................................................... 31 
2.6   Framework for Business and Investment ...................................................................... 32 
3   TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICES BY MEASURE ........................................................ 37  
3.1   Overview ................................................................................................................. 37 
3.2   Measures Direct ly Affectin g Imports ............................................................................ 38 
3.2.1   Registration and documentation requirements ............................................................ 38 
3.2.2   Tariffs ............................................................................................................... ... 40 
3.2.2.1   Featur es ............................................................................................................  40 
3.2.2.2   Applied MFN tariff ............................................................................................... 40 
3.2.2.2.1   Struct ure ........................................................................................................ 40 
3.2.2.2.2   Tariff disp ersion and e scalation .......................................................................... 42 
3.2.2.3   Bound tariff ........................................................................................................ 43 
3.2.2.4   Tariff- rate qu otas ................................................................................................ 44 
3.2.2.5   Tariff preferences ................................................................................................ 44 WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 3 - 
 
  3.2.2.6   Tariff concessi ons and othe r schemes .................................................................... 45 
3.2.2.6.1   Tariff deferra l – customs wa rehouses .................................................................. 46 
3.2.2.6.2   Tari ff conce ssions ............................................................................................. 46 
3.2.2.6.3   Other tari ff concession  schemes ......................................................................... 47 
3.2.3   Other charge s affecting imports ............................................................................... 47 
3.2.4   Customs valuatio n and rules of origin ....................................................................... 47 
3.2.4.1   Customs valuation ............................................................................................... 47 
3.2.4.2   Rule s of or igin .................................................................................................... 48 
3.2.5   Import prohibitions, restrictions, an d licensing ........................................................... 49 
3.2.6   Continge ncy measures ........................................................................................... 51 
3.2.6.1   Anti-dumping and countervailing measures ............................................................. 51 
3.2.6.2   Safeguards ........................................................................................................ 53 
3.2.7   Standards and othe r technical requirements .............................................................. 53 
3.2.7.1   Standards, testing, and certification ....................................................................... 53 
3.2.7.1.1   Voluntary and mandatory standards .................................................................... 54 
3.2.7.1.2   National, internat ional, and alig ned standards ...................................................... 54 
3.2.7.1.3   Accreditation and quality management standards .................................................. 55 
3.2.7.1.4   Internat ional cooperation .................................................................................. 55 
3.2.7.1.5   Transparency ................................................................................................... 56 
3.2.7.2   Sanitary and ph ytosanitary re gulations .................................................................. 56 
3.2.7.2.1   Food standards-setting ...................................................................................... 56 
3.2.7.2.2   Biosecurity ...................................................................................................... 57 
3.2.7.2.3   Import ri sk analyses  (IRAs) ............................................................................... 58 
3.2.7.2.4   Quaranti ne ...................................................................................................... 58 
3.2.7.2.5   Transparency and technical assistan ce ................................................................ 60 
3.2.7.3   Labelling and packaging ....................................................................................... 60 
3.2.8   Governme nt procurement ....................................................................................... 61 
3.2.9   Local-cont ent requirements ..................................................................................... 65 
3.3   Measures Directly Affecting Exports ............................................................................. 65 
3.3.1   Registration and documentation ............................................................................... 65 
3.3.2   Export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing ............................................................ 65 
3.3.3   State trading ......................................................................................................... 66 
3.3.4   Export assistance ................................................................................................... 66 
3.3.4.1   Export Market Deve lopment Grants (EMDG) scheme ................................................ 66 
3.3.4.2   Trade and Export Co ncession Scheme  (Tradex) ....................................................... 67 
3.3.4.3   Duty drawback scheme ........................................................................................ 67 
3.3.4.4   Other schemes ................................................................................................... 68 
3.3.5   Export finance, guarantees, an d insurance ................................................................ 68 
3.4   Measures Affectin g Production and Trade ..................................................................... 69 
3.4.1   Ta xation  .............................................................................................................. . 69 WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 4 - 
 
  3.4.1.1   Indire ct taxation ................................................................................................. 70 
3.4.1.2   Direct taxation .................................................................................................... 72 
3.4.1.3   Tax incentives appraisal ....................................................................................... 73 
3.4.2   Producti on assist ance ............................................................................................. 73 
3.4.3   Competition an d consumer policy ............................................................................. 75 
3.4.3.1   Competition policy .............................................................................................. 75 
3.4.3.1.1   Gene ral framework ........................................................................................... 75 
3.4.3.1.2   Legisl ative fram ework ....................................................................................... 76 
3.4.3.1.3   CCA exemptions ............................................................................................... 76 
3.4.3.1.4   Mergers and acquisitions ................................................................................... 78 
3.4.3.1.5   Ca rtel co nduct ................................................................................................. 78 
3.4.3.1.6   Enforcem ent .................................................................................................... 79 
3.4.3.2   Price surveillance ................................................................................................ 79 
3.4.3.3   Consumer protection policy .................................................................................. 79 
3.4.4   Corporat e governance ............................................................................................ 80 
3.4.5   Government trading enterprises ............................................................................... 81 
3.4.6   Intellectual property rights ...................................................................................... 82 
3.4.6.1   Institutional an d registration  issues ....................................................................... 83 
3.4.6.2   Indust rial property .............................................................................................. 84 
3.4.6.2.1   Patents ...........................................................................................................  84 
3.4.6.2.2   Trade marks .................................................................................................... 84 
3.4.6.2.3   Indu strial designs ............................................................................................. 85 
3.4.6.2.4   Protection  of plant varieties ............................................................................... 85 
3.4.6.2.5   Geographical indications (GIs) ............................................................................ 85 
3.4.6.2.6   Other .............................................................................................................  86 
3.4.6.3   Copyright and related rights ................................................................................. 86 
3.4.6.3.1   Copyright ........................................................................................................ 86 
3.4.6.3.2   Parallel imports ................................................................................................ 87 
3.4.6.3.3   Circuit layout ................................................................................................... 87 
3.4.6.4   Enforcement ....................................................................................................... 87 
4   TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR ..................................................................................... 89  
4.1   Overview ................................................................................................................. 89 
4.2   Agriculture, Livestock, and Fisheries ............................................................................ 91 
4.2.1   Features ............................................................................................................... 91 
4.2.2   Main policy developments ....................................................................................... 91 
4.2.2.1   Bord er measures................................................................................................. 92 
4.2.2.2   Domestic support measures .................................................................................. 93 
4.2.3   Fisheries ............................................................................................................... 96 
4.3   Mining and Energy .................................................................................................... 98 
4.3.1   Mining .................................................................................................................. 98 WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 5 - 
 
  4.3.2   Energy ................................................................................................................ . 99 
4.3.2.1   Electricity ......................................................................................................... 101  
4.3.2.1.1   Southern an d eastern Au stralia ........................................................................ 101  
4.3.2.1.2   Western Australia and the Northern  Territory ..................................................... 102  
4.3.2.1.3   Other issues .................................................................................................. 103  
4.3.2.2   Gas ................................................................................................................. 104  
4.3.2.3   Petrol ..............................................................................................................  104 
4.4   Manufac turing ........................................................................................................ 10 6 
4.4.1   Auto motive ......................................................................................................... 10 8 
4.4.2   Textiles, clothing , and footwear  (TCF ) ..................................................................... 111  
4.5   Services ................................................................................................................  112 
4.5.1   Features ............................................................................................................. 112  
4.5.2   Domestic support ................................................................................................. 112  
4.5.3   Commitments under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) .................... 113  
4.5.4   Regional and bilatera l agreements on  services ......................................................... 113  
4.5.5   Financial services ................................................................................................. 113  
4.5.5.1   Banking ........................................................................................................... 1 15 
4.5.5.2   In suranc e ........................................................................................................ 11 7 
4.5.6   Communications .................................................................................................. 118  
4.5.6.1   Teleco mmunicati ons .......................................................................................... 118  
4.5.6.2   Television broadcas ting and film production .......................................................... 121  
4.5.7   Transport ........................................................................................................... 1 23 
4.5.7.1   Mariti me transp ort ............................................................................................ 124  
4.5.7.2   Air transport ..................................................................................................... 126  
4.5.8   Tourism .............................................................................................................. 129  
REFERENC ES ................................................................................................................ 130  
5   APPENDIX TABLES .................................................................................................. 138  
 
CHARTS 
 Chart 1.1 Product composition of merchandise trad e, 2010 an d 2013 ...................................... 22
 
Chart 1.2 Direction of merchandise trade, 2010 and 2013 ...................................................... 23 
Chart 1.3 FDI inward stock, 2009 and 2013  ......................................................................... 24 
Chart 3.1 Distribution of MFN app lied tariff rates,  2010 and 2014 ........................................... 41 
Chart 3.2 Tariff escalation, by two-digit ISIC industry, 2014 ................................................... 43 
Chart 3.3 Average applied MFN and bound ta riff rates, by HS se ction, 2010 and 2014 ............... 44 
Chart 4.1 Market share for selected te lecommunications serv ices, June  2013 ......................... 119  
 
TABLES 
 Table 1.1 Selected macroecono mic indicators, 2009/10-2013/ 14 ............................................ 12
 WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 6 - 
 
  Table 1.2 Basic economic in dicators, 2009/ 10-2013 /14 ......................................................... 15 
Table 1.3 Balance of pa yments, 2009/10 -2013/14 ................................................................ 20 
Table 1.4 Outward stock of foreign direct investment, by partner and economic activity, 
2009-1 3 ....................................................................................................................... .. 25 
Table 2.1 Applications decided, 2010/11-2012/13 ................................................................. 34 
Table 2.2 Total approvals, by industry sector, 2012/13 .......................................................... 34 
Table 2.3 Foreign investme nt restrict ions, 2014 ................................................................... 35 
Table 2.4 Foreign investment-related treaties and agreements in force .................................... 36 
Table 3.1 Australian tariff structure, 2010 and 2014 .............................................................. 41 
Table 3.2 Summary analysis of Au stralian preferenti al tari ffs, 2014 ......................................... 45 
Table 3.3 Duty forgone through tariff co ncession arrangemen ts, 2006/07- 2013/14 ................... 46 
Table 3.4 Prohibited and re stricted impo rts, 2014 ................................................................. 49 
Table 3.5 Structure of tax revenue, 2009/10-2012/13 ........................................................... 70 
Table 3.6 Excise rates, 2011 and 2014 ................................................................................ 71 
Table 4.1 Budgetary assistance to agriculture,  2008/09-2 012/13  ............................................ 94 
Table 4.2 Budgetary assistance to manufacturing, 2008/09-2012/13 ..................................... 108  
Table 4.3 Government assistance to  the services se ctor, 2012/ 13 ......................................... 112  
Table 4.4 Structure of the financial sy stem assets, June 2009 to June  2013 ........................... 114  
Table 4.5 Selected telecommuni cations indicato rs, 2010-1 3 ................................................. 118  
 
APPENDIX TABLES 
 
Table A1. 1 Net foreign debt structure, 2009/ 10-2013/ 14 .................................................... 138  
Table A1. 2 Merchandise exports,  by product gr oups, 2010- 13 ............................................. 139  
Table A1. 3 Merchandise imports,  by product gr oups, 2010- 13 ............................................. 140  
Table A1. 4 Merchandise exports,  by destinatio n, 2010-13  ................................................... 141  
Table A1. 5 Merchandise impo rts, by orig in, 2010-13  .......................................................... 142  
 
Table A2. 1 Notifications under WTO Agreements, 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2014 ......... 143  
Table A2. 2 RTAs in  force, 2014 ....................................................................................... 145  
Table A2. 3 Selected bilateral treaties relating to trade and investment .................................. 148  
 
Table A3. 1 Australia's tariff summary, 2014 ...................................................................... 149  
Table A3. 2 Subsidies notified under WTO provisions, 2011/12 and 2012/13 ........................... 151  
 
Table A4. 1 Effective rate of combined a ssistance, by industry grouping, 2008-09 to 
2012-1 3 .......................................................................................................................  155 WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 7 - 
 
  SUMMARY 
1. Since the global financial crisis and its previous Trade Policy Review in 2011, Australia, one 
of the most open economies in the world, has performed well relative to many other advanced economies due, inter alia , to its broadly appropriate macroeconomic policy mix. Following a period 
of expansion resulting from the boom in mining investment driven by improved terms of trade, 
which reached a historic peak in 2011, growth sl owed down to below its trend rate of 3%. As 
resource investment peaked and the terms of tr ade declined, the economy entered a transition 
period towards mining production and exports as we ll as to broader-based drivers of activity in 
non-resources sectors. Australia's declining position among the most competitive economies in the world reflects only minor improvements in average multi-factor productivity (MFP). Inflation has been within or slightly above (2010/11) the central bank's 2% to 3% target. The unemployment 
rate has remained relatively low, albeit rising  gradually from 5% in 2010/11 to 5.9% in 2013/14. 
2. Structural policy reform, aimed at improving Australia's MFP and thus its international 
competitiveness, has been ongoing in certain areas. To facilitate the transition towards 
non-resource sector growth by supporting domestic demand, the central bank has cut its policy 
interest rate by 225 basis points to 2.5% since November 2011. During the review period, the fiscal deficit narrowed considerably to 1.5% of GDP, but then rose again in 2013/14 to 2.4%. 
Australia's budget strategy now includes a Temporary Budget Repair Levy and requires that new 
spending measures be more than offset by reductions in spending elsewhere.  
3. The responsiveness of the freely-floating exchange rate to economic developments 
contributed to the maintenance of macroeconomic stability and containment of external 
vulnerabilities; it has helped the economy to absorb a sharp increase in terms of trade without 
leading to overheating and a spike in inflatio n. Despite some depreciation over 2013 and a 
subsequent decline in the terms of trade, the Austra lian dollar still remained relatively overvalued, 
to the detriment of Australia's export competitiveness. Reflecting the narrowing structural 
saving-investment gap, Australia's current account deficit dropped considerably in 2010/11 and thereafter rose gradually before dropping again in 2013/14. The merchandise trade account turned 
to surplus in 2010/11 and 2011/12 driven by the pe ak in the commodity price cycle; subsequently, 
it returned to a deficit as commodity prices moderated, and in 2013/14 it moved back towards surplus on the back of increased commodities production. Australia's international (foreign exchange) reserves have risen. Net external debt increased, largely held by the private sector, 
especially non-financial corporations.  
4. Despite the openness of the Australian economy, international trade in goods and services 
continue to account for only around 40% of GDP. The share of commodities – the main traded 
goods – in total merchandise exports rose further. Developments in international trade and foreign 
direct investment (FDI) patterns during the review period continue to reflect the rising importance 
of China as Australia's main export market (especially for mining products), and the EU, the United 
States, and Japan as its major sources of FDI. Mining investment has risen while non-mining 
investment has been weighed down by, inter alia , excess capacity and an overvalued exchange 
rate. While maintaining an open stance towards foreign investment, Australia continues to screen large investment projects to ensure they are in  the national interest. FDI proposals subject to 
screening are rarely rejected, but often have conditions attached. Foreign equity caps remain in 
the areas of airports, civil aviation, maritime transport and telecommunications. Restrictions on foreign direct investment in residential real es tate and agricultural land are also in place. 
5. While there have been few changes to the institutional framework for formulating and 
implementing trade policy, a change in Government  in 2013 has resulted in policy shifts in many 
trade-related areas. Additionally, a key focus of the new Commonwealth Government over the 
review period has been to drive forward reforms to cut costs, provide more efficient and effective 
government services and create a less burdensome regulatory environment for businesses and citizens. It has also launched discussions on reform of the Australian Federation with a view to ensuring its efficient and effective functioning.  
6. Australia's trade policy continues to be based on the premise that trade openness, economic 
growth and improved living standards are strong ly linked; emphasis is placed on improving 
international competitiveness and market access overseas. Australia pursues a combined 
multilateral, regional, bilateral and unilateral approach to trade policy, and is exemplary in the 
transparency of its trade regime. It remains an active Member of the WTO and contributes a WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 8 - 
 
  significant amount of its official development assist ance to aid for trade funding. It has maintained 
a strong record of notifications, with few outstanding. Since 2011, Australia has been involved in several WTO dispute settlement cases in different ways, including as a respondent in five cases relating to plain packaging requirements applied to tobacco products. Simultaneously, Australia 
has been actively pursuing new RTAs. Over the revi ew period, RTAs with Malaysia and the Republic 
of Korea have entered into force, an RTA with Japan has been signed, and one with China has been concluded. Australia is negotiating three additional bilateral RTAs as well as four plurilateral 
ones. 
7. The tariff remains one of Australia's main trade policy instruments, albeit a minor source of 
tax revenue. As a result of the introduction of the HS2012 tariff nomenclature, the average applied MFN tariff rate dropped slightly, from 3.1% in 2010 to 3% in 2014. Unilateral reductions on 
apparel and certain finished textile articles were implemented at the beginning of 2015. Some 
96% of applied MFN tariff rates continue to be in the range zero to 5%. In line with long-standing, 
though decreasing, sectoral support to textiles, clothing and footwear (TCF) and passenger motor 
vehicles (PMV), the applied MFN tariff rates on the latter products (PMV) remain considerably 
higher than the average. The tariff structure has remained unchanged. Most tariff rates (99.7%) are ad valorem , which contributes to the transparency of the tariff. By contrast, the few 
non-ad valorem  rates tend to conceal relatively high tariff rates, particularly those on used 
vehicles, although these seem to be rarely applied. The pattern of tariff escalation remains unchanged, which means that effective rates of MFN tariff protection can be considerably higher than nominal rates. Some 97% of tariff lines are bound, thereby imparting a high degree of 
predictability to the tariff. However, applied MFN tariff rates continue to fall short of bound rates 
by an average of about 7 percentage points and up to 55 percentage points for clothing items. 
While the consequent gap between bound and applied MFN rates provides considerable scope for 
the authorities to increase applied tariffs within bindings, this has not occurred.  
8. During the review period, documentation re quirements have remained minimal, and 
computerized customs clearance has facilitated virtually all imports and exports. Trade facilitation 
efforts included the simplification of Australia's duty concessions scheme, the enhancement of 
international cooperation, efforts to ratify the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement and commitment to fund assistance to partner countries in this area. Customs valuation legislation was amended to ensure consistency with the WTO Agreement on Customs Valuation, and transfer pricing policy 
practices have been clarified.  
9. Import prohibitions and restrictions, in the form of generally strict quarantine or technical 
requirements, have remained in place to preserve, inter alia , human, animal or plant life or health, 
the environment, safety, or security. During the review period, reforms were undertaken to 
develop a modern and responsive system that facilitates trade while managing biosecurity risks. Whereas technical standards and many other regulati ons are, by and large, subject to cost-benefit 
analysis, this is still not the case with SPS measures. The share of national standards that are 
identical or "modified adoptions" of international standards remains at 38% (or 97% of applied standards). During the review period, significan t changes have been made to the legislative, 
institutional and procedural framework for anti-dumping and countervailing measures. Recourse to 
anti-dumping and countervailing action has been increasing in Australia, the WTO's fourth largest 
user of the former in 2013, with most initiations and measures relating to items originating in Asia. Two safeguard investigations were initiated, but no new safeguard measures were adopted. 
10. Export controls or quantitative restrictions implemented by public sector entities affect 
certain primary and therapeutic goods to ensure, inter alia, adequate domestic supply, and to enforce standards; however, a permit requirem ent for wheat exports was repealed. The Rice 
Marketing Board for the State of New South Wales, an export monopoly, was the only 
state-trading entity operating during the review period. Export assistance, consisting of direct grants (e.g. through export market development grants) and tax concessions (e.g. Tradex), has been maintained and in certain areas is focussed on Asian markets. In addition to local content 
requirements, export finance is, inter alia , conditional upon "national interest" criteria. Export 
credit terms seem to be in line with OECD guidelines. 
11. Support for domestic production and trade has been provided through tax and non-tax 
incentives, with increased emphasis on R&D spending as well as regulatory restrictions on 
competition in certain activities. Some industry-specific programmes (e.g. steel, TCF) were terminated or amended during the review period. The special Luxury Car Tax, which affects both WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 9 - 
 
  domestic and foreign cars, but seems to fall disproportionately on imports, has been retained.  The 
effective rate of combined assistance (i.e. tariff , budgetary, agricultural pricing and/or regulatory 
assistance) continues to be relatively high for motor vehicles and parts, TCF, and forestry and logging. The State remains involved in the economy through government trading enterprises 
(GTEs) which provide services in key infrastructure sectors (e.g. water, electricity, ports, rail, 
urban transport), though not always on a fully commercial basis. Efforts to streamline state participation in areas where Commonwealth Government involvement is necessary included 
"bonus" payments to state governments that sell public assets and use the proceeds for 
infrastructure projects. 
12. Australia has continued to use government procurement as an instrument of economic policy 
aimed at fostering industrial development in certain sensitive areas (e.g. real estate property or 
accommodation, inputs to R&D services, and motor vehicles) that are exempt from mandatory 
rules applying to procurement above certain thresholds. Procurement rules were amended, inter alia , to redefine procurement methods and adjust to new legislation's terminology. The target 
of sourcing at least 10% of purchase value from small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), as 
well as preference margins for local suppliers and local-content requirements by certain state governments have been maintained and, in certai n areas, revised. However they are applied in 
line with RTA commitments. Foreign participation in the bidding or the granting of duty 
concessions may require the submission of an Australian Industry Participation Plan, an element also used for the granting of duty concessi ons under the Enhanced Project By-Law Scheme. 
Whereas Australia remains an observer to the WTO Committee on Government Procurement 
(GPA), it intends to initiate work to possibly accede to the GPA. Comprehensive chapters on 
government procurement in a number of its RTAs reflect its commitment to respect principles of 
transparency and non-discrimination in the conduct of its government procurement. 
13. Australia has further strengthened protection of  intellectual property rights by passing new 
legislation, considered as its biggest IP system overhaul in twenty years, by amending existing 
legislation in several areas and expanding its international commitments. The competition policy 
framework, which remains characterized by a lo ng list of special regimes and exemptions, 
including at state or territory level, will be comprehensively reviewed with a revised compliance and enforcement policy being released in 2013. A recent legislative amendment is aimed at strengthening protection in the area of consumer credit protection and enforcement at the national 
level.  
14. Despite its relatively small contribution to GDP (2.4%), Australia's market- and 
export-oriented agriculture remains of fundamenta l importance to the economy; its MFP has risen 
and a strategy to raise the sector's competitiveness is under consideration. During the review 
period, sectoral policy developments have focused largely on ensuring a sustainable, productive 
and resilient agricultural base, supported by measures on drought relief, water and land 
management, farm finance and rural research. The average level of applied MFN tariff protection 
for the sector (excluding forestry) remained negligible, at 1.4%, compared with 3.3% for manufacturing. However, some sensitive items (e.g. cheese, certain vegetables, certain oils and fats) continue to receive considerably higher tariff protection with tariff-rate quotas affecting 
certain types of cheese and curd. A generally strict  quarantine and inspection regime remains in 
place, while biosecurity reform has proceeded. Exports and/or production of certain commodities (e.g. certain dairy products, grain, horticulture , livestock, and wines/grapes) continue to be 
subject to levies earmarked mainly for R&D. Single-desk arrangements (i.e. monopolies) continue 
to affect rice exports. Changes were made in areas such as: exceptional circumstances arrangements; export certification requirements; wheat export arrangements; and, the livestock 
supply chain. Despite a wide range of assistance programmes, the sector's overall level of support, 
as measured by various indicators, has remained lo w, with budgetary assistance declining in value 
terms to about 0.1% of GDP. This assistance cont inues to be delivered in the form of non-trade 
distorting (Green Box) budgetary outlays and remains within Australia's de minimis  WTO 
commitments. A range of initiatives and measures have continued to improve fisheries' 
management and thus the sustainability of fish stocks for the long-term viability of the sector.  
15. Mining (8.6% of GDP), which continues to operate in a seemingly competitive market 
environment with no apparent industry-specific restrictions on foreign investment and overall little 
government support compared with other sectors, remains critical to Australia's economic performance. Its average MFP growth rate dropped further but mining output, set to increase 
strongly in the coming years, is expected to gi ve a boost to productivity. The sector's Mineral WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 10 - 
 
  Resources Rent Tax on iron ore and coal was a pplied from 2012 to late 2014, while the Petroleum 
Resource Rent Tax has been extended to virtually  all onshore (as from 2012) and offshore oil and 
gas projects. 
16. During the review period Australia, inter alia , reviewed its future energy needs, passed a 
comprehensive package of clean energy proposals, including a carbon price mechanism (repealed 
in 2014), and set mandatory minimum efficien cy performance and energy rating label 
requirements. A new coherent and integrated approach to energy policy is under consideration. 
Electricity generation, transmission, and distribution  remain subject to geographical and regulatory 
segmentation. Generation capacity is largely government-owned or controlled and retail electricity rates' regulation is maintained in all states and territories other than Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales. Tariffs are set by independent energy regulators or governments. Budgetary 
assistance to the electricity, gas, water, and wa ste services industries was the highest among all 
sectors. The Fuel Tax Credits Scheme continued to reduce the cost of liquid, gaseous and blended fuels for certain business uses; domestic producers of ethanol, biodiesel and renewable diesel used 
in transport also continued to receive a government subsidy, although subsidies for ethanol and 
biodiesel are to be gradually repealed.  
17. The manufacturing sector contributes 7.1% to  GDP. Manufacturing policy has been largely 
focused on increasing the multi-factor productivity, sustainability and growth of industry as well as 
creating new high-skilled jobs. Average annual MFP slowdown was reduced. The average applied MFN tariff rate on industrial products remained virtually unchanged. Budgetary assistance from a 
wide range of policy instruments is estimated to have remained at 0.1% of GDP, albeit decreasing 
in value terms. The textiles, clothing, footwear and leather industries, as well as motor vehicles 
and parts activities, have continued to attract high, albeit declining, effective rates of assistance, the highest amongst all manufacturing activities. The automotive industry continues to be assisted 
by mechanisms such as preferential government procurement policies, tax policy and restrictions 
on the importation of second-hand vehicles. Assistance continued to be delivered mainly in the form of industry-specific support and was supplemen ted by a Growth Fund to help adjustment to 
the end of car manufacturing. Industry-specific support for the textiles, clothing, footwear, and 
leather industries was drastically cut and the elimination of two remaining programmes is under consideration. 
18. Australia's services sector is the mainstay of its economy, accounting for 71% of GDP and 
77% of employment. While the financial services se ctor has performed well over the review period, 
a recently-released Financial Sector Inquiry has made various recommendations to strengthen and 
develop the sector, including eliminating distortions to the efficient market allocation of financial 
resources as well as impediments to competition. Approval is still required for all investments 
(both domestic and foreign) of over 15% in financial institutions. Banking reforms undertaken since 2011 have included: implementation of new ca pital and liquidity requirements; strengthened 
supervision; and winding down of measures intr oduced to mitigate the impact of the global 
financial crisis. Recent developments in the insurance sector have included the sale of a major state-owned private health insurer and the closure of the Private Health Insurance Administration 
Council. The provision of life insurance by foreign companies through branch operations is 
prohibited, but exceptions to this rule are increasingly being granted through RTAs.  
19. Australia has a very high level of information and communication technology (ICT) 
development and has recently seen a big increase in both fixed and wireless broadband 
subscriptions and mobile subscriptions. Foreign investment restrictions remain in place for Telstra, 
the main player in the telecommunications sector, but are not applied to any other provider. The roll-out of the national broadband network is continuing, albeit with a new focus on using a range 
of different broadband technologies, rather than a largely fibre-to-the-premises approach. 
Completion is anticipated in 2020. The network is fully state-owned and will operate on a non-discriminatory, wholesale-only basis. Various regulatory steps have been taken to facilitate transition to the new regime and a new framework for providing universal services has been 
introduced. Australia's television broadcasting industry remains supported by local content 
measures and film production continues to benefit from various forms of financial assistance by the Commonwealth Government.  
20. In the area of transport, budgetary provision has been made for major infrastructural works. 
While most major government-owned ports and airports are operated by the private sector entities, government involvement in the transport sector remains quite pervasive, and various WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 11 - 
 
  foreign investment restrictions are in place. In the maritime transport subsector, reforms have 
been implemented to make the Australian shipping industry more internationally competitive, increase the size of the shipping fleet and prom ote employment. These have included tax reforms, 
the creation of an International Shipping Register , and the implementation of a licensing system to 
give domestically-flagged ships a first opportunity to cabotage services. However, the cabotage 
policy is being reviewed by the current Government in light of concerns about its resulting costs and inefficiencies. In air transport, a foreign equity limit on investment in Qantas airline has been 
removed, bringing FDI restrictions applied to this airline in line with those applied to all others. The 
review period has seen a big increase in international passenger arrivals by air, the negotiation of several new air services agreements with third countries, and plans to enhance infrastructure. The domestic civil aviation market, which accounts for significantly more passenger arrivals than from 
international destinations, is dominated by two companies. The tourism sector is fully open to 
investment, and benefits from little government support. Tourism-related services remain Australia's major services export. 
21. Australia's economic growth is expected to pick up to an above-trend pace over 2015/16. 
Despite its solid economic fundamentals, downside  risks to the economic outlook are posed by, 
inter alia , its vulnerability to terms-of-trade shocks due to the increased role of the mining sector, 
as well as the balance, timing and strength of the decline in mining investment and the pick-up in 
activity in the non-mining economy. A major economic challenge confronting Australia, with potential trade policy implications, is to formulate appropriate macroeconomic and structural policies to facilitate market-driven adjustment to the effects of its declining terms-of-trade, the 
appreciation of the Australian dollar and the rising proportion of older people, as well as to 
enhance economic diversification away from mining. Confronting these challenges will require much faster MFP growth to enable Australia to strengthen its international competitiveness and 
continue meeting its economic and welfare objectives. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 12 - 
 
  1  ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT 
1.1  Overview  1.1.  Since the global financial crisis and its previous Trade Policy Review in 2011, Australia, one of 
the most open economies in the world, has pe rformed well relative to many other advanced 
economies due, inter alia,  to its broadly appropriate macroeconomic policy mix.
1 Following a period 
of expansion resulting from the boom in mining investment (which accounted for almost half of GDP growth recently) and driven by the improved te rms of trade, growth slowed down to below its 
trend rate of 3% as resources investment peaked.
2 The economy has now entered a transition 
period towards mining production and export as well as to broader-based drivers of activity in non-resources sectors.
3 Australia's declining position among the most competitive economies in 
the world reflects only minor improvements in average multi-factor productivity (MFP) growth 
(Table 1.1, section 1.2.1), a key long-term determinant of international competitiveness and 
domestic living standards.4 Whereas inflation remained low and relatively stable at around 2% 
(except for a 3.1% peak in 2010/11 and 2.7% in 2013/14), the unemployment rate rose slightly. 
Australia has maintained its impressive human development performance. There has been a 4.7% 
decrease in income inequality due to a decline in income for higher income brackets resulting from a fall in returns from the financial markets during the global financial crisis, rather than any 
improvement in the wealth of lower income earners.
5 International trade and foreign direct 
investment (FDI) trends reflect the continuously rising importance of China as Australia's main export market (especially mining products), and the European Union, the United States, and Japan as its major sources of FDI.  
Table 1.1 Selected macroeconomic indicators, 2009/10-2013/14 
 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 
Real GDP ($A billion, 2011/12 prices) 1,402.8 1,434.2 1,486.1 1,525.3 1,569.5 
Real GDP (US$ billion, 2011/12 prices) 1,238.7 1,418.6 1,533.5 1,566.2 1,441.6 
Current GDP ($A billion) 1,296.3 1,406.7 1,486.1 1,524.0 1,586.2 
Current GDP (US$ billion) 1,144.7 1,391.3 1,533.5 1,564.9 1,456.9 
GDP per capita US$ 52,356.6 62,759.4 68,102.3 68,276.0 62,484.6 
 % change, unless otherwise indicated 
National accounts      
Real GDP (at 2011/12 prices) 2.0 2.2 3.6 2.6 2.9 
Consumption 2.2 3.6 2.9 1.8 2.3 
Private consumption 2.3 3.7 2.5 2.1 2.5 
Government consumption 1.8 3.3 3.8 1.1 1.7 
Gross fixed capital formation 2.1 3.7 11.2 2.5 -1.4 
Exports of goods and services 5.1 0.6 4.7 6.0 6.8 
Imports of goods and services 6.4 10.2 11.4 1.0 -2.3 
XGS/GDP (%) (at current market prices) 19.5 21.1 21.2 19.8 20.9 
MGS/GDP (%) (at curre nt market prices) 20.4 20.1 21.4 21.1 21.3 
Unemployment rate (%) 5.5 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.9 
                                               
1 IMF (2014); Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Statement 1: Budget Overview. 
2 Reserve Bank of Australia (2014d), Graph 3.10. 
3 According to the IMF, the shift to broader-based growth would be helped by a growing Asian middle 
class, which could support demand for Australia's services  exports—in particular health, education, tourism and 
professional services (IMF, 2014). 
4 In 2014, Australia ranked 17th out of 60 countries (5th out of 58 countries in 2010) in the IMD World 
Competitiveness Yearbook . Furthermore, in 2014/15 Australia ranked  22nd out of 144 countries (15th out of 
133 countries in 2010/11) in the WEF Global Competitiveness Index  (section 2.6). In 2013/14 Australia's most 
problematic factors included restrictive labour regulati ons, inefficient government bureaucracy, tax rates and 
tax regulations (IMD online  information. Viewed at: http://www.imd.org/news/2014-World-
Competitiveness.cfm ; WEF, 2013; and WTO document WT/TPR/S /244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011). The authorities 
consider that international comparisons of business indices are less meaningful in the context of the 
competitiveness of an entire nation than in the co ntext of a particular industry selling a traded and 
homogeneous product. In addition they consider that co mpetitiveness indices are ofte n generated by arbitrarily 
weighting data on a large selection of variables and results of business opinion surveys which may not be representative, and there is no accounting for cross- country differences in appr oaches to responding to 
surveys. 
5 In 2013, Australia continued to rank 2nd (out of 187 countries) after Norway in the UN Human 
Development Index (HDI) (UNDP, 2014). According to the Au stralian Bureau of Statistics, the Gini coefficient 
dropped from 0.336 (2007/08) to 0.320 (2011/12) (viewed at: 
http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/6523.0Main+Features62011-12#factsheet5 ). The 
authorities indicated that studies over long er periods have shown rising inequality. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 13 - 
 
   2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 
Labour participation rate (%) 65.3 65.5 65.3 65.1 64.8 
Productivity       
Labour productivity (% change) 2.8 0.3 3.9 2.0 .. 
Capital deepeninga (% change) 2.7 1.4 3.0 2.8 .. 
Multifactor productivity (% change) 0.2 -1.2 0.8 -0.8 .. 
Prices and interest rates      
Inflation (CPI, % change) 2.4 3.1 2.3 2.3 2.7 
90-day bank bill (end-period) 4.89 4.99 3.49 2.8 .. 
90-day bank bill (average-period) 4.04 4.91 4.42 3.2 .. 
Government bond yield (end-period) .. .. .. .. .. 
Government bond yield (average-period) .. .. .. .. .. 
Exchange rate      
US$/$A (financial year average) 0.883 0.989 1.032 1.027 0.919 
Real effective exchange rate (% change) 15.7 9.1 3.1 2.1 .. 
 (% of GDP, unless otherwise indicated) 
General government fiscal balance      
Revenue 22.6 22.0 22.8 23.6 23.7 
Tax revenue 20.7 20.5 21.3 22.1 22.3 
Expenditure 26.2 25.3 25.4 25.1 26.1 
Net operating balance -3.7 -3.3 -2.7 -1.5 -2.4 
General government net debt 3.3 6.0 9.9 10.0 12.1 
Savings and investment       
Gross national savings 22.6 24.2 25.3 24.4 .. 
Gross domestic investment 27.8 27.0 27.2 27.5 .. 
Savings-investment gap -5.1 -2.8 -1.9 -3.1 .. 
External sector      
Current account -5.0 -3.1 -3.3 -3.9 -3.0 
Net merchandise trade -0.7 1.6 0.6 -0.3 0.4 
Exports 15.6 17.6 17.9 16.3 17.3 
Imports 16.3 16.0 17.3 16.6 16.8 
Services balance -0.3 -0.5 -0.7 -0.9 -0.8 
Capital account 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Financial account 4.9 3.2 3.4 3.9 3.1 
Direct investment 2.4 2.2 3.2 3.7 3.5 
Terms of trade (% change) -4.1 20.7 0.4 -9.8 -4.2 
Merchandise goods exports (% change)b -12.9 22.4 7.6 -6.3 10.0 
Merchandise goods imports (% change)b -6.3 6.7 14.2 -1.3 5.4 
Service exports (% change)b -2.9 1.4 1.0 3.7 7.3 
Service imports (% change)b -5.9 8.2 6.6 8.6 4.8 
Foreign exchange reserves ($A billion, end 
period) 33.4 31.4 36.6 41.2 52.1 
Foreign exchange reserv es (US$ billion, end 
period) 29.5 31.0 37.7 42.3 47.9 
in months of imports of goods and 
non-factor services 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.8 
Net external debt ($A billion) 675.2 671.2 746.2 796.6 865.5 
Net external debt (US$ billion) 596.2 663.9 770.0 817.9 794.9 
Debt service ratio .. .. .. .. .. 
.. Not available. 
a Change in the ratio of capital to labour, weighted by the capital share of market sector income. 
b Growth rates on merchandise goods and serv ices trade are based on Australian dollars. 
Source:  Australian Bureau of Statisti cs online information; Re serve Bank of Australia online information; and 
Productivity Commission (2013), PC productivity update , May. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/123970/2013-pc-productivity-update.pdf ; 
Productivity Commission (2014), PC productivity update , April. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/135935/productivity-update-2014.pdf .  
1.2.  Despite Australia's solid fundamentals, down side risks to the economic outlook are posed by, 
inter alia , its vulnerability to terms-of-trade shocks due to the economic importance of the mining 
sector, as well as the balance, timing and strength of the decline in mining investment and the 
pick-up in activity in the non-mining economy.6 The recent sharp decline in Australia's terms of 
trade (section 1.2.1, Table 1.1)7 and its ageing population could further constrain per capita 
                                               
6 Reserve Bank of Australia (2014c); IMF (2014); OECD (2013c). 
7 The terms of trade – that is, the ratio of export pr ices to import prices – di ctate the real purchasing 
power of domestic output and are a key determinant of a nation's economic prosperity (Atkin et al. 2014). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 14 - 
 
  income growth.8 Confronting these challenges will require much faster MFP growth.9 Addressing 
infrastructure bottlenecks in a manner consistent with the government's deficit reduction goals (sections 1.2.1 and 1.3.2) is another priority. A seemingly overvalued exchange rate, i.e. above 
most estimates of its fundamental value, presents, to some extent, a source of uncertainty for 
both economic activity and inflation; it remains subject to a number of downside risks, including 
changes in prices of key commodities exports, as well as future relative international interest rate movements. Tough reform seems required to avoid falling living standards.
10 The main external 
risks include the pace of growth in China over the medium term11, commodity price developments, 
and surges in global financial market volatility.  
1.2  Recent Economic Developments 1.2.1  Growth, income, and employment 
1.3.  After rising gradually until 2011/12, real GDP growth decreased to below-trend (i.e. 3%) 
rates due to slowdown of investment in new mining projects, and the weighing-down of non-mining investment by excess capacity and a s eemingly overvalued exchange rate (Table 1.1, 
section 1.3.1). In light of a further expected de cline in the terms of trade and subdued domestic 
price growth, the outlook for slightly below-tr end growth (2.75%) over 2014/15 balances the 
opposing forces of the substantial fall in mining investment and planned fiscal restraint against an 
Infrastructure Growth Package
12 (section 4.5.7), higher resources exports (as new capacity comes 
on stream), and the stimulus to growth from expansionary monetary policy (section 1.3.1); 
according to the authorities growth is expected to  pick up to an above-trend pace estimated at 
4.75% over 2015/16. 
1.4.  Since 2010/11, changes in the overall sector al pattern of Australia's GDP and employment 
h a v e  b e e n  r e l a t i v e l y  m i n o r ,  w i t h  s e r v i c e s  a c c o u n t i n g  f o r  m o r e  t h a n  7 0 %  o f  e c o n o m i c  a c t i v i t y  followed by mining and manufacturing, whose sh ares have gradually declined (Table 1.2, 
section 4.4). For the period 2007/08 to 2012/13, the average MFP growth for the 12 industry 
sectors slowed to -0.57% (-0.35% in 2002/03-2007/08), making it clear that Australia is experiencing a structural decline in MFP growth.
13 Between 2010/11 and 2012/13 the deterioration 
in MFP growth has been most pronounced in the mining sector (section 4.3.1)14; however, 
following a peak in mining investment, output is set to increase strongly in the coming years, boosting productivity in the sector. Measures aimed at increasing broader-based productivity 
growth form an essential part of the Government's reform agenda
15, with focus on deregulation16 
                                               
8 Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Statement 1: Budget Overview. 
9 IMF (2014).  
10 Treasurer Joe Hockey's statement cited at Australian Financial Review , "Income recession confirmed 
as GDP growth slows", 3 December 2014. Viewed at: 
http://www.afr.com/p/nationa l/income_recession_confirmed _as_gdp_ljjfkAYI94laDKTlEck4VJ .  
11 According to the authorities, Australia has a relatively high share of value added by international 
standards, which reflects two factor s – geographic isolation and significant natural resource endowments. 
Firstly, Australia's distance  from significant centres of final demand means that it has little involvement in 
intermediate processing stages of most global supply ch ains. Secondly, extraction of natural resources requires 
few imported inputs which results in the majority of th e value added being assigned to domestic production. As 
natural resources make up a significant proportion of Au stralia's export base and exports to China, the gross 
trade flow figures understate the demand for value added production which originates domestically. China's use of Australian intermediate inputs to satisfy final demand in the United States and Europe implies that Australian exposure to economic shoc ks in those markets is greater than  suggested by a cursory examination 
of gross trade. 
12 In the 2014/15 Budget, the Commonwealth Government committed to a $A 11.6 billion Infrastructure 
Growth Package, which will bring the Commonwealth Government's total investment in infrastructure to $A 50 billion through to 2019-20. Under the Package, which is to support economic growth and improve the long-term productive capacity of the economy, total infrastructure investment fro m Commonwealth, State and 
local governments, as well as the private sector, will build to over $A 125 billion of additional infrastructure by 2019-20 which, once completed, will add around 1 percentage point to Australia's GDP (Reserve Bank of Australia, 2014c; Commonwealth of Australia, 2014c, Statement 1: Budget Overview; and IMF, 2014). 
13 For the period 2007/08 to 2011/12, the average MFP growth was -0.7% (zero in 2003/04-2007/08) 
(Productivity Commission, 2013c; and IMF, 2014). 
14 The authorities indicated that focusing on annual gr owth in productivity statistics is not recommended 
due to its volatility and susceptibility to revision. Mining still made the largest negative contribution to market 
sector MFP growth but did not have the largest negative growth rate in 2012/13 (which it did in 2011/12). 
15 Despite successive rounds of refo rms it seems that progress has stal led or even reversed in some 
productivity-enhancing policy areas and the 'to do list' among the Productivity Commission's recommendations WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 15 - 
 
  and improved infrastructure (sections 2.6 and 4.5.7).17 Australia's terms of trade have declined by 
almost 20 percentage points from their historic peak in 2011 (Table 1.1)18, and are expected to 
decline further over the coming years (i.e. by 6.75% in 2014/15 and 1.75% in 2015/16) as global mining capacity increases.
19 Its participation in Global Value Chains (GVCs) and domestic 
value-added in exports (87% in 2010) is quite high as compared to other top 25 exporting 
economies (section 4.4).20  
Table 1.2 Basic economic indicators, 2009/10-2013/14 
 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14
 (Annual percentage change) 
GDP by economic activity at 2011/12 
pricesa  
Agriculture, forestry and fi shing -0.9 3.7 1.0 -2.7 1.7 
Mining 7.8 2.0 7.4 11.6 9.4 
Manufacturing 0.4 -0.2 0.0 -1.1 -2.1 
Electricity, gas, and water 1.0 2.7 0.1 -1.0 -3.1 
Construction 0.5 2.7 10.7 0.5 3.7 
Services 1.9 2.4 3.1 2.5 2.5 
Wholesale and retail trade 2.5 0.5 4.1 3.3 0.2 
Restaurants and hotels -1.1 2.6 3.6 -0.2 -0.3 
Transport, postal, and warehousing 1.8 3.2 3.9 2.7 -0.8 
Information media and telecommunications 1.4 3.3 0.4 -2.2 2.1 
Finance and insurance 0.4 1.1 4.0 3.3 6.5 
Rental, hiring, and real estate services 1.8 0.5 7.1 3.1 7.5 
Professional, scientific, and technical services 7.5 6.3 5.1 2.7 -1.8 
Administrative and support services -4.2 6.3 -2.0 5.0 3.1 
Public administration and safety 0.4 2.9 2.4 0.5 4.7 
Education and training 2.4 0.9 2.1 1.7 2.2 
Healthcare and social assistance 5.1 2.7 3.1 6.4 5.1 
Arts and recreation services 0.2 2.4 1.5 1.7 4.2 
Other services -0.2 0.8 3.6 -4.4 2.0 
Ownership of dwellings 0.8 1.7 1.4 2.4 2.5 
 (%) 
Share of sectors in GDP, current pricesb      
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.4 .. 
Mining 7.9 10.0 9.6 8.6 .. 
Manufacturing 8.6 8.0 7.5 7.1 .. 
                                                                                                                                               
is still a fairly long one, including those to: abolish remaining tariffs; limit provisions for "anti-dumping" action; 
terminate selective industry subsidies (e.g. automotive and renewable energy industries) that cannot deliver demonstrable net social benefits; extend reforms to drought support; phase-out public sector procurement preferences; and conduct a second, more focussed round of National Competition Policy reviews in priority 
areas (e.g. pharmacy ownership restrictions, taxi lice nce quotas, coastal shipping protection, the ban on 
parallel book imports, and unduly re strictive licensing and self-regulation of certain professional services 
(e.g. medical and legal)) (Banks, 2012). 
16 According to Deloitte Access Economics, Australia's productivity is being choked by red tape, with the 
combined cost of administering and complying with publ ic and private sector bure aucracy costing the nation 
$A 249 billion every year. Strikingly, the cost of comply ing with self-imposed rules created by the private 
sector is double that associated with  government regulations. The self-impos ed rules of the private sector cost 
$A 155 billion a year: $A 21 billion to develop and admini ster, and $A 134 billion a year in compliance costs 
(Deloitte, 2014).  
17 According to the IMF, enhancing the cost-ben efit analysis framework for the selection and 
prioritization of infrastructure projects and including mo re involvement by the private sector would help focus 
spending on infrastructure consistent with the government's deficit reduction goals (section 1.3.2) (IMF, 2014). 
18 This historic high was driven by record high global  prices for key Australian exports such as coal and 
iron ore, reflecting strong demand for steel in China (IMF, 2014). According to the authorities, the rise in the 
terms of trade has benefitted all Australians through ri sing national income. Equity holders have benefitted 
from the increase in the value of mini ng stocks due to higher commodity prices. The falling iron ore price has 
slashed Australia's terms of trade and thus lowered na tional income, hitting both  expected corporate and 
income tax revenues (ABC online information, "Treasur er Joe Hockey says no in stant budget fix planned for 
estimated $51b black hole", 11 November 2014. Viewed at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-
11/treasurer-facing-51-billion-budget-black-hole/5880718?section=business ).  
19 Currently Australia appears to be the world's largest exporter of steel-making materials and it is likely 
to also become a major source of liquefied natural gas exports in the coming years (section 4.3.2.2). A decline 
in the terms of trade is therefore, to some extent, th e result of new supply from Australian producers coming 
on-line (Atkin et al., 2014; Commonwealth of Aust ralia, 2014c, Statement 1: Budget Overview; and 
IMF, 2014). 
20 UNCTAD (2013). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 16 - 
 
   2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14
Electricity, gas, and water 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.1 .. 
Construction 8.1 7.9 8.2 8.3 .. 
Services 70.6 69.0 69.4 70.5 .. 
Wholesale and retail trade 9.5 9.3 9.2 9.2 .. 
Restaurants and hotels 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 .. 
Transport, postal, and warehousing 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.2 .. 
Information media and telecommunications 3.4 3.2 3.0 3.0 .. 
Finance and insurance 8.9 8.6 8.4 8.7 .. 
Rental, hiring, and real estate services 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.7 .. 
Professional, scientific, and technical services 6.8 6.7 7.0 7.3 .. 
Administrative and support services 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.1 .. 
Public administration and safety 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.6 .. 
Education and training 4.8 4.7 4.8 4.9 .. 
Healthcare and social assistance 6.5 6.6 6.5 6.9 .. 
Arts and recreation services 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 .. 
Other services 2.0 1.9 2.0 1.9 .. 
Ownership of dwellings 8.9 8.6 8.6 8.9 .. 
Share of sector in total employmentc      
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing 3.2  2.8  2.8  2.6  ..  
Mining 1.7  2.0  2.3  2.3  ..  
Manufacturing 8.9  8.5  8.4  8.1  ..  
Electricity, gas, water, and waste services 1.3  1.3  1.3  1.3  ..  
Construction 9.1  9.1  8.7  8.8  ..  
Services 75.8  76.3  76.5  76.9  ..  
Wholesale and retail trade, 14.5  14.4  14.1  14.3  ..  
Restaurants and hotels 6.7  6.9  6.7  6.8  ..  
Transport, postal, and warehousing 5.2  5.2  5.0  5.2  ..  
Information media and telecommunications 1.9  1.8  2.0  1.8  ..  
Finance and insurance 3.6  3.7  3.7  3.6  ..  
Rental, hiring, and real estate services 1.7  1.7  1.8  1.7  ..  
Professional, scientific, and technical services 7.7  7.7  8.0  7.9  ..  
Administrative and support services 3.5  3.5  3.5  3.4  ..  
Public administration and safety 6.3  6.4  6.2  6.5  ..  
Education and training 7.6  7.5  7.7  7.8  ..  
Health care and social assistance 11.2  11.6  11.9  12.0  ..  
Other services 5.9  5.8  5.8  5.8  ..  
.. Not available.  
a Based on chain volume measures that value quanti ties by using prices in a base period which is 
updated annually. 
b Percentage of gross value added at basic prices. c Based on calendar year; 2009/10 should read 2010, etc. 
Source:  Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian  System of National Accounts, 5204.0; and Australian 
National Accounts: National Income, Expenditure and Product, June 2014. 
1.5.  Following a drop to 5% in 2010/11, the unemployment rate has risen gradually to 5.9% in 
2013/14 (Table 1.1), due to weak employment growth and a falling participation rate. In part, this 
is a consequence of the mining sector moving to a less labour-intensive production phase.21 The 
Infrastructure Growth Package (see above) could have a job-creating effect in the near future.22 
According to the authorities, the unemployment rate is forecast to continue to edge higher, settling 
at around 6.25% at the end of 2015/16, consistent with the outlook for real GDP growth.  
1.2.2  Prices 1.6.   During the review period, consumer price inflation (CPI) remained close to the middle of the 
Reserve Bank of Australia's (RBA) target band rates (section 1.3.1) except in 2010/11 as a result 
of the effect of flooding and cyclone activity in Queensland on food prices, specifically fruit and 
vegetables, as well as strong tobacco price rises due to increases in the excise tax rate in April 2010 and June 2011 (Table 1.1).
23 In 2014/15, the CPI is expected to remain well contained 
due to moderate wage pressures helping to keep  unit labour costs down and the repeal of the 
                                               
21 Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Statement 1:  Budget Overview; IMF (2014); and OECD (2013c). 
22 The authorities consider that the Infrastructure Grow th Package will stimulate the construction sector 
and create thousands of jobs as the economy transiti ons from resource-led growth to broader-based growth. 
23 IMF (2014).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 17 - 
 
  carbon tax (sections 1.4.1, 3.4.1.2, 4.3.1, and 4.3.2) which is likely to reduce the headline CPI by 
three-quarters of a percentage point by June 2015.24  
1.3  Main Macroeconomic Policy Developments 1.3.1  Monetary and exchange rate policy 
1.7.  During the period under review, the Government maintained the inflation target range 
(2%-3% over the cycle) of the RBA and its independence in setting monetary policy.
25 As indicated 
above, overall CPI rates remained within the target levels and inflation expectations were well 
anchored. To facilitate the transition towards growth from non-resource sectors by supporting 
domestic demand, since November 2011 the RBA has cut its policy interest rate by 225 basis points to 2.5%, with the most recent cut in August 2013, thus bringing market lending rates well below their historical averages. According to th e IMF, the RBA's accommodative monetary policy 
stance is broadly appropriate.
26 In November 2014 the RBA indicated that a period of stability in 
interest rates is likely.27  
1.8.  Australia has maintained its freely-floating exchange rate system. Foreign exchange market 
operations may be undertaken by the RBA solely fo r the preservation of national or international 
security when the market threatens to become exce ssively volatile or when the exchange rate is 
clearly inconsistent with underlying economic fundamentals.28 These operations are invariably 
aimed at stabilizing market conditions rather than meeting exchange rate targets; explanations of 
these interventions are set out in the RBA's Quar terly Statements on Monetary Policy. No such 
intervention has taken place since 20 November 2008.  
1.9.  The responsiveness of the exchange rate  to economic developments contributed to 
maintaining macroeconomic stability and containing external vulnerabilities during the period 
under review; it has helped the economy to absorb a sharp increase in terms of trade without leading to an overheated domestic economy and a spike in inflation.
29 Despite some depreciation 
(over 2013) and the decline in the terms of trade (section 1.2.1), the Australian dollar, generally 
viewed by the market as a commodity currency and a proxy for China's growth, has remained relatively overvalued during the review period (Table 1.1).
30 This has been supported, inter alia , by 
substantial capital inflows to fund mining sector  investment, the gap between domestic and foreign 
interest rates, portfolio allocation towards Australian dollar assets by foreign institutional investors, and better-than-expected domestic economic data . The pace of increase of the real effective 
exchange rate slowed down. According to the IMF,  should these factors ease, possibly triggered by 
exit from unconventional monetary policies by major advanced economies, the exchange rate 
would likely depreciate further in line with the terms of trade development, supporting the transition of the economy towards more balanced growth.
31  
1.3.2  Fiscal policy 
1.10.  During the period under review the fiscal  deficit narrowed considerably from 3.7% of GDP 
(Table 1.1) in 2009/10 to 1.5% in 2012/13, and rose again to 2.4% in 2013/14, partly due to a 
one-off grant of $A8.8 billion from the Commonwealth Government to the RBA to strengthen its 
                                               
24 Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Statement 1: Budget Overview.  
25 RBA online information. Viewed at: http://www.rba.gov.au/mon etary-policy/about.html .  
26 Currently borrowing rates for households and busi nesses are well below average and, with banks' 
balance sheets in a healthy position, low-cost finance is available for sound projects (IMF, 2014). 
27 Reserve Bank of Australia (2014d). 
28 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011; and IMF (2014). 
29 IMF (2014). 
30 The estimated overvaluation of the Australian doll ar declined somewhat in 2013. The currency started 
to weaken in early 2013 following the RBA policy rate cuts (IMF, 2014). The depreciation of the exchange rate has created better conditions for exporters, but the exchan ge rate remains high by hi storical standards; this 
strength stands in sharp contrast to the historical tendency of the exchange rate to move together with the terms of trade. The IMF notes that the floating exchange  rate can help buffer shocks by depreciating when the 
terms of trade fall, making other tradable goods and se rvices more competitive. The Treasury's sensitivity 
analysis suggests that without depreciation a permanent fall in terms of trade of around 4% would cause a fall 
in nominal GDP of 0.75% to 1% (IMF, 2014; and Commonwealth of Australia, 2014c, Statement 1: Budget 
Overview). 
31 IMF (2014). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 18 - 
 
  financial position.32 The goal of returning the budget to  surplus in 2012 was held back by 
slower-than-projected output growth and weaker commodity prices; revenue fell short of projections and spending was somewhat higher than expected.
33 The current aim remains to reach 
a fiscal surplus in a few years, and to attain a sustained surplus of more than 1% of GDP 
by 2023/24.34 The Government's budget repair strategy includes a Temporary Budget Repair 
Levy35 and requires that new spending measures  (e.g. the Infrastructure Growth Package 
(section 1.2.1)) be more than offset by reductions in spending elsewhere.36 The 2014/15 Budget 
included measures to target family payments more tightly and changes to pensions, including 
indexation arrangements, to ensure the transfer system is more sustainable over the long-term.37 
Furthermore, since October 2013, an independent National Commission of Audit (section 2.2) has reviewed the performance, functions and roles of the Commonwealth government providing an 
important input to the 2014/15 Budget considerat ions; many of its recommendations have been 
addressed in the Budget, thus allowing savings conducive to improving the medium-term fiscal position.
38 According to the IMF, achieving and sustaini ng a surplus over the next decade will be 
challenging in light of current spending commitments. Furthermore, Australia's economic 
performance and hence its fiscal position is sensitive to changes in a number of economic parameters including labour productivity growth, the labour force participation rate and the terms 
of trade.
39  
1.4  Main Structural Policy Developments and Challenges 1.11.  Australia's trade and domestic reform are considered as intrinsically linked.
40 During the 
review period structural policy reform for improving its international competitiveness has been 
ongoing in certain areas (see below and sections 3.4.3, 3.4.4, 3.4.5, 4.4.1, and 4.5). The 
authorities plan to embark on a comprehensive round of structural reforms aimed at strengthening competition in labour and product markets as well  as addressing infrastructure bottlenecks that 
are critical to increase productivity and further diversify the sources of growth.
41 An October 2014 
Industry Innovation and Competitiveness Agenda aims  at addressing business costs, labour force, 
infrastructure, and innovation/entrepreneurship chal lenges in a holistic manner (section 3.4.2).42 
According to the OECD, reforms to enhance inve stment in infrastructure and knowledge-based 
capital as well as to boost labour force participation would help to ensure that Australia's good economic performance can be sustained in the long run.
43  
                                               
32 Treasury Media Release, "Strengthening the Reserv e Bank of Australia", 23 October 2013. Viewed at: 
http://jbh.ministers.treasury.gov.au/media-release/011-2013/ . 
33 IMF (2014); and Reserve Bank of Australia Me dia Releases/Speeches, "Building on Strong 
Foundations", Deputy Governor Phi lip Lowe, Address to the Australian Business Economists (ABE) Annual 
Dinner Sydney on 25 November 2014. Viewed at: http://www.rba.gov.au/speeches/2014/sp-dg-251114.html . 
34 Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Statement 1: Budget Overview. 
35 From 1 July 2014 until 30 June 2017, the Temporary Budget Repair Levy of 2% on individuals' 
taxable income above $A 180,000 applies and will raise an estimated $A 3.1 billion. An individual with taxable 
income of $A 300,000 a year will pay an additional  $A 2,400 in tax for each of the next three years 
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2014c, Statement 1: Budget Overview). 
36 The authorities indicated that the 2014/15 Budget bala nces the need to build growth while not placing 
additional near-term pressure on the economy. The Commonwealth Government is  shifting resources from 
recurrent spending to investment in  new infrastructure, and providing ta rgeted incentives to states and 
territories to unlock capital on their balance sheets. 
37 Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Statement 1: Budget Overview; and Reserve Bank of Australia 
Media Release/Speeches, "2014 Post Budget Economic Briefing", presentation by Nigel Ray, 23 May 2014. Viewed at: http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/Pu blications%20and%20Media/Speeches/2014/2014%20Post
%20Budget%20Economic%20Briefing/ Downloads/Speech_IPAA_20140523.ashx .  
38 IMF (2014). 
39 Parliamentary Budget Office (2014).  
40 Peter Varghese AO, Secretary, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, "Trade and Domestic 
Reforms: The Australian Experi ence", CUTS International 30th Anniversary Lecture, 3 February 2014. Viewed 
at: https://www.dfat.gov.au/media/speeches/department/140203-cuts.html .  
41 IMF (2014). 
42 Prime Minister/Minister for Indu stry Media Release, "An action plan for Australia's future", 
14 October 2014. Viewed at: https://www.pm.gov.au/media/2014-10-14 /action-plan-australias-future .  
43 OECD online information, "Going for Growth 2014: Australia", Viewed at: 
http://www.oecd.org/eco/growth/going-for-growth-2014-australia.htm , based on OECD (2014a).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 19 - 
 
  1.4.1  Tax reform 
1.12.  A White Paper on the Reform of Australia's Tax System, due to be completed by the end 
of 2015, is to provide a longer-term approach to tax reform that is consistent with the Government's core principles  of fairness and simplicity.
44 Against this background, the Government 
has already delivered a large number of other key tax priorities, including: repealing the Minerals 
Resource Rent Tax (MRRT) (September 2014) and the carbon pricing mechanism (July 2014); reducing the corporate income tax rate to 28.5%; introducing a 1.5% levy on certain large 
corporates to fund the proposed new Paid Parent al Leave Scheme; as well as implementing the 
Temporary Budget Repair Levy (section 1.3.2).
45 To ease the tax burden on businesses and on 
SMEs in particular, simplified and more generous amortisation rules allowing "carry back" losses to offset past taxable income have been in place since July 2012. According to the OECD, the tax 
structure is relatively inefficient; the general consumption tax burden is relatively low (below 
OECD average) while headline corporate income tax is comparatively high (above OECD average) for a capital-importing country like Australia (section 3.4.1.2).
46  
1.4.2  Pension system reform  
1.13.  During the review period, some changes we re brought to Australia's superannuation pension 
system. Since 1 January 2014, employers have been required to pay default contributions to an 
authorized "MySuper" product which is designed to be a simple superannuation fund with few 
standardized fees and a single balanced investment option.47 Superannuation funds have until 
July 2017 to transfer accrued default balances to "MySuper".48 The minimum obligation (i.e. a 
"superannuation guarantee" contribution rate) required by employers has been scheduled to 
increase gradually from 9% (as at 1 July 2012) to 12% (by 2021/22) of the employee wage; as 
of 2014/15 it stood at 9.5% and it will remain at this rate until 2020/21 as the original schedule for increasing the rate has been delayed as part of funding negotiated changes to repeal the 
Minerals Resource Rent Tax (section 1.4.1) and associated measures.  
1.4.3  Labour market reform 1.14.  Australia kept unchanged its legal and institutional framework for workplace relations under 
the Fair Work Act 2009. This focused, inter alia , on enterprise-level bargaining to closely link 
wages with workpl ace productivity.
49 During the review period, supporting the participation of 
mature-age people in the workforce continued to be a major policy focus.50 Jurisdiction was 
p r o v i d e d  t o  t h e  F a i r  W o r k  C o m m i s s i o n  t o  s t o p  w o r k p l a c e  b u l l y i n g  a n d  h e l p  t o  m a k e  s u r e  a l l  
Australian workplaces are safe, healthy and productive. Since January 2012 Wage Connect has 
assisted job seekers into employment and sinc e 1 July 2013 the Remote Jobs and Communities 
Program has helped people in 60 regions across remote Australia find jobs. From 1 July 2015 the 
Commonwealth Government is to implement a new employment services model aimed at moving 
more job seekers into employment with less red tape for providers and employers. Key features of the system will be Work for the Dole and employer engagement.
51 A number of targeted wage 
subsidies such as Restart for mature age workers and a subsidy aimed at the long-term 
unemployed will be available for cohorts who need additional assistance to connect with the labour market.  
                                               
44 Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Statement 1: Budget Overview.  
45 PricewaterhouseCoopers online information. Viewed at: http://www.pwc.com.au/tax/federal-
budget/2014/tax-reform-agenda.htm .  
46 OECD (2013b).  
47 The introduction of the "MySuper" reforms follo wed a government-commiss ioned review into the 
governance, efficiency, structure and operation of Australia's superannuation system (the Super System Review); previously, employers covered by awards were requ ired to select a default fu nd from the list of funds 
specified in the awards. 
48 As of 30 June 2014, Australians had over $A 1.85 tr illion in superannuation assets.  
49 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
50 Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2013).  
51 Work for the Dole, which can include volunteer work wi th not-for-profit organisa tions, or local, state, 
territory or Australian Government ag encies, started in 18 locations across Australia on 1 July 2014. The 
programme will be phased-in moving to a full nation al scheme from 1 July 2015; it is expected to be 
compulsory for the majority of a ll job seekers aged between 18 and 30 (Department of Employment online 
information. Viewed at: https://employment.gov.au/work-dole ). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 20 - 
 
  1.5  Balance-of-Payments Developments 
1.15.  Reflecting the structural saving-i nvestment gap and trade balance developments52, 
Australia's current account deficit dropped considerably in 2010/11 and thereafter rose gradually before dropping again in 2013/14 (Tables 1.1 and 1.3). The merchandise trade account turned to 
surplus in 2010/11 and 2011/12 driven by the peak  in the commodity price cycle; in 2012/13 it 
returned to a deficit as commodity prices moderated, and in 2013/14 it moved back towards surplus on the back of increased commodities production. According to the IMF, increased mining 
exports should improve the trade balance, and the current account deficit is expected to remain 
below 4% of GDP over the medium-term, stabilizin g Australia's net foreign liability position as a 
share of GDP.
53  
1.16.  Growing external liabilities used, inter alia , for the financing of current account deficits are a 
potential source of vulnerability for the economy. The counterpart to the prolonged 
savings-investment imbalance has been a build-up in net foreign liabilities representing 55.1% of GDP in 2013/14 (Table 1.1 and A1.1).This is high relative to many other advanced countries, 
reflecting sustained current account deficits.
54 Despite a considerable drop, the net income deficit 
was equivalent to 81% of the current account deficit in 2013/14 (Table 1.3). This was due, inter alia , to the decline in Australian interest rates, the compositional shift from banking sector to 
government debt, and the decline in mining companies' profitability. Between 2009/10 
and 2013/14, net external debt increased by around 28% (Table 1.3); in 2013/14, the private sector – especially non-financial corporations
55 – continued to account for 73.6% of foreign debt 
although public sector debt has increased by 10 1.6% since 2009/10 (Table 1.3). According to the 
IMF, Australia's net foreign liabilities as a share of GDP could stabilize or decline as mining 
investments bear fruit, with resources exports expe cted to grow strongly over the coming years.  
Table 1.3 Balance of payments, 2009/10-2013/14 
($A million) 
 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 
Current account  -64,236 -43,689 -49,253 -58,992 -48,079 
Goods and services balance -12,600 14,655 -1,905 -18,714 -6,851 
Goods balance -8,995 21,978 8,732 -4,620 6,587 
Exports 201,805 247,006 265,722 248,917 273,803 
Imports 210,800 225,028 256,990 253,537 267,216 
Services balance -3,605 -7,323 -10,637 -14,094 -13,438 
Receipts 50,349 51,046 51,565 53,487 57,381 
Transportation 6,275 6,419 6,335 6,082 6,440 
Travel 31,124 30,998 30,687 31,370 33,709 
Insurance and pension 340 352 449 473 530 
Financial 1,058 1,119 1,572 2,155 2,815 
Royalties and licence fees 1,038 1,000 848 827 812 
Telecommunication 233 153 129 212 251 
Computer and information 1,512 1,560 1,509 1,580 1,731 
Other business 6,932 7,615 8,130 8,937 8,956 
Personal and cultural 773 817 868 828 892 
Government goods an d services n.e.s.a 1,064 1,013 1,038 1,023 1,245 
Tourism-related services 33,817 33,801 33,309 33,744 36,098 
Payments 53,954 58,369 62,202 67,581 70,819 
Transportation 13,715 14,758 16,118 16,858 17,030 
Travel 23,910 25,711 26,742 28,025 30,009 
Insurance and pension 625 757 757 758 838 
Financial 592 650 968 960 1,482 
Royalties and licence fees 3,589 3,872 3,962 4,111 4,077 
Telecommunication 480 394 250 230 268 
Computer and information 1,503 1,654 1,661 1,838 2,447 
Other business 7,103 7,856 8,816 11,425 11,238 
Personal and cultural 1,322 1,490 1,608 1,783 1,623 
                                               
52 Gross savings have been comparable to those of other advanced economies, but Australia's 
investment level has been significantly higher than those of its peers (IMF, 2014). 
53 IMF (2014). 
54 IMF (2014). 
55 After the global financial crisis, Australian bank s started borrowing less from overseas. At the same 
time non-financial corporations continued increasing their share in net foreign debt, driven by debt liabilities in the mining sector.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 21 - 
 
   2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 
Government goods an d services n.e.s.a 1,115 1,227 1,320 1,593 1,807 
Tourism-related services 29,028 31,814 33,430 35,095 36,337 
Income balance -50,104 -56,337 -45,021 -37,983 -38,979 
Credit 38,782 44,653 47,230 46,112 48,888 
Debit 88,886 100,990 92,251 84,095 87,867 
Current transfers -1,532 -2,007 -2,327 -2,295 -2,249 
Credit 6,238 6,888 7,126 7,127 7,715 
Debit 7,770 8,895 9,453 9,422 9,964 
Capital and financial account  62,913 44,044 50,294 59,369 48,222 
Capital account -284 -316 -408 -453 -355 
Financial assets -4 -29 -25 -94 44 
Credit 22 73 1 0 48 
Debit -26 -102 -26 -94 -4 
Capital transfers -280 -287 -383 -359 -399 
Credit 0 0 0 0 0 
Debit -280 -287 -383 -359 -399 
Financial account  63,197 44,360 50,702 59,822 48,577 
Direct investment 31,459 30,514 48,156 56,076 56,215 
Australian's direct investment abroad -9,627 -8,418 -11,899 -771 3,950 
Foreign direct investment in Australia 41,086 38,932 60,054 56,848 52,265 
Portfolio investment  69,606 33,982 44,788 31,523 38,966 
Assets -92,909 -68,336 -20,754 -34,742 -55,987 
Liabilities 162,514 102,318 65,542 66,265 94,953 
Financial derivatives -8,773 -6,479 -20,884 -8,098 -18,140 
Assets 35,029 44,668 14,906 32,551 84,198 
Liabilities -43,802 -51,147 -35,790 -40,649 -102,337 
Other investment  -35,024 -10,458 -15,450 -18,868 -17,735 
Assets -9,901 -37,775 -8,548 -24,324 -67,156 
Liabilities -25,123 27,318 -6,902 5,456 49,421 
Reserve assets  5,929 -3,199 -5,908 -811 -10,730 
Net errors and omissions 1,323 -356 -1,040 -377 -143 
a "Services n.e.s." includes manufacturing services, maintenance and repair services, and 
construction. 
Source: Australian Bureau of Statis tics, "Balance of Payments and Inte rnational Investment Position 5302.0, 
September Quarter 2014". 
1.17.  Despite a minor drop in 2010/11, Australia's international (foreign exchange only)56 
reserves have risen progressively, from $A 31.4 b illion equivalent to 1.3 months of imports of 
goods and services at end-June 2011 to $A 52.1 billion or 1.8 months of imports at end-June 2014 
(Table 1.1).  
1.6  Developments in Merchandise Trade 1.18.  The openness of the Australian economy to international trade, and its integration into the 
world economy continued to be reflected by the ratio of its trade (exports plus imports) in goods 
and services to GDP that rose progressively from 39.9% in 2009/10 to 42.6% in 2011/12, before dropping to 40.9% in 2012/13, partly due to a drop in mining commodity prices (iron ore and coal) and increasing again to 42.2% in 2013/14 (Table 1.1).  
1.19.  Since its previous Review, Australia has remained largely dependent on commodity exports 
(metalliferous ores, mineral fuels, food), and in particular mining products, reflecting the 
investment boom in the sector (Chart 1.1, Table A1.2). Mining exports, mainly to China, are 
growing as new capacity comes on stream.
57 The share of manufactured items in total exports and 
imports has declined reflecting, inter alia , the steep fall in capital goods imports.58  
                                               
