WORLD TRADE  
ORGANIZATION   
S/WPDR/W/49 
13 September 2012 
 (12-4832) 
Working Party on Domestic Regulation  
  
 
TECHNICAL STANDARDS IN SERVICES 
 
Note by the Secretariat
1 
  
1. At the request of the Working Party on Dom estic Regulation, following the meetings of 
28 October and 4 November 2011, this Secretar iat Note provides background information on 
technical standards in services.  In particular, it seek s to clarify three issues:  (i) what are technical 
standards in services?  (ii) how are they devel oped and by whom? and (iii) how are they used? 
2. The Note is divided into three sections.  The first section discusses the role of standards and 
their application to services.   In this section, di fferent examples of standards found in service sectors 
will be used to illustrate their typical conten t and scope.  The second section explains how such 
standards are developed at national, regional and international levels, and the various agencies 
involved.  It also discusses how standards, even if  voluntary, can become a mandatory obligation by 
being referred to, or incorporated, into a law or regula tion.  It should be noted that, since standardizing 
bodies have, in the main, the same fr amework for developing both product
2 and services standards, 
many of the processes described in this Note appl y to both.  The section also discusses the role of 
international standards and conformity assessment .  The third section contains some concluding 
observations based on the foregoing analysis. 
3. The purpose of this Note is to assist Member s in the context of the technical discussions 
which have been undertaken pursuant to the manda te contained in Article VI.4 of the GATS to 
negotiate domestic regulation disciplines.  It does not purport to interpret the use of this term in 
documents submitted by Members nor does it seek to establish a definition of the term 'technical 
standards'. 
_______________ 
 
                                                      
1 This document has been prepared under the Secret ariat's own responsibility and without prejudice to 
the positions of Members and to their rights and obligations under the WTO. 
2 The term 'product' is used in this Note to refer to 'goods'. S/WPDR/W/49 
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Table of Contents 
 
I.  TECHNICAL STANDARDS IN SERVICES ......................................................................... 3  
A.  W
HAT IS A 'STANDARD '? ............................................................................................................. 3  
B.  'STANDARDS ' AND 'TECHNICAL REGULATIONS ' IN THE TBT  AGREEMENT AND 
'TECHNICAL STANDARDS ' IN THE GATS ..................................................................................... 6  
C.  PURPOSE OF STANDARDS  ............................................................................................................ 8  
D.  WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF TECHNICAL STANDARDS IN SERVICES ? .................................. 9  
II.  DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTA TION OF STANDARDS ................................... 16  
A.  HOW AND WHERE ARE STANDARDS SET AND BY WHOM ? ....................................................... 16  
1.  International level ........................................................................................................... ........ 16 
2.  Regional level ................................................................................................................ ........... 19  
3.  National level ................................................................................................................ ........... 20  
4.  Vertical and horizontal integration in standards setting..................................................... 23  
5.  Standard-setting and capacity issues .................................................................................... 23  
B.  CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT  ...................................................................................................... 25  
III. SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS ...................................................... 28  
  S/WPDR/W/49 
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  I. TECHNICAL STANDARDS IN SERVICES 
4. At the outset, a distinction is needed between de facto  and formal standards.  The former are 
informal, in the sense that they ar e standards that have achieved wid espread use in the market without 
having been formulated or adopted by any standardizing body.  Sometimes a de facto  industry 
standard might become a formal standard.  For ex ample, the PDF computer file format created by 
Adobe in 1993 adhered to certain internal standards, but these were  neither published nor coordinated 
by a standards body.  The format and the standa rds it used achieved widesp read use and became the 
industry standard.  It was only later in 2005,  that PDF/A became a formal standard as 
ISO 19005-1:2005.3  Formal standards, on the other hand, ar e formulated by a standardizing body and 
are usually adopted by consensus by the vari ous stakeholders involved in the process. 
5. It should be noted that the focus of this Note is on the development of formal standards and 
not de facto  standards.  In the literature, the terms 'standards organizations', 'standards body', 
'standards developing organization' or 'standards setti ng organization' are used to generally refer to 
any organization whose activities involve the devel opment and publication of standards.  For the 
purposes of this Note these bodies will be referred to as standardizing bodies.  It should also be noted 
that amongst such bodies the term 'services standa rd' appears to be more commonly used than 
'technical standards in services'.  In this  Note, both terms are used interchangeably. 
A. WHAT IS A 'STANDARD '? 
6. Given that standards were first created for manufacturing purposes, the concepts used in 
standardization often relate to the use of certain  measurements, materials, dimensions, procedures, 
formats or units, which is why they are sometimes referred to as 'technical standards'.  Standardizing 
bodies do not, however, generally make a distinction on th e basis of whether a standard is technical or 
not since, by definition, a standard will include technical content. 
7. At its very simplest, a standard would refer to an agreed, repeatable way of doing something.  
In more elaborate definitions, a standard would also  refer to the form the product takes and the way by 
which it has been developed.  The International Or ganization for Standardization (ISO), for instance, 
defines a standard as follows: 
"A document, established by consensus and approv ed by a recognized body, that provides, for 
common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or their results, 
aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context.  NOTE 
Standards should be based on the consolidated  results of science, technology and experience, 
and aimed at the promotion of  optimum community benefits ".4 
8. The ISO, which uses the term 'services standard ', defines it as a standard that specifies the 
requirements to be fulfilled by a service, to establish its fitness for purpose.  The concept of fitness for 
purpose is, in turn, defined as the ability of a prod uct, process or service to serve a defined purpose 
under specific conditions. 
9. As used in American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International, a standard is 
a document that has been developed and establis hed within the consensus principles of the 
organization and which meets the requirements of ASTM procedures and regulations.  Full consensus 
                                                      
3 ISO 19005-1:2005.  Document management - Electronic document file format for long-term 
preservation - Part 1:  Use of PDF 1.4 (PDF/A-1). 
4 ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004, definition 3.2. S/WPDR/W/49 
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  standards are developed with the participation of all parties who have a stake in the standard's 
development and/or use.
5 
10. The term 'standard' as contained in the above  definitions covers products, processes and 
services.  These definitions are often used by many other national or regional standards bodies without modification, or with some slight amen dments.  For instance, the European Committee for 
Standardization (CEN) describes a standard as a "tech nical publication that is used as a rule, guideline 
or definition", which is developed through con sensus, by all interested parties including 
manufacturers, consumers and regulators of a particul ar material, product, process or service.  Similar 
definitions can be found at the national level. 
11. The American National Standards Institute, for ex ample, uses the same definition as the ISO.  
British Standards defines a standard as "a published document that contains a technical specification 
or other precise criteria designed to be used co nsistently as a rule, guideline, or definition".
6  
Standards Australia refers to standards as " published documents setting out specifications and 
procedures designed to ensure products, services a nd systems are safe, reliable and consistently 
perform the way they were intended to.  They est ablish a common language which defines quality and 
safety criteria".7  Similar elements are contained in the definition used by the Kenya Bureau of 
Standards, where a Kenyan standard is define d as a "document established by consensus and 
approved by the Kenya Bureau of Standards, that  provides for common and repeated use, rules, 
guidelines or characteristics for products and ser vices and related processes or production methods, 
aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of or der in a given context.  It may also include or 
deal exclusively with terminology, symbols, pa ckaging, marking or labelling requirements as they 
apply to a product, process or production method".8  The Barbados National Standards Institution, on 
the other hand, broadly defines a standard as "a published document by a recognised authority that 
contains guidelines or criteria for executing a particular task".9 
12. In some definitions, it is set out that standa rds are not mandatory.  Standards Malaysia, for 
example, defines a standard as "a document approved by a recognized body, that provides for 
common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or ch aracteristics for products or related processes and 
production methods, with which compliance is not ma ndatory;  and which may also include or deal 
exclusively with terminology, symbols, packaging, marking or labelling requirements as they apply to 
a product, process or production method."10  The US Department of Energy defines technical 
standards as "performance-based or design-specific technical specifications and related management 
systems practices" that are developed and a dopted by voluntary consensus standards bodies.11  Under 
the Mexican Federal Law on Metrology and Standard ization (FLMS) a technical standard is one 
"which is drawn up by a national standardizati on body of the Ministry of the Economy under the 
terms of this Law and which lays down for common a nd repeated use, rules, specifications, functions, 
testing methods, guidelines, characteristics or pr escriptions applying to a product, process, facility, 
system, activity, service or method of production or operation, and those pertaining to terminology, 
packaging, marking or labelling".12  Under the FLMS, a technical regulation, while having similar 
characteristics to a standard, is defined as a mandatory requirement. 
                                                      
