WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
2 October 2018 
(18-6070) Page: 1/45 
Sub-Committee on Least Developed Countries    
 
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MARK ET ACCESS FOR PRODUC TS AND SERVICES OF E XPORT INTEREST  
TO LEAST DEVELOPED COUN TRIES  
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents  
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 4 
2   INTRODUCTION  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  6 
3   LDCS' TRADE PROF ILE ................................ ................................ ................................ . 7 
3.1   Trends in Goods and Commercial Services  ................................ ................................ ...... 7 
3.2   Merchandise Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ................. 11 
3.2.1    Overall trend  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 11 
3.2.2    Commodity price movements  ................................ ................................ .................... 13 
3.2.3    Major LDC traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....13 
3.2.4    Trends in product composition  ................................ ................................ ................... 16 
3.2.5    Major markets of LDCs  ................................ ................................ ............................. 18 
3.3   Services Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ...................... 19 
3.3.1    Overall tren d ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 19 
3.3.2    Trade in commercial services by region  ................................ ................................ ......20 
3.3.3    Services trade by main categories ................................ ................................ .............. 22 
4   MARKET ACCESS FO R PRODUCTS OF EXPORT  INTEREST TO LDCS  .............................  27 
4.1   Duty-free market access granted by selected Members  ................................ ................... 27 
4.2   Utilization of preferential market access granted to LDCs  ................................ ................. 29 
4.3   Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs  ................................ ...................... 31 
ANNEX  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  33 
 
                                                
1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's o wn responsibility and is without prejudice 
to the positions of Members or to their rights and obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  List of T ables  
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2010 -2017 ...........................  7 
Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 2010 -2017 ........................... 10 
Table 3: LDCs' top ten export markets, 2010 and 2017  ................................ .......................... 18 
Table 4: Duty -free market ac cess under LDC schemes in selected Members, 2016  ..................... 28 
Table 5: Imports of LDC products receiving MFN duty -free or preferential tarif f treatment,  
in % of total LDC product imports, 2016 (or latest available year) ................................ ............ 31 
Table 6: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver  ................................ ............................. 32 
 
List of C harts  
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2010 -2017 .......................  7 
Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 2010 and 2017  ................................ ................................ . 8 
Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies, 
2010-2017 ................................ ................................ ................................ .........................  8 
Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 2010 -2017 ................................ ................................ . 9 
Chart 5: Merch andise trade of LDCs, 2010 -2017 ................................ ................................ ....11 
Chart 6: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 2010 -2017 ................................ ........................ 12 
Chart 7: Merchandise exports of LDCs by product specialization, 2010 -2017 ............................. 12 
Chart 8: Export prices of primary commodities, 2010 -2017 ................................ ..................... 13 
Chart 9: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 2010 and 2017  ................................ ............... 14 
Chart 10: Merchandise trade balances o f major LDC traders, 2010 to 2017  ............................... 15 
Chart 11: Evolution of merchandise export structure of LDCs, 2010 and 2017  ........................... 16 
Chart 12: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 2010 and 2017  ................................ ..17 
Chart 13: LDCs' trade in commercial services, 2010 -2017 ................................ ....................... 19 
Chart 14: LDCs' share in world exports and imports of commercial services, 2010 -2017 ............. 20 
Chart 15: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2010 -2017 ............................... 21 
Chart 16: Leading LDC traders of commercial services, 2017  ................................ ................... 22 
Chart 17: LDC exports of commercial services by category, 2010 -2017 ................................ ....22 
Chart 18: LDCs' travel exports and international tourist arrivals, 2010 -2017 ............................. 23 
Chart 19: LDCs: Travel exports, and exports of agricultural products, manufactured goods, 
and fuels and mining products, 2010 -2017 ................................ ................................ ............ 23 
Chart 20: LDC exports of other commercial services  ................................ ............................... 24 
Chart 21: Level and share of DVA content in Cambodian exports of textiles, 1995 -2014 ............. 25 
Chart 22: Level and share of DVA content in Cambodian exports of hotel/restaurant 
services, 1995 -2014 ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 25 
Chart 23: Broadband subscriptions by developed economies and LDCs, 2010 -2017 .................... 26 
Chart 24: Imports from least developed countries by duty categories, 2016 (or latest 
available year)  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 30 
List of Boxes  
Box 1: Domestic value added content in Cambodian exports of textiles and 
hotel/restaurant services  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....25 
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  List of Annex Tables  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 
2017  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 33 
Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2005 -2017 ................................ ........... 35 
Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups , 2010 -2017 ............... 37 
Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2017  ................................ ...................... 39 
Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2017  .......................... 42 
Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2018 or latest available yeara ................................ ................................ ............... 43 
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
1.1.  LDC exports of goods and services grew by an annual average of 2.3% between 2010 and 
2017, less than the exports of other developing economies (3.4% average). After three years 
(2014 to 2016) of negative developments,  LDCs' trade gained momentum again in 2017 with the 
highest growth rates observed since 2010 . In 201 7, LDC exports of goods and services increased 
by 13% to US$ 204 billion. The share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services 
stood at 0.9% i n 201 7, slightly higher than in 201 6 (0.88%).  
1.2.  LDCs recorded an overall trade deficit of US$ 92.7 billion in 201 7, which was three times 
higher than in 2010 (US$30.9 billion) . Close to two thirds of the LDC's  trade deficit in 2017 can be 
ascribed to the ir deficit in goods trade (US$59.3  billion ), while about one third was due to their  
deficit in  commercial services ( US$33.4  billion ). 
1.3.  After three years of negative growth rates , merchandise exports of the LDCs grew by 13%  in 
2017,  faster than  world merchandis e exports (11% ). The LDCs' share in world merchandise 
exports increased only slightly from 0.93 % in 2016  to 0.95% in 2017, remain ing the third 
consecutive year under the one-percent -threshold .  
1.4.  In 2017, the top merchandise exporter was Bangladesh (share of  22%), followed by Angola 
(20%) and Myanmar (8%). While the top ten exporters represented more than 80% of LDCs' 
exports in 2010, this share w ent down to around 77% in 2017 – a slight decrease in terms of 
country concentration among the LDCs.  
1.5.  Exports of LD Cs continue to be concentrated in p rimary products . In 2017,  primary products 
accounted for 55% of LDC merchandise exports, which is however significantly lower  than in 2010 
(73%). The share of manufactured products  in LDC merchandise exports increased from 22% in 
2010 to 40% in 2017 , mainly reflecting an increase in the  share of clothing products from 1 2% in 
2010 to 29% in 201 7. The share of agricultural products (agricultural raw materials and food) in 
LDC exports increased from 10% in 2010 to 14% in 2 017. 
1.6.  China was the top destination for total LDC merchandise exports in both 2010 (share of 28%) 
and 2017 (share of 26.1%) , followed closely by  the European Union  with a share of 25.7% in 2017 
(19% in 2010 ). The top ten importers accounted for 86.1% of  LDCs' total exports  in 2017, about  
the same level as in 2010 (85.9%).  
1.7.  Following two years of negative growth, LDCs' trade in commercial services began to grow 
again in 2017 . Exports increased by 7% to reach US$34.2 billion , while imports grew at a rate of 
8% reaching US$67.7 billion.  Growth of commercial services exports in LDCs was slower than the 
growth in developed (8%) and other developing economies (8%). In 2017, the share of LDCs in 
global exports of commercial services stood at 0.6%, lower than in 2016 (0.7%) and  only slightly 
higher than the share in 2010 (0.5%).  
1.8.  Services trade in LDCs remains concentrated within a few economies, an unchanged pattern 
since 2010. In 2017, the top ten leading exporters accounted for 70% of the group's services 
receipts. A ccording to Secretariat estimates, Cambodia was the largest exporter of services among 
the LDCs (13%), boosted by rising travel exports. Imports are equally concentrated with the top 
ten importers representing 66% of LDCs' total commercial services payment s in 2017, led by 
Angola (20%) . Exports of travel services remained the top category representing more than half of 
LDC services exports in 2017, while transport and other business services both accounted for close 
to a quarter of services exports.  
1.9.  Over th e 2010 to 2016 period, tourist arrivals to LDCs grew by 10 million. The rise in tourist 
arrivals for all LDCs has been accompanied by an increase in LDC travel receipts. In 2017, travel 
revenue reached a high of US$18.1 billion compared with US$10.4 billio n in 2010.  Travellers' 
expenditures are an important source of services revenue for LDCs and support a number of 
sectors indirectly. Travel exports in LDCs have generally expanded more rapidly than exports of 
other sectors, although the growth of manufactu red goods outpaced travel slightly in 2016.  
1.10.    LDCs continue to benefit from preferential market access to both developed and developing 
Members. The predominant share of LDC exports enter most developed markets duty -free. LDC 
exports that are eligible to pr eferential treatment, but do no utilize preferences account for about WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  5%-15% of LDC exports to developed markets. Based on available data, t he non -utilization of 
preferences is higher in a few developing markets.  
1.11.   Since the last report, no new notification on DFQF market access has been received. Most of 
the developed Members accord either full or nearly full duty -free and quota -free (DFQF) market 
access to LDC products. A number of developing Members have significantly expanded their DFQF 
coverage  over the last decade  and now offer almost comprehensive DFQF market access to LDC s. 
Members continue to take measures to implement the provisions of the Nairobi Decision  on 
Preferential Rules of Origin for LDCs . The operationalization of the LDC Services Waiver  continues 
to remain a standing item on the agenda  of the Council for Trade in Services . Since the last report, 
no new notification under the Services Waiver has been received. T he number of notifications 
stood at twenty -four (24)  at the end of Septe mber 2018.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  2  INTRODUCTION  
2.1.  This Note prepared by the Secretariat responds to paragraph 8 of the WTO Work Programme 
for the Least Developed Countries, which mandates annual reviews of market access for products 
originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11/Rev.1). It builds on previous Secretariat studies by 
updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditions.  
2.2.  The Note is divided into two main chapters , in addition to the executive summary  and the 
introduction . Chapter 3, on trade profile,  provides a description of the recent trends of LDCs' trade 
flows, both in goods and commercial services. Chapter 4 contains information on trends in market 
access conditions for LDC exports, including duty-free market access for LDC products and recent 
initiatives undertaken by Members to improve market access for LDCs, mainly based on Members' 
notifications. The Note does not attempt to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition 
market access for LDC products. It should therefore be read in c onjunction with previous 
Secretariat notes prepared on this topic, to gauge the different factors that determine market 
access for LDCs.  
2.3.  Despite improvements in the production of national data , the statistical coverage of LDCs 
remains incomplete . The Secre tariat has been using reported national figures whenever available . 
In many instances, it was still necessary to rely on mirror statistics i.e. data reported by LDCs' 
trading partners. The disadvantage of using mirror data is that it does not allow taking into 
consideration trade among the LDCs, as well as trade with non -reporting developing economies.  
2.4.  The definition of geographical and other groupings in this report  serves only statistical 
purposes; it  does not imply an expression of opinion by the Secreta riat concerning the status of 
any country or territory, the delimitation of its frontiers, nor the rights and obligations of any WTO 
Member in respect of WTO agreements.  
2.5.  Equatorial Guinea graduated from the list of LDCs in June 2017 and was thus excluded f rom 
this year's Note. It should be noted that as a consequence, trade statistics for the LDCs in this 
Note differ from those in previous Notes.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  3  LDCS'  TRADE PROFILE  
3.1  Trends in Goods and Commercial Services  
3.1.  LDC exports of goods and services grew by an annual average of 2% between 2010 and 
2017, less than the exports of other developing economies ( 3% average). LDC exports of goods 
suffered from the low energy prices during 2014 to 2016, while LDC exports of se rvices remained 
more stable during 2010 to 2017 (see Chart 1). The LDCs, which depend more on  commodity 
exports than the other developing economies, were hit more than the other developing economies 
by this price development – which explains the less favou rable development in terms of annual 
average percentage change of the LD Cs vis-à-vis the other developing economies . 
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC  exports of goods and commercial services, 2010-2017 
(Index, 20 10 = 100; BOP /BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
Table 1: Trends in LDC  exports of goods and commercial services , 2010-2017 
(Billion dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6 ) 
  Value ( US$bn)  Annual percentage change (%)  
  2010  2017  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2017  2010 -2017  
Exports  
Total goods and commercial services  173.7  204.2  2.8 6.2 -0.7 -19.7 -2.8 13.0 2.3 
Goods  153.1  170.0  2.0 5.0 -2.1 -22.4 -2.8 14.3 1.5 
Commercial services  20.7 34.2 8.6 14.1 7.9 -4.1 -3.1 6.9 7.5 
Imports  
Total goods and commercial services  204.6  296.9  8.8 8.8 7.8 -9.7 -6.5 8.6 5.5 
Goods 152.2  229.2  10.4 9.2 7.5 -8.0 -5.7 8.7 6.0 
Commercial services  52.5 67.7 4.2 7.7 8.5 -14.8 -9.1 8.1 3.7 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.2.  LDC exports of goods and commercial services increased by 13% in 2017 , up to 
US$204.2 billion. LDC imports grew by  9% to US$296.9  billion  during the same period  (see 
Table  1). After three years (2014 to 2016) of negative developments, LDCs trade gained 
momentum again in 2017 with the highest growth rates observed si nce 2010.  In value terms, 
goods exports continue dominat ing services exports. LDC commercial services exports amounted 
to US$3 4.2 billion  in 2017 , which constituted only 17% of LDC goods and commercial services 
exports. In contrast, services constituted 23% of world total exports in 201 7. 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  3.3.  Regarding the trade balance, LDCs recorded an overall trade deficit of US$ 92.7 billion in 201 7 
(see Chart 2). Imports exceeded exports by US$ 59.3 billion  in the case of goods,  and by 
US$3 3.4 billion in the case of commer cial services. The trade deficit of LDCs in 201 7 was more 
than three  times higher than in 20 10 (US$ 30.9 billion), when the trade balance of goods was still 
positive . 
Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 20 10 and 201 7 
(Billion dollars ; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.4.  The value of LDCs' trade is distinctly influenced by price  fluctuations.  Chart 3 shows 
developments in the volume of merchandise trade for LDCs and other economies, to give a picture 
of the physical level of trade. LDC merchandise exports grew by 3% in volume terms, while their 
imports expanded by 5%. These growth rates are wa y below the respective figures for trade in 
nominal terms (13% for exports and 12% for imports) – which is an indication for the high impact 
of price developments on the nominal trade figures of LDCs' merchandise trade. In comparison to 
2010, the export vo lume increased by almost  1.4 times and the import volume by 1.5 times. LDCs' 
total trade volume (turnover, i.e. exports plus imports) increased by 4. 3% in 201 7 while the 
volume of total trade of other developing economies grew by 4.1%. 
Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies , 
2010-2017 
(Indices, 20 10 = 100) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat. LDCs' data are computed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD.  
 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  3.5.  The development of the LDCs' s hare in world exports from 20 10 to 201 7 is shown in Chart 4 . 
In 2017, t he share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services stood at 
0.9%  -  slightly higher than in 2016 (0.88%) , but lower than during the years 2010 -2014. The 
recent gain is due to a distinct increase for  goods  (from 0.94% in 2016 up to 0.98% in 2017) , 
while the share of commercial services (0.65%) remained stable in comparison to 2016 .  
Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 20 10-2017 
(Percentage shar es; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
 
