WT/L/942  
 
5 December 2014  
(14-7107)  Page: 1/19  
 Original: English  
 
SECOND UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON LANDLOCKED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 
VIENNA, 3-5 NOVEMBER 2014 
The following communication, dated 29 November 2014, is being circulated at the request of the 
Delegation of Paraguay. 
 
_______________ 
VIENNA DECLARATION 
We, the Heads of State and Government and representatives of the States gathered here in Vienna 
from 3 to 5 November 2014 to participate in the Second United Nations Conference on Landlocked 
Developing Countries, 
 
Having adopted the Vienna Programme of Action for the Landlocked Developing Countries for the Decade 2014-2024, 
 
Declare that:  
1. We are strongly committed to the implementa tion of the Vienna Programme of Action to 
address in a holistic manner the special development needs and challenges of landlocked developing countries arising from their landlockedness, remoteness and geographical constraints;  
2. We express our sincere appreciation for the constant efforts undertaken by the Government 
of Zambia in its capacity as Chair of the Group of Landlocked Developing Countries;  
3. We express our profound appreciation to the Government of Austria as well as the City of 
Vienna and the people of Austria for hosting this event.  
_______________ 
VIENNA PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR LANDLOCKED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 
FOR THE DECADE 2014-2024  
The second United Nations Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries, 
 
Having met  in Vienna from 3 to 5 November 2014, 
 
Adopts , as the outcome document of the Conference, the Vienna Programme of Action for 
Landlocked Developing Countries for the Decade 2014-2024, annexed to the present resolution.  
 
 WT/L/942 
 
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  ANNEX 
VIENNA PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR LA NDLOCKED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES  
FOR THE DECADE 2014-2024  
I. Introduction 
 
1. Thirty-two landlocked developing countries  situated in Africa, Asia, Europe and South 
America with a population of about 440 million, fa ce special challenges that are associated with 
their lack of direct territorial access to the sea, remoteness and isolation from world markets. Their 
international trade depends on transit through other countries. Additional border crossings and the long distance from major markets, coupled with  cumbersome transit procedures and inadequate 
infrastructure, substantially increase the total expenses for transport and other transaction costs, 
which erodes the competitive edge of landlocked  developing countries, reduces economic growth 
and subsequently negatively affects their capaci ty to promote sustained economic development, 
human and social progress and environmental sustainability. Landlockedness is a major 
contributor to the relatively high incidence of extreme poverty and structural constraints in 
landlocked developing countries. Landlocked developing countries, as a group, are among the poorest of developing countries, and many of them  are also least developed countries, with limited 
capacities and dependence on a very limited number of commodities for their export earnings.  
 2. In most cases the transit neighbours of landlocked developing countries are themselves developing countries, often of broadly similar economic structures and beset by similar scarcities 
of resources. The least developed transit countries are in an especially difficult situation. Also, 
transit developing countries bear additional bu rdens, deriving from transit transport and its 
financial, infrastructural and social impacts. Transit developing countries are themselves in need of 
improvement of technical and administrative a rrangements in their transport and customs and 
administrative systems, to which their land locked neighbours are expected to link.  
 
3. The Almaty Programme of Action: Addressing the Special Needs of Landlocked Developing 
Countries within a New Global Framework for Transit Transport Cooperation for Landlocked and Transit Developing Countries,
1 adopted in 2003, reflected the strong commitment of all actors to 
address the special development needs and challenges faced by landlocked developing countries 
and to promote their full and more effective inte gration into the global economy, through the 
implementation of specific actions in the priori ty areas of fundamental transit policy issues, 
infrastructure development and maintenance, international trade and trade facilitation, 
international support measures and implementation and review. 
 4. There has been increased visibility and reco gnition of landlocked developing countries and 
their special needs at the international level and at the United Nations. The international 
community has recognized the need to address th e special challenges of landlocked developing 
countries in the outcomes of the 2005 World Summit
2 and other high-level meetings on the 
Millennium Development Goals, as well as in  the outcome document of the United Nations 
Conference on Sustainable Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in 2012, entitled “The future we 
want”.3 Although there has been some progress in the implementation of the Almaty Programme 
of Action during the review period, there is a need for further global support for landlocked 
developing countries, including in the areas of financial and technical assistance, as they have a 
long way to go to fully benefit from globalization and to achieve sustained and inclusive economic growth, sustainable development, poverty eradic ation, employment generation and structural 
transformation.  
 5. There is therefore an urgent need for an i nnovative, holistic and results-oriented 10-year 
programme of action, based on renewed and strengthened partnerships to accompany landlocked 
developing countries in harnessing benefits from international trade, structurally transforming their 
                                               
1 Report of the International Ministerial Conference of Landlocked and Transit Developing Countries and 
Donor Countries and International Financial and Developm ent Institutions on Transit Transport Cooperation, 
Almaty, Kazakhstan, 28 and 29 August 2003 (A/CONF.202/3, Annex I).  
2 General Assembly Resolution 60/1.  
3 General Assembly Resolution 66/288, Annex.  WT/L/942 
 
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  economies and achieving more inclusive and sustai nable growth. The special challenges and needs 
of landlocked developing countries are recognized, and there is a need to give appropriate consideration to landlocked developing countries in the formulation of the post-2015 development agenda.  
 
II. Review and assessment of the implementa tion of the Almaty Programme of Action 
 
6. Economic growth has been accelerated somewhat in landlocked developing countries: since 
the adoption of the Almaty Programme of Action, landlocked developing countries have achieved moderate economic growth. The gross domestic product growth rate for landlocked developing countries is estimated to have increased from 4.5 per cent in 2003 to 6.3 per cent in 2013.
4 
However, there are wide disparities among landlo cked developing countries with many of them 
showing high vulnerability to external shocks. High economic growth has not translated into a speedy reduction of extreme poverty. Per capita gross domestic product in two thirds of landlocked 
developing countries is still well below $1,000.
5 Despite some progress in social development, half 
of the landlocked developing countries are still in the lowest ranks of the human development index, and there is still widespread poverty, high le vels of food insecurity, high levels of child and 
maternal mortality and poor sanitation in many landlocked developing countries. 
 7. Landlocked developing countries and transit countries have initiated important policy reforms to address physical and non-physical aspe cts of transit transport. Landlocked developing 
countries have increased the harmonization of transport and transit policies, laws, procedures and 
practices with transit countries. A number of regional and subregional transit facilitation agreements have been concluded and adopted for implementation. Some landlocked developing 
countries and transit countries, through regional trade agreements, free trade areas and customs 
unions, have developed supportive institutional frameworks, such as transport and trade facilitation bodies or coordination committees, and road funds. Border facilities and procedures 
have been streamlined and harmonized, leading to increased efficiency and fewer delays. Yet there 
is a need to deepen the reforms, enhance efficiency and effectiveness and ensure that the achievements reached are sustained.   
8. High transport and trade transaction costs re main a major stumbling block in the pursuit of 
landlocked developing countries to achieve their tr ade potential. Although the estimated time that 
landlocked developing countries take to import has decreased from 57 days in 2006 to 47 days in 
2014 and to export from 49 to 42 days, that it is still almost twice the time taken by transit 
countries.
6 The average cost of exporting a container for landlocked developing countries is 
estimated at $3,204, compared with $1,268 for transit countries, and similarly $3,884 compared 
with $1,434 for importing a container.7 The establishment of a secure, reliable and efficient transit 
transport system remains critical for landlocked developing countries to be able to reduce transport costs and enhance the competitiveness of their exports to regional and global markets. 
Landlockedness, thus, has an enormous negative im pact on the overall development of landlocked 
developing countries. It is estimated that the level of development in landlocked developing 
countries is on average 20 per cent lower than what it would be were they not landlocked.
8  
 
