WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
19 September 2017  
(17-4947) Page: 1/43 
Sub-Committee on Least Developed Countries    
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/58  
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MARK ET ACCESS FOR PRODUC TS AND SERVICES OF E XPORT INTEREST  
TO LEAST DEVELOPED COUN TRIES  
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents  
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 4 
2   INTRODUCTION  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  6 
3   LDCS'  TRADE PROFILE  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 7 
3.1   Trends in Goods and Commercial Services  ................................ ................................ ...... 7 
3.2   Merchandise Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ................. 11 
3.2.1    Overall trend  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 11 
3.2.2    Commodity price movements  ................................ ................................ .................... 13 
3.2.3    Major LDC traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....13 
3.2.4    Trends in product composition  ................................ ................................ ................... 14 
3.2.5    Major markets of LDCs  ................................ ................................ ............................. 18 
3.3   Services Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ...................... 19 
4   MARKET ACCESS FOR PR ODUCTS OF EXPORT INT EREST TO LDCS  .............................  28 
4.1   Trends in market access for products of export interest to LDCs  ................................ .......28 
4.2   Duty-free market access granted by selected Members  ................................ ................... 29 
4.3   Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs  ................................ ...................... 31 
ANNEX  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  33 
 
                                                
1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's o wn responsibility and is without prejudice 
to the positions of Members or to their rights a nd obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  List of T ables  
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2005 -2016 ...........................  7 
Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 2005 -2016 ........................... 10 
Table 3: LDCs' top 20 export products in terms of increase in world market share, 2005 
and 2016  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 17 
Table 4: LDCs' top ten export markets, 2005 and 2016  ................................ .......................... 19 
Table 5: Average tariffs applied by developed Members on key products from LDCs, 2011 -
2015  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 29 
Table 6: Duty -free market access under LDC schemes in selected Members, 2015  ..................... 30 
Table 7: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver  ................................ ............................. 32 
 
List of C harts  
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2005 -2016 .......................  7 
Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 2005 and 2016  ................................ ................................ . 8 
Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies, 
2005-2016 ................................ ................................ ................................ .........................  8 
Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 2005 -2016 ................................ ................................ . 9 
Chart 5: Merchandise trade of LDCs, 2006 -2016 ................................ ................................ ....11 
Chart 6: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 2005 -2016 ................................ ........................ 12 
Chart 7: Merchandise exports of LDCs by product specialization, 2005 -2016 ............................. 12 
Chart 8: Export prices of primary commodities, 2005 -2016 ................................ ..................... 13 
Chart 9: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 2005 and 2016  ................................ ............... 14 
Chart 10: Evolution of merchandise export structure of LDCs, 2005 and 2016 ........................... 15 
Chart 11: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 2005 and 2016  ................................ ..16 
Chart 12: Top 20 products of LDCs' exports with the highest shares in world export 
market, 2016  ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 18 
Chart 13: LDCs' trade in commercial services, 2006 -2016 ................................ ....................... 20 
Chart 14: LDCs' sh are in world exports and imports of commercial services, 2005 -2016 ............. 20 
Chart 15: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2005 -2016 ............................... 21 
Chart 16: Leading LDC traders of commercial services, 2016  ................................ ................... 22 
Chart 17: LDCs' travel exports and international tourist arrivals, 2005 -2016 ............................. 22 
Chart 18: LDCs: Travel exports, and exports of agricultural products, manufactured goods, 
and fuels and mining products, 2005 -2016 ................................ ................................ ............ 23 
Chart 19: LDCs: GDP by sele cted economic activities 2005 -2014 ................................ ............. 23 
Chart 20: LDCs in Asia and in Africa: International tourist arrivals by region of origin and 
travel exports, 2005 -2016 ................................ ................................ ................................ ..24 
Chart 21: LDCs' export growth of other commercial services by sector, 2005 -2016 .................... 25 
Chart 22: Digital divide between developed economies and LDCs, 2005 -2017 ........................... 25 
Chart 23: GDP by main economic activity in LDCs, 2005 -2014 ................................ ................. 26 
Chart 24: GDP by main economic activity in LDCs, 2014  ................................ ......................... 27 
Chart 25: Proportion of tariff lines worldwide with zero duty applied to products from 
developing countries and LDCs, 2005, 2010 and 2015  ................................ ............................ 28 
List of Boxes  
Box 1: The contribution of services to GDP in LDCs  ................................ ................................ 26 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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List of Annex Tables  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and import s of LDCs by selected country grouping, 
2016  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 33 
Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2005 -2017 (Q2)  ................................ ....35 
Annex Ta ble 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2005 -2016 ............... 37 
Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2016  ................................ ...................... 39 
Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2016  .......................... 41 
Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2017 or late st available yeara ................................ ................................ ............... 42 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
1.1.  Over the period 2005 -2016, LDC exports of goods and services grew by an annual average of 
6.4%, slightly more than the exports of other developing economies (6.1 % average). Most of this 
average growth, however, stems from distinctly higher growth rates in the first part of the period.  
During 2010 -2016, average annual export gr owth of LDCs' exports was even slightly negative 
(-0.02%).  
1.2.  In 2016, LDC exports of goods and services decreas ed by 3.9% to US$187 billion. The share 
of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services stood at 0.91% in 2016 , compared to  
0.93% in 2015 .  
1.3.  Merchandise exports of the LDCs decreased by 6%  in value terms  in 2016, declining more 
than world exports which fell by 3%. The share of LDCs in world merchandise exports stood at 
0.94% in 2016, dropping further from 0.97% in the previous year.  
1.4.  The LDCs continue d to record a sizable trade deficit, which reached US$92.9 billion in 2016 , 
represent ing a nine -fold increase compared to  the trade deficit in 2005. On the positive side, the 
sharp  reduction of prices  of primary commodities  in 2015 had almost come to a halt in 2016, with 
the exception of energy prices.  The stable prices of food and beverages have helped  agricultural 
exporters to somehow arrest negative export growth.   
1.5.  In 2016, the top merchandise exporter within the LDCs was Bangladesh (share of 24 %), 
followed by Angola (17%) and Myanmar (8%). While the top ten exporters represented almost 
80% of LDCs' e xports in 2005, this share wen t down to around 76% in 2016 – indicating a slight 
decrease in terms of country concentration among the LDC s. 
1.6.  The share of primary products in total exports of LDCs continued to decrease in 2016 – from 
73% in 2005 down to 49% in 2016. This was mostly due to the lower value of exports of 
petroleum products (HS 27.09, 27.11 and 27.10) , which constituted more than half of all LDC 
exports  in 2005 , but accounted for only about a quarter (26%) of LDC exports in 2016 . In 
contrast, the  share of manufactured products  in LDC exports increased from 21% in 2005 to 40% 
in 2016 . This was  mainly due to a  higher share  of clothing products  in LDC merchandise exports , 
which increased from 13% in 2005 to 29% in 2016 . 
1.7.  In 2016, t he European Union wa s the top destination for LDCs' merchandise exports  (share of 
31%), followed by China (21%) and the United States ( 11%). The top 10 importers accounted for 
88% of  LDCs' total exports  in 2016, which was slightly higher  than the respective share of 87% in 
2005. 
1.8.  In the period 2005 -2016, LDCs'  services  exports expanded by 12 % on average per year, 
compared to 8 % in other developing economies and 5 % in the developed group. Following a 
decade of sustained growth, LDCs' exports of commercial service s have slowed down since  2014. 
This downward trend accentuated in 2016, when services exports fell by 4 % to US$32  billion. In 
2016, LDCs' participation in global exports of commercial services stood at 0.7 %, up from 0.4 % in 
2005.  
1.9.  Services trade in LDCs remain ed concentrat ed within a few economies, an unchanged pattern 
since 2005. In 2016, the top ten leading exporters (e.g. Myanmar, Cambodia, Tanzania, Ethiopia) 
accounted for almost 70 % of the group’s services receipts. Imports were equally concentrated with 
the first five  importers, led by Angola, representing around half of LDCs' total commercial services 
payments.  
1.10.   Over recent years, the number of international tourist arrivals to LDCs multiplied , rising 
from over 10 million arrivals in 2005 to more than 28 million in 201 5. Increasing inflows of foreign 
tourists and their purchase of goods and services in the countries they have visited has boosted 
LDCs' travel revenu e. In 2016, travel revenue reached US$ 17 billion  compared with US$5 billion 
in 2005. As a result, LDCs' sha re of world travel exports has doubled in ten years, reaching 1.4 % 
in 2016.  
1.11.   Progress has continued in advancing market access opportunities for the LDCs. From a 
global perspective,  the proportion of duty -free tariff lines has risen from 49% in 2005 to 65% in WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  2015 for LDCs, which signifies the commitment of Members to grant prefere ntial market access to 
the LDCs. Average tariffs levied by developed Members  on products originating in LDCs are close 
to 0%, with the exception of clothing and textiles.  
1.12.   Most of t he developed Members accord either full or nearly full duty -free and quota -free 
(DFQF) market access to LDC products. A number of developing Members have significantly 
expanded their DFQF coverage  over the last decade  and now offer almost comprehensive DFQ F 
market access to LDC products. Notable progress has been made  in the implementation of the 
Nairobi Decision on Preferential Rules of Origin for LDCs . There has also been an incremental 
progress in the number of notification s regarding preferential treatm ent for services and  services 
suppliers from LDCs . By the end of September 2017, a total of 24 Members have submitted 
notifications pursuant to the LDC Services Waiver.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  2  INTRODUCTION  
2.1.  This Note prepared by the Secretariat responds to paragraph 8 of the WTO Work Programme 
for the Least Developed Countries, which mandates annual reviews of market access for products 
originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11/Rev.1). It builds on previous Secretariat studies by 
updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditions.  
2.2.  The Note is divided into two main chapters , in addition to the executive summary  and the 
introduction . Chapter 3, on trade profile, provides a description of the recent trends of LDCs' trade 
flows, both in goods and commercial ser vices. Chapter 4 contains information on trends in market 
access conditions for LDC exports, including duty-free market access for LDC products and recent 
initiatives undertaken by Members to improve market access for LDCs, mainly based on Members' 
notific ations. The Note does not attempt to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition 
market access for LDC products. It should therefore be read in conjunction with previous 
Secretariat notes prepared on this topic, to gauge the different factors t hat determine market 
access for LDCs.  
2.3.  Despite improvements in the production of national data , the statistical coverage of LDCs 
remains incomplete . The Secretariat has been using reported national figures whenever available . 
In many instances, it was still necessary to rely on mirror statistics i.e. data reported by LDCs' 
trading partners. The disadvantage of using mirror data is that it does not allow taking into 
consideration trade among the LDCs, as well as trade with non -reporting developing economies.  
2.4.  The definition of geographical and other groupings in this report  serves only statistical 
purposes; it  does not imply an expression of opinion by the Secretariat concerning the status of 
any country or territory, the delimitation of its frontiers, nor the rights and obligations of any WTO 
Member in respect of WTO agreements.2 
                                                
2 Even though Equatorial Guinea graduated from the group of LDCs in June 2017, it is still treated as 
LDC member in this Note, which refers to 2016 as most recent year of reference for statistical analysis.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  3  LDCS'  TRADE PROFILE  
3.1  Trends in Goods and Commercial Services  
3.1.  Over the period 2005 -2016, LDC exports of goods and services grew by an annual average of 
6.4%, slightly more than the expo rts of other developing economies (6.1% average). Most of this 
average growth, however, stems from distinctly higher growth rates in the first part of the period. 
The rapid increase in the total value of goods and services exported by LDCs during the early  
2000s came to an abrupt halt in 2008, in the wake of the global financial crisis. During 2010 -2016, 
average annual export growth of LDCs' exports was even slightly negative ( -0.02%) while the 
respective figure for other developing economies stood at +2.1%  per year. The LDCs, which 
depend more on  commodity exports than the other developing economies, were adversely affected  
by the unfavourable developments in the price of commodities.  
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC  exports of goods and co mmercial services, 2005 -2016 
(Index, 2005  = 100; BOP /BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
Table 1: Trends in LDC  exports of goods and commercial services , 2005 -2016  
(Billion dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6 ) 
 