5 Reproduced from the ASTM International website:  http://www.astm.org/ABOUT/faqs.html  
6 Source: http://www.bsigroup.com/en/Standards-and-Publ ications/About-standards/What-is-a-standard  
7 Source:  http://www.standards.org.au/St andardsDevelopment/What_is_a _Standard/Pages/default.aspx  
8 Source:  http://www.kebs.org/index.php?opt=standards#  
9 Source:  http://www.bnsi.bb/?q=faq  
10 Standards of Malaysia Act 1996 (Act 549). 
11 US Department of Energy, Technical Standards Program Guide, 19 November 1999. 
12 S/WPDR/W/30, 24 September 2004, p.3.  S/WPDR/W/49 
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  13. While these are but a few of the many defini tions used by standardizing bodies, certain 
common elements appear.  Very generally, a standard  is contained in a document, usually developed 
through consensus by a recognized body, which contains requirements, rules and guidelines for 
a process, product or service.  Standards are typically designed to be used consistently and repeatedly, 
with the aim of ensuring that the product or service c onforms to certain characteristics, or in the case 
of a service, is performed in a certain manner.  These requirements are sometimes complemented by 
specifications which describe the actual process a nd the technical requirements to be fulfilled.13 
14. A distinction needs to be made between the process of developing, i ssuing and implementing 
standards, which is called standa rdization and their enforcement th rough legislation.  The formal 
process of standardization is usually directed at  publishing standards developed through consensus 
amongst the parties involved and approved by a reco gnized body.  Adoption or approval of a standard 
by either a national, regional or international standardizing body does not, however, make adherence 
to the standard mandatory.  The vast majority of st andards are designed for voluntary use in the sense 
that they are offered for adoption by standardizi ng bodies without being mandated by law.  Although 
many standards are not mandatory, they are widely used  by the private sector as they can help define 
a particular market segment, resolve issues of compatibility and help improve quality. 
15. Nevertheless, it is only when observance of a par ticular standard is required by law does such 
a standard become mandatory, and then only within  the jurisdiction covered by the legislation.  
Usually, this is done by incorporation or by refere nce in the relevant act or rule.  Box 1 provides 
examples of two cases, one where the possibility to  incorporate standards is not limited to those 
developed by a government agency, and another where it is specified that the standards that have to be 
complied with are those issued by the State.  Of ten, mandatory compliance through legislation is 
undertaken in order to address public hea lth, safety and environmental concerns. 
Box 1:  Example of a provision allowing fo r the incorporation of standards into rules 
Excerpt from the Maritime Trans port Act 1994 of New Zealand 
452 Incorporation in rules of material by reference 
(1) The following may be incorporated by reference into a rule made under this Act: 
(a) standards, requirements, or recommended prac tices of international or national organisations: 
(b) standards, requirements, or rules in force in any other jurisdiction: 
(c) standards, requirements, or rules, of any classification society or similar organisation: 
(d) standards, requirements, or rules, of any maritime sporting or maritime recreational organisation: (e) any other written material or document that, in the opinion of the Minister is too large or impractical 
to be printed as part of the rule. 
Excerpt from Regulations on Interna tional Maritime Transporta tion (Adopted at the 49th Executive Meeting of 
the State Council on December 5, 2001, promulgated by Decree No. 335 of the State Council of the People's 
Republic of China on Decem ber 11, 2001, and effective as of January 1, 2002) 
Chapter II Operators of Internat ional Maritime Transportation and Auxiliary Businesses Thereof  
Article 5 
To be engaged in international shipping services, the following conditions shall be met: 
(1) having vessels suitable for employment in intern ational maritime transpor tation, among which there 
must be vessels of Chinese nationality; 
 
Box 1 (cont'd)  
                                                      
13 See UNIDO (2006), Role of standards:  A guide for small and medium sized enterprises, Working 
Paper, Vienna. S/WPDR/W/49 
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  (2) vessels under employment shall be in compliance with the technical standa rds for maritime traffic 
safety as set forth by the State;  (emphasis added) 
(3) having bills of lading, passenger ticke ts or multi-modal transportation documents; 
(4) having senior executives with the profession al qualifications as set forth by the competent 
communications department of the State Council.  
Source :  Websites of Maritime New Zealand (http:// www.maritimenz.govt.nz/rule s) and COSCO Group 
(www.cosco.com/en/pic/research/28734352881917224.pdf ). 
16. When published, standards are generally designate d by a few letters (prefix) and a number.  
The letters (e.g. ISO, EN, BS) indicate the sta ndardizing body which has approved them, and the 
number identifies the specific standard.  The sta ndards reference number quite frequently gives an 
indication of the standardizing bodies involved and the chain of adoption.  For example, the reference 
"UNI EN ISO 9001" indicates an Italian national sta ndard (UNI) which is an adoption of a European 
standard (EN), which itself is an adoption of International Standard ISO 9001.14  Most standards are 
published for sale, the receipts of which can be an  important source of income for the standardizing 
body. 
B. 'STANDARDS ' AND 'TECHNICAL REGULATIONS ' IN THE TBT  AGREEMENT AND 'TECHNICAL 
STANDARDS ' IN THE GATS 
17. In the WTO TBT Agreement, a 'standard' is defined as a: 
"Document approved by a recognized body, that provides, for common and repeated 
use, rules, guidelines or characteristi cs for products or related processes and 
production methods, with which compliance is not mandatory.  It may also include or 
deal exclusively with terminology, symbols, packaging, marking or labelling 
requirements as they apply to a product, process or production method".  (emphasis 
added) 
18. This is distinguished from a 'technical  regulation' which is defined as a: 
"Document which lays down product char acteristics or their related processes and 
production methods, including applicable administrative provisions, with which 
compliance is mandatory.  It may also include  or deal exclusively with terminology, 
symbols, packaging, marking or labelling requirements as they apply to a product, 
process or production method".  (emphasis added) 
19. The Explanatory Note to Annex 1 of the TBT Agreement specifies that "For the purpose of 
this Agreement standards are defined as volunt ary and technical regulations as mandatory 
documents". 
20. No definition of the term 'technical standard s' is provided in the GATS, although the term 
appears in GATS Articles VI:4 and VI:5, the Ac countancy Disciplines and in the Decision on 
Professional Services.15  Nevertheless, discussions amongst Members in the context of the 
negotiations of the Disciplines on Domestic  Regulation in the Accountancy Sector16 have tended to 
suggest that 'technical standards' could be understood  as criteria or rules speci fying the characteristics 
of the service (e.g. the format of financial re ports), as well as the manner in which it should be 
                                                      
14 Example provided by the World Standards Services Network, http://www.wssn.ne t/WSSN/faqs.html  
15 It should be noted that this Note does not analyse the schedules of specific commitments of 
Members.  
16 The Disciplines are contained in th e document S/L/64 , 17 December 1998.  S/WPDR/W/49 
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  performed (e.g. the way in which an audit must be performed including the checks that must be 
performed, the way work should be documented and so on). 
21. Previous Secretariat Notes have highlighted that, "in the accountancy profession, technical 
standards define, for example, the way a normally d iligent auditor should perform an audit, i.e, which 
types of checks he should perform according to th e type of company (industrial companies, banks, 
small- and medium-sized enterprises, etc.), the way work should be documented, etc".17  Technical 
standards have also been described as "requireme nts which may apply both to the characteristics or 
definition of the service itself and to the manner in which it is performed".18  The distinction made 
between the "characteristics of a service" and the "m anner in which it supplied" is somewhat akin to 
that made in the TBT Agreement between "produ ct characteristics" and "related processes and 
production methods". 
22. In the context of the accountancy sector, as well as for many other service sectors, a further 
distinction can often be made between the requireme nts on:  (i) the service supplier;  as distinct from 
those on (ii) the service itself.  Suppliers of accountancy services would typically be required to have an appropriate qualification, be approved by th e competent authorities of the country, adhere to 
a professional body, comply with a code of conduct, etc., in order to be permitted to practice that 
profession and to use its functional title.  By po ssessing such qualification requirements, the service 
supplier would provide evidence of competence.  Requirements on the service, such as technical 
standards, would take the form of rules or crite ria which define content, the procedures to be 
followed, the frequency and format for the delivery of the service, etc. 
23. In a given market place, different standards can co-exist for the same service, allowing 
consumers to choose.  Unless aligned according to an international standard, there may be numerous 
national differences in the technical standards adopt ed by countries, which can make the recognition 
of services or the identification of corresponding services between jurisdictions a real challenge. 
24. Thus, Article VI:5(b) provides that, in determin ing whether a Member's domestic regulations 
are in conformity with the Article VI:4 criteria, account shall be taken of in ternational standards of 
relevant international organiza tions applied by that Member.
19  The Accountancy Disciplines further 
provide that: 
"25. Members shall ensure that measures re lating to technical standards are prepared, 
adopted and applied only to fulfil legitimate objectives. 
26. In determining whether a measure is in  conformity with the obligations under 
paragraph 2, account shall be taken of intern ationally recognized standards of relevant 
international organizations3
 applied by that Member. 
_______________ 
 3 The term "relevant international organizations" refers to international bodies whose 
membership is open to the relevant bodies of at least all Members of the WTO. " 
 