56 This amount does not cover all of Australia's "offi cial reserve assets" which also comprise SDRs, its 
Reserve position in the IMF, and gold.  
57 IMF (2014). 
58 Reserve Bank of Australia (2014c).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 22 - 
 
  Chart 1.1 Product composition of merchandise trade, 2010 and 2013 
2010 2013
(a)    Exports
Other manufactures
4.3%
Mining
63.4%
Total:   US$212. 5 billion Total:  US$253.7 billion
(b)    Imports 
Chemicals
10.8%
Transport 
equipment
14.3%Manufactures
72.3%
Electrical machines  
14.9%Non-electrical machinery
9.9%Gold
2.0%
Electrical machines
13.2%Non-ferrous metals
3.9%
Other semi-manuf.  
8.8%Chemicals
10.0%Manufactures
70.6%
Total:   US$188. 7 billion Total:  US$232.5 billionMining
64.6%
Fuels
25.8%
Fuels
28.8%
Other consumer 
goods
13.9%Other
4.8%Non-ferrous metals
4.5%Machinery
5.3%Gold
5.3%
Ores & other 
minerals
34.9%Machinery
5.2%
Ores & other 
minerals
30.1%
Other consumer 
goods
13.9%Other 
2.5%
Other manufactures
3.6%
Other semi-manuf.
8.5%Other 
3.3%
Agriculture
6.3%Agriculture
5.9%
Transport 
equipment
14.1%Chemicals
3.5%Chemicals
3.0%Agriculture
13.9%Agriculture  
15.8%Gold
6.2%
Fuels
17.5%Fuels
13.7%Other 
3.5%
Gold
3.3%
Non-electrical machinery
10.6%
 
Source: WTO calculations, based on data pr ovided by the Australian authorities. 
1.20.  Australia's merchandise trade with Ea st Asia grew further between 2010 and 2013 
(Chart 1.2, Table A1.3) mainly as a result of a continuous increase in exports to China. 
Notwithstanding some fluctuation in trade shares, more than 71% of total merchandise trade has continued to be conducted with trading partners from the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and 9.5% with members of the Association of South East Asian Nations 
(ASEAN) (Tables A1.4 and A1.5). China, Japan, Korea (Rep. of), the European Union, and the 
United States were Australia's main markets in 2013. New Zealand's share in Australian foreign trade continued to fall during 2010-13; in 2013, it accounted for 2.8% (3.6% in 2009) of 
Australia's total merchandise trade.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 23 - 
 
  Chart 1.2 Direction of merchandise trade, 2010 and 2013 
2010 2013
(a)    Exports 
Asia-Pacific
80.0%
Total:   US$212. 5 billion Total:  US$253.7 billion
(b)    Imports 
EU28
19.0%
Singapore
5.0%United States
12.6%Other
9.5%
EU28
17.5%Other
14.6%
Thailand
5.2%United States
10.2%
Total:   US$188.7 billion Total:   US$232.5 billionJapan
18.9%
Thailand  4.6%
Korea, Rep. of
4.1%Korea, Rep. of  
3.4%United
States
4.0%United 
States
3.7%
India
3.6%
Japan
7.7%China
18.6%Other Asia
12.8%EU28
5.0%
India
7.1%Other
7.8%
Japan
8.6%Other Asia
10.0%China
36.1%EU28
8.1%
New Zealand
3.5%
Chinese Taipei
3.6%New Zealand
2.8%China
25.3%
Japan
18.1%
New Zealand 
3.0%Other Asia
12.4%
Malaysia
4.3%Other Asia   
10.3%Korea, Rep. of
8.9%Other
7.9%
Chinese Taipei
2.8%
New Zealand
3.4%
Asia-Pacific
57.7%Asia-Pacific
58.9%Asia-Pacific
83.4%
Singapore
5.2%Malaysia  3.8%Korea, Rep. of
7.5%
China
19.3%
 
Source: WTO calculations, based on data pr ovided by the Australian authorities. 
1.7  Trends and Patterns in Foreign Investment 
1.21.  During 2009-13, Australia's stock of inbound foreign direct investment (FDI) expanded by 
around 29% to almost $A 630 billion (Chart 1.3). The overall pattern of the FDI stock has remained unchanged; it is concentrated in mining (whose share rose considerably), manufacturing, finance and insurance, and wholesale and retail trade. In response to the rise of 
terms of trade (section 1.2.1) mining investment has increased while non-mining investment has 
been weighed down by excess capacity, an overva lued exchange rate, a general lack of business WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 24 - 
 
  confidence, and a possible shift in household savings behaviour.59 Inward FDI stock continues to 
originate mainly in the European Union, the United States, and Japan; the share of stock originating in Australia's RTA partners rose gradually from 29.4% (2010) to 32.3% (2013).  
Chart 1.3 FDI inward stock, 2009 and 2013 
2009
(a)    By economic activity
Transport & 
communication
9.3%Services
35.0%
Canada  2.5%
Singapore
3.4%EU27
29.6%
Switzerland  3.6%Other
27.1%
Switzerland  3.0%Manufacturing
14.1%
Japan
10.0%EU28
24.8%
Total:   A$ 489.9 billion Total:   A$  629.9 billionConstruction
2.7%Property & business
5.8%
Construction
3.5%
Other
27.9%Services
33.9%
Manufacturing
16.6%
Wholesale & 
retail trade
7.6%Other services
1.5%
Finance & 
insurance
11.2%Finance & 
insurance  
12.3%
Transport &
communication
6.3%
Wholesale & 
retail trade
9.1%Other services
1.8%
Japan
9.3%Property & 
business  4.0%
Bermuda  1.5%Bermuda  1.9%
Canada  2.6%Mining
29.1%
United States
23.7% United States
20.0%Singapore
4.0%(b)    By originMining36.6%Other
a
15.7%Othera
12.7%
China 1.8% China 3.3%2013
 
a Including mainly unallocated activities. 
Source: Data provided by the Australian authorities. 
1.22.  Since 2009, the stock of Australian investment overseas has risen by 22.7% but has not 
exceeded the value and growth pace of inward FDI (Table 1.4). It remains concentrated in mining, 
finance and insurance services, and manufacturing. The United States, the European Union, and New Zealand remain the main destinations for Australian outbound FDI; the share of outward FDI stock in RTA partner countries is estimated to range from 28.9% (2011) to a peak of 40% (2013).  
                                               
59 IMF (2014). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 25 - 
 
  Table 1.4 Outward stock of foreign direct in vestment, by partner and economic activity, 
2009-13 
(A$ million and %) 
  2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Total outward FDI stock (A$ millio n) 406,435 439,529 405,036 445,039 494,844 
 (% of total FDI) 
By main partners      
United States 24.6 21.7 24.3 23.4 24.6 
European Uniona 22.9 22.9 17.8 17.7 14.8 
New Zealand 10.4 9.1 10.0 9.9 9.3 
Canada .. 4.9 .. .. 5.8 
Papua New Guinea 1.1 .. .. .. 3.6 
Indonesia 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.8 
Singapore 1.8 1.6 1.7 2.5 1.8 
Brazil .. .. 3.2 .. 1.6 
Bermuda .. 1.6 .. 1.3 1.4 
China 0.6 1.5 1.6 1.9 1.3 
Malaysia 0.8 0.9 .. .. 1.2 
Hong Kong, China  3.4 2.6 1.0 1.0 0.6 
Mexico .. 0.4 .. 0.6 0.4 
Chile .. .. 0.3 0.4 0.4 
India 0.1 0.2 .. 0.3 0.3 
By economic activity      
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing .. .. .. .. .. 
Mining 32.9 34.8 32.8 33.3 29.2 
Manufacturing 13.4 13.0 13.0 12.8 13.5 
Electricity, gas, and wa ter 1.6 1.5 1.6 .. 1.6 
Construction 2.1 2.5 2.7 2.7 2.6 
Services .. .. .. .. .. 
Wholesale and retail trade 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.9 
Accommodation, cafes, and restaurants .. .. .. .. .. 
Transport and communication 2.1 2.1 2.3 1.5 1.0 
Finance and insurance 27.8 25.2 24.5 25.3 28.4 
Property and business services 2.6 2.0 2.4 2.1 2.2 
Other services .. .. .. .. .. 
.. Included in totals but not available for publication. 
a EU27 from 2009 to 2012. EU28 from 2013.  Source: Data provided by the Australian authorities (ABS Catalogue 5352.0). 
 WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 26 - 
 
  2  TRADE AND INVESTMENT REGIME 
2.1  Overview 2.1.  Since its last Review in 2011 there have been no changes to Australia's framework for trade 
policy formulation and implementation. A key focus of the Commonwealth Government over the 
review period has been to drive forward reforms to cut costs, provide more efficient and effective 
government services and create a less-burdensome regulatory environment for businesses and citizens.  
2.2.  While participating actively in the WTO, Australia continues to pursue regional and bilateral 
trade agreements. New RTAs with Malaysia and the Republic of Korea have entered into force. A new RTA has been signed with Japan and RTA ne gotiations with China have been concluded. 
Australia is negotiating two additional bilateral RTAs as well as four plurilateral ones. During the 
review period it has been involved in several WTO dispute settlement cases in different ways, 
including as a respondent in five dispute settlement cases relating to measures concerning plain packaging requirements for tobacco products. Australia has maintained its highly transparent trade 
and investment regime and its solid record of making timely notifications to the WTO. It has 
commenced its domestic approval process to ratify the WTO Agreement on Trade Facilitation and is considering joining the WTO's Government Procurement Agreement. It has devoted over 10% of 
its total Overseas Development Assistance to finance Aid for Trade projects.  
2.3.  Australia continues to screen proposed foreign investments over a certain value to ensure 
that they are in the national interest. However, higher screening thresholds for non-sensitive sectors are increasingly being incorporated into RTAs. As at the time of Australia's previous 
Review, proposed investments are almost always allowed, but conditions are often attached, 
particularly in the real estate sector. In 2011, a foreign equity limit on investment in Qantas airline was removed, bringing FDI restrictions on this airline in line with those applied to all others. 
Foreign equity caps remain in the areas of airports, civil aviation, maritime transport and 
telecommunications. Restrictions on foreign direct investment in residential real estate are also in place. 
2.2  General Framework 
2.4.  There have been no changes to the Consti tution of the Commonwealth of Australia over the 
review period. This sets out, inter alia , the composition and responsibilities of the executive, 
legislative and judicial branches of Government as well as the responsibilities of state 
governments.
1 The last federal election was in September 2013, with the next to take place 
in 2016. 
2.5.  Under Australia's federal system, powers  are distributed between the Commonwealth and 
six states; in addition to the states, there are se veral territories, two of which are self-governing, 
but over which the Commonwealth retains ultimate power.2 Each state has its own constitution 
and government. The states and territories remain responsible for a number of trade-related 
policies, such as standardization, government procurement and state-trading. Their legislative 
powers also include agriculture, education, health and services. However, where there are inconsistencies between state and commonwealth legislation, the latter prevails.
3 States may 
provide bounties (subsidies) to, or impose taxes on, mining activities. The Commonwealth has 
exclusive power concerning all other bounties or support measures.4 In 2014, the Commonwealth 
Government released an issues paper to launch discussions on reform of the Australian Federation. This is ultimately to be followed by a White Pape r in 2015 which will seek to clarify the roles of the 
Commonwealth Government, States and Territories, with a view to ensuring the efficient and 
effective functioning of federation.
5 
                                               
1 The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (the Constitution), viewed at: 
http://www.comlaw.gov.au . For more information on the respective  responsibilities of the executive, 
legislative, and judicial branches of Government , see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
2 The six states are New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, and 
Tasmania. The two territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. 
3 The Constitution, Article 109. 
4 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
5 Australian Govern ment online information. Viewed at: https://federation.dpmc.gov.au .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 27 - 
 
  2.6.  The Council of Australian Governments (COAG) , brings together the Prime Minister and State 
and Territory Premiers and Chief Ministers; it promotes national policy reforms where there is a need for coordinated action at the different levels of government.  
2.7.  The Productivity Commission remains the Government's independent research and advisory 
body on microeconomic policy and regulation. It undertakes government-commissioned 
projects/public enquiries, performance reporting, and other services to government bodies.  
2.8.  Over the review period, COAG continued to implement various reforms under the 
2008 National Partnership Agreement to Deliver a Seamless National Economy (SNE NP). The 
SNE NP comprised 36 stand-alone measures aimed at reducing the regulatory burden on firms operating in multiple domestic jurisdictions. These included: 27 deregulation priorities, eight competition reforms and one reform related to regulation-making and review processes. The 
SNE NP was officially concluded in 2012, although implementation of some measures continued 
beyond that date.
6 Measures undertaken since 2011 have been: reforms to personal property 
securities through the unification of separate laws and the consolidation of several registers into a 
single register; the introduction of a single, national regime for fair trading and consumer 
protection, through entry into force of the Australian Consumer Law; and the signature of three intergovernmental agreements on heavy vehicles, rail and maritime safety which should promote 
regulatory efficiency in these areas of transportation (see section 4.5.7). In 2012, the Productivity 
Commission undertook an assessment of 17 of the SNE NP business regulation reforms, and estimated that their full implementation could increase GDP by around 0.4% in the long run. It noted that realisation of benefits of reforms thus far had been mixed and that additional efforts by 
governments were needed in some areas.
7  
2.9.  The Commonwealth Government has committed to undertake institutional reforms with a 
view to ensuring that the public sector is  streamlined and refocused on areas where its 
involvement is strictly necessary. In 2013, an independent National Commission of Audit was 
established with a mandate to review and report on the performance, functions and roles of the Commonwealth Government and to make recommendations which would result in savings 
sufficient to bring about a surplus of 1% of GD P prior to 2023-24 (section 1.3.2). The Commission 
issued a Phase One report in February  2014 and a Phase Two report in March 2014.
8 These reports 
recommended, inter alia , a reduction in the number of boards, committees, councils and 
government bodies. As noted by the authorities, the Commonwealth Government has already 
abolished over 230 programmes as well as 70 bodi es, boards, committees and councils with a view 
to streamlining accountabilities and improving efficiency. It is also undertaking reviews into ownership options for several government bodies and developing a contestability framework to 
drive efficiency and assess whether a government function should be open to competition. The 
Commonwealth Government has committed itself to consideration of further reforms following the 2014-15 Budget. 
2.3  Trade Policy Formulation and Objectives 
2.10.  Australia's trade policy continues to be based on the premise that trade openness and 
economic growth/performance and living standards are strongly linked; emphasis is placed on improving international competitiveness and market access overseas. To reach these objectives, 
Australia pursues a combined unilateral, multilateral, regional and bilateral approach to trade 
policy. Its trade policy agenda is also influenced by the new Government's 2014 Industry Innovation and Competitiveness Agenda (see sections 1.4, 3.4.2, and 4.4). 
2.11.  The Minister for Trade and Investment and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 
(DFAT) continues to maintain prime responsibility for bilateral, regional and multilateral trade policy as well as administrative responsibility for all treaties. DFAT also administers Australia's Aid 
for Trade funding, which in 2013-14 was estimated to be $A 630 million or 12.5% of Australia's 
total Official Development Assistance.
9 Various other departments and agencies are involved in 
                                               
6 The most recent update on implementation of COAG reforms dates back to April 2013 (COAG online 
information. viewed at: https://www.coag.gov.au/node/499 ).  
7 Productivity Commission (2012).  
8 National Commission of Audit online information. Viewed at: http://www.ncoa.gov.au . 
9 As reported by DFAT most of Australia's aid for tr ade was directed to multi-country initiatives (35%), 
projects in Asia (31%) and projects in the Pacific, including Papua New Guinea (17%). The aid for trade WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 28 - 
 
  international trade policy and trade relations.10 As reported in Australia's previous Review, 
Australia's highly transparent trade policy formulation and evaluation structure involves interactions between the executive branches of government, advisory bodies, businesses, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders. 
2.12.  The Executive branch of government has the authority under the Constitution to enter into 
treaties relating to trade and investment (as with all other treaties), to decide on negotiating positions and ultimately sign and ratify them. The Minister for Trade and Investment has authority 
for negotiating trade agreements, as mandated by Cabinet. With respect to bilateral investment 
treaties and investment protection and promotion agreements, the Treasurer and Attorney-General hold authority along with DFAT. Al though it is not a constitutional requirement, 
treaties are in practice put before Parliament's Joint Standing Committee on Treaties 
post-signature, but pre-ratification, allowing for review by this body. A tabled treaty is 
accompanied by a National Interest Analysis (NIA) and a Regulatory Impact Statement (RIS), if it 
affects business or restricts competition. Consultations with state and territory governments take 
place through the Commonwealth-State-Territory Standing Committee on Treaties (SCOT) and 
with industry and other interest groups through a range of processes organised by DFAT, from standing bodies to informal methods.
11 Treaties are also subject to review by the Foreign Affairs, 
Defence and Trade References Committee. Current procedures do not provide for an independent 
and transparent analysis of the final text of a proposed agreement after negotiation but before 
signing.  
2.13.  Australian trade laws largely take the form  of statutes and implementing regulations. The 
legislative process is described in the Secretariat report for Australia's previous Review. Statutes 
are printed separately (and are available online on the Commonwealth Government's ComLaw website), while regulations are published in the Commonwealth of Australia gazettes.
12 Similar 
arrangements hold for state and territory governments. At the time of announcement of Australia's 
last election (5 August 2013), the Government entered caretaker mode, and bills that were before Parliament and that had not been passed, lapsed. Some of these bills have not yet been 
reintroduced before the new Parliament. 
2.4  Trade Agreements and Arrangements 2.4.1  WTO 2.14.  Australia is an original Member of the WT O, and grants at least most-favoured-nation (MFN) 
treatment to all its trading partners. It is not a member of the WTO plurilateral Agreements on 
Government Procurement or Trade in Civil Aircraft. However, Australia announced on 
14 November 2014 that it is working towards acceding to the Government Procurement 
Agreement (GPA) (section 3.2.8).
13 It has also commenced its domestic approval process to ratify 
the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement.  
2.15.  Since 2011, Australia has participated as a respondent in five new dispute settlement cases 
relating to certain measures taken concerning tr ademarks, geographical indications and other plain 
packaging requirements applicable to tobacco products and packaging. In these cases the 
complaining Members have been: Cuba (case DS548); Indonesia (case DS467); the 
                                                                                                                                               
activities were: economic infrastructure including tran sport and storage (42%), buil ding productive capacity 
including in agriculture (54%), and trade policy and regulation (4%) (DFAT online information. Viewed at: http://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/aid-for-trade/ ). 
10 These include: the Department of Agriculture; the Department of Communications; the Department of 
Finance; the Department of Health; the Department of Immigration and Border Protection; the Department of 
Industry; the Department of Infrastru cture and Regional Development; IP Australia; the Attorney-General's 
Department and the Treasury. A full list of all Co mmonwealth Government departments and agencies was 
viewed at: http://australia.gov.au . 
11 Detailed information on the treaty-mak ing process in Australia was viewed at: 
https://www.dfat.gov.a u/treaties/making/ . 
12 These gazettes are: the Government Notices Gazette ; the Australian Public Service Gazette ; the 
Government Purchasing ; the Business Gazette ; the Australian Securities and Investments Commission 
Gazette ; the Tariff Concessions Gazette ; the Chemical Gazette ; the Australian Pesticides & Veterinary 
Medicines Authority Gazette ; and the Food Standards Gazette . 
13 Media release by the Minister for Trade and Investment, 14 November 2014. Viewed at: 
http://trademinister.gov.au/releases/Pages/2014/ar_mr_141114a.aspx .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 29 - 
 
  Dominican Republic (DS441); Honduras (DS435); and, the Ukraine (DS434). The complainants 
agreed to harmonize the procedures and the timetables in the five cases and the panels were composed on 5 May 2014.
14 Since 2011, Australia has reserved its third party rights in several 
cases but has not participated in any new dispute settlement case as complainant.  
2.16.  Australia has maintained a strong record of notifications to the WTO; at end October 2014, 
notifications were outstanding in the areas of impo rt licensing procedures and agriculture (use of 
special safeguard provisions; domestic support; and export subsidies (including with respect to 
food aid)). Australia's notifications made over  the review period are listed in Table A2.1. 
2.4.2  Regional and preferential agreements 2.4.2.1  Regional trade agreements 2.17.  As at end December 2014, Australia had nine RTAs in force with a total of 16 economies, 
namely: Brunei Darussalam; Canada; Cambodia; Chile; Indonesia; Korea (Rep. of); Lao PDR; 
Malaysia; Myanmar; New Zealand; Papua New Guinea; the Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; the United States; and Viet Nam. With respect to New Zealand, Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia, 
there are commitments both under the RTA between ASEAN, Australia and New Zealand 
(AANZFTA) as well as under Australia's bilateral RTAs with these respective countries. The main features of all of these RTAs, together with detail s of the status of their consideration by the WTO 
Committee on Regional Trade Agreements (CRTA), are detailed in Table A2.2. All RTAs have been 
notified to the WTO, with the exception of the pa rtial scope RTA with Canada which dates back to 
the 1960s.
15  
2.18.  Since 2011, two new RTAs have entered into force, with Malaysia and Korea (Rep. of), and 
a bilateral RTA has been signed with Japan. A Protocol on Investment to the 
Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relati ons Trade Agreement entered into force on 
1 March 2013 under which Australia applies higher thresholds for mandatory screening of proposed 
investments by New Zealand investors (see below).16 Additionally, in September 2013 the First 
Protocol to the Agreement Establishing the AANZFTA was signed. This amends the AANZFTA in the areas of rules of origin requirements and the transposition of schedules of tariff commitments.
17 
Finally, negotiations on an RTA with China were concluded in November 2014.18 While the 
implications for Australia of various existing and potential RTAs with North Asian economies have been assessed by the Centre for International Economics in Australia, there have been no independent reviews of trade agreements by the Productivity Commission since 2010.
19 A 
2015 analysis of the impact of Australia's RTA with the United States points to its trade-diverting 
rather than trade-creating impact.20  
                                               
14 WTO online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds458_e.htm ; 
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds467_e.htm ; 
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds441_e.htm ; 
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds435_e.htm ; 
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds434_e.htm . 
15 As noted in the Secretariat Report for Canada's  TPR in 2007, preferential treatment under this 
agreement is very limited, as preferences have been  eroded by subsequent unilateral and multilateral 
liberalization (WTO document WT/TPR/S/179/Rev.1, 4 June 2007).  
16 The text of the Protocol on Inve stment to the Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade 
Agreement 2013 (together with associated side letters and annexes) was viewed at: http://www.dfat.gov.au/fta/anzcerta/index.html  and 
http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Treaties/24_November_2014/Terms_of_Ref
erence .  
17 ASEAN online information. Viewed at: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-
news/item/asean-aust ralia-and-new-zealand-sign-pro tocol-to-improve-trade-pact .  
18 An early announcement has been made to the WTO for this RTA. 
19 As reported in Australia's previous Review, the Productivity Commission un dertook an examination, 
released in 2010, of the effectiveness of trade agre ements according to variou s criteria. The Centre for 
International Economics released a model-based analysis of the impact of free trade agreements on Australia in 2014. This includes both existing RTAs to which Aust ralia is and is not a party as well as potential RTAs 
(Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, 2014).  
20 East Asia Forum online informatio n, "The costs of Australia’s "free trade" agreement with America by 
Shiro Armstrong", 8 February 2015. Viewed at: http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2015/02/08/the-costs-of-
australias-free- trade-agreement-with-america/ ; and Armstrong (2015). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 30 - 
 
  2.19.  As at December 2014, Australia was negotiating bilateral RTAs with India and Indonesia and 
was participating in four plurilateral RTA negotiations: the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP); the Australia-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) RTA; the Pacific Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (PACER Plus); and, the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) 
negotiations. An early announcement has been made to the WTO in the case of the GCC.  
2.20.  Australia's bilateral RTA with Malaysia (MAFTA) entered into force on January 2013. 
Malaysia is Australia's ninth largest merchandise trading partner (counting the European Union as 
one). Under the Agreement, Australia eliminated all of its tariffs on imports from Malaysia on entry 
into force of the Agreement, while Malaysia's  tariff liberalization commitments are being 
undertaken annually over a thirteen year period, ending in 2026 (at which point duties on all but 95 tariff lines will have been eliminated). The Agreement includes a side-letter on the MFN 
treatment of Malaysian imports of alcoholic beverages from Australia. Malaysia has also committed 
to not impose quantitative limitations on imports of certain vehicles imported from Australia or to impose additional charges on these imports. Au stralia's services commitments go beyond the 
scope of Australia's GATS commitments in various respects.
21 There are no provisions on 
government procurement in the RTA and governme nt procurement of services is explicitly 
excluded from its scope. The Agreement contains provisions on competition policy and intellectual 
property rights as well as side-letters on environmental issues and labour provisions.22  
2.21.  The Korea-Australia Free Trade Agreement (KAFTA) was signed in April 2014 and entered 
into force on 12 December 2014. Korea (Rep. of) is Australia's fifth largest trading partner. This Agreement was notified to the WTO on 22 December 2014.
23 Under the Agreement almost all of 
Australia's tariffs on Korean exports will be phased-out over an eight year period.24 The Republic of 
Korea will implement tariff liberalization over a 20-year period. Once the Agreement is fully 
implemented, 100% of Australia's tariff lines will be duty free under the Agreement, and 98.4% of 
the Republic of Korea's. The Agreement also in corporates services commitments which in many 
cases go beyond the scope of those schedul ed under the GATS as well as government 
procurement commitments. As noted by the DFAT, among the key benefits of KAFTA for Australia 
will be: new market access for Australian suppliers of legal, accounting and telecommunication 
services as well as guaranteed access in other services sectors25; improved market access for 
exporters of agricultural products26; and new commercial opportunities for the Australian film and 
television industry. The Agreement also contains provisions on intellectual property rights, 
competition policy, electronic commerce, labour and the environment as well as provisions for 
investor-state dispute settlement.27 
                                               
21 For a more detailed description of the services  commitments taken under the RTA between Australia 
and Malaysia, as well as a comparison between its GATS and RTA commitments, see WTO document 
WT/REG340/1, 14 April 2014 (section 4.5.1 and Table 4.3). 
22 For a more detailed description of these provisions see WT/REG340/1, 14 April 2014, sections 5.9, 
5.10, 5.12 and 5.13. 
23 WTO document WT/REG359/N/1 and S/C/N/786, 22 December 2014.  
24 The Korean authorities expect that major Korean expo rts to Australia will increase as a result (these 
export items include: automobiles, automotive components, heavy equipment for construction, synthetic resin and steel products). Additionally, Korean companies are expected to benefit from reduced tariffs on promising 
export items such as, inter alia , automobile bumpers; optical fibre cabl es; filters for air purifiers; foods and 
cosmetics (Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy  of Korea Press Release, 8 April 2014. Viewed at: 
http://www.motie.go.kr/language/eng/news/news_list.jsp?tableNm=E_01_01 ). 
25 As reported by DFAT key outcomes are that: Australian law firms will be able to establish 
representative office in the Republic of Korea and advise  on Australian and public in ternational law; within two 
years, enter into cooperative agreements  with local firms; and, within five years, establish joint ventures and 
hire local lawyers. Australian accountants will be able to  establish offices in the Re public of Korea to provide 
consultancy services on international an d Australian accounting laws; and within  five years will be able to work 
in, and invest in, Korean accounting fi rms. Within two years, telecommunications providers will be able to own 
up to 100% of the voting shares of a facilities-based telecommunications supplier in the Republic of Korea. Australian financial serv ices providers will be able to supply specifie d financial services on a cross-border basis, 
including investment advice and portfo lio management services for investme nt funds, as well as a range of 
insurance and insurance-rela ted services (DFAT online information. Viewed at: 
https://www.dfat.gov.au/ fta/kafta/downloads/ou tcomes-at-a-glance.pdf ). 
26 As noted by DFAT key outcomes on  agriculture include: an eliminatio n of the Republic of Korea's 40% 
tariff on beef progressively over 15 years; duty-free qu otas for cheese, butter and infant formula; and, the 
elimination of high tariffs on many dairy products between three and 20 years. 
27 The full text of the KAFTA was viewed at: https://www.dfat.g ov.au/fta/kafta/ . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 31 - 
 
  2.22.  The Japan-Australia Economic Partnership Agreement (JAEPA) was signed in July 2014, but 
has not yet entered into force. Japan is Australia's second largest trading partner. An advance notification for this Agreement has been submi tted to the WTO. Under the Agreement Australia's 
tariffs on Japanese exports will be phased-out over an eight-year period. Japan will implement 
tariff liberalization over a 18-year period. By th e time the Agreement is fully implemented, 100%
28 
of Australia's tariff lines will be duty-free under the Agreement, and 88.7% of Japan's. As with the 
KAFTA, the Agreement also incorporates services and government procurement commitments as 
well as chapters on intellectual property rights, electronic commerce and competition policy.29 
Among Australia's anticipated benefits from the Agreement are reduced tariffs for its agricultural exports and elimination of tariffs on its manufactu ring, energy and resource exports by the time 
the Agreement is fully implemented, as well as services commitments which are equal to, or better 
than, the best commitments Japan has made in an y of its other trade agreements. The JAEPA does 
not contain provisions for investor-state dispute settlement.
30  
2.4.2.2  Preferential trade agreements 
2.23.  Australia offers non-reciprocal trade preferences to developing countries and least 
developed countries (LDCs) under the Australian Syst em of Tariff Preferences (ASTP) as well as to 
Forum Island economies under the South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation 
Agreement (SPARTECA).31  
2.24.  All imports from LDCs, East Timor and partic ipants in the SPARTECA benefit from duty free 
and quota-free access to the Australian market. Fifty-six developing countries are entitled to so-called "DC" rates of duty on 3,143 tariff lines; they involve a 5% margin of preference over the 
MFN rate, when the MFN rate is 5% or higher. Where the applied MFN rate is less than 5%, the DC 
rate is 0%. Around 90 developing countries are entitled to "DCS" rates of duty on 801 tariff lines. Finally, Singapore; the Republic of Korea; Hong Kong, China; and Chinese Taipei are eligible for 
preferential tariffs (so-called DCT duty rates) on 182 tariff lines. The countries eligible for these 
different duty rates are listed in Schedule 1 to the Customs Tariff (see also section 3, Table 3.2).  
2.25.  The authorities indicated that around $A 473 million in customs duty was foregone between 
January 2011 and July 2014 as a result of Australia's non-reciprocal preference schemes. 
2.5  Other Agreements 2.26.  Australia continues to pursue regional trade and investment liberalization through the Asia 
Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC). Under the Bogor Declaration, APEC members made a 
voluntary commitment to achieving free and open trade and investment by 2020 (2010 for 
developed economies) through unilateral, regional and multilateral liberalization. Each year, the 21-member economies present Individual Action Plans (IAPs) that set out measures, taken or 
intended, to achieve this goal. In November 2014, APEC Ministers adopted a road map and 
launched a collective study to achieve a Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific (FTAAP).
32 
2.27.  Over the review period, Australia's trade and investment relations with Papua New Guinea 
have been strengthened through the signature of a Joint Declaration for a New 
Papua New Guinea-Australia Partnership in May 2013 which, inter alia , contains a commitment to 
support free trade and rules-based investment processes.33 This was followed by an economic 
cooperation agreement signed between the two countries in March 2014. As reported by the 
authorities, the objective of the latter agreement is to move away from aid/donor-characterised 
                                               
28 Australia retains the specific component ($A 12,000 per vehicle) of the compound tariff for eight used 
car tariff lines.  
29 More detailed information on each of these provisions was viewed at: http://www.dfat.gov.au/jaepa . 
30 DFAT online information. Viewed at: https://www.dfat.gov.au/fta/jaep a/snapshot/downloads/jaepa-
snapshot.pdf .  
31 Forum Island economies are: Cook Islands; Fiji ; Kiribati; Marshall Islands; Federated States of 
Micronesia; Nauru; Niue; Papua New Guinea; Samoa; Solomon Islands; Tonga; Tuvalu; and Vanuatu. 
32 APEC online information. Viewed at: http://www.apec.org/Meeti ng-Papers/Ministerial-
Statements/Annual/2014/2014-amm.aspx .  
33 DFAT online information. Viewed at: http://www.dfat.gov.au/ge o/png/joint-declaration-
10052013.html .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 32 - 
 
  relations and to create an economic and strategic partnership.34 Australia has various other 
agreements in place to promote trade and investment (Table A2.3). 
2.6  Framework for Business and Investment 2.28.  Australia performs well in various international rankings relating to the environment for 
business, trade and investment. It was ranked in 10
th place out of 189 economies in the World 
Bank's Doing Business report for 201535, and in 22nd place out of 144 economies in the World 
Economic Forum's 2015 Global Competitiveness Index.36 There have been no major changes to 
Australia's ranking in these indexes over the review period. The World Bank has reported on the 
various reforms undertaken since 2011 to improve the business environment, which relate to 
obtaining credit, resolving insolvency and employing workers.37 Concerns have been expressed by 
the business community about the relatively high cost of labour in Australia and the need for a 
more flexible approach to granting visas so as to engage skilled and semi-skilled foreign workers 
where needed. Concerns have also been raised regarding high levels of regulatory burden, 
particularly in the areas of industrial relations, employment, occupational health and safety, and 
compliance with various tax payment requirements.38 Transport costs and shortcomings have also 
been identified as an impediment to trade and the operational efficiency of businesses.  
2.29.  A key development over the review period which should, inter alia , have a positive impact 
on the environment for investing and doing business in Australia, has been the various initiatives 
undertaken by the Commonwealth Government to cut red tape and promote efficiency and effectiveness in developing and implementing regulations. 
2.30.  The Commonwealth Government is engaged in a major new deregulatory initiative which 
aims to cut $A 1 billion in red tape every year. Two parliamentary repeal days were held in 2014 
to cut unnecessary and costly legislation and regulation. The first of these repeal days was held in March resulting in the abolition of over 10,000 unnecessary or counter productive regulations or 
redundant Acts of Parliament. The second wa s held in October, during which nearly 
1,000 additional pieces of legislation and regula tion were repealed. The total net deregulatory 
savings from these two rounds has been estimated at over $A 2.1 billion.  
2.31.  Australia has also implemented reforms to its Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA) Framework 
in order to limit the flow of new regulations. For several years, policy-makers have been required under this Framework to draw up a Regulation Impact Statement (RIS) before a decision is taken either to introduce or abolish a regulation. In March 2014, the Commonwealth Government made 
changes to RIS requirements designed to support the Government's red tape reduction target (see 
above). Key changes introduced were that all Ca binet Submissions now require a RIS and all RISs 
must quantify the regulatory costs to business, community organizations and/or individuals of new 
regulations and identify offsetting regulatory costs.
39 Agencies are encouraged to issue an early 
RIS assessment to assist consultation.40 The Office of Best Practice Regulation (OBPR) is charged 
with administering the RIA requirements. 
                                               
34 Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2014).  
35 It is particularly well ra nked for: obtaining credit (4th place in this sub-category) and the ease of 
starting a business (7th place). It is ranked less favourably for: protecting minority investors (71st place); 
obtaining electricity (55th place); and registering property (53rd place) (World Bank, 2014).  
36 Australia received pa rticularly high rankings for its level of financial market development, health, and 
education (World Economic Forum, 2014). 
37 These include: the adoption of a new national lega l regime governing the enfo rceability of security 
interests in personal property and implementing a unified collateral registry (Doing Business 2013 report 
(DB2013)); improving its credit info rmation system through the Privac y Amendment (Enhancing Privacy 
Protection) Act 2012 (DB2014); clarification of the priority of claims of unsecured creditors over all shareholders' claims and introduction  of further regulation of the prof ession of insolvency practitioners 
(DB2012); introduction of the severance payment obliga tion and reemployment consideration applicable in 
cases of redundancy dismissals. Annual leave was increa sed and averaging of hours is now allowed in shorter 
periods of time. In addition, notice period applicable in case of redundancy dismissals was decreased (DB2011) (World Bank, 2014). 
38 Australian Industry Group (2014).  
39 Previously there was a threshold test for both Cabine t,  Ministerial or other decisions. Additionally, the 
proposal had to be regulatory in nature and have more than a minor impact on busi ness or the not-for-profit 
sector. 
40 New RIS procedures are set out in Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2014). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 33 - 
 
  2.32.  In October 2014, the Commonwealth Govern ment also announced the creation of a New 
Regulator Performance Framework.41 This will establish a set of performance measures to assess 
the performance of regulators and their engagement with stakeholders. The Commonwealth Government released a draft Framework in 2014 and has allowed a period of time for public 
comment; it is now considering inputs with a view to issuing a final Framework before the end of 
the year.
42  
2.33.  Under the Australian Jobs Act 2013 (which entered into force on 27 December 2013) and its 
accompanying Australian Jobs (Australian Industry Participation) Rule 2014, proponents of major 
projects in Australia with a capital expenditure of  $A 500 million or more, are required to prepare 
and implement an Australian Industry Participation (AIP) plan. This should outline how such projects will provide full, fair and reasonable opportunities for Australian industry to supply goods 
and services.
43  
2.34.  Australia encourages foreign investment consis tent with its national interest. To ensure that 
national interests are protected, Australia continues to apply a screening process under the 
framework of the Foreign Acquisitions and Takeovers Act 1975 and the 2013 Foreign Investment 
Policy. The concept of "national interest" is not defined under the Act or Policy and is interpreted on a case-by-case basis, inter alia , taking into account a range of factors, typically including: 
national security; competition; the impact on other Government policies (including taxation); the 
impact on the economy and the community; and, the character of the investor.
44 Screening of 
residential real estate applications are considered in light of the principle that foreign investment should serve to increase the housing stock in Australia. As noted by the authorities at the time of 
Australia's previous Review, the Commonwealth Government prefers a flexible approach to 
hard-and-fast rules, since rigid laws that prohibit a class of investments too often stops valuable investments. The case-by-case approach is deemed  to maximise investment flows while protecting 
Australia's national interest.
45  
2.35.  The screening process applies to: proposed investments by foreign private investors 
involving the acquisition of a substantial interest (of 15% or more) in any business that is valued 
at over $A 252 million. However, as a result of RTA commitments, higher monetary thresholds (of 
$A 1,094 million) apply to investments in non-sensitive sectors by investors incorporated in United States (since 2005); New Zealand (since 2013); Chile (since 2014); and the Republic of Korea (since 2014).
46 These higher thresholds will also apply to Japan from 15 January 2015. 
Additionally for these RTA partners, screening is not applied to investments in financial sector 
companies, which are subject to a parallel approval process under separate legislation (section 4.5.5).
47 Thresholds are indexed annually on 1 January. 
                                               
41 Commonwealth Government online information. Viewed at: http://www.cuttingredtape.gov.au/parl-
sec/media/new-regulato r-performance-framework . 
42 The draft Framework was largely based on a Regula tor Audit Framework released by the Productivity 
Commission in March 2014. These documents were viewed at: http://www.cuttingredtape.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/DRAFT_Regulator_Performance_Framework.d
ocx and Productivity Commission (2014b). 
43 Department of Indu stry online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.industry.gov.au/industry/AustralianIndustr yParticipation/Pages/AIP-p lans-required-Jobs-Act-
2013.aspx . 
44 Greater detail on how these factors are taken in account is set out in the Foreign Investment Policy. 
Viewed at: http://www.firb.gov.au/content/policy.asp?NavID=1 . This Policy (Annex 2) also contains the 
Government's policy statemen t on foreign investment in agriculture and the national  interest co nsiderations 
taken into account in this specific sector, namely: the quality and availability of Australia's agricultural resources, including water; land access and use; agricu ltural production and produc tivity; Australia's capacity 
to remain a reliable supplier of agricultural produc tion, both to the Australian community and its trading 
partners; biodiversity; and employme nt and prosperity in Australia's local and regional communities.  
45 WTO document WT/TPR/M/244/Add.1, 16 May 2011. 
46 Sensitive sectors are: media; telecommunications; tr ansport (including airports , port facilities, rail 
infrastructure, international and domestic aviation and ship ping services provided eith er within, or to and from, 
Australia); the supply of training or human resources or the development,  manufacture or supply of military 
goods, equipment or technology able to be used for a military purpose; the de velopment, manufacture or 
supply or provision of services relating to encryption and security technologies and communication systems; and the extraction of (or holding of rights to extract) uranium or plutonium or the operation of nuclear 
facilities. In these sectors the general threshold of $A 252 million applies. 
47 FIRB online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.firb.gov.au/content/monetary_thresholds/monetary_thresholds.asp . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 34 - 
 
  2.36.  The screening process also applies to: (a) all vacant non-residential land; (b) all 
investments of 5% or more in the media sector48; (c) all proposed direct investments, new 
business proposals and acquisitions of land made by foreign government investors regardless of their value; (d) proposed investments by foreig n private persons in developed commercial real 
estate valued at $A 55 million or more; and (e) proposed investments by foreign persons in 
residential real estate (with some exceptions).
49 In 2013, a revised definition of foreign 
government investor was introduced in order to provide more clarity. Additionally, foreign 
government investors which are Authorized Deposit-Taking Institutions (ADIs) are no longer 
required to notify the Government when they take  security over an asset as part of a lending 
agreement. 
2.37.  Proposals for such investments are sent to the Foreign Investment Review Board (FIRB) 
which makes recommendations, within set time frames, to the Treasurer who may approve; 
approve with conditions or reject the application.50 As at the time of Australia's previous review, 
the vast majority of applications are approved, often with conditions attached. No proposals were 
refused in 2012-13 (Table 2.1).  
Table 2.1 Applications decided, 2010/11-2012/13 
Outcome 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 
Number $A billion Number $A billion Number $A billion
Approved unconditionally 4,606 145.7 4,900 137.5 5,535 108.7 
Approved with conditions 5,687 31.0 5,803 33.2 7,196 27.0 
Total approved 10,293 176.7 10,703 170.7 12,731 135.7 
Rejected 43 8.8 13 0.2 0 0 
Total decided 10,336 185.5 10,716 170.8 12,731 135.7 
Source: Foreign Investment Review Board (2014), Annual Report 2012-13 . Viewed at: www.firb.gov.au .  
2.38.  In 2012-13, both in volume and value terms, approvals were dominated by real estate 
applications, followed by mineral exploration and development and then services (Table 2.2). In the same year the biggest source countries for approved proposed investments were: the United States ($A 20.6 billion); Switzerland ($ A 18.4 billion); China ($A 15.8 billion), Canada 
($A 14.4 billion); and the United Kingdom ($A 6.8 billion). 
Table 2.2 Total approvals, by industry sector, 2012/13 
Industry Number of 
approvals Proposed investment 
($A billion) 
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing 91 2.86 
Finance and insurance 36 2.92 
Manufacturing 44 6.51 
Mineral exploration and development 289 45.14 
Resource processing 7 0.42 
Services 154 25.91 
Tourism 1 0.02 
Real estate 12,025 51.91 
Source:  Foreign Investment Review Board (2014), Annual Report 2012-13 . Viewed at: www.firb.gov.au .  
2.39.  In response to increased community concern about foreign investment in agriculture, the 
Government has stated that it will lower the existing foreign investment screening threshold for 
purchases of agricultural land and will introduce a foreign ownership register. The Parliamentary 
Standing Committee on Economics has also recently undertaken an inquiry into Australia's foreign 
                                               
48 The media sector refers to daily  newspapers, television, and radio (including internet sites that 
broadcast or represent these forms of media). 
49 FIRB online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.firb.gov.au/content/real_esta te/residential/approval_exemption.asp .  
50 As noted by the FIRB, where proposals raise national interest concerns that could lead to prohibition, 
the FIRB and its Secretariat, the Treasury's Foreign Investment and Trade Policy Division work with the 
applicant to see how concerns may be mitigated or managed. In 2012-13 all conditional approvals were in the 
real estate sector; conditions imposed included those related to the period duri ng which development must 
commence, requiring temporary residents to reside in and then sell established dwellings when they cease to reside in them, and re porting requirements. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 35 - 
 
  investment policy on residential real estate, amid concerns about housing affordability for 
Australians.51 In its report, released in November 2014, the Committee noted shortcomings both in 
terms of data collection and monitoring of compliance with policy requirements. It recommended that the current framework for foreign investment in residential real estate should be maintained 
and supplemented by new data collection, audit, compliance, and enforcement processes, financed 
by administrative fees. It also advocated stronger penalties as well as policy amendments requiring temporary residents to divest an established property within three months if it ceases to 
be their primary residence.
52  
2.40.  Additional foreign investment restrictions, including foreign equity caps, are maintained in 
specific sectors (Table 2.3). As noted in section 4.5.7.2, investment restrictions in air carrier Qantas were removed in 2014 bringing FDI restrictions on this airline in line with those applied to 
all others. 
Table 2.3 Foreign invest ment restrictions, 2014 
Sector/activity Restrictions 
Airports 49% foreign ownership limit for airports; 5% airline ownership limit for 
certain airports; and 15% cross-ownership limits between Sydney airport 
and Melbourne, Brisbane, and Perth airports (see section 4.5.7.2). 
Civil aviation Aggregate foreign investment in Australia's international airlines is limited 
to 49%, with any one foreign holding capped at 35% (see section 4.5.7.2). 
Residential real 
estate All foreign investment in residential real estate (except by New Zealand 
citizens) should increase Australia's housing stock. Temporary residents (on visas for more than 12 months) may purchase one existing home to live in while resident in Australia but are required to sell it upon expiration of their 
visa.  
Shipping For a ship to be registered in Australia, it must be majority 
Australian-owned, unless it is designated as chartered by an Australian 
operator (see section 4.5.7.1). 
Telecommunications 35% foreign ownership in Telstra. Individual foreign investors may only own 
up to 5% (see section 4.5.6.1). 
Source: Australia's Foreign Investment Policy. Viewed at: 
http://www.firb.gov.au/con tent/policy.asp?NavID=1 .  
2.41.  Australia maintains bilateral investment promotion and protection agreements (IPPAs) or 
bilateral investment treaties (BITs) with 22 economies (Table 2.4); since 2011, no new 
agreements have entered into force. The IPPAs/BITs grant MFN treatment for foreign investment, 
provide nationalization/expropriation guarantees, and establish dispute settlement mechanisms.53 
An investor-state dispute has been lodged against the Australian Government over tobacco plain packaging requirements under a bilateral investment treaty between Australia and 
Hong Kong, China.  
2.42.  Double-taxation avoidance (DTA) treaties, based on the OECD Model Tax Convention on 
Income and Capital, are in force with several countries (Table 2.4); three new DTAs have entered 
into force over the review period (with Chile, Switzerland and Turkey) and two existing DTAs (with 
India and Malaysia) have been amended. Austra lia has also signed several tax information 
exchange agreements (TIEAs), the vast majority of  which have entered into force over the review 
period (Table 2.4). A TIEA with Uruguay was signed in 2012 and TIEAs with Brunei and Guatemala 
were signed in 2013; these have yet to enter into force. Australia observes the notification and transparency provisions of the OECD Code on Libe ralization of Capital Movements, and subscribes 
to the OECD Declaration on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises as well as the 
OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. It is a signatory to the United Nations Convention 
                                               
51 Its terms of reference were to ex amine: the benefits of  foreign investment in residential property; 
whether such foreign investment is di rectly increasing the supply of new ho using and bringing benefits to the 
local building industry and its suppliers; how Australia's foreign investment framework compares with international experience; and whether the administration of Australia's foreign investment policy relating to 
residential property can be enhanced. 
52 Parliament of Australia onli ne information. Viewed at: 
http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Commi ttees/House/Economics/Foreign_investment_in_real_es
tate.  
53 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 36 - 
 
  on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (New York Convention) and 
member of the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). 
Table 2.4 Foreign investment-related treaties and agreements in force 
(Date of entry into force) 
IPPAs/ 
BITS Argentina (1997); Chile (1999); China (1988) Czech Republic (1994); Egypt (2002); 
Hong Kong, China (1993); Hungary (1992); India (2000); Indonesia (1993); Lao, PDR (1995); Lithuania (2002); Mexico (2007); Pakistan (1998); 
Papua New Guinea (1991); Peru (1997); Philippines (1995); Poland (1992); 
Romania (1994); Sri Lanka (2007); Turkey (2010); Uruguay (2003); and Viet Nam (1991). DTAs Argentina (1999); Austria (1988); Belgium (1979a); Canada (1981a); Chile (2013); 
China (1990); Czech Republic (1995); Denmark (1981); Fiji (1990); Finland (2007); 
France (2009); Germany (1975); Hungary (1992); India (1991a); Indonesia (1992); 
Ireland (1983); Italy (1985); Japan (2008); Kiribati (1991); Korea, Republic of (1984); 
Malaysia (1981a); Malta (1985); Mexico (2003); Netherlands (1976a); New Zealand 
(2010); Norway (2007); Papua New Guinea (1989); Philippines (1980); Poland (1992); 
Romania (2001); Russian Federation (2003); Singapore (1969a); Slovakia (1999); 
South Africa (1999a); Spain (1992); Sri Lanka (1991); Sweden (1981); Switzerland 
(2014); Chinese Taipei (1996); Thailand (1989); Turkey (2013); United Kingdom (2003); 
United States (2003); and Viet Nam (1992a). TIEAs Andorra (2012); Anguilla (2011); Antigua and Barbuda (2009); Aruba (2011); 
Bahamas (2011); Bahrain, Kingdom of (2012); Belize (2011); Bermuda (2007); 
British Virgin Islands (2009/2010); Cayman Islands (2011); Cook Islands (2011); 
Costa Rica (2013); Dominica (2011); Gibraltar (2010); Grenada (2012); 
Guernsey (2010/2011); Isle of Man (2009/2010); Jersey (2010); Liberia (2012); 
Lichtenstein (2012); Macao, China (2011); Marshall Islands (2011); 
Mauritius (2011/2013); Monaco (2011); Montserrat (2011); Netherlands Antilles (2008); 
Samoa (2011/2012); San Marino (2011); St. Kitts and Nevis (2011); St. Lucia (2011); 
St. Vincent and the Grenadines (2011); Turks and Caicos Islands (2011); and 
Vanuatu (2011). 
a These DTAs have subsequently been amended. 
Source:  DFAT Australian Treaties Database. Viewed at: www.dfat.gov.au/treaties/ ; and The Treasury online 
information. Viewed at: http://treasury.gov.au/Policy-To pics/Taxation/Tax-Treaties/HTML .  
 WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 37 - 
 
  3  TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICES BY MEASURE1 
3.1  Overview  3.1.  Since its previous Trade Policy Review in 2011, Australia has maintained the openness of its 
trade regime, which is to a large extent due to the exemplary transparency in trade and related 
policy. While no major unilateral liberalization has been undertaken, there have been policy 
changes in various areas, including: tariff concessions, biosecurity, anti-dumping and countervailing actions, and intellectual property rights. 
3.2.  The tariff remains one of Australia's main tr ade policy instruments, albeit a minor source of 
tax revenue. As a result of the introduction of the HS2012 tariff nomenclature (177 more lines), the average applied MFN tariff rate dropped slight ly, from 3.1% in 2010 to 3% in 2014. Unilateral 
reductions were implemented at the beginning of 2015. The average applied MFN tariff in 2014 for 
industrial products is 3.3%, while that for agricu ltural imports is 1.4%. Some 96% of applied MFN 
tariff rates are currently in the range zero to 5%. In line with long-standing, though decreasing, sectoral support to textiles, clothing and foot wear (TCF) and passenger motor vehicles (PMV) 
products, the applied MFN tariff rates on the latter remain considerably higher than the average. 
The tariff structure has remained unchanged and involves seven rates (four ad valorem,  one 
specific, one compound, and one alternate). It is characterized by tariff escalation, which means 
that effective rates of tariff protection can be considerably higher than nominal rates. Some 99.7% 
of tariff rates are ad valorem , which contributes to the transparency of the tariff. Nevertheless, the 
few non- ad valorem  rates tend to conceal relatively high tariff rates, particularly those on used 
vehicles (although such rates seem to be rarely applied). The fact that 96.6% of tariff lines are 
bound imparts a high degree of predictability to the tariff. However, the simple average of bound 
MFN rates (9.9%) considerably exceeds the average applied MFN rate, providing the authorities with extensive scope for increasing applied tariffs within bindings, although there has been no such 
increase during the review period. While tariff-rate quotas have remained in place for five cheese 
items, they are apparently applied in a flexible/liberal manner. Tariff quotas on non-manufactured tobacco have never been applied. The list containing the range of goods and user categories 
subject to concessional rates of tariff concessions to support local industry has been streamlined. 
During the review period, trade facilitation efforts included: simplification of Australia's duty concessions scheme; enhanced international cooperation; efforts to ratify the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement; and the commitment of funds to assist partner countries in this area. As 
regards customs valuation, the legislation was amended to ensure consistency with the WTO 
Agreement and transfer pricing policy practices have been clarified.  
3.3.  Import prohibitions and restrictions in the form of generally strict quarantine or technical 
requirements have remained in place to preserve, inter alia,  human, animal or plant life or health, 
the environment, safety, or security. These are considered necessary to meet Australia's relevant appropriate level of protection (ALOP). During the period under review, reforms to create a 
modern and responsive system that facilitates tr ade while managing biosecurity risks was pursued, 
including the procedure for passing legislation lead ing to a repeal of the Quarantine Act of 1908. 
Whereas technical standards and many other regulati ons are, by and large, subject to cost-benefit 
analysis, this is still not the case with SPS measures. The share of national standards that are 
identical or "modified adoptions" of international standards remains at 38% (or 97% of applied 
standards). No new mutual recognition agreemen ts (MRAs), a trade facilitation measure, were 
signed. During the review period, significant changes have been made to the legislative, 
institutional and procedural frameworks on anti-dumping and countervailing measures. Recourse 
to anti-dumping and countervailing action has been increasing, with most initiations and measures relating to items originating in Asia. Two safeguard investigations (processed fruit, canned 
tomatoes) were initiated, but no safeguard meas ures were adopted during the review period. 
3.4.  Australia remains an observer to the WTO Committee on Government Procurement (GPA) 
and is working towards possibly acceding to the GPA. Comprehensive chapters on government procurement in a number of its regional trade agreements (RTAs) reflect its commitment to 
respect principles of transparency and non-discrimination in the conduct of its government 
procurement. Nonetheless, Australia has continued to use government procurement as an 
                                               
1 This Chapter refers to several indicators, including effective rate of combined assistance, used by the 
Productivity Commission (section 2. 2) for assessing support provided to  different economic  activities. For 
details on the definition, methodology, and scope of these indicators, see Productivity Commission (2014c). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 38 - 
 
  instrument of economic policy aimed at fostering industrial development in certain sensitive areas 
that are exempt from mandatory rules applying to procurement above certain thresholds. Procurement rules were amended, inter alia , to redefine procurement methods and adjust legal 
terminology. The target of sourcing at least 10% of purchase value from small- and medium-sized 
enterprises (SMEs), as well as preference margins for local suppliers and local-content 
requirements by certain state governments, have been maintained or revised but are applied in line with RTA commitments.  
3.5.  Export controls or quantitative restrictio ns affect certain primary and therapeutic goods to 
ensure, inter alia,  adequate domestic supply, and to enforce standards. A permit requirement for 
wheat exports was repealed. The Rice Marketing Board for the State of New South Wales, an export monopoly, was the only state-trading enti ty operating during the review period. Export 
assistance, consisting of direct grants (e.g. through export market development grants) and tax 
concessions (e.g. Tradex), has been maintained and,  in certain areas, focussed on Asian markets. 
In addition to local-content requirements, termed "Australian activity", export finance is, inter alia,  
conditional upon "national interest" criteria. Export credit terms would appear to be in line with 
OECD guidelines.  
3.6.  Support for domestic production and trade has been provided through tax and non-tax 
incentives, with increased emphasis on R&D spending as well as regulatory restrictions on 
competition. Some industry-specific programmes (e.g. steel, TCF) were either ended or amended during the review period. The special Luxury Car Tax, which affects both domestic and foreign cars but seems to fall disproportionately on imports, has been retained. The effective rate of combined 
assistance remains relatively high for motor vehi cles and parts, TCF, and forestry and logging.
2 
The state remains involved in the economy through government trading enterprises (GTEs) providing services in key infrastructure sectors (e.g. water, electricity, ports, rail, urban transport), 
though not always on a fully commercial basis. Efforts to streamline state participation in areas 
where Commonwealth Government involvement is necessary included "bonus" payments to state governments that sell public assets and use the proceeds for infrastructure projects. 
3.7.  Australia has further strengthened protection  of intellectual property rights by passing new 
legislation, considered as its biggest IP system overhaul in twenty years, by amending existing 
legislation in several areas and expanding its international commitments. The competition policy framework, which remains characterized by a lo ng list of special regimes and exemptions, 
including at state or territory level, will be comprehensively reviewed with a revised compliance 
and enforcement policy being released in 2013. A recent legislative amendment is aimed at strengthening protection in the area of consumer credit. 
3.2  Measures Directly Affecting Imports 
3.2.1  Registration and documentation requirements 3.8.  During the review period, minimum import documentation requirements remained 
unchanged. These are: a full import declaration (F ID), which is required for goods with a value 
above $A 1,000; an invoice, bill of lading/airway bill; and any other papers such as packing list, insurance documents, etc. relating to the shipment.
3 Import permits are also required for certain 
goods subject to controls or restrictions (section s 3.2.5, 3.2.6, and 3.2.7). The Integrated Cargo 
System (ICS), a single window for the vast majority of international trade-related transactions, 
continues to provide an interface for industry to connect electronically for coordinated customs and quarantine clearance. Some transactions may require separate contact with permit-issuing 
agencies and some may require the presentation  of the permit at customs in hard copy. 
Opportunities are continuing to be explored on a case-by-case basis for higher volume and higher risk permit management processes to be developed to facilitate electronic clearance. Virtually all 
customs brokers are connected to the Customs elec tronic systems, while individual importers are 
                                               
2 The effective rate of assistance (ERA) measures th e net subsidy equivalent (NSE) of combined tariff, 
budgetary, and agricultural pricing and/or  regulatory assistance to a particul ar industry in proportion to that 
industry's unassisted net output (or unassisted value a dded). It can provide an indi cation of the extent to 
which assistance to an industry allows it to attrac t and hold economic resources (Productivity Commission, 
2014c). 
3 For further information, see WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1,  18 May 2011; and Australi an Customs and Border 
Protection Service online information. Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/faq/ClearingCustoms.asp . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 39 - 
 
  also able to connect via the internet and obtain a digital certificate to enable secure 
communication with the system. In 2013/14, 99.6%  (99.3% in 2009/10) of Customs entries in 
Australia were processed electronically. Self-assessment of duty continues to be the norm, with compliance addressed by post-audit regimes. Re gular audit checks are undertaken to ensure 
accuracy of import declarations against the commercial documents and the physical cargo.   
3.9.  During the review period, action was taken to regulate and facilitate trade by simplifying duty 
concessions for industry (section 3.2.2.6); reform ing international trade remedies and setting up a 
new Anti-Dumping Commission (section 3.2.6.1); participating in regional trade agreements and 
multilateral fora (section 2.4.2.1); enhancing international cooperation and data-sharing; and seconding United States Customs and Border Protection Services to enhance international targeting and risk assessment of shipments of common interest.
4 The ratification of the WTO Trade 
Facilitation Agreement is to be concluded by mid-2015 (section 2.1). Under the Enhanced Trade 
Solutions (Program) 2015, work to create a single window for clients and develop a user-friendly and comprehensive trusted trader/authorised economic operator programme continued; the latter 
is to be operational by July 2015. Strengthening th e supply chain against criminal infiltration by 
passing new legislation (Customs and AusCheck Legislation Amendment (Organised Crime and Other Measures) Act 2013) and several other measures, has been part of the work in this area. 
Illicit tobacco remains a key risk focus for the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service 
(ACBPS) which combats tobacco smuggling, inter alia , through collaboration with government, 
industry and international partners.
5 Between 2010/11 and 2012/2013, illicit tobacco detection in 
sea cargo, cigarette sticks seized, and duty evaded increased by 41.2%, 143.9%, and 11.8%, 
respectively. Action was also taken to enforce import prohibitions on products of illegal logging as 
well as to simplify the seizure process for goods infringing intellectual property rights (sections 3.2.5 and 3.4.6.3). 
3.10.  Since 2007, Australia's annual Time Release Studies (TRS) have consistently shown that its 
border agencies are not an impediment to trade.
6 According to these studies, a high level of 
facilitation is maintained, and interventions are effectively and efficiently targeting high risk 
consignments. In 2014 a National Border Targeting Centre was established to provide a nationally 
coordinated approach to identifying high-risk passengers and cargo. During the review period, the proportion of goods released by the time a vess el arrives into port increased due to timely 
reporting (from 57% in 2008 to 74% in 2012). In 2012, the average arrival to clearance times for 
sea and air cargo were 0.2 days (0.9 in 2010) and 8.4 hours (4.5 in 2010)
7, respectively. 
The 2012 TRS showed that more than 66% of sea cargo and more than 80% of air cargo is now fully risk-assessed and unimpeded by the time it is  physically available for delivery. Impediments 
range from incomplete reporting to goods that require inspection or biosecurity treatment 
(section 3.2.7.2.2). Australia remains committed to assisting partner countries in their trade facilitation efforts, and has committed AU$6 million over three years to the World Bank's Trade 
Facilitation Support Program.  
3.11.  In 2013 Australia was ranked in 46
th place out of 189 economies in the ease of trading 
across borders.8 Importing a standard container of goods required 7 documents, took 8 days and 
cost US$1,170, as compared to an OECD high in come members' average of 4 documents, 10 days, 
and US$1,090, respectively; exporting the same container required 5 documents, took 9 days and 
US$1,150, as compared to an OECD high income members' average of 4 documents, 11 days, and US$1,070, respectively. 
                                               
4 Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2013a). 
5 Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2013a). 
6 For further information, see WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1,  18 May 2011; and Australi an Customs and Border 
Protection Service (2012).  
7 Due to significant increases in the number of consig nments that physically cross the Australian border, 
performance may dimini sh. The short timeframes that characterise the air cargo environment limit the 
opportunities to significantly improve performance (Austr alian Customs and Border Protection Service, 2012).  
8 World Bank (2013).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 40 - 
 
  3.2.2  Tariffs 
3.2.2.1  Features 3.12.  Since January 2012, Australia's tariff classification system has been based on the HS2012 
nomenclature.
9 It is applied at the HS eight-digit level and has 6,185 lines, 177 lines more than 
the previous (HS2007) customs tariff. Australia continues to submit its customs tariff and trade 
data regularly to the WTO Integrated Data Base.10 The customs tariff comprises MFN and several 
preferential rates granted under bilateral and pl urilateral agreements as well as unilateral 
concession schemes (sections 2.4.2 and 3.2.2.5).  
3.2.2.2  Applied MFN tariff 3.13.  On average, Australia's applied MFN tariffs remain relatively low. No customs duty rates 
were changed during the review period. Neverthe less, Australia's average applied MFN tariff rate 
dropped slightly, from 3.1% (2010) to 3% (2014) (Table 3.1)
11 due to splitting or combining of 
tariff lines when the HS2012 nomenclature was introduced. Tariffs on apparel and certain finished textile articles were further reduced to 5% on 1 January 2015. MFN applied tariff rates on 54 items 
contained in the September 2012 APEC List of Environmental Goods that directly and positively 
contribute to green growth and sustainable developm ent objectives remain subject to tariffs of 5% 
or less.
12 In 2012/13 2.49% of the Commonwealth Government's total tax receipts (cash) were 
from customs tariffs.13  
3.14.  In accordance with the indexation provisions in section 19 of the Customs Tariff Act 1995 
and section 6A of the Excise Tariff Act 1921, the rates of excise duties (section 3.4.1.1) on certain spirits, and beer were last increased on 1 August 2013.
14 In accordance with section 19AB of the 
Customs Tariff Act 1995 tobacco is no longer indexed in line with the CPI; it is now indexed in line 
with the average weekly ordinary time earnings  (AWOTE) on 1 March and 1 September each year 
with the first increase having occurred on 1 March 2014. 
3.2.2.2.1  Structure 
3.15.  During the review period, the structure of the customs tariff remained unchanged. In 2014, 
around 99.7% (6,168 lines) of the tariff lines were subject to four ad valorem  rates (zero, 4%, 
5%, and 10%), the same as in 2010; this ensure s a high degree of tariff transparency. Some 
47.6% (46.2% in 2010) of tariff lines now carry a ze ro rate (Table 3.1, Chart 3.1), nearly half 
(48.3%) are subject to a rate of 5%, and 3.7% remain at 10%. 
                                               
9 The fourth review amendments to  the Harmonized System concentrate primarily on environmental and 
social issues that are of global concern. The 2012 Harmonized System revisions contain approximately 
800 amendments to the Customs Tariff Act 1995 affecting 43 of the 98 chapters in the classification, through either note changes or classification changes or both. Extensive revisions affected Chapters 3, 9, 16, 27, 29, 
61-62, and 96. Australian Customs and Border Prot ection Notice No. 2011/12, "2012 Harmonized System 
Changes". Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata /resources/files/ACNHS2012Final.pdf .  
10 WTO document G/MA/IDB/2/Rev.40, 16 October 2014.  
11 As the calculation of import duty in Australia is ba sed on the f.o.b. value, th e actual tariff imposed is 
lower than in economies that calculate duty on the c.i.f. value. 
12 APEC online information. Viewed at: http://www.apec.org/Mee ting-Papers/Leaders-
Declarations/2012/2012_aelm/2012_aelm_annexC.aspx . 
13 Taxes on international trade as a percentage of all Australian governments' tax revenue, stood at 2% 
(Table 3.5). Customs duties constituted around 99.9% (9 9.8% in 2010) of taxes on international trade; export 
fees and charges on selected agricultural products accounted fo r the remaining 0.1%.  
14 The new rates of customs and excise duty listed ar e calculated by multiplying the previous rates by 
an indexation factor, which is calculated by dividing  the most recent CPI number by the previous highest 
December or June quarter number occurring after December 1983. Accordingly, the December 2012 index number (102) has been divided by the June 2013 index number (102.80) to establish an indexation factor 
of 1.008. As this factor is more than one, rates of  customs and excise duty have been increased by the 
application of this factor (Australian Customs and Border Protection Notice No. 2013/31, "Indexation of certain 
customs and excise duty rates", 1 August 2013. Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/ACN.pdf ). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 41 - 
 
  Table 3.1 Australian tari ff structure, 2010 and 2014 
(%) 
    MFN applied Final 
bounda 2010 2014 
1. Bound tariff lines (% of all tariff lines) 96.5 96.6 96.6 
2. Simple average rate 3.1 3.0 9.9 
 Agricultural products (HS01-24) 1.4 1.4 3.1 
 Industrial products (HS25-97) 3.4 3.3 11.2 
 WTO agricultural products 1.6 1.4 3.8 
 WTO non-agricultural products 3.3 3.3 10.9 
 Passenger motor vehicles 41.7 41.7 ..b 
 (excluding AVEs of non- ad valorem  rates) 5.0 5.0 ..b 
3. Domestic tariff "peaks" (% of all tariff lines)c 3.9 3.9 5.4 
4. International tariff "peaks" (% of all tariff lines)d0.2 0.2 12.8 
5. Overall standard deviation of tariff rates 6.5 6.4 10.9 
6. Coefficient of variation of tariff rates 2.1 2.1 1.1 
7. Duty free tariff lines (% of all tariff lines) 46.2 47.6 20.3 
8. Non-ad valorem  tariffs (% of all tariff lines) 0.3 0.3 0.9 
9. Nuisance applied rates (% of all tariff lines)e 0.0 0.0 9.1 
a Based on 2014 tariff schedule. Implementation of final bound rates was reached in 2000.  
b  Tariff lines where an AVE is used under the MFN applied are unbound. c  Domestic tariff peaks are defined as those exc eeding three times the overall simple average applied 
rate. 
d International tariff peaks are defined as those exceeding 15%. 
e Nuisance rates are those greater than zero, but less than or equal to 2%. 
Note:  2010 tariff is based on HS07 nomenclature consisting of 6,008 tariff lines; and 2014 tariff is based 
on HS12 nomenclature consisting of 6,185 tariff lines. Calculations include AVEs provided by the authorities for non- ad valorem  rates. AVEs are the same for 2010 and 2014. 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on da ta provided by the Australian authorities. 
Chart 3.1 Distribution of MFN applied tariff rates, 2010 and 2014 
(46.2) 
(0.2) (49.6)
(3.7)(47.6)
(0.2) (48.3)
(3.7) 
05001,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,500
Duty free 4 5 10Number of tariff lines
Tariff rates (%)MFN 2010
MFN 2014
 
Note: Figures in parentheses denote the share of total lines. Figures for 2010 are based on 
HS07 nomenclature, and for 2014 on HS12. Totals do not add up to 100% due the exclusion of 
non-ad valorem  rates, representing 0.3%, for both years. 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on da ta provided by the Australian authorities. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 42 - 
 
  3.16.  A few (0.3%) tariff lines remain subject to non- ad valorem  rates, which tend to conceal 
relatively high tariff rates. These involve a specific  rate of $A 1.22/kg applied to five tariff lines 
(cheese and curd), an alternate rate of 5% or $A 0.45/kg, whichever is lower, applied to four tariff lines (fruit juices), and a compound rate of 5% (10% in 2006) plus $A 12,000 per unit applied to 
eight items (used or second-hand vehicles), which,  according to the authorities, has rarely been 
applied since 2011.
15 Average  ad valorem equivalents (AVEs) for the period under review 
continued to range from 10.2% to 27.1% for specific  rates, up to 5% for alternate rates, and from 
89.5% to 215.4% for compound rates (including the 5 percentage points ad valorem  
component).16 These AVEs are the highest applied tariff rates in place. 
3.2.2.2.2  Tariff dispersion and escalation 3.17.  Despite a low overall average tariff rate and large share of duty-free items, tariff peaks in 
some sectors remain a potential distortion and thus a source of inefficiency. In particular, while 
agriculture continues to face relatively low ta riff rates (1.4%, under the WTO definition of 
agriculture, Table 3.1), average rates for non-agriculture items, notably textiles and clothing 
(8.4%) and PMVs (8.6%) (Table A3.1) remain significantly higher despite recent unilateral 
reductions, thus reflecting sensitivities in these sectors.
17 Domestic "tariff peaks" continue to affect 
3.9% of tariff lines (3.7% excluding AVEs). 
3.18.  Overall, the tariff shows a tendency to escalate, with the average for unprocessed, 
semi-processed, and fully-processed goods rising from 0.4% to 2.9% and 3.7% (Table A3.1). The outcome is that the level of effective protection increases as goods undergo further processing.
18 
The textiles and clothing sector shows the most sign ificant tariff escalation (Chart 3.2); in 2014, 
the average tariff for fully-processed textiles and clothing and leather products remained 
unchanged at 6.3% but high compared with othe r product categories, which range from 2.3% to 
3.7%. The average tariff for semi-processed products remained at 2.9% during the period. Tariff 
escalation is a potential impediment to the efficient allocation of resources; it also constitutes an 
obstacle to local processing of primary and semi -finished goods produced in exporting countries, 
thereby impeding the industrialization of these de veloping countries whose exports are not eligible 
for preferential duty free access to Australia's market.  
                                               
15 Item 37 (replacing Item 59 as from 1 March 2013) of Schedule 4 of the Customs Tariff allows for the 
waiving of the $A 12,000 duty component on second-han d cars, provided the Department of Infrastructure, 
Transport and Regional Development has issued a Vehicle Import Approval (VIA). A vehicle must have a VIA to 
be imported.  Vehicles falling under this category include those imported under the Registered Automotive 
Workshop Scheme (RAWS), which caters for specialist and enthusiast used imported vehicles not available in 
Australia in full volumes by mainstream manufacturers ( Australian Customs and Border Protection Service 
online information . Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/site/page4371.asp#2ndHandVechicle ).  
16 The ad valorem  equivalents (AVEs) are computed on the basis of unit values for imports of the items 
concerned over the period 2006-08. The authorities requested the Secretariat to use the AVEs submitted in 2010 for the calculations in 2014.  
17 The rate on new cars is 5%, while the rate rises to  41.7% when duties on used  cars form part of the 
calculation. 
18 The effective rate of protection (ERP) measures the protection provided by the entire structure of 
tariffs, taking into account those le vied on inputs as well as those on outputs. It is defined as  
ERP = (V D – V W)/VW, where V D is the value added in the given sector at  domestic prices, which includes tariffs, 
and V W is value added at world prices. If th e nominal tariff on the final product is t, the share of each imported 
input i in the total value of the final product is ai, and the nominal tariff on each imported input is ti, then the 
effective rate of protection can be written as: ERP = ( t - Σaiti)/(1 - Σai). Thus, if t = 5%, ti = 2.5% for all 
inputs, and Σai = 0.6, the ERP is nearly 8.75%.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 43 - 
 
  Chart 3.2 Tariff escalation, by two-digit ISIC industry, 2014 
n.a.n.a.
012345678
Food,
beverages and
tobaccoTextiles and
leatherWood and
furniturePaper printing
and publishingChemicals Non-metallic
mineral
productsBasic metals Fabricated
metal
products and
machineryOther
manufacturing(%)
Average applied rate in 
manufacturingFirst stage of processing Semi-processed Fully processed
 
n.a. Not applicable. 
Note: Calculations include AVEs for non- ad valorem  rates, provided by the authorities. 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on da ta provided by the Australian authorities. 
3.2.2.3  Bound tariff 
3.19.  Australia's tariff Schedule of Concessions has remained based on the Harmonized 
Commodity Description and Coding System 2002 (see below). According to its HS12 version 
supplied by the Australian authorities, in 2014 96.6% (96.5% in HS07 version) of tariff lines were 
bound. Bindings cover 100% of agricultural tari ff lines and 96.2% of non-agricultural products 
(WTO definitions).19 Bound rates range from zero to 29% (processed potatoes) for agriculture, and 
from zero to 55% (clothing) for non-agricultural products. Australia's bound rates currently exceed 
applied MFN rates by nearly seven percentage points (Chart 3.3); maximum gaps of up to 55 percentage points affect clothing items. Differences between bound and applied rates provide scope for Australia to raise applied tariffs, especially in sensitive sectors, although this flexibility 
has not been used during the review period.  
3.20.  During the review period Australia has remained covered by waivers from Article II of GATT 
1994 to implement domestically the HS2002 (since 2002), HS2007 (since December 2006) and 
HS2012 (since November 2011) changes, pending incorporation of such changes into its Schedule 
of Concessions.
20 Its HS 1996 and HS2002 changes were certified on 8 April 2013 (WT/Let/880, 
WT/Let/881).21 Concerning the process of incorporating HS2007 changes to its WTO Schedule of 
Concessions, Australia was one of two Members that had submitted the relevant files within the 
agreed original deadline in 2007. As of November 2014 Switzerland and the United States were maintaining (unspecified) reservations on Australia's HS2007 schedule.  
 