  Value ($bn)  Annual perce ntage change (%)  
  2005  2016  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2005 -2016  
Exports  
Total goods and commercial services  94.3 187.0  23.4 3.1 4.5 -1.2 -20.9 -3.9 6.4 
Goods  84.8 155.1  23.3 2.4 3.1 -2.3 -23.8 -3.8 5.6 
Commercial services  9.5 31.9 24.4 8.7 15.7 5.9 -3.1 -4.3 11.7 
Imports  
Total goods and commercial services  104.1  279.9  22.3 9.2 7.8 7.8 -10.0 -6.5 9.4 
Goods  78.3 215.2  21.4 10.8 8.8 7.7 -7.9 -6.7 9.6 
Commercial services  25.7 64.8 24.9 4.8 4.9 8.2 -16.2 -5.7 8.7 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.2.  In 201 6, LDC exports of goods and commercial services de creased by 3.9%, down to 
US$187.0  billion, while LDC imports fell by 6.5% to US$297.9 billion  (see Table 1).  However, in 
comparison to 2015 (exports -20.9%; imports -10.0%), these negative growth rates were 
significantly less pronounced . In value terms, goods exports dominate services exports. In 2016, 
LDC commercial services exports amounted to US$31.9 billion, which constituted only 17% of LDC 
goods and commercial services exports. In contrast, services cons tituted 23% of world total 
exports in 2016.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  3.3.  In terms of trade balance (see Chart 2), the LDCs recorded an overall trade deficit of 
US$92.9 billion in 201 6. Imports exceeded exports by US$60.0 billion in the case of goods and by 
US$32.9 billion in the case of commercial services. The trade deficit of LDCs in 2016 was more 
than nine times higher than in 2005 (US$9.8 billion), when high commodity prices had led to a 
surplus in LDC goods trade.  
Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 2005 an d 2016  
(Billion dollars; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.4.  Price fluctuations significantly impact the value of LDC trade. In order to better understand 
the physical level of trade, Chart 3 shows developments in the volume of merchandise trade for 
LDCs and other developing economies. In 2016, LDC merchandise exports grew by 7. 5% in 
volume terms , while their imports expanded by 1.0% . This positive growth in trade volumes 
contrasts the decline in trade values, which are, inter alia , driven by price develo pments. In 
comparison to 2005, the export volume increased by more than 1.8 times while the import volume 
more than doubled . LDCs' total trade volume (turnover, i.e. exports plus imports) increased by 
4.5% in 2016 while the volume of total trade of other d eveloping economies decreased by 1.8%.  
Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies , 
2005 -2016  
(Indices, 200 5 = 100) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat. LDCs' data are computed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD.  
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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3.5.  Chart 4 shows the development of LDCs' share in world exports from 2005 to 2016. The 
share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services stood at 0.91% in 2016. 
Following a more or less gradual increase from 0.74% in 2005 to 1.0 7% in 2013, the LDCs' share 
in world exports decreased in the years 2014 -2016. This recent decrease reflected lower values of 
goods, due to falling prices of commodities, particularly fuels.  
Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 2005 -2016  
(Percentage shares; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.6.  Table 2 contains the respective shares  for total trade, exports and i mports for all years since 
2005, including the values for world and LDC trade used for the calculation of the shares.  
 
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 10 - Table 2: LDCs and world trade in go ods and commercial services, 2005 -2016 
(Billion dollars and percentage ; BOP/BPM6 ) 
 Value (US$bn)  Annual  
percentage  
change  
 2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2005 -2016  
Total trade in goods and commercial servicesa  
   World  12,666  14,545  16,933  19,509  15,541  18,506  21,989  22,352  22,982  23,395  20,739  20,267  4.4 
   LDC 198 236 298 391 338 401 493 524 557 578 494 467 8.1 
     Share in world  0.78 0.81 0.88 1.00 1.09 1.09 1.12 1.17 1.22 1.24 1.19 1.16 ... 
Total trade in goodsa  
   World  10,104  11,664  13,500  15,629  12,092  14,733  17,746  17,966  18,318  18,386  16,023  15,516  4.0 
   LDC 163 195 244 319 269 325 398 424 449 462 392 370 7.7 
     Share in world  0.81 0.83 0.90 1.02 1.11 1.10 1.12 1.18 1.23 1.26 1.23 1.20 ... 
Total trade in commercial servicesa  
   World  2,563  2,881  3,433  3,879  3,449  3,773  4,243  4,387  4,665  5,009  4,716  4,751  5.8 
   LDC 35 41 54 73 69 76 95 100 108 116 102 97 9.6 
     Share in world  0.69 0.72 0.79 0.95 1.01 1.02 1.13 1.15 1.17 1.17 1.09 1.02 ... 
Goods exports   
   World  10,175  11,779  13,661  15,777  12,250  14,934  17,982  18,227  18,629  18,667  16,220  15,721  4.0 
   LDC 85 105 131 171 128 166 205 210 217 212 161 155 5.6 
     Share in world  0.83 0.89 0.96 1.08 1.05 1.11 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.13 0.99 0.99 ... 
Commercial services exports   
   World  2,597  2,932  3,510  3,948  3,521  3,847  4,328  4,451  4,743  5,078  4,790  4,808  5.8 
   LDC 9 11 14 18 18 21 26 28 32 34 33 32 11.7 
     Share in world  0.36 0.39 0.41 0.47 0.53 0.54 0.60 0.63 0.69 0.68 0.70 0.66 ... 
Goods imports   
   World  10,032  11,549  13,339  15,481  11,934  14,532  17,510  17,704  18,006  18,105  15,826  15,311  3.9 
   LDC 78 90 112 147 140 159 193 214 233 250 231 215 9.6 
     Share in world  0.78 0.78 0.84 0.95 1.18 1.09 1.10 1.21 1.29 1.38 1.46 1.41 ... 
Commercial services imports   
   World  2,528  2,831  3,355  3,811  3,377  3,699  4,158  4,322  4,587  4,939  4,642  4,694  5.8 
   LDC 26 30 40 55 51 55 69 72 76 82 69 65 8.7 
     Share in world  1.02 1.06 1.18 1.43 1.50 1.49 1.66 1.67 1.65 1.66 1.48 1.38 ... 
a World total trade is calculated as the average of world exports and imports , according to the BOP presentation (BPM 6) . Total LDC trade in this table is 
approximated as the sum of their exports and imports. Total  trade shares are calculated in relation to the corresponding world exports plus imports.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  3.2  Merchandise Trade Developments3 
3.2.1   Overall trend  
3.7.  Merchandise exports of the LDCs decreased by 6 % in 2016, declining more than world 
exports whi ch fell by 3 %. This was a relative improvement as compared to  2015, when LDC 
exports had dropped by 24 % (see Chart 5). 
3.8.  The negative performance in 2016 is mostly linked to the high dependence of LDCs on 
exports of fuels and mining products – which continue d to be hit by low prices and declining 
demand (although less marked than in 2015). LDC imports decreased by 3 % compared with a 
10% decline in 2015.  
Chart 5: Merchandise trade of LDCs , 200 6-2016  
(Billion dollars and percentages ) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.9.  The LDCs' share of world merchandise exports remained under 1%, falling to 0.94% from 
0.97% in 2015. This continuing decline is also linked to LDCs' dependence on fuel and mining 
products. Price fluctuations for these products hav e a greater impact on LDCs' overall export 
performance than is the case for economies with more diversified export  base. LDCs' share of 
world merchandise imports remained at the same level as in 2015, namely at 1.4%. Among 
developing economies, LDCs' share  stayed at 2.2% for exports, the same percentage as in 2015, 
while for imports it increased from 3.5% to 3.6%. The share of LDCs exports of manufactures in 
world exports of this product group remained at 0.5%.  
3.10.   The LDCs’ merchandise trade deficit slightly i ncreased from US$8 1 billion in 2015 to a new 
record level of US$ 83 billion in 2016 (see Chart 6). LDC oil exporters experienced a US$11 billion 
deficit in 2016, almost four times higher  than the previous year  (2015). The biggest deficit was 
registered by L DC exporters of agriculture (US$33 billion), followed by LDC exporte rs of 
manufactured goods (US$22  billion). LDC exporters of non -fuel minerals recorded a negative trade 
balance of US$13  billion in 2016, a 36 % increase on the previous year.  
                                                
3 Differences betwe en BOP (BPM6) and International Merchandise Trade Statistics are explained in the 
International Merchandise Trade Statistics: Compilers Manual, Revision 1 (IMTS 2010), Chapter XXIV Section B 
"Goods to be recorded differently in IMTS and BPM6/national accou nts" (p. 288) . 
(http://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/eg -imts/imts2010 -final-22march2011.pdf ). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  Chart 6: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs , 2005 -2016 
(Billion dollars ) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.11.   The only group of LDCs to achieve growth in 2016 w ere the "exporters of manufactured 
goods", which increased by 9 % (see Chart 7). Agriculture exp orters recorded a slightly negative 
growth rate ( -1%), which was however  a much better performance than the 13 % decline in 2015. 
Stable  prices for food and beverages certainly played an important role in this. "Other LDCs" 
(Djibouti, Senegal and Tuvalu)  experienced a 3 % decline in exports in 2016, while "exporters of 
non-fuel minerals" recorded a decline  of 18% . "LDC oil exporters" experienced the highest 
decrease ( -21%). Annex Table 1 provides detail s on the value and growth of exports and imports 
for indi vidual LDCs.  
Chart 7: Merchandise exports of LDCs by product specialization, 2005-2016  
 (Billion dollars ) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  3.2.2   Commodity price movements  
3.12.   Chart 8 shows developments in the export prices of primary commodity gro ups (see Annex 
Table 2 for prices of individual commodities ). The strong reduction of commodity prices of the 
previous year had almost come to a stop in 2016, with the exception of energy prices . The export 
prices of all ma jor commodity groups except of " food a nd beverages"  still showed slight decreases, 
but on a smaller scale than back in 2015. Prices for food and beverages registered a small increase 
of 1% in 2016 – mostly due to unfavourable  weather conditions in several parts of the world. 
Minerals and non-ferrous metals were subject to an overall annual price decrease of 5 % in 2016 , 
but some commodities  such as tin (+12 %), zinc (+8 %), lead (+4 %) and iron ore (+4 %) became 
more expensive. Uranium ( -28%), nickel ( -19%) and copper ( -12%) still showed a nega tive 
change in terms of prices. Energy prices fell by 18 % in 2016 , with the highest declines observed 
for natural gas ( -34%). While p rices for crude petroleum fell by  18%, coal prices went up by 14 %. 
Chart 8: Export prices of primar y commodities, 2005 -2016 
(Indices, 2005 = 100) 
 
Source:  World Bank . 
 
3.2.3   Major LDC traders  
3.13.   Chart 9 illustrates the top ten individual exporters and importers of the LDC group for both 
2005 and 2016. Angola was the top exporter in 2005, accounting for almost 3 0% of merchandise 
LDC exports, followed by Bangladesh (11%) and Equatorial Guinea (9%). In 2016, the top 
exporter was Bangladesh (share of 24%), followed by Angola (17%) and Myanmar (8%). While 
the top ten exporters represented almost 80% of LDCs' exports in 2005, this share went down to 
around 76% in 2016 – indicating a slight decrease in terms of country concentration among the 
LDCs. Nevertheless, the fact that the remaining (non -top ten) 38 LDCs accounted for only 24% of 
LDC merchandise exports in 2016 i llustrates that exports are still concentrated on a relatively few 
LDCs.  
3.14.   The three leading importers in 2005 were Bangladesh (share of 16%), Angola (10%) and 
Sudan (8%). Eleven years later, the top three consisted of Bangladesh (18%), Angola (8%) and 
Myanm ar (7%). The top ten importers covered around two thirds of total LDC imports in 2016 (up 
from 47% in 2005). Hence, the country concentration for imports of the top ten increased 
distinctly.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  Chart 9: Top ten LDC exporters and impor ters, 2005 and 2016  
(Percentage  shares ) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
 
3.2.4   Trends in product composition  
3.15.   The evolution in the commodity mix of the LDCs between 2005 and 2016 is presented in 
Chart 10.4 Due to a lower value of fuel exports, the share of primary pr oducts in total exports of 
LDCs continued to decrease in 2016 – from 73% in 2005 down to 49% in 2016. In contrast, the 
share of manufactured products increased from 21% in 2005 to 40% in 2016 . This was mainly due 
to a higher share of clothing products in L DC merchandise exports, which increased from 13% in 
2005 to 29% in 2016 .5 Furthermore, the share of agricultural products (agricultural raw materials 
and food) in LDC exports increased from 11% in 2005 to 13% in 2016.  
 
                                                
4 Data for 2016 are preliminary estimates based on mirror data from the UN Com trade database.  
5 These shares are derived from the WTO network of LDCs by product and destination compiled 
according to the United Nations Standard International Trade Classification (SITC). According to this 
classification, diamonds and non -monetary gold  are not part of mineral products  – as opposed to the 
Harmonized System (HS) . As a result, the shares of fuels and mining product in total LDC s' exports derived 
from the LDC network differ from the shares of exporters of fuels and mining products presented  in the annex  
of this report.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
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  Chart 10: Evo lution of merchandise export structure  of LDCs , 2005  and 201 6 
(Percentage  shares ) 
 
 
Source : WTO Secretariat (2005), WTO estimates based on UN Comtrade (2016).  
 