3.6.  The respective shares  for total trade, exports and i mports for all years since 20 10 are shown 
in Table 2 – including the values for world and LDC trade used for the calculation of the shares.  
 
 
  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 10 - Table 2: LDCs and world trade in go ods and commercial services, 20 10-2017 
(Billion dollars and percentage ; BOP/BPM6 ) 
 
Value ( US$bn)  Annual 
percentage  
change  
 2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2017  2010 -2017  
Total trade in  goods and commercial services  a           
   World  18516  21996  22373  23003  23456  20837  20375  22381  2.7 
   LDC 378 467 496 534 555 478 454 501 4.1 
     Share in world  1.02 1.06 1.11 1.16 1.19 1.15 1.12 1.12 ... 
Total trade in goods  a          
   World  14734  17745  17968  18318  18393  16038  15542  17204  2.2 
   LDC 305 375 398 427 440 376 359 399 3.9 
     Share in world  1.04 1.06 1.11 1.17 1.20 1.18 1.16 1.16 ... 
Total trade in commercial services  a          
   World  3782 4251 4405 4686 5063 4799 4832 5177 4.6 
   LDC 73 92 97 106 115 102 95 102 4.9 
     Share in world  0.97 1.09 1.11 1.14 1.14 1.07 0.98 0.99 ... 
Goods exports           
   World  14935  17981  18234  18629  18673  16237  15744  17431  2.2 
   LDC 153 188 192 201 197 153 149 170 1.5 
     Share in world  1.02 1.04 1.05 1.08 1.06 0.94 0.94 0.98 ... 
Commercial services exports           
   World  3850 4335 4466 4761 5122 4863 4893 5279 4.6 
   LDC 21 26 28 32 35 33 32 34 7.5 
     Share in world  0.54 0.60 0.63 0.67 0.67 0.68 0.65 0.65 ... 
Goods imports           
   World  14533  17509  17702  18006  18113  15838  15341  16977  2.2 
   LDC 152 187 207 226 243 223 211 229 6.0 
     Share in world  1.05 1.07 1.17 1.25 1.34 1.41 1.37 1.35 ... 
Commercial services imports           
   World  3714 4168 4344 4611 5005 4735 4771 5074 4.6 
   LDC 52 66 69 74 81 69 63 68 3.7 
     Share in world  1.41 1.59 1.59 1.61 1.61 1.45 1.31 1.33 ... 
a World total trade is calculated as the average of world exports and imports , according to the BOP presentation (BPM 6) . Total LDC trade in this table is 
approximated as the sum of their exports and imports. Total trade shares are calculated in relation to the corresponding worl d exports plus imports.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  3.2  Merchandise Trade Developments2 
3.2.1   Overall trend  
3.7.  In 2017, merchandise exports of the LDCs increased by 13%  – after three years of negative 
growth rates  (see Chart 5). The growth was higher than for world merchandise exports (11%  in 
2017).  
3.8.  As energy prices increased more than the prices of other products, and as LDCs' exports 
consist of fuels and mining produc ts to a higher degree than world exports in average, LDCs' 
nominal export values benefitted especially from this development. Merchandise imports of t he 
LDCs increased by 12%  in 2017.   
Chart 5: Merchandise trade of LDCs , 2010-2017 
(Billion dollars and percentages ) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.9.  As in the preceding two years, also in 2017 LDCs' share in world merchandise exports 
remained under the one-per-cent-threshold, increasing slightly to 0.95% from 0.93%  in 2016 . 
Their share in wor ld merchandise imports remained on the same level as in the previ ous three 
years, namely at 1.4% . Among developing economies, LDCs' share stayed at the same percentage 
as in 2016 for exports (2.2%) and imports (3.5% ). The share of LDCs exports of manufactu res in 
world exports of this product group remained at 0.5%.  
3.10.   The merchandise trade de ficit of LDCs increased slightly from US$ 76 billion in 2016  to 
US$83 billion in 2017  but remained below  the level re corded in 2015 (US$89 billion – see Chart 6). 
The deterioration was mostly due to a significantly higher trade deficit of LDC exporters of 
manufactured goods (US $34 billion in 2017 versus US$ 25 billion in 2016). This was mainly caused 
by a marked increase in B angladesh's imports (18% ), especially f or agricultural products (sugar, 
cereals and cotton). All other groups of exporters reduced their trade deficit. LDC oil exporters 
almost balanced exports and imports  in 2017, w ith a trade deficit of just US$ 0.9 billion.  Chart  10 
in Chapter  3.2.3 provides a more detailed view for the major traders.  
                                                
2 Differences between BOP (BPM6) and International Merchandise Trade Statisti cs are explained in the 
International Merchandise Trade Statistics: Compilers Manual, Revision 1 (IMTS 2010), Chapter XXIV Section B 
"Goods to be recorded differently in IMTS and BPM6/national accounts" (p. 288).  
(http://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/eg -imts/imts2010 -final-22march2011.pdf ). 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  Chart 6: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs , 2010-2017 
(Billion dollars ) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.11.   The exports of al l LDC sub -groupings (see Chart 7 ) recorded positive growth  in 2017, 
ranging from +6% for exporters of manufactured goods to +22% for exporters of non -fuel 
minerals. LDC export ers of agriculture (+14% ), exporters of non -fuel minerals (+22%) and other 
LDCs – i.e. Djibouti, Senegal and Tuvalu – (+11% ) slightly excee ded the export values recorded in 
2013 – the last year that LDC exports achieved positive growth. However,  the exports of LDC  oil 
expor ters, despite increasing by 16%, reached  only just above half of the value recorded in 2013. 
Annex Table 1 provides detai ls on the value and growth of exports and imports for individual LDCs.  
Chart 7: Merchandise exports of LDCs by product specialization, 2010-2017 
(Billion dollars ) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  3.2.2   Commodity price movements  
3.12.   Dollar values of international trade flows are strongly influenced by exchan ge rates and 
commodity prices. Chart 8 shows that, a fter five years of decreasing or stagnating commodity 
prices, 2017 showed pric e hikes for energy (+26% ) and minerals and non-ferrous metals (+ 24%), 
while import prices for agricultural raw materials and prices for food and beverages remained 
stable.  
3.13.   Despite these  price increases in 2017 , the price levels of all product  group s remained under 
the level of 2010. While in 2017, the price level of food and beverages came relatively close, at 
94%, to the level of 2010, e nergy prices reached  only 70% of 2010's level.  
Chart 8: Export prices of primary commodities, 2010-2017 
(Indices, 2010 = 100) 
 
Source:  IMF (2010 -16), WTO Secretariat based on UNCTAD (2017).  
 
3.2.3   Major LDC traders  
3.14.   The top ten individual merchandise exporters and importers of the LDCs for both 20 10 and 
2017 are illustrated in Chart 9 . Angola was the top exporter in 20 10, accounting for more than 
33% of merchandise LDC exports, followed by Bangladesh (1 3%) and Sudan  (7%). In 201 7, the 
top exporter was Bangladesh (share of 2 2%), followed by Angola ( 20%) and Myanmar (8%). 
While the top ten exporters represented more than  80% of LDCs' exports in 20 10, this share went 
down to around 7 7% in 201 7 – a slight decrease in terms of country concentration among the 
LDCs. Nevertheless, the fact that the remaining (non -top ten) 3 7 LDCs accounted for only 2 3% of 
LDC merchandise exports in 201 7 shows  that exports are sti ll concentrated on a relatively few 
LDCs.  
3.15.   In 2010, t he three leading importers were Bangladesh (share of 1 7%), Angola (10%) and 
Sudan ( 6%). Seven years later , the top three consisted of Bangladesh ( 21%), Angola (8%) and 
Myanmar (7%). Almost two thirds (66% ) of total LDC imports in 2017 were covered by the  top ten 
importers (up from 63% in 20 10). Hence, the country concentration for imports is not as high as 
for exports . 
3.16.   Among the top 20 LDC exporters (in terms of export values), the highest growt h in export s 
was achieved by three exporters of non -fuel minerals, namely the  Democratic Republic of the 
Congo (+46 %), followed by Mozambique (+42 %) and Guinea (+35 %). Declines  in exports  were 
recorded for Chad ( -28%), Tanzania ( -12%) and Sudan ( -2%). Chad and Sudan are fuel exporters 
and Tanzania an exporter of non -fuel minerals.  
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  Chart 9: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 20 10 and 201 7 
(Percentage  shares ) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
3.17.   Chart 10 shows the development of the individual trade balances of the major LDC 
exporters and/or importers for the period 2010 to 2017.  Out of the eight economies shown, only 
Angola had a positive trade balance for all of the years, with a peak in 2012 (+ US$47 billion) and 
a low in 201 5 (+US$12 billion). For Zambia, the years 2010 until 2013 came with a trade surplus 
(maximum value of + US$2 billion reached in 2010), while the following years were characterized 
by a negative trade balance (of up to -US$1.4 billion in 2015). Myanmar recorded a trade surplus 
in 2010 (+ US$4 billion) and 2011 (+ US$0.2 billion), followed by trade deficits for 2012 to 2017 
with the negative peak in 2015 ( -US$5 billion). Bangladesh, Cambodia , Ethiopia, Nepal and 
Tanzania  have been net importers during the whole period shown – with Bang ladesh reaching a 
negative high (of -US$17 billion ) in 2017 , Ethiopia in 2016 ( -US$14 billion) , Cambodia  in 2014 
(-US$4 billion), Nepal in 2017 ( -US$10 billion) and Tanzania in 2013 ( -US$8 billion).  
3.18.   The 7-years -trend lines  in Chart 10  indicate negative ten dencies over time for most of the 
economies shown. Only for Cambodia , Bangladesh  and Tanzania , the negative trend seems to be 
stagnating; 2017 might possibly be interpreted as an outli er in the series for Bangladesh (high 
increase in imports, small increase for exports). Also for Angola, Nepal and Tanzania, imports 
increased more than exports. For the other economies shown, the growth in exports in 2017 
outpaced their growth (or decrease, in the case of Ethiopia) in imports.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  Chart 10: Merchandise t rade balances of major LDC traders, 2010 to 2017  
(Billion dollars ) 
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
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  3.2.4   Trends in product composition  
3.19.   Chart 1 1 shows t he evolution in the commodity mix of the LDCs between 20 10 and 201 7.3 
The share of primary p roducts in total exports of LDCs increased from 54% in 2016 to 55% in 
2017 – due to a higher  value of fuel exports  – but still remained distinctly under the respective 
share in 2010 (73%) . The share of manufactured products increased from 2 2% in 20 10 to 40% in 
2017. This was mainly due to a higher share of clothing products in LDC merchandise exports, 
which increased from 1 2% in 20 10 to 29% in 201 7.4 The share of agricultural products 
(agricultural raw materials and food) in LDC exports increased from 1 0% in 2010 to 1 4% in 201 7. 
Chart 11: Evolution of merchandise export structure  of LDCs , 2010 and 201 7 
(Percentage  shares ) 
 
 
Source : WTO Secretariat (20 10), WTO estimates based on Trade Data Monitor  (2017). 
 