9. There have been progressive efforts to develop and upgrade road and rail infrastructure and 
undertake the maintenance of the existing infrastructure at the national, subregional and regional levels. Dry ports and one-stop border crossings are being established in all regions. Despite the 
progress made, physical infrastructure development is still inadequate, which poses a major 
obstacle to landlocked developing countries’ utilization of their full trade potential. With regard to air transport, cargo airfreight has increased in some landlocked developing countries, and the number of registered flight carrier departures in landlocked developing countries as a group 
increased from an estimated of 200,000 in 2003 to about 362,800 in 2013.
9 The major challenges 
faced by landlocked developing countries with rega rd to the air transport industry include the huge 
resources required for infrastructure investme nt and the maintenance, rehabilitation and 
                                               
4 Estimates of the Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked 
Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States, using data from United Nations Statistical Division.  
5 A/69/170.  
6 World Bank, Doing Business in 2014. 
7 Based on data from World Bank, Doing Business in 2014. 
8 The Development Economics of Landlockedness, Office of the High Representative for the Least 
Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States, 2013. 
9 World Bank data. WT/L/942 
 
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  replacement of aged fleet. This limits the shipment by air of goods of high unit value or of a time-
sensitive nature, such as documents, pharmaceuticals, fashion garments, electronic consumer goods and perishable agricultural and seafood products.  
10. Despite some progress, landlocked develo ping countries lag behind other developing 
countries in terms of telecommunication infrastructure, including broadband Internet access, which can play a crucial role in increasing connectivity, boosting enterprises’ competitiveness and 
facilitating international trade. 
 11. Owing in large part to an increase in world commodity prices, total merchandise exports from landlocked developing countries grew from an estimated $44 billion in 2003 to $228 billion in 
2013. Imports have also increased to some exte nt. Although the global share of landlocked 
developing countries’ merchandise exports has doubled in the last decade, they still account for a very low proportion, about 1.2 per cent, of such exports.
10 
 
12. Furthermore, many landlocked developing co untries rely heavily on a few mineral resources 
and low-value agricultural products for their exports to a limited number of markets,11 making 
them highly vulnerable to commodity price an d demand volatility. The problem is further 
exacerbated by their low productive capacities and structural weaknesses, which limit the adding of meaningful value to their exports and the diversification of their exports and markets. 
 
13. Official development assistance disbursements to landlocked developing countries more than 
doubled between 2003 and 2012, from an estimated $12.2 billion to $25.9 billion.
12 Official 
development assistance accounts for more than 20 per cent of central Government expenditure in 
16 landlocked developing countries.13 Aid-for-trade disbursements to landlocked developing 
countries grew from an estimated $3.5 billion in 2006 to over $5.9 billion in 2012. Aid for trade has helped improve trade facilitation and trade-related infrastructure development. 
 
14. While there had been some integration of the Almaty Programme of Action into the national 
development strategies of landlocked developing countries, there was a need for its better integration into development strategies at the national, regional and global levels. 
 
15. While climate change was not part of the re view of the Almaty Programme of Action, it 
remains true that landlocked developing countries are also vulnerable to climate change, which is 
exacerbating desertification and land degradat ion. Landlocked developing countries remain 
disproportionately affected by, inter alia, desertification, land degradation and drought as an estimated 54 per cent of their land is classified as dry land.
14 Of the 29 countries where at least 
20 per cent of the population is estimated to live on degraded lands, 14 are landlocked developing 
countries.15 Some landlocked developing countries are also affected by flooding, including glacial 
lake outburst floods. Landlocked developing countries also remain highly vulnerable to external economic shocks and to the multiple other challenges faced by the international community.  
 
III. Renewed and strengthened partnerships for development  
16. The present Programme of Action for Landlock ed Developing Countries is based on renewed 
and strengthened partnerships between landlocked  developing countries and the transit countries 
and their development partners. Strengthened partnerships within the context of South-South and 
triangular cooperation, as well as strengthened partnerships with the relevant international and 
regional organizations and between public and private sector actors, are also essential. 
 17. Partnership between landlocked developing countries and transit countries is mutually 
beneficial for the improvement and constant maintenance of their infrastructure connectivity and 
of technical and administrative arrangements in their transport, customs and logistic systems. Efficient transit transport systems, strong collaborative efforts in multi-modal transport 
infrastructure development and interlinkage, the promotion of an enabling legal environment and 
                                               
10 United Nations Conference on Trade and Developm ent, annual statistics on the value and shares of 
merchandise exports and imports, 1948-2013.  
11 A/68/157.  
12 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development international development statistics.  
13 World Bank.  
14 Calculated from United Nations Environment Programme Global Environment Outlook data.  
15 A/67/210.  WT/L/942 
 
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  institutional arrangements, and strong national leadership on cooperative arrangements between 
landlocked developing countries and transit countries are also crucial for achieving structural transformation and sustainable economic gr owth and development. Transparency, good 
governance and efficient institutional arrangements in landlocked developing countries and transit 
countries should also play a very important role in promoting such partnership. Collaboration must 
be promoted on the basis of the mutual interests of both landlocked and transit countries.  
18. A renewed and strengthened partnership with development partners will be crucial for the 
full and successful implementation of the present Programme of Action, given the immensity of the challenges faced by landlocked developing countries. The international community, including financial and development institutions, multilateral organizations and agencies and donor 
countries, is encouraged to provide financial and technical support, as appropriate, to advance the 
specific objectives listed in this Programme of Action. Regional and subregional cooperation or integration should also play an important role in successfully addressing the specific problems of 
landlocked developing countries.  
 19. Support from developing countries should take into full consideration the nature of South-
South cooperation, in accordance with the Nairobi outcome document of the High-level United 
Nations Conference on South-South Cooperation.
16 G u i d e d  b y  t h e  s p i r i t  o f  s o l i d a r i t y  w i t h  
landlocked developing countries, developing countries, consistent with their capabilities, will provide financial and technical support for the effective implementation of the Programme of 
Action in mutually agreed areas of cooperation within the framework of South-South cooperation, 
which is a complement to, but not a substitute for, North-South cooperation.  
20. The private sector and civil society are impo rtant stakeholders, whose contribution will be 
critical to the implementation of the Programme of  Action, including through transparent, effective 
and accountable public-private partnerships.  
 