3.16.   Chart 11 shows the evolution of the top ten products – and their respective shares – 
exported by LDCs between 2005 and 2016 (Annex Table 4 provides statistics on the top 50 export 
products). Petroleum products (HS 27.09, 27.11 and 27.10) clearly dominated exports in 2005 
with a share of more than half (52%) of all LDC exports. However, these three products accounted 
for only about a quarter (26%) of LDC exports in 2016. While crude petroleum (HS 27.09) was still 
the top 1 export product, the other two types of petroleum products fell down to positions 11 
(HS 27.11) and 33 (HS 27.10). At the same tim e, the share of clothing products within the top ten 
increased from 11% in 2005 to 21% in 2016.  
3.17.   While back in 2005, diamonds (HS 71.02) still held a share of 2% in LDCs' exports 
(top 7 product), they fell out of the top ten products in 2016 (down to 13th position with a share of 
1%). In 2016, gold (HS 71.08) was of higher importance – reaching a share of 4% in LDCs' 
exports (top 6 product). Refined copper (HS 74.03) held its 2005 share of 2% also in 2016, but in 
2016 a second copper product (HS 74.02; unref ined copper) entered the top 10 (top 8 product 
behind refined copper). Unwrought aluminium  (HS 76.01) had disappeared from the top ten in 
2016 (10th position in 2005; 35th in 2016).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 16 - 
 
   
Chart 11: Top ten products of LDC merchandise ex ports, 2005 and 2016  
(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)   
 
 
 
Source:  UN Comtrade database (mirror data).  
 
3.18.   Table 3 highlights the 20 top products (among the LDCs' main 50 export products) for which 
the LDCs achieved the highest increases in wo rld market shares between 2005 and 2016. For the 
top product "tin ores and concentrates" (HS 26.09), the LDCs increased their world market share 
by 69.7  percentage points up to almost 80% in 2016. However, this product represented only a 
share of 0.6% in L DCs' total exports in 2016 (up from 0.03% in 2005). The product with the 
second -highest increase in terms of market share was "unrefined copper; copper anodes for 
electrolytic refining" (HS 74.02), which gained almost 43 percentage points in terms of marke t 
share (up to 43.5% in 2016). As a result, this product now appeared in the list of top 10 export WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 17 - 
 
  products of LDCs (see Chart 11). LDCs were also in a position to extend their world market share 
for "cobalt mattes and other intermediate products of cobalt  metallurgy" (HS 81.05) between the 
two years by more than 22 percentage points, reaching a world market share of almost 40% in 
2016.  
Table 3: LDCs' top 20 export products in terms of increase in world market share, 2005 
and 2016  
(Million dollars and percentages)  
HS 
code  Commodity description  Value 
2005 
($mn)  Value 
2016 
($mn)  Increase 
in 
market 
share 
(% 
points)  Market 
share 
2016 
(%) Share 
in LDC 
exports 
(2005, 
%) Share 
in LDC 
exports 
(2016, 
%) 
2609 Tin ores and concentrates  19.9 892.7 +69.7  79.3 0.0 0.6 
7402 Unrefined copper; copper anodes for 
electrolytic refining  28.1 3,100.2  +42.6  43.5 0.0 2.3 
8105 Cobalt mattes and other intermediate products 
of cobalt metallurgy  329.9  892.4  +22.4  39.5 0.4 0.6 
6111 Babies' garments and clothin g accessories, 
knitted or crocheted  93.1 1,108.2  +15.0  17.0 0.1 0.8 
6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, jackets, 
blazers, trousers  1,827.2  7,260.4  +14.0  19.9 2.3 5.3 
6205 Men's or boys' shirts  1,040.0  2,934.0  +13.6  22.9 1.3 2.1 
1207 Other oil seeds an d oleaginous fruits  403.8  1,423.8  +12.8  37.7 0.5 1.0 
6109 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, knitted or 
crocheted  1,882.5  6,591.8  +12.6  20.4 2.3 4.8 
6104 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, 
blazers, dresses, skirts  257.8  3,087.7  +10.4  13.7 0.3 2.2 
6107 Men's or boys' underpants, briefs, nightshirts, 
pyjamas, bathrobes  132.5  728.5  +9.9 13.4 0.2 0.5 
6108 Women's or girls' slips, petticoats, briefs, 
panties, nightdresses  361.0  1,235.0  +8.7 12.9 0.4 0.9 
6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or croc heted  387.3  1,100.7  +8.4 16.2 0.5 0.8 
6204 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, 
blazers, dresses, skirts  1,816.4  5,382.0  +8.2 12.0 2.3 3.9 
6103 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, jackets, 
blazers, trousers, bib and brace ...  150.9  840.1  +8.1 13.5 0.2 0.6 
6210 Garments, made up of fabrics of heading 
56.02, 56.03, 59.03, 59.06 or 59.07 ...  108.3  756.9  +7.5 10.0 0.1 0.5 
0905 Vanilla  81.5 563.6  +7.3 71.4 0.1 0.4 
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, waist -coats and 
similar articles, knitted or ...  3,081.0 6,791.3  +7.1 14.5 3.8 4.9 
0713 Dried leguminous vegetables, shelled  368.3  1,794.8  +6.7 17.5 0.5 1.3 
7112 Waste and scrap of precious metal or of metal 
clad with precious metal  38.1 1,115.3  +4.8 5.4 0.0 0.8 
6201 Men's or boys' overcoats, car -coats, c apes, 
cloaks, anoraks  246.0  934.0  +4.7 8.3 0.3 0.7 
Note:  Calculations based on the 50 products with the highest export values of LDCs.  
Source:  UN Comtrade database (mirror data).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 18 - 
 
   
3.19.   While the previous table showed the top LDC products in terms of increase  in world market 
share between 2005 and 2016, Chart 12 provides the top LDC products in terms of world market 
share in 2016. The highest share with almost 97% was reached by "Yarn of jute or of other textile 
bast fibres of heading 53.03." (HS 53.07); thus almost all world trade of this product originated 
from LDCs. Also for "Cobalt ores and concentrates" (HS 26.05) – share of 96% in world exports – 
and "Jute and other textile bast fibres […]" (HS 53.05) – share of 94% –, LDCs were dominating 
world export ma rkets. "Cloves (whole fruit, cloves and stems)" (HS 09.07) and "Tin ores and 
concentrates" (HS 26.09) still reached market shares of around 80% each, followed by vanilla 
(HS 09.05) with a market share of 71%. In other words, for five out of around 1500 HS -4-digit 
codes, LDCs represented more than half of world exports in 2016.  
Chart 12: Top 20 products of LDCs' exports with the highest shares in world export 
market , 2016  
(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)  
 
Source:  UN Co mtrade database (importer data).  
 
3.2.5   Major markets of LDCs  
3.20.   LDCs' top ten markets by product groups for both 2005 and 2016 are listed in Table 4 
(Annex Table 3 shows trade statistics for a greater number of destination markets). The European 
Union was the top destination for total LDC merchandise exports in both 2005 (share of 26%) and 
2016 (share of 31%). China, which had been the top destination for LDC exports since 2009, 
secured the second place in 2016 (share of 21%). The top 10 importers accounted for 88%  of 
LDCs' total exports  in 2016, which was slightly higher than the  respective share of 87% in 2005.  
3.21.   Regarding agricultural products, the European Union was the main destination of LDCs' 
exports in both 2005 (share of 32%) and 2016 (27%). China, on positio n two, doubled its market 
share for LDC agricultural products from 10% in 2005 to 20% in 2015. India and the United States 
were on positions three and four, just as in 2005. The top ten destinations accounted for 81% of 
LDC exports of agricultural products  in 2016 (up from 76% in 2005).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 19 - 
 
   
3.22.   China was the most important destination for LDC exports of fuels and mining products in 
2005 and 2016, expanding its share in LDC exports to almost 50% in 2016 (up from 29% in 
2005). The United States dropped from second position in 2005 to fourth position in 2016 (share 
of 26% in 2005 and of 8% in 2016). In both years, the top 10 destinations imported more than 
90% of all LDCs' exports of fuels and mining products.  
3.23.   The European Union and the United States were the most im portant destinations for LDC 
exports of manufactured goods in both 2005 and 2016. In 2016, the European Union imported 
more than half (51%) of LDC manufacturing exports (up from 49% in 2005). While growing in 
absolute terms, the share of LDC exports of man ufactures to the United States decreased from 
30% in 2005 to just below 20% in 2016. Japan was the third most important  destination for LDC 
manufacturing exports  in 2016, reaching a share of 5% (up from 2% in 2005). The share of the 
top 10 destinations in LDC exports of manufactures remained unchanged at 90% between 2005 
and 2016.  
Table 4: LDCs ' top ten export markets , 2005 and 2016 
(Billion dollars and percentage  shares ) 
 Total trade  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining 
products  Manufactures  
 Value (US$bn)  2005  EU (28)  21.4 EU (28)  3.6 China  14.0 EU (28)  10.3 
USA 19.5 China  1.2 USA 12.5 USA 6.3 
China  15.3 India 1.1 EU (28)  7.3 India 0.7 
Thailand  3.6 USA 0.6 Thailand  2.8 Canada  0.6 
Japan  3.5 Thailand  0.6 Japan  2.6 Japan  0.4 
India 2.0 Japan  0.5 Chinese Taipei  1.6 Hong Kong, 
China  0.3 
Chinese Taipei  1.8 Saudi Arabia  0.4 Chile 1.2 Turkey  0.1 
Canada  1.6 Viet Nam  0.3 Korea, Rep. of  1.0 Mali 0.1 
Chile 1.2 Pakistan  0.2 Zimbabwe  0.9 Singapore  0.1 
Korea, Rep. of  1.1 Zimbab we 0.2 Canada  0.7 South Africa  0.1 
Sum of above  70.9 Sum of above  8.7 Sum of above  44.5 Sum of above  19.0 
Share of top 10:  86.8 %  Share of top 10:  75.7 %  Share of top 10:  92.4 %  Share of top 10:  90.3 %    Value ( US$bn) 2016  EU (28)  47.2 EU (28)  5.5 China 25.6 EU (28)  32.6 
China  32.7 China  4.0 EU (28)  8.8 USA 11.2 
USA 16.5 India 3.5 India 4.3 Japan  3.3 
United Arab 
Emirates  10.6 USA 0.9 USA 4.2 Canada  2.2 
India 10.1 Japan  0.7 South Africa  2.2 China  2.0 
Switzerland  4.6 Pakistan  0.5 Korea, Rep. o f 1.8 India 1.6 
Japan  4.5 Korea, Rep. of  0.4 Chinese Taipei  1.6 United Arab 
Emirates  1.5 
Korea, Rep. of  3.3 United Arab 
Emirates  0.4 Japan  0.5 Korea, Rep. of  1.0 
South Africa  3.0 Malaysia  0.3 United Arab 
Emirates  0.5 Turkey  1.0 
Canada  2.6 Indonesia  0.3 Indonesia  0.4 Australia  0.8 
Sum of above  135.1  Sum of above  16.6 Sum of above  50.0 Sum of above  57.3 
Share of top 10:  88.1 %  Share of top 10:  81.0 %  Share of top 10:  94.6 %  Share of top 10:  89.5 %  
Source:  UN Comtrade (importer data).  
 