3.20.   The evo lution of the top ten products – and their respective shares – exported by LDCs 
between 20 10 and 201 7 is illustrated in chart 1 2 (Annex Table 4 provides statistics on the top 50 
export products). In 2010, p etroleum products (HS 27.09, 27.11 and 27.10) clearly dominated 
exports with a share of more than half (5 1%) of LDC  merchandise  exports. In 2017, these three 
products accounted for only about a quarter (26%) of LDC exp orts. While crude petroleum 
(HS 27.09) was still the top export product, petroleum gases and other gaseous  hydrocarbons  
(HS 27.11) fell from position three in 2010 down to position six  in 2017. Petroleum oils, other than 
crude, (HS 27.10) was not even in the top ten products anymore in 2010 (position eight in 2010, 
position 40 in 2017).  At the same time, the s hare of clothing products within the top ten increased 
from 1 0% in 20 10 to 18% in 201 7. 
                                                
3 Data for 2017 are preliminary estimates based on mirror data from Trade Data Monitor database.  
4 These shares are derived from the WTO  network of LDCs by product and destination compiled 
according to the United Nations Standard International Trade Classification (SITC). According to this 
classification, diamonds and non -monetary gold are not part of mineral products  – as opposed to the 
Harmonized System (HS) . As a result, the shares of fuels and mining product in total LDC s' exports derived 
from the LDC network differ from the shares of exporters of fuels and mining products presented in the annex  
of this report.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 17 - 
 
  3.21.   The importance of gold (HS 71.08) for LDCs exports increased between 2010 and 2017. 
While back in 2010, gold was on sixth position with a share of 2.6 % in LDC exports, it reached a 
share of 3 .3% in 2017 and went up to fifth position.  Refined copper (HS 74.03) fell from second 
position in 2010 (share of 3.3%) down to eighth  position in 2017 (share of 2.8%). Unrefined 
copped (HS 74.02) increased its share from 1% in 2010 t o 3% in 2017 and moved from tenth 
position in 2010 up to ninth position in 2017.  
Chart 12: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 20 10 and 201 7 
(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)   
 
Source:  UN Comtrade  database (2010), Trade Data Monitor (2017); mirror data.  
 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
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  3.2.5   Major markets of LDCs  
3.22.   Table 3 lists LDCs' top ten markets by product groups for both 20 10 and 201 7 (Annex 
Table  3 shows trade statistics for a greater number of destination markets). China  was the top 
destination for total LDC merchandise exports in both 20 10 (share of 2 8%) and 201 7 (share of 
26.1%). The European Union  was on  the second place in both 2010 (share of 19%) and 2017, but 
came very close to China in 2017 (with a share of 25.7% ). The top ten importers accounted for 
86.1% of LDCs' total exports  in 2017 , almost  the same as in 2010 (85.9%).  
3.23.   Regarding agricultural products, the European Union was the main destination of LDCs' 
exports in both 20 10 (share of  25%) and 201 7 (24%). China, on positi on two, increased  its 
market share for LDC agricultural products from 1 3% in 20 10 to 17% in 201 7. India was on third 
position , as in 2010, followed by Viet Nam on fourth position, as in 2010 . The top ten destinations 
accounted for 81% of LDC exports of agr icultural products in 201 7 (up from 7 3% in 20 10). 
3.24.   As in 2010, China was the most important destination for LDC exports of fuels and mining 
products in 201 7, expanding its share in LDC exports to 5 1% in 201 7 (up from 42 % in 20 10). The 
United States dropped from second position in 20 10 to fifth position in 201 7 (share of 16% in 
2010 and of 5 % in 201 7). India became the second -most-important destination in 2017 (share of 
10%), up from forth position in 2010 (share of 9%), followed by the European Union (top th ree 
destination in both 2010 and 2017). In both years, the top ten destinations imported more than 
90% (92% in 2010 and 93% in 2017) of all LDCs' exports of fuels and mining products.  
3.25.   The European Union and the United States were the most important destinations for LDC 
exports of manufactured goods in both 20 10 and 201 7. In 201 7, the European Union imported 
almost one  half (46%) of LDC manufacturing exports (up from 4 4% in 20 10). The share of LDC 
exports of manufactures to the United States decreased  from 23% in 20 10 to 17% in 201 7. Japan 
was the third most important  destination for LDC manufacturing exports  in 201 7, reaching a share 
of 5% (up from 3% in 20 10). The share of the top ten destinations in LDC exports of manufactures 
increased slightly fro m 86.2% in 2010 to 86.9% in 2017.  
Table 3: LDCs ' top ten export markets , 2010 and 2017 
(Billion dollars and percentage  shares ) 
 Total trade  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining 
products  Manufactures  
 Value (US$bn)  2010 China  42.7 EU (28)  4.5 China  39.9 EU (28)  15.4 
EU (28)  29.4 China  2.4 USA 15.3 USA 8.1 
USA 24.2 India 2.1 EU (28)  9.1 Canada  1.3 
India 11.6 Viet Nam  0.7 India 8.5 Turkey  0.9 
Thailand  4.8 Saudi Arabia  0.7 Thailand  4.0 India 0.9 
United Arab 
Emirates  4.5 USA 0.7 Chinese Taipei  3.2 Japan  0.9 
South Africa  3.4 Thailand  0.6 South Africa  2.7 Nigeria  0.7 
Japan  3.4 Japan  0.6 Japan  1.9 Congo  0.7 
Chinese Taipei  3.4 Pakistan  0.4 Canada  1.7 United Arab 
Emirates  0.6 
Canada  3.1 Malaysia  0.3 Korea, Rep. of  1.3 South Africa  0.5 
Sum of above  130.6  Sum of above  13.1 Sum of above  87.4 Sum of above  30.0 
Share of top 10:  85.9%  Share of top 10:  72.9%  Share of top 10:  92.3%  Share of top 10:  86.2%    Value ( US$bn) 2017 China  41.6 EU (28)  5.6 China  33.2 EU (28)  28.9 
EU (28)  40.8 China  3.9 India 6.5 USA 11.0 
USA 15.6 India 3.2 EU (28)  6.0 Japan  3.4 
India 14.0 Viet Nama 1.9 Thailand  4.3 China  2.5 
Thailand  6.7 Saudi Arabia  1.2 USA 3.3 Canada  2.4 
Japan  5.1 USA 1.1 South Africa  2.3 India 2.4 
Switzerland  4.3 Thailand  1.1 Chinese Taipei  1.8 Russian Fed. 1.1 
South Africa  3.2 Japan  0.8 Korea, Rep. of  1.4 Korea, Rep. of  1.0 
Korea, Rep. of  2.9 Pakistan  0.5 Zambia  1.2 Thailand  1.0 
Canada  2.8 Turkey  0.4 Japan  0.8 Zambia  1.0 
Sum of above  136.8  Sum of above  19.9 Sum of above  60.8 Sum of above  54.8 
Share of top 10:  86.1%  Share of top 10:  80.5%  Share of top 10:  93.2%  Share of top 10:  86.9%  
a Estimate . 
Source:  UN Comtrade , Trade Data Monitor (importer data).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 19 - 
 
  3.3  Services Trade Developments  
3.3.1   Overall trend  
3.26.   Following two years of negative growth, LDCs' trade in commercial services began to grow 
again in 2017 . Exports increas ed by 7% to reach US$34.2 billion  in 2017 (see Chart 13) , which is 
close to the highest -ever level recorded in 2014 (US$34.5 billion). Growth in exports remained 
below the growth of developed and other developing economies. Commercial services imports by 
LDCs also recorded growth in 2017 (8 %) to reach  US$67.7 billion following two years of decline.  
Chart 13: LDCs' trade in commercial services, 2010 -2017 
(Annual percentage change)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.27.   In 2017 , the share of LDCs in global exports of commercial services stood at 0. 6%, lower 
than in 2016 (0 .7%) and only slightly higher than the s hare in 2010 (0.5%) . The LDCs' share in 
world services imports remained at 1.3% in 2017;  the same as the previous year and lower than 
the share in 2010 (see Chart 14). 
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 20 - 
 
  Chart 14: LDCs' share in world exports and imports of commerci al services, 2010 -2017 
(Percentage shares ) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.3.2   Trade in commercial services by region  
3.28.   LDCs' performance in services exports varied by region in 2017 (see Chart 15). Exports of 
LDCs in Africa accounted for more than half of LDCs' total commercial services exports in  2017 and 
grew on average by 8 % between 2010 and 2017. Although commercial services exports by  LDCs 
in Africa  declined in 2015 and 2016, positive growth in 2017 brought the level of exports to 
US$18.2 billion, just  below  its peak in 2014. Rapid export growth over the years was fuelled by 
transport services, led by Ethiopia's continued development of its air transport services and an 
increase in Tanzania's pipeline exports of oil and natural gas.  
3.29.   Just as with exports , imports of commercial services increased in 2017 after two years of 
declines in 2015 and 2016. Transportation services accounted for nearly half of commercial 
services imports by LDCs in Africa, growing 33% compared to its value in  2010. Angola and 
Ethiopia led LDCs in Africa in terms of transport services imports. Angola's increase was mostly 
comprised of imports of maritime transport services for their fishing and oil and gas industries, 
while Ethiopian imports, which more than doubled from 2010 to 2017 , were mostly of other 
auxiliary air transport services to support their airline industry.  
3.30.   Commercial services exports of LDCs in Asia reached a new high in 2017 of US$13.6 billion 
following two years of modest decline. Growth of commercial services over the 2010 -2017 period 
averaged 8% annually, with Myanmar leading the growth in commercial services for LDCs in the 
region. In fact, Myanmar's commercial services exports increased from US$0.3 billion in 2010 to 
US$3.7 billion in 2016, the latest available y ear. This rapid growth can be explained by Myanmar's 
role as a emerging tourism destination. Cambodia also registered a high amount of exports 
stemming from its travel industry. Other leading commercial services exporters by LDCs in Asia 
included Banglades h and Nepal, which are both prominent information and communication 
technology (ICT) exporter s. Both countries have ongoing national digitalization projects, which 
have included infrastructure development to increase internet access.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 21 - 
 
  Chart 15: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2010 -2017 
(Billion dollars ) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.31.   Commercial services imports expanded more rapidly for LDCs in Asia (9% on average per 
year) than in other LDC regions.  Transport represented over half of imports by LDCs in Asia in 
2017, followed by other commercial services, a trend that has remained constant over the period. 
The three largest importers among the LDCs in Asia were Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Cambodia, 
with 2017 imports of maritime transport services representing the single largest services import 
for all three countries. This is in line with a steady increase of both imports and exports of goods 
by these countries over the 2010 to 2017 period, which are most ly transported through maritime 
transport.  
3.32.   For LDC islands, average annual growth of services export s was 5% between 2010 and 
2017.  Travel accounted for more than two thirds of LDC islands exports in 2017, reaching a value 
of US$1.8 billion . Sao Tome and P rincipe and Timor -Leste had the largest relative growth in travel 
services over the period, expanding annually by 29% and 1 7% respectively from 2010 -2017. In 
value terms, Madagascar's travel exports expanded the most,  more than doubling from 
US$309  million  in 2010 to US$750 million in 2016, the latest available year. Imports for LDC 
islands remained relatively unchanged over the period and were skewed towards imports of both 
air and maritime transportation services.  
3.33.   Services trade in LDCs remains concentrat ed within a few economies,  an unchanged pattern 
since 2010 (see Chart 16). In 2017 , the top ten leading exporters accounted for 70 % of the 
group 's services receipts. According to Secretariat estimates, Cambodia  was the largest exporter 
of services among th e LDCs  (13%) , boosted by rising travel exports. Imports are equally 
concentrated , with the top ten importers representing 66%  of LDCs' total commercial services 
payments  in 2017, led by Angola (20%) and its imports of other commercial services.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 22 - 
 