                                               
19 The 215 eight-digit HS12 unbound lines include yarns, textiles, clothing, leather, rubber products, 
tools/articles of base metals, products of iron and st eel, ceramic products, glassware, machinery, transport 
equipment, photographic equipment, and other electrical components and equipment. 
20 WTO documents WT/L/873, 14 December 2012; WT/L/874, 14 December 2012; WT/L/902, 
27 November 2013; and G/MA/W/23/Rev.10, 13 May 2014. 
21 WTO document G/MA/W/23/Rev.10, 13 May 2014. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 44 - 
 
  Chart 3.3 Average applied MFN and bound tariff rates, by HS section, 2010 and 2014 
0.0%2.5%5.0%7.5%10.0%12.5%15.0%17.5%20.0%22.5%25.0%
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2101   Live animals & products        
02   Vegetable products03   Fats & oils      
04   Prepared food, etc.
05   Mineral products
06   Chemicals & products07   Plastic & rubber
08   Hides & skins09   Wood & articles
10   Pulp, paper, etc.
11   Textiles & articles
12   Footwear, headgear13   Articles of stones
14   Precious stones, etc.15   Base metals and products
16   Machinery
17   Transport equipment
18   Precision instruments19   Arms & ammunition
20   Miscellaneous manuf.21   Works of art, etc.MFN 2010
MFN 2014 
Bound
Average applied rate
2010 (3.1%)
2014 (3.0%)Average bound rate
(9.9%)
 
Note: Calculations include AVEs for non- ad valorem  rates provided by the authorities. 2010 averages are 
based on HS07 nomenclature, 2014 average on HS12. Sections 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 20 are not fully bound. 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on da ta provided by the Australian authorities. 
3.2.2.4  Tariff-rate quotas 
3.21.  Tariff-rate quotas (TRQs) involving specific rates apply to most types of cheese and curd 
imports22; the TRQ on unmanufactured tobacco has neve r been implemented as the customs duty 
rate for this item is set at zero. The out-of-quota (above 11,500 tonnes) and in-quota rates for cheese remain at $A 1,220 per tonne and $A 96 per tonne, respectively. Since 1995, quota 
allocation has been based on historical import performance within the quota for the previous 
23 months (excluding quota transfers); the quota may be accorded upon application to Customs. New importers are able to obtain an allocation only  on transfer from an existing holder of a tariff 
quota share. Since 2008/09 the TRQ fill-in ratio has exceeded 99%
23; this is indicative of steady 
strong demand for cheese and curd as well as minimal impediments to accessing the quota, but also indicative that the quota is effectively a barrier to imports of cheese from those countries subject to the quota.  
3.22.  Cheese and curd import arrangements are being considered in the context of the Doha 
Round negotiations on agriculture with this posi tion remaining unchanged since 2011. Preferential 
imports from LDCs, partners covered by RTAs (e.g. New Zealand, Singapore, Thailand, the 
United States, Chile, Malaysia, and ASEAN), and the South Pacific Forum island countries are 
exempt from this TRQ (Section 3.2.2.5). Developing countries are subject to a reduced out-of-quota tariff for the lines covered by the ch eese and curd tariff quota, at $A 1,220 per tonne 
less 5%.  
3.2.2.5  Tariff preferences 3.23.  Australia maintains numerous unilateral preferential and regional trade agreements 
(section 2.4.2). Tariff- and TRQ-free access is provided to goods originating in the 50 LDCs, 
Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, and Singapore. However, bilateral tariff reductions resulting 
                                               
22 Camembert, brie, roquefort, st ilton, and goat-milk cheeses are exempt from the quota scheme.  
23 WTO documents WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011 and G/AG/N/AUS/86, 5 September 2012; and 
Australian Customs and Border Protection Notice No . 2013/32, "Cheese and Curd Quota Scheme - Allocations 
for 2013-2014", 23 July 2013. Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/2013ACNadviceofQuotaallocationinPDF.pdf . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 45 - 
 
  f r o m  r e c e n t l y  s i g n e d  R T A s  h a v e  l e d  t o  l o w e r  tariffs for some developed countries than those 
granted to around 90 developing economies enti tled to benefits from Australia's Generalized 
System of Preferences (GSP) (Table 3.2). 
Table 3.2 Summary analysis of Au stralian preferential tariffs, 2014 
(Number and %) 
 
Number of 
preferential 
linesa Total WTO 
agriculture WTO 
non-agricultureAverage 
(%) 
Dutiable 
rates 
(%) 
Average 
(%) 
Dutiable 
rates 
(%) 
Average 
(%) 
Dutiable 
rates 
(%) 
MFN  3.0 52.4 1.4 27.0 3.3 56.4 
Canada (CANATA) 519 2.6 44.9 1.3 24.1 2.8 48.1 
Chile (ACIFTA) 2,655 0. 6 9.4 0.0 0.5 0.7 10.8 
Malaysia (MAFTA) 805 2.8 49.2 1.1 23.6 3.0 53.3 
New Zealand (ANZCERTA) 3, 242 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Papua New Guinea (PATCRA) 3,242 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Singapore (SAFTA) 3,242 0. 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Thailand (TAFTA) 3,242 0.2 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.2 4.2 
United States (AUSFTA) 3, 242 0.7 9.5 0.0 0.0 0.8 11.0 
SPARTECAb 3,242 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 
ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand FTA        
Brunei Darussalam 3,039 0.3 3.4 0.0 0.2 0.3 3.9 
Myanmar 3,039 0.3 3. 4 0.0 0.2 0.3 3.9 
Cambodia 3,039 0.3 3.4 0.0 0.2 0.3 3.9 
Lao, PDR 3,039 0.3 3. 4 0.0 0.2 0.3 3.9 
New Zealand 3,039 0.3 3.4 0.0 0.2 0.3 3.9 
Philippines 3,039 0.3 3. 4 0.0 0.2 0.3 3.9 
Singapore 3,039 0.3 3.4 0.0 0.2 0.3 3.9 
Viet Nam 3,039 0.3 3. 4 0.0 0.2 0.3 3.9 
Indonesia 3,020 0.3 3.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 4.4 
Malaysia 3,039 0.3 3. 5 0.0 0.2 0.3 4.0 
Thailand 3,020 0.3 3.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 4.4 
GSP-DCc 3,143 0.5 5.4 0. 1 0.6 0.5 6.2 
GSP-DCSd 801 2.8 49.3 1.1 23.6 3.0 53.3 
GSP-DCTe 182 2.9 49.8 1. 3 23.9 3.1 53.8 
LDCs 3,242 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
a The number of preferential lines includes only lines on which the rates are lower than the 
corresponding MFN applied rate. The 2014 MFN ta riff consists of 6,185 tariff lines of which 
2,943 lines bear a duty free rate. 
b Forum Islands - South Pacific Regional Tr ade and Economic Cooperation Agreement. 
c GSP scheme for 48 developing countries. d GSP scheme for around 90 developing countries. e GSP scheme for Chinese Taipei; Hong Kong, Ch ina; the Republic of Korea; and Singapore. 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on information provided by the Australian authorities; and 
Australian Customs and Border  Protection Service online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/SCH1W.pdf .  
3.2.2.6  Tariff concessions and other schemes 
3.24.  Australia has a number of tariff concessions to support local industry. Total revenue forgone 
through these measures peaked in 2011/12 and then dropped gradually (Table 3.3) primarily due to reduced imports of mining-related capital equipment and the significant strength of the 
Australian dollar against overseas currencies. This assistance continued to be delivered mainly 
through the Tariff Concession Scheme (TCS) and the Enhanced Project By-Law Scheme (EPBS) 
(sections 3.2.2.6.2 and 3.2.2.6.3).  
3.25.  During the review period, Schedule 4 of the Customs Tariff Act 1995, which lists the range 
of goods and user categories subject to concessional rates of import duty, was updated by: 
repealing redundant and rarely used concessions; rewording the concessions in plain English; and WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 46 - 
 
  consolidating items of similar coverage under specific headings, for ease of use.24 The number of 
concessions was reduced from 100 items to 57 and the number of prescribed by -laws from 150  to 
74. The new Schedule 4 came into effect on 1 March 2013 with minimal disruption to industry. 
There are 14 government agencies with policy respon sibility for various items. Complexities create 
burdens on business with costs being passed on to consumers; they may also result in inappropriate use of concessions. 
Table 3.3 Duty forgone through tariff concession arrangements, 2006/07-2013/14 
($A million) 
Industry 
assistance 
measure 
2006/07 
2007/08 
2008/09 
2009/10 
2010/11 
2011/12 
2012/13 
2013/14a 
Tariff Concession 
Scheme 1,225.0 1,408.8 1,589.1 1,466.5 1,603.1 1,840.6 1,804.2 1,082.0 
Tradex 80.1 80.0 68.0 51.2 39.3 41.3 43.8 26.7 
Enhanced Project 
By-Law 53.6 44.5 131.2 132.9 61.1 70.3 88.0 106.7 
Cheese and Curd 
Quota Scheme 13.1 13.0 12.9 12.6 13.6 13.2 13.1 9.6 
Textile Clothing and 
Footwear Policy By-Law 13.7 11.8 11.5 7.3 4.9 4.3 3.4 2.2 
Certain Inputs to 
Manufacture N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.3 5.2 1.7 2.0 
Other concessions 125.7 175.6 154.0 149.1 135.8 143.3 138.8 86.0 
Total 1,511.3 1,733.8 1,966.6 1,819.7 1,858.2 2,118.3 2,093.0 1,315.1
a Year to date January 2014.  
Source: Information provided by the Australian authorities.  
3.2.2.6.1  Tariff deferral – customs warehouses 
3.26.  The duty deferral facility allows imported goods to be stored in a Customs licensed 
warehouse. These goods (referred to as "under bond") are under Customs control until the owner is ready to either export them or enter them for domestic consumption, at which point the customs duty is paid.
25  
3.2.2.6.2  Tariff concessions 
3.27.  No changes have been made to Australia's TCS policy objectives, legislation and procedures 
since 2010. The TCS, listed as item 50 of Schedule 4 of the Customs Tariff Act 1995 
(section 3.2.2.6), is available for imports for which substitutable goods were not produced in 
Australia at the time a Tariff Concession Order (TCO) application was lodged.26 On the other hand, 
a TCO under the TCS is open to all importers who import goods that fall under the TCO.27 Products 
that do not qualify for a TCO include foodstuffs, most textiles and clothing, certain motor vehicles 
and parts, jewellery, and furniture, as local industry produces these goods. A local manufacturer may object to the granting of a TCO and may requ est revocation of an existing TCO. A total of 
212 TCOs were revoked between 2010 and mid-2014 upon proof that the Australian-made goods 
concerned could be substituted for imported goods; in 2013/14, the most common types of goods 
covered by revoked TCOs were steel, aluminium, mining machinery, agricultural chemicals, dinnerware and luggage. At end June 2014 there were 15,010 active TCOs, compared to 13,500 
in June 2010.  
                                               
24 Australian Customs and Border Pr otection Service (2013a and 2013b). 
25 Australian Customs Service factsheet, "Customs  Warehouses Deferment of Duty", August 2007. 
Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/fscustomswarehousedeferduty.pdf . 
26 In respect of goods that are the subject of a TC O application or of a TCO, substitutable goods are 
Australian-made goods that have a us e that corresponds with the use (including a design use) of the goods 
that are the subject of the application or of the TC O (Australian Customs and Border Protection Service 
factsheet, "Tariff Concession System", February 2010. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/commer01.pdf ). 
27 Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2013b). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 47 - 
 
  3.2.2.6.3  Other tariff concession schemes 
3.28.  At present other duty reduction or exempt ion arrangements include: the Enhanced Project 
By-Law Scheme (EPBS), clothing and footwear po licy by-laws, the Trade and Export Concession 
Scheme (Tradex) (section 3.3.4.2), the Certain Inputs to Manufacture (CIM) programme 
(section 3.3.4.4), and the Space Concession Programme.28  
3.29.  The EPBS provides duty free entry for elig ible capital equipment and machinery for projects 
in agriculture, food processing, food packaging,  manufacturing, mining, resource processing, gas 
supply, power supply, and water supply industries. These goods must not be produced in Australia, 
or the imports need to be more advanced, more e fficient or more productive than those made in 
Australia. Total expenditure on capital goods for eligible projects must be no less than $A 10 million. In addition, an EPBS applicant is required to develop and implement an Australian 
Industry Participation Plan (AIP), which outlines how the applicant will provide a "full", "fair", and 
"reasonable" opportunity for Australian industry to participate in the project. In this way, according to the authorities, Australian industry is provided the same opportunities as global suppliers in all 
aspects of the project, it is treated on an equal and transparent basis, and tenders are not 
structured in a way that might rule Australian industry out.
29 The authorities indicated that an AIP 
Plan does not require the use of local suppliers as it is expected that buyers will make purchasing 
decisions based on value-for-money considerations. Since 1 July 2012, summaries of AIP Plans 
have been published on-line to increase transp arency. Companies receiving over $A 20 million 
from the Clean Energy Finance Corporation (section 4.3.2) may be required to prepare and report on an AIP Plan as an investment condition. Between 1 July 2013 and 17 April 2014, certain EPBS 
projects were required to employ an Australian Industry Opportunity Officer (AIOO) to work with 
Australian industry to gain access to global supply chains.  
3.30.  Since 2010, approximately 43 EPBS applications have been approved; of these, 22 have 
subsequently had an AIP Plan Implementation Report approved to access the duty concession.
30 
Projects in the mining, manufacturing and resource-processing sectors have been the main users of the EPBS. Between 2010/11 and 2013/14 the total tariff concession benefit from these EPBS 
amounted to around $A 327.1 million, an average of $A 81.8 million per year (Table 3.3).  
3.2.3  Other charges affecting imports 3.31.  In addition to fees for cargo handling, customs clearance, and post-clearance compliance 
activities, imported as well as domestic goods are subject to internal indirect taxes 
(section 3.4.1.1). Customs fees and charges remain  imposed on a cost-recovery basis rather than 
on import values. Fees and charges relating to quarantine processes were last amended in 2014 
and are also imposed on a cost-recovery basis.  
3.2.4  Customs valuation and rules of origin 
3.2.4.1  Customs valuation 3.32.  Goods are valued under six different methods in a sequence established in domestic 
legislation
31; the most common is the transaction value method, which is used for around 98% of 
imports. Australian valuation legislation allows for the inclusion of royalties and commissions in line with requirements under Article 8 of the WTO Agreement on Customs Valuation, and foreign 
inland freight and foreign inland insurance in the dutiable value of goods; the authorities consider 
that this practice is permitted under the WTO Agre ement. The "production assist costs" provisions 
(i.e. the definitions of "purchaser's material cost s", "purchaser's subsidiary costs", "purchaser's 
tooling costs", and "purchaser's work costs" in section 154(1) of the Customs Act 1901) have been 
                                               
28 For further details on these schemes, see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011; and 
AusIndustry online information. Viewed at: http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/programs/import-
export/Pages/default.aspx  and http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/progra ms/manufacturing/Pages/default.aspx . 
29 AusIndustry online information. Viewed at: http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/programs/import-
export/epbs/Pages/default.aspx . 
30 Department of Industry (2014b).  
31 These valuation methods are: the transaction value; the identical goods value; the similar goods 
value; the deductive goods value (consisting of the contemporary sales, later sales, and derived sales 
methods); the computed goods value; and the fall-back method. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 48 - 
 
  amended to ensure that the legislation is consis tent with the WTO Agreement; these amendments 
were included in the Customs Amendment (Miscellaneous Measures) Act 2012 and entered in force on 31 March 2013. The total understated revenue (under-invoicing) for 2009/10 was $A 128.9 million; more recent data was not made available.   
3.33.  In April 2013, the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (Customs) issued an 
update of its Transfer Pric ing Policy Practice Statement.
32 This Statement outlines Customs policies 
in relation to transfer pricing and provides procedural guidelines for applicants seeking a 
prospective transfer pricing valuation advice (VA), including advice on how importers can support 
their transfer pricing valuation advice applicatio ns and demonstrate that related party dealings 
have not influenced the price of imported goods.  The authorities indicated that Customs has a 
valuation advice programme in respect of the valuation of dutiable imports and the Australian 
Taxation Office has an Advance Pricing Agreement (APA) programme, which allows taxpayers and 
the Commissioner to prospectively agree on the arm's length prices of goods or services. The information in a transfer pricing study (or APA) may support an importer's application for a VA if it 
is relevant to the circumstances surrounding the future sale of goods for import. Conversely, the 
use of a transfer pricing study might not be rele vant or adequate in examining the circumstances 
surrounding a sale in the valuation of dutiable imports.  
3.2.4.2  Rules of origin  
3.34.  Australia's approach to non-preferential rules of origin (ROOs) remains unchanged since its 
previous Review; however, changes were made to preferential ROOs in its RTAs. The most common rules in these RTAs are those of: wholly-obtained; change in tariff classification (CTC); 
regional value content (RVC); and the process rule (for chemicals).
33 The ROOs in Australia's RTA 
with Singapore are based on an RVC measure, whil e the ROOs in its RTAs with New Zealand, the 
United States, Thailand, and Chile are essentially based on the CTC methodology, reinforced and 
enhanced where necessary with RVC and process-rule requirements or options. In Australia's RTA 
with ASEAN and New Zealand and the RTA with Malaysia, "alternative and co-equal" product-
specific rules exist for most tariff lines, offering exporters the choice of a CTC-based rule or an 
RVC-based equivalent. Around 83% of tariff lines are covered by these "alternative and co-equal" 
rules, while approximately 11% of lines offer only one option — either a CTC-based or RVC rule. The remaining lines are covered by wholly obtained requirements for agricultural goods and special rules for waste and scrap goods. Other provisions relating to ROOs include final process of 
manufacture requirements, rules governing consignment, and de minimis provisions. The objective 
of the different types of ROOs is to properly limi t preferential rates of duty to goods that either 
wholly originate in the preference-receiving country, or that have undergone substantial 
transformation in that country.  
3.35.  According to a 2014 Productivity Commi ssion report, the most frequent rules for 
determining origin are now based on a CTC test but there is considerable variability in how such 
rules are combined with other product-specific/individual rules and how they are applied.
34 The 
number of product-specific rules of origin in Aust ralia's preferential agreements can be substantial 
and, moreover, varies between agreements. For ex ample, the number of individual rules varies 
from a single three-tiered rule in the Singapore-Australia trade agreement to some 5,200 separate 
rules listed in the Korea-Australia agreement. The range and variable application of rules adds to 
the compliance costs for firms engaging in trade. Recent studies suggest that the costs associated 
with these requirements could be as high as 25% of the value of goods traded within ASEAN. It 
appears that the authorities' views in this area differ from the findings of the Productivity 
Commission report. 
                                               
32 Australian Customs and Border Pr otection Service, Practice Stat ement No. B_IND08, "Valuation - 
Transfer Pricing Policy", 12 April 2013. Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/ACN2013TransferPricingPracticeStatementFINALFINAL.pd
f. 
33 For further details on these rules, see WT O document WT/TPR/S/178/Rev.1, 1 May 2007; and 
Australian Customs and Border  Protection Service, "Servi ce Practice Statement", 27 February 2009. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/PS200913-Rules_Of_Origin.pdf . 
34 Productivity Commission (2014c). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 49 - 
 
  3.2.5  Import prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing 
3.36.  Import prohibitions or restrictions are applied for various reasons, including public health or 
safety concerns, animal and plant life, environmental conservation, security, and international commitments. No automatic import licensing requirement is imposed. Non-automatic licensing 
requirements have been in place to enforce import prohibitions, restrictions, and controls 
(Table 3.4) with import permits required on an ad hoc  or defined-period basis. Import prohibitions 
or stringent quarantine/permit/inspection procedures (section 3.2.7) currently apply to more than 
150 agricultural/livestock products (e.g. cereals, fresh fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry products) 
and other items (e.g. used machinery) considered to have the potential to introduce contamination or disease. Following a commitment by the Commonwealth Government to clamp down on the import of products sourced from illegally-logge d timber, the Illegal Logging Prohibition Act 2012, 
which came into effect on 29 November 2012, treats timber and timber products that have been 
illegally logged and imported into Australia as a prohibited import.
35 Since 2011 Australia has 
submitted to the WTO its Replies to the Questionnaire on Import Licensing Procedures on an 
annual basis; its latest submission was in October 2013.36 It also submitted a first-time notification 
on restrictions in force as of 16 October 2012 pursuant to the Decision on Notification Procedures for Quantitative Restrictions (G/L/59/Rev.1).
37  
Table 3.4 Prohibited and restricted imports, 2014  
Goods Reason Policy agency/permit-issuing 
agency 
Prohibited    
Diamonds (from Côte d'Ivoire) International commitment  n.a. 
Dogs (dangerous breeds, and 
related advertising matter) Public health or safety concerns n.a. 
Living tissues and cells (viable 
material) derived from human 
embryo clonesa Public health or safety concerns n.a. 
Suicide devices Community protection  n.a. 
Restricted   
Anabolic and androgenic 
substances Public health or safety concerns Office of Chemical Safety 
Antibiotics  Public health or safety concerns Office of Chemical Safety 
ANZAC and related advertising 
materials National symbol Department for Veterans' Affairs 
Asbestos Public health or safety concerns  Safety, Rehabilitation, and 
Compensation Commission; 
Seafarers Safety, Rehabilitation, 
and Compensation Authority; 
state/territory Workcover 
Authority; Department of 
Employment 
Australian flag and coats of arms Nation al symbol Department of Prime Minister 
and Cabinet; Australian Customs 
and Border Protection Service 
Cat and dog fur products Animal welfare Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Ceramic ware (glazed) Public health or safety concerns No import permit required; 
testing certificate requiredb 
Cetaceans (whales, dolphins, 
and porpoises) Environmental conservation Department of the Environment 
Chemical weapons  International commitment 
(Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling, and Use of Chemical Weapons and their Destruction 
(CWC)) Australian Safeguards and 
Non-Proliferation Office 
Chewing tobacco and oral snuff Public health or safety concerns No import permit required; 
written permission requiredc 
                                               
35 Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2013a). 
36 WTO document G/LIC/N/3/AUS/6, 18 December 2013. 
37 WTO document G/MA/QR/N/AUS/1, 30 October 2012. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 50 - 
 
  Goods Reason Policy agency/permit-issuing 
agency 
Cigarettes lighters  Public health or safe ty concerns No import permit required; 
certificate of compliance or 
written permission requiredd 
Cosmetics (toxic materials) Public health or safety concerns Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Credit cards (counterfeit) Community prot ection Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Crowd control equipment Community protection Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Cultural heritage goods (general) Cultural  heritage  No import permit required; 
export permit from the relevant authority in the exporting country required  
Cultural heritage goods from 
Papua New Guinea (PNG) International commitments No import permit required; 
export permit from the Trustees 
of the PNG Public Museum and 
Art Gallery required  
Diamonds (Kimberley Process)  Internationa l commitments Kimberly Process certificate 
issued by the relevant authority in the exporting country 
Dog collars (protrusion) Animal welfare Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Drugs and narcotics (listed in Schedule 4 of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations) Public health or safety concerns, 
International commitments (Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961, the Convention on 
Psychotropic Substances 1971, 
and the Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances 1988) Office of Chemical Safety  
Endangered animal and plant 
species  International commitment 
(Convention on International 
Trade in Endangered Species 
(CITES)) Department of the Environment  
Erasers Public health or safety concerns Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Explosives, plastic  Community protection Attorney-General's Department 
Firearms and ammunition  Community prot ection Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Fish/toothfish Environmental conservation Australian Fisheries Management 
Authority 
Fly swatters/mosquito bats (electronic) Public health or safety concerns Australian Competition and 
Consumer Commission 
Growth hormones and 
substances of human or animal 
origin Public health or safety concerns Therapeutic Goods 
Administration 
Hazardous waste International commitments 
(Basel Convention, OECD Council Decision C(92)39) Department of the Environment 
Hydroflurocarbons (HFCs) Environmental conservation Department of the Environment  
Incandescent lamps Energy saving Department of Industry  
Kava Public health or safety concerns Office of Chemical Safety  
Knives and daggers Community protection Written Police Certification or 
written permissione 
Laser pointers Community protection Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Money boxes (toxic material) Public health or safety concerns Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Ozone-depleting 
substances/synthetic greenhouse 
gases  Environmental 
conservation/international 
commitment (Ozone Protection 
and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas 
Management Act 1989) Department of the Environment WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 51 - 
 
  Goods Reason Policy agency/permit-issuing 
agency 
Pencils and paintbrushes (toxic 
materials) Public health or safety concerns Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Pesticides and other hazardous 
chemicals Public health or safety concerns Department of Agriculture  
Polychlorinated biphenyls, terphenyls, and polyphenyls Public health or safety concerns Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Pornography and other 
objectionable material Community protection Australian Classification  
Radioactive substances Community 
protection/international commitments Australian Radiation Protection 
and Nuclear Safety Agency 
Security-sensitive ammonium 
nitrate Public health or safety concerns Relevant state/territory regulator 
Tablet presses Public health or safety concerns Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Therapeutic drugs and 
substances Public health or safety concerns Therapeutic Goods 
Administration 
Tobacco (unmanufactured leaf ) Domestic regulation Australian Taxation Office 
Toys (toxic material) Public health and safety concerns Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Trade Practices Act goods Domestic regulation Australian Competition and 
Consumer Commission 
Weapons Community protection Australian Customs and Border 
Protection Service 
Woolpacks and woolpack caps Domestic regulation Department of Agriculture 
n.a. Not applicable.  
a This prohibition applies unless the Minister or an authorised person has granted permission in 
writing. To-date, there have been no applicatio ns to import these items. In the event of an 
application, a submission will be prepared for the Minister's consideration. 
b Testing certificate from the Australian Government National Measurement Institute or a testing 
agency approved by the National Association of Testing Authorities Australia. 
c Written permission from the Minister of Competition Policy and Consumer Affairs. 
d Certificate of compliance from th e supplier or a recognised overseas  testing laboratory; or a written 
permission from the Minister of Compet ition Policy and Consumer Affairs. 
e Daggers require written Police Certification from th e relevant Police Firearms  Registry. Other knives 
require written permission fro m the Minister for Immigration and Border Protection. 
Source: Australian Customs and Border Protecti on Service online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/site/page4369.asp . 
3.37.  The 2009 Post Import Permission Scheme (last amended in 2011) gives Customs the 
discretion to grant post import permission for certain classes of controlled goods including specific 
drugs, chemicals, consumer items, firearms and knives, asbestos products, and items bearing Australian national symbols. If the permission is not sought or it is not granted within 30 days of 
application, then Customs may seize the goods in question.
38 The system gives Customs flexibility 
to deal with importers who were genuinely unaware of the need for, or unable to obtain, import permission prior to importation.  
3.2.6  Contingency measures 
3.2.6.1  Anti-dumping and countervailing measures 
3.38.  During the review period, changes have been made to the legislative, institutional and 
procedural framework on anti-dumping and countervailing measures under the Streamlining the 
Anti-Dumping System Policy announced on 22 June  2011. This represents the most significant 
reform to Australia's anti-dumping regime in more than a decade.
39 Its purpose is to strengthen 
the anti-dumping system by: improving access; increasing consistency with other anti-dumping 
                                               
38 Australian Customs Service Notice No. 2009/03, "Introduction of the Post Import Permission 
Scheme", 16 January 2009. Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/notices/acn0903.pdf . 
39 Australian Customs and Border Protection Serv ice (2011); and Australian Industry Group online 
information. Viewed at: http://www.aigroup.com.au/traderemedies/anti-dumping . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 52 - 
 
  administrations; improving the efficiency an d effectiveness of the system; and enhancing 
compliance mechanisms. The Streamlining Policy took into account the recommendations of a 2009 Productivity Commission report, and involved  implementing a number of elements such as: 
the establishment of an International Trade Remedies Forum; the establishment of an 
International Trade Remedies Advisor for SMEs; in creasing staffing of the International Trade 
Remedies Branch; increased compliance activity; greater transparency; and legislative amendment.
40 The first tranche of legislation implementing these reforms came into effect in 
late 2011, while further legislative amendments to  finalise this set of reforms took effect in 
mid-2013.41 Legislation to implement the second to fourth tranches of measures from Streamlining 
Policy came into effect in June 2013.42 Following a further review into the arrangements for 
assessing and investigating anti-dumping matters (tranche five), a new Anti-Dumping Commission 
to administer Australia's anti-dumping system wa s established on 1 July 2013 within the Australian 
Customs and Border Protection Service43; further legislation, which entered into force on 
27 March 2014, transferred the Commission to the Department of Industry.44 In January 2014, the 
sixth tranche of legislative reforms entered into force and included: the removal, in certain 
circumstances, of the need for the Minister to consider the lesser-duty rule; clarification on the application of retrospective duties provisions; and the introduction of a new type of 
anti-circumvention inquiry to address "sales at a loss" cases.
45  
3.39.  Anti-dumping and countervailing measures continue to be subject to a five-year sunset 
clause, but their duration may be extended. Investigations are now conducted by the Commission (previously by Customs) and parties may seek review of a range of anti-dumping decisions. In 
light of the unique convergence in business prac tices and bilateral application of competition 
legislation between Australia and New Zealand, imports from New Zealand covered by the ANZCERTA remain excluded from anti-dumping actions and are dealt with under competition 
laws
46; competition legislation has never been resorted to in this regard.  
3.40.  With 267 cases (217 in 2010) initiated between 1995 and 2013, Australia was one of the 
world's major users of anti-dumping measures (fourth in 2013).47 Between 2010 and end-2013, 
Australia initiated 57 anti-dumping investigations. As of 30 June 2014, 40 anti-dumping measures 
in the form of duties were in force on 21 products, mainly several types of steel items (13 cases), pineapples (4 cases), and polyvinyl chloride (3 cases).
48 Ten of these measures were extensions of 
existing measures beyond their five-year sunset period. Action affected mostly products 
originating in Asia (33, mainly China (11), and Korea (Rep. of) (7)), but also the United States (3) 
and the European Union (3).  
3.41.  Between 2010 and 2013, Australia initiated six countervailing investigations.49 As of 
30 June 2014 seven definitive countervailing duties were levied on aluminium extrusions, 
                                               
40 The Productivity Commission's co ncerns with the system focussed on: the lack of consideration of 
wider impacts; maintaining the currency of measures ; extensions of measures; appeal arrangements; 
alignment of the subsidies provisions  with the Subsidies and Countervailing Agreement; and transparency in 
the decision-making process and outcomes (WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011).  
41 Anti-Dumping Commission online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.adcommission.gov.au/aboutus/news.asp . 
42 Anti-Dumping Commission online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.adcommission.gov.au/aboutus/news.asp . 
43 Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2013a).   
44 Anti-Dumping Commission, Anti-Dumping Notice No. 2014/24, 27 March 2014. 
http://www.adcommission.gov.au/notices-repor ts/acdn/documents/ADN2014-24-TransferoftheAnti-
DumpingCommissiontotheDepartmentofIndustry_000.pdf .  
45 Anti-Dumping Commission, Anti-Dumping Notice No. 2013/108, 20 December 2013. Viewed at: 
http://www.adcommission.gov.au/notices-reports/acdn/documents/131220-ADN2013-108-UpdatestoAnti-
DumpingSystem-January2014.pdf .  
46 Under the ANZCERTA, both countries have precluded anti-dumping action against goods that are the 
produce or manufacture of the othe r. However, actions may be taken in cases of alleged dumping by a 
third country whose exports were dump ed into Australia or New Zealand and are causing or threatening to 
cause material injury to industry. 
47 WTO online information. Viewed at: http://www.wto.org/english/ tratop_e/adp_e/adp.e.htm .  
48 WTO documents G/ADP/N/244/AUS, 18 September 2013; G/ADP/N/252/AUS, 17 March 2014; and, 
G/ADP/N/259/AUS, 1 September 2014. 
49 WTO online information. Viewed at: http://www.wto.org/eng lish/tratop_e/scm_e.htm ; and WTO 
documents G/SCM/N/259/AUS, 18 September 2013; and G/SCM/N/267/AUS, 27 March 2014. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 53 - 
 
  aluminium road wheels, hollow structural sections, aluminium zinc coated steel, zinc coated steel, 
and hot rolled plate steel from China, as well as biodiesel from the United States.50  
3.2.6.2  Safeguards 3.42.  Australia has no specific legislation for th e imposition of safeguard measures and there has 
been no development in this regard during the review period.
51 The Productivity Commission 
remains the investigating authority. Following consideration by the Commowealth Government, the Treasurer may refer matters to the Productivity Commission for inquiry. Australia notified the 
WTO's Committee on Safeguards that it initiated two separate safeguard investigations on 
processed fruit (citrus, pears, apricots, peaches and mixtures) and canned tomatoes in June and July 2013 respectively; by December 2013 the investigations had been terminated without the adoption of any measures following the Productivity Commission's findings that safeguard 
measures were not justified.
52  
3.43.  RTAs (such as, for example, the Thailand-Australia Free Trade Agreement) may have 
additional safeguard processes covering preferential trade where the injury caused by increased 
imports is due to the tariff reductions under the particular RTA; these "transitional safeguards" or 
"bilateral safeguards" are not global safeguards.53 The process for invoking these safeguards is 
essentially the same as for WTO safeguards; no safeguards of this type were used during the 
review period.  No global safeguard measures apply to products originating from Singapore, 
New Zealand, Thailand, and the United States or from developing country WTO Members, provided 
certain conditions are met.54  
3.2.7  Standards and other technical requirements 
3.2.7.1  Standards, testing, and certification 
3.44.  Under the Commonwealth system, the authority to develop, enact, and enforce technical 
regulations (mandatory standards) is shared between the Commonwealth (the Australian Central 
Government) and the constituent state and territory governments.55 A 1992 Commonwealth/State 
Agreement on Mutual Recognition allows a product that is in conformity with requirements of at least one State or Territory (i.e. legally saleable) to be sold throughout Australia.
56 The Australian 
Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) is the agency responsible for consumer product 
safety policy development for Australia; the state and territory agencies, with the ACCC, have been responsible for the enforcement of those mandatory product safety regulations (section 3.2.7.1.1).  
3.45.  The institutional framework for standards and conformity assessment remains unchanged. It 
consists of four main bodies: Standards Australia, a not-for-profit company encompassing 75 of Australia's leading industry, government and consumer organisations is responsible for the 
formulation of standards; the National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA), and the Joint 
Accreditation System of Australia and New Zealand (JAS-ANZ) (section 3.2.7.1.3), the two main accreditation bodies
57; and the National Measurement Institute (NMI), the government body 
responsible for physical, chemical, and biolog ical measurement and metrology. The current 
five-year long Memoranda of Understandin g (MOU) between Commonwealth Government 
(Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research (DIISR)) with Standards Australia and 
                                               
50 WTO document G/SCM/N/274/AUS, 1 September 2014. 
51 Procedures for safeguard inve stigations are contained in Gazette  No. S297, 25 June 1998. Also see 
WTO documents G/SG/N/1/AUS/2, 2 July 1998; and G/SG/N/1/AUS/2/Suppl.1, 16 December 2005. 
52 WTO documents: G/SG/N/6/AUS/3, 28 June 2013; G/SG/N/6/AUS/4, 3 July 2013; and, 
G/SG/N/9/AUS/3 and G/SG/N/9/AUS/4, 6 January 2014. 
53 Department of Foreign Affairs and Tr ade online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/negotiations/trade_remedies.html . For further details on TAFTA safeguards, see 
WTO document WT/TPR/S/178/Rev.1, 1 May 2007. 
54 For further details, see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
55 For more information, see WTO documents G/TBT/2/Add.8/Rev.1, 29 May 2001; and 
WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
56 Commonwealth Mutual Recognition Act 1992 .Viewed at: 
http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2013C00485.  
57 The Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF) prov ides inspection and certification 
services for food imports.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 54 - 
 
  NATA, largely the continuation of the previous MOUs, were signed on 17 and 21 May 2013 
respectively.58 The MOU with Standards Australia still requires the development of new or 
amended standards and setting of priorities to be transparent and well-founded, and ensuring the 
primary decision criterion is of net benefit to the community as a whole.59 The authorities also 
indicated that the MOU  stipulates that no Australian standard may contravene WTO requirements, 
national standards should not be used as non-tariff barriers, and no new Australian standard can be developed where an acceptable international standard already exists. The Accreditation Board 
for Standards Development Organisations (ABSDO) accredits other standards development 
organizations to make Australian standards; six organizations other than Standards Australia are now accredited to establish Australian standards.
60  
3.2.7.1.1  Voluntary an d mandatory standards 
3.46.  Voluntary standards are often made mandatory (or regulatory) by reference in technical 
regulations. By 30 June 2014, Standards Australia had published 6,888 standards (6,953 in November 2010)
61, of which approximately one-third (the same as in 2010) have become 
mandatory; 35% (as in 2010) of Standards Australia's catalogue are joint Australian/New Zealand 
standards.  
3.47.  Since 1 January 2011, only the Commonwealth Government has had the power to introduce 
mandatory product safety standards and informat ion standards. At November 2014, mandatory 
product safety standards (including some on labelling) affected 42 consumer items, and 22 unsafe goods were banned. These requirements, whose co verage remains virtually unchanged, apply to 
the entire Commonwealth territory upon imposi tion decided by the Commonwealth Minister.
62 
3.48.  The ACCC conducts regular product safety surveillance activities to monitor compliance 
levels with all mandatory standards and bans, and to remedy identified breaches. Since July 2010 it has undertaken surveillance operations for 51 of the mandatory standards and bans. 
Surveillance activities on over 800,000 products across the standards and bans were undertaken 
to identify and remove non-compliant products from  the marketplace. These activities included the 
commissioning of independent laboratory testing of products against construction and performance 
requirements contained in the mandatory standa rds. Since July 2010, the ACCC, together with 
state and territory counterparts, has removed over 200,000 products from sale for breaches of, or suspected non-compliance with, mandatory standard s and bans. Non-compliance ranged from very 
low technical breaches to serious breaches involving significant hazards to consumers. Surveillance 
actions resulted in a range of remedial measures (including product recall, withdrawal from sale, 
product modification, re-labelling, etc.) or enforcement measures (prosecutions, injunctions, court orders, enforceable undertakings, and administrative actions).  
3.2.7.1.2  National, international, and aligned standards 
3.49.  Australia's policy remains that standards should be compatible with relevant international or 
internationally-accepted standards or practices, wi th a view to minimizing impediments to trade. 
In particular, mandatory standards should be consistent with Australia's international obligations. 
However, in the absence of a suitable internatio nal standard, national standards are developed, 
with transparency and consensus being two key requirements. At 30 June 2014, 38% of national 
standards were identical or slightly modified adoptions of international standards (the same as at 
                                               
58 Department of Indu stry online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.innovation.gov.au/INDUSTRY/TRADEPOLICIES/TECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADE/Pages/Standardsan
dConformance.aspx . 
59 Net benefit takes into account the costs and benefits related to: public health and safety; social and 
community impact; environmental impact; competition; and economic impact (Sta ndards Australia online 
information. Viewed at: http://www.standards.org.au/StandardsDev elopment/What_is_a_Standard/Pages/Net-
Benefit.aspx ).  
60 ABSDO online information. Viewed at: http://www.absdo.org.au/Home.aspx  and 
http://www.absdo.org.au/CaseStudies.aspx . 
61 This reduction of published standa rds is due to the list's clean-up of old standards that takes place 
every five years. 
62 For the full list of products covered by bans  and mandatory general consumer product safety 
standards requirements, see ACCC on line information. Viewed at: 
http://www.productsafety.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/970715  and 
http://www.productsafety.gov.au/content/index.phtml/itemId/970773 . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 55 - 
 
  end-November 2010); however, it is estimated that 97% (the same as in 2010) of applied 
standards are identical or modified adoptions where an international standard exists. International equivalence remains high in, inter alia , electronic and IT products. In December 2014, 71% of 
motor vehicle safety, anti-theft and emission standards were aligned with the United Nations (UN) 
1958 Agreement on technical standards for automoti ve and parts regulations; a further 13% were 
modified for adoption, while 16%, comprising 10 standards, were not aligned. The majority of standards that were not aligned relate to heavy vehicles and/or topics not covered by UN 
regulations. In addition, 29 UN regulations have previously been formally applied under the 
1958 Agreement. In 2014, another 2 UN regulations were applied as part of an accelerated process to harmonise with UN regulations, with 15 more UN regulations expected to be applied 
in 2015.  
3.2.7.1.3  Accreditation and quality management standards 
3.50.  In July 2014,  there were 3,300 (2,961 in November 2010) NATA-accredited laboratories and 
facilities.
63 At the same time there were 53 (45 in 2010) certification bodies accredited by JAS-ANZ 
to issue certificates in Australia in line with international and national standards, such as the 
ISO 9001, ISO 14001, AS/NZS 4801 and ISO 22000, and HACCP (Hazard Assessment Critical Control Point) food safety standards. The use of quality management system standards such as 
ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 has been increasing: between 2010 and 2014, the number of Australian 
companies with ISO 9001 certification increased from 9,312 to 10,890; and companies certified to ISO 14001 increased from 1,629 to 3,129.  
3.2.7.1.4  International cooperation  
3.51.  Since its last Review, Australia has not signed any new mutual recognition 
agreements (MRAs), which contribute to trade facilitation. In addition to the non-treaty 1996 Trans-Tasman Mutual Recognition Agreement (in force since May 1998) and the Mutual 
Recognition Arrangement for Measurement Standards of the International Committee for Weights 
and Measures (CIPM MRA) (October 1999), it maintains treaty-status MRAs on Conformity 
Assessment with the European Union (1998), the Eu ropean Free Trade Association (EFTA) (2000), 
Singapore (2001), and Canada (2006), as well as a voluntary MRA with Thailand (2000).
64 An 
Amending Agreement to the EU-Australia MRA was signed on 23 February 2012 and came into force on 1 January 2013. It simplifies the existing MRA's administrative arrangements, introduces greater flexibility into the Agreement, removes the rule-of-origin restriction from all but two of the 
Sectoral Annexes, and allows the Joint Committee administering the Agreement to amend the 
Sectoral Annexes in a timelier manner in response to regulatory and industry developments.
65 In 
the context of APEC, Australia is a party to the MRAs on Conformity Assessment of 
Telecommunications Equipment (1999), Conformity  Assessment of Electrical and Electronic 
Equipment (1999) and Conformity Assessment of Foods and Food Products (1997). NATA and JAS-ANZ have developed an extensive network of  multilateral/mutual agreements (MLAs/MRAs) 
through international and regional fora; NATA th rough the International Laboratory Accreditation 
Cooperation (ILAC) and the Asia-Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (APLAC), and JAS-ANZ through the International Accreditation Forum (IAF) and the Pacific Accreditation Cooperation (PAC)).  
3.52.  In the area of legal metrology, as well as the CIPM MRA, NMI is helping to establish mutual 
confidence within the global legal metrology environment by participating in the OIML Mutual Acceptance Agreement (MAA) for pattern approval of measuring instruments. In addition, Australia 
has bilateral MRAs on type approval test reports with equivalent bodies in the Netherlands, 
New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.  The MRA between Australia and New Zealand was 
re-issued in February 2012 in the form of a coop erative arrangement rather than an MRA, and now 
covers trade measurement functions, training and information sharing as well as acceptance of 
pattern approval reports.  
                                               
63 For more information on NATA accreditation, see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
64 For more information on MRAs in force, see DIISR online info rmation. Viewed at: 
http://www.innovation.gov.au/Industry/TradePolicies/MRA/Pages/default.aspx . 
65 Amending Agreement 
http://www.info.dfat.gov.au/Info/Treaties/tr eaties.nsf/AllDocIDs/259539D4D22A26BFCA257990000AAE15 .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 56 - 
 
  3.2.7.1.5  Transparency 
3.53.  Notices of technical regulations are generally published in the Commonwealth of Australia  
Gazette  as well as on the websites of bodies such as the Food Standards Australia New Zealand 
(FSANZ). Additionally, standards and conformity assessment procedures are notified widely by 
e-mail alerts, in national newspapers, in-house jo urnals and other relevant Commonwealth, state, 
and territory government publications. Notices on voluntary standards are also published in the journal of Standards Australia, The Australian Standard , while information on conformity 
assessment procedures is published in the quarterly NATA newsletter, NATA News .  
3.54.  Between 2010 and 2013, Australia made 31 notifications under the WTO Agreement on 
Technical Barriers to Trade; the majority being under Article 2.9 of the Agreement (29). In more than half of these cases (24) the submission allowed for a comment period of 60 days or more, 
while in six cases the period was less than this (45-59 days) and in one case it was less than 
45 days.
66 During the review period, TBT-related specific trade concerns involved Australia's plain 
packaging measure, and its response to the 2010 Independent Review of the Water Efficiency 
Labelling and Standards (WELS) scheme consultation paper (raised by Korea, Rep. of.).67 
3.2.7.2  Sanitary and ph ytosanitary regulations  
3.55.  Australia, a major exporter of agricultural commodities and agri-food products, has 
maintained its generally strict sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) regime, which the authorities 
consider proportionate and matching their relevant appropriate level of protection (ALOP, section 3.2.7.2.3). The authorities maintain that SPS measures are based on science and aim to reduce the risk of exotic pests and diseases to a very low level acceptable to Australia (but not 
zero).
68 During the review period, there have been no complaints related to Australia's SPS regime 
at the WTO; in the past Australia had been criticized by certain trading partners on the grounds that it was unduly stringent and therefore protectionist.
69 Although the role of the Eminent 
Scientists Group (ESG) (a high-level review grou p tasked with providing external scientific and 
economic scrutiny of significant import risk analyses) was strengthened in the past so far no unified analytical framework has been used to assess the costs and benefits of SPS measures for 
stakeholders along the supply chain, such as dome stic consumers, producers and governments, or 
foreign suppliers or, where relevant, foreign consumers and governments.
70 Trade effects are part 
of the assessment but are not its sole focus. The authorities consider that the WTO SPS Agreement provisions do not require such analysis, and that the only direction as to relevant economic 
consequences to be taken into account in a risk assessment is found in Article 5.3 of the 
Agreement.
71 Australia's import risk assessments (section 3.2.3.2.3) address the issue of 
economic consequences for relevant stakeholders.  
3.2.7.2.1  Food standards-setting 
3.56.  Since its previous Review, Australia has maintained many quarantine controls and food 
standards that are stricter than relevant standards promulgated by international bodies 
(e.g. CODEX Alimentarius Commission). FSANZ72, a bi-national independent statutory authority, 
develops food standards and, if appropriate, join t codes of practice with industry, covering the 
content and labelling of food sold in Australia and New Zealand (section 3.2.7.3). FSANZ is required to take account of international standards, including those set by Codex, when developing 
                                               
66 WTO documents G/TBT/29, 8 March 2011; G/TBT/31,  2 March 2012; G/TBT/33, 27 February 2013; 
and G/TBT/34, 7 March 2014. 
67 WTO documents WT/TPR/OV/15, 29 November 2012; and WT/TPR/OV/16, 31 January 2014 
68 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.daff.gov.au/market-access-trade/sps . See also WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 
18 May 2011. 
69 At end-December 2009, 4 out of 15 WTO panels established to examine SPS-related dispute cases 
were on complaints against Australia (WTO do cuments G/SPS/53, 3 May 2010; WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 
18 May 2011; and G/SPS/W/273, 12 December 2013; and WTO online information. Viewed at: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_a greements_index_e.htm?id=A19#selected_agreement ). 
70 For more information, see also WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
71 In addition to Article 5.3, Article 5.6 of the SPS Agreement states that in establishing SPS measures 
to achieve the ALOP, Members shall ensure that the measures are not more trade-restrictive than required. 
72 Food Standards Australia New Zealan d online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.foodstandards.g ov.au/Pages/default.aspx .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 57 - 
 
  standards. Where FSANZ has developed standards not based on international standards, it has 
notified the WTO through the appropriate mechanisms. All domestic and imported food products marketed in Australia must comply with relevant food standards as regulated in the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code (the Code). From 1 July 2011 to 30 June 2014, variations to 
the Code arising from 52 applications and propos als were gazetted and registered as legislative 
instruments on the Federal Register of Legislativ e Instruments. Maximum residue limits (MRLs) for 
a number of agricultural and veterinary chemical s were revised on several occasions during the 
review period. Between 2010 and September 2014, Australia submitted 42 notifications concerning 
MRLs.  
3.57.  The Code also regulates food derived from Genetically Modified (GM) plants, animals or 
micro-organisms, as well as the labelling of GM foods. Imported foods using biotechnology may be 
sold in Australia only after assessment and approval by FSANZ. As at 1 July 2014, FSANZ had 
completed assessments of 63 (45 in November 2010) commodities produced from gene technology. A further four were withdrawn by  the applicants before FSANZ completed the 
assessment process; by July 2014 it was assessing  the safety of food from one GM commodity.
73 
FSANZ has also assessed and approved numerous enzymes sourced from GM micro-organisms. Imports of live and viable genetically modified organisms (GMOs) require authorization under the 
Gene Technology Act 2000, which regulates particular dealings with GMOs in addition to 
permissions for use in food. All dealings involving release (DIR) of a GMO into the environment must be licensed by the Gene Technology Regula tor, an independent statutory office-holder, 
unless otherwise authorized under the Act. All li cence applications are subject to case-by-case 
scientific risk assessment and risk management . As at 30 June 2014, seventeen accredited 
organizations held the 54 DIR licences in force, of which 9 were for commercial release of GMOs (cotton, canola and a vaccine), 3 for vaccine trials, and 42 for limited and controlled trials of GM 
crop varieties.
74  
3.2.7.2.2  Biosecurity  3.58.  During the review period, Australia pu rsued reforms towards developing a modern and 
responsive system that facilitates trade while managing biosecurity risks offshore, at the border 
and onshore in line with the recommendations of a 2008 independent review.
75 An 
Intergovernmental Agreement on Biosecurity aime d at helping avoid unnecessary duplication and 
improve the efficiency of resource-use across juri sdictions, was signed by the Prime Minister and 
all state and territory First Ministers — excluding Tasmania — in January 2012.76 The Department 
of Agriculture worked with state and territory departments and research organisations to establish a national capacity for biosecurity benefit–cost analysis to support decision-making in managing 
incursions of pests and diseases. New legislation was prepared to replace the more than 
century-old Quarantine Act 1908 and ensure the tran sition from non-risk-based rigid intervention 
targets to a flexible risk ‑return approach. The Biosecurity Bill 2012 and Inspector-General of 
Biosecurity Bill 2012 were introduced into Parliament on 28 November 2012 but as The House of 
Representatives was dissolved on 5 August 2013, th e Bills lapsed; they were also notified to the 
WTO Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures in July 2012 and Australia provided 
responses to the questions raised by Members.
77 On 7 July 2014 the Minister for Agriculture 
announced plans to progress with a Biosecurity Bill 2014, introduced to Parliament on 27 November 2014 and notified to the WTO.
78 The objective of the Bill is to simplify and streamline 
biosecurity laws whilst still ensuring the high standard of protection of Australia's human, 
environmental and animal health expected by the community. Subject to the passing of the 
Biosecurity Bill a repeal of the Quarantine Act of 1908 would not affect the validity of existing 
import risk analyses (IRAs) (section 3.7.2.3), nor would it require a biosecurity impact risk 
Analysis to be completed where an Import Risk Analysis already exists. Import permits issued under the Quarantine Act would remain valid for the duration of the permit. An amount of 
                                               
73 Food Standards Australia New Zealan d online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer /gmfood/applications/Pages/default.aspx . 
74 Department of Health/Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2013).  
75 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Fo restry (2012); Department of Agriculture online 
information. Viewed at: http://www.daff.gov.au/bsg/biosecurity-reform/new-biosecurity-legislation ; and WTO 
document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
76 OECD (2013a). 
77 WTO documents G/SPS/N/AUS/298, 7 July 2012; G/SPS/GEN/1213, 23 January 2013; 
G/SPS/N/AUS/319, 28 May 2013; and G/SPS/R/71, 28 August 2013.  
78 WTO document G/SPS/N/AUS/298/Add.4, 2 December 2014. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 58 - 
 
  $A 20 million is to be delivered over four years, starting in 2014/15, to strengthen biosecurity and 
quarantine arrangements.79  
3.2.7.2.3  Import risk analyses (IRAs) 3.59.  During the review period, Australia cond ucted science-based risk assessments, including 
IRAs, under a regulated process involving a specified timeframe for completion of an assessment 
(within either 24 months or 30 months). It also developed recommendations on import conditions that would meet Australia's ALOP.
80 Plant and animal IRAs under the regulated process completed 
during the review period 2011-15, included de-crowned pineapples from Malaysia, ginger from Fiji 
and table grapes from China. Assessing risk may al so take the form of a non-regulated analysis of 
existing import policy. Between 2011 and August  2014, a number of non-regulated risk analyses 
were undertaken, including: freshwater ornamental  finfish, island cabbage leaves from the Cook 
Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, and Vanuatu, mangoes from Pakistan, apples from New Zealand, zoo 
perissodactyls (including zebras, rhinoceroses and tapirs), transmissible spongiform encephalopathies through veterinary vaccines and other in vivo  veterinary products, commercial 
rabbits from certain member states of the EU, queen honey bees from approved countries, lychees 
from Chinese Taipei and Viet Nam, table grapes  from China and Korea (Rep. of), mangoes from 
India, taro corms from all countries, mangosteens from Indonesia, Californian table grapes to 
Western Australia, Lilium spp. cut flowers from Ch inese Taipei, published tests to detect pathogens 
in veterinary vaccines, horses, laboratory mouse embryos, from all countries, zoo elephants, dogs and cats from approved countries, and bluetong ue virus risks. Regulated risk analyses, non-
regulated risk analyses and reviews of existing policy released as drafts but not yet finalised 
between 2011 and August 2014, include: potatoes for processing from New Zealand; table grapes 
from Japan; salacca (snakefruit) from Indonesia; apples from the United States ("stop the clock" mechanism invoked); beef and beef products for human consumption ("stop the clock" mechanism 
invoked); hatching eggs of domestic hens and tu rkeys – avian paramyxovirus 2 and 3, ornamental 
finfish; and review of gamma irradiation as a treatment to address pathogens of animal biosecurity concern.  
3.60.  During the review period, the Department of Agriculture revised health certification 
requirements for goldfish and import conditions for ruminant genetic material from Europe to better manage the risk of various viruses. Numerous reviews of plant and timber products reduced intervention on low-risk commodities and some highly processed products by, inter alia , removing 
the need for an import permit. According to a trading partner Australia's ongoing process to align 
its bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) import conditions with the relevant World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) standards was delayed; by January 2014 Australia had not 
provided any scientific justification for the delay in finalizing its risk assessment.
81 The authorities 
indicated that the Australian BSE food safety policy requires all countries exporting, or seeking to export, beef or beef products to Australia to have a food safety risk assessment undertaken by 
FSANZ.
82 FSANZ has assessed eight countries and assessments of another four countries are in 
progress.  
3.61.  Australia is currently undertaking an examin ation of its IRA to minimize the risk of exotic 
pests and disease incursions. The examination will consider transparency and consultation during 
the IRA process, the use of external scientific and economic expertise and consideration of regional 
differences in animal or plant health status during the IRA process. The examination was notified to the SPS Committee in July 2014, and trading partners were invited to comment.
83 
3.2.7.2.4  Quarantine 
3.62.  Due to differences in the status of animal and plant health across Australia, different 
quarantine measures may be imposed within the country. The quarantine system is regulated by 
                                               
79 Commonwealth of Australia (2014b). 
80 For more information on Australia's procedures, see Department of Agriculture,  Fisheries and Forestry 
(2012 and 2013); and WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
81 WTO document G/SPS/R/73, 15 January 2014. 
82 The FSANZ risk assessment consists of a desk assessment and an in-country verification assessment. 
It examines the effectiveness of BSE-related controls throughout the beef production chain in the applicant 
country including animal feeding practices, transportation, animal identification and traceability, slaughtering, 
and food safety and food recall systems. 
83 WTO document G/SPS/N/AUS/341, 15 July 2014. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 59 - 
 
  Commonwealth, state and territory laws84; it applies to all humans, plants, animals, and 
associated products, including food products. Quarantine activities are pre-border, border, and post-border. The Department of Agriculture (repla cing the Australian Quarantine and Inspection 
Service (AQIS))
85 is responsible for administering quarantine legislation on behalf of the 
Commonwealth; its quarantine functions include issuing import permits, inspections, directions for 
treatment, and clearances. The Department of Health (previously Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA)) performs risk assessments on all bi ological materials that are of human quarantine 
concern, and provides advice to the Department of Agriculture before an import permit is issued.  
3.63.  Food entering Australia is subject to the Imported Food Control Act 1992  and the Imported 
Food Control Regulations 1993. Imported food is inspected and controlled at the border under the risk-based Imported Food Inspection Scheme, which is administered by the Department of 
Agriculture.
86 FSANZ provides advice on foods that pose a medium to high risk, and the 
Department of Agriculture then uses this to determine risk management measures for imported foods. A review of advice provided on imported risk foods is currently underway and is due for 
completion in late 2015.  
3.64.  Since March 2010, Australia has implemented a new policy for beef imports allowing all 
countries, including those which have experienced cases of BSE, to apply to export beef to 
Australia.
87 Canada, the United States, Japan, and the Netherlands have all applied to the 
Department of Agriculture. The IRAs for beef from the first three were put on hold as a result of 
the Department of Agriculture invoking the "s top the clock" provision of the Quarantine 
Regulations 2000.88 At present, only fresh beef from New Zealand and Vanuatu may be exported 
to Australia. These countries are also permitted to export heat-treated and shelf-stable beef 
products to Australia. Other countries that have been assessed by FSANZ under the revised BSE policy, and that are permitted to export heat-treated  shelf stable beef products to Australia, are: 
Brazil; Chile; Croatia; Latvia; Lithuania; Mexico; and the Netherlands. Argentina and Turkey are 
currently also allowed to export heat-treated and shel f-stable beef products to Australia, but this is 
under transitional arrangements while the countries are assessed by FSANZ under the revised 
policy. Importation of these products into Australia must be in accordance with import permit 
requirements and the relevant BSE certification requirements.  
3.65.  Following damage to Japan's Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear facility in early March 2011, the 
Department of Agriculture implemented a precautionary monitoring programme at the border; 
before potentially contaminated foods could be released for distribution and sale, samples were 
tested for the presence of radionuclides.
89 The test results were assessed against the relevant 
international Codex Alimentarius standard. Foods monitored for radionuclides have included milk 
and milk products; rice and cereals; seafood, seaweed; fruit; vegetables; tea; and dried 
mushrooms from several prefectures in Japan. Upon advice from the Australian Radiation 
                                               
84 For more information, see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011.  
85 In 2013, the AQIS brand was retired and replaced with that of the Department of Agriculture 
(previously Department of Ag riculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF)) without any further implications for the 
legal basis or competent authority under which audits, inspections and certifications are undertaken. AQIS was the Australian government agency responsible for en forcing Australian quaranti ne laws (WTO document 
G/SPS/R/71, 28 August 2013). 
86 Food Standards Australia New Zealan d online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consum er/importedfoods/Pages/default.aspx . 
87 Countries must complete the Aust ralian Questionnaire to Assess BSE Risk and submit it to FSANZ for 
a country BSE food safety risk assessment. The risk assessment includes a desk assessment of the through 
chain controls for BSE as well as an in-country verification visit th at ensures controls are implemented 
effectively. Countries being assigned a Category 1 or Category 2 status  by this FSANZ process can export their 
beef products to Australia subject to certification arrangements negotiated between the Department of 
Agriculture and the competent authority of the exporting country. To export fresh beef  (chilled or frozen) to 
Australia, the exporting count ry must also apply to the Department of  Agriculture for an IRA that assesses 
animal health status. 
88 Under the "stop the clock" the DAFF can pause an IR A in certain situations, for example when further 
information is needed to complete an IRA and is not pr ovided by the other country (Department of Agriculture 
online information. Viewed at: http://www.daff.gov.au/biosecurity/import/f ood/bse_food_safety_requirements_for_beef#other  and 
http://www.daff.gov.au/about/media-centre/beef_imports ). 
89 Department of Agriculture Imported Food Notice  01-14, "Monitoring food imported from Japan for 
radionuclides", 23 January 2014. Viewed at: http://www.daff.gov.au/biosecurity/import/food/notices/2009/2014/ifn01 . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 60 - 
 
  Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency and a revised assessment by FSANZ, Australia stopped 
testing food from Japan on 23 January 2014.90  
3.2.7.2.5  Transparency and technical assistance 3.66.  Between 2010 and September 2014, Austra lia submitted 103 notifications to the WTO 
relating to Article 7 and Annex B of the SPS Agreement, 11 of which were emergency 
notifications.
91 Australia's last WTO notification on GMO/biotechnology matters was submitted 
in 2007 as all GM foods approved regulations since then have been considered consistent with 
international standards and not having a significant effect on trade.92 Therefore, Australia did not 
consider it necessary to notify these regulato ry changes to GM foods. For the same reason, 
Australia has not generally notified approvals of enzymes and other processing aids, additives or other minor changes to the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code which they consider to be 
equivalent to the approval of a GM commodity. Draft IRA reports, as well as outcomes of the IRA 
process, are also notified to the WTO. Australia is also active in the three standard-setting organizations under the SPS Agreement: the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, the World 
Organization for Animal Health, and the International Plant Protection Convention. During the 
review period, SPS-related specific trade concerns involved Australia's non acceptance of OIE categorization for BSE (raised by India).
93 
3.67.  Australia has continued to assist developing countries – particularly APEC members through 
capacity building activities under the APEC Food Safety Cooperation Forum (FSCF) – to adjust to, 
and comply with, sanitary and phytosanitary measures in their export markets and to improve their capacity to develop and implement their own SPS measures based on science.
94 As Co-Chair 
of the APEC FSCF, FSANZ has provided guidance and leadership, and has implemented a wide 
range of activities, on a cost-recovery basis, in  areas such as: developing food laws; standards 
and enforcement systems; risk assessment and management; risk communication; food safety 
incidents management; and assessment of food safe ty capacity building needs. Recent capacity 
building activities included workshops on: educating SMEs on food safety standards; improving food inspection capacity based on risk analysis ; and, food allergen management. In addition, 
under the current FSCF action plan, the FSCF is to promote alignment with relevant international 
standards and consistency with WTO obligations, focussing initially on two areas: export certificates and pesticide MRLs. 
3.2.7.3  Labelling and packaging 
3.68.  Food labelling is also regulated under the Food Standards Code (section 3.2.7.2.1); all foods 
sold in Australia, including imported foods, must comply with the relevant regulations. Following a comprehensive independent review of food labelling law and policy and the release of an expert 
panel's report (Labelling Logic) on 28 January 2011, FSANZ was asked to work on a number of the 
panel's recommendations over a three-year period (2012-15). As of June 2014 FSANZ had completed work on: the voluntary declaration of potassium content; the development of a 
standard for nutrition; health and related claims on food labels; mandatory declaration of dietary 
fibre content; country-of-origin labelling; and the use of the Perceptible Information Principle as a 
guide for labelling presentation. Its work on amen dments to Standard 1.2.11 for the extension of 
country-of-origin labelling to a number of unpackaged meats was partially completed.
95  
3.69.  No changes were brought to GM-related labelling requirements. Since 2001 GM foods, 
ingredients, additives, or processing aids that co ntain novel DNA or protein must be labelled with 
                                               