3.3  Services Tr ade Developments  
3.24.   In the period 2005 -2016, LDCs' commercial services exports expanded by 12 % on average 
per year, compared to 8 % in other developing economies and 5 % in the developed group. 
Following a decade of sustained growth, LDCs' exports of commercial  services slowed down s ince 
2014. This downward trend accentuated  in 2016, when services exports fell by 4 % to 
US$32  billion. The pattern was similar on the import side, with a more pronounced drop in 2016, 
by 6%, to US$65 billion  (see Chart 13  and Annex T able 5 for country detail ). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 20 - 
 
  Chart 13: LDCs' trade in commercial services, 2006 -2016  
(Annual percentage change)  
 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
 
3.25.   In 2016, the share of LDCs in global exports of commercial services stood at 0.7 %, up from 
0.4% in 2005. The LDCs' share in world services imports decreased to 1.4 % in 2016, which was 
lower than in 2015 (1.5%) but higher than in 2005  (1.0%)  (see Chart 14) . 
Chart 14: LDCs' share in world exports and imports of c ommercial services, 2005 -2016  
(Percentage shares ) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 21 - 
 
  3.26.   LDCs' performance in services exports  varied significantly by region in 2016 (see Chart 15). 
Exports of LDCs in Africa accounted for more than half of LDCs' total commer cial services in 2016  
and grew on average by 10 % between 2005 and 2016. Rapid export growth over the years was 
fuelled by transport services, with Ethiopia's rise as air transport exporter, as well as by the 
thriving tourism sector especially in Tanzania a nd Uganda.  
3.27.   However, in 2016, LDCs in Africa saw sharp declines, with services exports falling by 5 % 
and imports by 11 %. Transport exports declined by 4 %, as Ethiopia's and Tanzania's exports 
stagnated. Other commercial services were the most affected ( -9% on both exports and imports). 
Falling commodity prices reduced revenues of LDC oil exporters, limiting their capacity to import 
services, in particular business, professional, and technical services, which fell by 11 %. 
Chart 15: LDC s' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2005 -2016  
(Billion dollars ) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
 
3.28.   In the period 2005 -2016, LDCs  in Asia  recorded the most rapid export growth expanding by 
14% on average per year thanks to the significant pe rformances of Cambodia and Myanmar as 
leading tourism destinations, and Bangladesh and Nepal as information and communication 
technology (ICT) exporters. Similarly, commercial services imports expanded more rapidly in LDCs 
in Asia (+12 % on average per year ) than in other LDC regions.  
3.29.   In 2016, LDCs in Asia saw a 3 % decline in exports, largely due to falling exports of "other 
commercial services" ( -12%), while imports continued to recorded double -digit growth (+10 %). 
Travel exports grew by 3 %, despite a slowd own in foreign tourists visiting Myanmar, the third 
largest tourism exporter in the LDC group, the second among LDCs  in Asia . 
3.30.   In LDC islands, average annual growth of services export s reached 10 % between 2005 and 
2016.  Tourism, which accounts for more than  two-thirds of services exports, was thereby the 
leading sector. In the Solomon Islands, travel earnings expanded by 38 % on average per year and 
by 23 % in Sao Tome  and Principe. In 2016, however, according to preliminary estimates, LDC 
islands experienced a modest growth of 2 % for the ir services imports and a decline of 6 % for their 
exports . 
3.31.   Services trade in LDCs remains concentrated within a few economies, an unchanged pattern 
since 2005  (see Chart 16) . In 2016, the top ten leading exporters accounted for  almost 70 % of the 
group 's services receipts. According to Secretariat estimates, Myanmar was the largest exporter of 
services among the LDCs, boosted by rising travel exports. Imports are equally concentrated with 
the first five importers, led by Angola, representing around half of LDCs' total commercial services 
payments . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 22 - 
 
  Chart 16: Leading LDC traders of commercial services, 2016  
(Percentage shares ) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
 
3.32.   Over recent years, the number of internation al tourist arrivals to LDCs multiplied rising from 
over 10 million arrivals in 2005 to more than 28 million in 2015 (see Chart 17). Increasing inflows 
of foreign tourists and their purchase of goods and services in the countries they have visited has 
boost ed LDCs' travel revenue. In 2016, revenue reached US$17 billion compared with US$5 billion 
in 2005. As a result, the LDCs' share of world travel exports has doubled in ten years, reaching 
1.4% of global travel receipts in 2016.  
Chart 17: LDCs' travel exports and international tourist arrivals, 2005 -2016  
(Billion dollars and million arrivals ) 
 
Source:  WTO estimates based on UNWTO data and WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
 
3.33.   Travellers' expenditure in LDCs brings revenue to a variety of secto rs, such as 
accommodation, food and beverages, transport, retail, recreation and cultural activities, creating 
employment opportunities in both urban and rural areas. In addition, tourism fosters the 
development of other sectors, such as agriculture (e.g. food supply to hotels and restaurants), 
construction, communications, utilities (e.g. the supply of electricity and water to hotels), and 
conference and events management. Travel exports in LDCs have expanded more rapidly than 
exports of manufactured goods  and fuels and mining products, their most traded products (see 
Chart 18).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 23 - 
 
  Chart 18: LDCs: Travel exports, and exports of agricultural products, manufactured 
goods, and f uels and mining products, 2005 -2016  
(Index 2005 = 100 ) 
 
Sourc e: WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
 
3.34.   Secretariat estimates based on national accounts statistics  of 42 LDCs for the period 
2005-2014, the latest available year, confirm the swift growth of the accommodation sector in 
LDCs compared to other sectors of the economy  as well as other commercial services activities6 
(see Chart 19) . 
Chart 19: LDCs: GDP by sel ected economic activities 2005 -2014  
(Index 2005 = 100 ) 
 
Source:  WTO estimates on the basis of National Accounts statistics of 42 LDCs.  
 
3.35.   International tourism in LDCs is essentially intra -regional, according to WTO Secretariat 
estimates based on UNWTO data. In 2015, around 85 % of foreign tourists visiting LDCs in Asia 
originated from neighbouring economies, up from 59 % in 2005. In Myanmar, for  example, foreign 
tourists in 2015 came almost exclusively from Asia, with almost half of them from China and mor e 
than one -third from Thailand.  
                                                
6 Estimates  do not cover the following countries: Chad, Eritrea, Haiti, Somalia, South Sudan,  and 
Tuvalu . 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 24 - 
 
  3.36.   In Cambodia, the share of tourists from Asia stood at 77 %, with China accounting for 15 % 
and Viet Nam for 21 %. China was the main source of foreign tourists to Bhutan (19 %) while in Lao 
People's Democratic Republic half of the tourists came from Thailand. In total, some 4 million 
Chinese travellers visited LDCs in Asia in 2015, an increase of 52 % on average per ye ar since 
2011.  
3.37.   The increase in travel receipts for LDCs in Asia matches closely the growth of tourist arrivals 
from Asia in the last ten years. Fuelled by rising intra -regional tourists, travel exports  of LDCs in 
Asia have risen faster than the exports of LDCs in Africa and LDC islands (see Chart 20). 
Consequently, LDCs in Asia increased their share in total LDCs' travel exports to 40 %, up from 
26% in 2005.  
Chart 20: LDCs in Asia and in Africa: International tourist arrivals by regio n of origin and 
travel exports, 2005 -2016  
(Million arrivals and million dollars ) 
 
Source:  WTO estimates based on UNWTO data and WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
 
3.38.   Intra-regional tourists are also the main source of tourists for LDCs in Africa, representing 
aroun d 63% of travellers to Africa in recent years. Tourists from Europe represented on average 
just over 20 % of total arrivals. Although LDCs  in Africa  comprise more than 30 countries and a 
population twice as high as LDCs  in Asia , their travel exports were no t significantly higher in 2016. 
LDCs in Africa  are not yet benefiting as much as LDCs  in Asia  from the inflows and travel 
expenditure of Chinese tourists, the largest and predicted tourism source market. Although the 
number  of Chinese tourists  is on the ri se, in 2015 they accounted for only 2 % of foreign tourists in 
Tanzania and Zambia and 1 % in Uganda.  
3.39.   Between 2005 and 2016, LDCs' other commercial services exports expanded by 10 % on 
average . All sectors record ed rapid growth with the exception of intellect ual property related 
services (charges for the use of intellectual property, n.i.e) , which saw declines  (see Chart 21) . 
Personal, cultural and recreational services which include artistic services such as the live 
performance of artists in concerts, etc. w ere the most dynamic during the entire period, even 
though  the exported amounts were small. The ICT sector recorded the second -highest growth,  
although a digital divide remains in LDCs with respect to access to and use of information 
technology.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 25 - 
 
  Chart 21: LDCs' export  growth  of other commercial services by sector, 2005 -2016   
(Annual percentage change ) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
 
3.40.   According to ITU estimates, by the end of 2017, less than 15% of LDCs' households will 
have acce ss to the Internet at home, compared with 84.4% in developed economies  (see 
Chart  22). Similarly, in LDCs only 17.5% individuals will use the Internet, while in developed 
economies they will reach 81%.  
3.41.   Infrastructural constraints, low rates of access to th e Internet, poor connectivity, as well as 
lack of technological knowledge hinders the integration of LDCs, especially African LDCs, in world 
trade in ICTs services. In 2016, a negligible 0.1% of global exports of computer and information 
services originate d from LDCs. Finally, the persistence of such a digital divide prevents LDCs from 
entering fully into new ways of trading goods and services, such as e -commerce and to participate 
in global value chains.  
Chart 22: Digital divide bet ween developed economies and LDCs, 2005 -2017  
(Percentage ) 
 
Note:  * Data for 2017 are estimates.  
Source:  International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The aggregate "developed economies" follows ITU's 
definition. Data for 2017 are estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 26 - 
 
  Box 1: The contribution of services to GDP in LDCs  
The lower participation of LDCs in services exports (0.7% of world trade) reflects a smaller 
domestic supply base. According to Secretariat estimates, the share of commercial services 
(excluding pu blic administration and defence and compulsory social security) in total GDP in LDCs 
averaged 41% in 2014, significantly less than in higher -income economies (above 70%) and in 
middle -income economies (over 50%). The value of commercial services (see Chart  23) produced 
by LDCs in 2014 is estimated by the Secretariat at US$354 billion7, of which US$212 billion 
produced by LDCs in Africa (including islands), and US$142 billion by LDCs in Asia (including 
islands). Services production in the entire LDC group is  5 to 6 times lower than in individual 
developed economies such as France and Germany.  
Chart 23: GDP by main economic activity in LDCs, 2005 -2014  
(Billion dollars)  
 
 
Source:  WTO estimates on the basis of National Accounts statistic s of 42 LDCs.  
 
LDCs' economies remained dominated by the primary sector, accounting for almost one third of 
GDP. Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing accounted for 21.4%, and mining and quarrying for 
an additional 10.2%, predominantly due to LDCs in Africa where the share stood at 13.9%. 
Manufacturing contributed on average for 11.2% of LDCs' GDP, with the manufacturing share 
being highest in LDCs in Asia (16.4%), double the share of LDCs in Africa . 
A closer look at the sectoral services breakdown rev eals that the hotels and restaurants sector 
contributed the most to LDCs' GDP, at 8.2%, inasmuch as wholesale and retail trade. While the 
hotels and restaurants sector accounted for 10% of GDP in LDCs  in Africa , the respective share in 
LDCs in Asia was 5.2 %. 
Transport and storage stood at 6.2% and communications at 2.8%. Financial intermediation 
activities represented 2.7%, whereas it represented 6% of world's leading financial services 
traders. Similarly, value added from real estate, renting and business activities totalled 6.3% in 
LDCs compared to 22% in the European Union. The contribution of education, health and social 
work and other community, social and personal services accounted for 6.4%. Construction, not 
included under services in national accoun ts, represented alone 8% of total GDP.  
 
 
 
 
 
                                                
7 Estimates  do not cover the following countries: Chad, Eritrea, Haiti, Somalia, South Sudan,  and 
Tuvalu . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 27 - 
 
  Chart 24: GDP by main economic activity in LDCs, 2014  
(Percentage shares)  
 
 
 
Source:  WTO estimates on the basis of National Accounts statistics of 42 LDCs.  
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 28 - 
 
  4  MARKET ACCESS FOR PR ODUCTS  OF EXPORT INTEREST T O LDCS  
4.1  Trends in market access for products of export interest to LDCs  
4.1.  This section discusses the market access conditions for LDC exports in terms of proportion of 
tariff lines receiving duty -free treatment, as well as in terms of ave rage applied duties in key 
sectors. These two indicators are included in the set of indicators used to measure the 
implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDGs ).8  
4.2.  The UN SDGs recognise trade as an engine for inclusive economic growth and po verty 
reduction. This recognition is reflected in Goal 10 ( "Reduce inequality within and among 
countries ") and its Target 10.a to "implement the principle of special and differential treatment for 
developing countries, in particular least developed countri es, in accordance with WTO 
agreements". The SDG indicator used to measure the implementation of Target 10.a is defined as 
the proportion of tariff lines with zero duty applied to products from LDCs and developing countries  
(Chart 25) . Being part of Goal 17 ("Strengthen the means of implementation "), SDG Target 17.12 
calls for a "timely implementation of DFQF market access on a lasting basis  for all LDCs, consistent 
with WTO decisions… ". Average tariffs faced by the LDCs are used as indicator to measure the 
implementation of Target 17.12  (Table 5) .  
4.3.  As shown in Chart 2 5, the LDCs and developing countries have benefitt ed from a continuing 
increase in duty-free market access over the last decade. From a global perspective, in 2015, the 
international trading com munity granted  to LDCs  duty-free market access o n 65% of  tariff lines , 
which is considerably higher than the respective share of 50% in the case of developing countries. 
Chart 25 also reveals that worldwide, the proportion of duty -free tariff lines has ris en from 49% in 
2005 to 65% in 2015 for LDCs, which confirms the commitment of Members to grant preferential 
market access to the LDCs.  
Chart 25: Proportion of tariff lines worldwide with zero duty applied to products from 
developing  countries and LDCs , 2005 , 2010 and 2015  
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source: ITC/UNCTAD/WTO.  
 