25. Neither Article VI:5(b) nor the Accountanc y Disciplines go as far as the TBT Agreement, 
which states in Article 2:4 that, where relevant in ternational standards exist or their completion is 
imminent, Members must use them, or the relevant parts of them, as a basis for their technical 
                                                      
17 S/WPPS/W/1, 27 June 1995, p.3. 
18 S/WPPS/W/9, 11 September 1996, p.9. 
19 The Article provides in a footnote that the term  'relevant international organizations' refers to 
international bodies whose membership is open to the relevant bodies of at least all Members of the WTO. S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 8  
 
  regulations except when they would be ineffectiv e or inappropriate means of fulfilling legitimate 
objectives. 
26. A further consideration to keep in mind is th at under the TBT Agreement, there is a clear 
distinction between 'standards' as voluntary and 't echnical regulations' as mandatory, with differing 
sets of obligations on Members.  Currently, no such distinction is made in the GATS and standards, 
be they voluntary or otherwise, could fall within the scope of the GATS provided that they meet the 
criteria specified in Article I of the GATS which pr ovides that the Agreement "applies to measures by 
Members affecting trade in services".  It further provides in Article I:3(a) that "measures by Members" means measures taken by:  "(i) central, regional or local governments and authorities;  and 
(ii) non-governmental bodies in the exercise of powers delegated by central, regional or local 
governments or authorities".  The term 'measure' is , in turn, defined in Article XXVIII as meaning 
"any measure by a Member, whether in the form of  a law, regulation, rule, procedure, decision, 
administrative action, or any other form".  The form which a measure might take is thus not 
exhaustively listed and the critical questions are the entity which takes it and the effect it has on trade 
in services. 
C. P
URPOSE OF STANDARDS  
27. Standards are intended to fulfil diverse functions, which are often related to the need to ensure 
the reliability, quality and effectiveness of many pro ducts and services.  In particular, standards are 
often developed to provide comp atibility, improve transparency and address negative production and 
consumption externalities.  The roles described belo w are not meant to be exhaustive;  rather, the 
intention is to illustrate the types of  problems which are typically addressed: 
(a) Compatibility and interoperability.  Sta ndards are often required to ensure that 
processes, products or services can be used t ogether.  For instance, in electronic data 
processing, standard codes are needed to allo w different systems to store, transmit and 
retrieve information.  In the telecomm unications sector, for instance, a standard 
protocol is needed to allow two networks  to communicate with each other.  In the 
context of data communication, a network protocol is a formal set of rules, 
conventions and data structure that govern s how computers and other network devices 
exchange information over a network.  Th e protocol must be based on a standard 
procedure which different data communi cation devices can understand, accept and 
use to be able to interact with each othe r.  The standard may also help companies 
avoid dependence on a single supplier b ecause its availability could increase 
competition among suppliers and stimulate economies of scale.20  This is referred to 
as a network effect, where a system that is widely used by others increases its desirability and value.  If left alone, the market might over-supply the number of potential solutions.  If every company involve d in data communication were to use its 
own protocol, the network effect and economies of scale would be reduced.  
A compatibility standard could generate positive externalities and help make the 
market more efficient by promoting adherence to an industry standard.
21  However, 
there could be risks that the specificati ons could create anti-competitive effects, 
particularly if it is designed by incumbent operators in such a way so as to exclude 
new entrants or raise the cost s of entry into the market. 
                                                      
20 However, competition may suffer where companies internalize the benefits of standards through 
proprietary standards (Blind, K. (2004), "The Economics of Standards:  Theory, Evidence, Policy", Cheltenham:  
Edward Elgar, pp. 43-45). 
21 For more on the compatibility function of standards,  see in particular Blind (2004), pp. 14-18, as 
well as Swann, P. (2000), "The Economics of Standard ization, final report for the Standards and Technical 
Regulation, Directorate Department of Trade and Industry, Manchester", University of Manchester.   S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 9 
 
 
  (b) Information asymmetries.  A standard may also address information asymmetries 
between the producer and user, and provide a minimum assurance of safety or quality.  
This can be particularly important in servi ces since, unlike products, it is not possible 
to physically evaluate the quality of a servi ce or to specify its content through a label.  
Users frequently cannot appreciate the quality of the service until they have consumed 
it.  Such problems are accentuated by the fact that the end user may not always have 
the expertise to assess the technical information they have been given or to differentiate between an array of broadly similar services.  It is also difficult for users, 
who may be non-specialists, to always sp ell out the optimum parameters for the 
performance of a service.  Compliance by a service supplier to a standard can help 
give the user confidence that the servi ce is provided safely and that quality 
expectations are met, thus reducing info rmation asymmetries.  It can also be 
important for the service supplier to dem onstrate adherence to a particular quality 
standard, so as to differentiate its services  from those provided by other suppliers.  By 
laying down conditions on what the servi ce should contain and how it should it be 
performed, commonly recognized and accepted standards can help reduce information 
and transaction costs. 
(c) Negative externalities.  Standards are not  only about addressing the concerns of 
producers and consumers involved in a partic ular transaction.  The development of 
a standard may also be about addressing a common – even global – problem that is not adequately taken into account by either the producer or user.  It may provide 
a solution that is more optimal than wh at would arise if each industry (or each 
government) worked in isolation.  As such , using standards to address externalities is 
often one of the main drivers for internati onal cooperation.  One example might be the 
adoption of international standards to  reduce greenhouse gas emissions by the 
transport sector.  Another might be the development and implementation of 
internationally accepted financial standard s that can help promote sound domestic 
financial systems and thus enhan ce international financial stability. 
28. An important consideration in whether these goals are met is the level at which the standard is 
set and the parties involved in doing so.  It cannot automatically be assumed that all standards will be 
set at the optimum level to enhance competition and e fficiency in the market.  There are risks that the 
standard might favour certain players in the mark et, as they are based on practices which they have 
already adopted or are most suited to following.  In  such a situation, the standard might only solidify 
the status quo and make it difficult for new competitors  to join the market.  The question of how the 
standard is set and by whom is thus vital.  These issues are discussed further in section II. 
D. W
HAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF TECHNICAL STANDARDS IN SERVICES ? 
29. In the case of goods, standards are typically b ased on the physical properties of the final 
product (product standards) or the process by whic h the product was produced (process standards).  
The latter may or may not leave a trace on the product itself.  When it comes to services, it is important to appreciate that, since the nature of service provision is different from that of goods, there are significant challenges to standardization.  Firs tly, a service is not usually defined by physical 
properties, and often its delivery requires direct  interaction between the service supplier and the 
consumer.  Standardization of the service based on its  physical dimensions or material content would 
not appear to be feasible.  That being the case, the use of particular equipment, infrastructure or 
technology could be critical to how the service is pe rformed and supplied.  Indeed, in some cases the 
use of certain equipment is synonymous and indis tinguishable from the service itself.  For instance, 
credit card payments and cash withdrawals from au tomatic teller machines (ATMs) would not be 
possible if there were no common standards for the design and format of the cards and machines, as S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 10  
 
  well as for the operating system utilized.  Likewise, ATMs and credit cards would serve no purpose if 
payment and money transmission services were not possible. 
30. Secondly, assessments of quality and fitness for purpose will be different for a service as 
compared to a manufactured good.  Unlike a physical product, a service cannot easily be subjected to a laboratory test to see whether it contains particul ar materials or performs in a certain way.  Thus, 
greater emphasis has traditionally been given to assessing the competence of the service supplier and 
the satisfaction of customers.  Both are indirect means of controlling for quality, as the former relies 
on there being a positive link between the qualifica tions of the service supplier and the service 
supplied, while the latter can only assess outcomes.  It  also suggests that, in services, there is a close 
relationship between qualification requirements and services standards.  Indeed, in many cases, the 
standard will specify requirements on the qualifications to be possessed by the service supplier. 
31. Despite these challenges, standardizing bodi es have published standards specifically for 
services.  Existing services standards as described by the ISO provide "either a description of the 
service as such, for example by setting out typical para meters and definitions of procedures, or specify 
the requirements to be met by the company offering the service, for example as regards the technical 
equipment needed to deliver the service or the recommended qualifications of the staff performing 
it".
22  Services standards can also cover requirement s and technical specifications on the resources and 
facilities required for the service, the terminology used and the information to be submitted to the 
service consumer. 
32. Existing studies point to the fact that the use of services standards is modest in comparison to 
product standards, and does not reflect the growing importance of the service sector.23  Interest in the 
role of services standards is, however, increasing with the growing share of services in national 
economies, as well as in international trade.  The ISO,  for instance, has noted th at standardization has, 
for some years, been going beyond traditional, prod uct-focused technical fields to include the service 
sector.  Over the last five years, the ISO has cr eated some 40 new technical or project committees, 
with about half of them related to services.24 
33. In Europe, the development of dedicated regi onal services standards has been earmarked as 
an important objective for the single market.25  During the period 1995 to 2009, the Technopolis 
Group recorded the publication of 364 services standards.26  This is a very small fraction of total 
European standards which number around 15,000.27  Of these standards, 11 per cent were published 
between 1995 and 1999, while 56 per cent were publishe d over the period 2005 to 2009.  There is thus 
a general upward trend, which is expected to grow  with the emphasis given in the Services Directive 
                                                      