90 Food Standards Australia and New Zealand online information, "Safety of food from Japan". Viewed 
at: http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consume r/safety/foodjapan/Pages/default.aspx.  
91 WTO CRN online information. Viewed at: 
https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/FE_Search/FE_S_S003.aspx.  
92 Australia New Zealand F ood Standards Code – Standard 1.5.2 (viewed at: 
http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Series/F2008B00628 ) and Food Standards Au stralia New Zealand, Current GM 
applications and approvals  (viewed at: 
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer /gmfood/applications/pages/default.aspx ). 
93 WTO document WT/TPR/OV/17, 24 November 2014.  
94 WTO documents G/SPS/GEN/717/Add.1, 11 October 2007; G/SPS/GEN/717/Add.2, 6 July 2010; and 
G/SPS/GEN/717/Add.3, 8 October 2012. 
95 Food Standards Australia New Zealan d online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consum er/labelling/review/Pages/default.aspx . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 61 - 
 
  the words "genetically modified".96 GM foods that do not contain any novel DNA or protein or do 
not have altered characteristics do not require labelling. Flavours containing novel DNA or protein in a concentration of no more than 0.1% are also exempt from labelling. Labelling is also not required when there is no more than 1% (per ingredient) of an approved GM food unintentionally 
present as an ingredient or processing aid in a non-GM food.  
3.70.  Mandatory product information standards, in cluding care labelling for clothing and textile 
products, as well as for a range of other consum er products including sunglasses, cosmetics and 
toiletries, and tobacco products, remain in force (section 3.2.7.1.1). Mandatory energy 
consumption labelling requirements affect applia nces such as refrigerators, freezers, clothes 
washers/dryers, dishwashers, room air-conditioners, mains-pressure electric-storage water heaters, and motor vehicles. National, state, and territory information standards were rationalized 
and replaced with a single national set of standards as of 1 January 2011 as part of the 
implementation of the Australian Consumer Law (section 3.4.3.3). Between 2012 and 2013, five 
WTO Members (Ukraine, Honduras, Dominican Repub lic, Cuba, Indonesia) requested consultations 
with Australia with respect to certain laws and regulations relating to trade marks, geographical 
indications, and other plain packaging requir ements on tobacco products and packaging 
(sections 2.4.1 and 3.4.6.1). WTO dispute settlement Panels were composed on 5 May 2014 in 
respect of each of these cases. 
3.2.8  Government procurement 3.71.  As of 14 November 2014 Australia, which has been one of five OECD members that is not a 
signatory to the Plurilateral WTO Agreement on  Government Procurement (GPA) and followed the 
negotiations on the revised GPA (in force since April 2014), announced that it is working towards 
possibly acceding to the GPA.
97 It considers that the revised GPA is more in line with the principles 
underlying its government procurement regime and makes accession more beneficial. 
Implementation of the GPA would require, inter alia , the implementation of review procedures for 
suppliers that are effective, timely, transparent and non-discriminatory. Some changes would also be required to procedures for pre-qualification an d limited tendering. DFAT has invited submissions 
from interested parties until 30 January 2015. Australia continues to be bound by principles and 
rules on transparency and non-discrimination in this area in the context of its RTAs (see below and section 2.4.2.1); the authorities confirm that th ese commitments are GPA-consistent and extended 
to all its trading partners through a broadly-based unilateral, non-discriminatory procurement 
policy at the central government (Commonwealth) level.  
3.72.  The Commonwealth government procurement market for goods and services is estimated at 
$A 48.9 billion or 3.1% of GDP (2013/14, data  from Table 1.1). Between 2009/10 and 2012/13, 
Commonwealth government contracts for the purchase of goods and services (including 
expenditure by agencies covered at that period by the Financial Management & Accountability (FMA) Act 1997 and Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Act (CAC), see below) ranged from 
$A 32.6 billion (2010/11) to $A 48.9 billion (2013/14). In 2013/14, ten agencies were responsible 
for 87.8% (83.7% in 2008/09) of the total amount; 27.3% (55% in 2008/09) of this was defence- and/or military-related expenditure.
98 The same year, domestically-produced goods and 
services were estimated at 88.9% (82% in 2012/13) of the total amount spent. In 2013/14 the 
procurement profile remained dominated by services (more than 61% of total contract value) for 
example, management, business, professional and administrative services (29.8%); engineering and research and development services (6.3%); construction and maintenance (5.4%); 
transportation and storage and mail services (4.8%); healthcare services (4.1%); public politics 
and civic affairs services (3.9%); education and training services (2.5%); and utilities and public sector-related services (1.4%). These amounts do not cover procurement spending by state and 
territory governments, which at the time of the previous Review was seemingly higher than 
                                               
96 Food Standards Australia New Zealan d online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consum er/gmfood/labelling/Pages/default.aspx . 
97 During the review period Australia has maintain ed its observer status at the WTO Committee on 
Government Procurement. In the past Australia considered  the GPA to be largely inconsistent with its approach 
of low regulation and non-discrimination in the public sector (WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 
18 May 2011; and DFAT online information, "Austr alian accession: WTO Agreement on Government 
Procurement (GPA)". Viewed at: http://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/negotiations/wto-agreement-on-government-
procurement.html ).  
98 Department of Finance online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.finance.gov.au/procurement/statistics-on-commonwealth-purchasing-contracts/ . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 62 - 
 
  Commonwealth government spending.99 At the time of the previous Review, in many instances 
government trading enterprises (GTEs) (section 3.4.5) at central, state, and territory government level dominated the provision of infrastructure works, instead of opening up the provision of infrastructure and related services to competition, including to efficient private market entities. At 
present, data on the share of GTEs in public procurement is not publicly available. 
3.73.  The core principle of Australia's procurement framework remains value for money
100, which 
is supported by open competition, non-discrimination101, efficiency, effectiveness, and economical 
use of resources in an ethical manner. At the Commonwealth level, the overall government 
procurement policy framework consists of three key elements: the 2012 Commonwealth 
Procurement Rules (CPRs) (replacing the Commo nwealth Procurement Guidelines (CPGs)) last 
amended in 2014, which form the basis of Common wealth procurement policy and are issued by 
the Finance Minister102; Resource Management Guidance, which is issued by the Department of 
Finance and provides advice on key changes and developments in procurement policy and/or helps 
agencies to implement the Government's procurement policy; and online guidance.103 In 2012 the 
CPRs, inter alia , redefined the procurement methods, and addressed a 2010/11 recommendation 
of the Australian National Audit Office (ANAO) on Direct Source Procurement.104 Open, Select, and 
Direct were termed as Open Tender, Prequalified Tender, and Limited Tender, respectively. The 
CPRs were amended on 1 July 2014 to change fr om Financial Management  and Account ability Act 
1997 and Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Act 1997 terminology to that of the Public Governance, Performance and Accountability Act 2013 (PGPA Act), which replaced the 1997 Acts.   
3.74.  As in the case of standards and SPS (secti on 3.2.7), each of Australia's three levels of 
government (Commonwealth, state and territory, and local) has its own procurement framework 
and policies. Under the PGPA Act and relevant regulations, each Commonwealth agency remains in charge of its own procurement. When conducti ng procurement above certain thresholds, all 
agencies are required to follow mandatory procurement procedures (i.e. CPR Division 2 – 
Additional rules for procurements at or above the relevant procurement threshold)
105, which 
provide for open, prequalified, and limited tendering.106 However, procurement of, inter alia , real 
estate property or accommodation, R&D services, and motor vehicles107 is exempt from mandatory 
                                               
99 In 2008/09, procurement by the Australian Capital Territory, the Northern Territory, Western 
Australia, South Australi a, and Tasmania was $A 1.1 billion, $A 1.7 billion, $A 11.5 billion, $A 3.4 billion, and 
$A 1 billion, respectively. Recent data covering al l state and territory govern ment procurement were not 
available with the authorities. WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
100 The authorities indicated that this principle effectively entails a cost-benefit analysis. 
101 The exceptions to this non-discrimination principle are specific policies to assist small- and 
medium-size enterprises and, in limited circumstances, policies to assist indigenous Australians (WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011; Department of Finance, 2012; and Department of Finance online information. Viewed at: http://www.finance.gov.au/procurement/procurement-policy-and-
guidance/commonwealth-procurement-rules/ ).  
102 The last CPGs were issued by the Finance Minister in December 2008. For further details, see WTO 
document WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011.  
103 Viewed at: http://www.finance.gov.au/procuremen t/procurement-policy-and-guidance/ .  
104 Department of Finance online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.finance.gov.au/procurement/procuremen t-policy-and-guidance/commonwealth-procurement-
rules/ .  
105 These thresholds remain unchanged at $A 80, 000 for procurement by non-corporate Commonwealth 
entities (former FMA Act bodies), other than construction services; and $A 400,000 for procurement by relevant Commonwealth companies (for mer CAC Act bodies), other than co nstruction services. The threshold 
for procurement of construction services changed from $A  9 million to $A 7.5 million as of January 2014. For 
more information on the mandatory procedures, see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011; 
Department of Finance (2012); Department of  Finance online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.finance.gov.au/procurement/procuremen t-policy-and-guidance/commonwealth-procurement-
rules/ ; and ComLaw online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2014L00912/Download .  
106 Open tendering involves publishing a reques t for tender and accepting submissions from any 
potential suppliers who satisfy conditions for participation.  Under the prequalified tend er process, an invitation 
to tender is issued to selected potential suppliers, such as suppliers who have responded to an initial open approach to the market. Limited tender ing is conducted for reasons such as  that no submission was received, 
or no submission or potential supplier satisfied conditions of the tender.  
107 As at 31 May 2014 there were 6,522 passenger vehicles in the Government fleet of which 74% were 
Australian-made. As at 30 June 2013, there were 7,046 pa ssenger vehicles in the Government fleet of which 
64.1% were Australian-made, 25.6% were imported by an Australian manufacturer, and the rest (10.3%) 
imported by a non-Australian manufacturer. At the time  of the previous Review, the Government's Green Car 
Challenge plan stipulated that by 2020, 50% of the Government fleet passenger vehicles would be WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 63 - 
 
  procurement procedures.108 Under the Public Works Committee Act 1969, public works of 
$A 15 million and above must be referred to th e Parliamentary Standing Committee on Public 
Works. AusTender, the Commonwealth Government 's procurement information system, managed 
by the Department of Finance, provides multiple functions for searching data online (see below) 
including the breakdown of contracts (numbers of contracts and their values) under various 
procurement methods.109 According to AusTender reporting data, between February 2012 and 
December 2014 limited tendering represented 56.1%  of total procurement value while open and 
prequalified tendering accounted for 35% and 8.8%, respectively. However, during the same 
period open tendering represented 51.9% of proc urement of goods and services above $A 80,000 
while limited and prequalified tendering accounted for 39.4% and 8.7%, respectively. 
3.75.  The 2010 Fair Work Principles, which requir ed Commonwealth entities to obtain information 
from tenderers about their compliance with their obligation to ensure fair, cooperative, and 
productive workplaces, were revoked on 1 July 2014.110 
3.76.  AusTender (see above) provides a single po rtal to advertise business opportunities and to 
report on the award of government procurement contracts. Agencies are required to publish 
standing offers and those contracts with a value of $A 10,000 or more on AusTender. Links to the procurement operations of State Governments can be accessed via AusTender's website 
(https://www.tenders.gov.au/ ).  
3.77.  Australia has maintained its target of sourcing at least 10% of purchases by value from 
SMEs.111 In addition, for major procurement of information and communication technology (ICT) 
products and services with an expected contract value of $A 20 million or more, government 
agencies must ensure that tenders meet the minimum SME participation levels set at 10% of 
contract value for hardware, and 20% of contract value for software/services. Between 2008/09 and 2013/14, the average share of SMEs, in term s of the value of contracts, rose from 29% 
to 34.4%.
112 In 2013/14 SME participation was higher in: education and training services (63.6%); 
utilities and public sector-related services (59.2%); commercial and military and private vehicles and their accessories and components (50.5%); and financial and insurance services (49.5%). 
3.78.  Australia's RTAs with Chile, Korea (Rep. of), Singapore, and the United States all include 
specific government procurement commitments with respect to national treatment. During the review period, no changes were introduced to the Australia New Zealand Government Procurement 
Agreement (ANZGPA). The Australasian Procurement and Construction Council Inc. (APCC) 
commenced its five-yearly review of the ANZGPA on 19 March 2012. Minor changes of a formatting 
nature have been recommended and the APCC is in the process of revising the ANZGPA to include those changes. Australia effectively extends to all suppliers the same treatment which it has 
committed to under its RTA commitments on government procurement. No data on the share of 
goods, services, or public works procured by suppliers from New Zealand, Chile, Singapore, and the United States were available from the authorities.  
3.79.  According to the authorities, Australian states also adopt a "best value for money" 
procurement framework. Some states include in that framework incentives for local supplies or for the procurement of local goods, which vary from re cognition of the benefits of local supply, such 
as timely after-sales service to the inclusion of a local economic benefits consideration in the 
selection criteria or a price preference for locall y-produced goods. While various states incorporate 
"buy local"(section 4.4) and/or price preferences for local goods in their procurement policies, they 
maintain that they implement these preferences in a manner consistent with Australia's 
                                                                                                                                               
Australian-made "value-for-money environmentally frien dly" cars; this policy is no longer in place 
(section 4.4.1) (Department of Finance online information. Viewed at: http://www.finance.gov.au/procurement/previous_news.html;  WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 
18 May 2011; Department of Finance, 2012; and Department of Finance online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.finance.gov.au/vehicle-leasing-and-fleet-management/FleetStatistics.html  and 
http://www.finance.gov.au/procurement/procurement-po licy-and-guidance/commonwealth-procurement-rules/  
108 Exemptions are listed in Appendix A of the 2012 CPRs (Department of Finance, 2012). 
109 AusTender online information. Viewed at: https://www.tenders.gov.au/?event=public.reports.list   
110 For more information about this matter see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
111 An SME is a domestic or New Zealand firm with fewer than 200 full-time employees.  
112 Department of Finance online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.finance.gov.au/procurement/statistics-on-commonwealth-purchasing-contracts/ . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 64 - 
 
  international government procurement commitments.113 In addition to their Buy Local Policy (see 
below), certain states maintain a 10% preference (e.g. Western Australia, Tasmania, and Northern Territory) or 20% preference (New South Wales, Qu eensland, and South Australia), in the form of 
a nominal increase on the tendered price, fo r procurement of domestic or New Zealand, 
United States, and Chilean goods and related services, to uphold industry development, social or 
economic objectives. Similar arrangements are proposed under the Australia-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement and the Australia-Korea Fr ee Trade Agreement. Preference margins are not 
applied to purchases of services alone (i.e. unrel ated to goods contracts). No detailed up-to-date 
information was available from the authorities on the content of this paragraph.  
3.80.  During the review period, Australia continued to help domestic suppliers to raise their 
participation in government procurement contracts through the Australian Industry Participation 
(AIP) National Framework (section 2.6) and the 2009 Boosting Australian Industry Participation 
policy.
114 Tenderers for government works are required to outline their use of Australian or 
overseas suppliers in cases where there is a whole-of-government requirement imposed by the 
Department of Finance115; in the context of AIP plans, they only apply to a select number of 
tenders. Companies bidding for selected large Commonwealth procurement projects (generally above $A 20 million) have been required to pr epare and implement AIP pl ans (sections 3.2.2.6, 
3.2.8, 4.3.2, and 4.4). Companies receiving over  $A 20 million from the Clean Energy Finance 
Corporation (section 4.3.2) may be required to prep are and report on an AIP plan as a condition of 
investment. These initiatives, inter alia,  aim to ensure that tender specifications do not have the 
effect of excluding Australian and New Zealand SMEs, and that they maximize the ability of 
domestic industry to win work at home and abroad. Further assistance is available through the 
Industry Capability Network (ICN).
116 Since 2010, 253 AIP plans for Commonwealth procurement 
have been approved. 50 contracts/head agreements  have included the AIP plan requirement; the 
value of these contracts was $A 8.8 billion. 
3.81.  Buy Local procurement policies at state level remain in place.117 The Local Jobs First plan 
(LJFP) of the Government of New South Wales continues to promote local industry preference in 
major projects by defining SMEs as local businesses with up to 500 workers (compared with 
200 workers previously and in the rest of the country (see above)). The Victorian Industry 
Participation Policy (VIPP) is aimed at encouraging domestic supplier (including SMEs) participation in government procurement when awarding contracts of $A 1 million or more in regional Victoria, 
or $A 3 million or more in metropolitan Melb ourne or for state-wide projects designated 
strategically significant by Victoria's Depart ment of Innovation, Industry and Regional 
Development. As from 1 January 2013 new VIPP guidelines have introduced a "contestability 
assessment", greater detail on the opportunities for suppliers, an electronic VIPP plan with 
enhanced assistance features, and more robust monitoring and reporting requirements to demonstrate the local content outcomes of VIPP.
118 According to the authorities, both the LJFP and 
the VIPP have been designed to comply with Australia's existing commitments on government 
procurement.  
                                               
113 For example the Government of Western Australia maintains a long-standing Buy Local Policy, which 
was last revised in July 2013, to increase the regional price preference limits that apply to regional businesses tendering for State Government regional contracts to $A 250,000 for goods and services purchases, and 
$A 500,000 for housing and works purchases (State Supply Commission online information. Viewed at: http://www.ssc.wa.gov.au/files/guidelines/Buy %20Local%20Policy%20A ddendum%20(1%20July%202013 ). 
The New South Wales Local Jobs First Plan provides pr ice preference for Australian and New Zealand SME's 
content  (European Commission, 2013).  
114 For more information, see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
115 A whole-of-government approach is defined as "one  where a government active ly uses formal and/or 
informal networks across the different agencies with in that government to c oordinate the design and 
implementation of the range of interventions that the government's agencies will be making in order to 
increase the effectiveness of those interventions in achieving the desired objectives" (OECD, 2006).  
116 The ICN operates in Australia and New Zealand and assists businesses to maximize the opportunities 
that arise from purchasing requirements from both the government and private sectors. 
117 The authorities indicated that these policies ar e aimed at encouraging Government agencies, which 
may otherwise not consider local producers, particularly at  the SME level, to do so be fore going to tender. They 
do not mandate that purchases be made only from lo cal tender. For more inform ation, see WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
118 Department of State Developmen t, Business and Innovation on line information. Viewed at: 
http://dsdbi.vic.gov.au/our-departme nt/strategies-and-initiatives/victorian-industry-participation-policy . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 65 - 
 
  3.82.  A Procurement Coordinator remains in place to: provide external parties with an 
understanding of the Commonwealth procurement framework; handle certain complaints; monitor issues related to Commonwealth Government procurement; and, whenever necessary, report to the Minister for Finance on procurement matters. The Procurement Coordinator seeks public input 
on how government procurement can be enhanced through its blog site. The procurement 
consultation committee comprising industry, union, and community stakeholders has been discontinued. So far there has been neither a cost-benefit analysis of the effectiveness of 
government procurement as an instrument of economic policy nor an evaluation of the 
cost-effectiveness of the existing domestic preference policies.  
3.83.  The Trade Practices Amendment (Cartel Conduct and Other Measures) Act 2009 covers, 
inter alia , criminal liability for cartel conduct, including arrangements between competitors 
involving bid-rigging (section 3.4.3.1.2). Major cons truction contracts are identified as vulnerable 
to supplier misconduct. Between 20 11 and 30 June 2014, ACCC Fede ral Court action resulted in 
penalties of $A 59.15 million on 10 companies for a series of cartel cases involving, inter alia , 
bid-rigging in the supply of land cables, construction, and automotive parts.  
3.2.9  Local-content requirements 3.84.  Local-content requirements remain in pl ace in government procurement arrangements for 
motor vehicles (section 3.2.8)
119, in export finance, guarantees, and insurance provided by the 
Export Finance and Insurance Corporation (EFIC) (section 3.3.5), and in foreign investment requirements in the broadcasting services sector (section 4.5.6.2). According to the authorities, EFIC requirements relate to "local/Australian activity".  
3.85.  During the review period, Australia has not made any notifications of TRIMs under the WTO 
Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measur es, thereby indicating the absence of such 
measures.  
3.3  Measures Directly Affecting Exports 
3.3.1  Registration and documentation 3.86.  All goods intended for export with a value of $A 2,000 or more must be registered with 
Customs, unless exempted.
120 Most export declarations are submitted through the Integrated 
Cargo System (ICS), the electronic cargo report ing tool. Any goods that require a permit for 
export must be reported on an export declaration regardless of value. Customs may undertake compliance examinations on behalf of permit-issuing agencies.  
3.3.2  Export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing 
3.87.  During the review period the list of proh ibited or restricted items has remained unchanged. 
Exports of acetic anhydride to Afghanistan remain prohibited, as are exports of certain cultural and 
heritage goods, and suicide devices.
121 Exports of some other goods are prohibited in compliance, 
inter alia , with international commitments, unless permission or a licence is granted.122 In light of 
Australia's reliance on agri-food exports, export controls on certain agricultural and food products 
are operated by certain public-sector entities with a view, inter alia,  to ensuring importing country 
requirements are met (e.g. volume limitations or quota allocation of certain cheeses and beef to 
                                               
119 Under the Australian Government's fleet arrang ements, government-procure d motor vehicles must 
be either made in Australia by manuf acturers that have a local operatio n in vehicle assembly or component 
production (Ford, Holden, Toyota), or imported passenger motor vehicles  marketed by an Australian-based 
manufacturer (Department of Financ e online information. Viewed at: http://www.finance.gov.au/vehicle-
leasing-and-fleet-management/fleet-g uidance-and-related-material.html ). 
120 For information on exempted g oods, see Australian Customs and Border Protection Service online 
information. Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/site/page5847.asp ; and WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
121 Acetic anhydride is used, inter alia,  for the synthe sis of heroin. 
122 Australian Customs and Bord er Protection Service online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/site/page4381.asp ; and WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 66 - 
 
  the European Union and the United States, trade and product descriptions), and to maintain food 
safety and quality standards.123  
3.88.  On 10 December 2012 the prohibition on wheat exports (unless undertaken by accredited 
exporters) was repealed (sections 3.4.3.1 and 4.2.2.1).124 More specifically, the 2008 Wheat 
Export Marketing Act was amended in 2012, inter alia , to repeal the regulation prohibiting exports 
of bulk wheat from the Customs (Prohibited Expo rts) Regulations 1958. Export controls on wood 
and woodchips are for the purpose of protecting  environmental and heritage values. As from 
1 January 2010, no restrictions have applied on merino sheep exports.  
3.3.3  State trading 3.89.  According to Australia's latest WTO notification on state trading in 2014, the Rice Marketing 
Board for the State of New South Wales, which has export monopoly rights, was the only state 
trading entity operating during the review period.
125 According to its WTO notifications, Australia 
exported 19,000 tonnes of milled equivalent rice in 2009/10, 132,000 tonnes in 2010/11, 584,000 tonnes in 2012/13, and 531,000 tonnes in 2013/14.
126 There are still a relatively large 
number of other public entities, with or without monopoly or exclusive trading rights, involved in 
the production and trade in goods and services, at Commonwealth, state or territory level (section 3.4.5).  
3.3.4  Export assistance 
3.3.4.1  Export Market Development Grants (EMDG) scheme 3.90.  The EMDG scheme is Australia's main financial assistance programme and targets mainly 
small but also medium-sized enterprises across all sectors of the economy. It was provided with 
increased funding of $A 50 million, to be distributed over four years beginning in 2013, to help 
boost business competitiveness.
127 Grants partially reimburse expenditure (up to 50% above a 
threshold) on specific export promotion activiti es to any overseas market except New Zealand, 
Iran, and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. As from April 2014 the minimum required 
level of export-promotion expenditure stands at $A 15,000 (previously $A 20,000), the maximum number of grants an applicant can receive is 8 (previously 7), the maximum grant payable is 
$A 150,000, and the maximum amount claimabl e for intellectual property expenses is 
$A 50,000.
128 For the 2013/14 financial year only, additional costs of grant administration above 
the 5% cap could be met from departmental appr opriations. The scheme is operational until the 
2015/16 grant year (2016/17 financial year).  
3.91.  Administered by Austrade, the EMDG distributed grants worth $A 113.6 million to 
2,445 exporters in 2013/14, a decrease of 11.3% in grant numbers and 5.6% in grant payments 
                                               
123 For example, the Department of Ag riculture issues permits and govern ment certificates  to control the 
export of specific primary produce including meat produc ts, dairy, seafood, grains, eggs, horticulture, skins and 
hides, wool and inedible meat products. The Therapeuti c Goods Administration (TGA),  under the Department of 
Health, grants certificates  for export only for medicines for human  use (i.e. those containing substances, 
quantities of substances or labels without mandatory warning statements required for listing for supply in 
Australia). TGA also issues perm its for export of human blood, human blood-derived products, and 
medicines/drugs (or their ingredients), that are on Aust ralian Customs Prohibited Ex ports Regulations. Export 
permits of animal origin ingredients used in formulations  of medicines for human use are issued by the TGA. In 
addition, the Australian Grap e and Wine Authority issues export licenc es for wine and brandy, and Horticulture 
Australia Limited gr ants export licences for hort icultural products (c urrently applicable to oranges to any 
destination and citrus to the United States). (Austral ian Customs and Border Protection Service, undated).  
124 Australian Customs and Border Protection Notice  No. 2012/71, "Repeal of Regulation 9AAA-export of 
bulk wheat", 12 December 2012. Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resou rces/files/Wheatrepeal9AAAACN2012-71.pdf . 
125 WTO documents G/STR/N/14/AUS/Rev.1, 20 March 2013; and, G/STR/N/15/AUS, 7 July 2014. For 
more information on the extent of  past government involvement in the Australian economy, see WTO 
document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
126 These figures differ from those at the UNSD  Comtrade Database for item HS10.06. 
127 Liberal Party (2013).  
128 Export Market Development Grants Amendment Bill 2014 passed on 26 March 2014 and given Royal 
Assent on 9 April 2014 (viewed at: 
http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/billsdgs/3060392/upload_binary/3060392.pdf;fileType
=application%2Fpdf#search=%22legislation/billsdgs/3060392%22 ). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 67 - 
 
  compared with 2012/13.129 The same year 74% of recipients were small businesses, with annual 
income of $A 5 million or less; EMDG recipients generated exports worth $A 2.8 billion. Budgeted funding for the EMDG for 2013/14 was $A 137.9 million or 10% more than in 2012/13. EMDG grants are mostly used by the services indu stries, followed by manufacturing and primary 
industries.
130 The top six countries targeted by EMDG recipients in recent years have been the 
United States, the United Kingdom, Chin a, Singapore, Germany, and Canada.  
3.92.  At the time of the previous Review, according to an independent 2008 review, the EMDG 
scheme was both effective and efficient in, inter alia , supporting the development of Australia's 
exports and raising labour productivity.131 The next Review is to take place in the first six months 
of 2015.  
3.3.4.2  Trade and Export Co ncession Scheme (Tradex)  
3.93.  During the review period, Australia has main tained its up-front duty and goods and services 
tax (GST) exemptions for eligible imported goods intended for direct export, or which are used, 
lost, or wasted in the processing of exports under the Tradex scheme (last amended in 2008).132 
Between 2010/11 and 2012/13, the operation of  the scheme, which is administered by 
AusIndustry, resulted in total forgone duty esti mated at $A 124.4 million; the amount of duty 
forgone in 2012/13 rose by about 11.4% compared to 2010/11 (Table 3.3, section 3.2.2.6), due to 
increased usage of the scheme by a major car manufacturer during that period. The main 
beneficiaries of the scheme were the automotive  industry, medical equipment manufacturers, and 
clothing and leather goods wholesalers.  
3.3.4.3  Duty drawback scheme 
3.94.  During the period under review the duty drawback scheme has remained virtually 
unchanged. On 9 November 2012, Customs introduced additional controls in the Customs Regulations 1926 regarding the claiming of a duty drawback on imported duty paid on tobacco and 
tobacco products for export. These controls imposed additional conditions for exporters to comply 
with, including the introduction of a temporary refund provision (applications until 30 April 2013) for branded tobacco products that do not meet Australia's new plain packaging requirements 
(sections 3.2.7.3 and 3.4.6.2.2).
133 Drawback claims can be lodged electronically via the ICS. Duty 
drawbacks are processed on the basis of self-a ssessment with the amount of duty drawback 
calculated by the claimant using one of three calculation methods.134 Under all methods the 
amount of a claim for drawback of import duty must not exceed the amount of import duty paid on 
the exported goods. This is ensured by direct matc hing of imports and exports, or by analysis of 
duty paid by entity or via form ulas provided in the regulations.  Exporters may obtain a refund of 
customs duties (not GST) paid on imported goods if these goods were treated, processed, or 
incorporated into other goods for export, or are exported unused after import.135 According to 
Customs data, the value of drawbacks paid in 2013/14 was $A 62.7 million, compared with $A 69.5 million in 2012/13. The main beneficiaries of duty drawback have been the automotive, 
                                               
129 Austrade online information. Viewed at: http://www.austrade.go v.au/Export/Export-
Grants/Publications/EMDG-Update ; and Australian Trade Commission (undated). 
130 Karanikolas (2014).  
131 For more information about this review, see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
132 AusIndustry online information. Viewed at: http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/programs/import-
export/tradex/Pages/default.aspx . 
133 Australian Customs and Bord er Protection Service online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/site/tobacco.asp ; and Australian Customs and Border  Protection Service factsheet, 
"Export Concessions Duty Drawback Scheme", November 2012. 
http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files /ExportConcessionsDutyDr awbackSchemeNov2012.pdf . 
134 The three calculation methods are: the shipment-b y-shipment basis method (when imports directly 
relate to exports); the representative  or averaging shipment basis method (for high-volume low-value goods), 
where a representative shipment for a period is picked  as a sample of the values of identical items, the 
averaging of shipments is costed over time and must no t result in an overclaim; and the imputation method 
(when import documents are generally unavailable), wher e the basis on which to calculate duty drawback can 
be 30% of the purchase price of the goods whenever th ese goods are fully imported  and have been purchased 
in Australia by the exporter (Austral ian Customs and Border Protection Serv ice online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files /ExportConcessionsDutyDr awbackSchemeNov2012.pdf ). 
135 Australian Customs and Border Protection Service factsheet, "E xport Concessions Duty Drawback 
Scheme", November 2012. Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/site/page4382.asp .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 68 - 
 
  tobacco and alcohol industries. No data on the export value involved was available from the 
authorities.  
3.3.4.4  Other schemes 3.95.  The Certain Inputs to Manufacture (CIM) scheme provides duty free entry for raw materials 
and intermediate chemicals, plastic and paper goods, and metal minerals used in manufacturing 
which is directed towards "import replacement" and export enhancement.
136 CIM remains 
unchanged but at the time of the previous Review  it was indicated that it could be subject to 
review in the next five years. Duty forgone under the CIM between 2010/11 and 2013/14 
(January) was $A 9.2 million. The main beneficiaries have remained the chemicals and plastics sectors (Table 3.3, section 3.2.2.6).  
3.96.  The TradeStart network remains in place despite the intention to close it down at the end 
of 2009/10. It is an extension of Austrade programmes delivered in partnership with state, 
territory and local governments, industry associ ations, and chambers of commerce. The network 
assists SME exporters in regional and outer metropolitan areas to achieve long term success in 
international markets by providing local assistance and a direct link to Austrade's services and 
overseas network. For the period 2014-18 a total of $A 11 million has been committed by Austrade to assist SMEs, particularly those located in rural Australia, to achieve sustainable export activity. 
This, together with co-funding from partners, ha s enabled the TradeStart programme to establish 
27 offices throughout Australia. 
3.3.5  Export finance, guarantees, and insurance  3.97.  The Export Finance and Insurance Corporat ion (EFIC) continued providing various finance, 
insurance, and guarantee facilities to support Australian companies (including SMEs) exporting or 
investing in emerging and frontier markets overseas. It is a self-funding statutory authority which, according to the authorities, operates in accordance with commercial principles. EFIC's mandate is 
to fill "gaps" in the provision of financial support as these market segments are not always 
comprehensively serviced by Australian banks — in part due to the effort and complexities involved in banking transactions with smaller clients, in challenging markets, or for unique assets 
or new technologies. EFIC's support includes: direct loans (to buyers); export finance guarantees 
(to banks financing contracts with buyers); documentary credit guarantees (to banks confirming letters of credit); and payments insurance (aga inst non-payment by the buyer). The terms and 
conditions of such products are subject to OECD guidelines.
137  
3.98.  The level of official support depends on the degree of local/national content ("Australian 
activity" or "Australian content") involved: export contracts with over 50% local content may receive support for up to 85% of the eligible contract value (ECV) (sum of the imported 
components into the buyer's country, i.e. Australian plus third country activities plus the local cost 
which must be the lower of 30% of ECV or the local cost amount).
138 Where the "Australian 
activity" involved is less than 50%, the level of support would normally be limited to the degree of 
"Australian activity". Although permitted by the EFIC Act, the EFIC does not normally provide 
short-term (less than 360 days) credit insurance due to sufficient private market capacity. Other means of support that are not subject to OECD guidelines include: contract bonds (to buyers to cover advance payment, seller's performance and warranty of products sold) , working capital 
guarantees (to banks), and political risk insurance (to banks and/or Australian companies investing 
abroad) .
139  
                                               
136 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. According to the authorities "import 
replacement" means that certain eligible goods can be  imported duty free, if their use as inputs has a 
substantial and demonstrable performance advantage ov er substitutable domestic goods. For more details 
about the scheme, see AusIndustry online information. Viewed at: http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/programs/manufacturing/cim/Pages/default.aspx . 
137 The OECD Arrangement on Officially Supported Export Credits is aimed, inter alia , at preserving a 
level playing field in officially supported export products. 
138 EFIC online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.efic.gov.au/ABOUT/GOVERNANCE/Pages/Australiancontentguidelines.aspx .  
139 The OECD guidelines apply to all official support provided by or on behalf of the Government for 
export of goods and/or services which have  a repayment term of two years or more.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 69 - 
 
  3.99.  The Minister for Trade can direct or approve EFIC's entry into transactions considered to be 
in the "national interest"140; the Government is responsible for the financial consequences of 
national interest transactions although EFIC manages these facilities on behalf of the Commonwealth.
141 EFIC's obligations to third parties are ultimately guaranteed by the 
Government; although this guarantee has never been  used, it is potentially an additional element 
of assistance for exporters.  
3.100.  In January 2013 EFIC was to apply a new "market failure" test to determine the eligibility 
for support and direct more resources to SMEs seeking to expand into Asian markets.142 The 
proposed test was not implemented by the current Government which announced that EFIC's focus will be on SMEs seeking to capitalize on global trade opportunities.  
3.101.  According to a 2012 Productivity Commission report, the bulk of exports takes place 
without EFIC assistance. EFIC's support goes to a relatively small number of large firms (often on 
a repeat basis), and EFIC's commercial account operations have yielded a low rate of return, with some facilities subsidised by taxpayers.
143  
3.102.  The authorities indicated that EFIC's annual profit for financial year 2013/14 was 
$A 24 million, up from $A 23 million in 2013/12. During 2012/13, EFIC, one of the smallest export 
credit agencies within the OECD, supported exports and overseas investment totalling 
$A 2.1 billion, below the previous four years' performance.144 These figures cover both the 
commercial account and the national interest account. In 2012/13, the mining sector continued to be the main sector supported, accounting for 44. 4% of total EFIC signings (in terms of value), 
followed by construction (27%), wholesale trade (8.2%), agriculture/forestry/fishing (8%), and 
manufacturing (6.3%). Between 2009/10 and 2012/13,  the commercial account operations profit 
dropped progressively from $A 38.3 million to $A 22.6 million; this was due, inter alia , to below 
budget origination income, unrealised foreign exchange losses and increased allowances for 
specific events. In 2013/14, EFIC provided 230 facilities, valued at $A 576.6 million, which 
supported over $A 2.1 billion of export contra cts and overseas investments – broadly in line 
with 2013/12 results. SMEs accounted for around 90% of all facilities in terms of number of 
transactions; there were no transactions entered into on the "national interest" account during the 
year. 
3.4  Measures Affecting Production and Trade 3.4.1  Taxation 
3.103.  Australia remains a relatively low-tax OECD country relying on direct taxes for more than 
63% of its tax revenues (Table 3.5).
145 The value added tax (goods and services tax) is the main 
indirect tax component, followed by excise taxes.  Taxes on international trade, albeit increasing, 
contributed a mere 2% to total tax revenues in 2012/13, and customs duties constituted 99.9% of 
these taxes on international trade.  
                                               
140 National interest tran sactions usually occur where the transaction size or risk exceeds EFIC's 
commercial parameters, and where the Minister for Trade and Investment considers them to be in the national 
interest. In 2013/14 the national interest account exposures of $A 867 million ($A 757.6 million in 2012/13) were almost all loans to sovereign countries or their agencies. The largest exposure continued to be to the 
Indonesian Government (Export Fina nce and Insurance Corporation, 2013). 
141 EFIC did not enter into any facilities on the na tional interest account during the years 2010/11, 
2012/13 and 2013/14. Between 2009/10 and 2012/13 the operating profit of the national interest account grew progressively more than sevenfold to $A 14 million (Export Finance and Insurance Corporation, 2013). 
142 Productivity Commission (2013d). 
143 Productivity Commission (2013d). 
144 Export Finance and Insura nce Corporation (2013).  
145 In 2009, Australia's total tax revenue as a percen tage of GDP was 25.9% while the average total tax 
burden for OECD countries was over 33.8% (OECD, 2013d). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 70 - 
 
  Table 3.5 Structure of tax revenue, 2009/10-2012/13 
($A million and %) 
 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 
Total tax revenue ($A million) 333, 336  359,205  389, 895  415,122  
 (% of total) 
Direct taxes 61.0 61.9 64.3 63.2 
Taxes on income 56.0 56.9 59.2 58.2 
Individuals 37.5 38.6 39.4 39.3 
Enterprisesa 18.2 18.0 19.4 18.7 
Non-residents 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 
Employment payroll taxes 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.0 
General taxes 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 
Other employer labour-force taxes 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.0 
Indirect taxes 39.0 38.1 35.7 36.8 
Taxes on provision of goods and services 26.6 25.6 24.2 23.4 
General taxes (sale tax) 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 
Goods and services tax (GST) 14.0 13.4 12.5 12.1 
Excises and levies 7.6 7.4 6.8 6.4 
Taxes on international trade 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.0 
Taxes on gambling 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 
Taxes on insurances 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3 
Taxes on property 9.5 9.3 8.6 8.7 
Taxes on immovable property 5.6 5.5 5.3 5.2 
Taxes on financial and capital transactions 4.0 3.8 3.3 3.4 
Taxes on the use of goods and performance 
of activities 2.9 3.1 3.0 4.7 
Motor vehicle taxes 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.1 
Franchise taxes 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Other 0.8 1.1 1.0 2.7 
a Includes petroleum resource rent taxes. 
Source: Australian Bureau of Statis tics online information, "5506.0: Taxation Statistics 2012-13". Viewed at: 
http://www.abs.gov.au .  
3.4.1.1  Indirect taxation 
3.104.  During the review period Australia's reliance on indirect taxes has remained lower than 
other OECD countries.146 Since 2011, the rates of virtually all excises (except for some fuels 
until 2014) have been increased (Table 3.6). In order to provide a secure and growing source of 
r e v e n u e  f o r  G o v e r n m e n t  i n v e s t m e n t  i n  r o a d  f u n d i n g ,  b i a n n u a l  i n d e x a t i o n  o f  f u e l  e x c i s e  w a s  re-introduced from 1 August 2014.
147 Alcohol excise rates are indexed according to the Consumer 
Price Index (CPI) in February and August each year to ensure that they are not eroded by 
inflation. Tobacco is indexed to the Average Weekly Ordinary Time Earnings in March and September each year. The luxury car tax threshold is indexed each income year, and the excise on petrol and diesel has remained fixed since March 2001. Australia currently levies the following 
indirect taxes:  
• a 10% GST on the value added at each point in the production and distribution chain for 
most goods and services (as from July 2000)148; 
                                               
146 In 2009, the GDP share of Australia's revenue from taxes on goods and services was 7.6%, while the 
OECD average was 10.7% (OECD, 2013d). 
147 Between 2014/15 and 2017/18 this will raise an addition al $A 2.2 billion. The additional net revenue 
will be spent on roads (Commonwealth of Australia, 2014c, Statement 1: Budget Overview).  
148 The valuation basis for the GST on imported goods is the c.i.f. value plus customs duties and any 
wine tax. The Australian Taxation Office (ATO) operat es a scheme that provides for the deferral of GST on 
imported goods (Australian Customs and Border Prot ection Service online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/site/page5349.asp ). Most educational, eligible childcare and health services, as 
well as medical appliances, cars for certain disabled people, basic foodstuff (mea t, fruit, and vegetables), 
imports under certain customs concessions, and export s are among the items exempt from GST (Australian 
Customs and Border Protection Servic e online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/site/page5343.asp ). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 71 - 
 
  • an additional luxury car tax (LCT) of 33% on vehicles with a retail value above a 
GST-inclusive and CPI-indexed threshold (for fuel-efficient cars (fuel consumption less 
than 7 litres per 100 km) above $A 75,375 (since 2009/10), for other vehicles $A 57,466 
for 2010/11 and 2011/12, $A 59,133 for 2012/13, and $A 60,316 for 2013/14)149; 
• a 29% wine equalisation tax (WET) on the fina l wholesale sale price for grape wine, fruit 
wine, vegetable wine, perry, mead, sake, cider, and grape wine products including 
vermouth, marsala, wine cocktails, and creams (since July 2000)150; and  
• excise taxes (excise and excise-equivalent customs duties) on the 
production/manufacture, import, sale or distribution of petroleum and other fuel 
products, certain alcohol (including ready-to-drink products, excluding wine), tobacco, 
crude oil, and greases and lubricants (Table 3.6).  
Table 3.6 Excise rates, 2011 and 2014 
($A) 
Commodity Rates applying from
1 February 2011 Current rates 
February 2014 
Petroleum and other fuel products (per litre)   
Aviation gasoline 0.03556a 0.08869 
Aviation kerosene 0.03556a 0.09835 
Biodiesel 0.38143a 0.38143 
Compressed natural gas (per kg)  0.1567 
Diesel (other than biodiesel) 0.38143a 0.38143 
Fuel ethanol 0.38143a 0.38143 
Fuel oil 0.38143a 0.38143 
Gasoline (other than  for use as fuel in aircraft) 0.38143a 0.38143 
Greases (per kg) 0.05449a 0.05449 
Heating oil and kerosene (for burner use) 0.38143a 0.38143 
Liquid aromatic hydrocarbons consisting principally 
of benzene, toluene or xylene or mixtures of them 0.38143a 0.38143 
LNG (per kg)  0.1567 
LPG   0.0750 
Mineral turpentine 0.38143a 0.38143 
Oils and lubricants, excluding greases (per litre) 0.05449a 0.05449 
Petroleum condensate 0.38143a 0.38143 
Petroleum products (other than blends) not 
elsewhere included 0.38143a 0.38143 
Stabilized crude petroleum oil 0.38143a 0.38143 
Topped crude petroleum oil 0.38143a 0.38143 
White spirit 0.38143a 0.38143 
Beer (per litre)b   
Individual container <48 litres   
Low strength 36.71c 39.75 
Mid strength 42.78c 46.30 
High strength 42.78c 46.30 
Individual container >48 litres   
Low strength 7.33c 7.94 
Mid strength 23.01c 24.90 
High strength 30.11c 32.60 
Other beer (produced for non-commercial purposes 
using commercial facilities or equipment)b   
Low strength  2.58c 2.79 
High strength 2.98c 3.23 
Other beverages, not exceeding 10% alcohol 
content   
Other beverages, not exceed ing 10% alcohol content 72.46c 78.44 
                                               
149 No data on the sales of domestic or foreign luxury cars were available from the authorities 
(Australian Taxation Office online information. Viewed at: http://www.ato.gov.au/Rates/Luxury-car-tax-rate-
and-thresholds/# ). 
150 Australian Taxation Office on line information. Viewed at: http://www.ato.gov.au/Business/Wine-
equalisation-tax/ . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 72 - 
 
  Commodity Rates applying from
1 February 2011 Current rates 
February 2014 
Spirits; other beverages exceeding 10% 
alcohol content   
Brandy 67.66c 73.25 
Other beverages, exceeding 10% alcohol content; 
and spirits not elsewhere included  72.46c 78.44 
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes    
Cigarettes, cigars, and tobacco (per stick)d0.33633e 0.40197 
Tobacco products (per kg) 420.43e 502.48 
a Rates applying from 1 July 2006. 
b Rate applied per litre of alcohol on the amount by which the alcohol content (by volume) 
exceeds 1.15%. 
c Rates applying from 1 July 2010. d Rate applied per stick to cigarett es, cigars and tobaccos with toba cco content of 0.8 grams or less. 
e Rates applying from 1 February 2011. 
Source: WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011; and Australian Taxation Office online 
information. Viewed at: http://law.ato.gov.au/atolaw/view.htm?Docid=PAC/BL030002/1&PiT=99991231235958 . 
3.4.1.2  Direct taxation 
3.105.  Since 2011, no major changes have been made to Australia's direct tax system. The 
progressive personal income tax rates continued to range from zero to 45% for taxable income over $A 180,000 (plus a 2% Medicare levy (increased from 1.5% in the 2013/14 Budget)).
151 In 
the 2014/15 Budget, a "Temporary Budget Repair Levy" was introduced at a rate of 2% on taxable 
income over $A 180,000 for the period 1 July 2014 to 30 June 2017 (section 1.3.2).  
3.106.  Currently, a flat rate of 30% applies to corporate income taxes; while the rate is higher 
than for some neighbouring countries, it is not out of line with individual rates in OECD countries 
though higher than their average.152  
3.107.  A 46.5% Fringe Benefits Tax (FBT) continued to be levied on the value of certain fringe 
benefits employers provide to their employees, su ch as a right (including a property right), 
privilege, service or facility (e.g. the provision of company cars, subsidized accommodation and 
travel, entertainment, and the like).153 The FBT is to increase to 49% from 1 April 2015, and 
remain at this rate for two years until 31 March 2017, due to the introduction of the Temporary Budget Repair Levy (sections 1.3.2 and 1.4.1).  
3.108.  A Petroleum Resource Rent Tax (PRRT) of 40%  on the taxable profit made from an entity's 
participation/interest in a project remains in place.
154 On 1 July 2012 the PRRT was extended to all 
onshore oil and gas projects and to the North West Shelf Project. 
3.109.  A 22.5% Mineral Resources Rent Tax (MRRT) on the "super profits" from the mining of iron 
ore and coal was introduced on 1 July 2012. By December 2013, it had not raised anywhere near what was predicted and allegedly had a negative impact on investment in mining projects and 
significant compliance costs, hence it was repealed on 30 September 2014.
155  
                                               
151 Medicare is Australia's health care scheme, which is funded by revenue collected through this levy 
based on taxable income (Australian Taxation  Office online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Income-and-deductions/How-much-income-tax-you-pay/Individual-income-
tax-rates/ ). 
152 In 2013, the OECD average was estimated at 25.32% (KPMG online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.kpmg.com/global/en/services/tax/tax-tools- and-resources/pages/corpor ate-tax-rates-table.aspx ; 
and Australian Taxation Office online information. Viewed at: http://www.ato.gov.au/R ates/Company-tax/ ). 
153 Australian Taxation Office on line information. Viewed at: http://www.ato.gov.au/Rates/FBT/ . 
154 Australian Taxation Office on line information. Viewed at: 
http://www.ato.gov.au/Business/Petroleum-resource-rent-tax/In-detail/PRRT-in-detail/Work-out-PRRT/How-
to-work-out-PRRT/ .  
155 Minister for Finance online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.financeminister.gov.au/media/2014/0909-repeal.html . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 73 - 
 
  3.4.1.3  Tax incentives appraisal 
3.110.  Australia's 2013 annual Tax Expenditures  Statement (TES) identifies 355 (337 in 2009)156 
tax expenditures by the Commonwealth Government to benefit a specified activity or class of 
taxpayer: 108 pertain directly to business income , 25 to commodities (e.g. fuel, alcohol, beer, 
wine, and tobacco) and other goods (e.g. luxury cars) or broadcasting activities, 13 to natural 
resources, 29 to GST, and 8 to the Carbon Pricing Mechanism (2012/13, 2013/14), which was repealed on 1 July 2014.
157 These tax expenditures are available to domestic and foreign firms; 
according to the authorities very few tax expenditures relate directly to production and/or trade of 
goods and/or services. The estimated GDP share of  total tax expenditures was to drop from 9% 
(2009/10) to a projected 8% (2014/15).158 In 2013/14, assistance to all functions (economic and 
non-economic activities) in the form of various tax incentives was estimated at $A 126 billion 
($A 111.7 billion in 2010/11), an amount equivalent to less than a third of total general 
government expenses (e.g. grants), which amounted to $A 398.5 billion. In 2013/14 the largest positive consumption tax expenditure continued to relate to the GST (the main indirect tax), while 
the largest negative tax expenditure involved customs duties.
159 The capital gains (main residence 
exemption – discount component) taxpayers remain the main recipients of tax expenditures, although the amounts involved dropped considerably from 2009/10 onwards.  Tax expenditures are 
reviewed by the Commonwealth Government where relevant during the preparation of its annual 
budget and in other policy development processe s. While there is no systematic independent 
evaluation of tax expenditures, the Productivity Commission may, for example, review tax expenditures relevant to the terms of reference for its various inquiries; it appears that no such 
inquiry was undertaken during the period under review.   
3.4.2  Production assistance 3.111.  Since its previous Review, Australia has continued to provide wide-ranging assistance to 
production, not just in the form of tariff conce ssions and other tax incentives (sections 3.2.2.6, 
3.3.4, and 3.4.1.3), but also in the form of gran ts and concessional loans, which are not generally 
included in its assistance estimates, and regulatory restrictions on competition in certain activities 
(section 3.4.3.1). Concessional loans are available under the Clean Energy Finance Corporation, 
the Export Finance and Insurance Commission, the Farm Finance Concessional Loan Scheme, the Drought Concessional Loan Scheme and the Infrastructure Growth Package programmes (sections 1.2.1, 3.3.5, 4.2.2.2 and 4.3.2 and 4.5.7). Between 2011 and mid-2014 the Department 
of Industry provided $A 25 million in concessional loans. Assistance generally benefits the industry 
receiving it and, if well targeted and designed, can deliver wider community benefits, but can come at a cost to other industries, taxpayers, consumers, and competitors.
160 There is no 
legislative requirement for conducting programme evaluations in order to assess their 
cost-effectiveness in achieving their stated objectives. Nevertheless, the Government committed to giving broader consideration to the effectiveness of existing tax incentives for innovation and 
industry-funded research in the forthcoming White Paper on Australia's Tax Reform 
(section 1.4.1).  
3.112.  Australia's latest notification to the WTO Committee on Subsidies and Countervailing 
Measures (September 2013) listed 30 federal prog rammes in support of environmental protection, 
forestry, innovation, PMV, TCF, steel, and workforce training activities, as well as 38 programmes 
                                               
156 The authorities indicated that comparisons betw een different editions of the TES need careful 
interpretation as the number of ta x expenditures reported may differ du e to changes to benchmarks, etc. 
rather than policy changes. 
157 The Tax Expenditures Statement describes concessi ons, benefits, incentives and charges provided 
through the tax system (termed as tax expenditures) to  taxpayers by the Australian Government and, where 
possible, their estimated value involving tax exemptions , deductions or offsets, concessional tax rates and 
deferrals of tax liability (Treasury, 2013). 
158 The authorities indicated, inter alia , that comparing total tax expendit ures as a proportion of GDP in 
different years may not accurately refl ect government policy as changes in  this proportion are affected by 
external issues such as the impact of the housing market on capital gain s from housing (noting that the biggest 
Australian Government tax expenditure relates to the capital gains tax exemption for main residences) 
(Australian Government online information, "B udget 2013-14: Tables 3.20 and 3.21". Viewed at: 
http://www.budget.gov.au/2013-14/content/table_styles.htm ). 
159 Positive tax expenditures reduce tax liabilities relative to the benchmark. Negative tax expenditures 
increase tax liabilities relative to the benchmark, i.e. they impose an additional charge rather than a benefit. 
(Treasury, 2013). 
160 Productivity Commission (2013d).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 74 - 
 
  at state and territory level (Table A3.2). Australia maintains sunset clauses for several incentives 
notified to the WTO. Some of these programmes will terminate on a specific date or were concluded during the period under review, e.g. th e Steel Transformation Plan (30 June 2016) and 
the TCF Restructuring Initiative Grant Scheme (30 June 2013). Support under the notified 
schemes is mainly delivered by means of grants to eligible firms. Other forms of assistance 
include: funding agreements; payments arrears; advance payments; tax waivers/refunds/exemptions; duty concessions; vouchers; and counselling services.
161 
3.113.  According to the Productivity Commission , following a peak of $A 18.1 billion in 2010/11 
assistance to domestic production of goods and se rvices declined to $A 15.6 billion in 2012/13, in 
gross  terms, comprising: $A 7.8 billion in gross ta riff assistance, $A 4.4 billion of budgetary 
outlays and $A 3.4 billion in estimated tax concessions.162 Between 2007/08 and 2012/13 support 
for R&D increased from 24% of total budgetary assistance to 38%, as support for small business 
remained steady around 22%. The share of industry-specific support (such as for the automotive, biotechnology, and textile, clothing, and footwear industries) fell from 24% to 21% and the share 
of export promotion dropped from 7% to 6%. In 2012/13, budgetary-assistance (i.e. outlays plus 
tax incentives) continued mostly to benefit the services sector (43%), and to a lesser extent manufacturing (21%) and the primary sector (14%). In 2012/13, the estimated budgetary 
assistance was higher for: property, professional , and administrative services (8.7%); finance and 
insurance (8.2%); motor vehicles and parts (5.9 %); and sheep, beef cattle, and grain farming  
(5.8%). The same year, the effective rate (of comb ined) assistance (ERA) remained high for motor 
vehicles and parts (8.9%), and textiles, clothing, and footwear (8.1%).
163  
3.114.  Australia has kept its domestic support expenditure in agriculture as measured by the 
Aggregate Measurement of Support (AMS) well below its final bound total commitment level; its final bound total AMS ceiling has been $A 471.86 million since 2000, and its level of support, as 
measured by the current total AMS, dropped during the review period, from $A 206.74 million 
(2007/08) to zero (2008/09).
164 In 2010/11, Australia did not provide any product-specific 
trade-distorting domestic support; non-product-specific AMS of $A 84.29 million was below the de 
minimis  value and destined mainly for irrigation infrastructure operations. Therefore, virtually all of 
Australia's domestic support to agriculture is in the form of "Green Box" programmes, i.e. support 
that has minimal trade-distorting effects or effects on production.  
3.115.  The Fuel Tax Credits Scheme (section 4.3.2.3) aims to reduce the cost of some fuels by 
removing the incidence of excise and excise equivalent customs duty from the costs of fuels used 
as inputs for certain business activities. Excise credits on fuel products used for purposes other than as fuel were available to businesses at $A 55 million per year; similar credits rising from $A 
445 million (2010/11) to $A 560 million (2013/14) per year applied to fuel oil, heating oil and 
kerosene.
165 Domestic producers of ethanol, biodiesel and renewable diesel used in transport also 
continued to receive a government subsidy, which for ethanol and biodiesel is to be gradually 
repealed (section 4.3.2.3). 
                                               
161 In addition to WTO-notified su bsidies, the Department of Indu stry has some other programmes, 
including the tax exemption-related Venture Capital Li mited Partnerships Program,  and Early Stage Venture 
Capital Limited Partnership Program, and innovation f unding related to the Clothi ng and Household Textile 
Building Innovative Capability Scheme, the Innovation  Investment Fund (IIF), and the Pooled Development 
Funds (PDF). The following programmes were or about to expire/close: Commercialising Emerging 
Technologies (COMET) (in January 2010); the Insulation Industry Assistance Package (IIAP) (in July 2010); 
Re-tooling for Climate Change (in November 2010); the Green Building Fund (GBF) (in March 2011); TQUAL (tourism) Grants (in July 2013); the Innovation Inve stment Fund (IIF) (in 2014); the Ethanol Production 
Grants (EPG) (in June 2015); and, the Renewable Energy Equity Fund (REEF) (date unknown). WTO 
documents G/SCM/N/253/AUS, 11 September 2013; G/SCM/N/253/AUS/Suppl.1, 24 September 2013; and G/SCM/N/253/AUS/Corr.1, 24 September 2013. For extensive information on the ongoing programmes, see AusIndustry online information, "AusIndustry Pr ogram Summary as of November 2013". Viewed at: 
http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/programs/D ocuments/AusIndustryProgramSummary.pdf ; and Productivity 
Commission (2013d). 
162 Productivity Commission (2014c). 
163 The ERA measures the net subsidy equivalent (NSE ) of combined tariff, bu dgetary, and agricultural 
pricing and/or regulatory as sistance to a particular industry in prop ortion to that indu stry's unassisted net 
output (or unassisted value added). It can provide an indication of the extent to which assistance to an industry allows it to attract and hold economic resources (Productivity Commission, 2014c). 
164 WTO documents G/AG/N/AUS/73, 13 July 2009; G/AG/N/AUS/76, 13 July 2010; G/AG/N/AUS/82, 
17 August 2011; G/AG/N/AUS/88, 17 October 2013, and G/AG/N/AUS/89, 17 October 2013. 
165 Treasury (2013).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 75 - 
 
  3.116.  In October 2014 an Industry Innovation and Competitiveness Agenda was announced 
(section 1.4). It consists of six initiatives aimed at boosting Australian competitiveness over the next 18 months: encouraging employee share ownership; reforming the vocational education and training sector; promoting science, technology, engineering and mathematics skills in schools; 
enhancing the 457 and investor visa programme; an d establishing Industry Growth Centres (food 
and agribusiness, mining equipment, technology and services, oil, gas and energy resources, 
medical technologies and pharmaceuticals, and advanced manufacturing sectors).
166 The proposed 
$A 188.5 million funded Industry Growth Centres are to help industry exploit new global markets 
and supply chains, invent and commercialize new products and services, and generate new jobs.167 
These centres, which will be led by industry, will bring together expertise from business and 
industry, the scientific and research communities and the university sector. 
3.4.3  Competition and consumer policy 
3.4.3.1  Competition policy168 
3.4.3.1.1  General framework 
3.117.  During the period under review no majo r changes were brought to the competition policy 
framework. In December 2013 the Government announced the launch of a comprehensive review of competition laws and policy ("root and branch" review), the first in more than 20 years, to 
reinvigorate competition reform,  broaden "durable benefits" (i.e. longstanding productivity gains), 
foster economic prosperity and enterprise, promote Australian businesses, attract investment, and establish a "footing for exports" (i.e. foster international competitiveness).
169 On 27 March 2014, 
the Government released the Terms of Reference of  this review; an Issues Paper was issued on 
14 April 2014 (open for submissions until 10 June 2014), a draft report was scheduled for release 
in September 2014, and the final report was to be delivered by March 2015. Australia's National Competition Policy (NCP) Framework explicitly recognizes that competitive markets generally serve 
the interests of consumers and the community by providing strong incentives for suppliers to 
operate efficiently, be price competitive and innovative, thereby improving export competitiveness. A key principle is that arrangements that detract from competition should be retained only if public 
interest benefits outweigh any anticompetitiv e detriment. As part of the NCP, under the 
Competition Principles Agreement (CPA), Commonwealth, state and territory governments have undertaken to review and reform legislation that restricts competition. The "root and branch" review outlined above will make recommendatio ns about future pro-competitive legislative 
reforms.  
3.118.  The institutional setting for competition matters remained unchanged during the review 
period. National competition policy is the responsibi lity of the Department of the Treasury within 
the Commonwealth Government as well as the Premier's Department in each State and the Chief 
Minister's Department in each Territory. The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC), an independent statutory authority, is charged, inter alia , with administering the 
Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (CCA) (sec tion 3.4.3.1.2); the ACCC and the Australian 
Energy Regulator (AER) are responsible for re gulating the electricity and gas, and the 
telecommunications and transport sectors, respectively. The National Competition Council (NCC), also an independent authority, assesses whether third-party access should be granted to major 
infrastructure under the CCA access provisions, with subsequent regulation of that access 
                                               
166 Prime Minister Media Release, "An action plan fo r Australia's future", 14 October 2014. Viewed at: 
https://www.pm.gov.au/media/2014-10-14/action-plan-australias-future . 
167 Austrade online information, "Australian Go vernment launches Indu stry Innovation and 
Competitiveness Agenda", 15 October 2014. Viewed at: http://www.austrade.gov.au/about-
austrade/news/latest-from-austrade/2014/australian -government-launches-industry-innovation-and-
competitiveness-agenda .  
168 For more information about Australia's competition law and policy developments, see Australian 
Competition Law online information. Viewed at: http://www.australiancompetitionlaw.org/index.html ; ACCC 
online information. Viewed at: http://www.accc.gov.au/ ; and WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 
18 May 2011. 
169 Joint Press Release, "Review of Competition Poli cy", by The Hon. Tony Abbott MP, Prime Minister, 
and The Hon. Bruce Billson MP, Minister for Small Business, 4 December 2013. Viewed at: http://www.apha.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Terms-of-reference.pdf . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 76 - 
 
  conducted by the ACCC or other state-based regula tors. The Australian Comp etition Tribunal (ACT) 
may re-hear or re-consider these matters; it may affirm, set aside or vary the original decision.170  
3.4.3.1.2  Legislative framework 3.119.  Competition (and consumer protection) legislation is contained in the Competition and 
Consumer Act 2010 (CCA), which in January 2011 replaced the Trade Practices Act 1974 (TPA), 
and is intended to promote and preserve fair  and free competition in the domestic market.  During 
the review period  competition-related legislative amendments included: the Telecommunications 
Legislation Amendment (National Broadband Network Measures—Access Arrangements) Act 2011; 
the Carbon Credits (Consequential Amendments ) Act 2011; the Clean Energy (Consequential 
Amendments) Act 2011; the Clean Energy Legisl ation (Carbon Tax Repeal) Act 2014; and the 
Australian Energy Market Amendment (National Energy Retail Law) Act 2011. The Competition and 
Consumer Legislation Amendment Act 2011, clarifie d the provisions of the Australian Consumer 
Law (section 3.4.3.3) concerning unconscionable conduct, and the mergers and acquisitions provisions to address creeping acquisitions, and provided for prohibition of the anticompetitive 
disclosure of pricing and other information. Thes e amendments took effect on 1 January 2012 and 
6 February 2012, respectively. On 6 March 2014 a Competition and Consumer Amendment (Misuse of Market Power) Bill 2014 was introduced into the Senate, and referred to its Economics 
Legislation Committee for inquiry and report by 4 December 2014. It proposes to amend the 
Competition and Consumer Act 2010 to enable the Federal Court of Australia to require a corporation to reduce its market share or power within two years where the corporation is found to have misused that market share or power.  
3.120.  The CCA prohibits cartel conduct by way of price-fixing, output restrictions, bid-rigging, 
and allocating customers, suppliers or territories as well as other anti-competitive conduct such as boycotts, misuse of market power, exclusive dealing, resale price maintenance, and agreements or 
mergers substantially lessening competition. The Competition and Consumer Amendment 
Act (No. 1) 2011, introduced prohibitions on anti ‐competitive price-signalling and information 
disclosures, which were applied to the banking sector; these reforms took effect on 6 June 2012 
and there have been no enforcement actions to date. To foster more effective compliance with the 
CCA, four mandatory industry codes of conduct are in place: the 1998 Franchising Code of 
Conduct, the 2007 Oilcode, the 2007 Horticulture Code, and the 2009 Unit Pricing Code.
171 
Conduct that may raise competition concerns (section 3.4.3.1.3) may be authorized on a 
case-by-case basis through an administrative process managed by the ACCC, and on condition 
that it is in the public interest.172 In this regard, the ACCC has authorized voluntary industry codes, 
including the air conditioning and mechanical contractors' code, the fruit juice industry code, the 
Indigenous Australian art trader code, the jewellery trading code, the Medicines Australia's code of 
conduct, the pallet-hire industry code and the scanning code of practice.  
3.4.3.1.3  CCA exemptions 3.121.  The CCA covers virtually all business activities, including government business
173; 
nevertheless, a long list of special regimes and exemptions derogating the CCA is maintained. 
Many of these exemptions are narrow and technical. Most arise at state and territorial levels of 
                                               
170 For more details about the ACT and its activities, see http://www.competitiontribunal.gov.au/ . 
171 The Oilcode regulates the conduct of suppliers, distributors, and retailers in the downstream 
petroleum industry, while the Horticulture Code deals wi th the conduct of growers an d traders of horticultural 
produce. 
172 In this context, public intere st refers to conduct which enhanc es the welfare of Australians. For 
example, where there is market failure it may be the case that restrictions on competition could achieve a more efficient outcome, and thus higher welfare, than would be the case if the market was left unfettered. The recognition that, in certain circumstances, arrangements which restrict competition can nonetheless be in the public interest is reflected in the authorisation provisions  of the Act. In some circum stances, in order to provide 
consumers with new or better goods/services, supplier s need to enter into arra ngements that restrict 
competition and may breach the Act. The authorisation process involves a trade-off between the benefits of 
addressing market failure, or bringing together comple mentary assets and aligning incentives, and the costs of 
restricting competition. This trade-o ff can also be seen as balancing th e public benefits from the proposed 
conduct for which authorisation is sought, against the pu blic detriments arising fro m that conduct. This is 
distinct from "national interest", which is more likely to co nsider issues such as nation al security and protection 
of sovereignty. 
173 It also includes telecommunication-specific competition rules. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 77 - 
 
  government where they seem difficult to reform.174 They include specific postal mail delivery 
services and cargo-liner shipping conferences at the national level, and agricultural marketing boards, taxi services or pharmacies at state or territory level. Several deal with marketing arrangements for agricultural products by au thorizing either the operation of monopolies 
(e.g. exports of rice grown in New South Wales) or  joint action ostensibly to equalize bargaining 
power between producers and processors. On 2 December 2012, the Wheat Export Marketing 
Amendment Act 2012 changed the requirement for removal of the access test under which port 
terminal operators had to have  access undertakings in place wi th the ACCC as a condition for 
exporting bulk wheat.
175 As of 30 September 2014 a mandatory port access code of conduct for 
bulk wheat exports triggered the automatic repeal of past wheat export legislation and assists farmers and exporters to access the infrastructure th at delivers Australia's wheat to the rest of the 
world.
176  
3.122.  Following recommendations by a 2005 Productivity Commission review, in 2006 the 
authorities decided to retain CCA provisions (Part X) on international cargo-liner shipping 
conferences, but to amend them to clarify objectives, remove discussion agreements from their 
scope, protect individual confidential service contracts between carriers and shippers, and introduce a range of penalties for breaches of its procedural provisions. These changes were 
proposed to expand somewhat the scope of the CCA into international shipping while maintaining 
the perceived benefits of seamless customer se rvice in relation to the delivery of goods 
internationally, but no relevant legislative amendmen ts have been put before Parliament so far.  
3.123.  Conditions in agreements licensing patent s, design copyrights, and trade marks are also 
e x e m p t  f r o m  C C A  p r o v i s i o n s  a s  l o n g  a s  t h e y  a r e limited to permitted topics. All legislation in 
Australia is subject to a Regulatory Impact Statement (RIS) review process, which requires a consideration of many factors including an assessment of competitive impacts (section 2.6).  
3.124.  Many of these exemptions to the CCA have previously been considered by the Productivity 
Commission in the form of inquiries. They are al so subject to review as a part of the current 
process to review competition policy in Australia (section 3.4.3.1.1). The rationale behind each 
exemption is a decision by the government of the day rather than the ACCC. However in general 
terms, exemptions have been implemented to further a public policy issue that, at the time the exemption was implemented, was considered a more important issue to address than maintaining the status quo of the relevant competition provisions. 
3.125.  Certain prohibited anti-competitive practices in industries and professions can be 
authorized when public benefits are deemed to exceed detriments.
177 Businesses may obtain 
immunity by applying for an authorization or su bmitting notifications of exclusive dealing and 
collective bargaining to the ACCC.178 In 2012/13, the ACCC issued 32 final authorisation decisions 
                                               
174 Some 12 Commonwealth and 69 st ate and territory Acts permit conduct that would normally 
contravene the CCA. Such conduct may be permitted if it is specifically authorized under those Acts, which cover, inter alia,  farm produce, poultry meat, the sugar indust ry, grain marketing, ri ce marketing, tobacco 
products, wine grapes marketing, liquor, the coal indust ry, the gas industry, electric ity, financial, banking, 
gambling, health, insurance, postal, transport, water supply, and state-ow ned enterprises activities. The ACCC 
publishes the list of these enactments on its website ( http://www.accc.gov.au/about-us/australian-
competition-consumer-commission/legislation/exceptions-under-commonwealth-state-territory-legislation ) and 
in its annual report (WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/ Rev.1, 18 May 2011). Since 2011 the following Acts have 
been added to the list: the Stronger Futures in the Northern Territory Act 2012; the Electricity Generator Assets (Authorised Transactions) Act 2012; the Electricity Reform Act 2012; and the Water and Sewerage Corporation Act 2012   
175 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2013).  
176 Joint Media Release, "Improved regulations for wh eat exports: mandatory code announced", by The 
Hon. Barnaby Joyce MP Minister for Agriculture, and The Hon. Bruce Billson MP Minister for Small Business, 
19 September 2014. Viewed at: http://www.maff.gov.au/Pages/Media%20Releases/improved-regulations-for-
wheat-exports-mandatory-code-announced.aspx .  
177 The types of conduct that can be authorised are:  a cartel provision; an exclusionary provision 
(primary boycott); an anti-competiti ve agreement; a secondary boycott; exclusive dealing; resale price 
maintenance; anti-competitive disclosures of pricing and other information; an acquis ition that occurs outside 
of Australia; and dual-listed company a rrangements that a ffect competition. 
178 Collective bargaining is an arrangement where two or more competitors come together to negotiate 
with a supplier or a customer over terms, conditions and prices. A group of busine sses may sometimes appoint 
a representative, such as an industry  association, to act on its behalf in the negotiations and can include 
negotiations associated with labour relations. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 78 - 
 
  for arrangements across sectors including aviati on, retail, primary production, automotive, and 
medical.179 The ACCC received and assessed more th an 750 exclusive dealing notifications 
involving 410 separate matters in 2012/13, an increa se of more than 10% over the previous year. 
During 2012/13, the ACCC considered 21 collective bargaining proposals (authorisations and 
notifications), the majority of which involved small business participants and were related to 
primary producers negotiating with processors in the dairy, chicken-growing and potato-growing sectors. In 2013/14, the ACCC i ssued 13 determinations authorising collective-bargaining 
arrangements; these involved clubs, lottery agents , interpreter services, medical services, office 
supplies, wagering, and coal-handling and supply. Th ere were no collective-bargaining notifications 
allowed during the year. 
3.126.  The National Access Regime (last amended in 2010) provides a legislative framework for 
third-party access to certain services provided by essential infrastructure facilities, such as 
electricity networks, rail tracks, natural-gas pipelines, water, communications, port terminals, and airports, when commercial negotiations on access are unsuccessful. Its purpose is to promote 
economically efficient infrastructure use and investment, including promoting competition in 
markets upstream and downstream from the service, as well as to encourage new entrants into markets that rely on monopoly services (i.e. limited competition). To achieve this objective, much 
of the ACCC/AER role in relation to access regulation may include: determining prices and access 
terms and conditions; monitoring and enforcing industry-specific pro-competition laws for bulk water, energy, and communications; and monitoring and reporting on prices and service quality of 
particular goods and services in the areas concerned. According to the 2013 Productivity 
Commission Inquiry Report, the regime should be retained, and its scope confined to ensure its 
use is limited to the exceptional cases where the benefits arising from increased competition in dependent markets are likely to outweigh the costs of regulated third-party access.
180 Renewed 
emphasis should be given to ensuring that the regime better targets the economic problem to 
reduce the risk of imposing unnecessary costs on the community and deterring investment in markets for infrastructure services for little gain.   
3.4.3.1.4  Mergers and acquisitions 
3.127.  The CCA prohibits acquisitions that would be likely to substantially lessen competition. 
The 2008 ACCC guidelines outline the general prin ciples underpinni ng its merger analysis, with 
increased emphasis on the competitive theories of harm and the effect of constraints. In 
September 2013, the ACCC published the revised Informal Merger Review Process Guidelines 
which reflect recent important developments in the approach to merger reviews, as well as incorporating changes to improve efficiency an d transparency. In 2013/14, the ACCC considered 
297 (377 in 2010/11) matters for compliance with the merger and acquisitions section of the CCA. 
Of these, 242 (236 in 2010/11) were assessed as not requiring a public review (pre-assessed).
181 
The ACCC held a public or confidential review of 55 mergers (141 in 2010/11). In 2013/14, the 
ACCC unconditionally cleare d 65% (77% in 2012/13) of those me rgers that underwe nt a public or 
confidential review and 94% of all mergers (i ncluding pre-assessments). Some of the more 
substantial mergers considered recently fell with in the air transport, banking, supermarket, and 
healthcare sectors. A ll publicly reviewed and decided me rgers were published on the ACCC 
website.  
3.4.3.1.5  Cartel conduct 3.128.  For individuals, cartel conduct is punishable by imprisonment of up to ten years and/or 
fines of up to $A 220,000 per contravention or, under the parallel regime of civil prohibition, fines 
of up to $A 500,000 per contravention. Export cartels are exempt from the law.
182 Corporations 
found guilty of such conduct may be fined up to $A 10 million, three times the value of the illegal 
benefit or, where the benefit cannot be calculated, 10% of the corporate group's annual turnover 
(whichever is greater). In addition to the ACCC, which is responsible for investigating allegations of cartel conduct and arranging civil proceedings, the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP), the general centralized prosecutions agency, has responsibility for prosecutions of all 
                                               