4.4.  Table 5 shows average tariffs applied by developed Members on key products from LDCs. 
LDC exports to developed Members benefit from low duties or - to a large extent - from duty -free 
treatment. In 2015, LDC faced average tariffs of 0.9% for agricultural products, 0.3% for 
manufactures (other than minerals and oils, textiles and clothing products), and 0% for fuels and 
minerals. However, on textiles and clothing products,  the average duty was higher at around 3.2 % 
and 6.5%, respectively. Table 5 furthermore shows that average tariffs levied on exports from 
LDCs to developed countries remained largely stationary over the period 2011 -2015.  
                                                
8 The complet e list of SDG indicators are provided in Annex III of the Report of the Inter -agency and 
Expert Group on SDG Indicators  (E/CN.3/2017/2).  
Available  at: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indic ators/indicators -list/. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 29 - 
 
  Table 5: Average tariffs applied by develop ed Members  on key products from LDCs, 
2011 -2015  
 2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  
Agricultural products  1.0%  0.9%  0.9%  0.9%  0.9%  
Clothing  6.7%  6.7%  6.7%  6.5%  6.5%  
Textiles  3.2%  3.1%  3.1%  3.2%  3.2%  
Minerals and oil products  0.0%  0.0%  0.0%  0.0%  0.0%  
Other industrial products  0.2%  0.3%  0.3%  0.3%  0.3%  
 
Note:  Average tariffs are based on best applicable tariffs (MFN and preferential treatment to LDCs)  and the 
assumption that available preferences are fully used by the exporting LDC . 
Source:  ITC/UNCTAD/WTO.  
 
 
4.2  Duty -free market access granted by selected Members  
4.5.  Table 6 provides statistics on duty -free market access accorded to LDCs by selected 
Members, which have notified LDC preference schemes to the WTO. The preferential LDC schemes  
of Australia, New Zealand, Norway and Switzerland provides full duty free market access for LDC 
exports. For Canada, Chile, the EU and Japan, more than 97% of their tariff lines are free of duty 
for products originating from LDCs . Both China and India have considerably improved the 
duty-free coverage of their LDC schemes, with around 95% of their tariff lines being free of any 
import duty.9 
4.6.  In 2015, LDCs exported the highest number of products (in terms of national tariff lines) to 
the EU, followed by China. In dollar terms, some 60% of LDC exports were dutiable under the 
Unites States' GSP LDC scheme, with a trade -weighted average tariff of 10 %. However, eligible 
LDCs enjoy significant duty -free access to its market under the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act 
(AGOA) and the Caribbean Basin Initiative. For instance, the United States provided 97.5 % 
duty-free market access to LDC beneficiaries of the AGOA.  
 
                                                
9 Reference year for China is 2014 as relevant data for 2015 is awaited by the Secretariat.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 30 - 
 
  Table 6: Duty -free market access under LDC schemes in selected Members, 2015  
Market  Sector  LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN -LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff 
lines  Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  TOTAL Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyc 
Australia  Total  0 100.0  1,110  712 0 904.4  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  157 54 0 39.3 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  953 658 0 865.1  100.0  0.0 
Canada  Total  105 98.6 2,099  924 2 2,911.6  99.5 0.1 
Ag 105 92.8 374 167 2 72.9 98.7 0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  1,725  757 0 2,838.7  99.5 0.1 
Chile  Total  41 99.5 583 583 0 176.0  100.0  0.0 
Ag 41 97.1 26 26 0 1.4 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  557 557 0 174.5  100.0  0.0 
Chinad Total  636 95.1 3,345  2,994  87 71,377.7  97.8 0.3 
Ag 143 90.5 241 225 27 1,915.0  71.3 5.1 
Non-ag 493 95.7 3,104  2,769  60 69,462.7  98.6 0.1 
European 
Union  Total  91 99.0 4,274  3,276  16 41,837.3  100.0  0.0 
Ag 73 96.5 726 541 12 3,807.4  100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 18 99.8 3,548  2,735  4 38,029.9  100.0  0.0 
Icelandd Total  707 91.8 -  -  -  -  -  -  
Ag 707 63.3 -  -  -  -  -  -  
Non-ag 0 100.0  -  -  -  -  -  -  
India  Total  688 94.0 1,694  1,631  204 11,064.3  95.5 1.5 
Ag 345 76.9 288 265 92 3,002.7  90.9 5.1 
Non-ag 343 96.6 1,406  1,366  112 8,061.6  97.2 0.1 
Japan  Total  198 97.9 1,134 757 28 4,922.2  98.9 0.1 
Ag 69 96.4 169 103 4 436.7  99.8 0.0 
Non-ag 129 98.3 965 654 24 4,485.5  98.8 0.1 
Korea, 
Republic of  Total  1,185  90.3 1,485  1,319  173 3,803.3  76.4 1.9 
Ag 701 59.4 231 218 102 199.9  63.0 20.3 
Non-ag 484 95.4 1,254  1,101  71 3,603.4  77.1 1.1 
New 
Zealand  Total  0 100.0  998 652 0 100.6  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  149 58 0 16.3 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  849 594 0 84.3 100.0  0.0 
Norway  Total  0 100.0  1,138  314 0 416.9  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  211 73 0 31.2 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  927 241 0 385.7  100.0  0.0 
Russian 
Federationd Total  7,415  36.3 -  -  -  -  -  -  
Ag 997 62.8 -  -  -  -  -  -  
Non-ag 6,418  28.3 -  -  -  -  -  -  
Switzerland  Total  0 100.0  1,332  1,129  0 3,418.6  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  306 233 0 168.0  100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  1,026  896 0 3,250.6  100.0  0.0 
Chinese 
Taipei  Total  6,159  31.0 837 653 596 1,965.1  92.2 0.8 
Ag 1,145  23.7 119 87 83 59.4 43.8 6.9 
Non-ag 5,014  32.5 718 566 513 1,905.7  93.7 0.7 
Thailand  Total  2,421  74.7 2,356  1,851  716 6,459.2  86.7 1.3 
Ag 306 76.4 271 239 60 573.7  83.8 7.8 
Non-ag 2,115  74.4 2,085  1,612  656 5,885.4  87.0 0.7 
Turkey  Total  3,020  81.7 -  -  -  -  -  -  
Ag 2,046  26.8 -  -  -  -  -  -  
Non-ag 974 92.9 -  -  -  -  -  -  
United 
States of 
America  Total  1,863  82.6 1,870  1,218  578 16,704.9  39.7 10.0 
Ag 269 85.8 214 136 4 632.0  96.2 0.2 
Non-ag 1,594  81.9 1,656  1,082  574 16,072.9  37.4 10.4 
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme; some UN -LDC countries may be excluded.  
b 48 LDCs as listed by the UN in 2 015. Full utilization of LDC schemes is assumed when calculating the share of 
duty-free imports and the trade -weighted applied duty.  
c Excludes non -ad valorem duties . 
d 2014. 
Source:  WTO-Integrated DataBase (IDB) . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 31 - 
 
  4.3  Recent initiatives to improve market acce ss for LDCs  
4.7.  Annex Table 6 provides a non -exhaustive list of major multilateral non -reciprocal market 
access schemes undertaken by Members in favour of LDCs. It updates the previous year's 
information based on Members' notifications and statements at the WT O as well as submissions 
made to WTO's IDB. The Table does not include regional or bilateral initiatives under which,  too, 
LDCs receive preferences.  
4.8.  Progress has been noted in providing duty -free tariff treatment to LDCs. In November 2016, 
China submitted a notification (WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.2) providing updated information on its 
DFQF programme for LDCs , stating that the Chinese  DFQF Programme covered  97% of its tariff 
lines. On 20 January 2017, the United  States made a notification concerning non -reciprocal 
preferences for Nepal (WT/COMTD/N/52) , which were developed in response to the devastating 
earthquake in Nepal in 2015. Pursuant to the the Waiver Decision adopted by the General Council 
on 12  December  2016 (WT/L/1001), the United States prov ides duty -free treatment for 
66 products falling under HS Chapters 42, 57, 61, 62, 63 and 65 . These new trade preferences for 
Nepal entered into force on 30 December 2016 and will end on 31  December  2025. 
4.9.  As has been reported in t he past, most of the developed Members g rant either full or nearly 
full DFQF market access. Developing Members, namely Chile, China, India, Republic of Korea, 
Chinese Taipei and Thailand have made notifications concerning their respective DFQF schemes for 
LDCs. Most of them grant a significant d egree of DFQF market access to LDC products, and a 
number of them have reached or are in the process of attaining comprehensive DFQF coverage for 
LDCs.  
4.10.   Members have continued to discuss steps taken by Members to provide DFQF market access 
to LDCs. In this regard, on 15 November 2016, the LDC Group submitted a revised proposal in the 
Committee on Trade and Development (CTD)  for a Secretariat study concerning the 
implementation of DFQF market access for LDC prod ucts (WT/COMTD/W/218/Rev.1).  
4.11.   Progress has been made in the implementation of the Nairobi Decision on Preferential Rules 
of Origin for LDCs (Nairobi Decision) (WT/L/917/Add.1). On 2 March 2017, the Committee on 
Rules of Origin (CRO) adopted a template for the notification of preferential rules of origin  
(G/RO/84)  to enhance transparency and promote a better understanding of the rules of origin 
applicable to imports from LDCs. The majority  of preference -granting Members ha ve already 
submitted information on their rules of origin using the new template.10 The CRO also agreed on a 
methodology for the calculation of utilization rates  (paragraph 3.2 (a) of G/RO/W/161)  and initiated 
an examination of preferential rules of origin in light of utilization rates calculated by the 
Secretariat (G/RO/W/168 /Rev.1 ). 
4.12.   Measu res are being taken by Members to implement the provisions of the Nairobi Decision. 
In this regard, submissions were made by Canada (G/RO/82), Japan (G/RO/81), Switzerland 
(G/RO/ 80), and the United States (G/RO/83) ; while Australia, the European Union,  and Norway 
made oral statements in the  CRO meeting of 22 September  2016 (G/RO/M/67 ). At the CRO 
meeting on 2 March 2017  (G/RO/M/68) , China informed Members that it had introduced a number 
of improvements in its regulations on preferential treatment for the LD Cs, including the expansion 
of cumulation possibilities and the simplification of certification procedures. At the same meeting, 
Norway mentioned that it had decided to expand cumulation possibilities for the LDCs. It may also 
be noted that, as of 1 Januar y 2017, the EU, Norway and Switzerland have started to implement 
their new system o f self-certification of origin – the Registered Exporter System (REX) – under 
their respective GSP schemes.  
4.13.   Progress has also been noted with respect to preferential treatme nt of services and services 
suppliers under the LDC Services Waiver Decision (WT/L/847), and subsequent decisions taken at 
the Bali (WT/L/918) and Nairobi Ministerial Conferences (WT/L/982). The Council for Trade in 
Services (CTS) has maintained the operat ionalization of the LDC Services Waiver as a standing 
item on its agenda. Under this item, the CTS has, inter alia , considered the assessments by the 
LDC Group of notifications by preference -granting Members in both 2016 (Canada, 
European  Union , South Afri ca) and in the first half of 2017 (Brazil, Panama, Thailand).11 
                                                
10 Notifications are submitted under the document series G/RO/LDC/N/*.  
11 For details, see minutes contained in document S/C/M/127; S/C/M/128 ; S/C/M/130 and S/C/M/132.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 32 - 
 
  4.14.   Table 7 provides the list of Members that have submitted notifications of their preferential 
treatment to services and services suppliers of LDCs. Since the last report, one Member (Panama) 
has submitted a new notification (S/C/N/890) in May 2017. The tally of total number of 
notifications, by the end of September 2017 , stood at twenty -four (24).  
Table 7: Notification s under the LDC Services Waiver  
 