22 ISO Focus +, Volume 3, No. 3, March 2012, ISSN 2226-1095. 
23 Blind, K (2003),  "Standards in the service sector s:  An Explorative Study", Fraunhofer Institute for 
Systems and Innovation Research.  Germany, 2003. 
24 ISO Focus +, Volume 3, No. 3, March 2012, ISSN 2226-1095. 
25 Two mandates from the EC and the European Free Trade Area were given to the European standards 
bodies CEN (European Centre for Standardization), CENELEC (European  Committee for Electrotechnical 
Standardization) and ETSI (European Telecommunications  Standards Institute).  These organizations were 
requested to undertake standardization work to support the EU's internal market for services. 
26 Technopolis Group (2010), "Mapping services standardisation in Europe", Final Report to the 
Danish Enterprise and Construction Authority, 10 November 2010, available at 
http://www.ebst.dk/file/147979 /DEACA_Final_Report.pdf  
27 Based on estimates by Blind, K (2006), "A taxonomy of standards in the service sector", The 
Services Industries Journal, 26:4, pp.397-420.  S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 11 
 
 
  to promoting European standardization so as to  facilitate the compatibility, interoperability and 
quality of services.28 
34. Based on the WTO Sectoral Classification list, the Technopolis Group in its survey of 
European services standards found that, while standa rds have been developed in all service sectors, 
over a third were in business services.29  In this sector, most are concentrated in other business 
services which include advertising, market research , consultancy, cleaning services, customer contact, 
maintenance and facilities manageme nt, and security services.  It is perhaps no coincidence that 
business services is also the area  with the second largest volume of intra-EU trade making up 
26 per cent of intra-EU exports.  The next largest concentration was in tourism and travel related 
services, followed by transportation.  A study by  CEN on services standardization in Europe which 
used a different methodology found a concentr ation of standards in tourism services. 
35. As there do not appear to have been other st udies of a similar type undertaken in other 
regions, it is difficult to say what the trends might be in other parts of the world.  Also, such estimates 
do not easily allow for cross-comparison as there is no 'standard' definition of what constitutes 
a service standard.  Many countries, not just within the European region, have not taken steps to 
differentiate service standards from product standard s.  Thus, depending on the basis and approach 
taken, the results will differ.  For instance, wh ile the Technopolis Group study found 364 European 
standards, another study in 2003 found 570.30  Thus, given these difficulties, it would not be 
particularly meaningful to try to quantify the num ber of technical standards in services either by 
sector or in terms of absolute numbers. 
36. Nevertheless, recent studies on services standardi zation, particularly those conducted for the 
European market, suggest that the most common areas for existing service sector standards are in 
terms of:  terminology, quality management, environmental management, safety management, 
working conditions, education, ethical standards, c ontractual standards, complaints handling and price 
regulations.31  Since the supply of services will typically involve personnel and equipment, services 
standards often include technical specifications on the type of equipment to be used as well as the 
qualifications and skills of those supplying the service. 
37. Terminology standards define the terms that may be used to describe th e characteristics of the 
service provided.  This can include the use of partic ular signs and symbols.  Such standards may also 
be concerned with ensuring that the description of the service conforms to certain criteria or 
standardized usage of a particular term.  Termi nology standards can help improve transparency and 
reduce misrepresentation or misleading claims.  Agreed definitions are aimed at improving the 
contractual relationship between the service supplie r and the consumer by providing greater certainty 
of the expected content of the service.  For inst ance, the CEN Tourism Services Technical Committee 
has produced terminology standards for hotels, t ourism accommodation, travel agencies and tour 
operators.  These standards seek to clarify the di fferent types of accommodation and services offered 
by various tourism professions (see Box 2). 
                                                      
28 Directive 2006/123/EC of the Eu ropean Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on 
services in the internal market. 
29 The results, however, varied considerably when diff erent classification of services sectors were used, 
with most standards found in the tourism sector.  This correlates with the finding in the European Centre for 
Standardization's (CEN) Horizontal European Standardization Strategy, July 2008. 
30 Blind, K (2003), "Standards in the Service Sectors:  An Explorative Study", Fraunhofer Institute for 
Systems and Innovation Research, April 2003. 
31 Technopolis (2010)  S/WPDR/W/49 
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Box 2:  Examples of terminology standards 
 
The ISO standard ISO 18513:2003 - Ho tels and other types of tourism accommodation - terminology, which 
was prepared in collaboration with CEN, defines terms used in the tourism industry in relation to the various 
types of tourism accommodation and other re lated services.  For instance:  (i) Hotel  is an establishment with 
reception, services and additional facilities where accomm odation and, in most cases, meals are available;  
(ii) Guest house  is an establishment, often in the countryside, offering food and drink, where some 
accommodation is also pr ovided;  while (iii) Apartment hotel  is a hotel where accommodation is provided in 
studios or apartments;  etc. 
The European Standard EN 13809:2003 - Travel Agencies and tour operators - terminology defines various 
tourism professions.  For example:  (i) Tourist Guide  is a person who guides visitors in the language of their 
choice and interprets the cultural and natural heritage  of an area.  The person normally possesses an area-
specific qualification usually issued and/or recognized by the appropriate authority;  (ii ) Tour Manager  is 
a person who manages and supervises the itinerary on behalf of the tour operator, ensuring the programme is 
carried out as described in the tour operator's literature  and sold to the traveller/ consumer, and who gives local 
practical information;  while (iii) Tour Escort  is a representative of a tour ope rator providing basic assistance to 
travellers;  etc. 
 
Source :  Technopolis, 10 November 2010 and ISO. 
38. Many technical standards in services are performance/process-related as they specify the 
manner by which the service is to be produced or supplied, such as the design of the process, the 
protocols followed, the actual conditions under which the service is to be performed, as well as the 
equipment/technology which is to be utilized.  Some times these process-related standards also specify 
the public health, safety and environmental conditions that are to be met.  Such standards seek to systematically and consistently improve the qua lity of the service delivered and can assist service 
suppliers to meet legislative or regulatory requi rements.  Adherence to performance/process-related 
standards, particularly when it is accompanied by external certification, can also help consumers 
distinguish between the different levels of qua lity offered in the market place (see Box 3).  
Establishing common processes or detailed specifications on the design and delivery of the service might also be a way of ensuring that results are comp arable across countries, replicable and consistent 
through time. 
Box 3:  Examples of performance/process-related standards on service characteristics and quality 
Interpretation services 
The ASTM International standard ASTM F2089 - 01(2007) Standard Guide for Language Interpretation 
Services identifies the co mponents of quality language interpretation services and establishes criteria for each 
component.  These criteria define the minimum standard  of quality services in th e language interpretation 
industry with reference to distinctive characteristic s of specific settings.  The needs analysis identifies 
a procedure for making an informed choice of interpretation services. 
Business services 
The European Standard EN 12522:1998 - Furniture removal activities - Furniture removal for private 
individuals (Parts 1 and 2) is aimed at specifying the content of the service as well as how it is to be performed.  
The first part (Part 1:  Service Specification) covers all services agreed upon between the supplier and the 
customer, including the characteristics that allow this service to be assessed.  It specifies minimum qualitative and quantitative rules and characteristics for the service spec ifications of a furniture removal service, including 
transport and packaging materials, and the information provided to the customer.  The second part (Part 2:  
Provision of service) covers all the elements involved in the supply of the service including the personnel, the 
 