179 Australian Competition and Consumer Commis sion & Australian Energy Regulator (2013).  
180 Productivity Commission (2013b).  
181 Australian Competition and Consumer Commis sion & Australian Energy  Regulator (2013).  
182 The authorities indicated that the policy reasons be hind this exemption are a government rather than 
an ACCC matter, and export cartels do not negatively impact Au stralian citizens. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 79 - 
 
  indictable federal offences in Australia. In 2012/13, six cartel litigations involving air cargo 
companies and a cable supplier were concluded securing over $A 41 million in fines; litigation was under way in four alleged cartel conduct cases (air cargo, cable, forklift gas, wire harnesses), two 
alleged misuse of market power (flyash, dynami c currency conversion services), and two alleged 
anti-competitive agreements cases.
183 As at May 2014 there were 12 in-depth investigations and 8 
litigations ongoing. 
3.4.3.1.6  Enforcement 
3.129.  In February 2013, the ACCC released a re vised Compliance and Enforcement Policy, which 
identified the types of harmful anti-competitive  business conduct to be assessed as a priority, 
irrespective of the economic sector concerned.184 These are cartel conduct, agreements which 
substantially lessen competition, and the misuse of market power; in addition, competition and 
consumer issues arising in highly-concentrated sectors (supermarket and fuel sectors), and online 
competition were set as further areas of focus.  
3.130.  Most of the investigations instituted under CCA provisions concern mergers and, to a much 
lesser extent, unfair competition and consumer protection, horizontal agreements, vertical 
agreements, and abuse of dominance. The main in dustries subject to complaints and inquiries 
under CCA and Australian Consumer Law (ACL) provisions (section 3.4.3.3) in 2013/14 covered: 
other personal services; non-store retailing; on-selling electricity and electricity market 
operations; supermarket and grocery stores; wired telecommunications network operations; department stores; other electrical and electronic goods retailing; other store-based retailing; and motor vehicle manufacturing and car retailing. During the same period, the most common conduct 
complaints under the CCA provisions relating to effective competition and informed markets were 
alleged contravention of industry codes (section 3.4.3.1.2), exclusive dealing, and misuse of market power. Complaints relating to the CCA provisions on fair trading and consumer protection 
related mainly to: guarantees of acceptable qua lity; misleading or deceptive conduct; wrongly 
accepting payment; guarantees of due care and skill; false representations of price; safety standards; and guarantees relating to the supply of goods by description, sample or 
demonstration. Most CCA-related inquiries and complaints originate in New South Wales, Victoria, 
and Queensland.  
3.4.3.2  Price surveillance 3.131.  Price surveillance and monitoring is pr ovided for in the CCA. Three forms of price 
surveillance are available: price inquiries, directed  to the ACCC by portfolio ministers to undertake 
a public inquiry; price notification, where the portfolio minister requires specific companies to notify the ACCC of a proposed price increase; and price monitoring, where the portfolio minister 
directs the ACCC to monitor the prices, costs, an d profits of companies and government agencies 
relating to specific goods and services. Price surveillance may be conducted informally or formally. Under the formal price surveillance system, penalties may be applied for non-compliance. As 
indicated, the ACCC conducts formal price surveillance on aviation and airport services and 
facilities, fuel, electricity, telecommunications, postal services, and container stevedoring. Since 2011 only one new set of price monitoring has commenced; more specifically, on 24 February 2014, the Commonwealth Government dire cted the ACCC to monitor prices, costs and 
profits to assess the general effect of the carbon tax scheme in preparation for the carbon tax 
repeal in July 2014 (sections 3.4.1.3, 4.2.2.2, 4.3.2, and 4.3.2.1.3). 
3.4.3.3  Consumer protection policy 
3.132.  Consumer protection legislation is contained in the 2010 single ACL implemented as from 
1 January 2011. Since the introduction of the ACL, amendments have included: exempting 
restaurant and café menu surcharges from the component pricing laws; clarifying lay-by sales 
rules; enhancing the tobacco information standard; and amendments to unconscionable conduct 
provisions to include interpretative principles of what constitutes unconscionable conduct. The ACL is due to be reviewed by 2016. The Consumer Credit Legislation Amendment (Enhancements) Act 2012 sought to strengthen the consumer protections in relation to consumer credit. The 
Competition and Consumer Amendment Act 2013 inse rted an exemption to the ACL requirement 
                                               
183 Australian Competition and Consumer Commis sion & Australian Energy  Regulator (2013).  
184 Australian Competition and Consumer Commis sion & Australian Energy Regulator (2013).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 80 - 
 
  for traders to state a single price (e.g. for food, mo vie tickets). In addition to the ACL, there are a 
number of other separate laws related to consumer protection, including laws covering food standards, therapeutic goods and trade measurem ent. Responsibility for consumer protection 
enforcement at the Commonwealth level is with  the ACCC and the Australian Securities and 
Investments Commission (ASIC), which remains th e primary regulatory agency responsible for 
consumer protection for financial products and services. The ACL is administered and enforced jointly by the ACCC and the State and Territory  consumer protection  agencies, with the 
involvement of ASIC on relevant matters.  
3.133.  In 2013 and 2014 consumer protection priori ties were in: telecommunications and energy; 
online consumer issues; consumer issues in highly-concentrated sectors; disruption of deceptive relationship scams; complexity and unfairness in consumer contracts; credence claims, particularly 
those that adversely impact the competitive process and small business; misleading carbon-pricing 
representations; consumer guarantees; issues affecting indigenous communities; and product-safety issues with the potential to seriously harm consumers.
185 In 2012/13, the ACCC 
was involved in 54 proceedings relating to consumer protection enforcement: 28 cases were 
carried over from 2011/12; 26 new cases began in 2012/13; and 33 cases were ongoing as of 30 June 2013. During this period litigations involved, inter alia , misleading advertising, 
misleading/deceptive/unconscionable conduct, harassment and coercion, or product safety 
compliance, at the energy and telecommunications activities or other activities through door-to-door sales, online trading, small busi ness scams, credence claims, pyramid-selling, unfair 
contract terms, and consumer guarantees practi ces. In 2012/13, the ACCC accepted 12 consumer 
protection-related public undertakings by companies or individuals to remedy the harm caused by 
their conduct, accept responsibility for their action s, or establish or review and improve their trade 
practices compliance programmes and culture.  
3.4.4  Corporate governance 
3.134.  Australia's corporate governance framework consists of parts of the Corporations Act 2001 
(Corporations Act); accounting standards (which ha ve the force of law); various market-operating 
rules (including the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) Listing Rules and Operating Rules, and 
the ASX Corporate Governance Council's "Princip les of Good Corporate Governance and Best 
Practice Recommendations") and voluntary self-regulatory codes of practice. The Australian Securities and Investments Commission also plays an important role in supervising corporate 
governance requirements set out in the Corporations Act, as does the Australian Prudential 
Regulatory Authority in relation to financial institutions. A number of reforms have been undertaken in recent years to improve accountability and transparency in the executive 
remuneration framework. These include expanding the content of remuneration reports and 
strengthening shareholder engagement by introducing the "two strikes and re-election" rule.
186 
Efforts are currently focussed on reducing the regulatory burden for individuals, businesses and 
community organisations. The Senate Economics References Committee issued a report in 
June 2014 on its inquiry into the performance of the Australian Securities and Investments 
Commission which called for the review of sanctions for corporate breaches, including breaches by corporate officers. The Government is currently considering the Committee's recommendations.  
3.135.  During 2012/13, the ASX Corporate Governance Council reviewed its Corporate 
Governance Principles and Recommendations (las t amended in 2010), focussing on Principles 6 
(respect the rights of shareholders), 7 (recogni se and manage risk) and 8 (remunerate fairly and 
responsibly), inter alia , to capture and reflect developments in Australia and internationally in 
corporate governance matters.
187 The opportunity was also taken to simplify the structure of the 
ASX Principles and Recommendations and to afford greater flexibility to listed entities in terms of 
where they make their governance disclosures . The revised third edition was released on 
27 March 2014 and took effect for a listed entity's first full financial year commencing on or after 
1 July 2014. 
                                               
185 Australian Competition and Consumer Comm ission & Australian Energy Regulator (2013). 
186 This rule gives a company's shareholders the power to require the Board to st and for re-election if, in 
two consecutive years, the company receives sign ificant "no" votes on its remuneration report. 
187 ASX Corporate Governance Council Media Release, "Review of Corporate Governance Principles and 
Recommendations", 4 December 2012. Viewed at: http://www.asx.com.au/documents/asx-compliance/cgc-
communique-4dec12.pdf .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 81 - 
 
  3.4.5  Government trading enterprises 
3.136.  Government trading enterprises (GTEs) remain engaged, often as monopolies, in the 
production of goods and services; they are required to substantially or fully cover their costs.188 
GTEs established as companies are subject to the Corporations Act. However, most GTEs are 
established as statutory entities and may have policy objectives that place competing pressures on 
their commercial functions. All Australian government-owned enterprises are subject to competition laws. The Government's ownership is generally represented by two "shareholder 
ministers", the portfolio minister (the Minister in charge of the portfolio in which the GTE is 
involved), and the Finance Minister. The Government may impose price controls on GTEs providing goods and services in a monopolistic market, or specify other targets such as community service obligations (CSOs). At present, aside from Australia Post (stamps for letters below 125 grams are 
regulated) there are no other instances where the Government imposes price controls on GBEs. 
3.137.  According to the authorities in 2012/13 the combined revenue of the eight 
Commonwealth-owned GBEs accounted for 0.95% of GDP.
189 No other recent comprehensive data 
was available (covering all government-owned firms (including State- and Territory-owned)) to 
appraise the extent and impact of state involv ement in the economy. In 2006/07, there were 
86 GTEs providing essential infrastructure services (section 3.2.8, 3.4.3.1.1 and 3.4.3.1.3) in key 
sectors of the economy, including water (24), electricity (23), ports (19), forestry (6), rail (6), and 
urban transport (5).190 The 11 largest GTEs accounted for around 50% (2006/07) of the total 
assets of these companies. These GTEs controlled about 2.8% (2006/07) of Australia's non-household assets and accounted for around  1.7% (2006/07) of GDP. According to a 2008 
report of the Productivity Commission, the poor financial performance of many GTEs underscored a 
long-term failure to operate these businesses on a fully-commercial basis, in accordance with competition policy (section 3.4.3). A number of GTEs relied heavily on government funding in 
order to sustain operations, and their investments are funded from taxpayers and customers. 
Funding from governments can be either direct, through grants, asset contributions or equity injections, or indirect, via contracts with a GTE or through the provision of loans at below-market 
interest rates.  
3.138.  During the review period, the Commonwealth Government privatized Medibank Private 
health insurance company (section 4.5.5.2). Other privatizations were undertaken by the government of New South Wales (NSW) and involved: Port Botany and Port Kembla, two of 
Australia's biggest ports, (May 2013); and Erarin g Energy (electricity generation) and two Delta 
Electricity power plants (July 2013).
191 In July 2013 the government of NSW called for bids in the 
sale of Macquarie Generation's two power plants. No further information on main privatization 
developments and plans at federal, state, and local level from 2011 onwards were available as no 
detailed records are maintained by the authoritie s. The 2014/15 Budget provides for the public 
sector to be streamlined to focus on the areas where Commonwealth Government involvement is 
necessary.192 By mid-2014 it also proposed a $A 5 billion Asset Recycling Fund to provide 15% 
"bonus" payments to state governments that sell public assets and use the proceeds to pay for so-called "nation-building infrastructure" — mainly big privatised road projects.
193 The Government 
intended to conduct reviews into future owners hip options for Australian Hearing, the Defence 
Housing Authority, the Australian Securities and Investments Commission Registry function and 
the Royal Australian Mint.  
                                               
188 GTEs are also commonly referred to as : government business enterprises (GBEs); 
government-owned corporations (GOCs); public trading enterprises (PTEs); public corporations; state-owned 
corporations (SOCs); state-owned enterprises (SOEs); or  territory-owned corporatio ns (TOCs) (WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011). 
189 These GBEs were: ASC Pty Limited,  Australian Government Solicitor,  Australian Postal Corporation, 
Australian Rail Track Corpor ation, Defence Housing Australia, Medibank  Private Limited, Moorebank Intermodal 
Company Limited, and NBN Co Limited. 
190 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
191 Economist Intelligence Unit (2013).  
192 Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Statement 1: Budget Overview. 
193 NewsMail online information, "Treasurer calls for investors to back infrastructure sales", 
20 July 2014. Viewed at: http://www.news-mail.com.au/news/Treasurer-calls-for-investors-to-back-
infrastructu/2323731/ . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 82 - 
 
  3.4.6  Intellectual property rights 
3.139.  Australia considers intellectual property (IP) as an integral part of international trade, and 
its importance is increasing as the effective use of knowledge contributes ever more to national economic prosperity. In 2013/2014 intellectual property was valued at $A 222 billion 
($A 182.5 billion in 2010/11), with domestic expenditure on IP products at $A 38.5 billion (current 
prices) and trade in royalties for intellectual property for Australia at $A 1 billion ($A 1.1 billion in 2010/11) (exports) and $A 5.4 billion ($A 5.2 billion in 2010/11) (imports).
194 On a global scale, 
royalty and licensing transactions for patents have grown rapidly both in volume and as a share of 
world GDP over the past decade, while IP transactions in Australia have remained steady.195 In 
2013 Australia was the world's 13th country in terms of the size of inventor immigrant and 
emigrant communities.196  
3.140.  Australia has continued to provide strong intellectual property rights (IPRs) protection and 
enforcement; in 2013 its IP system ranked fifth (third in 2012) in the latest Global IP Index which is based on effectiveness and administrative performance.
197 During the review period, 
developments in its international commitments on the protection of IPRs included the conclusion of 
IP chapters in Free Trade Agreements with Malaysia, Japan, and Korea (Rep. of) (section 2.4.2); the FTA with Japan has not yet entered into force. Australia also signed the WIPO Marrakesh 
Treaty to Facilitate Access to Published Works fo r Persons who are Blind, Visually Impaired, or 
Otherwise Print Disabled on 23 June 2014, and th e Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) 
on 1 October 2011
198; both treaties are yet to be ratified. Through ACTA Australia seeks an 
enhanced, practical international standard on IPRs enforcement with broad international support, 
to complement its existing international IPRs architecture.199 Australia continues to participate in 
17 out of 25 treaties administered by WIPO.200 For a broad range of reasons reflecting domestic 
and international policy, Australia is not a contracting party to several WIPO treaties.201  
3.141.  According to the Productivity Commission, IP law has a pervasive impact on innovation, 
production, trade and consumption.202 In 2012 IP Australia (see below) established the Office of 
the Chief Economist to better understand the role intellectual property plays in the economy, 
provide comprehensive data on IP-filing activity and influence the policy debate on IP and 
innovation in Australia.  
3.142.  To improve the robustness of its IP laws and system, Australia passed the IP Laws 
Amendment (Raising the Bar) Act 2012, its biggest IP system overhaul in twenty years, that came 
                                               
194 The methodology for arriving at these figures is ba sed on adding the value of expenditure each year 
across four categories of IP asset – research and developmen t; mineral and petroleum exploration; computer 
software; and artistic originals – to  the stock figure from the previous  year, adjusted for depreciation 
(Australian Bureau of Statistics online information,  "5368.0: International Trad e in Goods and Services, 
October 2014" and "5204.0: Australian System of Na tional Accounts 2013-14, 31 October 2014", Tables 10 
and 2, respectively. Viewed at: http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/viewconten t?readform&view=productsbyCatalogue&Action=expa
ndwithheader&Num=1 ; and Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade online information. Viewed at: 
https://www.dfat.gov.au/ip/ ).  
195 IP Australia (2013). 
196 WIPO (2013).  
197 IP Australia (2013). 
198 To date, 31 countries have signed ACTA and Japan is the only one to have ratified it; ACTA would 
come into force in countries that ratified it after ratification by six countries. On 21 November 2011, it was tabled in the Australian Parliament for consideration by  the Joint Standing Committee on Treaties (JSCOT). On 
27 June 2012 the Committee tabled its report. The Government tabled its response on 27 November 2012 (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade online information. Viewed at: http://www.dfat.gov.au/ip/factsheet.html ; and Productivity Commission, 2013d). 
199 Department of Foreign Affairs and Tr ade online information. Viewed at: https://www.dfat.gov.au/ip/ . 
200 For more details on Australia's pa rticipation in WIPO Treaties, see WIPO online information. Viewed 
at: http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ShowResults.jsp?country_id=10C . 
201 These are: the Madrid Agreement (Indications of So urce); the Nairobi Treaty on the Protection of the 
Olympic Symbols; the Washington Treaty on the Protection of Integrated Circuits; the Hague Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Industrial  Designs; the Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of 
Appellations of Origin and their Inte rnational Registration; the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International 
Registration of Marks; the Locarno Agreement Establis hing an International Clas sification for Industrial 
Designs; and the Vienna Agreement Establishing an International Classification of the Figurative Elements of 
Marks.  
202 Productivity Commission (2013d). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 83 - 
 
  into full effect on 15 April 2013.203 The changes included updates to the Patents Act 1990, Trade 
Marks Act 1995, Designs Act 2003, Plant Breeder's Rights Act 1994, and Copyright Act 1968. The amendments address the following key areas: raisin g the quality of granted patents; free access to 
patented inventions for regulatory approvals and research; reducing delays in the resolution of 
patent and trade mark applications; assisting the operations of the IP profession; improving 
mechanisms for trade mark and copyright enfo rcement; and simplifying the IP system.  
3.143.  An Intellectual Property Laws Amendment Bill 2014 (see below) is expected to amend the 
Patents Act 1990, Trade Marks Act 1995, Designs Act 2003, and the Plant Breeder's Rights Act 
1994 to, inter alia : implement the Protocol amending the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related 
Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS Protocol), enabling Australian medicine producers to manufacture and export patented pharmaceuticals to countries experiencing health crises under a 
compulsory licence from the Federal Court. It will also allow for a single trans-Tasman patent 
attorney regime and single patent application and examination processes for Australia and New Zealand, as part of the broader Single Economic Market (SEM) agenda; make minor administrative 
changes to the Patents, Trade Marks and Designs Acts to repeal unnecessary document retention 
provisions; and make minor technical amendments to the Patents Act to correct oversights in the drafting of the Intellectual Property Laws Amendment (Raising the Bar) Act 2012. Public 
consultation on the draft Intellectual Property Laws Amendment Bill 2014 and explanatory 
memorandum closed on 7 February 2014; the Bill  was passed by the House of Representatives on 
24 November 2014 and transmitted to the Senate.  
3.144.  Other work during the review period included an appraisal of pharmaceutical patents to 
see whether the system is effectively balancing the objectives of securing timely access to 
competitively-priced pharmaceuticals, fostering in novation and supporting employment in research 
and industry. A review of the innovation patent system was completed by the Advisory Council on 
Intellectual Property in June 2014, and a review of the designs system is currently underway and 
due to be completed by early- to mid-2015. 
3.145.  Between 2012 and 2013 five Members (Ukraine, Honduras, Dominican Republic, Cuba, and 
Indonesia) requested consultations with Australia with respect to certain laws and regulations 
relating to trade marks, geographical indicati ons, and other plain packaging requirements on 
tobacco products and packaging; WTO dispute settlement Panels were established in May 2014 in respect of each of these claims (sections 3.2.7.3, 3.3.4.3, and 3.4.6.1.5, and section 2.4.1).
204 
3.4.6.1  Institutional and registration issues 
3.146.  IP Australia, under the Department of Industry, is responsible for the administration of 
patents, trade marks, designs, and plant breeders' rights. IP Australia recovers more than 95% of 
its costs by charging fees for services rendered. IP Australia provides inputs to RTA negotiations 
(section 2.4.2) so as to lock in transparent, high-standard protection for IPRs.205 At the same time, 
the contribution of the Attorney-General's Department in this area consists of helping to achieve 
balanced outcomes on copyright that provide strong commitments on exceptions and limitations as 
well as enforcement. The Advisory Council on Inte llectual Property (ACIP) and the Plant Breeders' 
Rights Advisory Committee advise the Minister and Parliamentary Secretary for Industry, as well as IP Australia, on matters relating to IP policy an d the strategic administration of IP Australia. The 
Attorney-General's Department has responsibility fo r administration and policy in relation to the 
Copyright Act 1968 and the Circuit Layouts Act 1989.  
3.147.  In 2008/09, as a result of the global fina ncial crisis, firms around the world scaled back 
investment, and the number of applications for IPRs dropped; patent filings have since recovered 
and trade mark and design filings in 2011/ 12 and 2013/14 exceeded pre-crisis levels.
206 
In 2013/14, the average interval between the lodging and acceptance of applications for industrial 
property rights was: 4  months for trade marks (4 in 2009); 2  months for designs (46 in 2009); 
                                               
203 IP Australia online information. Viewed at: http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/about-us/ip-legislation-
changes . 
204 The legislation prohibits tobacco industry logos, brand imagery, colours and promotional text other 
than brand and product names in a standard colour, positi on, font style and size appearing on retail packaging 
of tobacco products. 
205 Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research (2008).  
206 IP Australia (2013). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 84 - 
 
  and 44 months for plant breeders' rights (35 in 2009). As at September 2014 the average interval 
between a patent applicant's request for examination and the issue date of the first examination report was 12 months (13 in 2009).
207 Time increases seem due to the substantial rise in 
applications prior to commencement of the IP Laws Amendment (Raising the Bar) Act 2012. In 
addition, the average time taken to determine a wine's geographical indication depends on the 
application. No clear difference exists in average times between domestic and foreign applications for protection.  
3.4.6.2  Industrial property 
3.4.6.2.1  Patents 3.148.  The Patents Act 1990, last amended in 2012 (section 3.4.6), provides protection for 
standard patents and innovation patents, with terms of 20 (up to 25 for eligible pharmaceuticals) 
and 8 years, respectively. The changes made by the 2012 Act covered, inter alia : patentability 
standards; patent examination; time frames for prosecuting patent applications; patents Notice of Entitlement; patent grant; patent oppositions; registration of attorney corporations; and 
suspension of attorney registration for serious offences.
208 According to the authorities, since 
the 2012 legislative updates patentability standards are now more closely aligned to international standards. The changes introduced give Australian  innovators applying for international patents 
more certainty that they will meet patent standards overseas.
209 Experimentation and approval for 
generic manufacturers is no longer delayed or negatively impacted by patents thus providing 
certainty to researchers and manufacturers and allowing them to work without worrying about patent litigation. Changes to the Patent and Trad e Mark Acts (section 3.4.6.1.2) reduced several 
time frames associated with examination and op position; this tightened up the procedures for 
patent examination, patent (and trade mark) oppositions, and patent divisional applications. Between 2011 and 2013, the ACIP investigated the effectiveness of the innovation patent system 
in stimulating innovation by Australian SMEs.
210 Its report was released on 16 June 2014 and 
since July 2014 it has been under consideration by the Government. 
3.149.  Since 1980 there have been two ways to apply for a standard patent: either directly with 
IP Australia, or through an international filing system under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) 
(72.5% of cases in 2012).211 Between 2009 and 2013 patent applications rose by 25.7% 
to 29,747; of these, 90% were from non-residents, mostly from the United States, Japan, and Germany. During the same period, innovation patents applications rose by 23.2% to 1,681 (2013).  
3.150.  A Commonwealth, state or territory court may order the granting of a compulsory licence if 
it is satisfied that the reasonable requirements of  the public have not been met in relation to the 
invention, and the patentee has not given a satisfactory reason for failing to exploit the invention. 
Compulsory licences have seldom been sought in Australia and to-date there have been no 
successful cases. 
3.4.6.2.2  Trade marks 
3.151.  The Trade Marks Act 1995, last amended in 2012 (sections 3.4.6 and 3.4.6.1), provides for 
the registration of trade marks, collective trade marks, certification trade marks, and defensive trade marks. Under the Act, registered trade marks are protected for ten years and can be renewed indefinitely, upon request and payment of the appropriate fee. The changes relating to 
the Raising the Bar Act 2012 covered trade mark oppositions and examination, penalties for trade 
mark infringement, border protection measures for trademark goods and expanding the 
                                               
207 IP Australia (2014). 
208 For more details on these ch anges, see IP Australia onli ne information. Viewed at: 
http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/about-us/ip-legislation-changes/ip-laws-amendment-act-2012/raising-the-bar-
patents/ .  
209 IP Australia online information. Viewed at: http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/about-us/ip-legislation-
changes/  . 
210 ACIP online information. Viewed at: http://www.acip.gov.au/reviews/ all-reviews/review-innovation-
patent-system/ .  
211 IP Australia (2013). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 85 - 
 
  jurisdiction of the Federal Circuit Court to hear trade mark matters.212 T h e y  c a m e  i n t o  f o r c e  
in 2013.  
3.152.  Between 2009 and 2013 trade mark filings rose by 11.3% to 62,959 of which 63% 
originated from residents.213 During the review period, trade mark registrations rose from 
36,528 (2010) to 46,978 (2013); in 2013, trade mark registrations consisted of 15 certification 
trade marks, 30 collective trade marks, 6 defensive trade marks and 46,927 standard trade marks.  
3.4.6.2.3  Industrial designs 
3.153.  The Designs Act 2003 provides for an initial registration for five years from the filing date 
of the application, and for a single renewal for a further five years, i.e. a maximum term of 10 years. However, design applications filed under the Designs Act 1906 (i.e. prior to 2003) 
continue to have a possible maximum term of 16 years. The 2003 Act and the 2004 Designs 
Regulations were last amended in 2012 (section 3.4.6). The changes introduced by the 2012 Act 
expand the jurisdiction of the Federal Circuit Cour t to hear design matters and improve flexibility 
for the filing of documents associated with design applications and the retention or otherwise of 
Designs sub-offices.
214 In recent years a variety of concerns have been raised about the 
effectiveness of the designs system and whether it is meeting its original policy objectives. In 
May 2012, ACIP was requested to investigate the effectiveness of the designs system in 
stimulating innovation by Australian users and the impact the designs system has on economic growth. The completion of the review is expected by early- to mid-2015.
215 Between 2009 
and 2013 design applications rose by 35.8% to 6,9 93, of which 57% were filed by non-residents, a 
steady feature since 2007.216 The number of registered designs rose from 5,327 in 2009 to 
7,066 in 2013, and those of certifications dropped from 856 to 741.  
3.4.6.2.4  Protection of plant varieties 
3.154.  Under the Plant Breeder's Rights (PBR) Act 1994, last amended in 2012 (section 3.4.6), 
unauthorized use of protected plant varieties, and different kinds of false representation regarding plant varieties, are criminal offences. PBRs' registration lasts up to 25 years for trees and vines, 
and 20 years for other species. The changes introduced by the 2012 Act included amending a 
number of definitions in the PBR to ensure their consistency with the UPOV Convention (International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants).
217 Enforcement of PBRs is 
generally the responsibility of holders of the rights through civil procedures, and the Customs has 
no seizure powers at the border (section 3.4.6.4). Between 2009 and 2012 PBR registrations 
dropped progressively by 48.9% to 144 (81 of which were from domestic breeders), primarily due to the long-term consequences of drought and natural disasters affecting both domestic and 
non-resident applicants. In 2013, PBR registrations tracked back towards normal/average 
levels (237) with 123 registrations by domestic applicants. The United States, New Zealand and the Netherlands are the most active applicants and together comprised 69% of non-resident 
applications and registrations in 2013.  
3.4.6.2.5  Geographical indications (GIs)  3.155.  GIs are protected through the Trade Marks Act 1995, which allows for the registration of 
GIs as certification trade marks (CTMs), provided that certain criteria are met, and the CCA, which 
                                               
212 For more details on these ch anges, see IP Australia onli ne information. Viewed at: 
http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/about-us/ip-legislation-changes/ip-laws-amendment-act-2012/raising-the-bar-
trade-marks/ .  
213 IP Australia (2013). 
214 For more details on these ch anges, see IP Australia onli ne information. Viewed at: 
http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/about-us/ip-legislation-changes/ip-laws-amendment-act-2012/raising-the-bar-
designs/ .  
215 ACIP online information. Viewed at: http://www.acip.gov.au/reviews/ all-reviews/review-designs-
system/ .  
216 IP Australia (2013). 
217 For more details on these ch anges, see IP Australia onli ne information. Viewed at: 
http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/about-us/ip-legislation-changes/ip-laws-amendment-act-2012/raising-the-bar-
pbr/.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 86 - 
 
  prevents misleading conduct.218 In addition, the Australian Grape and Wine Authority Act 2013 
(Wine Act) that commenced on 1 July 2014 ensures protection  both for  Australian and foreign wine 
GIs. The Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code (sections 3.2.7.2.1 and 3.2.7.3) also contains prohibitions on infringement of GIs of spirits. Protection is also provided through labelling 
legislation, such as the Commerce Trade Descriptions Act 1905, which prohibits the use of false 
trade descriptions on labelling. A Register of Protected Names and Other Terms for the protection of GIs of Australian and foreign wine remains in place. The Wine Act, and the Australian Grape and 
Wine Authority Regulations 1981 allow an objection to be made to the Register of Trade Marks or 
the determination of Australian and foreign GIs on the basis of pre-existing trade mark rights or 
that the name of the GI was already in common use as the common name of a type or style of 
wine or as the name of a variety of grapes. A wine agreement, the Australia-European Community 
Agreement on Trade in Wine, has been in place since 1 September 2010.
219 The Geographical 
Indications Committee (GIC) of the Australi an Grape and Wine Authority (AGWA), a 
Commonwealth statutory authority established under the Wine Act (replacing the Australian Wine 
and Brandy Corporation and its successor the Wine Australia Corporation)220, determines GIs for 
wine. The authorities consider that the GI determination process is consistent with Australia's WTO obligations and no less burdensome than the process for determining foreign GIs. Since 2006, 
eight Australian wine GIs have been determined and entered on the Register of Protected Names; 
the GIC is currently considering the determination of a number of European GIs.  
3.4.6.2.6  Other 3.156.  No changes were made to the law in relati on to undisclosed information and trade secrets, 
which are protected under the common law and by equity.  
3.4.6.3  Copyright and related rights 3.4.6.3.1  Copyright 
3.157.  The Copyright Act 1968, last amended in 2012 (section 3.4.6), protects all original literary, 
dramatic, musical and artistic works. The duration of a copyright varies according to the nature of 
the work and whether it has been published. De pending on the material, copyright for literary, 
dramatic, musical and artistic works generally lasts for the author's life plus 70 years from the 
year of the author's death or from the year of first publication after the author's death. Copyright for films and sound recordings lasts 70 years from their publication, and the term for broadcasts is 70 years from the year in which they were made.
221 Unlike for patents, trade marks, designs, and 
PBRs, where registration is a precondition for pr otection, copyright (including of circuit layouts 
(section 3.4.6.2.3) is granted automatically wher e the substantive requirements are fulfilled. In 
May 2011 the Copyright Act was amended to exem pt product information approved under the 
Therapeutic Goods Act from copyright infringeme nt. The 2012 amendments to the Copyright Act 
1968 concerned issues such as the Notice of Seizure and Claim for Release of Goods, and inspection, forfeit and disposal of seized goods.
222 Following the completion of a thorough review 
of Copyright and the Digital Economy, the Australian Law Reform Commission made a number of 
recommendations, including the introduction of a new broad and flexible fair use of exceptions, that as at December 2014 were under consideration.
223  
                                               
218 Examples of GIs registered as CTMs for food in  Australia include Parma for meats and Stilton for 
cheese. 
219 The Agreement provided, inter alia , a transitional period of 12 months until 1 September 2011 for 
the use of certain sensitive European geographical indica tions, traditional expressions and vine variety names. 
More information on this Agre ement is available online ( http://www.agriculture.gov.au/agriculture-food/wine-
policy/trade-in-wine ). 
220 AGWA brings together the Research, Development & Engineering activities of the Grape and Wine 
Research and Development Corporation and the market development and compliance activities of the Wine Australia Corporation in one new entity. AGWA is funded  by grape growers and winemakers through levies and 
user-pays charges and the Australian Government, whic h provides matching funding for R&D investments 
(AGWA online information. Viewed at: https://www.wineaustralia. com/en/About%20Us.aspx ). 
221 The Copyright Act 1968 protects subject matter other than works (cinematograph films, sound 
recordings, broadcasts, an d published editions), for 70, 50, or 25 years (Part IV, Division 4). 
222 For more details on these ch anges, see IP Australia onli ne information. Viewed at: 
http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/about-us/ip-legislation-changes/ip-laws-amendment-act-2012/raising-the-bar-
copyright/ . 
223It was recommended that the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth ) should provide an exception for fair use, 
which should contain: (a) an express statement that a fair use of copyright material does not infringe WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 87 - 
 
  3.4.6.3.2  Parallel imports 
3.158.  In order to facilitate competition, some parallel imports are allowed under the Copyright 
Act 1968 and, in certain circumstances, under the Trade Marks Act 1995. The Copyright Amendment (Parallel Importation) Act 2003 (PI Act) extends parallel importation and subsequent 
commercial distribution to computer software, electronic books, electronic journals, and electronic 
sheet music, with the notable exception of films (digital video discs (DVDs)) and books. The use of 
trade marks on these goods should not prevent their parallel importation. Parallel importation of 
liquor, branded foods, clothing, IT items (e.g. Australian computer games including their 
hardware) from third parties (i.e. bypassing the local licensees of the products) has been common practice for some wholesale and/or retail stockists. In 2012 the Full Federal Court followed the trend of recent decisions by reading restrictively the defence of "consent" available to the 
importers of grey or parallel goods (Paul's Retail Pty Ltd v Lonsdale Australia Limited [2012] 
FCAFC 130).
224 As a result, in an infringement action it would be, inter alia , the responsibility of 
the importer to prove that it has the consent of  the Australian brand owner to import goods; 
importers and retailers will need to ensure that  the goods are genuine or correctly licensed, and 
ensure that their importation into Australia is within the scope of the conditions or territory directed in any licence agreement. As part of  the independent 'root and branch' review of 
Australia's competition laws and policy (section 3.4.3.1.1), a Review Panel has been asked to 
consider ways to ensure Australians can access goods and services at internationally-competitive prices, including examining any remaining parallel import restrictions and international price discrimination. 
3.4.6.3.3  Circuit layout 
3.159.  The Circuit Layouts Act 1989 remains the main law for the protection of layout designs 
(topographies) of integrated circuits (also referred to as computer-chip designs or semi-conductor 
chips). A layout design is protected for 10 years from its first commercial exploitation, and if not 
exploited, 10 years from when it was made, i.e. maximum protection of 20 years. The Circuit Layout Amendment Regulations 2003 contain the list of eligible countries to which Australia 
extends reciprocal protection of circuit layouts designs; they were last amended in 2008 to ensure 
that eligible foreign countries are Members of the WTO. This mechanism enables the Regulations to self-update each time a new Member joins the WTO.  
3.4.6.4  Enforcement  
3.160.  During the period under review some improvements were made in IPR enforcement. 
IPRs-holders may enforce their IPRs by civil action against infringers, both at the federal and the state level. The Australian Federal Police and state and territory police agencies have the authority 
to undertake criminal investigations, with prosecutions conducted by the relevant state or 
Commonwealth or State/Territory office of the DPP. Penalties for offences relating to IPRs include fines and imprisonment. For copyright offences, the maximum penalty is a fine of up to $A 93,500 
together with imprisonment of up to five years.  For trade mark offences, penalties may take the 
form of fines of up to $A 93,500; monetary penalties for a company can be up to five times the penalty for individuals. The 2012 Act (section 3.4.6) increased the maximum penalty for trade mark offences from two to five years imprisonment, with courts able to award exemplary 
damages against counterfeiters.
225 The changes improved alignment between penalties for trade 
                                                                                                                                               
copyright; (b) a non-exhaustive list of the factors to be  considered in determining wh ether the use is a fair use 
("the fairness factors"); and (c) a non-exhaustive list of illustrative uses or purposes  that may qualify as fair 
use ("the illustrative purposes"). Furt hermore, the non-exhaustive list of  fairness factors should be: (a) the 
purpose and character of the use; (b) the nature of the copyright material; (c) the amount and substantiality of the part used; and (d) the effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the copyright 
material. It also recommended the non- exhaustive list of illustrative purp oses should include the following: 
(a) research or study; (b) criticism or review; (c) parody or satire; (d) reporting news; (e) professional advice; (f) quotation; (g) non-commercial private use; (h) incidental or technical use; (i) library or archive use; (j) education; and (k) access for people with disability. More information is available at Australian Law Reform 
Commission online information. Viewed at: http://www.alrc.gov.au/inquiries/copyright-and-digital-economy .  
224 Mirabello (2012); Chrysilious IP online information, "Importing overseas products may be more 
costly than you think - A warning to retail ers and importers", 24 June 2013. Viewed at: 
http://www.chrysiliouip.com.au/parallel-importing/ ; McCormack (2013). 
225 IP Australia (2013).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 88 - 
 
  and copyright infringement, and brought the Australian system for trade mark offences into better 
alignment with the systems of major trading partners. 
3.161.  As a result of extensive consultation with industry groups, border enforcement measures 
improving the system for confiscating goods were introduced with effect from 15 April 2013 by the 
Intellectual Property Laws Amendment (Raising the Bar) Act 2012 (section 3.4.6).226 The 
improvements simplified the seizure process and en abled rights owners to effectively enforce their 
rights. More information, including details of im porters, exporters and other players in the supply 
chain who are suspected of importing counterfeit trade mark or pirated copyright goods, is now 
released by the Customs to the rights-holder. Access to this information should improve the ability of rights holder's to pursue legal action. Under the new laws, importers will no longer be able to avoid prosecution and receive the infringing good s or copies when the statutory period expires.
227 
Upon acceptance of a Notice of Objection lodge d by the IPR owner, Customs may seize and hold 
imported goods infringing copyrights or trade marks law. As of 5 December 2014, the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (ACBPS) had 662 Notices of Objection in place covering 
thousands of brands.  In 2013/14, the ACBPS made 3,427 seizures of counterfeit goods, involving 
975,547 items; in 2012/13 it made 2,572 seizures, involving 513,814 items, estimated to have a retail value of more than $A 43 million. The largest seizures for this period consisted of batteries, 
chicken-bags, toiletries (including toothpaste  and cosmetics), energy drinks and toys.  Customs 
does not have similar seizure powers in relation to patents or PBRs.  
3.162.  While there is no suggestion that piracy and counterfeiting is non-existent in Australia, 
there is a lack of verifiable empirical evidence on the extent of the problem.
228 According to 
industry statistics, in 2011 Australia recorded the fourth lowest software piracy rate in the world, 
after the United States (19%), Japan and Luxembourg (20%), and New Zealand (21%).229 
From 2009 to 2011, installations of unlicensed soft ware on personal computers (PCs) in Australia 
fell by two percentage points to 23%; in 2011 the commercial value of Australia's illegal software 
was estimated at US$763 million (US$550 million in 2009). Those involved in IPR infringement range from members of the general public to more professionally-organised criminal networks. 
Globally there is ongoing growth in the volume  and types of goods counterfeited by organised 
crime. Unauthorised peer-to-peer file-sharing is a recognised concern, with the Australian Government releasing an Online Copyright Infringement Discussion Paper on 30 July 2014 seeking public submissions on draft proposals to address online piracy.  
 
                                               
226 Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2013a). 
227 Previously, rights-holders were often unable to in itiate legal proceedings, serve papers or obtain 
forfeiture if the importer was deliberately unavailable during the statutory action period, or provided false 
details. 
228 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
229 Business Software Alliance (2012).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 89 - 
 
  4  TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR 
4.1  Overview1  
4.1.  Australia has maintained its relatively open trade regime since its last Review. At the same 
time, however, despite certain policy changes, it has continued to provide general and 
industry-specific support in different forms to virt ually the same sectors. In addition, a number of 
activities, including cargo-liner shipping conferences and essential infrastructure facilities (some of which are considered to be "natural monopolies"), such as electricity networks, rail tracks, natural 
gas pipelines, water, communications networks, and post, continue to benefit from special regimes 
or exemptions that restrict competition. The fact that some activities remain protected or otherwise assisted more than others (e.g. manufac turing compared to agriculture) continues to 
constitute a potential impediment to efficient reallocation of resources in the economy as a whole.
2 
As a result of this and other factors (section 1.2.1 and below), no major improvement in overall 
multi-factor productivity growth (MFP), and thus international competitiveness, was achieved during the period under review.  
4.2.  Despite its relatively small contribution to GDP (2.4%), Australia's market- and 
export-oriented agriculture remains of fundamental importance; its MFP has risen and a strategy to raise the sector's competitiveness is under consideration. Sectoral policy developments have 
focused largely on ensuring a sustainable, productive and resilient agricultural base supported with 
measures on drought-relief, water- and land-man agement, farm finance and rural research. The 
average level of applied MFN tariff protection for the sector (excluding forestry) remained negligible, at 1.4%, compared with 3.3% for ma nufacturing. Some sensitive items (e.g. cheese, 
certain vegetables, certain oils and fats) continue to receive tariff protection and tariff-rate quotas 
affect certain types of cheese and curd. A generally strict quarantine and inspection regime remains in place, while biosecurity reform has proceeded. Exports and/or production of certain 
commodities (e.g. certain dairy products, grain, ho rticulture, livestock, and wines/grapes) continue 
to be subject to levies earmarked mainly for R&D. Single-desk arrangements (monopoly) continue to affect rice exports. Changes were made  in areas such as the exceptional circumstances 
arrangements, wheat export arrangements, export certification requirements, and livestock supply 
chain. Despite a wide range of assistance programmes, the sector's overall level of support, as measured by different indicators, has remained low, with budgetary assistance declining in value terms to about 0.1% of GDP. This assistance wa s delivered in the form of non-trade distorting 
(Green Box) budgetary outlays rather than tax incentives; the AMS-related expenditure was within 
Australia's de minimis  WTO commitments. A range of initiatives and measures have continued to 
improve fisheries' management and thus the sustainability of fish stocks for the long-term viability 
of the sector.  
4.3.  Mining (8.6% of GDP) remains critical to Australia's economic performance, while continuing 
to operate in a seemingly competitive market environment with no apparent industry-specific 
restrictions on foreign investment and overall little government support compared with other 
sectors. The sector's average MFP growth rate dr opped further but mining output, set to increase 
strongly in the coming years, is to give a productivity boost. A Mineral Resources Rent Tax on iron ore and coal was applied from 2012 to late 2014, while the Petroleum Resource Rent Tax was 
extended to virtually all onshore (as from 2012) and offshore oil and gas projects.  
4.4.  During the period under review Australia reviewed, inter alia , its future energy needs, passed 
a comprehensive package of clean energy proposals including a carbon price mechanism (repealed 
in 2014), and set mandatory minimum efficien cy performance and energy rating label 
requirements. A new coherent and integrated approach to energy policy is under consideration. Electricity generation, transmission, and distribution  remain subject to geographical and regulatory 
segmentation between the eastern, western an d northern areas of the country; generation 
capacity is largely government-owned or controlled and retail electricity rates regulation is maintained in all states and territories other than Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales;  
tariffs are set by independent energy regulators or governments. Budgetary assistance for the 
                                               
1 This Section refers to several indicators, including effective rate of combined assistance, used by the 
Productivity Commission (section 2. 2) for assessing support provided to  different economic  activities. For 
details on the definition, methodology, and scope of these indicators, see Productivity Commission (2014c). 
2 As indicated by the authorities at the time of the previous Review, assistance could target market and 
information failures and therefore enhance resource allocation.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 90 - 
 
  electricity, gas, water and waste services industry  was the highest among all sectors. The Fuel Tax 
Credits Scheme continued to reduce the cost of  liquid, gaseous and blended fuels for certain 
business uses; domestic producers of ethanol, biodiesel and renewable diesel used in transport also continued to receive a government subsidy,  which is to be gradually repealed (ethanol, 
biodiesel).  
4.5.  Manufacturing policy has been focused largely on increasing the multi-factor productivity, 
sustainability and growth of industry (7.1% of GDP) as well as the creation of new high-skilled 
jobs. Average annual MFP slowdown was reduced. The average applied MFN tariff rate on industrial 
products remained virtually unchanged. Budgetary assistance from a wide range of policy instruments as a share of GDP is estimated to have remained steady at 0.1%, albeit decreasing in value terms; the textiles, clothing, footwear and leather industries, as well as motor vehicles and 
parts activities, have continued to attain/attract particularly high, albeit declining, effective rates of 
assistance, the highest of all manufacturing activities. The automotive industry continues to be assisted by mechanisms such as preferential government procurement policies, tax policy and 
restrictions on the importation of second-hand vehicles; assistance continued to be delivered 
mainly in the form of the industry-specific co mponents and was supplemented by a Growth Fund 
to help adjust to the end of car manufacturing. Industry-specific support for the textiles, clothing, 
footwear and leather industries was drastically cut and the elimination of two remaining 
programmes is under consideration.  
4.6.  Australia's services sector is the mainst ay of its economy, accounting for 71% of GDP and 
77% of employment. While the financial services se ctor has performed well over the review period, 
a recently-released Financial Sector Inquiry has made various recommendations to strengthen and 
develop the sector, including eliminating distortions to the efficient market allocation of financial resources as well as impediments to competition. Approval is still required for all investments 
(both domestic and foreign) of over 15% in financial institutions. Banking reforms undertaken 
since 2011 have included: implementation of new ca pital and liquidity requirements; strengthened 
supervision; and winding down of measures intr oduced to mitigate the impact of the global 
financial crisis. Recent developments in the insurance sector have included the sale of a major 
state-owned private health insurer and the closure of the Private Health Insurance Administration 
Council. The provision of life insurance by foreign companies through branch operations is prohibited, but exceptions to this rule are increasingly being granted through RTAs.  
4.7.  Australia has a very high level of information and communication technology (ICT) 
development and has recently seen a big increase in both fixed and wireless broadband subscriptions and mobile subscriptions. Foreign investment restrictions remain in place for Telstra, 
the main player in the telecommunications sector, but are not applied to any other provider. The 
roll-out of the national broadband network is continuing, albeit with a new focus on using a range of different broadband technologies, rather than a largely fibre-to-the-premises approach. 
Completion is anticipated in 2020. The network is fully state-owned and will operate on a non-
discriminatory, wholesale-only basis. Various regulatory steps have been taken to facilitate transition to the new regime and a new framework for providing universal services has been introduced. Australia's television broadcasting industry remains supported by local content 
measures and film production continues to benefit from various forms of financial assistance by 
the Commonwealth Government.  
4.8.  In the area of transport, budgetary provision has been made for major infrastructural works, 
particularly to roads and railways. While most major government-owned ports and airports are 
operated by private sector entities, government involvement in the transport sector remains quite 
pervasive, and various foreign investment restrictions are in place. In the maritime transport 
subsector, reforms have been implemented to make the Australian shipping industry more 
internationally competitive, increase the size of  the shipping fleet and promote employment. These 
have included tax reforms, the creation of an International Shipping Register, and the implementation of a licensing system to give domestically-flagged ships a first opportunity to 
cabotage services. However, the cabotage policy is being reviewed by the new Government in light 
of concerns about its resulting costs and inefficiencies. The review period has seen a big increase in international passenger arrivals by air, the negotiation of several new air services agreements 
with third countries, and plans to enhance infrastructure. The cabotage market, which accounts for 
significantly more passenger arrivals than from international destinations, is dominated by two companies. The tourism sector is fully open to investment, and benefits from little government 
support. Tourism-related services remain Australia's major services export. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 91 - 
 
  4.2  Agriculture, Livestock, and Fisheries 
4.2.1  Features 4.9.  Australia's agriculture sector remains strongly market-oriented.
3 Despite their relatively small 
contribution to GDP, and the impact of persisting  severe drought and exchange rate appreciation 
in recent years, agricultural production and trad e remain of fundamental importance to Australia, a 
competitive net agricultural exporter.4 The sector also has important linkages with other activities. 
Between 2009/10 and 2012/13, it accounted for 2.4%-2.5% of GDP (including forestry and 
fisheries) (Table 1.2) and provided work to  2.6% (2012/13) of the employed population.5 
In 2009/10 the major agricultural commodities (ranked by gross value) were: cattle and calves, wheat, milk, vegetables, and fruits and nuts (excluding grapes).
6 Australia continues to export 
around 60% (in volume) or 67% (in gross value) of its total agricultural production.7 The sector's 
share in total exports rose in 2012 to 15%, due to the decline in the share of minerals and fuels 
exports as a proportion of total exports, and re mained stable in 2013 (up from 13.1% in 2010).8 
In 2012 the major agricultural exports in value te rms (recorded trade basis) were wheat, beef, 
meat, cotton, wool, alcoholic beverages (mainly wine), and oilseeds and oleaginous fruits.9  
4.10.  Almost 93% of Australia's food supply is produced domestically.10 Average annual MFP 
growth in agriculture, forestry and fishing rose from minus 1.6% (2003/04-2007/08) to 6.2% 
(2007/08-2011/12) on the back of stronger output growth without any overall increase in the use 
of inputs associated with substantially improved weather conditions.11 Future opportunities to 
promote agricultural productivity growth may come  from: reducing regulatory burdens; improving 
the efficiency of rural research, development and extension systems; and building human capital 
through improving labour availability and skills.12  
4.2.2  Main policy developments 4.11.  During the review period, the "Sustainab le Agriculture Stream", a sub-programme within 
the overall Australia's Caring for our Country 2013- 18 initiative, has been focused on ensuring a 
sustainable, productive and resilient agricultural  base involving: sustainable food production; 
innovation in agriculture and fisheries practices; reduced impact of weeds and pests; and 
improved management of agriculture and fisheries and the natural resource base.
13 The 
Sustainable Agriculture Stream is being delivered in the context of other major government policies and initiatives, including: the Intergovernmental Agreement on Biosecurity (sections 3.2.7.2.2 and 4.2.2.1); the Carbon Farming Initiative, drought policy reform 
(section 4.2.2.2); and the Commonwealth Policy on  Fisheries By-Catch (section 4.2.3). In 2012, a 
rural R&D policy statement was released covering: increased transparency and accountability in the rural research and development corporations (RDCs) model
14; improved co-ordination and 
                                               
3 OECD (2013a). 
4 Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/negotiations/trade_in_agriculture.html . 
5 In 2012/13, approximately 261,000 people were directly employed in agriculture compared to 294,000 
in 2010/11, this decline being partly due to seasonal variations and the shift from permanent to casual and 
contract labour; the complete agricultural supply chain,  including the affiliated food and fibre industries, 
provides over 1.6 million jobs (National Farmers' Federa tion, 2013; and Australian Bu reau of Agricultural and 
Resource Economics and Sciences, 2014, Table 6). 
6 Australian Bureau of  Statistics online in formation. Viewed at: 
http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/b y%20Subject/1301.0~2012~Main%20Features~Agricultur
al%20production~260 .  
7 National Farmers' Federation (2013). 
8 UNSD Comtrade Database. 
9 DFAT STARS database, based on ABS Cat No. 5368.0 data. Viewed at: 
https://www.dfat.gov.au/publicat ions/trade/trade-at-a-glance-
2013/trade_performance_at_a_glance/part03_australias_trade_and_economic_statistics.html .  
10 National Farmers' Federation (2013). 
11 Productivity Commission (2013c). 
12 Gray et al. (2014).  
13 Department of Agriculture and the Department of  the Environment online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.nrm.gov.au/funding/agriculture/index.html .  
14 RDCs are a partnership between the government an d industry to share the funding and strategic 
direction-setting for primary industry R&D, investment in R&D and the subsequent adoption of R&D outputs. A WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 92 - 
 
  priority-setting across the whole rural R&D system; an increased range of ways for pursuing 
productivity growth; and increased operationa l efficiencies and value for money on R&D 
investment. A May 2013 National Food Plan, no longer a policy of the current Government, was to ensure a more integrated, coordinated and strategic focus on food policy along the supply chain.
15 
Other developments during the review period invo lved: export measures (section 4.2.2.1); water 
use; and farm finance (section 4.2.2.2). The Department of Agriculture (previously called the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry (DAFF) until September 2013) remains 
responsible for the development and implementation  of sectoral policies and programmes. A White 
Paper on Australia’s Agricultural Competitiveness aimed at setting out a strategic approach to promote more investment and growth and improve pr ofitability in the sector was due for release in 
early 2015.
16  
4.12.  Australia's bilateral and plurilateral agriculture agreements cover a range of agricultural 
trade matters including: exchange of scientific information; protocols for live animal trade; agricultural cooperation; dialogue on trade policy; mutual recognition; trade facilitation; and 
specific bilateral trade issues. In April 2013, Australia and China agreed to enhance cooperation 
under the Australia-China Agricultural Cooper ation Agreement Programme (ACACA Programme).
17 
Under the new ACACA Programme, applicants are able to seek funding for an expanded range of 
activities, including workshops, officer secondments and training programmes. A set of priorities 
for ACACA projects are now agreed on by both countries at the commencement of each funding round.  
4.13.  Australia continued to provide food aid an d technical and financial assistance within the 
ambit of the Decision on Measures Concerning the Possible Negative Effects of the Reform 
Programme on Least-Developed (LDCs) and Net F ood-Importing Developing Countries (NFIDCs). 
All Australian food assistance is in fully-gran t form and cash-based. In 2012/13 Australia provided 
73,834 metric tonnes of food assistance valued at over $A113.7 million (92,352 tonnes, 
$A 102 million in 2010/11) within the ambit of the Decision; all food assistance to LDCs/NFIDCs totalled 60,681 metric tonnes, valued at around $A30.7 million (85,881 tonnes, $A 50.1 million 
in 2010/11).
18 At the same time Australia provided $A 570.7 million ($A 512.0 million in 2010/11) 
for technical and financial assistance programmes within the ambit of the Decision; of this, over $A 216.8 million ($A 214.8 million in 2010/11) was directed to LDCs/NFIDCs. 
4.2.2.1  Border measures  
4.14.  During the review period, Australia's average level of applied MFN tariff protection for the 
sector (excluding forestry) remained unchanged an d negligible at 1.4 % (Table 3.1). While most 
products (73% of agricultural tariff lines) are duty free, some sensitive items, including cheese 
(which is subject to a specific duty), citrus fruit juices (subject to an alternate duty), and certain 
vegetables, nuts, fruit, beverages (e.g. grape wine, juices), sugars, oils and fats (largely subject to a 5% rate), continue to receive some tariff protection. Australia has maintained tariff-rate quotas 
for certain types of cheese in line with its WTO market access commitments and preferential 
arrangements (section 3.2.2.4). Imports of all agri cultural (and food) products remain subject to a 
quarantine and safety regime (section 3.2.7. 2.4); domestically-produced and imported food 
products must meet the requirements of the Food Standards Code of FSANZ. Australia continued 
its biosecurity reform process (section 3.2.7.2.2) in 2012 with the signing of the 
Intergovernmental Agreement on Biosecurity, work on new biosecurity legislation to replace the Quarantine Act of 1908, and the transition from  defined intervention targets to a flexible 
risk-based approach. As of 27 November 2014 a Biosecurity Bill 2014 was with Parliament and is 
expected to be passed in the course of 2015 (section 3.2.7.2.2).   
4.15.  Exports and/or production of certain dairy,  grain, horticulture, livestock, and wine/grape 
commodities remain subject to over 90 different non- ad valorem  (except for sheep, lamb, deer 
velvet, and wine) levies. These levies are administered, collected, and distributed by the 
                                                                                                                                               
levy system provides for the collection of contribution s from farmers to finance RD Cs, while research project 
funding can be matched with supplementary funds from the federal budget (OECD, 2013a).  
15 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2013). 
16 Australian Govern ment online information. Viewed at: 
https://agriculturalcompetitiveness.dpmc.gov.au/ . 
17 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.daff.gov.au /about/current-grants . 
18 WTO document G/AG/N/AUS/93, 8 October 2014.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 93 - 
 
  Department of Agriculture on behalf of primary industries to 19 levy recipient bodies which in turn 
service 54 industry representative bodies.19 Following concerns about the welfare of live cattle 
exported to Indonesia, exports were temporarily suspended and a new regulatory framework for exports of feeder and slaughter livestock to Indonesia (the Exporter Supply Chain Assurance 
System (ESCAS)) was implemented in July 2011. The ESCAS, which requires exporters to establish 
supply chain arrangements that deliver animal welf are outcomes in line with World Organization 
for Animal Health (OIE) standards, was to be extended to all of Australia's feeder and slaughter 
livestock markets (except cattle to Egypt) by the end of 2012.
20 Rice is the sole item subject to 
single-desk arrangements and is exempt from competition policy provisions (section 3.3.3). Under the Wheat Export Marketing Amendment Act 2012, the Wheat Export Accreditation Scheme and the Wheat Export Charge (WEC) were abolished on 10 December 2012 and Wheat Exports 
Australia ceased its operations on 31 December 2012 (sections 3.3.2 and 3.4.3.1.3)
21; as of 
30 September 2014, a mandatory port access code of conduct for bulk wheat exports repealed past wheat export legislation and assists all stakeholders to access the export infrastructure. In 
line with its commitment to support SMEs and to preserve jobs in regional (i.e. non-metropolitan) 
Australia, in May 2012 the Commonwealth Government announced transitional funding of $A 4 million to the grain, fish and egg export in dustries to help businesses transition to revised 
certification arrangements. In 2012/13, a further $A 39 million was made available to help 
industries adjust to new export certification arrangements, including new fees and charges, and to help them implement export reforms.
22 Furthermore, $A 15 million over four years will be 
available as from 2014/15 to support small export ers in sectors where there are specific export 
certification registration charges.23 Australia notified that it provided no export subsidies for its 
scheduled agricultural products during the period 2009/10-2011/12 (pears 2009-12).24  
4.2.2.2  Domestic support measures  
4.16.  Agriculture is estimated to have received 14% (27% in 2006/07) of total budgetary 
assistance (i.e. outlays plus tax concessions) made available to all sectors of the economy in 2012/13. This assistance represents 0.07% of GDP (Table 4.1).
25 Domestic support for 
agriculture remains the second lowest amongst OECD countries; in 2012 Australia's producer 
support estimate (PSE) was estimated at just 3% (the same as in 2010 and 2011) of gross farm receipts or just over one-sixth of the OECD av erage, thus keeping Australian farmers among the 
most efficient and therefore most self-sufficient in the world.
26 According to OECD estimates, 
between 2010 and 2012 Australia's total support estimate (TSE) to agriculture dropped from 0.2% 
to 0.1% of GDP, the lowest among all OECD countries.27 In 2011/12, forestry, logging, 
horticulture, fruit-growing, aquaculture and fishing (section 4.2.3) were among the primary 
production activities benefiting from the highest effective rates of (combined) assistance.28 
Domestic producer and consumer prices have remained roughly aligned with world prices; 
                                               
19 Agricultural levies and export charges (requested  by industry) are in plac e to fund research and 
development, marketing, re sidue-testing, plant and animal biosecurity progra mmes and emergency responses 
for industry (Department of Agricult ure online information. Viewed at: http://www.daff.gov.au/agriculture-
food/levies/publications ; Department of Agriculture, 2013).  
20 A $A 5 million Approved Supply Chain Improvements Program supported over two years (2011/12 
to 2012/13) Australia's livestock export industry to meet  the requirements of ESCA S. Government funds were 
provided on the basis of $A 1 for every $A 3 of industry investment, in particular on slaughtering facilities in 
approved export supply chains meeting OIE standards, to underp in the new regulatory framework.  The 
program was available to eligible applicants, such as Australian livestock export ers, but not to importing 
countries or foreign businesses (Department of  Agriculture online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.agriculture.gov.au/animal-plant-health/welfare/export-trade/approved-supply-chain-
improvements-program ; Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, 2012; OECD, 2013a).  
21 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2013); and OECD (2013a). 
22 Department of Agriculture, Fish eries and Forestry (2013); and Productivity Commission (2013d).  
23 Funding would be provided in the form of a rebate  of 50% of their export certification registration 
costs, up to a maximum of $A 5,000. From 2015/16, funding will be provided for projects that directly benefit small exporters, particularly projects to improve market access (Commonwealth of Australia, 2014b).  
24 Australia has export subsidy commitments for butter  and butter oil, cheese,  skim milk powder and 
other milk products (financial year  basis) and pears (calendar year basis) (WTO documents G/AG/N/AUS/87, 
29 October 2012; and G/AG/N/AUS/90, 17 October 2013). 
25 Productivity Commission (2014c).  
26 OECD (2013a). 
27 OECD (2013a). 
28 Assistance to forestry and lo gging has increased reflecting, inter alia , new structural adjustment 
packages for the Tasmanian forest industry (Productivity Commission, 2013d, Table 2.7). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 94 - 
 
  Australia's OECD Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC) for all commodities concerned has been 
1.00 since 2010.29  
Table 4.1 Budgetary assistance to agriculture, 2008/09-2012/13 
  2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 
Share in total budgetary assistance (%)      
Dairy cattle farming 10.1 10.2 11.3 9.4 11.1 
Grain, sheep, and beef cattle farming 57.7 49.9 46.3 39.0 40.1 
Horticulture and fruit-growing 3.6 5.0 3.4 5.2 5.4 
Other crop growing 7.9 7.3 6.2 4.6 4.4 
Other livestock-farming 2.6 2.4 2.7 4.0 3.3 
Fisheries 4.1 4.8 6.0 4.9 6.3 
Forestry and logging -3.5 2.1 3.6 5.3 3.9 
Other primary production 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.4 
Unallocated primary productiona 16.3 17.1 19.3 26.4 24.2 
Total outlays ($A million) 1,425.4 1,275.4 1,055.1 958.7 762.7 
Total tax expenditure ($A million) 404.9 364.4 303.0 494.4 370.0 
Total budgetary assistance ($A million) 1,830.4 1,639.8 1,358.1 1,453.1 1,132.7 
Share of total budgetary assistance to GDP (%) 0.15 0.13 0.10 0.10 0.07 
a Unallocated includes general programmes where details of beneficiaries are unknown. 
Source:  Productivity Commission (2014), Trade & Assistance Review 2012-2013 , 27 June. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/137788/trade-assistance-review-2012-13.pdf .  
4.17.  The sector has continued to receive declin ing budgetary assistance from a wide range of 
programmes, mainly in the form of outlays (Table 4.1). Grain, sheep, and cattle-farming remain the major recipients although their shares of total budgetary assistance have declined. 
By 2012/13, tax deductions for horticultural plantati ons, estimated at $A 6 million per year, seem 
to be the only industry-specific measure in place for the sector as the Fisheries Structural Adjustment Package was terminated in 2010/11.
30  
4.18.  The agricultural sector receives no market price support. Budget-financed programmes are 
mainly used for natural resource and environmental management, in particular water.31 
Expenditure on research and development is co-fin anced by funds collected through industry levies 
(section 4.2.2.1), supplemented by an equal cont ribution from the Commonwealth budget up to a 
cap. An additional $A 100 million over four years to  fund research in partnership with RDCs is to 
be delivered from 2014/15 onwards.32 An amount of $A 8 million over four years as from 2014/15 
is being provided to improve access by farmers to safe and effective "minor use" of agricultural 
and veterinary chemicals. Estimated support for general services increased from 39.4% of TSE 
in 2010 to 41.8% in 2012.33 The Fuel Tax Credits Scheme removes the incidence of excise and 
excise-equivalent customs duties from the costs of  some fuels (including diesel) used in business 
activities, including specified activities in agriculture, fishing, and forestry (sections 3.4.2 
and 4.3.2.3).   
4.19.  In the face of an increasingly variable climate, the Commonwealth Government provides a 
range of assistance to farmers and primary producers. During the review period, Australia 
reformed its drought assistance driven by the 20 08 National Review of Drought Policy. In 2013, 
the Commonwealth, state and territory government s signed the Intergovernmental Agreement on 
National Drought Program Reform that outlines a new approach to drought programmes and aims 
to encourage farmers to prepare for, and manage the effects of, drought and other challenges, 
rather than relying on government support. A key step in this direction was the closure of the Exceptional Circumstances Interest Rate Subsidy on 30 June 2012, as well as that of the 
Exceptional Circumstances Arrangements on 30 June 2014.
34 On 26 February 2014, as a result of 
                                               
29 The NPC is the ratio between the average price paid /received at farm gate and the border price at 
farm gate (OECD, 2013a). 
30 Productivity Commission (2013d), Table A.10; Productivity Commission (2014c). 
31 OECD (2013a). 
32 Commonwealth of Australia (2014b).  
33 OECD (2013a). 
34 Successive reviews of drought policy had found that the Exceptional Circumstances Interest Rate 
Subsidy was ineffective and could lead to farm busi nesses being less responsive to drought conditions 
(Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.daff.gov.au /about/current-grants ; Productivity Commission, 2013d; and OECD, 2013a). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 95 - 
 
  prolonged and severe drought in some areas of  Australia, a temporary $A 320 million drought 
assistance package was introduced for 2013/14 and 2014/15 only and included: more generous criteria for accessing income support as from early March 2014; drought concessional loans totalling $A 280 million for debt-restructuring, operating expenses and drought recovery and 
preparedness activities; assistance of up to $A 12 million for the installation of water-related 
infrastructure; and, $A 10 million assistance to help reduce the impact of pest animals in drought-affected areas. Furthermore, under the Water for the Future headline initiative, the 2013 
Restoring the Balance in the Murray-Darling Basin programme involves purchasing of 
unencumbered water entitlements and encourages enhanced irrigation efficiency.
35 Water savings 
generated through the use of these programm es are shared between proponents and the 
environment with at least 50% of the water savings transferred to the Commonwealth 
Government. 
4.20.  Innovation Grants, ranging between $A 250,000 and $A 1.5 million, provide tools to 
implement sustainable practices, reduce farm  costs and build productivity through the 
development and adoption of innovative practices across agriculture, fishing, aquaculture and farm 
forestry. As of March 2014, 31 projects worth up to $A 21.2 million had received funding.36  
4.21.  In April 2013, the Commonwealth Government introduced a Farm Finance package aimed at 
helping to build up the financial resilience of highly-indebted farm businesses. It consists of four 
measures: short-term assistance in the form of concessional loans for productivity enhancement projects or debt-restructuring; funding for around 17 additional full-time counsellors with the Rural Financial Counselling Service; increasing the non-primary production income threshold for Farm 
Management Deposits (FMDs) from $A 65,000 to $A 100,000, and allowing consolidation of 
existing FMD accounts; and establishing a nationally-consistent approach to farm debt mediation.
37 
4.22.  Under its Carbon Farming Futures Program (2011-2017), Australia has implemented a 
F i l l i n g  t h e  R e s e a r c h  G a p ,  A c t i o n  o n  t h e  G r o u n d , Extension and Outreach Program, and related 
offset incentives.38 In line with its commitment to repeal the Carbon Tax (section 3.4.1.3 
and 3.4.3.2), the Commonwealth Government has reviewed funding arrangements related to the 
Carbon Tax, made the necessary adjustments to associated programmes and did not proceed with 
any new projects under the Carbon Farming Futures programme. Through its Direct Action Plan, the Government will introduce a mix of new policies, including the Emissions Reduction Fund to provide ongoing opportunities for farmers and land -managers to participate in emission reduction 
projects with a bill on the Emissions Reduction Fund being introduced in June 2014.  
4.23.  Since late 2011, a Carbon Farming Initiative (CFI), a voluntary carbon offset scheme, has 
allowed farmers and land-managers to earn carbon credits (Australian Carbon Credit Units 
(ACCUs)) by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and storing carbon in vegetation and soils 
                                               