  Chart 16: Leading LDC traders of commercial services, 201 7 
(Percentage shares ) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.3.3   Services trade by main categories  
3.34.   Of the main services trade categories, travel remained the primary export category for 
LDCs, increasing significantly over the 2010 to 2017 period. Transport also grew over the period 
from US$4.0 billion to US$7.8 billion, just surpassing other commerc ial services in 2017 (see 
Chart  17). 
Chart 17: LDC exports of commercial services by category, 2010 -2017  
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source: WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates  
 
3.35.   Tourist  arrivals to LDCs grew from 19 million in 2010 to nearl y 30 million in 2016 (see 
Chart  18). The downturn in tourist arrivals during 2016 was largely due to a change in accounting 
practices by  Myanmar,  the second largest LDC travel exporter after Cambodia,  to on ly include 
visitors with a visa  as opposed to also comprising one -day Myanmar border crossings.5 The rise in 
tourist arrivals for all LDCs has been accom panied by an increase in LDC travel receipts. In 2017, 
travel revenue reached a high of US$18.1 billion compared with US$10.4 billion in 2010 . This 
increase accompanied a corresponding growth in the LDCs' share of global travel receipts from 
1.1% to 1.4 %. 
                                                
5 Luc Citrinot, "First De crease in Myanmar Tourism in a Decade," ASEAN.travel , Jan. 24, 2017. 
http://asean.travel/2017/01/24/first -decrease -myanmar -tourism -decade/   
 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 23 - 
 
  Chart 18: LDCs' travel exports and inte rnational tourist arrivals, 2010 -2017 
(Billion dollars and million arrivals ) 
 
Source:  WTO estimates based on UNWTO data and WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.36.   Travellers' expenditures are an important  source of services  revenue for LDCs and support a 
number of sectors indirectly.  Travel exports in LDCs have generally expanded more rapidly than 
exports of other sectors, although the growth of manufactured goods outpaced travel slightly in 
2016 (see Char t 19). 
Chart 19: LDCs: Travel exports, and exports of agricultural products, manufactured 
goods, and f uels and mining products, 2010 -2017  
(Index 2010 = 100 ) 
 
 
Note:  2016 latest available year for commodities.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.37.   Exports of transport services by LDCs nearly doubled between 2010 and 2017, increasing to 
US$7.8 billion in 2017. Ethiopia, through the growth of Ethiopian Airlines, and Tanzania, which has 
invested in hydrocarbon pipeline transportation servi ces, contributed significantly to this increase. 
Other countries that added to this increase were Cambodia, Bangladesh, and Mozambique, each of 
whose exports of transport services more than doubled over the period.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 24 - 
 
  3.38.   Between 20 10 and 2017 , LDCs' other commercial services exports expanded by 3% 
annually, on average . Telecommunications, computer and information services, along with other 
business services both saw the largest growth over the period (see Chart 2 0). Bangladesh, 
Myanmar and Nepal were the top LDC exporters of other commercial services, with Senegal not far 
behind. Although not a leading LDC exporter of other commercial services, Sierra Leone also had 
significant growth in their telecommunications ex ports, increasing from less than US$1 million in 
2010 to US$191 million in 2016. This follows various national efforts, including liberalization of its 
3G network over 2011 -12. 
Chart 20: LDC exports of other commercial services  
(Billion dollars ) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 25 - 
 
  Box 1: Domestic value added content in Cambodian exports of textiles and 
hotel/restaurant services  
Trade  statistics in value -added  terms  provide an additional  lens for analyzing international trade. 
The two sectors in Cambodia (the only LDC for which trade in value added estimates are available)  
provide an interesting perspective . While the amount of Cambodian domestic value -added (DVA) 
in the textile sector 's exports  has increased over time, its share has steadily declined , from 71% in 
1995 to 38% in 2014 (see Chart 21). For the hotel/restaurant services sector, the share of DVA  in 
Cambodian exports has remained relatively constant, averaging 83% over the entire  
18-year-period (see Chart 22). Its level however has steadily increased indicating an increased 
participation in GVCs in this sector.  It should be noted that the domestic value added in textiles  
exports  is eight times higher than in hotel/restaurant servi ces exports .  
Chart 21: Level and share of DVA content in Cambodian exports of textiles, 1995 -2014  
 
Source:  OECD/WTO -TIVA database . 
 
Chart 22: Level and share of DVA content in Cambodian exports of hotel/restaurant 
services, 1995 -2014  
 
Source:  OECD/WTO -TIVA database . 
 
 
 
0102030405060708090100
02004006008001,0001,2001,4001,600
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Per centUS$ millionDomestic value-added Share of domestic value-added
0102030405060708090100
020406080100120140160180200
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Per centUS$ millionDomestic value-added Share of domestic value-addedWT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 26 - 
 
  3.39.   Although LDCs have made progress in  increasing their connectivity with the rest of the 
world, the digital divide between LDCs and developed economies remains  (Chart 23) . Strong 
growth in mobile broadband internet access from 2010 to 2017 indicates that m obile technologies 
can help the LDCs  leapfrog some fixed -line infrastructure challenges. However, significant 
investments in national distribution networks are needed to maintain this  progress. As a new, 
international digitally -based economy grows with a particular focus on e -commerce and services 
traded online, LDCs will need to continue improving digital access. Better internet access can 
provide micro, small and medium -sized enterprises ( MSMEs ), which constitute the majority of 
firms in LDCs,  with more options for accessing digital platforms to sell their goods or services, not 
only within their home country but also abroad.  
Chart 23: Broadband subscri ptions by  developed economies and LDCs, 2010 -2017  
 (Percentage ) 
 
Note:  *Data for 2017 are estimates.  
Source:  International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The aggregate "developed economies" follows ITU's 
definition. Data for 2017 are estimates.  
 
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 27 - 
 
  4  MARKET  ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS  OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  
4.1  Duty -free market access granted by selected Members  
4.1.  Table 4 provides statistics on duty -free market access accorded to LDCs by selected 
Members , many of which  have notified LDC preference schemes to the WTO. The first set of 
columns focuses on the LDC scheme provided by individual Members to a self -defined group of 
countries while the last three columns list information on exports of the 47 UN -LDC countries.  
4.2.  The preferential LDC schemes of Australia, New Zeala nd, Norway and Switzerland provide full 
duty-free access to their beneficiaries . For Canada, Chile, the EU and Japan, more than 97% of 
their tariff lines are free of duty for  products originating from LDCs; five other Members grant 
duty-free access to  more than  90% of their tariff lines: China, Icelan d, India, Korea and 
Montenegro.  
4.3.  Two WTO M embers do not have any LDC scheme but all the imports from LDCs are free of 
import duty. Hong -Kong, China and Macao, China offer duty free access  to all products on  an MFN 
basis and therefore to LDCs as well. In the case of Singapor e, only 6 tariff lines out of 9, 558 are 
dutiable on an MFN basis and nearly all LDC exports enter th e Singaporean market duty free.  
4.4.  Less than one tariff line out of three is duty free unde r the LDC scheme of Chinese Taipei. 
However , over 90% of the imports from LDCs enter the market free of duty , resulting in an overall 
trade -weighted duty of 1.1%; the share of duty -free imports for agricultural products is however 
substantially lower and t ranslates into a higher trade -weighted average  (7.4%) . 
4.5.  In 201 6, LDCs exported the highest number of products (in terms of national tariff lines) to 
the EU, followed by China . Their export basket is also relatively diversified in Canada, Thailand and 
the U nited States . In dollar terms, some 60% of LDC export s were dutiable under the United  
States' Generalized System of Preferences ( GSP) LDC scheme, with a trade -weighted average 
tariff of  over 10% . However, eligible LDCs enjoy significant duty -free access to the United States  
under the Africa n Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and the Caribbean Basin Initiative.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 28 - 
 
  Table 4: Duty -free market access under LDC schemes in selected Members, 201 6 
Market  Sector  LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN -LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff 
lines  Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  TOTAL  Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyc 
Armenia  
 Total  6,438  43.9 351 330 296 21.3 51.0 0.6 
Ag 731 71.1 29 23 2 10.6 99.0 0.2 
Non-ag 5,707  36.2 322 307 294 10.8 4.0 5.9 
Australia  
 Total  0 100.0  1,057  675 0 943.1  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  149 51 0 36.3 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  908 624 0 906.8  100.0  0.0 
Canada  
 Total  105 98.6 2,191  965 4 2,507.5  100.0  0.0 
Ag 105 92.8 403 179 4 92.7 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  1,788  786 0 2,414.9  100.0  0.0 
Chile  
 Total  41 99.5 - - - - - - 
Ag 41 97.1 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 0 100.0  - - - - - - 
Chinad 
 Total  636 95.1 3,345  2,994  87 71,377.7  97.8 0.3 
Ag 143 90.5 241 225 27 1,915.0  71.3 5.1 
Non-ag 493 95.7 3,104  2,769  60 69,462.7  98.6 0.1 
European 
Union  
 Total  18 99.8 4,425  3,401  5 38,594.0  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0 737 547 0 3,733.7  100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 18 99.8 3,688  2,854  5 34,860.4  100.0  0.0 
Hong Kong, 
China  
 Total  - - - - - 1,159.8  100.0  0.0 
Ag - - - - - 34.5 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag - - - - - 1,125.3  100.0  0.0 
Iceland  
 Total  731 91.5 - - - - - - 
Ag 731 62.4 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 0 100.0  - - - - - - 
India  
 Total  676 94.1 1,612  1,556  190 10,449.9  94.9 1.6 
Ag 344 77.0 295 277 88 3,343.3  91.2 4.7 
Non-ag 332 96.7 1,317  1,279  102 7,106.6  96.7 0.1 
Japan  
 Total  198 97.9 1,145  772 29 4,393.0  98.3 0.1 
Ag 69 96.4 175 114 6 334.9  99.9 0.0 
Non-ag 129 98.2 970 658 23 4,058.1  98.1 0.1 
Kazakhstan  
 Total  7,277  37.4 468 439 392 64.0 37.9 0.8 
Ag 993 63.0 36 30 2 8.9 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 6,284  29.8 432 409 390 55.2 27.9 1.2 
Korea, 
Republic of  
 Total  1,184  90.3 1,515  1,342  190 2,630.4  85.0 1.7 
Ag 696 59.7 241 230 107 192.9  72.2 12.4 
Non-ag 488 95.4 1,274  1,112  83 2,437.5  86.0 0.9 
Kyrgyz 
Republice 
 Total  15 99.9 163 102 0 1.7 100.0  0.0 
Ag 5 99.8 15 5 0 0.5 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 10 99.9 148 97 0 1.2 100.0  0.0 
Macao, 
China  
 Total  - - - - - 11.0 100.0  0.0 
Ag - - - - - 2.6 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag - - - - - 8.4 100.0  0.0 
Montenegro  
 Total  665 92.9 431 391 14 9.3 98.0 0.2 
Ag 222 89.3 25 19  0.1 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 443 94.0 406 372 14 9.2 98.0 0.2 
Morocco  
 Total  17,541  1.4 - - - - - - 
Ag 2,405  5.9 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 15,136  0.6 - - - - - - 
New 
Zealand  
 Total  0 100.0  998 631  126.7  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  127 48  23.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  871 583  103.7  100.0  0.0 
Norway  
 Total  0 100.0  1,068  304 0 450.8  96.4f 0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  211 69 0 31.4 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  857 235 0 419.5  96.2 e 0.0 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 29 - 
 
  Market  Sector  LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN -LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff 
lines  Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  TOTAL  Duty 
free 
(%) Weighted 
applied 
dutyc 
Russian 
Federation  
 Total  7,307  37.1 - - - - - - 
Ag 1,034  61.5 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 6,273  29.7 - - - - - - 
Singapore  
 Total  - - - - - 1,996.0  100.0  0.0 
Ag - - - - - 158.2  99.8 0.0 
Non-ag - - - - - 1,837.8  100.0  0.0 
Switzerland  
 Total  0 100.0  1,449  1,234   4,586.5  100.0  0.0 
Ag 0 100.0  317 247  160.0  100.0  0.0 
Non-ag 0 100.0  1,132  987  4,426.5  100.0  0.0 
Chinese 
Taipei  
 Total  6,159  31.0 869 674 621 1,870.3  90.2 1.1 
Ag 1,145  23.8 113 79 77 63.0 40.9 7.4 
Non-ag 5,014  32.5 756 595 544 1,807.3  91.9 0.9 
Tajikistand 
 Total  10,553  3.7 - - - - - - 
Ag 2,455  0.4 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 8,098  4.7 - - - - - - 
Thailand  
 Total  2,414  74.7 2,361  1,809  694 6,101.3  86.6 1.4 
Ag 306 76.4 221 194 57 643.9  89.1 6.0 
Non-ag 2,108  74.5 2,140  1,615  637 5,457.4  86.3 0.9 
Turkey  
 Total  3,223  80.5 - - - - - - 
Ag 2,249  19.8 - - - - - - 
Non-ag 974 92.9 - - - - - - 
United 
States of 
America  
 Total  1,996  81.8 2,141  1,435  676 15,491.9  37.9 10.5 
Ag 267 85.9 285 194 7 741.3  98.0 0.1 
Non-ag 1,729  81.0 1,856  1,241  669 14,750.6  34.9 11.0 
 
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme; some UN -LDC countries may be excluded.  
b 47 LDCs as listed by the UN in 201 7/18. Full utilization of LDC schemes is assumed when calculating the share of 
duty-free imports and the trade -weighted applied duty.  
c Excludes non -ad valorem duties . 
d 2014. 
e 2013.  
f Some UN -LDC countries do not benefit from the LDC scheme in Norway.  
 