Box 3 (cont'd)   S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 13 
 
 
  equipment, the organization and tec hnical requirements for each phase of the furniture removal service.  
Performance standards would also include those concerned with ensuring compatibility and interoperability of 
different technologies, protocols and processes. 
The Danish Standard DS/INSTA 800 E:2007 - Cleaning quality - Measuring system for assessment and rating 
of cleaning quality is a standard for the establishment and assessment of cleaning systems.  It was developed as 
a way of measuring and demonstrating how well a service has been executed.  The standard defines the 
performance indicators that should be used to assess levels of cleanliness, and enables suppliers and customers 
to agree on a level of service quality or performance that is based more on the output or result of the service than 
on the inputs to it. 
British and international market research services sta ndard (BS 7911:2003) was a national standard which set 
minimum standards for data collection and was later adopted as an international standard in ISO 20252:2006 - 
Market opinion and social research:  vocabulary and service requirements.  Both standards set technical 
requirements on how market surveys are to be designed (i.e, sample design and selection, statistical methods 
used, questionnaire design, etc.) and processed (i.e, handling, analysis and reporting of data, administration of 
survey processes, provision of final report and archiving of data). 
The Italian national standard for contact  centre services (UNI 11200:2006) de fines the main requirements of the 
service provided by such centres to ensure an adequate level of service quality, regardless of the organizational 
model or the technology used. 
Medical Services 
ASTM International ASTM F1255-90(2008) Standard Practice for Performance of Prehospital Automated 
Defibrillation provides guidelines for the performance of this procedure.  The standard is practice-related and is 
specifically not meant to deal with equipment specifications, quality assurance or training. 
Education services 
The ISO standard ISO 29990:2010 - Learning services for non-formal education and training - Basic 
requirements for service prov iders specifies basic requirements for education and training.  The core elements 
are on enhancing service quality in the field of lear ning, enhancing the comparability and transparency of 
learning services and optimizing processes.  One of the objectives of the standard is to avoid that national 
standards act as technical  barriers to trade. 
Source :  Technopolis, 10 November 2010,  ISO Focus +, Volume  3, No.3, March 2012 and ASTM International Standards 
and Engineering Digital Library. 
39. Some performance/process-standards are primarily  concerned with ensuring that the service 
meets minimum health, safety and environmental re quirements.  By adopting appropriate precautions, 
which would be defined by the standard, the service supplier is in effect re ducing the risks faced by 
the consumer.  In some cases, such standards are developed as part of an industry-based instrument 
for self-regulation.  In others, there could be more  direct government involv ement in its development 
and subsequent monitoring.  Whether standards on health, safety and environment become embedded 
in government regulation often depends  on the extent or risk of an adverse consequence, the severity 
of the problem, the nature of the industry concerned,  and the need for flexibility or certainty in the 
regulatory arrangement.32  Some examples of standards that are primarily aimed at safety and 
environmental concerns are provided in Box 4. 
 
 
 
 
                                                      
32 Coghlan, Paul (2003), in Alexandra Sidorenko and Christopher Findlay (eds) (2003), Regulation and 
Market Access, Asia-Pacific Press. S/WPDR/W/49 
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Box 4:  Examples of standards to address heal th, safety, environmenta l and customer concerns 
Tourism 
The ISO has established a technical committee on tourism and related services (TC228) which develops 
standards concerning the delivery and management of safety and security in the tourism industry, as well as 
environmental concerns.  The committee is mandated to standardize terminology and specifications of services 
offered by tourism service providers, including related activities, tourist destinations and the requirements of 
facilities and equipment used by them.  So far, standards have been developed for recreational diving services;  
health tourism;  tourist information services;  an d a variety of other leisure and sporting activities. 
European Recreational diving services standards ( EN 14467:2004;  EN 14153-1/2/3:2004;  and EN 14467:2004) 
are aimed at improving quality and safety aspects in th e supply of such services.  The first two specify the 
experience and competencies that a diving instructor ha s to achieve in order for the service supplier to train 
recreational divers.  The final standard specifies more  broadly the safety practices and requirements for 
recreational scuba diving service providers.  This would also include requirements on information prior to and 
during service provision, procedures to be followed, risk assessment, equipment and documentation.  
Mexican national standards (NOM-011-TU-2001 and NOM-011-TU-2001) specify safety requirements on the 
operations conducted by adventure tourism service suppliers. 
Network services 
A new ISO standard (ISO 14452 - Network services billing), covering consumption-based utility network 
services (i.e, electricity supply, gas supply, water, sanitation, district heating and sanitation) to domestic 
customers, aims to protect consumers by improving the transparency of billing by defining minimum 
requirements for the whole process.  This includes pre-billing processes (such as data standards, definitions of products/services);  the production of  the billing document (timeliness and accu racy);  as well as procedures for 
resolving customer complaints/queries (bill validation, re conciliation and procedures for redress).  The standard 
specifies minimum requirements on content and principles on format rather than exact design and layout of the bill. 
Medical services 
Argentinian and Mexican national standards on image diagnosis (IRAM 37452) and radiotherapy services 
(NON-002-SSA3-2007) specify good practices for the safe supply and operation of these services, including on 
the equipment to be utilized. 
The ASTM International standard ASTM F1517-94(2007) Standard Guide for Scope of Performance of 
Emergency Medical Services Ambulance Operations covers minimum standards for the performance of 
emergency medical services (EMS) ambulance operators, in cluding:  operator qualifications, pre-run operation, 
and post-run aspects.  The standard promotes the safe and efficient delivery of the ambulance, equipment, crew, 
passengers and patients, during all phases of the delivery of emergency medical services involving the 
ambulance, at all times exercising the highes t degree of care for the safety of the public.  
Source :  Technopolis, 10 November 2010, ISO Focus +, Volume 3, No.3, March 2012 and ASTM  International Standards 
and Engineering Digital Library. 
40. Compatibility standards typically define the equi pment or infrastructure to be used in the 
supply of that service, including its physical  dimensions, technological specifications and 
performance characteristics.  Standardized railway  tracks, which allow a multitude of commercial 
railway operators to move their trains across borde rs, is one example of how technical standards can 
integrate separate markets and open up competition for transport services.  Compatibility and interoperability standards for services could also be based on requiring that systems and processes 
follow a particular configuration or set-up. 
41. In financial services, for instance, technical st andards used in the Single European Payments 
Area (SEPA) scheme have helped harmonize a multitude  of national euro payment services for credit 
transfers and direct debits into a single format, and can be compared to implementing standardized 
'railroad tracks' for the exchange of payments  across the European Union.  The physical 
characteristics and format of credit and cash cards is another example of where a standard is needed to  S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 15 
 
 
  allow different payment and automated teller mach ines to interoperate and cards to be used 
worldwide.  The dimensions of such ca rds are defined by the standard number 
BS EN ISO/IEC 7810:1996, and adherence to these re quirements is virtually universal.  Technical 
standards have long been necessary for effective postal operations and to interconnect the global 
postal network.  The Universal Postal Union's Sta ndards Board develops the technical standards and 
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) message specificati ons that facilitate the exchange of operational 
information between national postal systems.  The UPU's international addressing standard (S42), for 
instance, consists of:  a set of postal address com ponents used in worldwide addresses;  languages for 
expressing address templates, i.e, formal descriptions  of address formatting rules;  country-specific 
address templates which can be easily incorporated into computer systems for managing addresses.  
Other similar examples of compatibility and interope rability standards can be found in road and rail 
transport, pipelines, energy distribution, telecommunications and audio-visual services (see Box 5 for more detailed examples). 
Box 5:  Examples of standards fo r compatibility and interoperability 
Telecommunication services 
ITU's Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) produces and revises standards 
(ITU-T Recommendations) covering everything from core network functionality and broadband to 
next-generation service.  Telecommunication services depend on the compatibility and interoperability of 
networks and voice, data or  video messages.  Communications cannot take place without standards linking the 
sender and the receiver.  There are well over 3, 000 Recommendations defini ng how telecommunication 
networks operate and interwork.  They have a non-mandatory status until they are adopted in national laws.  
Levels of compliance are, however, high due to  international applicability.  Some examples of 
telecommunication technical standards are listed below: 
 International country calling codes were defined by ITU-T recommendations E.123 and E.164, also 
called IDD (International Direct Dialing) or ISD (International Subscriber) codes.  E.164 provides the 
structure and functionality for telephone numbers, and without it international telephone calls would not be possible. 
 ASN.1 is a formal language or notation that describes data structures for representing, encoding, 
transmitting, and decoding data.  It provides a set of formal rules for describing the structure of objects that are independent of machine-specific encoding techniques and is a precise, formal notation that 
removes ambiguities.  ASN.1 is an extremely importa nt part of today's networks.  It is used, for 
example, in the signalling system (SS7) for most telephone calls, package tracking, credit card 
verification and digital certificates and in many of the most-used software programs.  
 The Internet Protocol Television Global Standards Initiative (IPTV) is developing detailed technical 
standards necessary for deployment by service providers.  These standards would allow the systems of 
different IPTV service suppliers to interoperate and provide a wide range of multimedia services such 
as television, video, audio, text, graphics and data to subscribers of different operators.  
Financial services 
The Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA) payment schemes contain sets of rules and technical standards for the 
execution of SEPA payment transactions that have to be followed by adhering payment service providers.  
These standards provide a common unde rstanding on how to move funds fr om account A to account B within 
SEPA countries.  Technical standards defined in the payment scheme would include:  currency of the funds 
(money) exchanged;  format of the account identifier;  standard data formats for exchanging messages between banks;  rules for 'R' transactions (refunds, returns and rejects);  number of characters carried with remittance 
information;  timelines to be observed by payment service providers when executing a payment transaction.  
SEPA was originally launched as a non-mandatory industr y standard by the European Payments Council (EPC), 
a consortium of banks and bankers' associations from throughout Europe, including Switzerland.  EU legislation 
has since been adopted which defines 1 February 2014 as the deadline in the euro area for compliance with the 
core provisions of this Regulation.  In non-eur o countries, the deadline will be 31 October 2016. 
Source :  European Payments Council and ITU websites. S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 16  
 