Notifying Member  Date of 
notification  References  
Australia  29-May-15 S/C/N/805  
Brazil  04-Nov-15 S/C/N/839  
Canada  14-Dec-15 S/C/N/792/Rev.1  
Chile 08-Oct-15 S/C/N/834  
China  22-Jul-15 S/C/N/809  
European Union  16-Nov-15 S/C/N/840  
Hong Kong, China  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/810  
Iceland 09-Oct-15 S/C/N/835  
India 29-Sep-15 S/C/N/833  
Japan  31-Jul-15 S/C/N/820  
Korea, Rep. of  10-Jul-15 S/C/N/808  
Liechtenstein  30-Nov-15 S/C/N/841  
Mexico  20-Aug-15 S/C/N/821  
New Zealand  28-Jul-15 S/C/N/813  
Norway  25-Jun-15 S/C/N/806  
Panama  4-May-17 S/C/N/890  
Singapore  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/812  
South Africa  02-Dec-15 S/C/N/853  
Switzerland  30-Jul-15 S/C/N/819  
Chinese Taipei  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/811  
Thailand  17-Feb-16 S/C/N/860  
Turkey  14-Jun-16 S/C/N/824/Rev.1  
United States  03-Sep-15 S/C/N/825  
Uruguay  12-Jan-16 S/C/N/857  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 33 - ANNEX  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 201 6 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value Annual percentage change  
  2016  2005 -16 2014  2015  2016  2016  2005 -16 2014  2015  2016  
LDCs  145,448  5.3 -3.5 -23.5 -6.0 228,464  9.2 6.5 -9.7 -3.0 
Exporters of agricultural products  16,200  10.7 12.1 -13.3 -1.3 49,616  10.8 7.5 -4.7 0.6 
Afghanistan  520 2.8 10.8 0.2 -9.0 9,150  12.6 -10.0 0.3 18.5 
Benin  1,354  8.0 29.3 -40.9 -10.7 2,251  7.5 27.0 -39.6 -2.6 
Burkina Faso  2,400  16.0 4.1 -11.3 10.3 3,171  8.8 -18.0 -16.5 6.1 
Burundi  120 6.8 40.1 -8.6 -0.8 755 9.8 -5.2 11.4 -11.8 
Central African Republic  93 -2.8 -17.5 -10.8 9.4 382 7.4 90.3 -14.7 10.4 
Comoros  14 1.5 14.4 -27.8 -16.7 206 6.9 -2.2 -23.2 -3.3 
Ethiopia  4,612  16.0 39.0 -11.3 -8.3 16,588  13.6 27.2 8.8 -1.9 
Gambia  111 27.8 -2.1 4.8 1.7 411 4.3 10.6 7.6 -1.3 
Guinea -Bissau  263 10.3 8.7 55.0 2.2 249 8.1 17.2 5.9 9.9 
Kiribati  11 8.9 52.0 8.4 0.0 85 1.3 10.5 7.2 -26.1 
Liberia  170 2.4 -20.5 -40.3 -36.1 1,311  14.0 73.6 -15.5 -22.3 
Malawi  1,017  6.5 11.1 -19.5 -5.8 2,425  6.9 -2.5 -16.7 4.9 
Rwanda  744 17.6 2.9 -5.4 8.9 2,293  15.5 7.2 -3.7 -3.6 
Sao Tome and Principe  12 5.3 33.6 -34.3 5.9 142 10.0 11.6 -16.4 0.1 
Solomon Islands  415 13.5 -5.9 -12.4 3.4 430 8.0 -7.0 -6.4 -8.0 
Somalia  440 5.3 -1.9 -13.7 0.0 1,080  5.0 -3.8 -12.0 -1.8 
Timor -Leste  20 8.6 -12.2 16.4 11.1 780 19.6 1.9 6.0 -14.3 
Togo 1,290  6.3 -12.9 -0.4 -2.3 2,382  7.6 -8.7 -9.2 3.7 
Uganda  2,543  10.9 -6.1 0.2 12.2 5,099  8.6 4.4 -9.0 -7.8 
Vanuatu  51 2.7 62.9 -38.1 30.1 424 10.0 -0.8 18.0 15.7 
           
Fuel exportersa 46,402  -0.4 -10.5 -41.5 -20.6 57,301  7.8 6.4 -19.7 -5.6 
Angola  25,164  0.4 -13.3 -43.9 -24.2 19,246  7.9 8.5 -27.6 -7.0 
Bhutan  470 5.6 7.3 -5.8 -14.4 1,030  9.3 2.5 13.8 -2.9 
Chad 1,600  -5.8 0.0 -31.6 -38.5 2,200  7.9 3.3 -16.1 -15.4 
Equatorial Guinea  4,800  -3.5 -14.3 -48.4 -26.2 2,800  7.1 -1.8 -38.2 -17.6 
Myanmar  11,000  10.2 2.0 -0.2 -3.8 16,600  21.7 34.7 4.1 -1.7   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 34 -   Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value Annual percentage change  
  2016  2005 -16 2014  2015  2016  2016  2005 -16 2014  2015  2016  
Sudan  2,368  -6.3 -7.0 -28.8 -25.3 8,656  2.3 -7.1 3.2 -9.0 
Yemen  1,000  -14.5 -6.0 -87.2 0.0 6,770  2.1 -9.3 -45.4 3.0 
Manufacture exporters  49,711  11.4 4.2 8.5 9.1 71,847  10.2 11.8 -5.0 6.8 
Bangladesh  34,956  12.8 4.4 6.5 8.0 41,490  10.5 14.0 -6.6 5.1 
Cambodia  10,040  11.3 2.7 24.8 17.5 12,600  11.2 11.0 6.3 -0.1 
Haiti 1,002  7.1 -4.4 21.7 -2.8 3,466  8.2 4.6 -1.1 -6.4 
Lesotho  911 3.1 -2.4 2.1 7.9 1,827  2.4 -1.4 -5.9 -9.5 
Madagascar  2,063  8.3 14.2 -6.7 0.7 2,814  4.7 -1.0 -13.4 0.7 
Nepal  740 -1.4 1.2 -18.9 2.7 9,650  14.0 15.1 -12.0 45.1 
           
Exporters of non -fuel mineralsb 30,354  9.3 1.3 -18.4 -3.8 43,221  8.6 0.4 -7.1 -16.2 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of  5,400  7.6 11.3 -15.9 -6.9 4,800  5.4 4.8 -4.5 -23.8 
Eritrea  345 36.4 104.0  -22.5 -30.8 1,055  7.2 8.7 -9.7 3.4 
Guinea  1,839  7.2 18.0 -28.4 28.0 2,151  9.2 26.2 -6.8 -2.2 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  3,020  16.7 17.6 4.0 9.1 4,720  16.5 38.6 22.5 -9.8 
Mali 2,538  7.9 18.8 -2.3 -6.6 3,509  7.8 2.8 -2.9 -7.7 
Mauritania  1,299  6.9 -27.0 -28.3 -6.5 1,825  2.3 -13.1 -26.4 -6.3 
Mozambique  3,355  5.9 9.9 -22.8 -1.7 5,295  7.4 -8.1 -10.2 -36.5 
Niger  1,050  7.2 -9.4 -24.1 -4.5 1,650  5.2 8.4 -9.6 -16.7 
Sierra Leone  635 13.4 -19.0 -67.0 24.1 1,560  14.7 -11.9 -2.4 2.0 
Tanzania  5,072  10.6 1.5 6.6 2.9 9,611  10.2 -0.8 -10.0 -10.9 
Zambia  5,801  11.2 -8.6 -27.9 -16.9 7,045  9.6 -6.1 -11.7 -16.3 
Diversified and othersc 2,781  5.0 3.6 -4.7 1.3 6,479  5.0 0.5 -8.4 -3.5 
Djibouti  140 12.2 8.0 3.4 5.2 974 12.1 11.6 34.5 -9.9 
Senegal  2,640  4.8 3.4 -5.0 1.1 5,478  4.2 -0.8 -14.0 -2.1 
Tuvalu  0 12.9 460.5  -12.0 13.2 28 7.3 7.1 66.3 -24.0 
Worldd 15,464,200  3.8 0.3 -13.5 -3.3 15,798,526  3.7 0.6 -12.5 -3.2 
a Includes exporters of electricity (Bhutan).  
b Includes exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. a ccording to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) and diamonds 
(normally included in manufactures according to the UN classification).  
c Includes exporters without a clear specialization in a specific category of goods.  
d Excluding re -exports  of Hong Kong, China; including EU -intra trade.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 35 - Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2005 -2017 (Q2) 
(Indices 2005 = 100)  
 2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2016 2017  
             Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
                   
Food and beverages  100 110 127 157 136 153 182 175 175 171 144 146 139 151 148 146 151 150 
Food 100 111 127 157 134 150 180 176 178 170 141 144 136 149 146 144 151 150 
Cereals  100 122 159 222 161 166 230 236 218 218 149 131 136 141 126 120 131 134 
Wheat  100 126 167 214 147 147 207 206 205 187 143 110 125 123 99 94 111 114 
Maize  100 124 166 227 168 189 297 303 263 196 173 162 163 174 156 155 163 160 
Rice 100 106 116 243 205 181 192 202 180 148 132 135 128 140 145 127 128 142 
Barley  100 123 181 211 135 167 218 251 217 154 135 136 126 145 138 136 142 148 
Vegetable oils and protein meals  100 103 143 193 154 170 209 216 206 191 153 156 144 164 159 158 161 151 
Meat 100 95 99 103 98 117 134 132 136 136 137 126 122 131 130 122 133 147 
Beef 100 97 99 102 101 128 154 158 155 189 169 150 142 151 156 151 155 168 
Lamb  100 96 101 106 91 91 93 63 66 81 67 66 59 63 69 75 78 86 
Swine meat  100 94 94 96 82 110 132 122 128 152 100 92 89 107 98 74 99 103 
Poultry 100 94 106 115 116 116 118 128 141 149 155 151 152 151 150 150 159 189 
Seafood  100 121 113 113 114 140 139 113 160 162 132 162 149 165 163 170 179 178 
Fish 100 125 112 119 121 151 146 117 166 163 131 176 160 181 178 184 195 193 
Shrimp  100 105 116 91 85 98 115 97 136 160 136 107 107 102 103 114 117 117 
Sugar  100 133 102 117 152 172 211 175 148 146 118 152 128 147 167 167 159 130 
Bananas  100 118 117 146 147 153 169 171 161 162 166 174 178 172 177 167 179 188 
Oranges  100 98 114 132 108 118 102 99 111 90 77 102 79 90 114 125 105 89 
Beverages  100 108 123 152 154 176 206 167 147 178 173 164 159 164 170 164 156 148 
Coffee  100 112 129 150 132 165 231 180 147 185 154 156 140 150 164 170 167 155 
Cocoa beans  100 103 127 167 187 203 193 154 158 198 203 187 193 201 193 162 136 128 
Tea 100 112 98 125 145 146 160 161 123 110 157 133 134 116 132 150 171 172 
Agricultural raw materials  100 109 114 113 94 124 153 133 136 139 120 113 108 114 116 116 120 117 
Timber  100 108 107 109 102 101 111 107 107 109 105 100 97 103 102 99 98 100 
Cotton  100 105 115 129 114 188 280 162 164 151 128 135 121 129 145 143 154 157 
Wool 100 104 144 138 115 153 234 215 196 178 163 179 167 177 188 184 199 200 
Rubber  100 140 153 174 128 243 321 225 186 130 104 109 87 110 112 128 169 137 
Hides and skins  100 105 110 98 68 110 125 127 144 168 134 113 111 112 113 116 117 108 
Minerals and non -ferrous metals 
(excluding crude petroleum)  100 156 183 169 136 202 229 190 182 164 126 120 110 115 120 133 147 135 
Copper  100 183 194 189 141 205 240 217 199 187 150 132 127 129 130 144 159 154 
Aluminum  100 135 139 136 88 114 126 106 97 98 88 84 80 83 85 90 97 100 
Iron ore  100 119 130 219 285 522 597 457 482 347 200 208 172 201 209 252 305 225  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 36 -  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2016 2017  
             Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
                   
Tin 100 119 196 250 184 276 353 286 302 297 218 243 209 229 252 282 271 270 
Nickel  100 163 251 143 99 148 155 119 102 114 80 65 58 60 70 73 70 63 
Zinc 100 237 235 137 120 157 159 141 138 157 140 151 122 139 163 182 201 188 
Lead 100 132 265 215 177 221 246 212 220 215 184 192 178 176 192 220 234 222 
Uranium  100 171 355 230 167 165 201 175 138 120 132 94 117 99 91 70 86 77 
Total of above  100 123 140 151 127 161 190 171 169 162 134 131 124 133 133 136 144 139 
Energy  100 119 132 185 117 147 201 203 196 180 99 81 64 83 85 94 68 86 
Natural gas  100 115 117 174 110 113 154 171 165 160 107 70 74 64 69 73 82 70 
Crude petroleum  100 121 133 182 116 149 204 208 201 184 97 80 61 84 84 92 61 84 
Coal 100 104 138 266 149 206 254 202 177 149 121 138 108 111 142 193 174 167 
All primary commodities  100 121 135 172 121 152 197 191 186 173 112 100 86 101 103 110 96 105 
Note:  Beginning with the first quarter of 2011, the crude oil price index is computed excluding West Texas Intermediate (WTI), in o rder to better 
reflect prices in international trade. The price of WTI, which  accounts for one third of the IMF's original crude oil index, became largely dislocated 
from international markets in early 2011. Although suited for measuring oil price worldwide, the WTI inclusion in a crude oil  price index would 
however considerably di stort an index meant to measure oil prices in international trade.  
Source:  IMF commodity prices.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 37 - Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2005 -2016 
 