35 OECD (2013a). 
36 Department of Agriculture on line information. Viewed at: http://www.daff.gov. au/about/current-
grants . 
37 Department of Agriculture on line information. Viewed at: http://www.daff.gov. au/about/current-
grants . 
38 The Filling the Research Gap program was to expend  $A 47 million on 57 projects in research areas 
including "reducing methane emissions (from livestock and manure), reducing nitrous oxide emissions (from 
fertilisers and soils), and increasing soil carbon and im proving modelling capability".  The Conservation Tillage 
Refundable Tax Offset is a refundable tax offset that primary producers could claim if they brought a no-till 
seeder. The Offset was worth 15% of the cost of the no-ti ll seeder. The refundable tax offset was designed to 
encourage the uptake of conservation tillage practices to reduce emissions, increase soil carbon and improve 
productivity (Australian Taxation Offi ce online information. Viewed at: 
https://www.ato.gov.au /Business/Primary-producers/In-detail/Ot her-rebates---deductions/Conservation-
tillage-refundable-tax-offset ). Under the Action on the Ground fundin g programme, farmers and land managers 
undertake on-farm trials of abatement technologies, practices and management strategies to measure and 
demonstrate how they can reduce agricultural greenho use gas emissions of meth ane and nitrous oxide or 
increase the sequestration of carbon in soil while main taining or improving farm productivity. By March 2014, 
89 multi-year grants worth up to $A 44.29 million had received funding; these projects were trialling a diverse range of on-farm practices and management strategies , on more than 530 properties across the country. 
By April 2013, 24 projects valued at $A 21.3 million were funded under the Extension and Outreach program 
supporting sector-specific proj ects, including the livestock, dairy, hort iculture, cotton and grains industries 
(Department of Agriculture online information. Viewed at: http://www.daff.gov.au/about/current-grants ; and 
Productivity Commission, 2013d). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 96 - 
 
  through changes to agricultural and land-management practices (also known as carbon farming).39 
Credits can be sold into the voluntary carbon offs et market or to offset liabilities under the 2012 
carbon-pricing mechanism, repealed with effect from 1 July 2014 (section 3.4.1.3). This could create additional income for participants in the initiative. According to the authorities, the cost of 
removal of the carbon tax was estimated to be $A 13.7 billion on a fiscal balance basis.
40 On 
24 November 2014, the Carbon Farming Initiative Amendment Bill 2014 was passed by the Parliament; it is to expand, inter alia , its coverage and enable the Clean Energy Regulator to 
issued credits for emissions reduction projects from across the economy. 
4.24.  Since 2008/09, current total AMS remained at zero (section 3.4.2). During the review 
period, no trade-distorting domestic product-specific support was delivered, and non-product-specific AMS-related expenditure was within Australia's de minimis  commitments. 
"Green-box"-type support accounted for virtually all total support notified to the WTO.  
4.2.3  Fisheries  4.25.  Fisheries-production remains underpinned by high-value low-volume seafood.
41 Its value 
continued to be negatively affected in recent years by the appreciation of the Australian dollar and 
increased competition in the domestic market from rising imports. Australia has remained a net importer of fish products by value since 2007, and exports on average 56% of its fish products.
42 
According to the OECD, a focus on improving produc tivity would allow the fishing industry to meet 
the challenges posed by an appreciating Australian dollar.43 Compared to 2006, in 2010 the 
number of fishers and fish-farmers increased by 16% and 26%, respectively, while vessel tonnage decreased drastically and vessel numbers by one-third. In 2011/12 aquaculture accounted for 
almost 45.5% of the total gross value of fisheries production.
44  
4.26.  Australia continues to implement a ra nge of initiatives and measures to improve 
fisheries-management and ensure the sustainability of fish stocks for the long-term viability of the 
industry.45 According to a March 2013 Fisheries Management Review, the Commonwealth fisheries 
are in good shape but improvements could be made in policy coverage, transparency and 
communication with the broader stakeholder base.46 Australia reviewed, inter alia , its 2007 
Commonwealth Fisheries Harvest Strategy Policy and Guidelines (completed in 2013), and 
released the Commonwealth Policy on Fisheries Bycatch in May 2013, and the second National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks (Shark-plan 2), in July 2012. Key priorities for 2013-14 included simplifying the regu latory environment, and managing ecological 
and compliance risks.
47 The Fisheries Legislation Amendmen t Act 2013 strengthened provisions 
making corporations and other persons responsible for any unlawful conduct engaged in by their employees, agents or directors in particular circumstances. Industry became a partner in 
managing Commonwealth fisheries with amendments to fisheries-management legislation 
in 2010/11 enabling the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) to enter into co-management arrangements, giving powers and functions to primary stakeholders in individual 
fisheries.  
4.27.  Australia's key commercial stocks are managed in accordance with the Commonwealth 
Fisheries Harvest Strategy Policy and Guidelines  which applies an evidence-based, precautionary 
approach to setting catch levels. Resource Assessment Groups provide advice on the status of fish 
stocks and the impact of fishing on the marine environment, including recommendations to the 
AFMA Commission on issues such as: the setting of total allowable catches (TACs); stock 
                                               
39 Department of Agriculture on line information. Viewed at: http://www.daff.gov. au/about/current-
grants ; and OECD (2013a). 
40 Revised Explanatory Memorandum Clean Energy Le gislation (Carbon Tax Repeal) Bill 2014. Viewed 
at: http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/ems/r5311_ems_144677a8-32fc-4fab-94b9-
f5e90b54927f/upload_pdf/14167rem.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf .  
41 OECD (2013e).  
42 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2013); OECD (2013e). 
43 OECD (2013e). 
44 Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, "Table 1: Gross value of 
fisheries production". Viewed at: http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/9aam/afstad9aamd003/2012/AFS_Production11Yrs_v1.0.0.xls . 
45 OECD (2013e). 
46 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2013).  
47 Australian Fisheries Management Authority (2013).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 97 - 
 
  rebuilding targets; biological and economic reference points; and risk assessments. AFMA sets the 
TAC based on estimates of the take by state comme rcial fishers and recreational anglers as well as 
other mortality sources. By October 2013, Australian  fish stocks were considered in good shape as 
key wild fish stocks we re largely sustainable.48 Of the 93 Commonwealth-managed stocks 
assessed in 2012, 63 were classified as not overfished (59 in 2009) and 77 stocks are classified as 
not subject to overfishing (73 in 2009); 9 stocks were classified as overfished (12 in 2009) and 4 stocks as subject to overfishing (10 in 2009).
49 Similarly stocks managed by state and Northern 
Territory governments appear to be in generally good condition, with the national Status of Key 
Australian Fish Stocks Report 2012 indicating that most stocks were neither overfished nor subject to overfishing.
50  
4.28.  Only Australian or Australian-declared (see below) boats are authorized to fish under a 
fishing permit or statutory fishing right granted by AFMA.51 According to OECD, there were 
322 fishing vessels (excluding State-registered vessels) nominated to Commonwealth fishing concessions during 2011. A foreign boat is not permitted to enter an Australian port unless it is 
authorized by a port permit granted by AFMA. A pe rson must not land fish at an Australian port 
from a foreign boat unless the Minister responsible for fishing has expressly authorized that person to do so. A foreign-flagged vessel may be declared an Australian vessel for the purposes of the 
Fisheries Management Act 1991 on application to AFMA, provided that it meets certain criteria. 
Access for foreign fishing fleets to Australia's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (200 nautical miles) is provided through three agreements.
52 According to a 2013 OECD report, the evolution in the 
domestic fleet means that no future access for foreign vessels to the Australian EEZ is likely to be 
granted as Australia no longer has excess fish stocks. 
4.29.  Adjustment assistance has only been used in special circumstances to facilitate the 
introduction of new fisheries-management arrangements.53 Where marine reserves create 
additional requirements for fishing-reduction efforts beyond that required for achieving fisheries 
management objectives, Government-funded ad justment assistance/compensation may be 
considered on a case-by-case basis. Under the Caring for our Country programme 
(section 4.2.2.2), a programme of the previous  Government, support has been available to 
improve management practices in aquaculture.54 A decline in annual expenditure under the 
Fisheries Structural Adjustment Program (terminated in June 2010) has seen the estimated effective rates of combined assistance for fisheries decrease from a high of 12% (2006/07) to 
3.3% (2011/12). While budgetary assistance under the industry-specific Fisheries Structural 
Adjustment Program has dropped progressivel y by 89.2% since 2008/09 to $A 1.8 million 
(2010/11), fishing industry R&D funding remained stable.
55 Following the announcement of the 
final network of new marine reserves in June 2012,  around $A 100 million of fisheries adjustment 
assistance funding was to assist the commercial fishing industry adjust to the introduction of the new marine reserves.
56 The package was to include: transitional business assistance in the form of 
payments to fishing businesses; competitive grants to improve the long-term sustainability of 
fisheries displaced by the marine reserves; and reduction of commercial fishing through the purchase of individual fisher's entitlements or quot a units in fisheries, where appropriate, up to the 
level of production displaced by the new mari ne reserves. However, consistent with its 
commitment for a more competitive and sustainable fisheries sector, the current Government will 
                                               
48 Borthwick. (2012).  
49 OECD (2013e). 
50 Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resour ce Economics and Sciences (2013); and Fisheries 
Development Research and Development Corporation (2012). 
51 AFMA allocates statutory fishing rights for access to the resources of each fishery, in which many 
fishers have individually tradable quotas (ITQs) or shares  of the resource assigned as a proportion of the total 
allowable catch determined by AFMA each year. Where ITQs  are not used, AFMA uses a direct permit system to 
specify the amount of catch each concession-holder can take in a fishing season (Borthwick, 2012; and OECD, 2013e.). 
52 These Agreements are: the Multilateral Treaty on Fisheries Between Certain Governments of the 
Pacific Island States and the Government of the United States of America; the Australian-Indonesian Memorandum of Understanding regarding the Operation of  Indonesian Traditional Fishermen in Areas of the 
Australian Fishing Zone and Continental Shelf (1974 ); and the Torres Strait Fisheries Act 1984 – providing 
access to Australian waters by Papua New Guinea nation als to conduct traditional fishing (Borthwick, 2012).  
53 OECD (2013e). 
54 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2012). 
55 Productivity Commission (2013d), Table A.10. 
56 The new reserves were estimated to displace approximately 1% of the annual value of wild-catch 
fisheries production in Australia (Productivity Commission, 2013d). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 98 - 
 
  review the management plans for the Commonwealth marine reserves announced in 
November 2012. It intends to appoint a scientific review panel and bioregional advisory panels to provide advice on future marine reserve-mana gement arrangements. Until the results of the 
review are finalised, any fisheries' compensation has been placed on hold. 
4.30.  During the review period, Australia conti nued its strong action against illegal, unreported 
and unregulated (IUU) fishing. Its National Fisheries Compliance Strategy 2010-15 outlines the objectives that fisheries agencies will pursue to promote voluntary compliance and create effective 
deterrence to illegal fishing activities.
57 Australia is also working with its northern neighbours to 
reduce IUU fishing and improve fisheries management and governance. Between 2005/06 and 2013/14, the number of illegal fishing vessels apprehended declined by 93%.  
4.31.  Australia ratified both the Southern Indi an Ocean Fisheries Agreement and the Convention 
on the Conservation and Management of High Seas Fishery Resources of the South Pacific Ocean 
in March 2012 (entry in force June 2012 and August 2012 respectively), and was in the process of ratifying the Food and Agriculture Organization Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, 
Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing Agreement (signed on 
27 April 2010) at end-2014. Other activities during the review period included participating in bilateral cooperation with Indonesia, and continue d engagement with northern neighbours as part 
of the Regional Plan of Action to promote responsible fishing practices and combat IUU fishing in 
the Southeast Asian region.
58  
4.3  Mining and Energy 4.3.1  Mining 
4.32.  Australia remains one of the top five prod ucers and exporters of most of the world's key 
minerals, the country's largest export.
59 In 2012/13, mining accounted for 8.6% (7.9% 
in 2009/10) of GDP and 2.3% (1.7% in 2009/10) of  total employment (Table 1.2), and 64.1% 
(62.8% in 2010) of total merchandise exports (Table A1.2). The sector's average MFP growth rate 
dropped further from minus 4% (2003/04-2007/08) to minus 8.4% (2007/08-2011/12), still the lowest rate of all sectors of the economy (section 1.2.1).
60 The sector is critical to Australia's 
economic performance and over the next five years it is forecast to realise the full benefit of recent 
high levels of investment; the expected mining output increase is to lead to improved MFP growth (sections 1.1, 1.2.1, 1.3.1, and 1.5).
61 A 22.5% Mineral Resources Rent Tax (MRRT) on the "super 
profits" from the mining of iron ore and coal was introduced on 1 July 2012 and repealed on 
30 September 2014 (section 3.4.1.2), while the 1987 Petroleum Resource Rent Tax of 40% has 
applied to all onshore (as from 1 July 2012) and of fshore petroleum projects (except those in the 
Joint Petroleum Development Area in the Timor Sea).62 In 2011/12, mining-related taxes 
contributed 23.6% (23.1% in 2010/11) of the revenue from corporate income-tax (excluding 
                                               
57 OECD (2013e). 
58 Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2012). 
59 For example, Australia is the world's leading producer of bauxite,  rutile and zircon; the second largest 
producer of gold, iron ore, lead, li thium, manganese ore, tungsten and zinc, the third largest producer of 
ilmenite and uranium; the fourth larg est producer of black coal (also the largest exporter), nickel and silver; 
and the fifth largest producer of brown coal and copper. It has the world's largest re sources of gold, iron ore, 
lead, nickel, rutile, uranium, zinc and zircon as well as the second largest resources of bauxite, cobalt, copper, 
ilmenite, niobium, silver, tantalum and thorium. Austra lia's resources of black coal, brown coal, magnesite, 
tungsten, lithium, manganese ore, rare earths and vanadium are ranked in the top five in the world 
(Geoscience Australia online information. Viewed at: http://www.ga.gov.au/minerals/basics.html ). 
60 Input growth reached record levels in 2011/12, as miners continued to invest heavily in new projects 
in response to historically high commodity prices. While mining profitability has been high since the commodities boom began, the consequences of high inve stment for measured producti vity have been negative. 
MFP growth in mining has declined by 40% in the eight years since 2003-04. On average, businesses used 67% more inputs (capital and labour) to produce each unit of output in 2011/12 than they did eight years ago 
(Productivity Commission, 2013c).  
61 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.ret.gov.au/resources/mining/Pages/Mining.aspx .  
62 Output-based royalties are levied for most mining proj ects, either in the form of specific royalties (flat 
rate per unit of production) or on an ad valorem basis (levied as a percentage of  the value of production). The 
Commonwealth's Petroleum Reso urce Rent Tax, a profit-based royalty is the main exception (WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 99 - 
 
  resource rent taxes).63 Australia reportedly remains a relatively high tax jurisdiction for coal and 
iron ore mining with an effective rate of 41% in 2011/12. Even without the MRRT, iron ore and coal producers appear to be at the upper end of global resource royalty and tax scales as Australia is in the top quartile of countries based on a total tax take of 44% compared with a global average 
of around 39%.
64 Mineral and petroleum resources are owned either by the Commonwealth, or 
state, or territory governments.65  
4.33.  The mining sector continues to operate in a seemingly competitive market environment with 
no industry-specific restrictions on foreign investment, although, as for all sectors, prior approval 
or notification is required for investment above certain thresholds (section 2.6). The authorities are unaware of any export cartel arrangements in the sector. Mining receives relatively little budgetary 
assistance, although between 2009/10 and 2012/13 it s share rose from 5.3% to 7.0% of the total 
available to all sectors of the economy. Between 2009/10 and 2011/12, it rose by 46.1% to 
$A 785.24 million before falling to $546.5 in 2012/13.
66 The estimated effective rate of (combined) 
assistance from tariff and budgetary assistance for mining remained negligible (0.2% in 2012/13) 
(Table A4.1). Budgetary assistance is allocated between budget outlays ($A 401.9 million) and 
taxation concessions ($A 144.5 million). In 2012/13, R&D-related tax concessions and offsets represented 77.2% (64% in 2011/12) of total budgeta ry assistance to mining. In 2011/12 virtually 
all industry-specific budgetary assistance (34.9%  of total sectoral assistance) was delivered 
through the Coal Sector Jobs Package (CSJP), with lower amounts channelled through the National Low Emissions Coal Initiative.
67 The CSJP provided a total of $A  218.8 million to only the most 
emissions-intensive mines in 2011/12 as a prepayment to ease their transition to the introduction 
of the carbon price mechanism (section 4.3.2) in 2012/13. No CSJP funding was provided in 
2012/13. Eligible mines received a second CSJP payment in 2013/14 with payments totalling $A 219.3 million. Due to budgetary savings and the repeal of the carbon price mechanism, no 
further CSJP funding is available.  
4.3.2  Energy 4.34.  Australia is richly endowed with natural energy resources (uranium, coal, natural gas); it is 
the world's ninth largest energy producer, accounting for around 2.7% of global energy production 
and a major supplier to world markets (it is one of only three OECD countries that are net energy exporters).
68 In 2012/13, petroleum-based productions (including crude oil, diesel, and liquefied 
petroleum gas (LPG)) accounted for 37.7% of Australian energy consumption, followed by coal 
(33%), gas (23.6%) and renewables (5.6%). Domestic use of nuclear power is not envisaged in 
the near future. As a result, inter alia , of a surge in investment in large and lumpy infrastructure 
projects, rising (evening) peak versus average dema nd for electricity, and a move to less polluting 
but higher cost production technologies, the aver age MFP growth rate for electricity, gas, and 
water supply activities rose slightly from minus 4.8% (2003/04-2007/08) to minus 4.5% (2007/08-2011/12), the second lowest after that of mining (section 4.3.1).
69  
4.35.  During the review period, efforts to update the energy policy framework were undertaken. A 
comprehensive draft Energy White Paper (EWP)2 was published in November 2011, seven years after the release of the previous EWP. The draft energy policy provided an assessment of future 
energy needs to 2030 and set out a policy framework to guide the further development of the 
sector. The draft EWP2 set three clear policy objectives: the provision of accessible, reliable and 
competitively-priced energy for all Australians ; enhancement of domestic and export growth 
                                               
63 Australian Taxation Office online  information, "Taxation statistics 2010-11: Table 4, Part E". Viewed 
at: https://www.ato.gov.au/About-ATO/Research-and-statistics/Previous-years/Tax-statistics/Taxation-
statistics-2010-11/?anchor=Detail_Company_tax_and_the_petroleum_res . Australian Taxation Office online 
information, "Taxation statistics 2011-12: Table 4". Viewed at: https://www.ato.gov.au/About-ATO/Research-
and-statistics/In-detail/Tax-statistics/Taxation-statistics-2011-12/?anchor=coy_detailed#coy_detailed . 
64 The authorities consider this analysis by Goldman Sachs, released in January 2013 and cited at 
Minerals Council of Australia submissi on to the Senate Economics Legislatio n Committee, "Inqui ry into Minerals 
Resource Rent Tax Repeal and Other Measures Bill 2013", 21 November 2013, as impartial. 
65 Australian Bureau of  Statistics online in formation. Viewed at: 
http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/ D92AFED55BF16AB2CA256CAE0015DA36?opendocument . 
66 Productivity Commission (2014c).  
67 Productivity Commission (2013d).  
68 Bureau of Resources and Energy Econ omics online information. Viewed at: 
http://bree.slicedlabs.com.au/sites/default/files/files/publications/energy-in-aust/bree-energyinaustralia-2013-
factcard.pdf . 
69 Separate data on MFP for electricity and gas are not available. Productivity Commission (2013c).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 100 - 
 
  potential; and the delivery of clean and sustainable en ergy. It also identified four priority areas for 
future action and outlines a set of initiatives to  advance this agenda: strengthening the resilience 
of the energy policy framework; reinvigorating the energy market reform agenda; developing 
critical energy resources – particularly its gas resources; and accelerating clean energy outcomes. 
The final EWP2 was to be published in late 2012. However, the current Government committed to 
develop a new Energy White Paper in light of changed market conditions and policy. As at December 2014, an Energy White Paper was under  development. The new Energy White Paper is 
to set out a coherent and integrated approach to  energy policy to reduce cost pressures on 
households and businesses, improve Australia's international competitiveness and grow its export base and economic prosperity. An Energy Green Pa per, the precursor to the Energy White Paper, 
was released for public consultation in September 2014. Consultation closed in early 
November 2014 and submissions are being used to  inform the development of the Energy White 
Paper.  
4.36.  A July 2011 comprehensive package of clean energy proposals, the Securing a Clean Energy 
Future – the Australian Government's Climate Change Plan, aimed to consolidate existing policies 
and strengthen them with new initiatives contained in four key pillars: the introduction of a carbon price mechanism (repealed on 1 July 2014, section 3.4.1.3)
70; the update of renewable energy 
(section 4.3.2.1.3); the improvement in energy e fficiency; and action on the land. The Plan is 
accompanied by proposals to provide significant levels of financial support for innovation in clean energy technologies, including through: investme nts in renewable energy; the creation of a new 
$A 10 billion commercially oriented Clean Energy Finance Corporation (CEFC), which would invest 
in renewable energy, low ‐emission, and energy ‐efficient technologies
71; as well as the creation of a 
new institution, the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA), which would separately 
administer $A 3.2 billion in government fund ing for existing research and development, 
demonstration and commercialisation of renewable energy. Legislation to establish ARENA was 
passed in 2011 and the Agency commenced operations on 1 July 2012. ARENA's funding was reduced and re-profiled as an element of the legislation repealing the carbon price mechanism, and further savings were announced in the 2014 Budget, along with a decision to close the 
Agency, and move management of ARENA commitm ents and functions to the Department of 
Industry.
72 Furthermore, many of the measures under the Plan were transposed into 
Commonwealth law through a Clean Energy Legi slative Package, passed on 8 November 2011. 
According to the OECD, the scale of Australia's energy policy ambitions is enormous and very 
costly even for a resource-rich nation (section 4.3.2.1.3).73 
4.37.  Australia has a technology-neutral appr oach to energy policy and the Commonwealth 
Government is working to ensure that different energy sources compete on a level playing field. 
This allows stakeholders to take advantage of new technologies that can contribute to the reliable and affordable supply of energy. In addition to its clean energy policy, Australia supports the 
sustainable expansion of fossil fuel exploration,  production and utilisation (sections 4.3.1, 
4.3.2.1.3, and 4.4).
74 Coal is a key contributor to the Australian economy and continues to be an 
important part of the country's energy mix. Australi a, which is the second largest coal exporter in 
the world, has taken a global leadership role in efforts to reduce emissions from coal combustion 
                                               
70 Repealing the carbon tax and the Clean Energy Pack age was designed to: reduce the cost of living; 
lower retail electricity by around 9% and retail gas pr ices by around 7%; boost Australia's economic growth, 
increase jobs and enhance Australia's international competitiveness by removing an unnecessary tax; reduce ongoing annual compliance costs for around 370 liable enti ties by almost $A 90 million per annum; and remove 
over 1,000 pages of primary and subordinate legislation. For more details on the impact of this repeal, see Department of the Environment on line information. Viewed at: http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/cleaner-
environment/clean-air/repealing-carbon-tax . 
71 Since 1 July 2013, AIP Plans (sections 3.2.2.6.3, 3.2.8, and 4.4) have also been required from 
companies receiving over $A 20 million from the CEFC as a condition of the investment. 
72 An ARENA Repeal Bill 2014 was introduced into the House of Representatives on 19 June 2014 to give 
effect to this decision; on 1 July 2014 it was referred to a Senate Committee. On 4 September 2014, the Senate Economics Legislation Committ ee tabled its report and recommendations following review of the Bill 
(ARENA online information. Viewed at: http://arena.gov.au/about-arena/ governance-and-funding-updates/ ). 
73 OECD & International Energy Agency (2012).  
74 Drilling operations have expanded into new offs hore areas, significantl y boosting reserves and 
production of gas (sections 1.2.1, 4.3.1, and 4.3.2.2) in particular. Several subsidies aimed explicitly at promoting fossil fuel exploration, in addition to production subsidies that  also benefit exploration activities, 
remain in place. In total they are worth between $A 2.9 and $A 3.5 billion each year. The largest of these 
subsidies is the Fuel Tax Credits Scheme (section 4.3.2.3). The mining industry – including coal companies – receives more than $A 2 billion in subsidies every year (Bast et al., 2014).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 101 - 
 
  and coal mining, including establishing the Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute. 
Domestically, Australia has world-leading Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) projects underway and is developing new processes for converting  coal mine methane into energy. Development 
proposals that will have, or are likely to have, a significant impact on matters of national 
environmental significance, including those related to coal mining development, must be referred 
for assessment and approval by the Commonw ealth Minister for the Environment.  
4.38.  A July 2009 National Strategy on Energy Efficiency aimed at developing a 
nationally-consistent approach to energy-efficiency policy, reducing red tape, and helping 
businesses and households invest in modern cost-cutting technologies remains in place.
75 It 
involves: legislation on appliance energy ratings and labels; mandating all new homes to achieve energy rating standards in the future; and accele rating the phasing-out of inefficient lighting, 
including a ban on incandescent light bulbs. Under the Greenhouse and Energy Minimum 
Standards Act 2012  (GEMS Act), the Commonwealth Govern ment can set mandatory minimum 
efficiency performance standards (MEPS) and energy-rating label (ERL) requirements for electrical 
equipment and appliance products. These requirements are set out in legislative instruments called 
GEMS determinations, which now cover: rotary clothes-dryers; clothes washing machines; dishwashers; household refrigerating appliances; double-capped fluorescent lamps; transformers 
and electronic step-down converters for ELV lamps; ballasts for fluorescent lamps; compact 
fluorescent lamps for general lighting services; incandescent lamps for general lighting services; electric water heaters; external power supplies; digital television set top boxes; commercial refrigeration products; power supply transformers; air conditioners; liquid-chilling packages; gas 
water heaters; electric motors (2 phase); and televisions/computers/computer monitors for 
personal, domestic or household use.  
4.3.2.1  Electricity 
4.39.  The majority of Australia's electricity was produced from coal, which accounted for 63.9% 
(76.3% in 2007/08) of total electricity generation  in 2012/13, followed by natural gas (20.5%), 
and renewable and oil product sources (10.2% (of which hydro and wind account for 7.3 and 
2.9 percentage points, respectively)). As a result, carbon dioxide emissions per unit of output are 
high by international standards.
76 Electricity generation, transmission, and distribution remain 
subject to geographical and regulatory segmentation in two major blocks: the six southern and eastern Australia jurisdictions
77; and Western Australia and the Northern Territory. In 2014, of the 
69 (52 in 2010) major firms in the Australian electricity market, 16 (11 in 2010) were entirely 
foreign-owned, and a further 13 (8 in 2010) were either joint ventures with foreign-owned companies or partly foreign-owned, with foreign ownership ranging from 34% to 80% (37% to 
91% in 2010).
78  
4.3.2.1.1  Southern an d eastern Australia  
4.40.  During the review period, declining electricity demand has led to surplus generation capacity 
in most regions and has delayed the need for investment in electricity transmission and 
distribution networks.79 Greater stability in global financial markets has eased finance costs for 
energy businesses. In 2013, these developments translated into more stable retail electricity prices in most jurisdictions.  
4.41.  The Australian Energy Regulator (AER) regulates energy markets and networks under 
national energy market legislation and rules in eastern and southern Australia.
80 The Australian 
Energy Market Operator (AEMO), the single electricity and gas market operator in southern and 
eastern Australia only, releases annual publications on high-level national transmission planning 
                                               
75 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
76 Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics online in formation, "Australia's En ergy Sector Key Facts". 
Viewed at: http://bree.slicedlabs.com.au/sites/default/files/files/publications/energy-in-aust/bree-
energyinaustralia-2013-factcard.pdf ; Energy Supply Association of Austra lia (2014); Bureau of Resources and 
Energy Economics online information, "2014 Austra lian energy statistics data July". Viewed at: 
http://www.bree.gov.au/publications/australian-ener gy-statistics/2014-australian-energy-statistics-data .    
77 These jurisdictions are: Queensland, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), 
Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania.  
78 Energy Supply Association of Australia (2014). 
79 Australian Energy Regulator (2013). 
80 More information on the AER is available online. Viewed at: http://www.aer.gov.au/about-us . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 102 - 
 
  and investment opportunities in electricity generation and natural gas. Generators and retailers 
trade electricity in the six jurisdictions of eastern and southern Australia through the wholesale National Electricity Market (NEM). These jurisdicti ons are physically linked by an interconnected 
transmission network, the largest interconnected power system in the world. The electricity 
produced by major generators in the NEM is sold into a gross pool market through a central 
dispatch process managed by the AEMO. Across the NEM, around two-thirds of generation capacity is government-owned or controlled. The NEM has around 317 (270 in 2010) registered generators, 
5 (6 in 2010) state-based transmission networks (linked by cross-border interconnectors), and 
13 major distribution networks that collectively supply electricity to end-use customers.
81  
4.42.  Reforms to the energy rules were announc ed in November 2012 and undertaken to deliver 
future decisions on network revenues and invest ment that are in the long-term interests of 
consumers.82 The rules change provided greater flexibility in the National Electricity Rules (NER) 
and National Gas Rules (NGR) for the AER to adapt its approaches to the nature of the network business it is regulating.  They affect areas such  as: the rate of return; capital expenditure and 
operating expenditure; capital expenditure incent ives; and the regulatory process. In 2013, the 
AER published implementing guidelines under the Better Regulation programme. These will apply first to transitional regulatory determinations in New South Wales (transmission and distribution), 
the Australian Capital Territory (distribution) and Tasmania (transmission) commencing in 
mid-2014. The first determinations under the full arrangements for these businesses are to be made by mid-2015.
83 In retail, the adoption of the National Energy Customer Framework (NECF), 
a national customer protection framework for the retail sale of electricity and gas to residential and 
small business energy customers continued.84 New South Wales became the fourth jurisdiction 
(following South Australia, Tasmania, and the ACT) to implement the NECF on 1 July 2013. 
Victoria indicated it would implement the NECF, subj ect to the resolution of state-specific issues, 
and Queensland has indicated it plans to adopt the NECF in 2015, subject to the COAG Energy 
Council agreeing to state-specific variations to support customers outside of south east Queensland. Implementation of the NECF involves  the transfer of current state and territory 
(except for Western Australia and the Northern Territory) legislation into a single set of laws, 
regulations and rules comprising the National Energy Retail Law, National Energy Retail 
Regulations and National Energy Retail Rules. Consumers in those jurisdictions now enjoy access to the AER's price comparator ( www.energymadeeasy.gov.au ).  
4.43.  Following double digit rises in 2012-13, electricity retail price increases under regulated 
offers for 2013/14 were contained to below 4% in New South Wales, Tasmania and the ACT. 
Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales do not regulate retail electricity prices; in Victoria, 
standing contract prices rose by 5%-12% across  the state’s five distribution network areas in 
2013. In South Australia, electricity prices in standing offer contracts fell by 9.1% following deregulation on 1 February 2013. Subsequent movements resulted in a net price decrease of 1.8% 
during 2013. An exception to the move towards more stable electricity prices was Queensland, 
where the regulated single-rate residential tariff rose by 20.4% in 2013/14; this rise passed through two years of network cost increases follo wing the Queensland Government’s price freeze 
for this tariff in 2012/13.
85 
4.3.2.1.2  Western Australia and the Northern Territory 
4.44.  Western Australia and the Northern Territory have their own electricity generators. In 
Western Australia 39% of generating capacity is  state-owned. In the small Northern Territory 
market the industry is dominated by the st ate-owned corporation Power and Water. Their 
electricity markets are not interconnected with the NEM. Western Australia has operated a wholesale electricity market (WEM), consisting of an energy market and a capacity mechanism, 
since 2006, but there is no wholesale market competition in the Northern Territory. Western 
Australia's electricity market retains a relatively concentrated ownership structure, with state-owned utilities being prominent across the supply chain, especially in the South Western 
                                               
81 Australian Energy Regulator (2013). 
82 Australian Energy Regulator (2013). 
83 AER online information. Viewed at: http://www.aer.gov.au/Better-regulation-reform-program .  
84 The NECF is a national regime fo r retail customers of electricity an d gas, designed to harmonise most 
state and territory regulatory requirements in relation  to the sale and supply of energy to customers. 
85 Australian Energy Regulator (2013).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 103 - 
 
  Interconnected System (SWIS).86 Therefore, full retail competition does not exist in the 
jurisdiction. The Economic Regulation Authority (ERA) is the AER equivalent for the region.87 The 
West Australian Government and Northern Territory Government set retail energy prices for these jurisdictions. In the 2014/15 West Australian Budget, the Government announced a 4.5% increase 
in residential electricity tariffs, effective from 1 July 2014. In the Northern Territory, a 5% increase 
in tariffs was to apply from 1 January 2015.  
4.3.2.1.3  Other issues 
4.45.  In 2011/12, budgetary assistance for the electricity, gas, water and waste services 
industries, mainly in the form of transitional assistance under the industry-specific Energy Security Fund (92.8% of total assistance to the sector),  peaked ($A 1.1 billion) and was the highest among 
all sectors.
88 This assistance was a one-off and in 2012/13 budgetary assistance for this sector 
dropped markedly to just $A 129.6 million. The Renewable Energy Target (RET) scheme, 
consisting of the Large-scale Renewable Energy Target (LRET) and the Small-scale Renewable Energy Scheme (SRES), that is aimed at increasing renewable energy generation and reducing 
greenhouse gas emissions from the electricity sector, remains in place. It is designed to deliver the 
equivalent of 20% of Australia's electricity from renewable sources by 2020, and will cease 
in 2030. As at 31 December 2013, there were 394 power stations accredited under the LRET with 
a combined capacity of approximately 18,600 megawatts.
89 Under the SRES, there are over two 
million small-scale installations that have the capacity to generate or displace approximately 6,882 gigawatt hours of electricity annually.
90 An independent review was to examine the 
operation and costs and benefits of the Rene wable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 and related 
legislation and regulations, and the RET scheme which is constituted by these instruments; a 
report was to be issued by mid-2014 but as at end 2014, it had not yet been released.91  
4.46.  Australia's electricity prices in 2010 and 2011 remained low (or at the mid-range on a 
purchasing power parity basis) compared wi th most other OECD countries, reflecting, inter alia,  
Australia's abundant and low-cost coal supplies.92 Nevertheless, over the past five years, they 
have been rising as a result of network capital expenditure to meet increasing peak demand, 
environmental policy requirements, the carbon ta x,  green and renewable energy schemes (e.g. 
RET, feed-in tariff schemes), as well as a cyclical increase in the replacement of electricity assets in some states, thus resulting in high er average fixed energy costs per user.
93 Lowering customer 
energy bills, particularly peak rates, is at the forefront of both Commonwealth and State and 
Territory Government policy agendas. State and Territory Governments maintain overall 
responsibility for retail energy pricing. Price regulation is maintained in all states and territories other than Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales, and tariffs are set either by 
independent energy regulators or governments according to varying methodologies 
(sections 4.3.2.1.1 and 4.3.2.1.2). Therefore, the tariffs applying to a customer class in one jurisdiction are not comparable to those in another. Ceilings on retail electricity rates for 
households and SMEs remain in place. Accordin g to a 2012 OECD survey, enhancing the efficiency 
of the energy market would boost growth, while pr eserving the environment; price controls remain 
an important area of unfinished business in ener gy reform as electricity tariff caps reduce 
supply-side signals for investment.
94 Despite the lack of a nationally mandated programme, most 
Australian jurisdictions operate feed ‐in tariff (FiT) schemes, which provide owners of small 
                                               
86 In the SWIS, Western Australia's principal electr icity system, the state-owned Western Power owns 
the bulk of transmission and distribution systems. Another state-owned utility, Verve Energy, owns about 
two-thirds of generation capacity. The balance is privat ely owned and mainly dedicated to resource projects. In 
contrast to the NEM, which is a gross pool where the sale of all wholesale electricity occurs in a spot market and participants may also enter formal  hedge contracts to manage spot market risk, energy in the SWIS is 
traded mainly through bilateral contracts outside the pool. WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
87 More information on ERA's activities during the re view period is available at Economic Regulation 
Authority Western Australia (2013). 
88 Productivity Commission (2013d and 2014c). 
89 Clean Energy Regulator (2014). 
90 Clean Energy Regulator (2014). 
91 Department of the Environment online informatio n, "Renewable Energy Target Review - Terms of 
Reference". Viewed at: http://www.environment.gov.au/minister/hunt/2014/pubs/mr20140217-tor.pdf . 
92 Energy Supply Association of Australia online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.esaa.com.au/Library/PageContentFiles/de27d276-324e-4ac3-ac98-
fd8714f97ff8/121213_Comparing_Australian_and_International_Electricity_Prices.pdf .  
93 Deloitte (2013). 
94 OECD (2012).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 104 - 
 
  renewable ‐energy systems with guaranteed fixed rates for the sale of electricity fed into the grid 
(e.g. Victoria).95 During the review period, several schemes (e.g. ACT FiT scheme, South 
Australian solar FiT scheme, and Residential Net FiT for Western Australia) were closed to new participants.
96  
4.3.2.2  Gas 
4.47.  Australia, which exports half of its natura l gas production, remains a major player in global 
liquefied natural gas (LNG) markets. In 2013, it was the second ‐largest LNG exporter in the 
Asia‐Pacific region and the third ‐largest in the world.97 Natural gas production, one of the draft 
EWP2's priority action areas (section 4.3.2), is expected to double, leading to a nearly fourfold 
increase in LNG export capacity up to 2020. The domestic market is divided into three separate 
gas markets.98 As there is no interconnection between these markets, because of the large 
distances between them, gas production is either consumed within each market or exported as 
LNG. The petroleum resource rent tax (section 3.4.1.2) also applies to gas projects. Wholesale gas 
continues to be mostly sold under confidential, long-term contracts of up to 20 years, considered as being essential for the financing of new projects. The trend in recent years has been towards shorter-term supply, owing to price uncertainties, but most contracts still run for at least five years 
and prices are generally indexed to world oil prices. Between 2009/10 and 2011/12, rising 
production costs and strong gas demand, particularly in the mining sector, have put upward pressure on prices. Higher international LNG prices also reflect increasing crude oil prices to which 
Australian LNG contract prices are linked, and stronger demand from Japan in the wake of the 
shutdown of its nuclear electricity generation sector.
99 More recently, the development of an LNG 
export industry in Queensland that has seen rising production costs, LNG netback pricing 
expectations and limited supply competition,  put further upward pressure on domestic prices in the 
eastern gas market.100  
4.3.2.3  Petrol 4.48.  Australia remains a net importer of refi nery feedstock (crude oil and condensate) and 
refined petroleum products as 40% of total oil supply is imported, but a net exporter of liquid 
petrol gas (LPG).
101 A large portion (75%, 2012/13) of domestic crude oil and condensate 
production is exported, as the oil's quality and the geographic location of production makes it 
attractive for modern and more efficient Asian refineries.102 Around 85% of input into refineries is 
sourced from imports; domestic refineries account for around 63% of Australia's refined product consumption. High labour and construction costs (compared to nearby Asian markets), combined 
with the need to build at big volume to fully utilise economy-of-scale benefits, are key drivers of 
falling domestic refining capacity.
103 Australia is the only International Energy Agency (IEA) 
member that relies on the normal stockholding practices of the domestic oil industry to meet its 90‐day net import stockholding obligation.
104  
                                               
95 For example, a minimum feed-in tariff rate of 6.2 cents per kilowatt hour (c /kWh) would apply to all 
customers that have been receiving the current feed-in tariff introduced on 1 January 2013 in Victoria from 
1 January 2015. The minimum FiT rate applying until the end of 2014 was at 8 cents per kWh (State Government Victoria online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.energyandresources.vic.gov.au/energy/en vironment-and-community/victorian-feed-in-tariff-
schemes ).  
96 OECD & International Energy Agency (2012); and In ternational Energy Agency online information. 
Viewed at: http://www.iea.org/policiesandmeasur es/renewableenergy/?country=Australia .  
97 OECD& International Energy Agency (2012). 
98 These markets are: Eastern Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, 
South Australia, and Tasmania), Western Australi a, and the small Northe rn Territory market. 
99 Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics (2013). 
100 Department of Industry and Bureau of  Resources and Energy Economics (2014). 
101 OECD & International Energy Agency (2012). 
102 Australian Institute of Petroleum (2013). 
103 The refining sector incurred losses of around $A 600 million during 2011/12 compared with a net 
profit of $A 348 million in 2010/11 (Australian Competit ion and Consumer Commission & Australian Energy 
Regulator, 2013; and Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics, 2013).  
104 In 2012, there was a severe worsening in Australia's compliance level, as higher 2011 net imports 
become the basis for measuring stockholding. Accordin g to IEA estimates, compliance was around 70 days 
throughout 2012, while the situation improved slightly in 2013, owing to a short ‐term increase in domestic WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 105 - 
 
  4.49.  The industry remains concentrated at the refining and wholesale levels but this need not 
give rise to concerns about the state of competit ion. Nevertheless, despite some improvement, the 
operation of the buy–sell arrangements and the low potential for large-scale independent imports continue to have a bearing on the functioning of competition in the market.
105 A key priority for 
the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission  (ACCC) is anti-competitive conduct in the 
fuel sector; it is concerned about any possible impact on competition in the fuel market because of the potential impact on consumers of even a small increase in price.
106 A mandatory 2007 Oilcode 
(section 3.4.3.1.3) regulating the conduct of operators in the retail industry for downstream 
petroleum products remains in place. On 3 May 2012, the ACCC announced it had commenced an 
investigation into price information sharing in the retail petrol sector because of concerns that such arrangements may be in breach of the Competition and Consumer Act 2010.
107 By August 2014, 
the ACCC was seeking declarations, injunctions, pe cuniary penalties and costs; this matter was 
listed for a directions hearing in Melbourne on 26 September 2014.108  
4.50.  In late 2011, the Commonwealth Government released its Strategic Framework for 
Alternative Transport Fuels that sets out a long-term strategic framework to support the 
market-led development of alternative transport fu els in the context of maintaining liquid fuel 
security while moving toward a low emission economy.109 Under the 2002 Ethanol Production 
Grant (EPG) Programme, which in June 2011 was ex tended until 30 June 2021 with a review after 
that date, the government subsidy to producers remains equal to the fuel excise of 38.143 cents per litre. This is equivalent to budgetary assistance of $A 108.9 million in 2012/13 ($A 115.3 million in 2011/12, $A 124.7 million in 2010/11), meaning that E10 petrol is effectively 
excise-free for the ethanol component (which is 10%).
110 The Energy Grants (Cleaner Fuels) 
Scheme also provides 38.143 cents a litre for the domestic use of biodiesel and renewable diesel. According to the 2014 Budget, as of 1 July 2015 the EPG and the Cleaner Fuels Scheme will cease 
and the excise rate for ethanol and biodiesel will be set at zero. From 1 July 2016 onwards, excise 
will be progressively phased-in on ethanol and biodiesel over a five-year period based on a discounted energy content until it reaches 12.5 cents per liter for ethanol, and 50% of the energy 
content equivalent tax rate for biodiesel.
111 The excise equivalent customs duty for imported 
biodiesel will continue to be taxed at the full energy content equivalent tax rate.112 No comments 
were provided by the authorities on this matter.  
4.51.  The pre-tax component of gasoline prices remains amongst the lowest in the OECD and the 
tax-inclusive gasoline price is the fourth lowest, following Mexico, the United States and Canada.113 
Australian wholesale gasoline and diesel prices closely follow movements in the regionally-benchmarked Singapore prices for petrol (e.g. MOPS95) and diesel (Gasoil 10 ppm 
sulphur), which are in turn largely set by world oi l prices. The Fuel Tax Credits Scheme remains in 
                                                                                                                                               
production in 2012, though not sufficient to bring Aust ralia into sustainable compliance. More information on 
this matter is available at OECD & International Energy Agency (2012). 
105 The refiner-marketers accounted for about 73% (93% in 2007/08) of the petrol imported into 
Australia in 2013/14. The recent growth in independen t imports has been partly driven by the increased 
availability of Australian-standard pe trol in overseas refineries, greate r access to import terminals and the 
scaling back of the Australian refining sector (Aus tralian Competition and Cons umer Commission, 2014b; and 
WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011). The authorities indicated that Trafigura, a leading international commodities trading and logistics compan y, entered the import market in 2013 to become the 
largest independent importer, and United Petroleum is also a fuel importer.  
106 Approximately 54% of petrol prices in Australia comprise the international price of refined petrol, 
around 34% is fuel taxes and around 12% covers local costs and wholesale and retail margins. Local 
competition can only affect this last component (that is, 12% of the petrol price).  
107 Australian Competition and Consumer Comm ission & Australian Energy Regulator (2013). 
108 ACCC Media Release, "ACCC takes ac tion against Informed Sources and petrol retailers for price 
information sharing", 20 August 2014. Viewed at: http://accc.gov.au/media-releas e/accc-takes-action-against-
informed-sources-and-petrol-retail ers-for-price-information-sharing .  
109 Alternative transport fuels include biofuels (such as ethanol and biodiesel), gaseous fuels 
(compressed natural gas, liquefied natural gas and liquef ied petroleum gas) and synthe tic fuels (coal to liquids, 
gas to liquids, biomass to liquids and shale to liquids). 
110 Productivity Commission (2013d). 
111 Australian Taxation Office on line information. Viewed at: https://www.ato.gov.au/General/New-
legislation/In-detail/Indirect-taxes/Excise/Et hanol-Production-Grants-Programme---cessation/ .  
112 Australian Taxation Office online informatio n. Viewed at: https://www.ato.gov.au/General/New-
legislation/In-detail/Indirect-taxes/Excise/Taxation-treatment-of-Biodiesel---modification/; and Ethanol 
Producer Magazine , "Australia to eliminate ethanol subsidy ", 29 May 2014. Viewed at: 
http://ethanolproducer.com/articles/11096/australia-to-eliminate-ethanol-subsidy .  
113 Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics (2013). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 106 - 
 
  place to reduce or remove the incidence of excise  and excise equivalent customs duty, and covers 
liquid, gaseous and blended fuels for business use including for: all off-road business activities, including for electricity generation and aviation fuel, prior to the repeal of the carbon tax in July 2014, where the business was in the Opt-In Scheme.
114 Fuel tax credit rates vary depending 
on the fuel use and activity; the latest set of these rates covers the period from 1 July 2013 
onwards.115 In 2013/14, the Fuel Tax Credits Scheme represented a tax expenditure of 
$A 5.8 billion that is expected to rise at about $A 6.3 billion in 2014/15.116 
4.4  Manufacturing 
4.52.  Manufacturing accounted for 7.1% of GDP (2012/13), 8.1% of employment (8.6% 
and 8.9%, respectively in 2009/10) (Table 1.2), and 11.7% of total merchandise exports (about 5.2% of which machinery and transport equipment), virtually the same as in 2010. Average 
annual MFP slowdown was reduced to -0.2% over 2007/08-2011/12 (from -1.4% in 
2003/04-2007/08).
117 While the export competitiveness of Australian manufacturing has declined 
due to the high dollar, the authorities consider th at it retains many strengths and opportunities as 
the country has strong and sustainable comparative advantages in low-medium technology 
areas.118  
4.53.  Trade in global value chains (GVCs) is the fastest growing part of international trade, and a 
critical driver of producti vity, growth, and employment.119 In 2010, the domestic value added in 
Australia's exports, which is indicative of the value added gains for a country from exports, was at 87%.
120 Australia's GVC participation rate (i.e. the share of exports that is part of a multi-stage 
trade process) was 42%, ranking it 23rd (above Brazil and India) in the world's top 25 exporting 
economies.  
4.54.  Under its Industry Development and Invest ment Program, Australia aims to increase the 
productivity, sustainability and growth of industry, including in the manufacturing sector to support 
its ongoing competitiveness and help build industri es which are integrated into global markets and 
innovative in their business operations.121 Under its October 2014 Industry Innovation and 
Competitiveness Agenda (sections 1.4 and 3.4.2), the Commonwealth Government will focus on 
initiatives to promote national competitiveness and productivity including: economy-wide 
measures to boost the competitiveness of manufacturing and lower the costs of doing business (e.g. costs of energy and regulation); options to encourage innovation; options to accelerate the development of productivity-enhancing infrastructure ; options to encourage the growth of small to 
medium-sized businesses; and, economy-wide incentive mechanisms to boost investment.
122 A 
$A 1 billion February 2013 package,  A Plan for Australian Jobs , an initiative under the former 
Government's Industry and Innovation Statement, is not supported by the current Government. 
                                               
114 The Opt-in Scheme under the Clean Energy Act 2011 allowed liable entities and large users of liquid 
petroleum fuels (e.g. diesel, petrol, aviation fuel) to take on an emissions liability for that fuel under the carbon 
pricing mechanism rather than paying the equivalent carb on price "indirectly" through the fuel tax or excise 
systems (Clean Energy Regulator online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au/Carbon-Pricing-Mechanism/About-the-Mechanism/liquid-fuel-opt-in-
scheme/Pages/default.aspx ; and Energetcis online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.energetics.com.au/insights/latest-news/climate-change-matters/opt-in-scheme-for-liquid-fuels-
regulations-finalis ).  
115 Australian Taxation Office on line information. Viewed at: https://www.ato.gov.au/Business/Fuel-
schemes/In-detail/Fuel-tax-credits---for-GST-registered -businesses/Calculating-an d-record-keeping/Fuel-tax-
credit-rates-and-eligible-fuels/ .  
116 Commonwealth of Australia (2014), Statement 1: Budget Overview, Budget Strategy and Outlook 
2014-15 , Budget Paper No.1. Viewed at: http://www.budget.gov.au/2014-
15/content/bp1/download/BP1_BS1.pdf  
117 Productivity Commission (2013c). 
118 Prime Minister's Taskforce on Manufacturing (2012).  
119 Asian International Economists Network online information, "Global Value Chains, Trade Policy and 
Asia", 22 May 2013. Viewed at: http://aienetwork.org/blog/36/global_value_chains_trade_policy_and_asia . 
120 Factors that influence the share of domestic value added in exports include the size of the economy, 
the composition of exports and position in GVCs, and th e economic structure and export model of the country 
(UNCTAD, 2013). 
121 Department of Industry, Innovation, Climat e Change, Science, Re search and Tertiary 
Education (2013a). 
122 Joint Media release with the Prime Minister, the Ho n Tony Abbott MP, "$155 million to grow the jobs 
of tomorrow", 30 April 2014. Viewed at: http://minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/macfarlane/media-
releases/155-million-grow-jobs-tomorrow . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 107 - 
 
  The Plan was to be funded via changes to the R&D Tax Incentive leading to savings of over 
$A 1 billion from 2014-17 as businesses with annual Australian turnovers of $A 20 billion or more 
would no longer be eligible for the incentive. In November 2013, the current Government reintroduced a bill, yet to be passed, to implement these changes and will redirect the revenue 
gain to repair the budget (sections 1.3.2 and 1.4.1).  
4.55.  During the review period, innovation infr astructure and support included: the services of 
Austrade; AusIndustry (Industry Skills Fund); Comm ercialisation Australia and Enterprise Connect 
(a $A 236 million Industrial Transformation Re search Program); relevant Cooperative Research 
Centres (CRCs), such as the Advanced Manufacturing CRC, the Automotive Australia 2020 CRC and the Advanced Composites Structures CRC; and, skills and training through the National Workforce Development and Productivity Agency and associated Fund.
123 An Entrepreneurs' Infrastructure 
Programme (EIP) was announced in the 2014 Budget which will include elements to: enhance 
business management capability; provide connections between researchers and business; and assist businesses commercialise ideas. Several ge neral and industry-specific programmes, most of 
which are discussed in other sections of this report (sections 3.4.2 and below), contributed to 
achieving the programme's objectives during 2012/13. They included: Automotive New Markets Initiative (until 30 June 2014); Automotive Supply Chain Development Program; Automotive 
Transformation Scheme; Buy Australian at Home and Abroad
124; Clean Technology Focus for 
Supply Chains Program; Procurement Strategy – Strengthening the Australian Industry125; Certain 
Inputs to Manufacture; Clean Business Australia – Green Building Fund; Clean Technology Food and Foundries Investment Program; Clean Technology Investment Program; Energy Brix Australia 
Corporation Assistance; Enhanced Project By-Law Scheme; Food Industry Policy; General Motors 
Holden – Next Generation Vehicles; Liquefied Petroleum Gas Vehicle Scheme; Steel Transformation Plan; Textile, Clothing and Foot wear (TCF) Investment (Small Business Program); 
Clothing and Household Textile (Building Innovative Capability) Scheme, TCF – Register of 
Approved Occupational Clothing, TCF – Structural Adjustment Program; TCF – Strategic Capability Program; and Tradex. A number of these programmes have been closed from 2014/15 onwards 
with a focus on simplifying and streamlining industry support to help boost business productivity 
and increase competitiveness across the economy. Australia's government procurement policy at national, state and/or territory level provides for support to the local industry and SMEs (section 3.2.8). A new Single Business Service allows the industry to interact with Government; as 
of 1 July 2014, it was made up of a consolidated online presence, a contact centre and a 
face-to-face business facilitation network to link interested businesses with relevant programmes and services.
126  
4.56.  Manufacturing activities continue to receive the largest part of net combined assistance from 
a wide range of policy instruments. In 2012/13, the sector accounted for 83.9% (70% in 2011/12) of the estimated net combined assistance made available to all sectors of the economy.
127 
In 2012/13, manufacturing received 77.4% (76.2% in 2011/12) of its net combined industry 
assistance ($A 7.1 billion), mainly through tariff assistance on its output protecting metal product 
manufacturing, food, beverages, and tobacco activities, thus raising costs to consumers and to industries that use manufactured and other inputs subject to tariffs.
128 The sector's effective rate 
of combined assistance was 4.2% in 2012/13 (4.5% in 2009/10) (Table A4.1).129 Effective 
                                               
123 Department of Industry (2014c); Australian Wo rkforce and Productivity Agency (2013); and 
Australian Research Council on line information. Viewed at: http://www.arc.gov.au/ncgp/itrp/itrp_default.htm . 
124 The $A 58 million Buy Australian at Home and Ab road initiative assists firms to enhance their 
competitiveness and link with new business opportunities,  particularly on major proj ects through the following 
activities: Australian Indu stry Participation Plans for major Commo nwealth Procurement (section 3.2.8); 
Supplier Advocates; Resources Sector Supplier Advisory Forum and Envoy;  Supplier Access to Major Projects 
(SAMP); and, Clean Technology Focus for Supply Chains (Department of Industry, I nnovation, Climate Change, 
Science, Research and Tertiary Educat ion online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.innovation.gov.au/INDUSTRY/BUYAUSTRALIANATHOMEANDABROAD/Pages/default.aspx ). 
125 Department of Industry, Innovation, Climate Ch ange, Science, Re search and Tertiary Education 
(2013a). 
126 Australian Govern ment online information. Viewed at: http://www.business.gov.au/about-
businessgovau/Pages/Single-Business-Service.aspx.  
127 Productivity Commission (2013d and 2014c).  
128 The net combined assistance is defined as the net tariff assistance plus budgetary outlays and tax 
concessions. 
129 The effective rate of combined assistance is measured as the do llar value of assistance as a 
proportion of (unassisted) value adde d. The calculations of combined as sistance comprise budgetary, tariff, 
and regulatory assistance. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 108 - 
 
  combined assistance to the textiles, clothing, footwear and leather and motor vehicles and parts 
industries (sections 4.4.1.1 and 4.4.1.2) remains higher than average and the highest of all goods 
industries of the economy, at around 8.1% and 8.9%, respectively.  
4.57.  Australia's average applied MFN tariff on industrial products has remained relatively 
unchanged since its last Review (Table 3.1). Unilateral tariff cuts on certain finished textile articles 
were implemented as of 2015 (section 3.2.2.2). Ac cording to Productivity Commission estimates in 
2012/13, most tariff assistance on outputs continued to be directed towards the manufacturing 
sector, and in particular the food, beverages and tobacco ($A 1.7 billion), metal and fabricated 
metal products ($A 1.7 billion), petroleum, coal, chemical and rubber products ($A 1 billion), and motor vehicles and parts ($A 0.8 billion) industry groups.
130 In 2013, the passenger motor vehicles 
and the textiles, clothing and footwear accounted  for 10.3% and 8% of the gross customs duty 
revenue respectively.  
4.58.  Budgetary assistance for manufacturing is estimated to have dropped in 2010/11, risen to 
about $A 1.8 billion in 2011/12, and declining to $A 1.6 billion in 2012/13; however, its share of 
GDP remained relatively stable at around 0.1% (Table 4.2). The pattern of this assistance was 
reversed from 2010/2011 onwards; in 2012/13 it was mostly and increasingly delivered in the form of outlays (82.8%) and to a lesser extent by  means of tax concessions. The motor vehicles 
and parts industries have remained the main recipient of budgetary assistance. In 2012/13, 
industry-specific and general export support  accounted for 39.6% and 9% of budgetary 
assistance, respectively.
131 Arrangements that may have assistance implications but are not part 
of these estimates include government-purchasing preferences and local-content arrangements 
(section 3.2.8). As for sectors discussed elsewhere in this report, the extent of domestic support 
provided by state or territory governments cannot be fully appraised. 
Table 4.2 Budgetary assistance to manufacturing, 2008/09-2012/13  
  2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13
Share in total budgetary assistance (%)      
Food, beverages, and tobacco 6.7 6.5 7.5 6.0 6.4 
Textiles, clothing, and footwear 7.4 7.0 7.9 3.2 3.9 
Wood and paper products 4.2 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.8 
Printing, publishing, and media 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.3 
Petroleum, coal, chemicals, and rubber 14.5 13.6 17.3 15.5 20.0 
Non-metallic mineral products 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.2 2.1 
Metal product manufacturing 7.0 5.9 6.4 14.7 6.9 
Motor vehicles and parts 32.4 37.5 30.6 34.0 28.7 
Other transport equipment 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.9 
Other machinery and equipment 10.5 10.3 10.9 9.8 14.2 
Other manufacturing 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.5 
Unallocated manufacturinga 12.7 13.2 13.0 10.4 10.4 
Total outlays ($A million) 794.0 955.2 993.7 1,408.2 1,333.3 
Total tax expenditure ($A million) 926.0 981.2 706.0 444.9 275.9 
Total budgetary assistance ($A million) 1,720.0 1,936.4 1,699.7 1,853.1 1,609.2 
Share of total budgetary assistance to GDP (%) 0.14 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.11 
a Unallocated includes general programmes where details of beneficiaries are unknown. 
Source:  Productivity Commission (2014), Trade & Assistance Review 2012-2013 , 27 June. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/137788/trade-assistance-review-2012-13.pdf .  
4.4.1  Automotive 
4.59.  Despite its small contribution to total merchandise exports132, and its relatively high degree 
of concentration133, the automotive industry remained a relatively sensitive part of the Australian 
                                               
130 Productivity Commission (2014c). 
131  Productivity Commission (2014c). 
132 In value terms, the share of the sector (HS 87) ranged from 1% to 1.3% of total exports 
between 2009 and 2013 (UNSD Comtrade database). 
133 The domestic industry consists of 3 foreign-owned subsidiaries of  global companies (Ford, General 
Motors - Holden, Toyota) and approximately 160 component,  tooling, design and engineering firms. Their three 
plants, combined, currently assemble six models of passenger motor vehicles with production spread across 
two states (Victoria, South Austra lia) and four market se gments. The three producers also manufacture 
engines and undertake vehicle design and engineering in specialty centres located in Victoria. Ford, General WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 109 - 
 
  economy during the review period. It was the fourth major recipient of government assistance 
across all sectors in 2012/13 and by far the largest among other manufacturing activities.134 . Its 
contribution to manufacturing value added, employment135, and capital expenditure is around 5% 
(2011/12, 2012/13). Passenger motor vehicles customs duty ($A 920 million) and Luxury Car Tax 
($A 430 million, section 3.4.1.1 and below) payments (excluding GST) account for 1.4% 
(2013/14) of total indirect tax receipts.136 Australia remains a very small global player in the 
automotive sector; its new vehicle sales of just over 1 million units were around 1.3% (1.4% 
in 2012) of passenger and commercial vehicles sold globally in 2013.137 In 2013, nearly 90% (81% 
in 2012) of new passenger motor vehicles were imported.138 Australia's share of global production 
in 2013, at 210,538 units (221,254 units in 2012), was about one-quarter of 1%, and of that, about 40% (32.6% in 2009) was exported. According to a 2014 Productivity Commission Position 
Paper (see below), all vehicle manufacturers in Australia produce well below the 200,000 to 
300,000 vehicles needed annually for an assembly plant to be cost-competitive.
139 Despite 
continuing efforts, a substantial cost gap between Australian and many overseas assembly plants 
remains.140 Between 2010 and 2012 local content dropped from 60.1% to 43.6%.141 Export 
opportunities are limited by the high costs of prod uction, the sustained high value of the Australian 
dollar, competition from lower cost countries and continuing barriers to trade.142  
4.60.  According to a Productivity Commission repo rt, Australia's car market is competitive due to 
a unilateral applied MFN (5%) and preferential (zero, section 2.4.2.1) tariff cuts.143 Nevertheless, 
the average applied MFN tariff for the industry (8.6%) remains significantly higher than the average rate for the manufacturing sector. Used vehicles remain subject to a high/prohibitive 
compound tariff rate (whose AVE is as much as 215.4%) and Vehicle Import Approval 
requirements (section 3.2.2.2.1, Table A3.1).
144 Despite applying to both domestic and foreign 
cars, the luxury car tax (LCT) (section 3.4.1.1) continues to be seen by some stakeholders as 
                                                                                                                                               
Motors - Holden and Toyota would cease manufacturing in Australia by 2016 (Ford) and 2017, respectively 
(Productivity Commission, 2013a). 
134 Motor vehicles and parts had the highest effectiv e rate of assistance of  all industry groups. 
Productivity Commission (2014c). 
135 In 2013, around 45,000 people were employed in the manufacture of cars, trucks and buses, as well 
as automotive engines, automotive electrical compon ents and products for the automotive aftermarket. 
Another 225,000 people were employed in the repair, maintenance and wholesaling of motor vehicles and 
parts; this workforce is largely independent from, and not significantly influenced by, the degree of local manufacturing of vehicles (Pro ductivity Commission, 2013a).  
136 Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Table 8.  
137 Productivity Commission (2013a). 
138 Department of Industry (2013); and Federal Chambe r of Automotive Industries online information, 
"VFACTS Sales Report 2013". Viewed at: http://www.fcai.com.au/ .  
139 Productivity Commission (2014a).  
140 The costs of producing motor vehicles in Australia are high relative to some countries where the 
three producers have affiliate operations, e.g. two times higher than in Europe, and four times higher than in 
Asia (Productivity Commission, 2013a). 
141 This estimate is based on the ratio of Value of  Components Sourced from Au stralian Suppliers/Value 
of Production of Locally-made PMVs and PMV Derivatives,  data available online by the Department of Industry. 
The authorities' estimates differ from those of the Secretariat and were of the order of 66.0% (2010) and 64.7% (2012). During the review period there has be en concern that production will be focused on global 
vehicle platforms, a shared set of common design, engi neering, and production e fforts, as well as major 
components over a number of outwardl y distinct models and even types of automobiles, often from different, 
but related marques. This would have an impact on Au stralian content value that is believed to be an 
extremely low 20-25% in Holden's new (Cruze) platform (Australian Automotive Aftermarket 
Association, 2013; and Department of Industry, 2013). 
142 There is concern that preferential tariff treatmen ts among other countries have placed Australian 
exports at a disadvantage (Productivity Commission, 2013a).  
143 As an increasingly larger number of imported ve hicles enter at a zero ta riff rate, domestic vehicle 
producers are under pressure to lower their prices (or offer other consumer discount s such as free petrol or 
zero-rate financing) to avoid losing sales. In addition  to existing preferential arrangements, FTAs with the 
Republic of Korea and Japan would mean that two-thirds  of imported cars would enter at zero tariff rate 
by 2017, producing savings of up to $A 2,000 on popular makes (Productivity Commission, 2013a; and The 
Australian , "Trade deals will slash car tariffs", 14 February 2014. Viewed at: 
http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/poli cy/trade-deals-will-slash-car-tariffs/story-fn59nm2j-
1226826646593# ).  
144 According to the Australian Parliament Hansard records, the rarely applied non- ad valorem  
component of the duty on imported used cars, introd uced in 1991 as an industry protection measure, has 
benefits for environmental, safety an d even consumer concerns. They also mentioned that Australia's balanced 
approach to used-vehicle imports is less restrictive than economies that prohibit imports of used cars.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 110 - 
 
  effectively discriminating against foreign-made vehicles of this type, which usually have higher 
prices than domestically-produced luxury/large vehicles, and are estimated to continue to provide 97.1% (2011/12) of the revenue from this tax.
145 In 2014, there were calls to scrap tariffs 
on imported cars and the LCT after the planned closure of the Ford, Toyota, and Holden plants.146 
Government procurement of motor vehicles remains exempt from the mandatory procurement 
procedures of the Commonwealth Procurement Rules (section 3.2.8).147 Between December 2012 
and October 2013, an automotive industry advocate was to develop, inter alia , an action plan to 
increase the purchase of Australian-made vehicles by public sector fleets.148In light of the closure 
announcements by local vehicle producers, the Government is to address the Commonwealth’s fleet procurement policy in its response to the Productivity Commission’s Report on Australia’s Automotive Manufacturing Industry (see below).   
4.61.  Although automotive manufacturing remains heavily, albeit less, assisted, this assistance 
has not secured the future of motor vehicle production as demonstrated by planned plant closures.
149 In 2012/13, motor vehicles and parts  accounted for $A 461.8 million ($A 629.4 million 
(2011/12), $ A 726.5 million (2009/10)) of budgetary assistance or 28.7% of the amount 
transferred to manufacturing. It was mainly delivered through the industry-specific components of the New Car Plan for a Greener Future (i.e. the Automotive Transformation Scheme, the Green Car 
Innovation Fund), and general export support from Tradex.
150 A $A 34 million Assistance to Ford 
Australia (under the Automotive Industry Structural Adjustment Program) was delivered in 2011/12.  Since November 2008, the $A 5.8 billion New Car Plan for a Greener Future has assisted 
the industry to prepare for a low-carbon future and to further orientate itself to global markets and 
supply chains. During the review period, the plan consisted of: $A 1.6 billion in capped, and 
approximately $A 348 million in uncapped, assistance under the Automotive Transformation Scheme (ATS) from 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2017 (previously scheduled until 2020/21) as 
a consequence of the decision by the domestic car makers to cease manufacturing by that date
151; 
a $A 500 million Green Car Innovation Fund (GCIF) which was closed to new applications on 27 January 2011
152; a $A 146.9 million Automotive Industry Structural Adjustment Programme 
(AISAP) promoting adjustment through mergers and consolidation in the components sector, and 
facilitating labour market adjustment (1 November 2008 to 30 June 2018); a $A 20 million Automotive Supply Chain Programme (30 June 2009 to 30 June 2013) helping suppliers improve their capabilities and their integration in complex national and global supply chains; a 
                                               
145 Furthermore, the discriminatory nature of the LC T appears to be reinforced  by the fact that the 
Commonwealth Government singles out the entire automoti ve industry and does not tax other 'luxury' items 
such as yachts or jewellery in a similar manner (Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries, 2009; Victorian Automobile Chamber of Commerce, "S ubmission and Comments Australia's Automotive Manufacturing Industry 
– Position Paper January 2014", 13 February 2014. Viewed at: http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/134199/subpp252-automotive.pdf ; and WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011). 
146 The Australian , 13 February 2014. Viewed at: http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/on-
special-thousands-off-if-car-imposts-go/story-fn59niix-1226825266041# .  
147 In 2012/13, Australian-manufactured vehicles acco unted for 56% of fleet purchases by the three 
governments with an Australian-m ade purchasing policy (i.e. the Commonwealth, Victoria and South 
Australia), and 21% of fleet purchases by the remain ing state territory and lo cal governments combined 
(Productivity Commission, 2013a). 
148 Productivity Commission (2013d). 
149 Productivity Commission (2013a).  
150 Productivity Commission (2013a).  
151 In 2013/14 a $A 289.5 million in capped and $A 56.6 million in uncapped assistance was delivered 
mainly to motor vehicle (67.9%) and automotive compon ents (31.3%) producers. The ATS provides assistance 
in the form of cash payments to eligible participants for production of motor vehicles, investment in R&D to a 
maximum rate of 50%, and investment in plant and eq uipment to a maximum rate of 15%. The ATS covers 
motor vehicle producers, automotive component producers, automotive machine tool and automotive tooling producers, and automotive service pr oviders. Certain segments of the industry including the truck and bus 
assembling and many firms in the aftermarket parts segments, operate without the benefit of the ATS (Department of Industry onlin e information. Viewed at: 
http://www.innovation.gov.au/industry/automotive/InitiativesandAssistance/Pages/ATS.aspx ; Australian 
Government online information. Viewed at: http://www.business.gov.au/grants-and-
assistance/manufacturing/ats/Pages/default.aspx ; and Department of Industry, 2014a). 
152 The GCIF plan to produce more fu el-efficient cars was closed to new applications after two years of 
operation as part of Budget saving's measures required, inter alia , to help pay for the rebuilding of 
infrastructure damaged by the floods in Queensland and Vi ctoria; it used just 38% of  its budget. Before that 
decision, however, Toyota received $A 35 million to build a hybrid Camry and $A 63 million to develop a next 
generation engine plant, Holden obtained $A 149 mill ion to build its Cruze sedan, and Ford was awarded 
$A 42 million for its EcoBoost engine project.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 111 - 
 
  $A 6.3 million Automotive Market Access Programme (July 2009 to 30 June 2012) to boost 
component suppliers' access to global supply chains; a $A 16 million Automotive New Markets Initiative (from 2012/13 to 2013/14) to help capture new opportunities in global automotive markets
153; and a Liquefied Petrol Gas (LPG) Vehicle Scheme Enhancement programme 
(1 July 2011 to 30 June 2014) providing grants for the LPG conversion of a used registered motor 
vehicle ($A 1,000) or the purchase of a new vehicle ($A 2,000) fitted with LPG prior to first registration.
154 In addition, the New Car Plan prov ided co-investment grants to Ford 
($A 34 million), Holden ($A 215 million) and Toyota ($A 28.6 million). The co-investment with 
Holden was terminated in early 2014 without any grant funding paid. Although the production support provided by the ATS raised WTO-consistency concerns domestically in the past; the authorities consider that all programmes under the scheme A New Car Plan for a Greener Future 
are WTO-compliant.
155  
4.62.  Following the closure announcements of the local motor vehicle producers, a $A 155 million 
Growth Fund was announced on 30 April 2014 to  assist industry tr ansition out of car 
manufacturing in Australia by 2017.156 The Growth Fund, which forms part of the Industry 
Investment and Competitiveness Agenda (section 4.4), is to help generate future jobs and supply-chain business opportunities in Victoria and South Australia affected by the closures. The 
Growth Fund includes: a $A 30 million Skills and Training Program; a $A 15 million boost to the 
AISAP; a $A 20 million Automotive Diversification Programme; a $A 60 million Next Generation Manufacturing Investment Program to accelerate private sector investment in high value non-automotive manufacturing sectors in Victoria and South Australia; and, a $A 30 million 
Regional Infrastructure Program to support investment in non-manufacturing opportunities in 
affected regions.  
4.63.  To ensure that any support is accountable, transparent and targeted at the long-term 
sustainability of the automotive manufacturing industry, the Productivity Commission was 
requested to undertake an inquiry.
157 According to its 2014 Position Paper, the key findings point 
out, inter alia , that: the policy rationale for specific assistance to automotive manufacturing are 
weak; there is no compelling evidence that spillover and multiplier benefits exceed the costs of 
assistance to the industry; decades of transitional assistance have forestalled but not prevented the structural adjustment now being faced by th e industry; and the forthcoming closures of the 
Ford and Holden plants are expected to contribute to an underspend of $A 380 million under the 
ATS funding schedule by 2020.  
4.4.2  Textiles, clothing, and footwear (TCF) 4.64.  During the review period, the share of textiles and clothing in total value of merchandise 
exports remained stable at 0.2%.
158 Its shares in GDP and employment were 0.2% and 0.3%, 
respectively. In 2012/13, the industry's value added was 2.8% (2.7% in 2008/09) of total manufacturing value added, and import value was almost 20 times more than that of exports. 
In 2013, Australian textiles and clothing exports as  a share of world textiles and clothing exports 
was 0.11%.
159 
                                               