  42. It should be noted that some standardizing bodies include management system standards as 
services standards.  However, such standards are not  specific to the service supplied but are concerned 
with how an organization manages its processes or activities for quality purposes, and can usually be 
applied to any organization, whatever its produc t or service.  This includes how it satisfies its 
customers' quality requirements, or its approach to improving quality in internal operations.  The 
ISO 9000 quality management standards, for inst ance, deals with the fundamentals of quality 
management systems and are concerned with the pr ocesses and systems adopted by an organization, 
not the product/service itself. 
II. DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF STANDARDS  
43. The main driver for the great majority of st andards is demand by business and consumers in 
the face of a specific problem.  A wide range of governmental, quasi-governmental or 
non-governmental organizations are involved in developing, issuing and promulgating technical 
standards.  The precise steps followed in sta ndards development may differ depending on the 
developer but there are some common aspects in the process. 
A. H
OW AND WHERE ARE STANDARDS SET AND BY WHOM ? 
44. The sections below describe the roles played by organizations at the international, regional 
and national level, as well as how the standards that th ey develop might relate to each other.  Some of 
these organizations are horizontal in nature, in the sense that they develop standards for all sectors, 
while others are focused on particular sectors or fiel ds of technology.  With the integration of national 
economies and the expansion of trade, the role of  international bodies and standards has gained 
prominence, and there is a trend towards greater  integration of the national standardization 
infrastructure into the network of international standardization activity.33  Regional bodies are also 
part of the standards development landscape and thei r role differs depending on the level of regional 
economic integration amongst countries. 
1. International level 
45. Standardization work often takes place in a 'technical committee', which serves as a hub 
where various stakeholders (e.g. producers, users,  government and academia) gather to provide input 
as work progresses from the initial idea to publishe d document.  The degree of stakeholder and 
government involvement may vary according to the sector and organization concerned.  This may 
depend not only on the standards development framewo rk applicable to that sector but also on the 
type of standard being developed.  It may be expected that governments are less involved in the 
development of standards relating to compatibility and interoperability but are more concerned with 
situations where market inefficiencies may potentiall y lead to health, safety or environmental risks. 
46. Standardizing bodies generally seek to follow the key principles of relevance, effectiveness, 
objectivity, openness, transparency, inclusiv eness, impartiality, coherence and consensus.34  The ISO 
and the IEC, for instance, have laid out in ISO/IEC Guide 59 a Code of Good Practice for Standardization.  The guide deals with procedures for the development of standards, advancement of 
international trade, participation in the standards development process, coordination and information.  
The ISO has also developed a specific ISO/IEC Guide 76:2008 on the development of services standards with a focus on how to incorporate key consumer principles of safety, quality and 
transparency. 
                                                      
33 WTO (2005), World Trade Report 2005:  Exploring the links between trade, standards and the WTO, 
Geneva (hereinafter referred to as WTR 2005). 
 34  See principles contained in Annex B on p.46 of G/TBT/W/Rev.10.  S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 17 
 
 
  47. While the precise steps may differ, the standa rds development process usually consists of 
several distinct, but closely related, successive activ ities which begin with the identification of the 
need for the standard, followed by the formal es tablishment of a technical body involving all the 
interested stakeholders in the field of applicati on to discuss the specifications of the standard.  Once 
the standard has been drafted, members of the standards organization will then seek to adopt the 
standard either by consensus or by vote.  If there is agreement to adopt the standard, it will usually be 
made available by means of publication and promotion.  Figure 1 provides an illustration of how such a process is typically undertaken. 
Figure 1:  Typical processes involved in th e development of international standards  
 
Source :  International Organizati on for Standardization (ISO). 
 
48. In the initial stages (steps 1 and 2), the need fo r a standard is usually expressed by an industry 
sector.  The latter proposes the new work item to th e standardizing body.  Once the need for an 
international standard has been recognized and form ally agreed, the first phase involves definition of 
the technical scope of the future standard.  This phase is usually carried out in working groups which 
comprise technical experts of the parties interested in the subject matter.  These could include experts 
from business, government, academia, test and rese arch groups, and consumer associations.  Once 
agreement has been reached on which technical aspect s are to be covered in the standard, a second 
phase (steps 3 and 4) is entered into during which the parties negotiate the detailed specifications 
within the standard.  The final decision regarding adop tion of the standard can be taken either by vote 
or by consensus.  The draft international standa rd is then submitted to the organization's member 
bodies for voting and comment (stages 5 and 6) at th e enquiry stage and then at the final approval 
stage.  Depending on the voting or consensus rules of  the standardizing body, the text is approved and 
eventually published.35 
49. There are many organizations which develop in ternational standards.  The World Standards 
Services Network lists more than 50 international standardizing bodies.36  An illustrative list of 
international and regional standards organizations is provided in Annex I.  The four largest of such 
organizations are the International Organization fo r Standardization (ISO), ASTM International, the 
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and the International Telecommunication Union 
(ITU).  These organizations essentially provide a foru m for experts to discuss technical issues, build 
                                                      
35See descriptions of typical processes provided on the ISO website:  
http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards_development.htm  and on the ASTM International website:  
http://www.astm.org/ABOUT/faqs.html  
36 http://www.wssn.net/WSSN/  accessed on 30/1/2012. S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 18  
 
  consensus and agree on the best solutions fo r a standard.  The IEC prepares and publishes 
international standards for all electrical, electr onic and related technologies.  The ITU develops 
standards for the information and communications technology sector with a focus on ensuring that technologies are compatible and allow for interc onnection and interoperab ility between different 
networks.  The ISO, on the other ha nd, is not confined to working in a particular technological field or 
industry, and develops a broad ra nge of product, management and services standards for all fields 
except electrical and electronic engineering and telecommunications.  
50. The ISO, ASTM International and the IEC ar e non-governmental bodies, while the ITU is an 
intergovernmental body and part of the UN.  The me mbership of the ISO is made up of private and 
public national standards bodies of 163 countries, one member per country.  Each ISO member is the 
body most broadly representative in matters of stan dardization for the country and designated the 
national standards body (NSB).  The ISO, since its creation in 1947, has published almost 20,000 international standards a nd standard-type documents for products and services in almost all 
industry sectors, as well as for a variety of cross-sector issues such as metrology and generic management systems.
37 
51. The IEC is similarly composed of national co mmittees, one per member economy.  In some 
cases, the national committee to the IEC may also be  the ISO member from that country or economy.  
ISO and IEC standards are voluntary but can become mandatory when they are adopted by legislation 
at the national or regional level.  The local impl ementation of approved inte rnational standards may 
be done by national standard bodies, which in some cases are government bodies, while in others they 
are private organizations.  Given that international standards are voluntary, they are often used by 
companies or other service suppliers not because they  are mandated by regulation but rather because 
they can help resolve a particular problem. 
52. ASTM International, formerly known as the American Society for the Testing of Materials, 
provides a global forum for the development and publication of international voluntary consensus 
standards for materials, products, systems and servi ces.  Membership of ASTM International includes 
more than 30,000 technical experts from 145 countries around the world.  Approximately 
12,000 ASTM standards have been published.38 
53. The ITU, on the other hand, is a United Nations specialized agency, and its members are 
governments.  Currently, 193 countries are ITU memb ers, and over 700 private-sector entities and 
academic institutions are associated with it.  The international standards developed by the ITU are 
referred to as 'Recommendations'.  There ar e three sectors of the ITU which develop 
Recommendations, namely Radiocommunication (ITU-R), Telecommunication Standardization 
(ITU-T) and Telecommunication Development (IT U-D).  There is no obligation on member 
governments to implement Recommendations and they  only become mandatory when adopted as part 
of national law.  However, since these standards have  a high reputation, they  tend to be implemented 
worldwide.  Currently, there are well over 3,000 Recommendations in force covering all fundamental 
components of information and communication technologies (ICTs) from service definition to 
network architecture and security. 
54. In addition, there is a large variety of other standards organizations that also develop and 
publish standards for a range of international uses.  These include organizations such as the 
Association Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASM E), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics 
Engineers (IEEE), the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the Society of Automotive Engineers 
International (SAE International) and the Worl d Wide Web Consortium (W3C).  Some of these 
                                                      