IV. Objectives   21. The overarching goal of the new Programme of  Action is to address the special development 
needs and challenges of landlocked developing countries arising from landlockedness, remoteness 
and geographical constraints in a more coherent manner and thus contribute to an enhanced rate of sustainable and inclusive growth, which can contribute to the eradication of poverty by moving 
towards the goal of ending extreme poverty. Partic ular attention is therefore to be given in the 
period until 2024 to the development and expansio n of efficient transit systems and transport 
development, enhancement of competitiveness, ex pansion of trade, structural transformation, 
regional cooperation, and the promotion of inclusive economic growth and sustainable 
development to reduce poverty, build resilience, bridge economic and social gaps and ultimately 
help transform those countries into land-linked countries.  
22. The specific goals and objectives are:  
  (a) To promote unfettered, efficient and cost-effective access to and from the sea by all 
means of transport, on the basis of th e freedom of transit, and other related 
measures, in accordance with applicable rules of international law; 
 
 (b) To reduce trade transaction costs and tr ansport costs and improve international trade 
services through simplification and standardization of rules and regulations, so as to increase the competitiveness of exports of landlocked developing countries and reduce the costs of imports, thereby contributing  to the promotion of rapid and inclusive 
economic development; 
  (c) To develop adequate transit transport infrastructure networks and complete missing 
links connecting landlocked developing countries; 
  (d) To effectively implement bilateral, regional and international legal instruments and 
strengthen regional integration; 
 
                                               
16 General Assembly resolution 64/222, annex.  WT/L/942 
 
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   (e) To promote growth and increased participation in global trade, through structural 
transformation related to enhanced productive capacity development, value addition, diversification and reduction of dependency on commodities; 
 
 (f) To enhance and strengthen international support for landlocked developing countries 
to address the needs and challenges arising from landlockedness in order to eradicate poverty and promote sustainable development.  
 
V. Priorities for action   Priority 1: Fundamental transit policy issues 
 
Priority 2: Infrastructure development and maintenance  
 (a) Transport infrastructure  
 (b) Energy and information and communications technology infrastructure  
Priority 3: International trade and trade facilitation 
  (a) International trade   (b) Trade facilitation  
 
Priority 4: Regional integration and cooperation  
Priority 5: Structural economic transformation 
 Priority 6: Means of implementation  
 
Priority 1: Fundamental transit policy issues  
 23. Freedom of transit and transit facilities play a key role in the overall development of 
landlocked developing countries. It is important for those countries to have access to and from the 
sea, in accordance with applicable international law, in order to fully integrate into the global trading system. 
 
24. Harmonization, simplification and standardization of rules and documentation should be promoted, with the full and effective implementation of international conventions on transport and 
transit and bilateral, subregional and regional agreements. Bilateral provisions should be no less 
favourable than what is provided for in the inte rnational conventions standards and best practices. 
The World Trade Organization Agreement on Trade Facilitation should further guide the work in 
this area. Cooperation on fundamental transit policies, laws and regulations between landlocked 
developing countries and their transit neighbours is crucial for the effective and integrated solution 
to cross-border trade and transit transport proble ms. This cooperation should be promoted on the 
basis of the mutual interests of both landlocked and transit developing countries. Effective 
participation of key stakeholders, both public and private, is important to improve transit 
facilitation. It is important to promote free movement of people between landlocked developing countries and their transit neighbours through development and implementation of simplified and 
harmonized visa systems for drivers involved in international transport (freight and passengers). 
 25. Specific objectives are:  
 (a) To reduce travel time along corridors with the aim of allowing transit cargo to move 
300-400 kilometres per 24 hours;  
 
 (b) To significantly reduce the time spent at land borders; 
  (c) To significantly improve intermodal connectivity with the aim of ensuring efficient 
transfers from rail to road and vice versa and from port to rail and/or road and vice 
versa. 
 26. Actions by the landlocked developing countries and transit countries are:  WT/L/942 
 
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   (a) To endeavour to accede to and ratify in a timely fashion relevant international, 
regional and subregional conventions and other legal instruments related to transit transport and trade facilitation; 
 
 (b) To ensure effective implementation of international and regional conventions and 
bilateral agreements on transit transport and trade facilitation as applicable, also with a view to reducing transport prices and time; 
 
 (c) To enhance coordination and cooperation of national agencies responsible for border 
and customs controls and procedures between  them and with the respective agencies 
in transit countries. In this regard, transit countries are encouraged to share 
information with landlocked developing countries regarding any change in regulations 
and procedures governing transit policies as early as possible before their entry into force, in order to enable traders and other interested parties to become acquainted 
with them; 
  ( d )  T o  c r e a t e  a n  e f f e c t i v e  b i l a t e r a l  o r  r e g i o n a l  m e c h a n i s m ,  a s  a p p r o p r i a t e ,  t o  a d d r e s s  
challenges and bottlenecks in the implementation of bilateral, regional or multilateral 
agreements and avoid maintaining, seeking or adopting bilateral or regional arrangements establishing quotas or other quantitative restrictions to international transit; 
 
 (e) To promote simplification, transparency and harmonization of legal and administrative 
regulations and requirements related to transit systems by all modes of transit 
transport, including border crossings, consular services, customs procedures and 
removal of internal checkpoints; 
 
 (f) To develop effective logistics systems by aligning incentives for efficient transport and 
transit operations, promoting competition an d phasing out anti-competitive practices 
such as cartels and queuing systems wherever possible; 
 
 (g) To promote involvement of road, rail and inland waterway transport business 
associations in public-private partnership projects, exchange knowledge and implement transit cooperation initiatives and practices that have worked well in 
various regions around the world; 
  (h) To collaborate on exchanging trade and transport data with a view to conducting 
cross-border transactions faster and more efficiently; 
  (i) All landlocked developing countries should formulate national transit policies and 
establish appropriate national mechanisms with the participation of all relevant 
stakeholders.  
 27. Actions by development partners are:  
 