153 The Automotive New Markets Initiative, a joint initiative between the Commonwealth, Victoria and 
South Australia govern ments, has three key elements: the Automotive New Markets Program; the Business 
Capability Support Program; and, the Automotive Envo ys and Automotive Supplier Advocate (Automotive New 
Markets Initiative Automotive New Markets Program Ministerial Guidelines 2012, 27 July 2012. Viewed at: http://www.innovation.gov.au/industry/automotive/InitiativesandAssistance/ANMI/Documents/ANMPMinisterial
Guidelines.pdf ; and Manufacturelink online information, "New  Automotive Markets Initiative, 27 August 2012". 
Viewed at: http://www.manufacturelink.com.au/news/view/new-automotive-markets-33116.aspx ). 
154 The LPG Vehicle Scheme has been capped at 25,000 e ligible claims (AusIndustry online information. 
Viewed at: http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/programs /energy-fuels/lpgvs/ Pages/default.aspx ). 
155 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011.  
156 Prime Minister Media Release, "Securing Australia's Manufacturing Future", 18 December 2013. 
Viewed at: http://www.pm.gov.au/media/2013-12-18/secu ring-australias-manufacturing-future ; Joint Media 
Release with the Prime Minister, the Hon Tony Abbott MP, "$155 million to grow the jobs of tomorrow", 
30 April 2014. Viewed at: http://minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/macfarlane/media-releases/155-million-
grow-jobs-tomorrow . 
157 Productivity Commission (2014a).  
158 UNSD Comtrade database. 
159 UNSD Comtrade database and ABS Cat. No. 5368.0.55.017 Changes to AHECC and Custom tariff 
2012. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 112 - 
 
  4.65.  TCF activities continued to benefit from government support as reflected in several 
assistance indicators discussed in this report (section 4.4). Budgetary assistance to the TCF 
industry, mainly delivered in form of outlays via the industry-specific Clothing and Household 
Textile Building Innovative Capability schem e ($A 22.6 million in 2011/12, $A 22.3 million 
in 2012/13), halved in 2011/12 and rose slightly in 2012/13 to account for 3.2% and 3.9% of the 
total amount available to manufacturing respectively.160 Unilateral tariff cuts undertaken in 2010 
and January 2015 reduced border protection to TC F producers (section 3.2.2.2). Nevertheless, 
these rates remain significantly higher than the average applied MFN tariff for the sector 
(Table A3.1). The industry remains characteri zed by a high degree of tariff escalation 
(section 3.2.2.2.2).  
4.66.  During the review period, vari ous types of assistance to promote, inter alia , innovation and 
the development of a sustainable and internationally-competitive textile and clothing industry, 
remained in place. The 2009 TCF Innovation Package was continued, including a five-year $A 33.2 million TCF Strategic Capability Programme (grants, 2010/11 to 2014/15), a 
$A 112.5 million Clothing and Household Textile Building Innovative Capability scheme (grants, 
2010/11 to 2014/15), and TCF Small Business Programme (grants, until 30 June 2016).
161 In the 
May 2014 Budget, the Government announced its intention to close the Clothing and Household 
Textile Building Innovative Capability scheme an d the TCF Small Business Programme with effect 
from 30 June 2014 (i.e. one year earlier than originally intended). As of December 2014, the relevant legislation had passed the Lower House but was yet to be debated in the Senate. Part 2 (i.e. the Restructuring Initiative Grants Scheme) of the $A 50 million TCF Structural Adjustment 
Program (1 July 2005 to 30 June 2015), i.e. the Restructuring Initiative Grants Scheme, ceased 
in June 2013.
162 The TCF Industries Innovation Council brings together business, unions, 
researchers, and government to consult on innovation and provide strategic advice.   
4.5  Services 
4.5.1  Features 4.67.  Australia's services sector is the mainst ay of its economy; it accounted for 71% of GDP 
in 2012/13 and 77% of employment in the same year. Main services sub-sectors are: wholesale 
and retail trade (9.2% of GDP); ownership of dwe llings (8.9%); finance and insurance (8.7%) and 
professional, scientific and technical services (7.3 %) (Table 1.2). Services growth has remained 
steady over the review period, and exports have  witnessed a strong recovery after the global 
financial crisis. Nevertheless Australia still posts a services deficit: the value of services receipts 
was just under $A 58 billion in 2013/14 while the value of services payments in the same fiscal year was just under $A 72 billion (Table 1.3). 
4.5.2  Domestic support 
4.68.  As reported by the Productivity Commissi on, while budgetary assistance (i.e. government 
outlays and tax concessions) to the services sector was just over $A 3 billion in 2012/13, the input 
tariff penalty on services was nearly $A 5 billi on, resulting in negative net assistance overall 
(Table 4.3).  
Table 4.3 Government assistance to the services sector, 2012/13 
 Net tariff assistance Budgetary assistance 
Electricity, gas, water, and waste services -97.1 129.6 
Construction -1,698.1 168.5 
Wholesale trade -259.8 199.7 
                                               
160 Productivity Commission (2014c). 
161 More information on these programmes is availabl e at AusIndustry online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/programs/manufacturing/tcf-scp/Pages/default.aspx , 
http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/programs/manufacturing/bic-scheme/Pages/default.aspx , and 
http://www.ausindustry.gov.au/programs/s mall-business/tcf-sbp/Pages/default.aspx ; Department of Industry 
online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.innovation.gov.au/industry/TextilesClot hingandFootwear/TCFIndustries/Pages/default.aspx ; and 
WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
162 Department of Industry, Innovation, Climate Ch ange, Science, Re search, and Tertiary Education 
(2013b).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 113 - 
 
   Net tariff assistance Budgetary assistance 
Retail trade -188.0 126.8 
Accommodation and food services -523.6 69.3 
Transport, postal, and warehousing -211.8 96.1 
Information, media, and telecommunications -145.7 357.7 
Financial and insurance services -9.7 640.3 
Property, professional, and admin. services -620.9 677.5 
Public administration and safety -217.8 17.5 
Education and training -120.3 38.9 
Health care and social assistance -274.9 158.1 
Arts and recreation services -79.1 407.4 
Other services -288.7 68.6 
Unallocated servicesa  170.8 
Unallocated othera   
Total -4,735.5 3,326.7 
a  Unallocated includes programmes  for which details of the initial benefiting industry could not be 
readily identified. 
Source:  Productivity Commission (2013), Trade and Assistance Review 2012-13 . Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au . 
4.5.3  Commitments under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) 
4.69.  Australia's commitments under the GATS remain unchanged. Its comprehensive Schedule of 
Specific Commitments covers most services sectors, with the exception of audio-visual, 
postal-courier, and rail transport services. Apart from a revised services offer submitted in 
May 2005, no new offer has been tabled within the context of the current GATS negotiations.163 
4.5.4  Regional and bilateral agreements on services 
4.70.  Australia's regional trade agreements (RTAs) with ASEAN (and New Zealand), Chile, the 
Republic of Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore, Thailand, and the United States include provisions on services. Some use a negative-list approach to scheduling services commitments, 
while others use positive list modalities. As noted in Australia's previous Review, the levels of 
commitments undertaken by Australia vary from one FTA to the other and often go significantly beyond GATS commitments. Australia's RTAs exclude subsidies from their application, consistent with the absence of specific disciplines on services subsidies in the GATS.
164 
4.5.5  Financial services 
4.71.  Finance and insurance services contributed 8.7% to GDP (at current prices) in 2012/13 and 
accounted for 3.6% of total employment (Table 1.2). The financial services sector is based on 
three main institutional groups: authorized deposit-taking institutions (ADIs), which include banks, 
building societies and credit unions; non-ADI financial intermediaries, including money market corporations, finance companies, and securitization vehicles; and fund managers and insurers, 
including life and general insurance companies, and superannuation and approved deposit funds 
(ADFs). As at June 2013, the banking sector accounted for just over 57% of the financial system's total assets (Table 4.4). 
4.72.  The financial system remains supervised by three institutions: the Reserve Bank of Australia 
(RBA), Australia's central bank; the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA) 
(deposit-taking institutions, general and life insurance companies, and superannuation funds (i.e. pension funds); and the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) (overall 
market conduct, consumer protection, and compet ition in financial services). The Council of 
Financial Regulators ensures coordination between these bodies. 
                                               
163 More information on Australia's  GATS commitments and latest submitted offers may be found, 
inter alia , in WTO documents GATS/SC/6, 15 April 1994; GATS/EL/6, 15 April 1994; GATS/SC/6/Suppl.4, 
26 February 1998; TN/S/O/AUS/Rev.1, 31 May 2005. 
164 WTO document S/WPGR/W/46/Add.1, 11 May 2009. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 114 - 
 
  Table 4.4 Structure of th e financial system assets, June 2009 to June 2013 
($A trillion and %) 
  Main 
supervisor/regulatorJune 
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Total ($A trillion) 4.6 4.6 4.8 5.1 5.4 
Banking sector (%) 
Reserve Bank (RBA) 2.4 1.9 1.6 1.8 1.9 
Other banks APRA 56.6 56.9 56.8 58.5 57.3 
Other authorized deposit-taking 
institutions (ADIs)           
Permanent building societies APRA 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 
Credit unions APRA 0.9 1 1 1.1 0.9 
Registered Financial Corporations 
(RFCs)           
Money market corporations ASIC 2.1 1.4 1.4 1 0.8 
Finance companies ASIC 2.6 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.1 
Life offices and superannuation funds           
Life insurance offices APRA 3.9 4.1 4.2 4 4 
Superannuation funds APRA 16.6 18.7 20 20 22 
Other managed fund           
Public unit trusts ASIC 5.9 6 5.5 4.9 4.8 
Cash management trusts ASIC 1 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 
Common funds State authorities 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 
Friendly societies APRA 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 
Other financial institutions           
General insurance offices APRA 2.9 2.9 3.1 3 3 
Securitization vehicles ASIC 4.2 3.2 2.8 2.5 2.3 
Source:  Reserve Bank of Australia  online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.rba.gov.au/statistics/tables/xls/b01hist.xls  [15 April 2014]. 
4.73.  Proposed foreign investments in Australian financial institutions, as with foreign investments 
in other sectors, are subject to a screening process with exceptions applied to a few RTA partners 
(Chile; Korea (Rep. of); New Zealand; and the United States) (section 2). The Financial Sector 
(Shareholdings) Act (FSSA) 1998 operates in parallel with this process and requires that any investor, foreign or domestic, wishing to acquire an interest of 15% or more in a financial 
institution must notify and seek the Treasurer's approval.
165 The Treasurer reviews whether 
applications are in the national interest on a case-by-case basis, taking into account all relevant considerations, such as prudential requirements and the impact on the economy and competition.
166 
4.74.  Various tax measures have been put in place, or are being implemented, to encourage the 
further development of Australia's financial services sector. Offshore Banking Unit (OBU) rules provide for a concessional rate of tax (10%) on income earned from eligible offshore banking 
activities. This concession is available to an enti ty that is declared by the Treasurer to be an 
OBU.
167 The Commonwealth Government has announced that it will modernise the OBU regime to 
encourage genuine offshore banking activity in Australia, starting in July 2015.168 Australia's 
Investment Manager Regime (IMR) is intended to  provide greater clarity and certainty regarding 
the Australian tax treatment of investments of foreign funds using an independent Australian resident investment adviser, fund manager, broker , exchange or agent. The IMR will exempt from 
income tax the gains of widely-held foreign funds from certain financial arrangements.
169 
Australia's Managed Investment Trust (MIT) rules offer a reduced rate of withholding tax of 15% 
on ''fund payments'' (for example rental income) by  Australian managed funds to foreign investors 
                                               
165 Financial Sector (Shareholdings) Act (Act No. 55 of 1998, as amended), Part 2. Viewed at: 
http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2010C00077/Html/Text#_Toc253669783 . 
166 WTO document WT/TPR/M/244/Add.1, 16 May 2011. AP RA's guidelines on authorization set out the 
minimum criteria to be met by applicants. These were viewed at: http://www.apra.gov .au/adi/Pages/adi-
authorization-guidelines.aspx .  
167 Entities that may be declared as  an OBU may include: an authorized deposit-taking institution; a 
state bank; a life insurance company; a fund manager;  or other entity designated by the Treasurer. 
168 This announcement was made in the 2013-14 Budget.  As noted in a Treasury's media release, these 
reforms will commence on 1 July 2015. The Treasury online information. Viewed at: 
http://axs.ministers.treasury.gov.au/media-release/003-2014/ .  
169 The first two stages of the IMR were introduced in 2012 and the Commonwealth Government has 
announced that it will be proceeding with the third and final tranche. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 115 - 
 
  (a rate of 30% applies in all other cases). The foreign investor must be a resident of a country 
with whom Australia has a tax information exchange agreement (TIEAs and DTAs (Table 2.4)). 
4.75.  The Commonwealth Government is supportive of the development of an Asia Region Funds 
Passport which will provide the regulatory framework for the cross-border offer of collective 
investment schemes in participating economies.170 
4.76.  A major Financial System Inquiry was launched in 2013 with its panel mandated to develop 
a blueprint for the future of the financial services sector which would support Australia's economic 
growth and the country's evolving needs.171 The panel's final report was released in 
December 2014. While it acknowledged that Australia's financial system has many strong characteristics, it also identified various weaknesses. At a general level it found there was scope to eliminate distortions to the efficient market allocation of financial resources (such as taxation, 
information imbalances and unnecessary regulation). Noting high concentration and increasing 
vertical integration in some areas, it also recommended the removal of impediments to competition. Other recommendations fell under five specific themes, namely: (a) strengthening 
the economy by making the financial system more resilient; (b) lifting the value of the 
superannuation system and retirement incomes; (c) driving economic growth and productivity through settings that promote innovation; (d) enhancing confidence and trust by creating an 
environment in which financial firms treat customers fairly; and (e) enhancing regulator 
independence and accountability, and mini mising the need for future regulation.
172 
4.5.5.1  Banking 4.77.  The Australian banking market remains domi nated by four nationwide full-service banks. 
These accounted for 76% of total banking assets (end June 2014). The Commonwealth 
Government does not have an ownership stake in any bank, but continues to guarantee various superannuation and other liabilities of the Commonwealth Bank.
173 The main laws and regulations 
governing ADIs are: the Banking Act 1959 (as amended) and Banking Regulations 1966.174 
4.78.  Foreign banks may apply to the Australian Prudential Regulatory Authority (APRA) to 
establish locally incorporated subsidiaries or branches to carry on banking business in Australia. 
There are no restrictions on the number or size of operations of foreign banks in the Australian 
market and foreign-owned subsidiaries are subject to the same legislative and prudential requirements as locally-owned ADIs. In order to  protect depositors, branches may only accept 
deposits from retail customers above $A 250,000. As at mid-October 2014, 47 of the 
163 authorized banking groups were foreign-owned (40 locally incorporated subsidiaries and 
7 branch operations). At end June 2014, foreign banks accounted for 11.6% of banking assets (a 
2.9% share for subsidiaries and an 8.7% share for branches). They continue to have a more 
significant presence in merchant banking rather than in retail banking.  
4.79.  As reported by the IMF, the banking system is well managed.
175 Banks' asset performance 
has been good reflecting, inter alia , operational efficiencies, higher net interest income and a 
decline in the ratio of non-performing loans to total loans. Banks have moved towards more stable 
funding sources (domestic, rather than short term  wholesale funding) and strong deposit growth 
                                               
170 Asia Regions Funds Passport online information. Viewed at: http://fundspassport.apec.org/ .  
171 Under its terms of reference, the panel was required to recomm end policy options to: promote a 
competitive and stable financial system which contribu tes to Australia's productivity growth; promote the 
efficient allocation of capital and cost efficient access  and services for users; me et the needs of users with 
appropriate financial products and services; and create  a dynamic and innovative environment. FSI online 
information. Viewed at: http://fsi.gov.au/terms-of-reference . 
172 Treasury (2014).  
173 Prior to 1995 the Government-owned the Commonwealth Bank. Under the terms of the 
Commonwealth Bank Sale Act 1995, the Commonwealth Go vernment guaranteed various superannuation and 
other liabilities. There is no term ination date for these guarantees and they re main reflected in the 
Commonwealth Government's Statement of Risks, included in each Commonwealth Budget update. 
174 These laws were viewed at: http://www.apra.gov.au/adi/Pages/adi-legislation.aspx .  
175 IMF (2014). As noted by the RBA, in March 2014, over the previous six months banks' deposit were 
growing at an annualised rate of about 9%, with credit growth at around 4.5%. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 116 - 
 
  has outpaced moderate credit growth.176 As pointed out by the RBA, the exposure of Australian 
banks to international claims is small compared with many other advanced banking systems.177  
4.80.  This notwithstanding, the authorities are cognisant of potential future risks and are taking 
action to prevent them. The IMF has reported that while stress tests have shown that banks would 
be resilient to a variety of solvency shocks, a major liquidity shock could require central bank 
support. A key concern relates to possible overheating of the housing sector, with the RBA warning that the current low interest rate environment and rising housing prices (evident particularly in 
Sydney and Melbourne
178) could encourage speculative activity. Regulators are concerned to 
ensure that banks do not increase their risk appetite or relax their lending standards.179 As 
reported by the RBA, recent regulatory steps taken by APRA have included: more intensive 
supervision and stress-testing activities and the release of a draft Prudential Practice Guide for 
housing lending. In addition, regulators are discussing further steps to be taken to reinforce sound 
lending practices, particularly with respect to lending to investors, an area which has recently expanded significantly.
180  
4.81.  Steps taken to strengthen the banking system over the review period have included various 
measures, either completed or planned, to implement the Basel III capital and liquidity requirements. From January 2015, all banks will need to conform to new Basel III liquidity 
requirements (some of these requirements were in effect sooner). Concurrently, the RBA will 
establish a Committed Liquidity Facility (CLF) allowing participating ADIs to have access to sufficient liquidity in the event of an acute stress scenario.
181 All banks were required to implement 
Basel III capital requirements in 2013182, and will have to meet non-risk-weighted capital ratios 
(leverage ratios) at a future date (yet to be decided).183 Entities which are higher risk are subject 
to more intensive supervision by APRA and may be subject to capital requirements beyond those required under the Basel framework. Additionally, four major banks have been designated by APRA 
as systemically-important banks (D-SIBs).
184 D-SIBs pose greater systemic risks and will be 
subject to more intensive supervision as well as higher capital requirements from 2016.185  
4.82.  Key policy measures taken in the banking sector to mitigate the impact of the global 
financial crisis have been wound down. The Guarantee Scheme for Large Deposits and Wholesale 
Funding closed to new liabilities in 2010. Under the Financial Claims Scheme for ADIs, deposits were guaranteed by the Government up to a threshold of $A 1 million up until 31 January 2012. This has been replaced by a permanent guarantee cap of $A 250,000, in place since 
February 2012.
186  
4.83.  In the 2013 Economic Statement, the prev ious Government announced the creation of a 
Financial Stability Fund, to be funded by a levy on bank deposits covered by the Financial Claims 
Scheme (FCS); its target size was to be 0.5% of to tal deposits protected by the FCS. A decision on 
the future of the Financial Stability Fund was put on hold by new Government pending the conclusion of the Financial System Inquiry (see above).  
                                               
176 As at July 2014, domestic deposits and wholesale debts contributed approximately 57% and 34% of 
banks' funding, respectively. 
177 See Reserve Bank of Australia (2014a and 2014b). As reported in the September Review, the 
aggregate profit of the major banks was over $A 14 b illion in their latest half-yearly results (around 13% 
higher than the corresponding period  a year earlier); the major bank's annual returns on equity have been 
above those recorded in other advanced economy bank ing systems (15% in the 2014 financial year); and, in 
domestic portfolios, the ratio of non-performing loans to  total loans was 1.1% at June 2014, down from 1.9% 
in mid-2010. As reported by the March Review, RBA Australian-owned banks' international claims represented a little less than one-quarter of their glob al consolidated assets as at March 2014.  
178 Reserve Bank of Australia (2014b). 
179 Reserve Bank of Australia (2014a).  
180 Reserve Bank of Australia (2014b). 
181 More detailed information on the CLF is available on the RBA website. Viewed at: 
http://www.rba.gov.au/media-releases/2011/mr-11-25.html . 
182 IMF (2012).  
183 Reserve Bank of Australia (2014b). 
184 These banks' designation as D-SIBs was based upon  APRAs examination of four broad indicators of 
systemic importance, namely, size, interconnectedness, complexity and substitutability. 
185 Reserve Bank of Australia (2014a). 
186 APRA online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.apra.gov.au/CrossIndustry/Documents /ADI%20Financial%20Claims%20Scheme%20FAQ%2001%
2002%2012.pdf . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 117 - 
 
  4.5.5.2  Insurance 
4.84.  Australia's insurance market is one of the world's largest (in 12th place globally according to 
Australia's previous review, which contains the most recent OECD data).187 The Commonwealth 
Government used to own 100% of Australia's largest private health insurer, Medibank Private 
Limited but sold this entity through an initial public offering in November 2014.188 It does not own 
shares in any other insurance company. Information was not available on the equity stakes of state/territorial governments in any insurance companies. 
4.85.  As a consequence of the decline in insurance numbers over the past 10-15 years, the 
general insurance business has become more concentrated. According to the authorities, for the year ended 2013, the largest five direct insurance groups accounted for over 70% of direct insurance premiums, compared to under 50% in 1995. Over the same period, the top five life 
insurers held around 82% of the industry's assets. 
4.86.  In 2014, total insurance premiums were eq ual to around 5% of GDP. According to OECD 
figures from 2012, direct gross premiums per capita are above the OECD average. On the other 
hand, OECD reports that the share of foreign companies in the domestic market is under the OECD 
average: at 15.8% in 2012 for life insurance companies and 27.1% for non-life insurance companies.  
4.87.  The Federal laws governing the insurance sector are: the Insurance Act (1973) for general 
insurance; the Life Insurance Act (1995) for life insurance; and, the Private Health Insurance Act (2007) for private health insurance.
189  
4.88.  APRA has responsibility for licensing and regulating life and general insurance companies, 
including reinsurance companies.190 Public insurance companies (i.e. those which provide 
compulsory insurance under state or territorial legislation (see below)) are licensed by and regulated at the state level. Private health insurance companies are currently regulated by the 
Private Health Insurance Administration Council (PHIAC). However, in the 2014-15 Budget, the 
Commonwealth Government announced the closure of the PHIAC; its prudential regulation functions are being transferred to APRA and its remaining functions will be subsumed by the 
Australian Department of Health by 1 July 2015. Under individual state/territorial laws workers' 
compensation insurance; third-party motor insurance; builders' warranty insurance and public liability insurance are compulsory. Professional indemnity insurance is also compulsory for certain practitioners (for example, legal and medical prac titioners, insurance brokers, certain accountants 
and contractors working with government bodies).  Medical indemnity and professional indemnity 
insurers must be licenced by APRA under the Insurance Act.
191 
4.89.  An insurer cannot write both life insurance and general insurance from a single legal entity. 
Local assets may only be insured by a foreign insurer under specific circumstances. These include 
for high value insureds; atypical risks; and for risks that cannot reasonably be placed in Australia.  
4.90.  As at September 2014, the total assets of direct general insurance companies amounted to 
$A 101.4 billion, while total net earned premiums amounted to $A 29.8 billion.192 APRA's most 
recent statistics on public insurance companies date back to end June 2012. At that date, total assets were worth $A 57.6 billion and net premium revenue just over $A 11 billion.
193 Full foreign 
ownership of private general and life insurance companies is permitted. Foreign general insurance 
companies may establish in Australia as branches or subsidiaries; there are no restrictions on the 
number or size of either. Foreign life insurance companies may only establish as subsidiaries but 
                                               
187 According to the OECD, on a total premiums basis (the sum of premiums of direct business and of 
reinsurance accepted), Australia had a 1.8% market share among OECD countries in 2012 (OECD, 2014b).  
188 Department of Finance online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.finance.gov.au/property/medibank-sale .  
189 These Acts may be viewed at http://www.comlaw.gov.au . 
190 As noted by the RBA, to protect against risk s arising out of domestic companies' insurance 
operations abroad, APRA supervises insurers on a globally consolidated basis, requiring insurance groups to hold capital at both the individual entity and consolidated group level (Reserve Bank of Australia, 2014a). 
191 Marshall and Gibson Lawyers online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.marshallgibson.com.au/blog/ history-compulsory-insurance-australia . 
192 Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (2014).  
193 Data provided by APRA. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 118 - 
 
  not branches. At the time of Australia's previous review, the authorities explained that this 
requirement was introduced in the context of major prudential reform which, inter alia , saw the 
establishment of new technically-detailed liability valuation and capital requirements as well as detailed requirements regarding the equitable allo cation of company profits between shareholders 
and policy-holders. In view of these reforms it  was considered that satisfactory prudential 
supervision would best be achieved where foreign life insurance companies were incorporated in Australia.
194 An exception exists to this rule for eligible foreign life insurance companies; this 
currently applies to life insurance providers from the United States; New Zealand; and the 
Republic of Korea under their respective RTAs. Japanese life insurance providers will also receive an exception through the recently signed RTA once it enters into force (section 2.4.2.1). There are no restrictions on the number and size of foreign-owned life insurance companies.  
4.91.  As reported by the RBA, overall the ge neral insurers' profitability has strengthened 
since 2012, due in part to a benign claims environment (in sharp contrast to the years 2010 and 2011) and increases in premiums. In contrast, gr owth has been slow in life insurance; largely 
due to higher levels of claims and competitive pressures.
195 However, there have been signs of 
recovery in the first half of 2014. Both the general and life insurance industry are well capitalised, with capital equivalent to respectively 1.7 times and 1.9 times APRA's prescribed amount.
196  
4.5.6  Communications 
4.5.6.1  Telecommunications 4.92.  Information media and telecommunications services accounted for 3% of GDP in 2012/13 
(Table 1.2). Australia is ranked in 11
th place out of 157 economies in the ITU's 2012 ICT 
Development Index, moving up four places from th e previous year. As noted by the ITU, Australia 
has a very high level of ICT development and has recently seen a large increase in the number of wireless-broadband subscriptions and penetration rates.
197 Australia has witnessed an increasing 
take-up of mobile subscriptions and fixed (wir ed) broadband subscriptions, while fixed line 
subscriptions have gradually declined (Table 4.5) . Increased use of Voice over Internet Protocol 
(VoIP) is posing a growing challenge to revenue streams from traditional telecommunications 
services.198 
Table 4.5 Selected telecommunications indicators, 2010-13 
 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Fixed (number) 10,625,000 10,573,000 10,471,000 10,350,000 
Fixed (per 100 inhabitants) 47.42 46.49 45.43 44.34 
Mobile (number) 22,500,000 23,789,000 24,338,000 24,940,000 
Mobile (per 100 inhabitants) 100.43 104.61 105.59 106.84 
Fixed (wired) broadband 
subscriptions (number) 5,375,000 5,412,000 5,611,000 5,839,000 
Fixed (wired) broadband 
subscriptions (per 100 inhabitants) 23.99 23.80 24.34 25.01 
Source: ITU online information. Viewed at: http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx .  
4.93.  As at June 2012 (the latest date for which information was available) there were 
212 fixed-line telephone service providers and 156 mobile networks services providers operating 
                                               
194 WTO document WT/TPR/M/244/Add.1, 16 June, 2011. 
195 As noted by the RBA, excessive competition for group life insurance policies led to an under-pricing 
of risk and subsequent losses. 
196 According to the RBA, the general insurance indust ry's annual return on equi ty was 17% in the first 
half of 2014. However, the industry expects a lower rate of premium growth in the years ahead because of competitive pressures (Reserve Bank of Australia, 2014a and 2014b). 
197 ITU (2013). As noted in the ACMA Annual Report (2012-13), at 30 June 2012, nearly half the 
Australian population owned a mobile phone that conn ected to the internet, double the number compared to 
the previous year (Australian Communications and Media Authority, 2013a). As noted by the ITU, in 2013 there were 110.5 mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants (ITU online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.itu.int/net4/itu-d/icteye/CountryProfile.aspx ). 
198 VoIP has grown from nearly 3.9 million users (both mobile and home) in June 2011 to nearly 
6.4 million users in June 2014 (Australian Communications and Media Authority, 2012 and 2014).  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 119 - 
 
  on three mobile networks.199 As at June 2013 there were 419 internet service providers (including 
fixed, wireless and satellite broadband providers).  
4.94.  Telstra remains the main player in the telecommunications sector; at October 2014, its total 
market share was 46.5%, followed by Optus (19.5%).200 It has a particularly dominant position in 
the provision of retail fixed voice services (Chart 4.1), although its market share in this segment 
has slightly declined in recent years. Aggregate foreign equity ownership of Telstra is capped at 35%; individual foreign investors are permitted to own only up to 5%.
201 There are no FDI limits 
applied to other providers, although significant foreign investments are subject to the general 
Foreign Investment Review Board (FIRB) screening process (section 2).  
Chart 4.1 Market share for selected telecommunications services, June 2013 
Retail fixed voice services
Telstra
63%Other
26%Optus
11%Mobile handset services Retail fixed broad band services
Optus
28%Optus
15%
Telstra
43%Telstra
42%VHA
20%iiNet
14%
TPG
12%Other
8%
Other
17%
 
Source: ACCC (2014), "Telecommunications competitive safeguards", ACCC Telecommunications 
Report 2012-13 , February.  
4.95.  The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) has been measuring the 
changes in the prices paid for fixed and mobile te lephone (voice) services since 1997/98; over that 
period prices for fixed services have fallen by 47.1% in real terms and prices for mobile voice 
services have fallen by 51.7%. In real terms, since 2006/07 prices for internet services have fallen 
b y  2 0 . 9 %  i n  r e a l  t e r m s ,  a l t h o u g h  t h e y  h a v e  b e g u n  t o  l e v e l  o f f  i n  r e c e n t  y e a r s .  W h i l e  p r i c e  competition in the mobile sector has slowed recently, operators are increasingly competing in 
areas such as network and service quality and coverage.
202 The ACCC starting setting price and 
non-price access terms and conditions to the wholesale ADSL service in May 2013203; this has 
resulted in a 15% decrease in wholesale ADSL prices. As observed by the ACCC and the OECD, 
fixed line telephony, fixed broadband services and international mobile roaming charges in 
Australia appear to be quite high. However, wireless broadband seems to be relatively less expensive than in various other countries.  
4.96.  The main laws governing the sector are the Telecommunications Act (1997), the 
Competition and Consumer Act (CCA) (2010), and the Telecommunications (Consumer Protection 
and Service Standards) Act (1999), the National Broadband Network Companies Act 2011, and the Radiocommunications Act 1992.  
4.97.  The ACCC remains in charge of enforcing competition rules under the CCA.
204 It sets 
wholesale prices and wholesale terms of access for "declared" services205; monitors and reports on 
prices and competition; and investigates claims of anti-competitive conduct.206 Since 2011, the 
ACCC has, inter alia , made nine access determinations in relation to declared services; approved 
                                               
199 Australian Communications and Media Authority (2012), p. 19.  
200 Information provided by the authorities based upon the World Industry Report J5800 
Telecommunications Services in Australia , October 2014.  
201 Productivity Commission (2014c), Box 3.2.  
202 As noted by the ACCC, this may be driven by in creased consumer demand for data and preferences 
for network quality over other factors. 
203 Wholesale ADSL final ac cess determination/FAD. 
204 Telecommunications-specific rules are set out in Parts XIC (regulation of wholesale access) and XIC 
(regulation of anti-competitive conduct) to the CCA. 
205 Once a service is "declared" the terms and conditio ns of access to that service can be regulated.  
206 ACCC online information. Viewed at: http://www.accc.gov.au/regulated-
infrastructure/communications/accc-role-in-communications . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 120 - 
 
  NBN Co.'s special access undertaking; amended the Facilities Access Code in order to introduce 
mandatory timeframes207; and approved Telstra's structural separation undertaking and migration 
plan.  
4.98.  The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) is responsible for numbering 
(number portability is permitted), industry codes and standards, spectrum management and 
licensing, and some consumer topics, such as controlling internet spam and enforcing universal service obligations. Since 2011, regulatory reforms undertaken by the ACMA have included 
measures to enhance consumer protection; changes to numbering management to accommodate 
new technologies, uses and entrants; and, less complex equipment labelling requirements.
208  
4.99.  As reported in Australia's previous review, the previous Government introduced some major 
changes to the structure of the telecommunications sector in order to respond to consumer 
demands for improved broadband capacity and fa cilitate competition among retail services 
providers.209 It established a new state-owned company, NBN Co., to build and operate a national, 
next generation broadband network.  
4.100.  While the original intention was to replac e the majority of the existing copper and hybrid 
fibre-coaxial (HFC) infrastructure with a predominantly fibre-optic network210, the new 
Government announced a new approach in 2014, involving rollout of an "optimised 
multi-technology mix" (MTM). The MTM will involv e NBN Co. rolling out a fixed-line network that 
contains a mix of fibre-to-the-premises, fibre-to-the-node, and HFC technologies. NBN Co. has announced an agreement with Telstra and Optus, which owned the majority of the existing copper 
and HFC infrastructure, to use the majority of the copper infrastructure and all of their HFC 
networks. This approach has been endorsed by an  independent cost-benefit analysis undertaken 
by the Vertigan panel of different roll-out options.
211 The national broadband network operates on 
a wholesale-only, non-discriminatory basis; full completion is expected by 2020.212 In its 2012-15 
Corporate Plan, NBN Co. indicated it was seeking to maximise local content as part of its 
procurement processes; by mid-2012, local content level achieved was 51% of contract value.213 
However, its key objective in procuring goods and services is in getting the best value for money 
possible. Any future privatization of NBN Co. will be subject to Parliamentary approval.  
4.101.  In order to facilitate the smooth migration of retail customers from existing networks to 
the NBN, various steps have been taken. Agre ements have been completed with Telstra to 
structurally separate its wholesale and reta il businesses, and carriers operating broadband 
networks capable of delivering speeds above 25 megabits per second are now required to do so, 
on a structurally separated, wholesale-only basis.  
4.102.  In step with the rollout of the national broadband network, legislation was passed in 2012 
to reform the administration and funding of the universal service obligation (USO) and other 
public-interest services.214 The costs of establishing and managing contracts for the USO and other 
public-interest services with service-providers are met by government funding and revenue from 
                                               
207 The Facilities Access Code sets out how access to fa cilities owned by carriers  should be provided to 
other carriers wishing to install their equipment on those facilities. Changes to the Code were introduced in 2013 (ACCC online information. Viewed at: http://accc.gov.au/media-releas e/accc-varies-the-facilities-
access-code ).  
208 New equipment labelling requirements entered into force in March 2013, to consolidate three 
compliance marks into one (the RCM) covering teleco mmunications, radio commun ications, electromagnetic 
compatibility and electromagnetic energy. 
209 As reported in Australia's previous Review, in sp ite of pro-competitive measures Telstra had retained 
considerable market power, with dominant positions in fixed-line, mobile, broa dband and pay-TV segments; 
this was giving rise to some competition concerns. 
210 Originally the intention was for fibre-optic cables to serve 93% of Australian  residential and business 
premises. The remaining 7% of prem ises would be served through wire less and satellite technologies. 
211 The MTM will rollout different technologies (i.e . FTTP, VDSL2, HFC, and wireless and satellite 
technologies) according to which technology is best suited to a particular locality. The long-term cost-benefit of the NBN using the MTM approach wa s estimated at $A 18 billion. 
212 As at October 2014, NBN Co. had a total of 681,766 premises passed/lots covered across all 
technologies (excluding satellite). 
213 NBN Co. (2012).  
214 Telecommunications Universal Service Management Agency Act 2012. Viewed at: 
http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Series/C2012A00043/Amendments ; and Telecommunications (Industry Levy) 
Act 2012. Viewed at: http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2012A00045 . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 121 - 
 
  the Telecommunications Industry Levy (TIL). The TI L is levied on telecommunications carriers with 
eligible revenue of $A 25 million or more.215  
4.103.  The Satellit e Phone Subsidy Scheme was terminated in June 2014. Under this scheme, the 
Government had subsidised the cost of handsets for individuals living outside the network for 
terrestrial mobile phones.216 In the same year, the Commonwealth Government committed 
$A 100 million over four years to a Mobile Black Spot Programme to extend mobile phone coverage and competition in regional and remote Australia.
217 
4.104.  In 2013, the Commonwealth Government held a spectrum auction, offering 90 MHz of 
digital dividend spectrum (700 MHz band)218 and 140 MHz of spectrum from the 2.5 GHz band. 
The spectrum was optimised for the rollout of next-generation mobile broadband technologies. Three parties participated in the auction (Telstra, Optus and TPG); at its conclusion 30 MHz of the 
digital dividend spectrum was unsold.
219 In 2014, the Commonwealth Government started a 
review of spectrum policy arrangements in order to identify opportunities to boost innovation in the use of spectrum. The review is considering ho w to simplify the current framework, ensure the 
efficient allocation, ongoing use and management of  spectrum and increase flexibility to support 
service innovation and the introduction of new technologies.
220 The review is expected to report in 
early 2015, with implementation of reforms to also commence in the same year.  
4.5.6.2  Television broadcasting and film production 
4.105.  The main law governing television broadcasting is the Broadcasting Services Act 1992 (as 
amended). Foreign ownership above 5% in the media sector (daily newspapers, television, and radio) requires notification to, and approval by , the Foreign Investment Review Board (FIRB) (see 
section 2.6).  
4.106.  Television broadcasting remains subject to various local-content requirements; and 
licensees must report on compliance with these requirements.  
4.107.  Under the Australian Content Standard (2005), Australian free-to-air commercial television 
networks (which may operate in any licence area) are subject to at least 55% Australian content between 6:00 a.m. and midnight on their main channels; there are specific minimum yearly 
sub-quotas for adult dramas, documentaries, and children's programs. The Television Program 
Standard 23 – Australian Content in Advertising,  requires 80% of Australian advertising to be 
broadcast between 6.00 a.m. and midnight.
221 These requirements have not changed since 
Australia's previous Review; however new legislative provisions have given broadcasters greater 
flexibility in allowing licensees to satisfy these quotas.222 
4.108.  The Broadcasting Services Act 1992 requires subscription television broadcasters that offer 
a subscription television drama service to ensure that expenditure on eligible drama programmes 
is at least 10% of total programme expenditure for the service, per financial year. Eligible drama 
programmes include New Zealand programmes. 
4.109.  Regional commercial television broadcasting  licensees in certain regional areas (Regional 
Queensland, parts of Regional New South Wales, Regional Victoria, and Tasmania) are also 
required to broadcast a minimum quantity of content of local significance under Section 43A of the 
                                               
215 The TIL replaced the former Universal Service Obligation (USO) Levy and the NRS Levy. 
216 Department of Communications online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.communications.gov.au/news/medi a_centre/satellite_phone_subsidy_scheme .  
217 Department of Communications online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.communications.gov.au/mobile_services/mobile_black_spot_programme .  
218 The term 'digital dividend' refers  to the spectrum that has been fre ed up by the switch from analogue 
to digital television. 
219 Australian Communications and Media Authority (2013b).  
220 ACMA online information,  "Spectrum Review Terms of Reference". Viewed at: 
http://www.communications.gov.au/__data/assets/ pdf_file/0018/230166/Spectrum_Review_Terms_of_Refere
nce.pdf . 
221 ACMA online information. Viewed at: www.acma.go.au/Industry/Broadcast/Television/Australian-
content/australian-content-television . 
222 The Broadcasting Legislation Amendment (Convergence Review and Other Measures) Act 2013. 
Viewed at: http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2013B99954 .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 122 - 
 
  Broadcasting Services Act.223 In July 2013, the Australian Communications and Media Authority 
(ACMA) launched an investigation into whether this requirement should also be extended to broadcasters in other regional areas, namely: South Australia and Western Australia.
224 In its 
report released in early 2014, ACMA found there was no clear case for an extension of the 
local-content rules to additional regional or remote areas.225  
4.110.  Commercial television broadcasting licensees are required to pay broadcasting licence fees, 
which are levied as a sliding percentage of their gross earnings (or advertising revenue). The 
Television Licence Fees Act 1964 was amended in March 2013 to provide a permanent 50% 
reduction in these fees. This effectively replaced temporary rebates (linked to content) made available in 2009/10 (16.5% of licence fees payable); 2010/11 (41.5%); and 2011/12 (50%). 
4.111.  Screen Australia, a Federal Government agency, continues to provide financial assistance 
to support the film and television industries. This assistance takes the form of grants, loans and 
recoupable equity investments for: feature and short films; documentaries; drama; online and multi-platform projects; indigenous programmes; talent development; film promotion; the 
distribution and marketing of films; film even ts; research partnerships; and state/industry 
partnerships. In 2014, Screen Australia launched a new programme called Enterprise Industry to assist companies to "mitigate the risks involved in dedicating resources to activities that can take 
time to generate commercial returns but are vital to ensuring the quality and viability of Australian 
screen production".
226 A $A 10 million grant fund has been allocated to this programme, to be 
spent over three years. Funding to support games production was terminated in 2014. The amount of support provided by Screen Australia in 2013-14  was $A 21.3 million for grants, $A 1.8 million 
for loans and $A 65.9 million for recoupable equity investments. Support only applies to the 
Australian component co-productions of feature films.
227 In certain cases, such as indigenous 
programmes and certain talent development prog rammes, financial support is restricted to 
Australian citizens or permanent residents.  
4.112.  Additional fiscal incentives for the produc tion of film, television and other audio-visual 
projects in Australia continue to be available under the Australian Screen Production Incentive. 
This comprises three programmes offering refundab le tax offsets (rebates) through the Australian 
company tax system: (a) the Producer Offset (admin istered by Screen Australia); (b) the Location 
Offset; and (c) the Post, Digital and Visual Effects (PDV) Offset.228  
4.113.  The Producer Offset is a rebate of 40% of qualifying Australian production expenditure 
(QAPE) incurred on a feature-film and 20% of QAPE incurred on other types of eligible 
programmes, for producers of eligible Australian audio-visual projects.  
4.114.  The Location Offset is a rebate of 16.5% (up from 15% at the time of Australia's previous 
review) of QAPE incurred on the production of larg e-budget films and television projects shot in 
Australia.229 
4.115.  The PDV Offset is a rebate of 30% (up from 15% at the time of Australia's previous 
review) of QAPE on post, digital and visual effects production in Australia, regardless of where the 
project is shot.  
                                               
223 Section 43A requires the ACMA to have in place a licence condition requiring commercial television 
licensees in seven regional aggregated licence area s (Regional Queensland; Northern New South Wales; 
Southern New South Wales; Regional Victoria; Eastern Victoria; Western Victoria; and Tasmania) to broadcast minimum levels of material of local significance to each local area within their licence area. Licensees must accumulate a minimum of 90 points of material of local significance per week within each local area and at least 720 points in each local area over a six-week period (material counts either one or two points per minute). 
224 ACMA online information. Viewed at: http://www.acma.gov.au/Industry/Broadcast/Television/Local--
regional-content/local-regional-tv-content-under-the-spotlight . 
225 Australian Communications and Media Authority (2013c).  
226 Screen Australia online information. Viewed at: 
www.screenaustralia.gov.au/funding/Enterp rise_Funding /EnterpriseIndustry.aspx . 
227 Detailed information on the various incentive prog rams was viewed at Scre en Australia's website: 
www.screenaustralia.gov.au . 
228 Ministry for the Arts online information. Viewed at: http://arts.gov.au/film-tv/australian-screen-
production-incentive . 
229 To qualify for this incent ive, at least 70% of the total production budget must be spent in Australia. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 123 - 
 
  4.5.7  Transport 
4.116.  In 2012/13, transport, postal, and warehous ing services accounted for 5.2% of both GDP 
and employment (Table 1.2). Australia has 900,082 kilometres of roads (2012) and 33,404 route-kilometres of open railway (2013)
230, in addition to aviation and port infrastructure 
(see below). 
4.117.  The Department of Infrastructure and Regi onal Development holds overall responsibility for 
national transport policy in Australia, with various other Government agencies having subsector 
specific responsibilities.231 The ACCC has a role with respect to: monitoring the performance of 
Australia's four largest airports and Australia's container stevedoring industry; assessing notifications of proposed price increases at Sydney airport (in relation to air services) as well as from Airservices Australia
232; investigating complaints relating to international liner cargo-shipping 
conference arrangements; assessing access underta kings put forward by owners and operators of 
infrastructure facilities and, regulating rail services.233 
4.118.  In 2011, three new intergovernmental ag reements were signed by the Council of 
Australian Governments (COAG) (excluding Western Australia) enabling the implementation of a 
single national law to regulate commercial vessel safety (the Marine Safety (Domestic Commercial Vessel) National Law Act 2012
234), rail safety (the Rail Safety National Law (South Australia) 
Act 2012) and heavy vehicle operations (the National Law on Domestic Commercial Vessel 
Safety 2012). Single national regulators have also been established: the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA); the Office of the National Rail Safety Regulator (ONRSR)
235; and the 
National Heavy Vehicle Operator. The intention of each of these reforms is to improve transport 
safety and to facilitate business operations by having one regulatory regime, rather than 
several.236  
4.119.  In July 2014, the Government embarked on the second phase of its Nation Building 
Programme (NB2). The objective of the programme is  to increase the nation's productivity through 
improvements to land transport infrastructure and is structured along four themes: moving freight, connecting people, safety, and innovation.
237 As announced in the 2014-15 Budget, the 
Government is planning to spend $A 50 billion under its Infrastructure Investment Programme on 
road and rail infrastructure works (including land transport links to ports and airports) over a seven year period.
238 This is expected to catalyse state/territory and private-sector infrastructure 
investment of $A 125 billion.239 Under the National Stronger Regions Fund $A 1 billion of funding 
will be made available over five years starting FY 2015-16 to finance priority infrastructure in 
regional communities.240 Additionally a $A 5 billion Asset Recycling Fund has been proposed to 
encourage state governments to use the sale of public assets to fund nation-building 
infrastructure, particularly roads (section 3.4.5).  
                                               
230 Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2013b), Tables T1.4 and T5.2a. 
231 These agencies include: Airservices Australia; Au stralian Maritime Safety Authority; Australian 
Transport Safety Bureau; Civil Aviation Safety Auth ority; National Transport Commission; Infrastructure 
Australia; Australian Rail Track Corporation; and the International Air Services Commission. 
232 Airservices Australia provides air traffic control and aviation fire-fighting and rescue services to 
airports and airlines. 
233 ACCC online information. Viewed at: http://www.accc.gov.au/regulated-infrastructure . 
234 The Marine Safety (Domestic Commercial Vessel ) National Law sets the National Standard for 
Commercial Vessels as the national standard for dome stic commercial vessel construction, operation and 
seafarer qualifications. 
235 The ONRSR is responsible for regulato ry oversight of rail safety in th e jurisdictions of South Australia, 
New South Wales, Tasmania, the Northern Territory and Victoria. Subject to the pa ssage of applied or mirror 
legislation, it is expected that Queensland, the Australian Capital Territory and Western Australia will also be subject to the regulation. 
236 COAG online information. Viewed at: http://www.coag.gov.au/a_seamless_national_economy .  
237 Department of Infrastructure an d Regional Development (2013a). 
238 The Infrastructure Investment Pr ogramme is made up of a number of individual programmes. These 
include the: Investment Road and Rail Programme; Bl ack Spot Programme; Roads to Recovery Programme; 
Heavy Vehicle Safety and Productivity Pr ogramme; and Bridges Renewal Programme. 
239 Commonwealth of Australia (2014a).  
240 Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development online information. Viewed at: 
http://investment.infrastructure.gov.au/funding/NSRF/ .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 124 - 
 
  4.120.  In order to improve national planning of  government-funded infrastructure projects, a new 
website, the National Infrastructure Construction Schedule (NCIS) was set up in 2012.241 Key 
national investment planning initiatives relate to the short-, medium- and long-term aviation infrastructure and supporting surface transport requirements of the Sydney region, 
pre-construction activities for an inland rail link between Brisbane and Melbourne and a strategic 
study on the implementation of a high spee d rail link on the east coast of Australia. 
4.121.  Over the review period, various initiatives have been undertaken to upgrade security. 
These have included a new Accredited Air Cargo Agent Scheme introduced in June 2012 to both 
facilitate and enhance the security of cargo transported by road for loading onto an aircraft.
242  
4.5.7.1  Maritime transport 4.122.  The former Government enacted a raft of legislative and regulatory reforms with the aim of 
making Australian shipping industry more internationally-competitive, increasing the size of the 
shipping fleet and promoting employment in the sector. The Government's Stronger Shipping for 
Stronger Economy reform package was announced in 2011 and entered into effect in July 2012.
243 
It was developed in response to concerns about the aging and diminution of Australia's trading 
fleet, a low participation of Australian companies in international maritime trade and an increased shortage of maritime skills in the country.
244 The package comprised: (a) the enactment of the 
Coastal Trading (Revitalising Australian Shipping) Act 2012; (b) tax reforms; (c) the launch of an 
Australian International Shipping Register as a competitive alternative for Australian ship-owners and operators to registering ships overseas; an d (d) the creation of a Maritime Workforce 
Development Forum to provide advice on reforms to tackle skill shortages and to create a 
sustainable skills base in the maritime subsector (this forum was abolished in November 2013).  
4.123.  The Coastal Trading (Revitalising Australian Shipping) Act 2012 (and associated 
regulations) entered into force in 2012 and replaces Part VI of the 1912 Navigation Act.
245 The new 
Act prescribes a system of licences for coastal transport of cargo and passengers. A general licence 
is available to any vessel registered under the Australian General Register which requires them, 
inter alia , to be majority Australian-owned or be on demise charter to Australian-based operators 
and to employ crew with Australian work rights.246 Foreign vessels can engage in coastal trading 
under a temporary licence, subject to a licensing process during which Australian General Licensed vessels have the opportunity to notify their availability to carry out the proposed voyage on competitive terms. Exemptions from the application of the Coastal Trading Act apply to large 
cruise vessels and voyages between Christmas Is land and Australian States and Territories. In 
April 2014, the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development released an options paper on approaches to regulating coastal shipping in  Australia, to seek the views of stakeholders, 
inter alia , on the operation of the new Act.
247 In various submissions, including from the ACCC and 
the Business Council of Australia, concerns have been expressed that the objective of the regime of revitalising domestic shipping is not being met;  the regime is adding to domestic freight costs; 
and the efficient operation of ships is being compromised by compliance with complex rules, as 
                                               
241 Department of Infrastructure and Regional Deve lopment (2012). The NICS website was viewed at: 
https://nics.gov.au . 
242 Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2012). 
243 The proposal was announced by the Minister fo r Infrastructure and Transport in Media Release 
AA169/2011 of 9 September 2011.  
244 As explained in the explanatory memorandum to the Tax Laws Amendment (Shipping Reform) 
Act 2012, the House of Representatives Standing Committee for Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government released a report on "Rebuilding Australia's Coastal Shipping Industry" in 
October 2008 identifying various shortcomings in the in dustry and making recommendations for reform. These 
recommendations were then taken up by an advisory group formed by the Minister for Infrastructure and 
Transport in February 2009 and thereafter became part of the Federal election campaign. Viewed at: http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C 2012B00056/Explanatory% 20Memorandum/Text .  
245 The Coastal Trading (Revitalising Australian Shipping) Act 2012 was viewed at: 
http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2014C00575 . The Coastal Trading (Revitalising Australian Shipping) 
Regulation 2012 was viewed at: http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2012L01474 . 
246 As set out in the Shipping Registration Act 1981 (a s amended) (Section 8), an Australian-owned ship 
is a ship that (a) is owned by an Au stralian national or Aust ralian nationals and by no other person; (b) is 
owned by 3 or more persons as joint owners, where the ma jority of those persons are Australian nationals; or, 
(c) is owned by 2 or more persons as owners in common , where more than half of the shares in the ship are 
owned by an Australian national or Australian nationals. 
247 Department of Infrastructure an d Regional Development (2014c). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 125 - 
 
  well as administrative burdens arising from its related licensing regime.248 The Government is 
currently considering submissions and developing options to remove unnecessary burdens on the coastal shipping industry.  
4.124.  Tax reforms are set out in the Tax Laws Amendment (Shipping Reform) Act 2012. They 
include: (a) corporate income tax exemptions for Australian ship operators who meet certain 
conditions
249; (b) a reduction in the depreciation period from 20 to 10 years for qualifying vessels; 
(c) an exemption from royalty-withholding tax liability for foreign owners of vessels where the 
vessel is leased under a bareboat charter to an Australian company; and (d) a seafarers' tax 
concession for resident employers of Australian re sident seafarers, who spend 91 days or more on 
international voyages on qualifying vessels in an income year. To benefit from tax incentives, registration on either the Australian primary or international shipping register is required. The 
estimated financial impact of these reforms over  the period 2012-13 to 2015-16 prior to their 
introduction in 2012 was $A 254.5 million.
250 However, an assessment of the impact has not yet 
been formally undertaken.  
4.125.  The creation of the International Shippi ng Register was effected through amendments 
in 2012 to the Shipping Registration Act (1981).251 It gives Australian ship-owners an alternative 
registration option when using vessels mainly for international trade. Ships registered on the 
International Register must be at least 24 metres in tonnage length and must be either 
(a) majority-owned by Australian nationals; (b) wholly-owned by Australian residents, or by Australian residents and Australian nationals; (c) operated solely by Australian residents or nationals (or both); or (d) trading ships that are on demise charter to Australian-based operators. 
Additionally ships must have an Australian national or resident as master or chief mate and chief 
engineer or first engineer. The advantage of the register is that operating costs may be reduced 
through lower crew wage structures while ships are on international voyages. There are currently 
no vessels on the International Register (December 2014).  
4.126.  The Navigation Act 2012 entered into force on 1 July 2013, replacing previous legislation 
dating back to 1912. It provides the framework by which the Government may regulate ship and 
seafarer safety, the shipping aspects of environmental protection and seafarer actions in Australian 
waters. It gives effect to the maritime conventions to which Australia is a signatory. The Navigation Act together with the Marine Safety (Domestic Commercial Vessel) National Law Act 2012 (see above) allow the AMSA to be the sole regu lator of maritime safety (for both domestic 
and international shipping), consolidating the work of the eight previously existing maritime safety 
regulators and implementing the above-mentioned COAG intergovernmental agreement on Commercial Vessel Safety Reform. 
4.127.  Liner shipping conferences remain regulated by a separate section of the Competition and 
Consumer Act (CCA) 2010 which is administered by the Registrar of Liner Shipping. Limited exemptions from the anti-competitive conduct provis ions of the CCA are available to shipping lines 
allowing them to enter into agreements to suppl y shipping services to Australian exporters and 
importers. Under these agreements routes, capacity, sailing schedules and prices may be fixed, operational functions may be shared and commercial information exchanged.
252 The Department of 
Infrastructure and Regional Development is respon sible for approving liner shipping arrangements 
(which may be viewed on the Register of Liner Shipping). During 2012-13 there were 17 final 
registrations and 27 in FY 2013-14.253 Registration takes an average of six days per agreement.  
                                               
248 Australian Competition and Consumer Commission  (2014); and Business Council of Australia (2014). 
249 Prior to the implementation of package, shipping  companies were not afforded tax incentives and 
were liable to pay 30% corporate income tax. 
250 Explanatory memorandum to the Tax Laws Amendment (Shipping Reform) Act 2012. Viewed at: 
http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C 2012B00056/Explanatory% 20Memorandum/Text .  
251 Both the Shipping Registration Amendment (Austr alian International Shipping Register) Act (2012) 
and the Shipping Registration Act (1981) (which in corporates the 2012 amendments) were viewed at: 
http://www.comlaw.gov.au . 
252 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
253 There are three stages to the process for regist ration of conference agreements: (1) provisional 
registration is granted for th e purpose of publishing details of a confer ence agreement in a public register and 
requiring parties to negotiate with, and provide inform ation to, the designated sh ipper body; (2) conferences 
are required to negotiate and provide in formation to a designated shipper body  in relation to minimum levels of 
service; and (3) final regist ration takes place after.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 126 - 
 
  4.128.  There are over 80 ports in Australia with more than 95% of volume being handled in 20 of 
them. Ports may be owned by the private sector, state or territory governments, or leased by state or territory governments to the private sector. Full information was not available on the ownership and management status of Australia's main ports. However, two major ports were 
privatized by the government of New South Wales during the Review period (section 3.4.5). 
Average clearance times for sea cargo have been reduced to 0.2 days (section 3.2.1). On average, port productivity in Australia appears comparable to similar overseas ports. However, it varies 
between Australia's ports. For example, Melbourn e's port processed on average 67 TEUs per hour 
in 2013, while the port of Freemantle processed an average of 41 TEUs per hour.
254  
4.129.  State/territory land use controls apply to port development and their adjacent land areas, 
including road and rail access. Commonwealth po rt-related activities include: environmental 
assessments on port developments; safety and security matters to detect and deter the unlawful 
movement of goods and people across the border; and implementing Australia's international maritime obligations as th ey relate to ports.  
4.130.  As noted by the authorities, priorities fo r action under current national ports and freight 
initiatives include the realisation of best practice master plans. Port master planning is considered to be central to increasing productivity, investment confidence and environmental protection. 
4.131.  In 2012-13, the most recent period for which data is available, a total of 38,073 port calls 
were made by ships involved in coastal or intern ational voyages. Of these, 13,936 were made by 
ships on international voyages. In the same year  1,169 million tonnes of international sea freight 
was transported to and from Australia and 49.1 m illion tonnes of coastal freight was loaded at 
Australia's ports.  
4.132.  Charges incurred at Australian ports (with the exception of private ports) are determined 
by the ports authorities and any independent ports services providers, with the ACCC having broad 
regulatory oversight. Additionally, certain fees related to safety and environmental protection 
stemming from Australia's participation in international conventions and treaties are collected by the Australian Government. Charges for the top five major urban container ports are published 
annually by the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development.
255 The level of charges 
on imported and exported goods may vary depe nding on the services required; for example, 
Australian border controls on imports may require higher levels of screening and testing. 
4.5.7.2  Air transport 
4.133.  Over the review period the key focus of the Department of Infrastructure and Regional 
Development has involved implementation of the former Government's National Aviation Policy White Paper (released in 2009
256) and implementation of the Coalition's Policy for Aviation 
(released in 2013257). The latter incorporates various measures designed to support the growth of 
the aviation industry, including: abolition of the carbon tax (sections 1.4.1, 3.4.1.2, and 4.3), the 
establishment of an Aviation Industry Consultative Council; safety and security measures; steps to 
enhance aviation skills as well as pursue aviation liberalization. Key initiatives over the review 
period include: an in-depth review of aviation safety and regulation; a more risk-based approach to aviation security; reforms to consumer protection through increased mandatory airline insurance coverage as well as implementation of consumer charters by airline companies; studies 
into expanding aviation capacity in different si tes; cooperation between government agencies to 
harmonize civilian and defence aviation navigation systems; the enactment of legislation to enable 
Australia's accession to the Cape Town Convention which would give Australia access to cheaper 
financing for aircraft purchases; and the implementation of a national land use planning framework 
(the National Airports Safeguarding Framework).  
                                               
254 Department of Infrastructure an d Regional Development (2014d).  
255 These are published in the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development's Waterline 
publication. Viewed at: http://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/publication s.aspx?query=s:%22waterline%22&link-search=true .  
256 The key priorities contained the 2009 National Aviation Policy White Paper are described in the 
Secretariat Report for Australia's previous review (WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011).  
257 Viewed at: http://www.nationals.org.au/Portals/0/2013/policy/Policy%20–%20Aviation.pdf .  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 127 - 
 
  4.134.  There are five major airlines registered in Australia: Qantas Airways Ltd., Virgin Australia 
Holdings Ltd., Jetstar Airways, Regional Express Air lines and Tigerair Australia. For the year ending 
June 2014, Qantas held 16.4% of the international market share, Jetstar International (7.7%) and Virgin Australia (7.7%).
258  
4.135.  Aggregate foreign investment in Australia's international airlines is limited to 49%259; 
100% foreign-ownership of domestic airlines is permitted. In the context of this Review, the authorities indicated that no consideration is being given to lowering or removing this FDI cap. 
Qantas was previously subject to some additional restrictions under the Qantas Sale Act 1992, 
namely that ownership by a single foreign investor was limited to 25% and aggregate ownership by foreign airlines was limited to 35%. The Qantas Sale Amendment Act 2014 removed these restrictions and aligned Qantas' foreign-ownership restrictions with the framework applicable to 
other Australian airlines.
 260 Qantas remains subject to other legislative restrictions on its 
operations, including restrictions on the makeup of the board of directors, the use of the name Qantas, the location of the head office, place of incorporation, and the location of facilities that 
support its international operations.  
4.136.  In August 2014, a total of 51 airlines operated international scheduled flights (passenger 
and freight) to and/or from Australia.
261 The top three airlines Qantas Airways, Emirates and 
Jetstar accounted for 34.9% of total passengers to and from Australia. The total number of 
passengers flying in and out of the country has steadily increased from just over 23 million in 2008 (as reported in Australia's previous review) to just over 31 million in 2013. Following a similar trend, the total volume of freight transporte d in and out of the country rose from just 
over 755,000 tonnes in 2008 to nearly 879,900 tonnes in 2013.
262  
4.137.  All international flights operate under bilateral Air Services Agreements (ASAs) which are 
negotiated by the Department of Infrastructu re and Regional Development's Air Services 
Negotiations Team.263 The review period has witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of ASAs 
signed with third countries or economies. Australi a has 90 such agreements in place, and just over 
one-third of these have been signed or initialled since 2011.264 Additionally, various existing ASAs 
have also been enhanced.265 According to the authorities, Australia is working to negotiate new 
and improve existing air services agreements with a wide range of markets. It is focused on providing capacity for Asian growth (with talks anticipated with various economies including: China; Indonesia; Hong Kong, China; Malaysia; and the Philippines); supporting Australia carriers' 
overseas networks (through facilitating Australian airlines' cooperative alliances into markets in 
Africa and the Middle East); and opening up South American markets (with talks anticipated with 
Chile; Brazil; Colombia; and Ecuador). Negotiations are ongoing with respect to a comprehensive 
air services agreement with the European Union. Its general approach is to push for liberal 
arrangements, offering unrestricted access to airports outside of Australia's four "gateway" cities. Seventh freedom rights for freight are regularly negotiated. 
4.138.  The total number of domestic scheduled passenger numbers has increased from 
49.9 million passengers in 2008 to 57.7 million at end FY2014.
266 As a general principle Australia 
                                               
258 Department of Infrastructure an d Regional Development (2014b).  
259 The legal basis for this restriction is the Air Navigation Act 1920. 
260 Parliament of Australia onli ne information. Viewed at: 
http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/Bills_Search_Results/Result?bId=r5187 .  
261 Department of Infrastructure an d Regional Development (2013a).  
262 Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development online information, "International Airline 
Activity: Time Series". Viewed at: http://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/ongoing/international_airline_activity-
time_series.aspx . 
263 The Air Services Negotiations Team falls under the Department's Aviation  and Airports Division. 
264 A full list of air services agre ements/arrangements, together with links to the respective treaties, 
may be viewed at: http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/aviation/international/agreements.aspx . Since 2011, new 
agreements have been signed or initialled with: Azerbaijan; Belarus; Belgium; Croatia; Ethiopia; 
French Polynesia; Ghana; Iceland; Indonesia; Jordan; Kenya; Kuwait (State of); Lao PDR; New Caledonia; 
Oman; Palau; Paraguay; Peru; Philippines; Romania;  Saudi Arabia (Kingdom of); Serbia; Seychelles; 
Solomon Islands; Sri Lanka; Sudan; The Former Yugoslav  Republic of Macedonia; Uruguay; Vanuatu; Yemen; 
and Zambia. 
265 Since 2011, enhanced ASAs have been negotiated wi th Indonesia; India; Japan; Macao, China; and 
Switzerland. 
266 Department of Infrastructure an d Regional Development online information, "Domestic Aviation 
Industry Annual Summary 1984-2013/14". Viewed at: WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 128 - 
 
  does not permit cabotage in aviation services. However, exceptions may be made on a 
case-by-case basis where it is deemed that the granting of such rights may result in demonstrable benefits to the country.
267 There are two main airline groups operating in the domestic market; the 
Qantas group which has a 60-65% market share and Virgin Australia.268  
4.139.  Australia operates a Regional Aviation Access Programme (RAAP) under which it subsidises 
regular non-commercial air services (for both pa ssengers and goods) to 363 remote communities 
and cattle stations as well as providing funding for works to assist access and safety at these 
airstrips. The funding allocation for RAAP over the four-year period from 2014-15 to 2017-18 is 
$A 56 million. Assistance for commercial services to  regional remote locations is provided through 
the Payment Scheme for Airservices Australia En route Charges. This scheme rebates the enroute 
navigation charges, levied by Airservices Australia, on commercial passenger flights as well as 
aeronautical services. Funding of $A 8 million has been committed to the Scheme over the 
period 2014-15 to 2017-18. 
4.140.  Australia has 349 airports with paved runways, of which nine serve international flights. 
Australia's main international airport is Sydney (Kingsford-Smith) Airport. The Government has 
announced that Badgerys Creek will be the site for a new airport in Western Sydney. Right of first refusal to operate this airport will be given to Sydney (Kingsford-Smith) Airport.
269 To meet 
growing demand for air travel, Australia's other major airports at Melbourne, Brisbane and Perth 
are all planning new runways and have undertaken extensive terminal development.  
4.141.  Twenty-one airports are owned by the Fe deral government, all of which are operated by 
private sector entities under leases with the Government, under the conditions set out in the 
Airports Act 1996.270 These include a 49% ownership cap on foreign equity participation in 
airport-operator companies, a 5% limit on airline ownership of airport-operator companies and a 15% limit on the cross-ownership of the following paired airport-operator companies: 
Sydney/Melbourne; Sydney/Brisbane; and Sydney /Perth. In the context of this Review, the 
authorities indicated that no consideration is being given to reducing or eliminating FDI caps in place. A master plan must be developed for each leased federal airport (except for those at Mt. Isa 
and Tennant Creek) which sets out the lessee compan ies' planning and development vision for the 
airport for a 20-year period. These master plans are reviewed every five years by the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development and are subject to public consultations.  
4.142.  The remaining airports are mainly owned by  local governments, with some owned by state 
governments. Airports can be privately owned. A privately-funded and built airport (Brisbane West 
Wellcamp) commenced services in 2014. The authorities indicated that they maintain an open regime for ground-handling services. Commitme nts on ground-handling and airport-operation 
services are contained in many of Australia's RTAs. 
4.143.  In March 2012, the Productivity Commission released its review into airport pricing and 
economic regulation at Australia's major airports. The Department of Infrastructure and Regional 
Development notes that the review "found that the current approach to airport economic 
regulation strikes an effective balance between maintaining scrutiny over major airports to ensure they use their market position appropriately, whil e providing the regulatory certainty necessary for 
continued private sector investment in airport infrastructure". Hence, the Commission 
recommended no changes to the regime and that it should be reviewed in 2018. However 
continued monitoring of quality of service needed  to take place for Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth, 
and Sydney airports.
271 
                                                                                                                                               
http://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/ongoing /domestic_airline_activity-time_series.aspx ; and Department of 
Infrastructure and Regional Development Domestic Aviation Activity (2014a). 
267 WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011. 
268 The Qantas group includes Jetstar and Virgin Australia includes Tiger Air. 
269 Information was viewed at: 
http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/aviat ion/airport/western_sydney/index.aspx . It is estimated that demand for 
passenger journeys in the Sydney region will more than  double from 40 to 87 million in the next 20 years, and 
will double again to 165 million by 2060. 
270 Airports Act 1996. Viewed at: http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2014C00261/Download . 
271 Productivity Commission (2011). WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 129 - 
 