37 Since the 1980s, the ISO started developing generic management systems standards like ISO 9000 
(quality management) and ISO 14000 (environmental management). 
38 See ASTM International, available at http://www.astm.org/ABOUT/aboutASTM.html   S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 19 
 
 
  organizations develop standards fo r a wide array of materials, pr oducts, services and systems, while 
others, such as W3C, develop standards specifically  for web development and interaction.  Unlike the 
ISO, the IEC and the ITU, these standard making orga nizations are not based on the principle of one 
member per country.  Rather, membership in such or ganizations is open to those interested in joining 
and willing to agree to the organization's by-laws. 
2. Regional level 
55. Standards are also set by regional bodies eith er with a specific sector focus or more 
horizontally across all sectors and industries.  Hori zontal regional standards organizations include the 
European Committee for Standardization (CEN), the African Organisation for Standardisation 
(ARSO), the Pan American Standards Commission (COPANT), the Arab Industrial Development and 
Mining Organization (AIDMO), the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC) and the ASEAN 
Consultative Committee for Standards and Quality (ACCSQ).  Examples of sector focused organizations include the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), the 
Interamerican Accounting Association (IFAC), the European Telecommunications Standards Institute 
(ETSI) and the Council of Bars and Law Societies of the European Community (CCBE).  A fuller 
listing of regional bodies and links to th eir websites can be found in Annex 1. 
56. Establishing a free trade area or an economic in tegration agreement often requires the creation 
of an accompanying regional or sub-regional co mmittee to harmonize standards and conformity 
assessment within the region.  In  this regard, the European Union has gone further than any other 
region in terms of the development of regi onal standards.  The Directive on Services
39 encourages the 
development of European standards to support the internal market and to facilitate services 
compatibility, quality and consumer information.  Mandates have been issued by the European 
Commission to the CEN to develop specific standard s in order to reduce the likelihood of conflicting 
and multiple national standards.  The European standards developed by the CEN are voluntary and 
only become mandatory if they are referred to or  are incorporated into legislative texts.  
Directive 98/34/EC requires member states to notify the European Commission and other members of 
cases where standards are being incorp orated into technical regulations and adopted into national law.  
Despite these mandates for regional standards, ser vices standards at the national rather than the 
European level (453 new national standards in 2005- 2009, as opposed to 24 European ones) continue 
to predominate.40  Thus, one of the reported priorities for the Commission is the extension of the 
European standardization system to services.41 
57. There are also regional standardization initia tives in other regions, though they are less 
formally developed than the European model.   For instance, the African Organisation for 
Standardisation (ARSO) currently has 27 member states.  Its objectives include the harmonization of national and/or sub-regional standards as African St andards with a view to promoting intra-African 
and international trade.  ARSO also seeks to coordi nate participation of its members in the standard 
making work of international standardization organizations.  The Pan American Standards 
Commission (COPANT), whose membership includ es many countries from the Caribbean area, 
Central and South America, Mexico and the Un ited States, develops a wide range of product 
standards and standardized test methods.  The Ar ab Organization for Standardization and Metrology 
seeks to unify technical terms, methods of t esting, measurements and specifications among 
Arab States.  Examples of sub-regional organizatio ns include the Gulf Standardization Organization 
(GSO), the CARICOM Regional Organisation for St andards and Quality (CROSQ) and the Mercosur 
Standards Association. 
                                                      
39 EU Directive on Services 2006/123. 
40 COM (3011) 311 final issued in Brussels 1 June 2011. 
41 "Single Market Act:  Twelve levers to b oost growth and confidence", available at  
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/Le xUriServ.do?uri=C ELEX:52011DC0206:EN:NOT  S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 20  
 
  58. Apart from the European region, few regional standards organizations  actually develop new 
standards.
42  Most either adopt existing international st andards or harmonize their established national 
standards with them.43  Members of regional standards organi zations are typically national standards 
bodies.  There is a relatively close working relati onship between regional and international standards 
organizations.  For instance, the ISO's ten part ner organizations come from Africa (1), the 
Americas (1), Asia and Pacific (2), the Commonw ealth of Independent States (1) and Europe (4).44  
Many regional standards organizations have a commi tment to adopt ISO/IEC international standards, 
whenever feasible, as the applicable national sta ndard for their members, and to initiate the 
development of standards if no appropriate in ternational standard is available for adoption.45  F o r  
instance, CEN and CENELEC have created agreemen ts with ISO and IEC respectively (the Vienna 
and Dresden agreements) in order to avoid duplication and competition. 
3. National level 
59. At the national level, standards are developed using broadly similar pr ocesses.  Usually it 
commences with the identification of the need for a standard by a stakeholder.  The national standards 
body usually consults with the business sector, c onsumer groups, government agencies, etc.  Some 
standardizing bodies have a formal consultation pr ocess others may also accept unsolicited proposals 
for the preparation of a new standard or the am endment of an existing one.  The body would then 
undertake some screening of the proposal to see if it is, indeed, justified.  This could involve an 
assessment of existing published standards or work  in progress within international, regional or 
national bodies.  Should another international or ot her standard exist, the body would usually decide 
whether that standard could be adopted as the nati onal standard, or modified in some way.  Should 
any modification or development work be required, this would typically be undertaken in a technical 
committee.  The draft prepared by the technical committ ee is usually widely circulated so as to inform 
interested parties, and comments are invited.  Follo wing this consultation pro cess, the final version of 
the draft is then submitted to the organization's deci sion making body for approval either by voting or 
by consensus.  Should the draft be approved, it becomes a national standard which is usually 
published for sale. 
60. To understand how the standards development frame work is organized at the national level, it 
is important to distinguish between the rol es of a national standards body (NSB) and other 
standardizing bodies.  The term nati onal standards body is generally used  to refer to the body which is 
formally recognized as representing the country at the international level and who has the 
responsibility for setting national standards.   'Stand ards developing organizati ons' is a more generic 
term and concept, and is generally used to refe r to any organization whic h develops and publishes 
industry specific standards.  Some economies feat ure only one national sta ndards body with no other 
standardizing bodies, while other countries may ha ve several hundred bodies, which are coordinated 
by an apex or peak organization. 
61. Most developing countries, for instance, have a single recognized NSB, which is likely to be 
the sole member from that country in an internationa l standardizing body.  The main functions of this 
body will typically include:  preparation and promul gation of national standards;  promotion of the 
implementation of standards by industry;  certifica tion of products;  provision of information on 
                                                      
42 UNIDO/ISO (2008), "Fast forward:  National Standards Bodies in Developing Countries", Geneva. 
43 Ibid. 
44 WTR 2005. 
45 WTR 2005.  S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 21 
 
 
  standards and related technical matters with regard to both national and intern ational standards;  and 
country representation in international activiti es and at forums that deal with standards.46 
62. The North American model for standards deve lopment, on the other hand, is markedly 
decentralized with over 600 organiza tions reported to be involved in de veloping standards.  Many of 
these bodies are in the private sector and co-exist with numerous regulatory agencies.  In the US 
alone, there are over 400 separate standardizing bodi es.  The American National Standards Institute 
(ANSI) fulfils a coordinating and accrediting role nati onally, and represents the US in international 
forums.  In the Canadian system, both the private sector and the Government are involved in standard 
setting. 
63. In Europe, standards development has traditiona lly been much more centralized, with an 
emphasis on the harmonization of standards of EU Members (see discussion of the role of CEN 
above).  There are also a variety of approaches at th e national level in Europe.  In some cases, all or 
part of the activity relating to the development of national standards is delegated to specialist sectoral 
trade associations, while in other systems the di fferent sectors are managed under one organization.47 
64. In general, the level of market development in an economy has an impact on the number of 
standards produced nationally.  Developed markets tend to be more active in standardization than 
developing markets, often because the demand fo r standardization increases with the level of 
prevailing scientific, business and technical capacity, the level of industrialization, the degree of 
economic diversity, the importance of global mark ets and the evolution of domestic consumer 
needs.48  It is also a reflection of the fact that the relevant national authorities and the private sector in 
developing and less developed economies may lack the resources and technical knowledge required to 
develop standards. 
65. Given that national standardization systems differ significantly with regard to their degree of 
centralization, formalization and involvement of the government, it is difficult to describe a single 
approach or process.  Comparable cross-country in formation on national standards systems is also 
limited.  Nevertheless, the various national appro aches could be described in terms of three main 
models.  These approaches are illustrated in Figure 2.49  Type 1, which is the 'traditional approach' to 
standard setting, is based upon a highly centr alized process with a single government agency, 
parastatal or autonomous statutory body with the r esponsibility for developing standards.  Under this 
approach, there is usually little or no involvement of the private sector, and standards are usually 
specified in relevant regulations and are therefore mandatory. 
                                                      
46 UNIDO (2006), "Role of standards:  A guide for small and medium sized enterprises", Working 
paper, p. 9. 
47 See UNIDO/ISO (2008) for description of activities and structure of national standards bodies. 
48 Henson, S, (2004), "Standards and Trade: An Overview", mimeo, Guelph, Ontario, University of 
Guelph. 
49 Reproduced from WTR 2005. S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 22  
 
  Figure 2:  Alternative national a pproaches to standards development 
Type 1 
 
  
 
   
 
 
 Type 2 
 
 
 
     
 
   
Type 3 
 
     
 
    
Source :  Adapted from R.B. Toth Associates, in Stephenson (1997). 
 