 (a) To support landlocked and transit developing countries in the implementation of 
international conventions and agreements relating to transit facilitation and initiatives 
that promote transit cooperation, reduce transit costs and establish smooth logistic 
arrangements;  
  (b) To assist landlocked and transit developing countries to establish multilateral 
sustainable and efficient transit transpor t regimes involving public and private 
stakeholders and encourage and support the sharing of best practices related to experiences, policies and initiatives;  
 
 (c) To encourage regional and subregional organizations to assist with technical and 
financial support to the landlocked developing countries and transit countries to 
implement initiatives that promote transit cooperation.  
 WT/L/942 
 
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  Priority 2: Infrastructure development and maintenance  
 28. Infrastructure development plays a key role in reducing the cost of development for landlocked developing countries. Development and maintenance of transit transport infrastructure, 
information and communications technology and energy infrastructure are crucial for landlocked 
developing countries to reduce the high trading costs, improve their competitiveness and become 
fully integrated in the global market.  
 
Transport infrastructure  29. Despite improvement in transport infrastructure in landlocked developing countries, poor 
quality and gaps in physical infrastructure are still major obstacles to developing viable and 
predictable transit transport systems. There is inadeq uate physical infrastructure in rail transport, 
road transport, dry ports, inland waterways, pipelines and air transport in many landlocked 
developing countries, as well as few harmonized rules and procedures and limited cross-border 
investment and private-sector participation. Physical links of landlocked developing countries to the regional transport infrastructure network fall well short of expectations. Landlocked developing 
countries have a lower logistics performance than other groups in the area of transport-related 
infrastructure. Missing links need to be addressed urgently, and roads, railways and inland waterways need to be upgraded to a level that can establish seamless and efficient transport infrastructure networks within the country and across the borders. The improvement and 
maintenance of existing facilities is crucial. With regard to multi-modal transport, railways are 
important for the landlocked developing countries whose exports are usually bulky primary commodities. Railway transport should be promoted where its use is viable and rail networks 
already exist.  
 30. The magnitude of the required resources to  invest in infrastructure development and 
maintenance remains a major challenge. It requires forging international, regional, subregional 
and bilateral cooperation on infrastructure projects, allocating more from national budgets, effectively deploying international developmen t assistance and multilateral financing in 
development and maintenance of infrastructure, and strengthening the role of the private sector. 
At the same time, it also requires a substantial investment in capacity-building and legal, 
regulatory and policy reform to create an enviro nment supportive of greater public and private 
investments in infrastructure. It is important to help landlocked developing countries develop the 
capacity to prepare bankable, large-scale infrastructure projects and to explore innovative 
financing mechanisms for those projects, including public-private partnerships, where appropriate.   
31. Specific objectives are:  
  (a) To significantly increase the quality of roads, including increasing the share of paved 
roads, by nationally appropriate standards;  
 
 (b) To expand and upgrade the railway infrastructure in landlocked developing countries, 
where applicable;  
 
 (c) To complete missing links in the regional road and railway transit transport networks.  
32. Actions by landlocked developing countries and transit developing countries are:  
  (a) To develop and implement comprehensive national policies for infrastructure 
development and maintenance encompassing all modes of transportation and ensure 
that they are well coordinated with the transit countries in the areas where transit 
infrastructures intersect;  
 
 (b) To collaborate to promote sustainable and resilient transit systems through, inter alia, 
regular upgrading and maintenance, development of corridors along transit highways, developing border-crossing mechanisms, including one-stop border crossings, as 
appropriate, and promoting economies of  scale for transport systems through 
intermodal transport development, dry ports or inland container depots, trans-shipment facilities and similar logistic hubs;  WT/L/942 
 
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   (c) To work towards the harmonization of gauges to facilitate regional connectivity, where 
feasible, the development of reloading capacities, the expansion of training programmes and inter-railway staff exchange programmes;  
 
 (d) To promote multilateral and regional pe rmit systems for road transport and endeavour 
to implement permit-free bilateral and tran sit road transport and the expansion of a 
multilateral quota system among landlocked developing countries and transit 
countries; 
  (e) To endeavour, at the bilateral, subregional and regional levels, to gradually liberalize 
road transport services, taking into account specific circumstances in landlocked and 
transit developing countries;  
  (f) To encourage the development of international logistic hubs;  
 
 (g) To develop the necessary policies and regulatory frameworks to promote private 
sector involvement in infrastructure development and promote enabling environment 
to attract foreign direct investment;  
  (h) To promote public-private partnerships for the development and maintenance of 
transport infrastructure and their sustainability;  
 
 (i) To develop inland transport networks including ancillary infrastructure such as all-
weather road, rail and riverside support infrastructure that ensures road and rail 
safety and involves local businesses in those services along highways and railway 
networks, thereby creating development corridors along transit highways and railroads.  
 
33. Actions by development partners are:    (a) To support efforts by landlocked developing countries in the field of infrastructure 
development and maintenance and support landlocked developing countries and 
transit developing countries in sharing experiences on transit transport development; 
 
 (b) To encourage multilateral and regional development banks to provide more support to 
landlocked developing countries and transit developing countries for investment in transport development, in accordance with their respective mandate;  
 
 (c) To continue assisting landlocked developing countries in the completion of missing 
links in railroads and road systems, as appropriate.  
 
Energy and information and communications technology infrastructure  
 34. Energy infrastructure and access to affordable, reliable and renewable energy and related 
technologies, on mutually agreed terms, are critically important in modernizing information and 
communications technology and transit systems, reducing delays and enhancing productive capacity to achieve sustained economic growth and sustainable development. The importance of 
the Secretary-General’s Sustainable Energy for All Initiative is stressed. In this context, regional 
efforts, including the creation of networks of regional renewable energy and energy efficiency 
centres, will be important and need support.  
35. Information and communications technology can contribute to sustainable and inclusive 
growth by increasing productivity across all sectors; facilitating market expansion beyond borders to take advantage of economies of scale; and lowering costs and facilitating access to services, 
including access to broadband infrastructure, and information via global media such as the 
Internet, contributing to increased participation in governance, accountability and transparency. However, many landlocked developing countries fa ce severe challenges in keeping up with the 
necessary infrastructure deployment and concomitant evolution of policy frameworks. Broadband 
costs, as a share of gross national income, are much higher in landlocked developing countries than in coastal countries that are located close to submarine communications cables. Because of their small market sizes, the lack of a regional ly harmonized regulatory environment is also a WT/L/942 
 