Source:  WTO-Integrated DataBase (IDB) . 
 
4.2  Utilization of preferential market access granted to LDCs  
4.6.  This section discusses to what extent LDC exports enter markets duty -free and make use of 
preferences granted.  Chart 24 presents a decomposition of LDC exports into four duty catego ries 
for importing preference -granting Members which have submitted import data to the WTO 
Secretariat.6 The first category is the share of imports from LDCs that enters the market MFN duty 
free. The second category comprises the share of imports from LDCs  that makes use of any 
preferential import scheme, either LDC -specific schemes or other preferential trade arrangements, 
available to LDC exporters. These two categories together can be referred to as "utility ratio", the 
proportion of imports subject to n o – or a reduced level – of tariff duties. The third category c overs 
imports that are eligible for preferential treatment, but are not utilizing  the granted preferences. 
These products enter henceforth paying MFN duties. Finally, some Members exclude certa in 
products from DFQF market access, the corresponding share of imports is presented as the fourth 
category in the chart . 
4.7.  The predominant share of LDC exports enter most developed markets  duty-free. For 
example, Australia's imports statistics reveal that i n the year 2016, 94% of imports from LDCs 
entered the Australian market duty -free, i.e. 21% entered MFN duty free and 73% entered duty 
free by using a preferential trade arrangement . The data also reveals that some 6% of imports 
paid MFN duties, despite be ing eligible to preferential duty -free rates. Import data from Japan 
                                                
6 Analysis based on import dat a submitted to the WTO Secretariat through the PTA Transparency 
Mechanism  (WT/L/806). For further information on measuring utilization of preferential tariffs and data 
limitation, please consult the World Tariff Profiles 2018, pp. 211 -221 
(https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/publications_e/world_tariff_profiles18_e.htm ) WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 30 - 
 
  offer a similar picture: 22% of imports from LDCs entered MFN duty free, 69% made use of 
Japan's preferential tariff arrangements for LDCs, and around 6% of imports from LDCs were 
eligibl e for but not granted preferential treatment. The data also shows that around 2% of LDC 
imports were subject to MFN duties . 
4.8.  The utilization of preferential market access by LDCs is similar for other developed markets, 
including Canada, European Union, Norw ay, Switzerland and the United States: the share of 
imports eligible for preferential treatment but entering MFN dutiable ranges around 5 -15%. In the 
case of the United States, the relatively higher share of MFN dutiable imports from LDCs reflects 
that a significant amount of imports takes place in  products that are not covered by its GSP 
scheme  for LDCs .  
4.9.  Data from developing Members present a more diverse picture. Imports from LDCs entered 
Chinese Taipei to a large extent on an MFN duty -free basis. Chile and India show a large 
proportion of import s that were eligible for preferential tariff treatment but where LDC exporters 
did not  take advantage of it. The data also reveal for example that around 30% of Korea's LDC 
imports were not covered by preferences and therefore subject to MFN duties.  
Chart 24: Imports from least developed countries by duty categories, 2016 (or latest 
available year) 7 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO Integrated Database, June 2018 . 
Note:  While Table 4 assume s full utilization of preferences, Chart 24  distinguishes which imports have used 
preferences and which  not. 
 
4.10.   Table 5 presents utility ratios for LDC exports across 22 product categories8 and 
preference -granting Members. The percentage shares reflect the proportion of imports of a 
particular product that enter either MFN duty free or receive any preferential tariff treatment. The 
shares range from 0% to 100%. The numerical difference to 100% therefore represents the share 
of imports paying  MFN duties. Empty cells refer to product groups wh ere no trade has been 
recorded.  
4.11.   The presented shares suggest that duty -free or preferential market access for LDCs is often 
very significan t across preference -granting M embers and product groups. For example, 99.9% of 
"animal products" exported by LDCs to the United States are either MFN duty free or make use of 
one or various preferential tariff regimes. At the same time, the results show that for some 
                                                
7 The data for Chile and India refer to the year 2015.  
8 For more information on pr oduct categories and HS concordance, see World Tariff Profiles 2018, 
page 32-33 (https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/publications_e/world_tariff_profiles18_e.htm ). 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 31 - 
 
  products , LDC exports are not benefitting tha t much from  duty-free market access: e ither because 
the products are excluded from preferential trade arrangements or the LDC exporter was unable to 
meet the necessary  requirements, including preferential rules of origin, to obtain preferential tariff 
treatment.  
Table 5: Imports of LDC products receiving MFN duty -free or preferential tariff 
treatment,  in % of total LDC product imports, 2016 (or latest available year )9 
(Percentage shares)  
Product Description  
Australia  
Canada  
Chile  
European Union  
India  
Japan  
Korea, Rep. of  
Norway  
Switzerland  
Chinese Taipei  
USA 
Animal products   - 100  - 87.2 0.8 100 40.7 0 100 0 99.9 
Dairy products  100 0  - 0 0 94.7 0  -  -  - 13.6 
Fruits, vegetables, plants  99.1 92.7 0 98 32.8 93.1 5.1 94.2 41.5 0.7 87.9 
Coffee, tea  99.9 100 0 100 0 97.7 87.8 100 99.5 94.6 100 
Cereals and preparations  95.9 94.7 0 98.3 2.4 90.4 54 99.1 87.1 14.1 63.4 
Oilseeds, fats and oils  99.9 96 0 98.5 50.9 100 7.8 82.2 98.3 2 98.8 
Sugars and confectionery  93.8 61.8  - 5.1 0 100 0 99.9 99.1 0 99.4 
Beverages and tobacco  90.9 92.6 0 99.5 0 100 91.4 93.6 99.7 0 95.1 
Cotton   - 100  - 100 100 100 100 100 100 100  - 
Other agricultural products  100 99.3 0 98 60.4 87.4 41.7 100 65.3 73 99.8 
Fish and fish products  100 99.1 57 95.7 10.2 67.3 17.6 100 99.7 51.1 99.8 
Minerals and metals  98.8 98.4 99.2 99.4 20.1 99.5 98.9 100 98.9 99.8 99.5 
Petroleum   - 100 100 99.9 99.7 100 0 100 100 100 85.2 
Chemicals  84 92.3 0 52.6 0.1 55.1 93.9 100 62.9 11.7 87 
Wood, paper, etc . 91.9 95 0 94.8 39.1 96.4 96.2 100 63.8 100 96.4 
Textiles  88.4 88.1 1.2 92.7 0 73.1 90.3 89 47.6 4.6 39.9 
Clothing  93.8 89.4 2.9 95.3 0.3 96.4 91.9 73.2 45.7 0 0.4 
Leather, footwear, etc . 80.2 85.3 4.3 97.1 2 80.5 96.1 100 27.5 42.9 12.6 
Non-electrical machinery  68 97.1 0 17.6 1.7 100 40.8 100 46.2 92.2 88.7 
Electrical machinery  98.3 94.8 0 46.1 9.5 100 93.9 100 32.9 27.8 71.5 
Transport equipment  43.3 95.4 0 77.3 3.4 100 88.2 100 41.9 0 86.6 
Manufactures n.e.s.  59.8 84.6 0 77.6 0.2 80.9 77 100 60.3 2.9 86.3 
Source:  WTO Integrated Database, June 2018  
 
4.3  Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs  
4.12.   Regarding market access in goods, Annex Table 6 provides a non -exhaustive list of major 
non-reciprocal preferential market access schemes undertaken by Members  in favour of LDCs. It 
updates the previous year's information based on Members' notifications and statements at the 
WTO as well as submissions made to WTO's IDB.10 The Table does not include regional or bilateral 
initiatives under which, too, LDCs receive preferences.  
4.13.   Since the last report, no new notifications have been received. As has been reported in the 
past, most of the developed Members grant either full or n early full DFQF market access. 
Developing Members, namely Chile, China, India, Republic of Korea, Chinese Taipei and Thailand 
have made notifications concerning their respective DFQF schemes for LDCs. Most of them grant a 
significant degree of DFQF market access to LDC products, and a number of them have reached or 
are in the process of attaining comprehensive DFQF coverage for LDCs.  The review of DFQF 
                                                
9 The data for Chile and India refer to the year 2015.  
10 Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan and Turkey have submitted data to WTO's IDB, but 
are yet to make a notification pursuant to the PTA Transparency Mechanism (WT/L/806).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 32 - 
 
  implementation continues to be a standing item on the agenda of the Committee on Trade and 
Development.  
4.14.   Progress has been made in the implementation of the Nairobi Decision on Prefere ntial Rules 
of Origin for LDCs (WT/L/917/Add.1). Almost all preference -granting Members have submitted 
information on their rules of origin using the new notification template  (G/RO/84) , thereby 
promot ing a better understanding of the rules of origin applicable to imports from LDCs.11 
Members continue to take measures to implement the provisions of the Nairobi Decision.  Since the 
last report, the Committee on Rules of Origin (CRO) h eld meetings on 4 October 2017 and  
19 April 2018. At the meeting on 4 October 2017 (G/RO/M/69), Canada informed Members that it 
had simplified the preferential rules of origin for some textiles and clothing products and China 
recalled that it had introduce d several new features including bil ateral and regional cumulation.  
4.15.   Regarding market access in services, Table 6 provides the list of Members that have 
submitted notifications of their preferential treatment to services and services suppliers of LDCs  
under  the LDC Services Waiver .12 Since the last report, the number of notifications has remained 
the same, standing at twenty -four (24)  at the end of September  2018. The  operationalization of 
the LDC Services Waiver  continues to remain a standing item on the agenda of the Council for 
Trade in Services . 
Table 6: Notification s under the LDC Services Waiver  
 
Notifying Member  Date of 
notification  References  
Australia  29-May-15 S/C/N/805  
Brazil  04-Nov-15 S/C/N/839  
Canada  14-Dec-15 S/C/N/792/Rev.1  
Chile 08-Oct-15 S/C/N/834  
China  22-Jul-15 S/C/N/809  
European Union  16-Nov-15 S/C/N/840  
Hong Kong, China  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/810  
Iceland  09-Oct-15 S/C/N/835  
India 29-Sep-15 S/C/N/833  
Japan  31-Jul-15 S/C/N/820  
Korea, Rep. of  10-Jul-15 S/C/N/808  
Liechtenstein  30-Nov-15 S/C/N/841  
Mexico  20-Aug-15 S/C/N/821  
New Zealand  28-Jul-15 S/C/N/813  
Norway  25-Jun-15 S/C/N/806  
Panama  4-May-17 S/C/N/890  
Singapore  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/812  
South Africa  02-Dec-15 S/C/N/853  
Switzerland  30-Jul-15 S/C/N/819  
Chinese Taipei  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/811  
Thailand  17-Feb-16 S/C/N/860  
Turkey  14-Jun-16 S/C/N/824/Rev.1  
United States  03-Sep-15 S/C/N/825  
Uruguay  12-Jan-16 S/C/N/857  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
                                                