  4.5.8  Tourism 
4.144.  According to the authorities, Australia is the world's eighth largest tourism market (and 
ranked in 43rd place globally for visitor arrivals). As at end 2013, the industry directly employed 
over 540,000 people, and was worth $A 101.6 billion (end-June 2014). While tourism-related 
services remain Australia's major services export, domestic tourism still accounts for over 
two-thirds of the industry's value. As at June 2014, New Zealand was the main origin of international visitors, followed by China, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
272 The 
authorities project visitor arrivals to increase by nearly 5% annually over the next five years, with 
strongest growth coming from China and India.273 
4.145.  Tourism Australia is the government agency responsible for the international marketing of 
Australia. Its regular budget was $A 129.8 for the year 2014/15, with additional funding of 
$A 13.5 million being provided for the Asia Marketing Fund (launched in 2012). The current 
marketing campaign "Restaurant Australia" builds on the "There's Nothing Like Australia" campaign to raise awareness of Australia produce and location offerings.  
4.146.  Australia's national strategy for the tourism sector is Tourism 2020, launched in 
December 2011. It amalgamates into a single plan the objectives contained in the 2009 National Long Term Tourism Strategy (NLTTS)
274 and the growth targets contained in subsequent strategy, 
the 2020 Tourism Industry Potential. The overarching objective of Tourism 2020 is to enhance 
growth and competitiveness within the industry through a focus on six strategic areas, namely to: (1) grow demand from Asia; (2) build competitive digital capability; (3) encourage investment and implement a regulatory reform agenda; (4) ensure the tourism transport environment 
supports growth; (5) increase the supply of labo ur, skills and indigenous participation; and 
(6) build industry resilience, productivity and qu ality. A key goal is to  grow overnight visitor 
expenditure to between $A 115 billion and $A 140 billion by 2020. The first phase of the strategy 
has been focused on putting in place the foundations upon which the strategies' aims can be 
achieved. As noted in a 2013 evaluation of Tourism 2020, focus has been placed on targeting best prospect customers and developing the kinds of prod ucts and services that they want as well as 
increasing investment in tourism and ensuring sufficient capacity on relevant air transport 
routes.
275 Other strategies which have been released over the review period were the China 
2020 Strategic Plan and the India 2020 Strategic Plan.276  
4.147.  Industry-specific support to the tourism sector is provided through the Tourism Demand 
Driver Infrastructure Programme, unveiled in the 2014/15 Federal Budget. The Federal 
Government has committed $A 43.1 million over four years towards this scheme which provides grant funding to States and Territories for infrastructure projects which drive demand, improve 
quality and increase tourism expenditure to assist  the tourism industry to meet the Tourism 2020 
targets.
277 Two other grant programs run by the Federal Government, the Tourism Industry 
Regional Development Fund (TIRF) Grants Program (launched in 2012) and the TQUAL Grants 
Program (launched in 2009) were terminated in 2013; all existing projects under these programs 
will be completed by 2015.278 The authorities confirmed there are no other sector-specific incentive 
schemes in operation.  
                                               
272 Tourism Research Australia (2014).  
273 Australian Trade Commission & Tourism Australia (undated). 
274 For more information on this strategy, see WTO document WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011.  
275 Tourism Australia (2013).  
276 More information on each of these strategies may be viewed at: 
http://www.tourism.australia.com/statistics/tourism-2020.aspx . 
277 Australian Trade Commission on line information. Viewed at: www.austrade.gov.au/Tourism/Tourism-
and-business/tddi . 
278 For more information on the grants which were  available under this scheme, see WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/244/Rev.1, 18 May 2011; and Australian Trad e Commission online information. Viewed at: 
www.austrade.gov.au/Tourism/Tourism-and- business/previous- grants-programmes . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 130 - 
 
  REFERENCES  
Armstrong S. (2015), The economic impact of the Australia–United States free trade agreement , 
Australia-Japan Research Centre (AJRC) Working Paper 01/2015, January. Viewed at: https://crawford.anu.edu.au/pdf /ajrc/wpapers/2015/201501.pdf .  
Atkin T., M. Caputo, T. Robinson and H. Wang (2014), Macroeconomic Consequences of Terms of 
Trade Episodes, Past and Present , Research Discussion Paper 2014-01, January. Viewed: 
http://www.rba.gov.au/publicat ions/rdp/2014/pdf/rdp2014-01.pdf . 
Australian Automotive Aftermarket Association (2013), A Vision for the Entire Automotive 
Manufacturing Industry - Submission to the Productivity Commission Review of the Australian Automotive Industry , November. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf _file/0015/130191/sub 054-automotive.pdf . 
Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences (2013), Fishery status 
reports 2012 , October. Viewed at: 
http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/9aam /fsrXXd9abm_/fsr12d9abm_00220131029/00_FishS
tatus2012_1.1.0.pdf . 
Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences (2014), Agricultural 
commodities: June quarter 2014 . Viewed: 
http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/agco md9abcc004/agcomd9abcc004201406/AgCommoditi
es2014.No2_Ver1.1.0.pdf . 
Australian Communications and Media Authority (2012), Communications Report 2011-12 . Viewed 
at: http://acma.gov.au/webwr/_assets /main/lib550049/comms_report_2011-12.pdf .  
Australian Communications and Media Authority (2013a), Annual Report 2012-13 . Viewed at: 
http://www.acma.gov.au/theACMA/annual-report-2012--13 .  
Australian Communications and Media Authority (2013b), Communications Report 2012-13 . 
Viewed at: http://acma.gov.au/theACMA/Library/Corporate-library/Corporate-
publications/communications-report-2012-13 .  
Australian Communications and Media Authority (2013c), Regional commercial television local 
content investigation , December. Viewed at: 
http://www.acma.gov.au/Industry/Broadcast/Telev ision/Local--regional-content/local-content-
investigation .  
Australian Communications and Media Authority (2014), Communications Report 2013-14 . Viewed 
at: 
http://acma.gov.au/~/media/Research%20and%20Reporting/Publication/Comms%20Report%202
013%2014/PDF/Communications%20report%20201314_LOW-RES%20FOR%20WEB%20pdf.pdf .  
Australian Competition and Consumer Commission & Australian Energy Regulator (2013), Annual 
Report 2012-13 . Viewed at: 
http://www.accc.gov.au/system/files/ ACCC%20Annual%20Rep ort%202012-13.pdf . 
Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (2014a), ACCC submission to the Government's 
Option Paper: Approaches to regulating coastal shipping in Australia , May. Viewed at: 
http://www.accc.gov.au/system/files/ACCC%20s ubmission%20to%20the%20Government%20s%
20Options%20Paper%20Approaches%20to%20regulati....pdf .  
Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (2014b), Monitoring of the Australian 
petroleum industry - Report , 3 December. Viewed at: 
https://www.accc.gov.au/system/files/897_ACCC_ Petrol%20Monitoring% 20Report_FA_web.pdf . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 131 - 
 
  Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2011), Streamlining Australia's anti-dumping 
system - An effective anti-dumping and countervailing system for Australia , June. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resourc es/files/ACBPSADSPoli cyStatement2011.pdf . 
Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2012), Time Release Study 2012 . Viewed at: 
http://customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/TimeReleaseStudy2012.pdf .  
Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2013a), Annual Report 2012-13 , October. 
Viewed at: http://www.customs.gov.au/w ebdata/resources/files/AC BPSAnnualReport2012-13.pdf . 
Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (2013b), Schedule 4 Guidelines - Customs Tariff 
Schedule 4, Concessional Rates of Duty , August. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resources/file s/GuidelinesSchedule4i temsconsolidedFINAL.pd
f. 
Australian Customs and Border Protection Service (undated), Volume 12 - Export Control . Viewed 
at: http://www.customs.gov.au/webdata/resou rces/files/111026Volume12version5.2.pdf .  
Australian Energy Regulator (2013), State of the Energy Market 2013 , December. Viewed at: 
http://www.aer.gov.au/sites/default /files/Complete%20report%20A4.pdf .  
Australian Industry Group (2014), National CEO Survey, Burden of Government Regulation . 
Viewed at: 
http://www.aigroup.com.au/portal/ binary/com.epicentri c.contentmanagement. servlet.ContentDeli
veryServlet/LIVE_CONTENT/Publications/Reports/2014/Burden_of_Government_Regulation_Mar_2
014.pdf . 
Australian Institute of Petroleum (2013), Maintaining supply security and reliability for liquid fuels 
in Australia , September. Viewed at: 
http://www.aip.com.au/pdf/M aintaining_Supply_Secu rity_and_Reliability_f or_Liquid_Fuels_in_Aus
tralia.pdf . 
Australian Fisheries Management Authority (2013), Annual Report 2012-13 . Viewed at: 
http://www.afma.gov.au/wp-content/uploa ds/2012/09/AFMA-Annual-Report-1213.pdf . 
Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (2014), Quarterly General Insurance Performance 
Statistics , September. Viewed at: http://apra.gov.au/GI/Publications/Documents/GI-Quarterly-
Performance-20140930.pdf .  
Australian Trade Commission & Tourism Australia (undated), Australian Tourism Open for 
Investment . Viewed at: http://www.tourisminvestment.com.au . 
Australian Trade Commission (undated), Export Market Development Grants - A Guide to Applying 
– For expenditure Incurred in 2012-13 (2012-13 grant year) . Viewed at: 
http://www.austrade.gov.au/Export/Expor t-Grants/export-grants-publications . 
Australian Workforce and Productivity Agency (2013), 2013 National Workforce Development 
Strategy , March. Viewed at: http://www.awpa.gov.au/our-
work/Workforce%20development/national-workforce-development-strategy/2013-workforce-
development-strategy/Documents/FutureFocus2013NWDS.pdf . 
Banks G. (2012), Productivity policies: the "to do' list" , addressing the Economic and Social 
Outlook Conference "Securing the Future", Melbourne, 1 November. Viewed at: http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_f ile/0009/120312/productivity-policies.pdf . 
Bast E., S. Makhijani, S. Pickard and S. Whitley (2014), The fossil fuel bailout: G20 subsidies for 
oil, gas and coal exploration , Overseas Development Institute, November. Viewed at: 
http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.or g.uk/files/odi-assets/publicat ions-opinion-f iles/9234.pdf  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 132 - 
 
  Borthwick, D. (2012), Review of Commonwealth Fisheries:  Legislation, Policy and Management , 
17 December. Viewed at: http://www.daff.gov.au/__data/ assets/pdf_file/ 0006/2270229/commonwealth-fisheries-
management-review-report.pdf .  
Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics (2013), Energy in Australia 2013 , May. Viewed at: 
http://bree.slicedlabs.com.au/sites/default/files/files/publications/energy-in-aust/bree-
energyinaustralia-2013.pdf .  
Business Council of Australia (2014), Submission to the Department of Infrastructure and Regional 
Development on the Approaches to Regulating Coastal Shipping in Australia Options Paper , June. 
Viewed at: http://www.bca.com.au/publications/submissi on-on-the-approaches-to-regulating-
coastal-shipping-in-australia .  
Business Software Alliance (2012), Shadow Market - 2011 BSA global software piracy study , 
9th Edition, May. Viewed at: 
http://globalstudy.bsa.org/2011/downloads/st udy_pdf/2011_BSA_Piracy_Study-Standard.pdf .  
Clean Energy Regulator (2014), Renewable Energy Target 2013 Administrative Report . Viewed at:  
http://www.cleanenergyregulat or.gov.au/About-us/Gover nance-accountability-and-
reporting/administrative-reports/RET-2013-Administrative-
Report/Documents/Renewable%20Energy%20Target%202013%20Administrative%20Report.pdf  
Commonwealth of Australia (2014a), Budget 2014-2015 – Building Australia's Infrastructure , May. 
Viewed at: http://www.budget.gov.au/2014-
15/content/glossy/infrastructure/html/infrastructure_01.htm .  
Commonwealth of Australia (2014b), Budget Measures 2014-15 , Budget Paper No.2. Viewed at: 
http://www.budget.gov.au/2014-15/conten t/bp2/download/BP2_consolidated.pdf . 
Commonwealth of Australia (2014c), Budget Strategy and Outlook 2014-15 , Budget Paper No. 1. 
Viewed at: http://www.budget.gov.au/2014-15/co ntent/bp1/download/BP1_BS1.pdf . 
Deloitte (2013), Energy Supply Association of Australia : Improving energy concessions and 
hardship payments policies - Final Report , 25 February. Viewed at: 
http://www.esaa.com.au/files/Repor ts_and_Publications/130320_es aa_Deloitte_report_Improving
_energy_concessions_and_hardship_payments_policies.pdf .  
Deloitte (2014), Get out of your own way: Unleashing productivity , Building the Lucky Country 
Series, Melbourne. 
Department of Agriculture (2013), Position Paper for the Revalidation of the Levies Revenue Cost 
Recovery Methodology . Viewed at: 
http://www.daff.gov.au/__data/asse ts/pdf_file/0018/23802 30/position-paper-for-the-revalidation-
of-the-levies-revenue-cost-recovery-methodology.pdf .  
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2012), Annual Report 2011-2012 . Viewed at: 
http://www.daff.gov.au/__data/as sets/pdf_file/0006/ 2206158/daff-annual-re port-2011-12.pdf . 
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (2013), Annual Report 2012-2013 . Viewed at: 
http://www.daff.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_f ile/0020/2351504/annual- report-2012-13.pdf . 
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2013), DEEWR Annual Report 
2012-13 . Viewed at: 
http://docs.employment.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/deewr_annual_report_2012-13.pdf .  
Department of Finance (2012), Commonwealth Procurement Rules - Achieving value for money , 
1 July. Viewed at: 
http://www.finance.gov.au/sites/default/files/c pr_commonwealth_procurement_rules_july_2012.p
df.  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 133 - 
 
  Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2014), Annual Report 2013-14 . Viewed at: 
http://www.dfat.gov.au/dept/annua l_reports/13-14/index.html .  
Department of Health/Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2013), Operations of the Office of 
the Gene Technology Regulator - Annual Report 2012/2013 . Viewed at: 
http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishi ng.nsf/Content/5AB547A 2CE4C07F9CA2574240018A
415/$File/annual-report12-13.pdf . 
Department of Industry (2013), Key Automotive Statistics 2012 . Viewed at: 
http://www.innovation.gov.au/industry/automotive/ Statistics/Documents/KeyAutomotiveStatistics
2012.pdf .  
Department of Industry (2014a), Annual Report 2013–14 , 28 October. Viewed at: 
http://www.industry.gov.au/AboutUs/Corporat ePublications/AnnualReports/Documents/13-
14/AnnualReport-Conslolidated.pdf . 
Department of Industry (2014a), Australian Industry Participation Plans - User Guide for 
developing an Implementation Report , August. Viewed at: 
http://www.industry.gov.au/industry/IndustryInitiat ives/AustralianIndustryParticipation/Document
s/ImplementationReportUserGuide.pdf . 
Department of Industry (2014b), Cooperative Research Centres Program 2014-15 , July. Viewed 
at: http://www.business.gov.au/grants-and-assistan ce/Collaboration/CRC/crcs/Documents/crc-
directory.pdf  
Department of Industry and Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics (2014), Eastern 
Australian Domestic Gas Market Study . Viewed at: 
http://www.industry.gov.au/Energy /EnergyMarkets/Documents/Eas ternAustralianDomesticGasMar
ketStudy.pdf . 
Department of Industry, Innovation, Climate Change, Science, Research and Tertiary Education 
(2013a), Annual Report 2012–13 , October. Viewed at: 
http://www.innovation.gov.au/AboutUs/Corpor atePublications/AnnualReports/Documents/12-
13AnnualReport/AnnualReport12-13Complete.pdf . 
Department of Industry, Innovation, Climate Change, Science, Research, and Tertiary Education 
(2013b), Textile, Clothing and Footwear Structural Adjustment Program , June. Viewed at: 
http://www.innovation.gov.au/indu stry/TextilesClothingandFootwe ar/TCFIndustries/Documents/SA
P_Guidelines.pdf .  
Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2012), Annual Report 2011-12 . Viewed 
at: http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/department/a nnual_report/2011_2012/files/INFRASTRUCTURE_
TRANSPORT_AR_2011_12_FULL_DOCUMENT.pdf .  
Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2013a), Annual Report 2012-13 . Viewed 
at: 
http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/department/a nnual_report/2012_2013/files/INFRASTRUCTURE_
AR_2012_13_FULL_DOCUMENT.pdf . 
Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2013b), Australian Infrastructure 
Statistics Yearbook 2013 , October. Viewed at: 
http://www.bitre.gov.au/publicat ions/2013/yearbook_2013.aspx .  
Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2014a), Domestic Aviation Activity 
Annual 2013-14 . Viewed at: 
https://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/ongoing /files/domestic_airlin e_activity _2013_2014.pdf .  
Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2014b), International Airline 
Activity 2013-14 . Viewed at: 
http://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/ongoing/f iles/International_airline_activity_FY2014.pdf . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 134 - 
 
  Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2014c), Options Paper: Approaches to 
regulating coastal shipping in Australia , April. Viewed at: 
http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/ma ritime/business/coas tal_trading/review/files/Options_Paper_A
pproaches_to_regulating_coastal_shipping_in_Australia.pdf . 
Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2014d), Maritime Waterline , Statistical 
Report No. 54, August. Viewed at: http://www.bitre.gov.au/publica tions/2014/files/water_054.pdf .  
Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research (2008), Annual Report 2007-08 , 
16 October. Viewed at: 
http://industry.gov.au/AboutUs/CorporatePub lications/AnnualReports/Pages/default.aspx .  
Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2014), The Australian Government Guide to 
Regulation , March. Viewed at: 
http://www.cuttingredtape.gov.au/sites/default/fil es/documents/australian_government_guide_re
gulation.pdf . 
Economic Regulation Authority Western Australia (2013), 2012/13 Annual Report , September. 
Viewed at: 
http://www.erawa.com.au/cproot /11725/2/Final%20Eco nomic%20Regulation% 20Authority%20An
nual%20Report%202012%2013.pdf . 
Economist Intelligence Unit (2013), Country Commerce - Australia , August. Viewed at: 
http://country.eiu.com/FileHandler.ashx?issue_id=40945788&mode=pdf .  
EFIC (2013), Annual Report 2012/2013 . Viewed at: 
http://www.efic.gov.au/about/governance/Annua lReports/Documents/EFIC-Annual-Report-
2013.pdf.  
Energy Supply Association of Australia (2014), Electricity Gas Australia . Viewed at: 
http://www.esaa.com.au/policy/electricity_gas_australia_2014.  
European Commission (2013), Tenth Report on Potentially Trade-Restrictive Measures Identified in 
the Context of the Financial and Economic Crisis 1 May 2012 – 31 May 2013 . Viewed at: 
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/september/tradoc_151703.pdf .  
Export Finance and Insurance Corporation (2013), Annual Report 2012/2013 . Viewed at: 
http://www.efic.gov.au/about/governance/Annua lReports/Documents/EFIC-Annual-Report-
2013.pdf . 
Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries (2009), Submission to the Review of Australia's Future 
Tax System , March. Viewed at: 
http://www.fcai.com.au/library/publication/12562 96812_document_submission_to_the_review_of
_australia_s_future_tax_system_-_march_2009.pdf . 
Fisheries Development Research and Development Corporation (2012), Status of Key Australian 
Fish Stocks Reports 2012 , December. Viewed at: http://fish.gov.au/Pages/SAFS_Report.aspx . 
Gray, E.M., Oss-Emer, M, and Sheng, Y (2014), Australian agricultural productivity growth: past 
reforms and future opportunities , ABARES Research Report 14.2, February. Viewed at: 
http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/9aap/2 014/apgpfd9abp_20140220/AgProdGrthPstRfmFtr
Oppsv1.0.0.pdf . 
IMF (2012), Australia: Basel Core Principles for Effective Banking Supervision – Detailed 
Assessment for Observance , Country Report 12/2013, November. Viewed at: 
http://www.imf.org/external/p ubs/ft/scr/2012/cr12313.pdf .  
IMF (2014), 2013 Article IV Consultation - Staff Report , Country Report No. 14/51, February. 
Viewed at: https://www.imf.org/external /pubs/ft/scr/2014/cr1451.pdf . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 135 - 
 
  IP Australia (2013), Australian Intellectual Property Report 2013 . Viewed at: 
http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/pdfs/Aust ralian_IP_Report_2013-web_version.pdf . 
IP Australia (2014), Quarterly Report , September. Viewed at: 
http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/uploaded-files/repo rts/CSC_Quarterly_Report_Jul_-_Sep_2014.pdf . 
ITU (2013), Measuring the Information Society . Viewed at: http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-
D/Statistics/Documents/publications/mis2013/MIS2013_without_Annex_4.pdf .  
Karanikolas, E. (2014), "Export Market Development Grants Amendment Bill 2014", Parliamentary 
Library, Bills Digest No. 51, 2013–14, 19 March. Viewed at: 
http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/billsdgs/3060392/upload_binary/3060392
.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf#search=%22legislation/billsdgs/3060392%22 . 
Liberal Party (2013), Coalition's Policy to Boost the Competitiveness of Australian Manufacturing , 
August. Viewed at: http://lpaweb-static.s3.amazonaws.com/13-08-
21%20The%20Coalitions%20Policy%20to%20Boost%20the%20Competitiveness%20of%20Austra
lian%20Manufacturing.pdf . 
McCormack, B. (2013), "Risky Business - Parallel Imports and Trade Marked Products", FindLaw 
Australia, March. Viewed at: http://www.findlaw.com.au/articles/5165/risky-business---parallel-
imports-and-trade-marked.aspx . 
Mirabello, C. (2012), "Court rules to stop parallel imports", TressCox Lawyers Newsflash , 
14 September. Viewed at: http://www.tresscox.com.au/resources/resource.asp?id=1151 . 
National Farmers' Federation (2013), Annual Review 2012–13 . Viewed at: 
http://www.nff.org.au/publications.html . 
NBN Co. (2012), Corporate Plan 2012-15 , August. Viewed at: 
http://www.nbnco.com.au/content/dam/nbnco/doc uments/nbn-co-corporate-plan-6-aug-2012.pdf .  
OECD & International Energy Agency (2012), Energy Policies of IEA Countries: Australia - 2012 
Review . Viewed at: http://www.oecd-
ilibrary.org/docserver/download/6112011e.pdf? expires=1397141292&id=id&accname=ocid195767
&checksum=5114C483B263650E36351C763225F855 .  
OECD (2006), Whole of Government Approaches to Fragile States . Viewed at: 
http://www.oecd.org/dac/incaf/37826256.pdf . 
OECD (2012), OECD Economic Surveys: Australia 2012 . Viewed at: http://www.oecd-
ilibrary.org/docserver/download/1012201e.pdf? expires=1404803342&id=id&accname=ocid570152
74&checksum=F0DEB596C8BEFC2BF40F47A02CA786D5 .  
OECD (2013a), Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2013: OECD Countries and Emerging 
Economies . Viewed at: http://www.oecd-ilibrary. org/agriculture-and-food/agricultural-policy-
monitoring-and-evaluation-2013_agr_pol-2013-en . 
OECD (2013b), Economic Policy Reforms 2013: Going for Growth , 15 February. Viewed at: 
http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/economic-policy-reforms-2013_growth-2013-en .  
OECD (2013c), OECD Economic Outlook , Volume 2013, Issue 2, 19 November. Viewed at: 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eco_outlook-v2013-2-11-en . 
OECD (2013d), OECD Factbook 2013 - Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics , 9 January. 
Viewed at: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economi cs/oecd-factbook-2013_factbook-2013-en . WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 136 - 
 
  OECD (2013e), Review of Fisheries: Policies and Summary Statistics 2013 , December. Viewed at: 
http://www.oecd-
ilibrary.org/docserver/download/5313011e.pdf? expires=1404802056&id=id&accname=ocid570152
74&checksum=5B67EC38EDC3A4AC39018A5CDF49BBCC .  
OECD (2014a), Economic Policy Reforms 2014: Going for Growth , Interim Report, 21 February. 
Viewed at: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/ec onomic-policy-reforms-2014_growth-2014-
en.  
OECD (2014b), Insurance Statistics 2013 , May. Viewed at: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/finance-
and-investment/oecd-insurance-statistics-2013_ins_stats-2013-en .  
Parliamentary Budget Office (2014), The sensitivity of budget projections to changes in economic 
parameters - Estimates from 2014–15 to 2024–25 , Report No. 03/2014, November. Viewed at: 
http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Par liament/Parliamentary_ Departments/Parlia mentary_Budget_Offi
ce/reports/The_sensitivity_of_budget_proje ctions_to_changes_in_economic_parameters .  
Prime Minister's Taskforce on Manufacturing (2012), Report of the Non-Government Members – 
Smarter manufacturing for a smarter Australia , August. Viewed at: 
http://www.industry.gov.au/industry/manufacturi ng/Taskforce/Documents/SmarterManufacturing.
pdf.  
Productivity Commission (2011) Economic Regulation of Airport Services , PC Inquiry Report 
No. 57, December. Viewed at: http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets /pdf_file/0003/114645/airport-
regulation.pdf . 
Productivity Commission (2012), Impacts of COAG Reforms: Business Regulation and Vocational 
Education and Training . Viewed at: http://www.pc.gov.au/inqu iries/completed/coag-
reporting/report . 
Productivity Commission (2013a), Australian Automotive Manufacturing Industry , Preliminary 
Findings Report. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file /0005/131396/automotive-preliminary.pdf .  
Productivity Commission (2013b), National Access Regime , Inquiry Report No. 66. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/ pdf_file/0011/129098/ access-regime.pdf .  
Productivity Commission (2013c), PC productivity update , May. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/ 0004/123970/2013-pc-produ ctivity-update.pdf . 
Productivity Commission (2013d), Trade and Assistance Review 2011-2012 . Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/ 0016/123901/trade-assist ance-review-2011-12.pdf . 
Productivity Commission (2014a), Australia's Automotive Manufacturing Industry , Position Paper, 
Viewed at: http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_f ile/0006/132981/automotive-position.pdf .  
Productivity Commission (2014b), Regulator Audit Framework , March. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/research/submi ssion/regulator-audit-framework . 
Productivity Commission (2014c), Trade and Assistance Review 2012-2013 , June. Viewed at: 
www.pc.gov.au/_data/assets/pdf_file/0007/ 137788/trade-assistance-review-2012-13.pdf . 
Reserve Bank of Australia (2014a), Financial Stability Review , March. Viewed at: 
http://www.rba.gov.au/publicatio ns/fsr/2014/mar/pdf/0314.pdf . 
Reserve Bank of Australia (2014b), Financial Stability Review , September. Viewed at: 
http://www.rba.gov.au/publicatio ns/fsr/2014/se p/pdf/0914.pdf .  
Reserve Bank of Australia (2014c), Statement on Monetary Policy , May. Viewed at: 
http://www.rba.gov.au/publicatio ns/smp/2014/ma y/pdf/0514.pdf  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 137 - 
 
  Reserve Bank of Australia (2014d), Statement on Monetary Policy , November. Viewed at: 
http://www.rba.gov.au/publicatio ns/smp/2014/no v/pdf/1114.pdf .  
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (2014), The impact of free trade 
agreements on Australia A model-based analysis . Viewed at: http://www.thecie.com.au/wp-
content/uploads/2014/08/RIRDC-north-Asian-FTAs-report.pdf . 
Tourism Australia (2013), 2020 Setting the foundation: Tourism's Australia's journey 2010 
to 2030 , October. Viewed at: 
http://www.tourism.australia.com/documents/ Statistics/TACP8132_202 0_Update_2013-SP.pdf .  
Tourism Research Australia (2013), International Visitors in Australia – Quarterly results of the 
International Visitor Survey , June. Viewed at: 
http://www.tra.gov.au/documents/Internation al_Visitors_in_Australia_June_Qtr_2013.pdf .  
Treasury (2013), Tax Expenditures Statement 2013 . Viewed at: 
http://www.treasury.gov.au/~/media/Treasury/P ublications%20and%20Med ia/Publications/2014/
TES%202013/Documents/PDF/TES-13-Consolidated.ashx . 
Treasury (2014), Financial System Inquiry: Final Report , November. Viewed at: 
http://fsi.gov.au/files/2014/12/FSI_Fina l_Report_Consolidated20141210.pdf . 
UNCTAD (2013), Global Value Chains and Development: Investment and Value Added Trade in the 
Global Economy: A preliminary analysis , Advance unedited version. Viewed at: 
http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/diae2013d1_en.pdf . 
UNDP (2014), Human Development Report - Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerability 
and Building Resilience , 24 July. Viewed at: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-
en-1.pdf .  
WEF (2013), The Global Competitiveness Report 2013–2014 , September. Viewed at: 
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Glob alCompetitivenessReport_2013-14.pdf . 
WIPO (2013), World Intellectual Property Indicators 2013 , WIPO Economics & Statistics Series. 
Viewed at: http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/freepublicat ions/en/intproperty/941/wipo_pub_941_2013.p
df. 
World Bank (2013), Doing Business 2014 – Economy Profile 2014 Australia . Viewed at: 
http://www.doingbusiness.org . 
World Bank (2014), Doing Business 2015 – Economy Profile 2015 Australia . Viewed at: 
http://www.doingbusiness.org . 
World Economic Forum (2014), The Global Competitiveness Report 2014-2015 . Viewed at: 
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Glob alCompetitivenessReport_2014-15.pdf . 
 WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 138 - 
 
  5  APPENDIX TABLES 
Table A1. 1 Net foreign debt structure, 2009/10-2013/14 
($A million, end-period) 
  2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 
Net foreign debt 675,246  671,174  746,170  796,595  864,194  
Public sector 112,136  146,128  216,303  204,508  226,105  
General government 83,364  114,064  182,011  177,263  217,459  
Financial corporations .. .. .. .. .. 
Central Bank -41,798  -38,474  -44,014  -46,026  -59,154  
Central Borrowing Authorities 77,125  80,473  88,160  80,038  79,118  
Other financial corporations .. .. .. .. .. 
Non-financial corporations .. .. .. .. .. 
Private sector 563,110  525,047  529,867  592,087  638,090  
Financial corporations 373,830  315,006  283,294  281,454  293,336  
Non-financial corporations 189,280  210,041  246,574  310,633  344,754  
.. Included in totals where applicable but not available for publication. 
Source:   Australian Bureau of St atistics, "Balance of Payments and International Investment Position - 
5302.0, September Quarter 2014". WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 139 - 
 
  Table A1. 2 Merchandise exports, by product groups, 2010-13 
  2010 2011 2012 2013 
Total exports (US$ billio n) 212.5 270.1  256.6  253.7 
Total exports ($A billion) 231.1 261.7  247.8  262.0 
 (% of total) 
Total primary products 77.3 79.8  79.0  80.4 
Agriculture 13.9 14.3  15.5  15.8 
Food 10.9 10.3  11.0  10.9 
0412  Other wheat (including spelt) an d meslin, unmilled 1.8 2.3  2.6  2.3 
0112  Bovine meat, frozen 1.1 1.1  1.2  1.4 
2226  Rape, colza, mustard seeds 0.2 0.4  0.6  0.9 
0121  Meat of sheep or goats 0.7 0.6  0.7  0.8 
0111  Bovine meat, fresh, ch illed 0.8 0.7  0.8  0.8 
1121  Wine of fresh grapes (including fortified wine) 0.9 0.7  0.8  0.7 
Agricultural raw materi al 2.5 3.0  3.0  3.0 
2631  Cotton (other than linter s), not carded or combed 0.5 1.0  1.1  1.0 
2681  Wool, greasy (including fleece- washed wool) 0.9 1.0  0.9  0.9 
Mining 63.4 65.5  63.5  64.6 
Ores and other minerals  30.1 33.1  31.1  34.9 
2815  Iron ores and concen trates, not agglomerated 21.2 24.4  21.8  26.4 
2852  Alumina (aluminium ox ide) 2.2 2.0  2.0  2.0 
2831  Copper ores an d concentrates 2.2 2.1  2.1  2.0 
Non-ferrous metals 4.5 4.3  4.0  3.9 
6841  Aluminium and aluminium alloys, unwrought 1.8 1.6  1.4  1.3 
6821  Copper anodes; alloys; unw rought 1.1 1.2  1.2  1.2 
Fuels 28.8 28.0  28.4  25.8 
3212  Other coal, whether or pulverized, not agglomerated 18. 6 17.8  16.6  15.2 
3431  Natural gas, liquefied 4.1 4.2  5.4  5.6 
3330  Crude oils of petroleum and bitu minous minerals 4.5 4.4  4.4  3.4 
Manufactures 13.1 11.6  12.4  11.7 
Iron and steel 0.6 0.5  0.3  0.3 
Chemicals 3.5 3.0  3.4  3.0 
5429  Medicaments, n.e.s.  1.4 1.1  1.4  1.0 
Other semi-manufactures 1.5 1.3  1.3  1.3 
Machinery and transport equi pment 5.3 4.8  5.4  5.2 
Power generating machines 0.2 0.2  0.2  0.2 
Other non-electrical mach inery 1.7 1.5  1.7  1.5 
Agricultural machinery and tractors 0.1 0.0  0.1  0.0 
Office machines and telecommunicati on equipment 1.0 0.9  0.9  1.0 
Other electrical machines 0.6 0.5  0.5  0.5 
Automotive products 1.3 1.0  1.3  1.2 
7812  Motor vehicles for the tr ansport of persons, n.e.s. 0.8 0.5  0.7  0.8 
Other transport equipmen t 0.6 0.7  0.8  0.8 
Textiles 0.1 0.1  0.1  0.1 
Clothing 0.1 0.1  0.1  0.1 
Other consumer goods 2.0 1.8  1.9  1.8 
Other 9.5 8.6  8.6  7.8 
Gold, non-monetary (excl. gold ores and concentrates) 6.2 5.8  6.3  5.3 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the Australian authorities in SITC four-digit 
classification. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 140 - 
 
  Table A1. 3 Merchandise imports, by product groups, 2010-13 
  2010 2011 2012 2013 
Total imports (US$ billio n) 193.5 234.2  250.5  232.9 
Total imports ($A billion) 210.5 226.9  241.8  240.5 
 (% of total) 
Total primary products 21.2 24.6  24.0  25.3 
Agriculture 5.9 5.8  5.6  6.3 
Food 5.2 5.1  5.0  5.7 
0989 Food preparations, n.e. s. 0.6 0.6  0.6  0.6 
Agricultural raw material 0.7 0.6  0.6  0.6 
Mining 15.3 18.9  18.4  19.0 
Ores and other minerals 0.4 0.6  0.4  0.3 
Non-ferrous metals 1.2 1.4  1.1  1.1 
Fuels 13.7 16.9  16.9  17.5 
3330  Crude oils of petroleum and bitu minous minerals 7.7 9.2  8.9  8.4 
3346  Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous  
  minerals, other than crude 4.7 6.3  6.6  7.6 
3432  Natural gas, in the gaseou s state 0.8 0.9   0.9  1.0 
Manufactures 72.3 69.2  71.2  70.6 
Iron and steel 1.8 1.6  1.8  1.5 
Chemicals 10.8 10.7  10.1  10.0 
5429  Medicaments, n.e.s.  3.3 3.2  2.8  2.7 
5416  Glycosides; glands, etc. an d extracts; anti sera/vaccines, 
  etc. 0.4 0.5  0.5  0.6 
Other semi-manufacture s 6.8 6.8  6.9  7.3 
6911  Iron or steel structures, tu bes and the like, for use in  
  structures 0.3 0.6  0.7  1.0 
Machinery and transport equi pment 39.1 36.9  39.6  37.9 
Power generating machines 1.4 1.4  1.4  1.3 
Other non-electrical mach inery 8.6 8.6  10.2  9.3 
7232  Mechanical shovels,  etc., self-propelled 0.6 0.8  1.0  0.6 
7436  Filtering and purifyin g machines for liquids/gas es 0.3 0.3  0.4  0.5 
Agricultural machinery and tractors 0.6 0.7  0.8  0.6 
Office machines and telecommunicati on equipment 10.8 10.1  9.2  9.2 
7641  Telephone sets, incl. for cellular networks 2.7 2.8  2.8  3.0 
7522  Portable automatic data proce ssing machines 1.5 1.5  1.5  1.5 
7519  Other office machines 0.9 0.8  0.7  0.7 
7523  Automatic data processing machines 0.8 0.7  0.7  0.7 
Other electrical machines 4.0 3.9  3.9  4.1 
7731  Insulated wire, cable etc.; optica l fibre cables 0.4 0.5  0.5  0.6 
Automotive products 12.1 10.6  12.3  11.9 
7812  Motor vehicles for the transport of  persons, n.e.s. 7.6 6.2  7.0  7.6 
7821  Goods vehicles 2.8 2.7  3.5  2.6 
7843  Other motor vehicle parts and accessories of 722, 781  
  to 783 1.1 1.1  1.1  1.1 
Other transport equipment 2.2 2.3  2.6  2.2 
Textiles 1.2 1.1  1.0  1.1 
Clothing 2.6 2.5  2.4  2.7 
Other consumer goods 10.2 9.6  9.4  10.1 
8722  Instruments used in medica l, surgical or veterinary  
  sciences 0.7 0.6  0.7  0.7 
8996  Orthopaedic appliances; arti ficial parts of the body;  
  hearing aids etc. 0.6 
 0.6  0.6  0.6 
8211  Seats (excl. of 872.4), and parts     
Other 6.5 6.1  4.8  4.1 
Gold, non-monetary (excl. gold ores and concentrates) 3.3 2.8  2.4  2.0 
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the Australian authorities in SITC four-digit 
classification. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 141 - 
 
  Table A1. 4 Merchandise export s, by destination, 2010-13 
  2010 2011 2012 2013 
Total exports (US$ billion) 212.5  270.1  256.6  253.7  
Total exports ($A billion) 231.1  261.7  247.8  262.0  
 (% of total) 
America 6.0  5.8  5.6  5.0  
United States 4.0  3.7  3.8  3.7  
Other America 2.0  2.0  1.9  1.3  
Canada 0.5  0.6  0.7  0.5  
Europe 8.5  8.0  7.5  5.7  
EU(28) 8.1  7.5  6.9  5.0  
United Kingdom 3.6  2.9  2.7  1.5  
Netherlands 1.1  1.3  1.2  0.9  
Germany 0.8  0.9  0.8  0.7  
EFTA 0.2  0.3  0.3  0.4  
Other Europe 0.2  0.2  0.3  0.4  
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 0.5  0.4  0.4  0.3  
Africa 1.6  1.4  1.4  1.2  
South Africa 0.8  0.6  0.6  0.5  
Middle East 2.6  2.5  2.7  3.3  
United Arab Emirates 0.9  0.9  0.8  1.0  
Saudi Arabia (Kingdom of) 0.7  0.6  0.7  0.8  
Asia 80.0  80.9  81.5  83.4  
China 25.3  27.3  29.5  36.1  
Japan 18.9  19.3  19.3  18.1  
Six East Asian traders 20.1  20.3  19.2  17.4  
Korea, Rep. of 8.9  8.9  8.0  7.5  
Chinese Taipei 3.6  3.5  3.2  2.8  
Singapore 2.1  2.4  2.9  2.1  
Malaysia 1.6  1.7  2.0  2.1  
Thailand 2.5  2.6  2.0  1.9  
Hong Kong, China 1.4  1.2  1.0  1.0  
Other Asia 15.8  14.1  13.6  11.7  
India 7.1  5.8  4.9  3.6  
New Zealand 3.5  2.9  3.0  2.8  
Indonesia 1.9  2.1  2.0  2.0  
Papua New Guinea 0.9  0.9  1.1  0.9  
Viet Nam 0.7  0.8  0.7  0.8  
Philippines 0.5  0.6  0.7  0.5  
Other 0.9  0.9  0.8  0.9  
Memorandum:     
APEC 77.1  79.5  80.8  83.6  
ASEAN 9.4  10.2  10.4  9.5  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the Australian authorities. WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 142 - 
 
  Table A1. 5 Merchandise impo rts, by origin, 2010-13 
  2010 2011 2012 2013 
Total imports (US$ billion) 193.5  234.2  250.5  232.9  
Total imports ($A billion) 210.5  226.9  241.8  240.5  
 (% of total) 
America 15.2  15.7  15.9  14.2  
United States 12.6  12.9  12.9  11.3  
Other America 2.6  2.8  3.0  2.9  
Mexico 0.7  0.8  0.8  0.9  
Europe 20.4  20.4  19.5  19.6  
EU(28) 19.0  18.7  18.0  17.9  
Germany 5.0  4.7  4.6  4.8  
United Kingdom 2.8  3.0  2.8  2.6  
Italy 2.3  2.2  2.2  2.4  
France 2.5  2.6  1.9  2.0  
Spain 0.8  0.8  1.2  1.1  
Sweden 1.0  1.1  1.0  0.9  
EFTA 1.2  1.5  1.3  1.4  
Switzerland 1.0  1.3  1.2  1.2  
Other Europe 0.2  0.2  0.2  0.3  
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 0.3  0.5  0.4  0.6  
Africa 1.6  2.3  2.9  2.4  
Middle East 2.1  2.8  2.3  2.5  
United Arab Emirates 1.1  1.8  1.3  1.6  
Asia 58.9  56.8  57.5  58.9  
China 18.6  18.5  18.4  19.6  
Japan 8.6  7.9  7.9  7.9  
Six East Asian traders 20.3  19.0  20.3  20.4  
Singapore 5.0  6.2  6.0  5.4  
Thailand 5.2  3.7  4.2  4.7  
Korea, Rep. of 3.4  3.1  4.1  4.2  
Malaysia 4.3  3.8  4.0  3.9  
Chinese Taipei 1.7  1.7  1.5  1.7  
Other Asia 11.4  11.4  11.0  11.0  
New Zealand 3.4  3.3  3.0  3.1  
Indonesia 2.5  2.6  2.6  2.4  
Viet Nam 1.5  1.2  1.3  1.6  
Papua New Guinea 1.4  1.6  1.4  1.2  
India 0.9  1.0  1.1  1.0  
Other 1.5  1.5  1.6  1.7  
Memorandum:     
APEC 72.4  70.7  71.4  71.2  
ASEAN 19.3  18.3  18.8  18.8  
Source:  WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the Australian authorities. 
  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 143 - Table A2. 1 Notifications under WTO Agreem ents, 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2014 
Agreement Requirement Symbol and date of latest notification  
Agreement on Agriculture  
Articles 10 and 18.2 Export subsidy (ES:1, ES:2, ES:3)  G/AG/N/AUS/92, 15/08/2014 
Article 16.2  Net food-importing decision: food and other assistance (NF:1) G/AG/N/AUS/93, 08/10/2014 
Article 18.2 Domestic support: total aggregate measure of support (DS:1) G/AG/N/AUS/89, 17/10/2013 
Article 18.2 Market access: tariff and other quota commitments (MA:1)  G/AG/N/AUS/1/Rev.1, 27/08/2010 
Article 18.2 Market access: volume of imports under tariff and other quotas (MA:2) G/AG/N/AUS/94, 21/10/2014 
Article 18.3 Domestic support: new or modified exempt domestic support measures (DS:2) G/AG/N/AUS/88, 17/10/2013  
Articles 5.7 and 18.2  Special safeguard provisions (MA:5) G/AG/N/AUS/85, 26/04/2012 
General Agreement on Trade in Services  
Article III:3 Laws/regulations (transparency; new or changes to existing laws) S/C/N/718, 06/02/2014 
Article V:7(a) Economic integration agreements: Malaysia and Australia 
Economic integration agreements: ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand FTA 
Economic integration agreement: Korea (Rep. of) and Australia S/C/N/695, 13/05/2013 
S/C/N/545/Add.1, 09/05/2012 
S/C/N/786, 22/12/2014 
Article VII:4 Recognition agreements/arrangements; autonomous recognition measures S/C/N/538, 18/03/2010 
Agreement on the Implementation of Article VI GATT 1994 (anti-dumping)  
Article 16.4 Anti-dumping actions (preliminary and final)  G/ADP/N/266, 18/12/2014 
Article 16.4  Anti-dumping actions (taken within the preceding six months)  G/ADP/N/259/AUS, 01/09/2014 
Article 16.5  Authorities and procedures G/ADP/N/14/Add.36; G/SCM/N/18/Add.36, 
14/10/2013 
Article 18.5  Laws/regulations (and changes thereto, including changes in the administration of 
such laws) G/ADP/N/1/AUS/2/Suppl.12, 12/02/2014 
GATT 1994  
Article XVII:4(a) State-trading activities  G/STR/N/15/AUS, 07/07/2014 
Article XXIV:7(a) Agreement establishing a free-trade area: Malaysia and Australia 
Agreement establishing a free-trade area: ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand FTA 
Agreement establishing a free trade area: Korea (Rep. of) and Australia WT/REG340/N/1, 13/05/2013 
WT/REG284/N/1, 09/05/2012 
WT/REG359/N/1, 22/12/2014 
Article XXVIII:5 Modification of schedules (reserve the right to modify schedules for a three-year 
period) G/MA/268, 23/11/2011 
Agreement on Import Licensing 
Article 7.3 Replies to questionnaire on import licensing procedures G/LIC/N/3/AUS/6, 18/12/2013 
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures 
Article 25.1 Subsidies G/SCM/N/253/AUS, 11/09/2013 
Article 25.11 Countervailing duty actions (preliminary and final)  G/SCM/N/282, 19/12/2014 
Article 25.11  Countervailing duty actions (taken within the preceding six months) G/SMC/N/274, 01/09/2014 
Article 25.12 Authorities and procedures G/SCM/N/18/Add.36, 14/10/2013  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 144 - Agreement Requirement Symbol and date of latest notification  
Article 32.6  Laws/regulations (and changes thereto, including changes in the administration of 
such laws) G/SCM/N/1/AUS/2/Suppl.11, 12/02/2014 
Agreement on Safeguards 
Termination Termination of a safeguard investigation with no safeguard measure imposed  G/SG/N/9/AUS/4, 06/01/2014 
Article 12.1(a) Safeguard measures (initiating an investigation relating to serious injury or threat 
thereof and the reasons for it) G/SG/N/6/AUS/4, 03/07/2013 
Article 12.1(b) Safeguard measures (making a finding of serious injury or threat thereof caused by 
increased imports)  G/SG/N/8/AUS/3, 30/09/2013 
Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures  
Article 7, Annex B  Sanitary/phytosanitary regulations G/SPS/N/AUS/258, 23/03/2011 to 
G/SPS/N/AUS/353, 18/12/2014 
Agreement on Technical Barrier to Trade  
Article 2.9 Technical regulations G/TBT/N/AUS/65, 01/02/2011 to 
G/TBT/N/AUS/99, 22/10/2014 
Articles 2.9 and 5.6 Technical regulations G/TBT/N/AUS/71, 06/02/2012 
Article 5.6 Conformity assessment procedures G/TBT/N/AUS/72, 29/02/2012 
Article Unspecified  Technical regulations  G/TBT/N/AUS/98, 15/07/2014 
Trade-Related Aspects of Inte llectual Property Rights  
Article 63.2 Laws/regulations made effective by the notifying Member; amendment of a 
law/regulation IP/N/1/AUS/C/15, 21/10/2013 
Article 67, §37 and §38 Contact points for technical cooperation on TRIPS IP/N/7/AUS/1, 07/06/2013 
Article 69 Specification of contact points; changes to the information on specified contact 
points IP/N/3/AUS/2, 11/06/2013  
Decision on Notification Procedures  for Quantitative Restrictions  
G/L/59/Rev.1 Quantitative restrictions G/MA/QR/N/AUS/1, 30/10/2012 
Source: WTO Secretariat.   
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 145 - Table A2. 2 RTAs in force, 2014 
Korea-Australia Free Trade Agreement (KAFTA)  
Parties Australia and Korea (Rep. of) 
Date of entry into force (Australia)  12 December 2014 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) 2022 
Coverage (selected features) Services, government procurement, intellectual property, competition policy, 
environment, and labour 
Australia's merchandise trade with Korea (2013) 4.2% of total imports; 7.5% of total exports 
WTO legal cover GATT Art. XXIV & GATS Art. V 
WTO consideration status None 
WTO document series WT/REG359 
 
Free Trade Agreement between Australia and Malaysia  
Parties Australia and Malaysia 
Date of entry into force (Australia)  January 2013 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) Fully implemented upon entry into force of agreement. All of Aust ralia's tariffs on 
imports from Malaysia have been removed  
Coverage (selected features) Services, competition policy, environment, intellectual property rights, investment, and 
labour 
Australia's merchandise trade with Malaysia (2013) 3.9% of total imports; 2.1% of total exports 
WTO legal cover GATT Art. XXIV & GATS Art. V 
WTO consideration status Factual presentation distributed. WTO consideration on 23.10.2014 
WTO document series WT/REG340 
 
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (A SEAN) - Australia - New Zealand (AANZFTA) 
Parties Australia, New Zealand, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, 
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam 
Date of entry into force (Australia)  January 2010 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) 2020.  At end of transition period all of Australia's tariffs on i mports from AANZFTA 
parties should be removed. Of the tariffs  to be liberalized at the end of the 
implementation period, most relate to textiles and textile articlesa 
Coverage (selected features) Services, investment, intellectual property rights, e-commerce, competition policy and 
economic cooperation 
Australia's merchandise trade with ASEAN and New Zealand (2013) 21.9% of total imports; 12.4% of total exports 
WTO legal cover GATT Art. XXIV & GATS Art. V 
WTO consideration status Factual presentation distributed. WTO consideration on 23.09.2014 
WTO document series WT/REG284 
 
Australia - Chile Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA)  
Parties Australia and Chile 
Date of entry into force (Australia)  March 2009 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) 2015  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 146 - Australia - Chile Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA)  
Coverage (selected features) Services, investment, government procurement, competition policy, e-commerce and 
intellectual property rights 
Australia's merchandise trade with Chile (2013) 0.4% of total imports; 0.1% of total exports 
WTO legal cover GATT Art. XXIV & GATS Art. V 
WTO consideration status WTO consideration June 2010 
WTO document series WT/REG263 
 
Thailand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (TAFTA)  
Parties Australia and Thailand 
Date of entry into force (Australia)  January 2005 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) 2015.  At end of transition period all of Australia's tariffs on i mports from Thailand 
should be removed. Of the tariffs to be liberalized at the end of the implementation 
period, most relate to textiles and textile articles 
Coverage (selected features) Services, investment, movement  of natural persons, e-commerce, competition policy 
and intellectual property rights 
Australia's merchandise trade with Thailand (2013) 4.7% of total imports; 1.9% of total exports 
WTO legal cover GATT Art. XXIV & GATS Art. V 
WTO consideration status WTO consideration May 2007 
WTO document series WT/REG185 
 
Australia - United States Fre e Trade Agreement (AUSFTA)  
Parties Australia and United States 
Date of entry into force (Australia)  January 2005 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) 2015.  At end of transition period all of Australia's tariffs on i mports from the United 
States should be removed, with the exception of eight lines (used passenger motor vehicles) 
Coverage (selected features) Services, investment, government procurement, competition policy, e-commerce, 
intellectual property rights, labour issues and environmental matters 
Australia's merchandise trade with the United States (2013) 11.3% of total imports; 3.7% of total exports 
WTO legal cover GATT Art. XXIV & GATS Art. V 
WTO consideration status WTO consideration September 2007 
WTO document series WT/REG184 
 
Singapore - Australia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) 
Parties Australia and Singapore 
Date of entry into force (Australia)  July 2003 (with amendments in 2011) 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) Fully implemented upon entry into force of agreement. All of Aust ralia's tariffs on 
imports from Singapore have been removed 
Coverage (selected features) Services, intellectual property rights, government procurement, competition policy and 
investment 
Australia's merchandise trade with Singapore (2013) 5.4% of total imports; 2.1% of total exports 
WTO legal cover GATT Art. XXIV & GATS Art. V  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 147 - Singapore - Australia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) 
WTO consideration status WTO consideration October 2004 
WTO document series WT/REG158 
 
Australia - New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement (ANZCERTA) 
Parties  Australia and New Zealand 
Date of entry into force (Australia) January 1983 (goods); January 1989 (services) 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) Co mpleted in 1995. All of Australia's tariffs on imports from New  Zealand have been 
removed 
Coverage (selected features) Services, competition policy, investment. The Agreement is supplemented by bilateral 
arrangements on: movement of people; mutual recognition of standards; government 
procurement; and, aviation 
Australia's merchandise trade with New Zealand (2013) 3.1% of total imports; 2.8% of total exports 
WTO legal cover GATT Art. XXIV & GATS Art. V 
WTO consideration status Report adopted (Goods); factual abstract distributed (services) 
WTO document series WT/REG40 
 
Canada - Australia Trade Agreement (CANATA) 
Parties Australia and Canada 
Date of entry into force (Australia)  October 1973 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) Information not available 
Coverage (selected features) Goods only. It is a partial scope agreement with tariff preference of 5% on 300 lines 
and 15% on 70 lines (for Australia) 
WTO legal cover This agreement has not been notified to the WTO 
WTO consideration status Not applicable 
Australia's merchandise trade with Canada (2013) 0.8% of total imports; 0.5% of total exports 
WTO document series Not applicable. 
 
Agreement on Trade and Commercial Relations between the Government  of Australia and the Government of Papua New Guinea (PATCRA II) 
Parties Australia and Papua New Guinea 
Date of signature/entry into force (Australia)  February 1991/September 1991 
End of transition period for Australia (goods liberalization) 100%  of Australia's tariffs on imports from Papua New Guinea have  been removed  
Coverage (selected features) Goods only. Investment 
Australia's merchandise trade with Papua New Guinea (2013) 1.2% of total imports; 0.9% of total exports 
WTO legal cover GATT Art. XXIV 
WTO consideration status Working party meeting held on 2 March 1977 
WTO document series L/4571 
a For more information on Australia's tariff liberalization schedule, see WTO document WT/REG284/1, 27 June 2014. 
Source: WTO Secretariat.  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 148 - Table A2. 3 Selected bilateral treaties  relating to trade and investment  
Partner Title Date of  
entry into force 
Lebanon Agreement on Economic, Trade and Technical Coop eration between the Government of Australia and the 
Government of the Republic of Lebanon 2000 
Ukraine Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooper ation with the Government of Ukraine 1999 
Mexico Trade and Investment Agreement with the Government of the United Mexican States 1997 
Romania Agreement with the Government of Romania on Trade and Economic Cooperation 1997 
Papua New Guinea Agreement on Trade and Commercial Relations betw een the Government of Australia and the Government of Papua 
New Guinea 1991 
Thailand Agreement on Economic Cooperation with the Government of the Kingdom of Thailand 1990 
Pakistan Trade Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan 1990 
Viet Nam Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperatio n with the Socialist Republic of Vietnam 1990 
Turkey Agreement on Trade, Economic and Technical Cooperat ion with the Government of the Republic of Turkey 1989 
Jordan Trade Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Hahshemite Kingdom of Jordan 1988 
Egypt Trade Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt 1988 
Philippines Trade Agreement with the Government of the Republic of the Philippines 1979 
Brazil Trade Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Federative Republic of Brazil 1978 
India Trade Agreement between the Government of  Australia and the Government of India 1976 
Korea (Rep. of) Agreement with the Republic of Korea on  the Development of Trade and Economic Relations 1975 
Indonesia Trade Agreement between the Government of the Commonwea lth of Australia and the Government of the Republic 
of Indonesia 1973 
China Trade Agreement between the Government of Australia an d the Government of the People's Republic of China (as 
amended in 1986) 1973 
Japan Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of Japan on Commerce 1957 
Source:  Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade Treaty Database. Viewed at: http://www.dfat.gov.au .  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 149 - Table A3. 1 Australia's tariff summary, 2014 
  Number  
of lines Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Standard 
deviation Duty free 
(%) 
Total 6,185 3.0 0-215.4 6.4 47.6 
HS 01-24 989 1.2 0-27.1 2.6 78.1 
HS 25-97 5,186 3.4 0-215.4 6.8 41.8 
By WTO category      
WTO agricultural products 838 1.4 0-27.1 2.7 73.0 
Animals and products thereof 111 0.4 0-5 1.3 92.8 
Dairy products 23 5.0 0-27.1 9.5 73.9 
Fruit, vegetables, and plants 220 1.5 0-5 2.3 69.1 
Coffee and tea 24 1.0 0-5 2.0 79.2 
Cereals and preparations 95 1.2 0-5 2.1 74.7 
Oils seeds, fats, oil, and their products 84 1.5 0-5 23.0 70.2 
Sugars and confectionary 18 1.8 0-5 2.3 61.1 
Beverages, spirits, and tobacco 113 3.2 0-5 2.4 36.3 
Cotton 5 0.0 0-0 0.0 100.0 
Other agricultural products, n.e.s. 145 0.4 0-5 1.3 92.4 
WTO non-agricultural products  5,347 3.3 0-215.4 6.8 43.6 
Fish and fishery products 224 0.0 0-5 0.3 99.6 
Minerals and metals 952 2.8 0-5 2.5 44.7 
Chemicals and photographic supplies 942 1.9 0-10 2.4 61.4 
Wood, pulp, paper and furniture 445 3.7 0-5 2.2 26.3 
Textiles 667 4.3 0-10 2.1 17.2 
Clothing 258 8.4 0-10 3.3 10.9 
Leather, rubber, footwear, and travel goods 196 4.2 0-10 2.1 18.4 
Non-electric machinery 630 2.9 0-5 2.5 41.3 
Electric machinery 311 3.0 0-5 2.5 40.8 
Transport equipment 226 8.9 0-215.4 29.3 28.8 
Non-agricultural products, n.e.s. 444 1.6 0-10 2.4 68.5 
Petroleum 52 0.0 0-0 0.0 100.0 
By ISIC sector      
ISIC 1 - Agriculture, hunting and fishing 375 0.3 0-5 1.1 94.7 
ISIC 2 - Mining 100 0.5 0-5 1.4 91.0 
ISIC 3 - Manufacturing 5,710 3.2 0-215.4 6.6 43.7 
Manufacturing excluding food processing 5,058 3.4 0-215.4 6.9 40.4 
ISIC 4 - Electrical energy      
By stage of processing      
First stage of processing 758 0.4 0-5 1.4 91.8 
Semi-processed products 1,979 2.9 0-10 2.5 43.0  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 150 -   Number  
of lines Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Standard 
deviation Duty free 
(%) 
Fully processed products 3,448 3.7 0-215.4 8.2 40.5 
By HS section      
01 Live animals and products 339 0.4 0-27.1 2.8 97.9 
02 Vegetable products 314 0.7 0-5 1.7 86.0 
03 Fats and oils 49 1.8 0-5 2.4 63.3 
04 Prepared food, beverages, and tobacco 287 2.6 0-5 2.5 48.4 
05 Mineral products 198 0.4 0-5 1.3 92.9 
06 Chemicals and products thereof 873 1.4 0-5 2.3 71.6 
07 Plastics, rubber, and articles thereof 238 4.5 0-10 1.6 10.1 
08 Raw hides and skins, leather, and its products 92 3.6 0-10 2.6 31.5 
09 Wood and articles of wood 143 3.3 0-5 2.4 35.0 
10 Pulp of wood, paper, and paperboard 283 3.7 0-5 2.2 25.4 
11 Textiles and textile articles 911 5.3 0-10 3.2 17.6 
12 Footwear, headgear, etc. 60 2.5 0-5 2.5 50.0 
13 Articles of stone, plaster, cement 161 3.4 0-5 2.3 31.1 
14 Precious stones and metals, pearls 53 1.0 0-5 2 79.2 
15 Base metals and articles thereof 583 3.5 0-5 2.3 29.3 
 16 Machinery, electrical equipment, etc. 953 2.9 0-5 2.5 42.5 
17 Transport equipment 238 8.6 0-215.4 28.6 30.3 
18 Precision equipment 240 0.9 0-5 1.9 81.7 
19 Arms and ammunition 19 1.6 0-5 2.3 68.4 
20 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 144 3.7 0-10 2.4 28.5 
21 Works of art, etc. 7 0.0 0-0 0 100.0 
Note: Calculations include AVEs for non- ad valorem  rates as provided by the authorities.  
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on da ta provided by the Australian authorities. 
  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 151 - Table A3. 2 Subsidies notified under WTO provisions, 2011/12 and 2012/13 
($A) 
 Type of subsidy Duration  2011/12 2012/13 
FEDERAL PROGRAMMES     
Environment     
Clean Technology Investment Program (CTIP) Gr ants  16 February 2012 to 30 June 2019 .. .. 
Clean Technology Food and Foundries Investment 
Program (CTFFIP) Grants 16 February 2012 to 30 June 2018 .. .. 
LPG Vehicle Scheme Grants 1 Ju ly 2006 to 30 June 2014 .. .. 
Sustainable Rural Water Use and Infrastructure Program 
(SRWUIP)      
Private Irrigation Infrastructure Operators Program for 
New South Wales Funding agreement 19 June  2009 to 2017/18 140,000,000 182,500,000 
Private Irrigation Infrastructure Program for 
South Australia Funding agreement December 2009 to 2017/18 6,200,000 5,200,000 
Queensland Healthy He adwater Water Use and 
Efficiency Program Funding agreement 1 June 2010 to 2017/18 6,200,000 6,600,000 
Northern Victoria Irrigation Renewal Program Stage 2 
– On-Farm Funding agreement November 2011 to May 2014 11,600,000 28,800,000 
Goulburn Murray Water Connection Project Stage 2 
(formally Northern Victoria Irrigation Renewal Program Stage 2) Funding agreement No vember 2011 to June  2019  156,400,000 17,500,000 
New South Wales State Basin Pipe – Stock and 
Domestic Funding agreement June 2012 to October 2017  5,000,000 15,000,000 
New South Wales State Water metering Scheme 
(including pilot) Funding agreement June 2012 to  October 2017 22,500,000 3,200,000 
New South Wales State Irrigated Farm Modernisation 
Project (and pilot) Funding agreement June 2012 to October 2017 350,000 14,300,000 
Forestry     
Tasmanian Forests Intergovernmental Agreement 
Contractors Voluntary Exit Grants Program Grants 26 October 2011 to 30 June 2012  42,430,000 n.a. 
Innovation     
Clean Technology Innovation Program Grants 6 July 2012 to 22 October 2013  n.a. 2,200,000 
Climate Ready Grants  28 July 2008 to 30 June 2012  5,100,000 900,000 
Commercialisation Australia Grants  4 January 2010. This programmed was 
closed in the 2014 Budget  48,800,000 63,000,000 
Collaborative Research Networks Grants  2010/11 to 2015/16  .. .. 
Industry Collaboration Fund Grants  Released on 21 June 2013  n.a. .. 
Industry Innovation Pr ecincts Grants 1 May 2013; ongoing  n.a. ..b 
Passenger motor vehicles      
Automotive Transformation Scheme (ATS) Payments arrears 1 January 2011 to 31 December 2020 .. ..  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 152 -  Type of subsidy Duration  2011/12 2012/13 
Automotive Industry Structural Adjustment Program 
(AISAP)  Grants  1 January 2009 to 30 June 2012 ..a ..a 
Automotive Market Access Program (AMAP) No direct financial assistance 
provided but representation, intelligence, and advice services 2009/10 to 2011/12 n.a. n.a. 
Automotive New Markets Program (ANMP) Grants 1 July 2012 to 30 June 2016 .. .. 
Automotive Supply Chain Development Program 
(ASCDP) Grants  1 July 2009 to 30 June 2013 ..a ..a  
Ford Australia Environmental Grant Grants  30 March 2012 to 31 May 2015 ..a ..a 
Green Car Innovation Fund (GCIF) Gr ants  2009/10 to January 2011 125,000,000 47,500,000 
Regional development      
Australian Paper Maryvale Pulp and Paper Mill 
Assistance Grant Grants 2012/13 to 2014/15 n.a. 4,220,000 
Briquette Restructuring Package Grants  29 June 2012 to 2014/15 50,800,000 9,500,000 
Illawarra Region Innovation and Investment Fund 
(IRIIF) Grants  2011/12 to 2013/14 .. .. 
Premium Fresh Tasmania Grants  2012/13 n.a. 500,000 
South East South Australia Innovation and Investment 
Fund (SESAIIF) Grants  6 May 2011 to 30 June 2013 ..a ..a 
Tasmanian Innovation and Investment Fund (TIIF) Grants  2011/12 to 2013/14 3,797,000 2,868,000 
Textiles, clothing, and footwear      
Textile, Clothing and Footwear Restructuring Initiative 
Grant Scheme (TCF RIG Scheme) Grants  Ceased on 30 June 2013  4,500,000 - 
TCF Small Business Program Grants  Will cease on 30 June 2016 ..b ..b 
Textile, Clothing and Footwear (TCF) Strategic 
Capability Program (SCP) Grants  Will cease on 30 June 2015 ..a ..a 
Clothing and Household Textile (Building Innovative 
Capability) Scheme (BIC scheme) Grants  Will close on 30 June 2015 ..b ..b 
Steel      
Steel Transformation Plan (STP) Advance paym ents  1 July 2012 to 30 June 2016 164,000,000 .. 
Vocational training     
National Workforce Development Fund Grants  2011/12. This programm ed was closed in 
the 2014 Budget ..a ..a 
SUB-FEDERAL PROGRAMME     
Total   123,910,000 130,580,000 
No. of companies packages offered   196 253 
Australian Capital Territory      
Investment Facilitation Programme Waivers of payroll tax liability Undefinedd .. .. 
Innovation Connect (ICon)  Grants  Ongoing .. ..  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 153 -  Type of subsidy Duration  2011/12 2012/13 
New South Wales     
Regional Industries Investment Fund Unspecified (limited financial 
assistance) Undefined  18,751,000 20,058,000 
State Investment Attraction Scheme Unspecified (limited financial 
assistance)  Undefined  .. .. 
Northern Territory     
Industry and Business Assistance Grants Ongoing  .. .. 
Queensland     
Business and Industry Transformation Incentives Grants  Launched in October 2007. No longer 
active  7,336,000 - 
Future Resources Program – Collaborative Drilling 
Initiative Grants  2013/14 to 2016/17  n.a. n.a. 
Greenfields 2020 Program – Collaborative Drilling 
Initiative Grants  2010/11 to 2013/14  559,810 1,183,919  
Queensland Investment Incentives Scheme Payroll tax and land tax 
refunds, stamp duty refund, and grants  Ongoing  .. .. 
Proof of Concept Fund Grants  Launched in October 2008. No formal end 
date  340,000 - 
Regional Queensland Investment Incentives Scheme Payroll tax refund, grants, 
and other kind of assistancec  Closed  .. .. 
Smart Mining – Future Prosperity Program grant 
initiative Grants  2006/07 to 2010/11 n.a. n.a. 
What's Your Big Idea Queensland Grants  Undefine d  1,450,000 -  
South Australia      
Business Sustainability Alliance – Energy Efficiency 
Program Grants  Completed in  June 2013  .. .. 
Cleantech Partnering Program Grants Completed on 30 June 2013  .. .. 
Innovation Voucher Program Grants Ongoing  .. .. 
Medical Device Commercialisation Program Grants  Completed on 30 June 2012 ..b ..b 
Small Business Innovation Research P ilot Program Grants  Ongoing .. .. 
Tasmania     
Investment Attraction Programme  Grants, concessional loans, 
payroll tax exemptions, rental assistance, reduced stamp 
duty, workforce training, and 
development of feasibility/technical studies Ongoing  .. .. 
Victoria     
Beyond Waste Fund Grants  Was to conclude in Sept ember 2014  .. 649,398 
Community Regional Industry  Skills Program (CRISP) Grants  Undefined  251,490 255,000 
Driving Investment for New Recyclin g Grants Until June 2015  262,820 734,268  
  WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia
 
- 154 -  Type of subsidy Duration  2011/12 2012/13 
Energy Technology Innovation Strategy Grants  Undefinede 8,000,000 17,250,000 
First Farm Grant Grants Conclude d on 30 June 2012 1,155,000 n.a. 
Food and Fibre Marketing Cooperative Grants Program Grants Until 30 June 2015 or until funding has 
been exhausted ..a ..a 
Industry Transition Fund Not specifiedf  Closed in June 2010 3,021,324 743,000 
Innovation Voucher Program Vouchers  2012/13  n.a. 78,425 
Investing in Manufacturing Technology Grants  2012/13 to 2015/16  n.a. 1,240,000 
Investment Support Programme Not specifiedf Ongoing  .. .. 
Linking Farms and Catchments with Irrigation 
Modernisation Stage II Initiative Grants  Until 2015/16   3,000,000 2,000,000 
Smarter Resources, Smarter Business Grants Until June 2015  .. 80,220 
Technology Voucher Program Vouchers  4 September 2012 to 4 September 2014 - - 
Victorian Automotive Manufacturing Action Plan 
(VAMAP) Grants  2009/10 to 2012/13 403,707 255,500 
Western Australia      
Industry Facilitation and Support Program Grants  Ongoing  ..b ..b 
Innovation Capability Development Program Grants  Ongoing  ..b ..b 
Innovation Co-Investment Program Grants  Ongoing  - ..b 
Innovation Investment Facilitation Program Grants  Ongoing  ..b ..b 
Innovation Promotion Program Grants  Ongoing  ..b ..b 
n.a. No applicable.  
.. Not available. 
a Annual subsidy not available; only total value of programme available. 
b Annual subsidy not available; only tota l annual value of programme available. 
c The State may offer contributions to the co st of establishing common user infrastructure or other forms of assistance such as  land tax and stamp duty at the Minister's 
discretion.  
d The duration of IFP assistance to ACT companies is agreed be tween the ACT Government and the proponent, with a maximum period  of five years.  
e The duration depends on the project.  f Financial assistance is linked to the achievement of milestone conditions, is determined on a case-by-case basis.  
Source: WTO documents G/SCM/N/253/AUS, 11 September 2013; G/SCM/N/253/AUS/Suppl.1, 24 September 2013; and G/SCM/N/253/AUS/Corr. 1, 24 September 2013. 
 WT/TPR/S/312 • Australia 
 
- 155 - 
 
  Table A4. 1 Effective rate of combined a ssistance, by industry grouping, 2008-09 to 
2012-13a 
(%) 
 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 
Primary productionb  4.7 4.3 3.2 3.3 2.6 
Horticulture and fruit growing  4.4 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.7 
Sheep, beef cattle, and grain  6.3 5.7 3.5 3.0 2.3 
Other crop growing  2.0 1.9 1.0 1.6 1.5 
Dairy cattle farming  4.5 5.9 3.5 2.7 2.1 
Other livestock farming  1.2 1.1 0.9 1.4 0.8 
Aquaculture and fishing  3.5 4.1 3.7 2.9 2.9 
Forestry and logging  -1.3 4.5 5.3 6.6 4.9 
Primary production services  0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Mining  0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2 
Manufacturingb  4.6 4.5 4.2 4.3 4.2 
Food, beverages, and tobacco  3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 
Textile, clothing, and 
footwear  13.8 12.2 9.8 8.0 8.1 
Wood and paper products  5.2 4.9 4.9 4.8 4.9 
Printing and recorded media  3.5 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.7 
Petroleum, coal, and 
chemicals  3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 
Non-metallic mineral 
products  2.9 3.0 2.9 3.0 3.1 
Metal and fabricated products  4.5 4.5 4.4 4.9 4.5 
Motor vehicle and parts  13.1 12.8 9.5 10.3 8.9 
Other transport equipment  0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 
Machinery and equipment  3.2 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.3 
Furniture and other products  4.6 4.7 4.7 4.9 5.1 
a  Combined assistance comprises budgetary, tariff, and agricultural pricing an d regulatory assistance. 
b  Sectoral estimates include assistance to the sector that has not been allocated to specific industry 
groupings. 
Source: Productivity Commission (2014), Trade & Assistance Review 2012-2013 , 27 June. Viewed at: 
http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/137788/trade-assistance-review-2012-13.pdf . 
__________