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  serious hindrance to cheaper information and communications technology services and greater 
geographical coverage.   36. Specific objectives are: 
 
 (a) To expand and upgrade, as appropriate,  infrastructure for supply, transmission and 
distribution of modern and renewable energy services in rural and urban areas;  
 
 (b) All landlocked developing countries should make broadband policy universal;    (c) To promote open and affordable access to Internet for all;  
 
 (d) Landlocked developing countries should actively engage to address the digital divide.   
37. Actions by landlocked developing countries and transit developing countries are:  
  (a) To enhance their collaboration in prom oting cross-border energy trade and energy 
transit through transmission lines to third countries;  
  (b) Landlocked developing countries should develop a national energy policy to promote 
modern, reliable and renewable energy with a view to significantly enhancing 
capacities in production, trade and distribution, with the aim of ensuring access of 
energy to all and transformation of their economies;  
 
 (c) To work together to modernize transit and transport facilities and customs and other 
border facilities by fully utilizing the capability of information and communications technologies;  
 
 (d) To further improve and harmonize legal and regulatory frameworks;    (e) Landlocked developing countries should develop a national broadband policy with a 
view to improving access to international high-capacity fibre optic cables and high-
bandwidth backbone networks;  
 
 (f) Landlocked developing countries should strive to develop the service sector through 
the development of information and communications technology infrastructure and their integration in all the relevant areas to promote competitiveness, innovation and 
inclusion, in order to reduce transit time and cost and modernize their transit and 
customs facilities;  
  (g) To promote digital bridges to interconnect national backbones so that countries far 
from the sea cables also have access to affordable broadband and are able to expand 
telecommunications and related services sector in order to facilitate affordable, accessible and high-quality telecommunications services.  
 
38. Actions by development partners are:   
 (a) To support efforts by landlocked developing countries to develop their energy and 
information and communications technology sectors;  
  (b) To promote energy efficient investment in landlocked developing countries and 
facilitate the green economic transformation;  
  (c) To support landlocked developing countries in promoting their national broadband 
policy and developing necessary broadband infrastructure;  
  (d) To provide capacity-building to landlocked developing countries for use of modern and 
affordable communications technology;  
  (e) To continue to support efforts of landlocked developing countries with the respective 
transit developing countries to facilitate access to information and communications 
technologies and the transfer of releva nt skills, knowledge and technology, on WT/L/942 
 
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  mutually agreed terms, for the developm ent, maintenance and sustainability of 
infrastructure.  
 Priority 3: International tr ade and trade facilitation  
 
International trade  
39. Greater integration of landlocked developing countries into world trade and global value 
chains is vital for increasing their competitiv eness and ensuring their economic development. 
Exporting goods produced in landlocked developing countries incurs additional transport costs, which may decrease competitiveness and reduce revenue for producers from those countries. The 
export structure of many landlocked developing countries continues to be increasingly 
characterized by reliance on the export of a limited number of products, in particular agricultural products and mineral resources. Priority should be given to policies and measures, with the 
support of development partners, to diversify the production and export structures of landlocked 
developing countries and to enhance their productivity and competitiveness in order to take full advantage of the multilateral trading system.  
 
40. With the growing interlinkages between worl d trade, investment and production, global 
value chains account for a rising share of international trade. Landlocked developing countries have not been able to fully participate in regional or global value chains. Linking into global value 
chains presents an opportunity for landlocked developing countries to achieve greater integration 
within world markets, increase their competitiveness and become important links in production and distribution chains.  
 
41. Services are important enablers of trade in goods and effective participation in international trade and global value chains. Efficient services enhance productivity, reduce the cost of doing 
business and promote job creation. Landlocked developing countries should be supported so as to 
increase the share of services in their economies and exports, including through enabling policies.  42. One of the main causes of marginalization of landlocked developing countries in the 
international trading system is high trade transaction costs. The importance of enhanced and 
predictable access to all markets for the exports of developing countries, including landlocked developing countries, was recognized in the Monterrey Consensus of the International Conference 
on Financing for Development.
17 In accordance with the commitments contained in the Ministerial 
Declaration of the Fourth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization18 and the rules of 
the World Trade Organization, full attention should be given in the Doha Development Round of 
trade negotiations to the needs and interests of developing countries, including landlocked and 
transit developing countries. Given the increasing growth in South-South trade, other developing 
countries could be important export destinations for the products of landlocked developing countries and sources of critical foreign direct investment.  
 
43. Trade ministers at the Ninth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization, held in Bali, Indonesia, in December 2013, agreed by  consensus to the Bali package, including the 
Agreement on Trade Facilitation, which clarifies and improves articles V, VIII and X of the General 
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of 1994, with a view to further expediting the movement, release and clearance of goods, including goods in transi t. The Agreement on Trade Facilitation and its 
timely implementation in the context of the Bali pa ckage are important so as to facilitate trade for 
landlocked developing countries. The Agreement includes important provisions on technical assistance and capacity-building to help landlocked developing countries to implement it effectively.  
 
44. Specific objectives are:   
 (a) To significantly increase the participation of landlocked developing countries in global 
trade, with a focus on substantially increasing exports;  
                                               
17 Report of the International Conference on Financing for Developmen t, Monterrey, Mexico, 
18-22 March 2002 (United Nations publication, Sales No . E.02.II.A.7), chap. I, resolution 1, annex.  
18 See A/C.2/56/7, annex.  WT/L/942 
 
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   (b) To significantly increase the value added and manufactured component, as 
appropriate, of the exports of landlocked developing countries, with the objective of substantially diversifying their markets and products;  
 
 (c) To further strengthen economic and financial ties between landlocked developing 
countries and other countries in the same region so as to gradually and consistently increase the share of landlocked developing countries in intraregional trade;  
 
 (d) To invite Member States to consider the specific needs and challenges of landlocked 
developing countries in all international trade negotiations.  
 
45. Actions by landlocked developing countries include: 
  (a) To develop a national trade strategy based on comparative advantages and regional 
and global opportunities; 
  (b) To integrate trade policies into national development strategies;  
 
 (c) To promote a better business environment so as to assist national firms to integrate 
into regional and global value chains;  
 
 (d) To promote policies to help national firms, especially small and medium-sized 
enterprises, to participate better in international trade;  
 
 (e) To fully leverage bilateral and regional preferential trading arrangements with a view 
to broadening regional and global integration;  
 
 (f) To implement policies and measures that will significantly increase economic and 
export diversification and value added.  
 46. Actions by transit developing countries include:  
 
 (a) To promote investment in landlocked developing countries with the aim of promoting 
their productive and trading capacity and supporting them in their participation in 
regional trade arrangements;  
  (b) To improve market access for products originating from landlocked developing 
countries, without arbitrary or unjustified non-tariff barriers that are not in conformity 
with the rules of the World Trade Organization;  
  (c) Transit countries and landlocked developing countries should carry out studies on 
logistical competitiveness and logistical costs based on internationally recognized 
methodologies.  
 