11 Notifications are submitted under the document series G/RO/LDC/N/*.  
12 See 2011 Decision on the Services Waiver (WT/L/847), and subsequent D ecisions taken at the Bali 
(WT/L/918) and Nairobi Ministerial Conferences (WT/L/982)  in 2013 and 2015, respectively.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 33 - ANNEX  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 201 7 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2017 2010-17 2015 2016 2017 2017 2010-17 2015 2016 2017 
LDCs  164,232  1.1 -22.1 -0.8 13.5 246,779  6.0 -7.6 -6.0 11.6 
Exporters of agricultural products  16,742  6.2 -14.4 3.0 13.7 48,888  6.2 -4.3 -4.0 2.8 
Afghanistan  780 10.5 0.2 4.4 30.8 7,700  5.9 0.3 -15.4 17.8 
Benin  2,107  7.4 -34.4 4.9 19.4 2,943  5.3 -33.2 10.9 3.6 
Burkina Faso  2,408  6.1 -11.3 6.0 4.4 3,418  7.6 -14.0 2.9 7.8 
Burundi  161 6.9 -8.6 -9.4 47.6 805 6.8 -6.1 -14.8 30.7 
Central African Republic  124 -1.7 -13.0 21.2 19.7 351 2.3 -14.7 -10.5 13.3 
Comoros  31 6.1 -27.8 80.8 1.7 238 0.3 -23.2 2.7 8.5 
Ethiopia  3,170  4.5 -11.0 -4.3 8.6 16,289  9.6 8.8 0.3 -4.0 
Gambia  85 3.1 4.8 -13.7 -10.0 402 5.0 7.6 -7.8 4.5 
Guinea -Bissau  342 15.2 51.9 8.8 24.6 251 3.6 -3.4 6.8 13.7 
Kiribati  14 19.4 5.5 -1.7 28.4 110 6.0 18.4 -7.6 -6.3 
Liberia  389 8.3 -36.3 -1.4 39.2 1,111  6.6 -15.5 -22.8 -14.7 
Malawi  1,026  -0.5 -19.5 -5.8 0.9 2,434  1.6 -16.7 4.9 0.3 
Rwanda  1,189  21.9 -5.4 9.0 59.6 1,963  4.6 -3.6 4.8 -21.4 
Sao Tome and Principe  14 3.8 -34.3 20.6 4.3 149 4.2 -16.4 -1.8 7.2 
Solomon Islands  460 10.8 -12.7 9.2 5.2 530 3.9 -6.8 -2.6 16.8 
Somalia  430 -0.6 -13.7 0.0 -2.3 1,060  3.4 -12.0 -1.8 -1.9 
Timor -Leste  35 11.4 16.4 11.1 74.6 780 17.9 6.0 -14.8 0.6 
Togo 1,138  2.2 -23.8 2.5 9.9 2,527  6.0 -7.6 -3.2 11.8 
Uganda  2,790  8.1 0.2 9.5 12.4 5,439  2.2 -9.0 -12.6 12.6 
Vanuatu  48 -0.2 -38.1 29.2 -4.4 390 4.6 18.0 15.7 -8.1 
           
Fuel exportersa 52,143  -6.4 -40.7 -12.6 15.7 53,013  2.7 -18.2 -19.8 13.1 
Angola  33,129  -5.9 -43.9 -17.7 21.3 19,495  2.3 -27.6 -39.4 55.5 
Bhutan  590 -1.2 -5.8 -4.5 12.4 1,000  2.3 13.8 -5.5 -0.2 
Chad 1,300  -13.5 -37.1 -18.2 -27.8 2,800  2.2 -15.9 -32.4 12.0 
Myanmar  13,300  6.3 -0.2 3.5 12.4 16,500  19.4 4.1 -7.0 5.1 
Sudan  3,024  -17.3 -28.8 -2.4 -2.3 6,117  -6.8 3.2 -12.5 -26.5   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 34 -   Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2017 2010-17 2015 2016 2017 2017 2010-17 2015 2016 2017 
Yemen  800 -28.2 -87.2 -50.0 60.0 7,100  -3.7 -45.4 3.5 4.4 
           
Manufacture exporters  53,024  9.7 7.8 9.9 6.3 86,943  8.9 0.8 7.9 16.6 
Bangladesh  35,965  9.4 6.5 7.8 3.1 52,836  9.6 2.3 6.6 17.9 
Cambodia  11,950  12.8 24.8 17.9 18.7 13,980  10.9 11.0 6.4 10.7 
Haiti 980 7.8 -7.2 17.5 -5.4 3,552  1.7 -1.7 -7.1 3.8 
Lesotho  1,033  2.3 2.1 4.7 16.8 2,115  -1.2 -5.9 -7.8 13.6 
Madagascar  2,346  10.7 -7.0 13.8 0.9 3,960  6.3 -13.4 2.1 38.7 
Nepal  750 -1.9 -18.9 -3.4 7.8 10,500  10.8 -12.0 34.3 17.5 
           
Exporters of non -fuel mineralsb 39,247  4.8 -17.4 1.0 21.6 50,258  5.3 -7.5 -11.3 9.8 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of  7,900  5.9 -15.9 -6.9 46.3 4,900  1.2 -4.5 -23.8 2.1 
Eritrea  351 60.1 -22.5 -31.4 2.6 1,140  8.1 -9.7 2.9 8.6 
Guinea  3,258  12.0 -12.6 35.5 35.0 4,980  19.8 -7.6 102.1  12.4 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  3,950  12.4 4.0 21.1 17.8 5,100  13.8 22.5 -9.4 7.6 
Mali 2,822  5.1 -2.3 3.2 0.7 4,732  4.7 -2.9 7.9 15.4 
Mauritania  1,609  -3.6 -28.3 0.9 14.9 2,256  2.2 -26.4 -2.5 18.7 
Mozambique  4,719  6.7 -22.8 -2.5 41.8 5,702  3.1 -10.2 -37.5 9.5 
Niger  1,193  0.5 -24.8 -5.1 15.7 1,701  -5.2 -9.8 -13.2 -0.8 
Sierra Leone  779 12.5 -67.0 9.7 38.8 1,090  5.1 -2.4 -35.9 11.1 
Tanzania  4,526  1.6 6.6 4.0 -11.8 9,932  3.4 -10.0 -13.8 6.8 
Zambia  8,139  1.8 -27.3 -7.6 25.0 8,724  7.3 -13.5 -11.0 15.7 
Diversified and othersc 3,077  4.6 -4.7 1.2 10.7 7,677  5.8 -8.4 -4.9 20.3 
Djibouti  156 9.1 3.4 4.0 12.4 936 14.0 34.5 -19.0 7.0 
Senegal  2,920  4.4 -5.0 1.1 10.6 6,701  4.9 -14.0 -2.1 22.3 
Tuvalu  0 -19.8 -12.0 13.2 -58.3 40 8.7 66.3 -24.0 42.9 
Worldd 17,198,092  2.1 -13.2 -3.0 10.7 17,571,949  2.1 -12.5 -2.9 10.7 
a Includes exporters of electricity (Bhutan).  
b Includes exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. according to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) and diamonds 
(normally included in manufactures according to the UN classification).  
c Includes exporters without a clear specialization in a specific category of goods.  
d Excluding re-exports of Hong Kong, China; including EU -intra trade.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 35 - Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities , 2005 -2017 
(Indices 2005 = 100)  
 2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015   
2016  
 2017 2017 
             
 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 
                  
Food and beverages  100 112 129 162 140 158 190 181 175 175 145 149 148 153 149 147 142 
Food 100 112 129 163 138 155 187 183 183 174 141 146 149 153 150 147 143 
Cereals  100 121 158 223 164 166 232 234 218 183 150 130 132 130 133 132 128 
Wheat  100 126 167 214 147 147 207 206 205 187 143 110 115 111 114 118 112 
Maize  100 124 166 227 168 189 297 303 263 196 173 162 157 163 160 154 151 
Rice 100 106 116 243 205 181 192 202 180 148 132 135 136 128 142 136 135 
Barley  100 123 181 211 135 167 218 251 217 154 135 136 … 142 148 … … 
Vegetable oils and protein meals  100 103 143 193 154 170 209 216 206 191 153 156 155 161 151 152 155 
Meat 100 96 97 99 93 120 144 142 143 173 139 125 135 130 140 136 131 
Beef 100 97 99 102 101 128 154 158 155 189 169 150 161 155 168 164 159 
Lamb  100 96 101 106 91 91 93 63 66 81 67 66 … 78 86 … … 
Swine meat  100 94 94 96 82 110 132 122 128 152 100 92 101 99 103 100 96 
Poultry  100 94 106 115 116 116 118 128 141 149 155 151 … 159 189 … … 
Seafood  100 121 113 113 114 140 139 113 160 162 132 162 … 179 178 … … 
Fish 100 125 112 119 121 151 146 117 166 163 131 176 181 195 193 180 159 
Shrimp  100 105 116 91 85 98 115 97 136 160 136 107 … 117 117 … … 
Sugar  100 133 102 117 152 172 211 175 148 146 118 152 142 159 130 132 132 
Bananas  100 118 117 146 147 153 169 171 161 162 166 174 187 179 188 193 190 
Oranges  100 98 114 132 108 118 102 99 111 90 77 102 93 105 89 84 94 
Beverages  100 108 128 157 156 182 214 169 152 191 175 170 143 153 143 144 139 
Coffee  100 112 129 150 132 165 231 180 147 185 154 156 152 167 155 155 144 
Cocoa beans  100 103 127 167 187 203 193 154 158 198 203 187 131 136 128 129 133 
Tea 100 112 98 125 145 146 160 161 123 110 157 133 … 171 172 … … 
Agricultural raw materials  100 109 112 111 93 122 147 128 132 136 117 109 108 115 111 107 107 
Timber  100 108 107 109 102 101 111 107 107 109 105 100 96 98 100 105 107 
Cotton  100 105 115 129 114 188 280 162 164 151 128 135 152 154 157 147 148 
Wool 100 104 144 138 115 153 234 215 196 178 163 179 … 199 200 … … 
Rubber  100 140 153 174 128 243 321 225 186 130 104 109 136 169 137 124 110 
Hides and skins  100 105 110 98 68 110 125 127 144 168 134 113 108 117 108 95 95 
Minerals and non -ferrous metals 
(excluding crude petroleum)  100 155 175 166 135 203 230 191 184 166 126 121 150 150 138 152 157 
Copper  100 183 194 189 141 205 240 217 199 187 150 132 168 159 154 173 186 
Aluminum  100 135 139 136 88 114 126 106 97 98 88 84 104 97 100 106 111  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 36 -  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2015   
2016  
 2017 2017 
             