(Million dollars and p ercentage)  
 All Commoditi es Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions and major 
markets  Value ($mn)  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value ($mn)  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value ($mn)  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value ($m n) Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
 2005  2016  2016  2016  2005 -
2016  2005  2016  2016  2016  2005 -
2016  2005  2016  2016  2016  2005 -
2016  2005  2016  2016  2016  2005 -
2016  
Africa  2,834 7,925 100 -3 10 816 1,775 22 3 7 1,299 4,068 51 -8 11 714 2,041 26 0 10 
South Africa  752 3,045 100 -7 14 118 281 9 24 8 514 2,201 72 -13 14 120 560 18 6 15 
Mali (2012)  438 1,240 100 ... 16 25 92 7 ... 20 286 779 63 ... 15 126 369 30 ... 17 
Zambia (2015)  113 1,106 100 ... 26 20 10 1 ... -7 77 676 61 ... 24 16 419 38 ... 38 
Kenya  126 417 100 -18 12 51 256 61 -28 16 18 43 10 34 8 57 118 28 0 7 
Côte d'Ivoire  157 411 100 20 9 125 300 73 26 8 15 48 12 -21 11 16 62 15 39 13 
Egypt  245 321 100 -11 2 118 141 44 1 2 111 148 46 -17 3 16 31 10 -25 6 
Ghana  114 280 100 5 8 33 135 48 10 14 4 13 5 -4 11 77 101 36 -22 2 
Malawi (2015)  243 239 100 … 0 105 98 41 … -1 91 38 16 … -8 47 104 43 … 8 
Sudan (2015)  77 168 100 ... 8 27 88 52 ... 13 31 0 0 ... -40 19 80 48 ... 15 
Nigeria (2006 and 2014)  274 157 100 … -7 71 128 82 … 8 78 6 4 … -27 124 18 12 … -21 
Ethiopia  137 130 100 14 -1 22 29 22 93 2 47 68 53 -4 4 69 33 25 18 -6 
Tanzania, U nited Rep. of  23 127 100 -9 17 8 57 45 -8 19 4 28 22 7 19 10 42 33 -17 14 
Morocco  70 127 100 5 6 61 78 61 8 2 4 0 0 -62 -19 5 47 37 18 23 
Mauritius  52 117 100 10 8 25 73 62 10 10 15 3 3 1,807 -13 11 41 35 4 13 
Senegal  13 42 100 -15 11 7 10 24 10 3 4 16 39 22 14 3 16 38 -41 17 
Americas  23,074 20,804 100 -5 -1 688 1,167 6 17 5 15,081 4,962 24 -22 -10 6,999 14,461 70 1 7 
North America  21,149 19,665 100 -4 -1 673 1,116 6 17 5 13,214 4,438 23 -20 -9 6,956 13,898 71 1 6 
USA 19,469 16,548 100 -3 -1 603 940 6 17 4 12,455 4,212 25 -12 -9 6,304 11,206 68 0 5 
Canada  1,568 2,571 100 -12 5 48 140 5 10 10 745 169 7 -76 -13 575 2,243 87 10 13 
Mexico  112 546 100 15 15 21 36 7 72 5 14 57 10 165 14 77 449 82 4 17 
South and Central America  1,925 1,139 100 -20 -5 15 51 4 9 12 1,866 524 46 -35 -11 43 563 49 -1 26 
Brazil  316 415 100 -54 2 5 11 3 -20 7 301 253 61 -60 -2 10 151 37 -41 28 
Uruguay  66 243 100 1,707 13 0 1 0 -40 6 64 233 96 5,738 12 1 9 4 17 25 
Chile 1,200 124 100 -29 -19 1 4 3 -15 12 1,197 14 11 -86 -33 2 107 86 44 43 
Argentina  13 78 100 -30 18 2 14 18 68 22 0 25 32 -66 71 11 40 51 27 12 
Peru 288 77 100 37 -11 1 4 6 39 12 276 0 0 17 -49 11 72 94 37 19 
Colombia  4 75 100 17 31 2 8 10 35 12 0 0 0 425 -6 1 67 89 15 43 
Venezuela  5 67 100 60 27 1 5 7 4,900 18 0 0 0 - -79 4 62 93 48 28 
Ecuador  28 29 100 8 1 0 1 3 -75 18 27 0 0 -15 -48 0 29 97 19 64 
Costa Rica  1 20 100 38 28 0 0 2 38 0 0 0 0 10 48 1 19 98 38 32 
El Salva dor 2 7 100 -28 12 1 3 35 -56 11 0 0 0 - 1,016 1 5 64 11 12 
Guatemala  2 3 100 37 4 1 1 33 10 -1 0 0 0 - -65 1 2 67 71 8  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 38 -  All Commoditi es Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions and major 
markets  Value ($mn)  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value ($mn)  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value ($mn)  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value ($m n) Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
 2005  2016  2016  2016  2005 -
2016  2005  2016  2016  2016  2005 -
2016  2005  2016  2016  2016  2005 -
2016  2005  2016  2016  2016  2005 -
2016  
Asia and Pacific  29,174 65,465 100 -11 8 4,317 11,356 17 1 9 22,751 38,880 59 -19 5 2,024 11,724 18 -5 17 
China  15,270 32,721 100 -14 7 1,189 3,981 12 -5 12 13,968 25,638 78 -13 6 110 2,046 6 -48 30 
India 2,044 10,089 100 -13 16 1,066 3,471 34 3 11 242 4,322 43 -25 30 731 1,563 15 10 7 
Thailand  3,560 6,013 100 -7 5 589 972 16 18 5 2,849 3,808 63 -20 3 111 885 15 2 21 
Japan  3,466 4,533 100 -9 2 548 696 15 -13 2 2,556 543 12 -59 -13 351 3,280 72 17 23 
Korea, Rep. of  1,148 3,260 100 -15 10 79 409 13 6 16 986 1,806 55 -25 6 83 1,045 32 3 26 
Singapore  459 2,087 100 78 15 114 181 9 31 4 184 206 10 -71 1 122 509 24 67 14 
Taipei, Chinese  1,771 1,893 100 -4 1 139 105 6 3 -2 1,601 1,614 85 -6 0 30 172 9 13 17 
Hong Kong, China  376 1,161 100 56 11 110 234 20 36 7 7 2 0 -28 -12 259 791 68 39 11 
Australia  153 999 100 7 19 39 57 6 -8 4 43 83 8 5 6 63 836 84 6 26 
Malaysia  373 883 100 -7 8 164 342 39 3 7 121 261 30 -32 7 85 277 31 20 11 
Indonesia  118 876 100 -39 20 83 313 36 17 13 10 444 51 -59 41 24 119 14 20 16 
Pakistan  275 697 100 -3 9 178 507 73 4 10 54 152 22 -13 10 42 38 5 -34 -1 
New Zealand  138 128 100 27 -1 4 29 23 35 20 127 0 0 -69 -49 8 98 77 25 26 
Philippines  23 125 100 33 16 17 60 48 57 12 2 1 1 -65 0 5 63 51 23 26 
Europe and CIS  21,826 53,957 100 9 16 3,887 5,780 11 0 4 7,746 8,916 17 -31 16 10,026 34,587 64 30 20 
EU (28)  20,640 47,179 100 6 8 3,515 5,558 12 7 4 7,165 8,757 19 -31 2 9,795 32,627 69 31 12 
Switzerland  146 4,615 100 34 37 45 161 3 -6 12 0 0 0 -98 -10 101 671 15 20 19 
Norway  139 453 100 7 11 23 61 14 20 10 39 42 9 -43 1 77 349 77 18 15 
CIS 666 1,710 100 28 10 191 625 37  73  12 368 117 7 -11 -9 105 940 55 12 37 
Russian Federation  374 1,097 100 12 10 136 266 24 -6 6 213 3 0 82 -32 24 801 73 15 37 
Belarus  4 300 100 926 47 3 280 93 3,296 52 0 0 0 -10 27 1 20 7 -4 37 
Ukraine  149 244 100 -1 5 30 69 28 11 8 116 100 41 -12 -1 3 74 30 7 34 
Kazakhstan  10 64 100 -12 18 5 9 14 21 6 5 14 21 -12 10 1 41 65 -17 48 
Azerbaijan (2015)  33 3 100 ... -20 0 1 22 ... 35 32 0 0 ... -54 0 3 77 ... 52 
Kyrgyzstan  0 2 100 -20 13 0 0 4 -16 -10 0 0 2 172 6 0 2 94 -21 20 
* Regional totals are based on the information available, and may not  coincide with aggregated trade figures.  
… Not available.  
- Not applicable . 
Source : UN Comtrade database and Global Trade Atlas (IHS). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 39 - 
 
  Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2016  
 
(Million dollars and p ercentage s hares)  
HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2005  2016  2005 -2016  2005  2016  2005  2016  
2709 Petroleum oils, crude  38,456  32,004  -1.7 47.7 23.2 4.9 5.1 
6203 Men's or boys' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
trousers  1,827  7,260  13.4 2.3 5.3 5.9 19.9 
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, 
waist-coats and similar 
articles, knitted or ...  3,081  6,791  7.4 3.8 4.9 7.5 14.5 
6109 T-shirts, singlets and ot her 
vests, knitted or crocheted  1,882  6,592  12.1 2.3 4.8 7.8 20.4 
6204 Women's or girls' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
dresses, skirts  1,816  5,382  10.4 2.3 3.9 3.8 12.0 
7108 Gold (including gold plated 
with platinum)  562 5,211  22.5 0.7 3.8 1.2 1.7 
7403 Refined copp er and copper 
alloys, unwrought  1,454  3,168  7.3 1.8 2.3 5.4 7.1 
7402 Unrefined copper; copper 
anodes for electrolytic refining  28 3,100  53.3 0.0 2.3 0.8 43.5 
6104 Women's or girls' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
dresses, skirts  258 3,088  25.3 0.3 2.2 3.3 13.7 
6205 Men's or boys' shirts  1,040  2,934  9.9 1.3 2.1 9.3 22.9 
2711 Petroleum gases  and other 
gaseous hydrocarbons  1,682  2,882  5.0 2.1 2.1 0.9 1.4 
4403 Wood in the rough, whether 
or not stripped of bark or 
sapwood, or roughly s ...  1,091 1,852  4.9 1.4 1.3 8.4 12.9 
7102 Diamonds, whether or not 
worked, but not mounted or 
set 1,673  1,812  0.7 2.1 1.3 1.9 1.7 
0713 Dried leguminous vegetables, 
shelled  368 1,795  15.5 0.5 1.3 10.7 17.5 
2401 Unmanuf actured tobacco; 
tobacco refuse  790 1,505  6.0 1.0 1.1 11.5 15.4 
9999 Commodities not specified 
according to kind  325 1,479  14.8 0.4 1.1 0.1 0.5 
1207 Other oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits  404 1,424  12.1 0.5 1.0 24.9 37.7 
6403 Footwear with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition l eath ...  247 1,391  17.0 0.3 1.0 0.6 3.1 
0901 Coffee, whether or not 
roasted or decaffeinated  851 1,365  4.4 1.1 1.0 6.6 5.0 
6108 Women's or girls' slips, 
petticoats, briefs, panties, 
nightdresses  361 1,235  11.8 0.4 0.9 4.2 12.9 
2606 Aluminium ores and 
concentrates  513 1,206  8.1 0.6 0.9 28.7 31.7 
7112 Waste and scrap of precious 
metal or of metal clad with 
precious metal  38 1,115  35.9 0.0 0.8 0.6 5.4 
6111 Babies' garments and clothing 
accessories, knitted or 
crocheted  93 1,108  25.3 0.1 0.8 1.9 17.0 
6105 Men's or boy s' shirts, knitted 
or crocheted  387 1,101  10.0 0.5 0.8 7.8 16.2 
6206 Women's or girls' bl ouses, 
shirts and shirt -blouses  323 1,021  11.0 0.4 0.7 3.5 7.5 
2603 Copper ores and concentrates  357 1,019  10.0 0.4 0.7 2.3 2.4 
6201 Men's or boys' ove rcoats, car -
coats, capes, cloaks, anoraks  246 934 12.9 0.3 0.7 3.6 8.3 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 40 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2005  2016  2005 -2016  2005  2016  2005  2016  
6202 Women's or girls' overcoats, 
car-coats, capes, cloaks, 
anoraks  166 924 16.9 0.2 0.7 1.9 6.2 
2601 Iron ores and concentrates  526 922 5.2 0.7 0.7 1.3 1.1 
2609 Tin ores and concent rates 20 893 41.3 0.0 0.6 9.6 79.3 
8105 Cobalt mattes and other 
intermediate products of 
cobalt metallurgy  330 892 9.5 0.4 0.6 17.1 39.5 
0306 Crustaceans, whether in shell 
or not  892 890 0.0 1.1 0.6 6.0 4.1 
2710 Petroleum oils, other than 
crude  1,646  851 -5.8 2.0 0.6 0.5 0.2 
6103 Men's or boys' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, bl azers, 
trousers, bib and brace ... 151 840 16.9 0.2 0.6 5.4 13.5 
7601 Unwrought aluminium  1,289  818 -4.0 1.6 0.6 3.4 2.0 
0801 Coconuts, Brazil nuts and 
cashew nuts, fresh or dried  271 795 10.3 0.3 0.6 11.1 14.8 
6210 Garments, made up of fabrics 
of heading 56.02, 56.03, 
59.03, 59.06 or 59.07 ...  108 757 19.3 0.1 0.5 2.6 10.0 
6107 Men's or boys' underpants, 
briefs, nightshirts, pyjamas, 
bathrobes  132 729 16.8 0.2 0.5 3.6 13.4 
7103 Precious stones (other than 
diamonds) and semi -precious 
stones  129 681 16.3 0.2 0.5 4.5 6.5 
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed  1,158  666 -4.9 1.4 0.5 12.2 8.9 
6404 Footwear with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leath ...  30 658 32.5 0.0 0.5 0.4 2.2 
0303 Fish, frozen, excluding fish 
fillets  544 643 1.5 0.7 0.5 3.9 3.9 
2701 Coal; briquettes, ovoids and 
similar sol id fuels 
manufactured from coal  43 611 27.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.8 
4202 Trunks, suit -cases, vanit y-
cases, executive -cases, 
brief-cases  19 593 37.0 0.0 0.4 0.1 1.1 
6402 Other footwear with outer 
soles a nd uppers of rubber or 
plastics  49 566 24.8 0.1 0.4 0.3 2.3 
0905 Vanilla  82 564 19.2 0.1 0.4 64.1 71.4 
6302 Bed linen, table linen,  toilet 
linen and kitchen linen  230 561 8.4 0.3 0.4 1.9 3.6 
6212 BrassiFres, girdles, corsets, 
braces, suspenders, garters 
and similar artic ...  74 519 19.4 0.1 0.4 1.0 5.1 
6211 Track suits, ski sui ts and 
swimwear; other garments  195 518 9.3 0.2 0.4 2.9 5.8 
4001 Natural rubber, balata, gutta -
percha, gu ayule, chicle and 
similar natural g ...  308 486 4.2 0.4 0.4 3.1 4.0 
Source:  UN Comtrade database (importer data based on available reporters).  
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 41 - 
 
  Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2016  
(Million dollars and annual percentage change)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2016  2005 -
2016 2014  2015  2016  2016  2005 -
2016  2014  2015  2016  
LDCs  31,878 12 6 -3 -4 64,759 9 8 -16 -6 
Afghanistan  281 ... 23 -46 -55 1,139 ... -11 -16 -24 
Angola  1,156 19 28 -25 -8 12,041 6 13 -32 -27 
Bangladesh  1,916 10 7 2 15 8,163 13 20 0 11 
Benin  371 7 -9 -25 9 704 9 16 -25 6 
Bhutan  142 12 1 1 15 191 4 7 3 1 
Burkina Faso  401 19 -7 -14 9 1,229 12 -8 -11 6 
Burundi  18 10 8 -37 -6 184 4 11 -16 -12 
Cambodia  3,850 12 11 2 2 1,943 11 7 1 3 
Central African 
Republic  ... ... 8 -9 ... ... ... 44 -14 ... 
Chad ... ... 7 -8 ... ... ... 3 -13 ... 
Comoros  ... ... 2 6 ... ... ... -9 -17 ... 
Democratic Republic 
of the Congo  ... ... 40 -51 ... ... ... 18 -36 ... 
Djibouti  ... ... 9 21 ... ... ... 12 25 ... 
Equatorial Guinea  ... ... 3 -15 ... ... ... 11 -12 ... 
Eritrea  ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 
Ethiopia  2,763 12 -4 1 -1 3,579 11 28 12 12 
The Gambia  ... ... 12 12 ... ... ... 78 5 ... 
Guinea  ... ... 5 ... ... ... ... -5 ... ... 
Guinea -Bissau  35 20 19 -25 3 135 11 33 13 3 
Haiti 569 18 8 5 -16 781 4 10 -11 2 
Kiribati  ... ... -3 ... ... ... ... -24 ... ... 
Lao People's 
Democratic Republic  ... ... -1 6 ... ... ... -6 18 ... 
Lesotho  34 1 -9 61 -21 257 -3 -12 -4 -13 
Liberia  47 -5 ... -14 -23 196 6 -9 -27 -32 
Madagascar  975 8 3 -17 -9 909 6 -10 -11 -6 
Malawi  89 3 -2 6 -19 223 4 11 8 -16 
Mali 407 4 9 0 0 1,390 8 -3 -2 21 
Mauritania  149 7 52 -21 -27 626 5 -10 -29 5 
Mozambique  422 3 12 0 -42 3,174 16 -6 -18 6 
Myanmar  ... ... 16 22 ... ... ... 4 8 ... 
Nepal  993 13 14 -4 -6 1,238 10 21 1 5 
Niger  238 10 92 -19 9 1,028 13 6 -7 6 
Rwanda  597 20 4 47 2 958 17 9 72 8 
Sao Tome and 
Principe  83 23 93 11 7 55 17 78 -20 -12 
Senegal  1,067 4 -1 -11 3 1,340 5 0 -10 5 
Sierra Leone  ... ... -8 ... ... ... ... 76 ... ... 
Solomon Islands  102 10 -11 -9 3 210 13 -8 -19 19 
Somalia  ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 
South Sudan  30 ... ... 13 -8 362 ... ... -12 -14 
Sudan  1,526 25 50 7 -7 1,429 0 0 -13 -14 
Tanzania  3,693 11 7 10 0 2,029 5 7 1 -22 
Timor -Leste  62 ... 26 -7 8 444 ... 8 5 18 
Togo 481 11 1 1 9 396 4 -10 -13 6 
Tuvalu  3 4 -2 -13 5 18 7 -16 7 20 
Uganda  1,327 10 -20 5 -31 2,248 13 -2 1 -17 
Vanuatu  327 8 -6 -13 18 154 8 -3 24 -13 
Yemen  ... ... -3 -63 ... ... ... 22 -54 ... 
Zambia  885 6 12 1 3 1,340 12 -10 -13 -3 
Memorandum item:                     
World  4,807,690 6 7 -6 0 4,694,086 6 8 -6 1 
… Not available.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 42 - 
 
  Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members , 2017  or latest available yeara 
Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
Australia  
(2016)  Duty- and quota -free entry 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 100%  WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada  GSP – Least -developed 
Countries' Tariff 
Programme (LDCT)  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2000. Extended 
until 31 December 2024.  98.6% ( dairy and other animal 
products , meat, meat 
preparations, cereal products ) WT/COMTD/N/15  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.3  
Chile (2016)  DFQF scheme for the LDCs  
Entry into force:  
28 February 2014  99.5% ( cereals, sugar, milling 
products ) 
 WT/COMTD/N/44  
WT/COMTD /N/44/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/PTA/2/1  
China  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2010 96.6% (chemicals, transport 
vehicles, machinery and 
mechanical appliances, electrical 
machinery, paper ) WT/COMTD/N/39  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/ 39/Add.2  
European 
Union  GSP – Everything But 
Arms (EBA) initiative  
Entry into force:  
5 March  2001 99.0% ( alcoholic beverages, 
arms and ammunition, sugar ) WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7  
Iceland GSP – Tariff preferences 
for the world’s poorest 
countries  
Entry into force:  
29 January 2002  91.8% ( meat, food 
preparations, vegetables, dairy 
and other animal products, 
plants and trees ) WT/COMTD/N/17, 
WT/COMTD/N/17/Corr.1  
India (2016)  Duty-Free Tarif f Preference 
Scheme (DFTP)  
Entry into force:  
13 August  2008 94.1% (plastics, coffee and tea, 
alcoholic beverages, tobacco, 
food residues ) WT/COMTD/N/38  
WT/COMTD/N/38/Add.1  
Japan 
(2016)  GSP – Enhanced duty - and 
quota -free market access  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007. 
Extended until 
31 March  2021 97.9% ( fish and crustaceans, 
footwear, milling products, 
cereal products, sugar ) WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14  
WT/COMTD/N/2/ Add.15  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.16  
Korea, 
Republic of  Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 January 2000  89.9% (fish and crustaceans, 
mineral fuels, oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, wood 
products, vegetables ) WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1  
New 
Zealand  GSP – Tariff Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001 99.5% (machinery and 
mechanical appliances, optical 
instruments, miscellaneous 
manufactured products, 
electrical machinery, arms and 
ammunition ) WT/COMTD/27  
 
Norway  GSP – Duty- and quota -
free market access  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 100%  WT/COMTD/N/ 6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5/Corr.1  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.6  
Russian 
Federation  GSP scheme in the context 
of the Customs Union 
between Belarus, 
Kazakhstan and the 
Russian Federation.  
Entry into force: 
1 January  2010 37.1% ( machinery and 
mechan ical appliances, 
chemicals, electrical machinery, 
iron and steel products, 
transport vehicles ) WT/COMTD/N/42  
Switzerland  GSP – Revised Preferential 
Tariffs Ordinance   
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007  100%  WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/7 /Add.5  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65  
 
- 43 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
Chinese 
Taipei  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
17 December 2003  30.8% (machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
chemicals, electrical machinery, 
fish and crustaceans, plastics ) WT/COMTD/N/40  
WT/COMTD/N/40/Corr.1  
Thailand 
(2015)  DFQF sch eme for the LDCs  
Entry into force:  
9 April 2015  74.7% ( transport vehicles, 
electrical machinery, machinery 
and mechanical appliances, iron 
and steel products, apparel and 
clothing ) WT/COMTD/N/46  
Turkey  
(2015)  GSP 
Entry into force:  
31 December  2005 81.7% (iron and steel products, 
fish and crustaceans, food 
preparations, meat, oil seeds 
and oleaginous fruits ) WT/TPR/S/259/Rev.1  
United 
States  of 
America  GSP for least -developed 
beneficiary developing 
countries (LDBDC). The 
Trade Preferences 
Extension Act of 2 015 
(Title II) authorizes GSP 
until 31 December 2017 
and makes GSP retroactive 
to 31 July 2013.  
 80.5% (apparel and clothing, 
cotton, fibres, footwear, dairy 
and other animal products ) WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8  
WT/COMTD/N/1/A dd.9 
 African Gr owth and 
Opportunity Act (AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000. 
Extended until 
30 September  2025 
(Title I) 
 97.5%  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/L/970  
WT/L/1006  
WT/COMTD/LDC/M/71  
 Caribbean Basin Trade 
Partnership Act (CBTPA)  
Entry into force:  
1 October 2000.  
Extended  until 
30 September 2025 
(Title III) Duty free for most products, 
including textiles and apparels. 
The Haitian Hemispheric 
Opportunity through 
Partnership Encouragement 
(HOPE) Act of 2006 provided 
new trade benefits, especially  of 
appar el imports from Haiti.  The 
HOPE II Act of 2008 enhanced 
duty-free treatment for 
qualifying apparel imports from 
Haiti. The Haiti Economic Lift 
Program (HELP) Act of 2010 
provided duty -free treatment 
for additional textile and 
apparel products from Haiti.  
 WT/L/950  
WT/L/1012  
a This table represents a non -exhaustive list of non -reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives 
undertaken in favour of LDCs.  
b The duty -free tariff line  coverage  can slightly differ with the one shown in Table 6 due to differen t 
reference years.  Major exclusions refer to  HS Chapter descriptions.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
__________