47. Actions by development partners include: 
  (a) To support efforts by landlocked developing countries to diversify exports, integrate 
into global and regional value chains and effectively participate in multilateral trade 
negotiations;  
  (b) To address non-tariff measures and reduce or eliminate arbitrary or unjustified non-
tariff barriers, that is, those that are not in conformity with the rules of the World 
Trade Organization;  
 
 (c) Landlocked developing countries and development partners should promote better 
integration of small and medium-sized enterprises within international trade by, when appropriate, strengthening institutions that support trade, fostering trade 
competitiveness, building spaces for private-public dialogue, fostering technical and 
vocational education and training and capaci ty-building, and creating market linkages 
through business-to-business platforms;  
 WT/L/942 
 
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   (d) To promote the diffusion and uptake of appropriate and environmentally sound 
technologies on mutually agreed terms and conditions, including through investment or cooperation projects to promote economic diversification and sustainable development, as appropriate;  
 
 (e) To offer appropriate technical assistance and capacity-building to landlocked 
developing countries to complete the process of their accession to the World Trade 
Organization, fulfil their commitments and integrate into the multilateral trading 
system;  
  (f) To continue to provide aid for trade to landlocked developing countries, consistent 
with World Trade Organization guidelines.  
 Trade facilitation 
 
48. Non-physical barriers, delays and inefficienci es associated with border crossings and ports, 
including customs procedures and documentation requirements, uncertainty in logistical services, 
weak institutions and widespread lack of human and productive capacities, continue to make 
transport costs high. They are at the core of the continued marginalization of many landlocked developing countries. Further streamlining and harmonization of customs and transit procedures and formalities and transparent and efficient bord er management and coordination of agencies 
involved in border clearance, should have a concrete and direct impact on reducing the cost of 
doing trade and stimulating faster and competitive trade for landlocked developing countries. Such improved trade facilitation would help landlocked developing countries towards enhancing the 
competitiveness of their export products and services. 
 49. In many landlocked developing countries,  human and institutional capacities are not 
adequate in many areas, including in customs and border entities, transit transport agencies, the 
trade negotiation process and implementation of  transit and trade facilitation agreements, 
including the World Trade Organization Agreement on Trade Facilitation, leading to a lack of effective implementation. Technical assistance and improvement of trade- and transit-related 
logistics are crucial in enabling landlocked developing countries to fully participate in and benefit 
from multilateral trade negotiations, effectively implement policies and regulations aimed at facilitating transport and trade, and diversify their export base.  
 
50. Specific objectives are:  
 (a) To significantly simplify and streamline border crossing procedures with the aim of 
reducing port and border delays;  
  (b) To improve transit facilities and their e fficiency with the aim of reducing transaction 
costs;  
  (c) To ensure that all transit regulations, formalities and procedures for traffic in transit 
are published and updated in accordance with the World Trade Organization 
Agreement on Trade Facilitation.  
 
51. Actions by landlocked developing countries include:  
  (a) To establish or strengthen, as appropriate, national committees on trade facilitation, 
with the involvement of all relevant stakeholders, including the private sector;  
 
 (b) To scale up and implement trade facilitation initiatives such as single-stop inspections, 
single windows for documentation, electronic payment, and transparency and 
modernization of border posts and customs services, among others;  
  (c) To effectively implement integrated border management systems and strive to 
establish one-stop border posts, where appropriate, with neighbouring landlocked or 
transit developing countries that allow for joint processing of legal and regulatory requirements, with a view to reducing clearance times at borders, while fully utilizing the tools for trade facilitation developed by international organizations to build 
national capacity; WT/L/942 
 
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 (d) To ensure full and inclusive representation of the private sector, including public-
private partnerships and transport business associations, in trade facilitation initiatives and policy, and to develop the necessary policies and regulatory framework to 
promote private sector involvement.  
 52. Actions by transit developing countries include:  
 
 (a) To ensure that trade facilitation initiatives, including the World Trade Organization 
Agreement on Trade Facilitation, are developed and implemented together with landlocked developing countries in all the relevant areas;  
 
 (b) To undertake further harmonization, simplification and standardization of rules, 
documentation requirements and border crossing and customs procedures; to 
enhance collaboration and cooperation among various customs and border-crossing 
agencies across borders; to promote the use of electronic (e-transaction) processes, the pre-arrival submission of customs declarations, risk management inspection 
systems and authorized economic operat or systems; to improve transparency, 
predictability and consistency in customs activities; and to establish one-stop border posts, as appropriate, joint customs controls  and inspection at border sites and other 
forms of integrated border management at borders with landlocked developing 
countries; 
  (c) Sharing best practices in customs, border and corridor management and in the 
implementation of trade facilitation polic ies should be encouraged at the global, 
regional, subregional and South-South levels, including among the private sector;  
 
 (d) To fully utilize the tools for trade facili tation developed by international organizations 
to build national capacity and ensure secure and reliable transport across borders by, inter alia, effectively implementing existing international standards and best practices for customs transit and safety and security of transport chains;  
 
 (e) To ensure transparency in border cro ssings, customs and transit transport rules, 
regulations, fees and charges and accord non-discriminatory treatment so that the 
freedom of transit of goods is guaranteed  to landlocked developing countries.  
 53. Actions by development partners include:  
 
 (a) To support landlocked and transit developing countries in the area of trade facilitation 
in accordance with the World Trade Organi zation Agreement on Trade Facilitation, 
which was agreed by consensus at Bali, Indonesia, and to encourage international 
organizations to help landlocked developing countries to assess their needs in 
implementing that Agreement and relevant trade facilitation measures;  
 
 (b) To support activities, including trade facilitation, aimed at simplifying, streamlining, 
standardizing and harmonizing import, export and customs procedures;  
 
 (c) To encourage sharing information on expe riences and best practices related to trade 
facilitation with a view to creating an environment that allows for the implementation of multi-country customs transit guarantee regimes, through the implementation of 
either international transit agreements or functional regional agreements;  
 
 (d) To support capacity-building, including tr aining programmes, in the areas of customs, 
border clearance and transport;  
 
 (e) To encourage regional aid for trade so as to promote trade integration among 
landlocked developing countries and transit countries.  
 