 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 
                  
Iron ore  100 119 130 219 285 522 597 457 482 347 200 208 256 305 225 255 235 
Tin 100 119 196 250 184 276 353 286 302 297 218 243 272 271 270 278 268 
Nickel  100 163 251 143 99 148 155 119 102 114 80 65 70 70 63 71 79 
Zinc 100 237 235 137 120 157 159 141 138 157 140 151 209 201 188 215 234 
Lead 100 132 265 215 177 221 246 212 220 215 184 192 238 234 222 239 255 
Uranium  100 171 355 230 167 165 201 175 138 120 132 94 … 86 77 … … 
Total of above  100 124 139 152 128 164 193 173 168 164 133 132 140 144 138 140 139 
Energy  100 119 132 185 117 147 201 203 196 180 99 81 103 102 94 97 113 
Natural gas  100 115 117 174 110 113 154 171 165 160 107 70 84 82 70 69 73 
Crude petroleum  100 121 133 182 116 149 204 208 201 184 97 80 101 101 94 96 113 
Coal 100 104 138 266 149 206 254 202 177 149 121 138 184 174 167 195 206 
All primary commodities  100 121 134 173 121 153 198 193 186 174 111 99 116 116 109 112 122 
Note:  Beginning with the first quarter of 2011, the crude oil price index is computed excluding West Texas Intermediate (WTI), in o rder to better 
reflect prices in international trade. The price of WTI, which accounts for one third of the IMF's original crude oi l index, became largely dislocated 
from international markets in early 2011. Although suited for measuring oil price worldwide, the WTI inclusion in a crude oil  price index would 
however considerably distort an index meant to measure oil prices in internat ional trade.  
Source:  IMF commodity prices (until 2017/Q2), WTO Secretariat based on UNCTAD (2017/Q3 -Q4).  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 37 - Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2010-2017 
(Million dollars and p ercentage)  
  All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions and major markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2010  2017  2017  2017  2010 -
2017  2010  2017  2017  2017  2010 -
2017  2010  2017  2017  2017  2010 -
2017  2010  2017  2017  2017  2010 -
2017  
Africa  9136  9713  100 … 1 1452  2252  23 … 6 5547  4786  49 … -2 2124  2666  27 … 3 
South Africa  3413 3307 100 10 0 195 302 9 8 6 2737 2348 71 9 -2 481 655 20 17 5 
Zambia  1343 2172 100 … 7 20 7 0 … -14 1085 1172 54 … 1 238 993 46 … 23 
Mali (2016)  1252 926 100 … -5 60 91 10 … 7 977 554 60 … -9 214 274 30 … 4 
Kenya  341 756 100 81 12 178 557 74 118 18 51 44 6 2 -2 112 155 21 32 5 
Egypt  554 543 100 89 0 171 204 37 44 3 292 284 52 146 0 91 56 10 78 -7 
Côte d'Ivoire  342 632 100 64 9 280 353 56 17 3 40 210 33 842 27 21 68 11 10 19 
Ghana  148 251 100 -10 8 45 136 54 1 17 4 29 11 106 32 98 86 34 -14 -2 
Malawi (2015)  192 239 100 … 5 103 98 41 … -1 12 38 16 … 26 77 104 43 … 6 
Sudan  284 168 100 … -7 48 91 54 … 10 175 1 0 … -54 50 77 46 … 6 
Morocco  82 160 100 26 10 66 83 52 7 3 2 10 6 2152 25 13 67 42 43 26 
Nigeria  885 154 100 -14 -22 203 112 73 49 -8 12 12 8 -64 1 670 29 19 -56 -36 
Tanzania, Utd. Rep. of  97 137 100 8 5 34 71 52 25 11 30 13 10 -51 -11 34 52 38 25 7 
Mauritius  55 118 100 1 11 31 94 79 29 17 13 0 0 -98 -54 11 24 21 -40 12 
Ethiopia  126 102 100 -22 -3 12 31 31 9 15 105 60 59 -13 -8 9 11 11 -66 3 
Senegal  22 48 100 30 12 6 22 46 121 20 11 11 24 2 0 5 15 31 -7 16 
Americas  29029  20861  100 3 -5 825 1413  7 22 8 18137  4285  21 -7 -19 9790  14928  72 4 6 
North America  27613  19661  100 1 -5 796 1373 7 24 8 16938  3751 19 -12 -19 9604 14303  73 3 6 
USA 24184  16258  100 0 -6 677 1182 7 27 8 15252  3455 21 -15 -19 8088 11407  70 2 5 
Canada  3147 2838 100 12 -1 83 145 5 4 8 1662 244 9 90 -24 1299 2438 86 9 9 
Mexico  282 564 100 8 10 35 45 8 27 4 24 52 9 51 12 217 458 81 2 11 
South and Central America  1415 1200 100 25 -2 30 40 3 -20 4 1199 534 45 55 -11 186 625 52 11 19 
Brazil  626 638 100 137 0 18 12 2 13 -6 506 429 67 302 -2 101 197 31 30 10 
Peru 234 156 100 102 -6 1 2 1 -51 11 227 76 49 41376  -15 5 78 50 8 46 
Chile 481 151 100 38 -15 0 11 7 216 74 464 1 0 2312 -61 17 139 92 31 35 
Colombia  22 90 100 20 22 2 4 4 -48 11 1 3 3 1172 11 19 83 92 24 24 
Argentina  25 79 100 22 18 4 4 5 -69 0 0 23 29 98 98 21 52 66 31 14 
Ecuador  1 23 100 -21 56 0 0 1 -62 1 0 0 0 -39 -12 1 23 99 -20 64 
Costa Rica  5 20 100 0 22 0 1 4 94 9 0 0 0 -40 … 4 19 96 -2 23 
El Salvador  2 17 100 132 35 1 3 19 22 14 0 1 8 5549 7371 1 13 74 166 48 
Uruguay  5 17 100 -93 20 1 1 7 22 10 0 2 14 -99 … 4 13 79 41 18 
Guatemala  2 8 100 231 23 1 1 12 71 -4 0 0 0 - … 1 7 88 277 42 
Venezuela  12 1 100 -99 -35 0 0 5 -99 -21 0 0 0 -100 … 12 1 95 -99 -35 
Asia and Pacific  70285  75367  100 21 1 7285  10574  14 -4 5 59460  48208  64 32 -3 3437  12890  17 12 21 
China  42710  41556  100 30 0 2361 3936 9 6 8 39900  33169  80 31 -3 448 2520 6 23 28  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 38 -   All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions and major markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2010  2017  2017  2017  2010 -
2017  2010  2017  2017  2017  2010 -
2017  2010  2017  2017  2017  2010 -
2017  2010  2017  2017  2017  2010 -
2017  
India 11563  10738  100 17 -1 2121 2396 22 -31 2 8488 5023 47 47 -7 942 1934 18 24 11 
Thailand  4806 6694 100 12 5 644 1135 17 17 8 3971 4347 65 15 1 191 1035 15 17 27 
Japan  3395 5076 100 15 6 624 820 16 18 4 1884 839 17 98 -11 871 3395 67 4 21 
Korea, Rep. of  1706 2867 100 8 8 149 374 13 -8 14 1259 1447 50 22 2 298 1044 36 0 20 
Chinese Taipei  3382 2077 100 11 -7 120 120 6 15 0 3206 1772 85 11 -8 57 171 8 -1 17 
Indonesia  429 1456 100 85 19 248 392 27 25 7 126 900 62 152 32 55 164 11 38 17 
Singapore  495 1064 100 -48 12 96 195 18 7 11 250 226 21 88 -1 81 486 46 -5 29 
Australia  283 993 100 6 20 54 67 7 18 3 29 71 7 295 14 200 853 86 2 23 
Hong Kong, China  366 913 100 26 14 139 203 22 8 6 30 4 0 238 -24 197 705 77 31 20 
Malaysia  557 878 100 -1 7 302 348 40 2 2 219 212 24 -19 0 33 315 36 13 38 
Pakistan  460 706 100 1 6 370 474 67 -6 4 61 185 26 22 17 28 47 7 22 7 
Philippines  96 217 100 74 12 47 93 43 55 10 37 13 6 806 -14 11 111 51 75 38 
New Zealand  36 133 100 4 21 11 22 16 -26 11 1 0 0 162 -17 24 111 84 13 24 
Europe and CIS  27322  47593  100 3 8 4840  6493  14 9 4 9360  6302  13 -16 -5 12692  31388  66 10 14 
EU (28)  25916  40824  100 4 7 4343 5580 14 9 4 9084 6139 15 -16 -5 12063  28889  71 9 13 
Switzerland  293 4224 100 -8 46 94 182 4 13 10 0 1 0 14731  55 199 847 20 26 23 
Norway  212 501 100 11 13 26 53 10 -14 11 14 45 9 7 18 171 403 80 16 13 
CIS 900 2044 100 19 12 378 679 33 9 9 262 115 6 -1 -11 259 1249 61 30 25 
Russian Federation  677 1378 100 26 11 298 312 23 17 1 156 2 0 -28 -46 223 1064 77 33 25 
Belarus  25 312 100 6 43 18 288 92 5 48 0 0 0 56 60 7 24 8 21 20 
Ukraine  182 275 100 9 6 55 72 26 3 4 106 110 40 10 1 21 93 34 13 24 
Kazakhstan  13 64 100 -1 25 6 7 11 -19 2 0 3 5 -74 71 6 53 83 28 35 
Azerbaijan  1 12 100 2 48 1 1 9 72 6 0 0 0 … -100 0 11 91 -2 119 
Kyrgyzstan  2 4 100 132 11 0 0 1 -47 92 0 0 0 -99 26 2 4 99 145 11 
* Regional totals are based on the information available, and may not coincide with aggregated trade figures.  
… Not available.  
- Not applicable . 
Source : UN Comtrade database and Trade Data Monitor . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 39 - 
 
  Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2017 
 
(Million dollars and p ercentage shares)  
HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2010 2017 2010-2017 2010 2017 2010 2017  
2709 Petroleum oils, crude  69,409  35,599  -9.1 45.7 22.7 5.7 4.1 
6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, trousers  3,643  6,856  9.5 2.4 4.4 10.3 17.6 
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, 
waist-coats and similar articles, 
knitted or ...  4,770  6,688  4.9 3.1 4.3 9.9 13.2 
6109 T-shirts, singlets and ot her vests, 
knitted or crocheted  4,134  6,581  6.9 2.7 4.2 13.2 18.2 
7108 Gold (including gold plated with 
platinum)  3,987  5,201  3.9 2.6 3.3 3.0 2.3 
2711 Petroleum gases  and other 
gaseous hydrocarbons  4,831  5,163  1.0 3.2 3.3 1.6 2.1 
6204 Women's or girls' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
dresses, skirts  2,313  5,144  12.1 1.5 3.3 4.7 10.5 
7403 Refined copp er and copper alloys, 
unwrought  5,079  4,401  -2.0 3.3 2.8 7.9 7.6 
7402 Unrefined copper; copper a nodes 
for electrolytic refining  1,917  4,183  11.8 1.3 2.7 27.0 40.9 
6104 Women's or girls' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
dresses, skirts  1,206  3,180  14.9 0.8 2.0 7.0 12.9 
6205 Men's  or boys' shirts, not knitted 
or crocheted  1,553  2,602  7.7 1.0 1.7 12.0 20.3 
2606 Alumin ium ores and concentrates  714 2,261  17.9 0.5 1.4 21.6 43.9 
8105 Cobalt mattes and other 
intermediate products of cobalt 
metallurgy; cobalt and articles 
thereof, including waste and 
scrap  722 2,209  17.3 0.5 1.4 26.8 44.8 
7102 Diamonds, whether or not  
worked, but not mounted or set  1,086  2,197  10.6 0.7 1.4 0.9 1.9 
0901 Coffee, whether or not roasted or 
decaffeinated; coffee husks and 
skins; coffee substitutes 
containing coffee  1,473  1,796  2.9 1.0 1.1 6.2 5.6 
2701 Coal; briquettes, ovoids  and 
similar solid fuels manufactured 
from coal  58 1,776  62.9 0.0 1.1 0.1 1.3 
2716 Electrical energy  700 1,554  12.1 0.5 1.0 2.3 5.7 
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or 
not stripped of bark or sapwood, 
or roughly squared  1,606  1,550  -0.5 1.1 1.0 10.7 9.0 
6403 Footwear, with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leather and uppers 
of leather  656 1,433  11.8 0.4 0.9 1.3 2.9 
2401 Tobacco, unmanufactured 
(whether or not threshed or 
similarly processed); tobacco 
refuse  1,468  1,400  -0.7 1.0 0.9 12.5 13.2 
6108 Women' s or girls' slips, 
petticoats, b riefs, panties, 
nightdresses, py jamas, negligees, 
bathrobes and similar articles, 
knitted or crocheted  588 1,319  12.2 0.4 0.8 5.7 12.8 
1207 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruits 
nesoi, whether or not broken  924 1,305  5.1 0.6 0.8 30.7 32.4 
6111 Babies' garments and clothing 
accessories, knitted or crocheted  431 1,187  15.6 0.3 0.8 6.7 16.9 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 40 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2010 2017 2010-2017 2010 2017 2010 2017  
6105 Men's  or boys' shirts, knitted or 
crocheted  816 1,174  5.3 0.5 0.7 11.6 15.9 
0713 Leguminous vegetables, dried 
shelled  1,331  1,171  -1.8 0.9 0.7 16.8 11.7 
6202 Women' s or girls' overcoats, 
raincoats, cloaks, anoraks 
(including ski -jackets) and similar 
articles, not knitted or crocheted, 
nesoi 283 1,148  22.1 0.2 0.7 2.3 6.7 
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, 
including roasted iron pyrites  1,323  1,118  -2.4 0.9 0.7 1.0 1.0 
6201 Men's  or boys' overcoats, 
raincoats, cloaks, anoraks 
(including ski -jackets) and similar 
articles, not knitted or crocheted, 
nesoi 424 1,086  14.4 0.3 0.7 4.7 8.3 
0801 Coconuts, brazil nuts and cashew 
nuts, fresh or dried  423 1,079  14.3 0.3 0.7 11.5 14.0 
0303 Fish, frozen, excluding fish fillets 
and other fish meat without 
bones; fish livers and roes, 
frozen  958 1,070  1.6 0.6 0.7 4.9 5.0 
7601 Alumin ium, unwrought  1,750  1,063  -6.9 1.2 0.7 3.6 1.8 
2609 Tin ores and concentrates  64 1,053  49.3 0.0 0.7 12.8 70.9 
2603 Copper ores and concentrates  1,511  1,027  -5.4 1.0 0.7 3.3 1.8 
6206 Women' s or girl's  blouses, shirts 
and shirt -blouses, not knitted or 
crocheted  447 1,002  12.2 0.3 0.6 3.6 6.8 
0306 Crustaceans, live , fresh chilled , 
frozen , dried, etc.; smoked; in 
shell, cooked by steam or boiling 
water; flours, meals & pellets for 
human co nsumption  846 995 2.3 0.6 0.6 4.9 4.1 
6103 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, 
suit-type jackets, blazers, 
trousers, bib and brace overalls, 
breeches and shorts (no 
swimwear), knitted or crocheted  284 971 19.2 0.2 0.6 7.4 13.5 
0905 Vanilla  80 937 42.1 0.1 0.6 60.8 73.4 
7103 Precious and semiprecious stones 
(no diamonds), not strung, 
mounted etc.; ungraded precious 
and semiprecious stones (no 
diamonds) strung for transport  285 874 17.3 0.2 0.6 7.8 9.6 
2710 Petroleum oils& oils from 
bituminous mins (other than 
crude)& products therefrom, 
nesoi, containing 70% (by 
weight) or more of these oils; 
waste oils  3,068  866 -16.5 2.0 0.5 0.5 0.2 
6107 Men's or boys' und erpants, briefs, 
nightshirts, py jamas, bathrobes, 
dressing gowns and similar 
articles, knitted or cro cheted  285 831 16.5 0.2 0.5 5.8 13.4 
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed  1,164  812 -5.0 0.8 0.5 7.2 8.6 
4202 Travel goods, vanity cases, 
binocular and camera cases, 
handbags, wallets, cutlery cases 
and similar containers, of various 
specified materials  32 795 58.5 0.0 0.5 0.1 1.3 
6404 Footwear, with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leather and uppers 
of textile materials  160 789 25.6 0.1 0.5 1.2 2.1 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 41 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value ($mn)  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share in 
world exports 
(%) 
  2010 2017 2010-2017 2010 2017 2010 2017  
6210 Garments, made -up of fabrics of 
felt or nonwovens and garments 
of textile fabrics (not knit ted etc.) 
Rubberized or impregnated, 
coated etc. With plastics  205 758 20.5 0.1 0.5 2.9 8.9 
4001 Natural rubber, balata, gutta -
percha, guayule, chicle and 
similar natural gums, in primary 
forms or in plates, sheets or strip  726 757 0.6 0.5 0.5 3.0 4.2 
1006 Rice 223 711 18.0 0.1 0.5 1.2 4.8 
0307 Molluscs, live, fresh, chilled, 
frozen, dried, salted or in brine; 
smoked; flours, meals and 
pellets, fit for human 
consumption  338 710 11.2 0.2 0.4 3.7 5.4 
0104 Sheep and goats, live  368 651 8.5 0.2 0.4 23.8 53.2 
6402 Footwear, with outer soles and 
uppers of rubber or plastics, 
nesoi 134 641 25.1 0.1 0.4 0.5 2.3 
6302 Bed linen, table linen, toilet linen 
and kitchen linen  509 600 2.4 0.3 0.4 3.3 3.5 
Source:  UN Comtrade  database (2010), Trade Data Monitor (2017) [importer data based on available 
 reporters].  
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 42 - 
 
  Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 201 7 
(Million dollars and annual percentage change)  
 
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2017  2010 -
2017  2015  2016  2017  2017  2010 -
2017  2015  2016  2017  
LDCs  34,248 7 -4 -3 7 67,657 4 -15 -9 8 
Afghanistan  324 -23 -46 -42 -10 1,516 2 -16 -17 22 
Angola  675 -3 -25 -43 -5 13,731 -2 -32 -27 13 
Bangladesh  2,262 9 2 19 13 9,011 12 0 3 19 
Benin  346 0 -25 -7 9 799 7 -25 -1 22 
Bhutan  158 13 1 17 10 203 6 3 0 7 
Burkina Faso  456 8 -14 16 7 1,310 7 -11 6 7 
Burundi  19 15 -37 -9 8 170 1 -18 -12 -6 
Cambodia  4,487 13 2 2 17 2,246 15 2 7 11 
Central African 
Republic  56 7 -9 6 5 206 1 -14 -9 5 
Chad 165 -7 -8 -14 3 2,620 1 -13 -7 3 
Comoros  67 3 6 -20 5 93 0 -17 3 10 
Democratic Republic 
of the Congo  119 -12 -51 -25 40 1,890 -4 -30 -19 22 
Djibouti  195 4 21 -21 6 169 7 22 -15 -6 
Eritrea  489 34 8 8 8 182 15 15 15 13 
Ethiopia  3,037 7 8 -6 10 5,132 11 10 7 -1 
The Gambia  108 -3 7 -12 -21 111 5 -1 13 -16 
Guinea  51 -2 23 -32 -4 917 13 -8 41 29 
Guinea -Bissau  23 -8 -24 -41 12 84 -3 12 -38 3 
Haiti 582 5 5 -15 1 1,061 5 -5 -3 9 
Kiribati  11 0 -34 24 8 55 4 -1 -8 5 
Lao People’s 
Democratic Republic  849 8 12 -2 2 791 17 30 -3 28 
Lesotho  23 -8 61 32 -59 331 -3 -4 -4 17 
Liberia  42 1 -14 -23 -10 178 -4 -27 -32 -10 
Madagascar  1,131 3 -18 9 -3 934 -1 -10 -4 5 
Malawi  111 6 6 -1 2 236 2 23 -13 -10 
Mali 439 3 0 5 3 1,323 4 -2 10 5 
Mauritania  170 7 -21 11 -25 645 0 -29 -6 15 
Mozambique  650 15 0 -39 48 3,046 15 -18 9 -6 
Myanmar  4,006 42 23 -3 9 3,127 23 9 21 9 
Nepal  1,383 13 -4 0 30 1,591 9 1 5 28 
Niger  225 10 -19 -16 23 869 0 -7 -17 8 
Rwanda  729 17 42 1 27 904 11 83 3 -7 
Sao Tome  and 
Principe  72 28 11 6 -13 59 16 -20 -3 -2 
Senegal  1,122 3 -11 5 4 1,347 3 -10 1 5 
Sierra Leone  295 27 -2 36 9 514 11 -29 -49 17 
Solomon Islands  134 6 -9 16 17 202 2 -19 12 3 
Somalia  393 … 5 5 5 1,452 … 8 1 9 
South Sudan  194 … 229 85 9 390 … 62 -56 15 
Sudan  1,491 32 5 -7 0 1,429 -7 -13 -16 1 
Tanzania  3,838 10 0 6 7 1,757 -1 0 -20 -16 
Timor -Leste  77 14 -7 8 25 316 -5 5 18 -29 
Togo 516 9 1 9 7 419 1 -13 7 5 
Tuvalu  3 0 -13 5 7 19 -5 7 20 1 
Uganda  1,349 4 -10 -9 -17 2,025 2 -11 -17 4 
Vanuatu  344 3 -13 18 5 128 0 24 -15 -16 
Yemen  168 -27 -63 -43 -48 655 -15 -54 -29 -26 
Zambia  865 6 1 3 -2 1,464 8 -13 -3 9 
Memorandum item:            
World  5,279,400  5 -5 1 8 5,074,487  5 -5 1 6 
… Not available.  
Note:  Countries names and values appearing in italics refer to preliminary estimates.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 43 - 
 
  Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2018  or latest available yeara 
Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
Armenia 
(2016)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
6 April 2016 43.9%  
(electrical machinery, 
chemicals, iron and steel 
products, alcoholic beverages)  IDB 
Australia 
(2017)  Duty- and quota -free entry 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 100%  WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada 
(2017)  GSP – Least -developed 
Countries' Tariff 
Programme (LDCT)  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2000. Extended 
until 31 December 2024.  98.6% (dairy and other animal 
products, meat, meat 
preparations, cereal products)  WT/COMTD/N/15  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Ad d.2 
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.3  
Chile (2017)  DFQF scheme for the LDCs  
Entry into force:  
28 February 2014  99.5% (cereals, sugar, milling 
products)  
 WT/COMTD/N/44  
WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/PTA/2/1  
China 
(2017)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2010 96.6% (chemicals, transport 
vehicles, machinery and 
mechanical appliances, electrical 
machinery, paper)  WT/COMTD/N/39  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.2  
European 
Union  GSP – Everything But 
Arms (EBA) initiative  
Entry into force:  
5 March  2001 99.8% (arms and ammunition)  WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7  
Iceland  GSP – Tariff preferences 
for the world’s poorest 
countries  
Entry into force:  
29 January 2002  91.8% (meat, food 
preparations, vegetables, dairy 
and other animal products, 
plants and trees)  WT/COMTD/N/17  
WT/COMTD/N/17/Corr.1  
India (2016)  Duty-Free Tariff Preference 
Scheme (DFTP)  
Entry into force:  
13 August  2008 94.1% (plastics, coffee and tea, 
alcoholic beverages, tobacco, 
food residues)  WT/COMTD/N/38  
WT/COMTD/N/38/Add.1  
Japan 
(2017)  GSP – Enhanced duty - and 
quota -free market access  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007.  
Extended until 
31 March  2021  97.8% (fish and crustaceans, 
footwear, milling products, 
cereal products, sugar)  WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14  
WT/COMTD/N/2/ Add.15  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.16  
Kazakhstan  GSP – Tariff Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2010  62.4% (vehicles, machinery, 
beverages, articles of iron and 
steel)  IDB 
Korea, 
Republic of  Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 January 2000  89.9% (fish and crustaceans, 
mineral fuels, oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, wood 
products, vegetables)  WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1  
Kyrgyz 
Republic 
(2013)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
29 March 2006 99.9% ( meat, fruits, chemicals, 
wood and paper, machinery)  IDB 
Montenegro 
(2017)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2017 92.9%  
(fish and crustaceans, alcoholic 
beverages, meat and dairy 
products)  IDB 
New 
Zealand 
(2017)  GSP – Tariff Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001  
100%  WT/COMTD/27  
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 44 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
Norway 
(2017)  GSP – Duty- and quota -
free market access  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 
 100%  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5/Corr.1  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.6  
Russian 
Federation 
(2016)  GSP scheme in the context 
of the Customs Union 
between Belarus, 
Kazakhstan and the 
Russian Federation.  
Entry into force: 
1 January  2010 
 37.1% (machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
chemicals, electrical machinery, 
iron and steel products, 
transport vehicles)  WT/COMTD/N/42  
Switzerland  GSP – Revised Preferential 
Tariffs Ordinance   
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007 
 100%  WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.5  
Chinese 
Taipei  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
17 December 2003  
 30.8% (machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
chemicals, electrical machinery, 
fish and crustaceans, plastics)  WT/COMTD/N/40  
WT/COMTD/N/40/Corr.1  
Tajikistan 
(2014)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
25 October 2003  
 3.7% (Duty -free access 
includes machinery, glass 
products, petroleum products)  IDB 
Thailand 
(2017)  DFQF scheme for  the LDCs  
Entry into force:  
9 April 2015  71.0% (transport vehicles, 
electrical machinery, machinery 
and mechanical appliances, iron 
and steel products, apparel and 
clothing)  
 WT/COMTD/N/46  
Turkey 
(2016)  GSP 
Entry into force:  
31 December  2005 80.5% (iron and steel products, 
fish and crustaceans, food 
preparations, meat, oil seeds 
and oleaginous fruits)  
 WT/TPR/S/259/Rev.1  
United 
States of 
America 
(2017)  GSP for least -developed 
beneficiary developing 
countries (LDBDC). The 
Trade Preferences 
Extension Act of 2015 
(Title II) authorizes GSP 
until 31 December 2020  
and makes GSP retroactive 
to 1 January  2018.  
 82.4% (apparel and clothing, 
cotton, fibres, footwear, dairy 
and other animal products)  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8  
WT/COMTD /N/1/Add.9  
 African Growth and 
Opportunity Act (AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000.  
Extended un til 
30 September  2025 
(Title I) 
 97.5%  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/L/970  
WT/L/1006  
WT/COMTD/LDC/M/71  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/66  
 
- 45 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)b References  
United 
States of 
America 
(2017)  Caribbean Basin Trade 
Partnership Act (CBTPA)  
Entry into force:  
1 October 2000.  
Extended until 
30 September 2025 
(Title III) Duty free for most products, 
including textiles and apparels. 
The Haitian Hemispheric 
Opportunity through 
Partnership Encouragement 
(HOPE) Act of 2006 pr ovided 
new trade benefits, especially of 
apparel imports from Haiti. The 
HOPE II Act of 2008 enhanced 
duty-free treatment for 
qualifying apparel imports from 
Haiti. The Haiti Economic Lift 
Program (HELP) Act of 2010 
provided duty -free treatment 
for additio nal textile and 
apparel products from Haiti.  WT/L/950  
WT/L/1012  
 
a This table represents a non -exhaustive list of non -reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives 
undertaken in favour of LDCs.  
b The duty-free tariff line coverage can slightly differ with the one shown in Table 4 due to different 
reference years. Major exclusions refer to HS Chapter descriptions.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
__________