Priority 4: Regional inte gration and cooperation  
 54. Close cooperation with the transit countries is a sine qua non for improved connectivity in 
transport, energy, and information and communications technology. Infrastructure, trade and WT/L/942 
 
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  regulatory policies, together with political stability of neighbouring countries, have significant 
repercussions for the external trade of landlock ed developing countries. The costs of reaching 
international markets for landlocked developing countries do not depend only on their geography, policies, infrastructure and administration procedur es, but also on those of neighbouring countries. 
Thus, regional integration and coherent and harmon ized regional policies provide an opportunity to 
improve transit transport connectivity and ensure greater intraregional trade, common regulatory 
policies, border agency cooperation and harmon ized customs procedures to expand regional 
markets.  
 55. There is a need to promote meaningful re gional integration to encompass cooperation 
among countries in a broader range of areas than just trade and trade facilitation, to include 
investment, research and development, and policies aimed at accelerating regional industrial 
development and regional connectivity. This approa ch is aimed at fostering structural change and 
economic growth in landlocked developing countries as a goal, and also as a means of collectively 
linking regions to global markets. This would enhance competitiveness and help to maximize 
benefits from globalization. Documentation of and the sharing and dissemination of best practices is important to allow cooperating partners to benefit from each other’s experience.  
 
56. Actions by landlocked developing countries include:    (a) To promote regional integration by strengthening regional trade, transport, 
communication and energy networks;  
  (b) To promote harmonization of regional policies so as to strengthen regional synergy, 
competitiveness and regional value chains;  
  (c) To strengthen participation of landlocked developing countries in bilateral and regional 
integration frameworks.  
 57. Actions by transit developing countries in clude to contribute to deepening regional 
integration through the coherent development of regional infrastructure, trade facilitation 
measures and regional trade agreements, including the establishment of effective and efficient 
customs guarantee systems to help landlocked developing countries overcome constraints resulting from their landlockedness. 
 
58. Actions by development partners include:   
 (a) To support efforts made by landlocked developing countries and their transit partners 
to deepen regional integration, through the development and implementation of key regional transport projects and regional transport agreements for facilitating the cross-border movement of goods and passengers;  
 
 (b) To support ongoing regional integration processes involving landlocked developing 
countries;  
 
 (c) To share best practices in promoting regional integration.   
Priority 5: Structural ec onomic transformation  
 59. Many landlocked developing countries remain reliant on a few export commodities, which often have low value addition. In order for landlocked developing countries to fully utilize their 
export and trade potential, it is important to undertake measures that could promote structural 
economic transformation capable of reducing the negative impact of their geographical disadvantages and external shocks, creating jobs and ultimately leading to poverty eradication and 
inclusive and sustainable growth and developm ent. Increased value addition and economic 
diversification are key to such structural economic transformation. Institutional capacity-building and human resources development are equally important for landlocked developing countries.  
 
60. Improving the manufacturing capacity of land locked developing countries — including their 
contribution to regional and global value chains — can achieve the triple objective of creating better-paying jobs, increasing revenue and reducing the bulk of their primary exports. Higher-
value and low-bulk exports are particularly crucial for landlocked developing countries. In this WT/L/942 
 
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  context, it is important to place proper emphasis  on the development of manufacturing, agriculture 
and the services sector, including finance, information and communication technologies and tourism, as appropriate to national circumstances. Tourism can play an important role in building the economic sector, providing employme nt and generating foreign exchange.  
 
61. Science, technology and innovation play a critical role in achieving structural economic transformation, productive capacity development and value addition. Conducive national policies, 
international support and foreign direct investment are necessary to facilitate access to science, 
technology and innovation, and landlocked developing countries should promote investment in science, technology and innovation for sustainable development.   
62. The private sector contributes to economic growth and poverty eradication through the 
building of productive capacity, creation of decent jobs, promotion of innovation, economic diversification and competition. In landlocked developing countries, the private sector is actively 
involved in activities related to transit and trade facilitation, including as traders, freight 
forwarders, insurance providers and transporters, and the sector is a source of tax revenue and domestic investment and is a partner for foreign direct investment. Public-private partnerships can 
play an important role in infrastructure development.  
 63. Specific objectives are:   
 (a) To increase value addition in the manufacturing and agricultural sectors, with the aim 
of achieving inclusive growth and sustainable development;  
 
 (b) To increase economic and export diversification;  
  (c) To promote service-based growth, including from tourism, with a view to increasing its 
contribution to the national economy;  
  (d) To encourage the inflow of foreign direct investment in high-value added sectors.   
64. Actions by landlocked developing countries include:  
  (a) To develop a structural transformation strategy aimed at improving science, 
technology and innovation, export divers ification, productivity, efficiency and 
competitiveness in the agriculture, manufacturing and service sectors, including tourism;  
 
 (b) To encourage innovative solutions, entrepreneurship and the use of modern, cost-
effective and locally adapted technologies with an emphasis on sectors such as agriculture, transport, information and communication, finance, energy, health, water 
and sanitation, and education, as well as the development of effective public and 
private partnerships;  
 
 (c) To build a critical mass of viable and competitive productive capacity in 
manufacturing, agriculture and services;  
 
 (d) To promote the attraction of more diversified foreign direct investment through the 
creation of a conducive environment, with the aim of enhancing value addition, productive capacity, transit transport infrastructure and completion of missing links connecting landlocked developing countries within the regional network;  
 
 (e) To undertake measures to modernize the services sector by strengthening links 
between and among financial intermediaries, creative industries and business, and 
legal and technical services;  
  (f) To create industrial clusters, such as export-processing zones and regional centres of 
excellence, with the aim of fostering kn owledge networks and connectedness among 
companies;  
  (g) To prioritize private sector development, in particular small and medium-sized 
enterprises;  WT/L/942 
 
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 (h) To develop an industrial policy that takes into account the need for improved access to 
financial resources, development of approp riate human capacity and investment in 
supportive economic infrastructure as a way to further strengthen the private sector;  
 
 (i) To strengthen, as appropriate, an effective competition policy that supports business 
activity and further consolidates a supportiv e legal and regulatory framework, and to 
create macroeconomic conditions and systems that can facilitate the development of 
the private sector;  
  (j) To utilize the International Think Tank for Landlocked Developing Countries for sharing 
experiences, know-how, research and other resources on issues related to trade, 
transit, transport and capacity-building among landlocked developing countries. Landlocked developing countries that have not yet done so should ratify the 
Multilateral Agreement for the Establishment of an International Think Tank for 
Landlocked Developing Countries.  
 
65. Actions by development partners include: 
  (a) To support the efforts of landlocked developing countries to improve their productive 
capacities and create economic diversification;  
 
 (b) To contribute to the efforts of landlock ed developing countries to share innovative 
technologies, scientific knowledge and technical know-how, and best practices;  
 
 (c) To support the efforts of landlocked developing countries to increase the value 
addition of their agricultural and industrial output;  
 
 (d) To support landlocked developing countries in building institutional and human 
capacities aimed at improving their ability to attract foreign direct investment in high-value added sectors and to enhance negotiation skills for bringing in responsible 
investment;  
  (e) To support landlocked developing countries to enable them to pursue the effective 
partnerships necessary for capacity-building, sustainability and quality enhancement, 
as well as for sectoral develo pment, including of tourism;  
 
 (f) To support landlocked developing countries in building resilience, developing capacity 
to respond effectively to external shocks and addressing their specific supply-side constraints.  
 
Priority 6: Means of implementation  
 66. The development and progress of any country is the primary responsibility of that country 
itself. Landlocked developing countries have made  efforts to mobilize domestic resources for the 
development of infrastructure and transit facilities, as well as for overall socioeconomic development. However, lack of adequate financial resources and capacity constraints are some of 
the biggest challenges facing landlocked developing countries in their efforts to achieve sustained 
growth and sustainable development. Landlocked de veloping countries and their transit neighbours 
need to effectively mobilize adequate domest ic and external resources for the effective 
implementation of the pres ent Programme of Action.  
 
67. The support of development partners is needed to complement the efforts of landlocked developing countries to establish and maintain effective transit transport systems, integration into 
the world economy, structural transformation of their economies and enhancement of their 
productive capacities. Development partners are therefore encouraged to provide targeted technical and financial support, as appropriate, towards the implementation of the specific actions 
listed in the present Programme of Action. Development partners should also encourage private 
sector investment in landlocked developing countries that are implementing this Programme of Action.   WT/L/942 
 
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  68. Official development assistance flows remain a major source of external financing for many 
landlocked developing countries. It is important to urgently fulfil existing official development assistance commitments, and such assistance to landlocked developing countries should fully take into account the specific situation of each country. Development partners and multilateral 
organizations have a crucial role to play in supporting the efforts of landlocked developing 
countries to achieve sustainable development and the eradication of poverty.   
69. Aid for trade plays a key role in assisting capacity-building for landlocked developing 
countries on the formulation of trade policies, the implementation of trade facilitation measures and the development of trade-related infrastructure , with a view to increasing the competitiveness 
of their products in export markets. Aid for trade, in combination with complementary policies, has 
contributed to lower trade costs, with additional infrastructure, better border institutions and 
regulatory procedures and enhanced capacities. Aid for trade, along with the commitment of landlocked developing countries to necessary reforms, is also important in linking to or moving up 
landlocked developing countries in the global and regional value chains.  
 70. South-South cooperation is not a substitute for, but rather a complement to North-South 
cooperation. South-South and triangular cooperation also have a role to play in increasing the 
growth and development of landlocked developing countries, as well as transit developing countries, through their contribution, as appropriate, to the sharing of best practices, human and productive capacity-building, financial and tec hnical assistance and technology transfer on 
mutually agreed terms.  
 71. The implementation of the present Programme of Action would also require individual and 
concerted efforts by the organizations and bodi es of the United Nation system, relevant 
international organizations, such as the World Bank, the regional development banks, the World 
Trade Organization, the World Customs Organization, the common funds for commodities, regional 
economic integration organizations and other relevant regional and subregional organizations. 
These organizations are invited to give priority to requests for technical assistance and capacity-building support from landlocked developing co untries in the implementation of the present 
Programme of Action in a well-coordinated and coherent manner, within their respective 
mandates.  
 72. The private sector, including through foreign direct investment, also has a critical role to 
play in the implementation of the present Programme of Action, for example through building and 
strengthening productive capacity, export growth, technology transfer on mutually agreed terms, 
diffusion of productive know-how, managerial skill and capital, creation of wealth, the opening up 
of new markets for high-value added products an d services and employment generation. Foreign 
direct investment can also play a key role in building the infrastructure that underpins economic activities.  
VI. Implementation, follow-up and review  
 73. Implementation, follow-up and review should be undertaken at the national, subregional, 
regional and global levels. Follow-up and review should be a continuous process aimed at 
reinforcing partnerships and mutual accountability at all levels and by all actors.  
74. At the national level, Governments are invited to mainstream the present Programme of 
Action into their national and sectoral development strategies for its effective implementation. Landlocked developing countries and transit developing countries are encouraged to establish national coordination mechanisms, where appropriate. Monitoring and review should involve all 
relevant stakeholders, as appropriate.  
 75. At the subregional and regional levels, monitoring and review should be undertaken through 
existing intergovernmental processes. Regional and subregional organizations, including regional 
economic communities and regional developm ent banks, are invited to mainstream the 
implementation of the present Programme of Action into their relevant programmes, in 
coordination with the Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, 
Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Isla nd Developing States, within their existing 
mandates, and the regional commissions. The regional commissions are encouraged to submit analytical reports on the implementation of the present Programme of Action. The relevant WT/L/942 
 
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  regional and subregional organizations and the priv ate sector should be actively involved in the 
sessions of the regional commissions in that regard.   76. At the global level, the General Assembly should continue to undertake reviews of the 
implementation of the present Programme of Action  through reports of the Secretary-General. The 
governing bodies of organizations in the United  Nations system are invited to mainstream the 
implementation of this Programme of Action into their programme of work, and to conduct sectoral 
and thematic reviews of the Programme, as appropri ate. The private sector should be involved in 
the reviews at the global level.   77. In accordance with the mandate given by the General Assembly, the Office of the High 
Representative for the Least Developed Countries , Landlocked Developing Countries and Small 
Island Developing States will ensure coordinated follow-up to and effective monitoring of and reporting on the implementation of the present Pr ogramme of Action, and will undertake advocacy 
efforts at the national, regional and global levels . The Office of the High Representative for the 
Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States, 
in collaboration with other relevant stakeholders, should work on developing relevant indicators for 
measuring the progress on implementing the Programme of Action in landlocked developing 
countries, within their existing mandates.   78. The General Assembly is invited to consider conducting a comprehensive high-level midterm 
review on the implementation of the present Programme of Action. The General Assembly, towards 
the end of the decade, is also invited to consider holding a third United Nations Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries, in order to  undertake a comprehensive appraisal of the 
implementation of this Programme of Action and to decide on subsequent action.  
 
__________