66. This can be contrasted with the so-called 'new  approach' to standardization, which is being 
promoted especially in the European region, where private sector organizations often play a significant, if not leading, role in standard setti ng activities.  Types 2 and 3 describe varying degrees 
of private involvement in developing standards.  Un der this approach, standards are usually developed 
in response to a problem that has arisen in business, and the role of the government may vary.  In such 
situations, alignment or compliance with internatio nal norms tends to be a prevalent feature of the 
standard, and the focus is on addressing specific concerns of industry and commerce.
50  Often the 
standards are voluntary and would only be mandatory if incorporated into regulations. 
                                                      
50 WTR 2005.  Primary standards body 
 
   Government agency, parastatal, 
or autonomous statutory body 
Committees, accredited developers, bureaus 
Standards usually contained in regulations 
 Primary standards body 
 
   Private sector organization 
Committees, bureaus 
Voluntary standards unless 
incorporated into regulations 
 Primary standards body 
   National coordination organization 
(government or private) 
Accredited developers – private and government 
Voluntary standards unless incorporated into regulations      S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 23 
 
 
  4. Vertical and horizontal integration in standards setting 
67. Standards are drawn up at the national, regional a nd international levels with different degrees 
of integration.  In some cases, there is a str ong degree of 'vertical' integration between national, 
regional and international standards, whereas in othe rs it might be less so.  A second consideration is 
the degree of 'horizontal' integration between th e various organizations involved in developing 
standards.  In some countries, the standardizing pro cess is highly centralized at the national level, with 
only one single body in charge of developing both  standards and technical regulations.  In other 
countries, a large number of organizations with the participation of various stakeholders, such as 
consumers and producers, are involved in th e development and publication of standards. 
68. Usually when the national standard making pro cess is highly centralized, a characteristic of 
countries with a centrally controlled economy, standa rds are often found in the relevant regulations 
for that product, service or industry.  In less cen tralized standard making systems, standards have 
tended to be voluntary, and would only become mandat ory if referred to or incorporated into technical 
rules and regulations.51 
 
Box 6:  Examples of 'vertical' and 'horiz ontal' integration in standards development 
 
A. Unique strategy for 'vertical integration' of standards at the regional level 
The European Committee for Standardization (CEN) has a unique mandate in which it plans, drafts and adopts 
European Standards (ENs) which ar e considered national standards in each of its 32 member countries.52  In the 
areas where ENs have been developed, every conflicting national standard has to be withdrawn.  Under this 
strategy, until the end of 2011, CEN published 85 standard s and specifications that relate directly to services 
sectors, inter alia , tourism53, transport54, postal services55, and other business sectors like:  translation services56, 
airport and aviation security services57, furniture removal58, real estate agents59, etc. 
 
B. Public–Private Synergies to develop 'horizonta lly integrated' standards at the national level 
The US National Technology Transfer and Advan cement Act (Public Law 104 -113) fosters a strong 
public-private partnership.  It coordinates the use of private sector standards as a means of carrying out policy 
objectives or government activities.  Federal agencies and departments are required to use technical standards 
that are developed or adopted by voluntary consensus st andards bodies, except where th ey are inconsistent with 
law or otherwise impractical.  This gives a strong public-private partnership approach to standards. 
 
Source :  European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and American National Standard Institute (ANSI). 
 
5. Standard-setting and capacity issues 
69. It is well recognized that the demand for standa rds and the capacity to  develop and implement 
them depend to a large extent on factors correlated to  a country's level of development.  Establishing 
                                                      
51 WTR 2005. 
52 CEN Members are EU 27 countries, Croatia,  Turkey, Iceland, No rway and Switzerland. 
53 European Standard EN 14467:24 sets requirements for recreation scuba diving service providers;  
EN 14153-1/2/3 sets safety-related minimum requirements for the training of recreation scuba divers;  
EN ISO 18513:2003 contains hotel and other types of tourism accommodation terminology. 
54 European Standard for public passenger transport services (EN 13816:2002) sets out common 
criteria for evaluating the quality of these services, covering a wide ra nge of aspects such as accessibility, 
cleanliness, punctuality and the provision of information to passengers. 
55 DIN EN 13850: 2007-06 Meas urement of transit time of end-to-end services for single piece priority 
mail and first class mail. 
56 European Standard EN 15038:2006. 
57 European Standard EN 16082:2010. 
58 European Standard EN 12522:1998. 
59 European Standard EN 15733:2009. S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 24  
 
  the standards development infrastructure is costly  and, unless supported by an active private sector, 
much of that burden will have to be borne by the government.  In some cases, implementing and 
enforcing international standards may require tec hnical and financial resources beyond the capabilities 
of developing countries.  On the other hand, im plementation of internati onal standards may improve 
the access of service suppliers to di stribution channels and informati on networks, and facilitate their 
participation in world trade.   
70. That being said a vital consideration will be th e level at which the standard has been set, 
which is in turn linked to the ability of standard izing bodies from economies at different levels of 
development to actively participate in the work of international standardizing bodies.  In the context 
of discussions undertaken in the TBT Committee, a surv ey found that 30 per cent of replies indicated 
a need to facilitate the participation of developing  countries in the work of international standard 
setting bodies.
60  This survey correlates with earlier find ings by the ISO of a study conducted in 2002 
of problems faced by standardizers in developing countries.61  The study found that in 70 per cent of 
the respondent countries, more than half the standa rds were not based on international standards.  
Participation in international standardization work  was low, with 42 per cent of respondent countries 
not registered as members of any ISO technical committee, and 52 per cent not having attended any 
meetings of these bodies in the last two years.  The main reasons given for lo w participation were the 
lack of funds, awareness and expertise in standard ization at both industry and standardizing body 
level. 
71. Recognizing these challenges, the TBT Agreement,  for instance, eases the impact of certain 
provisions whose full application would not be compatible with developing country Members' 
development, financial and trade needs.  Moreover,  in view of their particular technological and 
socio-economic conditions, developi ng country Members may adopt technical regulations, standards 
or test methods aimed at preserving indigenous technologies and production methods and processes 
compatible with their development needs. Fi nally, developing country Members may request 
international standardizing bodies to examine th e possibility of and, if practicable, prepare 
international standards for products of special trade interest to them. 
72. Numerous initiatives, albeit not focused on services, have also been undertaken to improve 
the ability of developing countries to meet standards.   Most notable of these initiatives has been in the 
area of sanitary and phytosanitary measures, wher e a Standards and Trade Development Facility was 
established by five partner organizations62 to support developing countries in their capacity to 
implement international standards, guide lines and recommendations in this area. 
73. It is likely that the challenges faced by standa rdizers in developing countries in the area of 
TBT and SPS would extend also to services, as national standards bodies are not organized on a sectoral basis.  At the same time, it is also well re cognized that international standards, provided that 
they are appropriately designed, can play a vital role  in facilitating international trade as they define 
the characteristics that products and services have to meet in other markets.  The harmonization 
brought about by international standards may result in cost savings, as producers and service 
providers do not have to create different  processes to meet varying standards. 
                                                      
60 G/TBT/W/193, 10 February 2003. 
61 El-Tawil, A (2002), "An in-depth study of the problems faced by the standardizers and other stake-
holders from developing countries", ISO/WTO Regional Workshops - Part 1. 
62 Food and Agricultural Organization, World Organization for Animal Health, World Health 
Organization, World Bank and World Trade Organization.  S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 25 
 
 
  B. CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT  
74. To complete the description of the standards fra mework it is necessary to discuss the role of 
conformity assessment.  At its simplest, conf ormity assessment seeks to establish that the 
requirements contained in either a standard, regulati on or other form of specification have been met.  
It can also be a way for providers to assure consum ers in other markets that their services meet an 
internationally recognized standard.  The confor mity assessment process would usually consist of:  
sample testing;  inspection;  process evaluation;  supplier's declaration of conformity;  management 
system certification/registration;  personnel certificat ion;  product certification;  mutual recognition of 
results;  and the accreditation and peer assessment of  the competence of the organizations conducting 
these activities. 
75. In general, the processes for conformity assessme nt and the actors involved are the same for 
goods and services.  However, many of the tools used in assessing product conformity cannot be 
easily applied to services.  A service does not often have physical properties and thus cannot be tested in a laboratory for its physical or performance qualiti es in the same way that a good can.  Thus, more 
often than not, conformity assessment of services st andards will involve an assessment of the type of 
equipment used, the facilities in which the service is undertaken, the quality/skill levels of the service 
supplier, the processes established for the conduct of  the service, as well as the information provided 
to the consumer.  In short, conformity assessment  in services will be especially focused on the process 
by which the service is supplied as well as the inputs that are required for its performance rather than 
on testing of the service itself.  This may requi re an overall audit of the service supplier and its 
operations against established criteria. 
76.  Conformity assessment is typically undertaken  either by the supplier or consumers of the 
product/service, or by regulatory bodies if the standa rds have been incorporat ed into legislation.  
There are also many testing and certification bodi es which offer independent conformity assessment 
services.  The latter include:  laboratories and inspection bodies which test and measure samples or items using scientific methods to determine par ticular characteristics an d/or compliance with 
standards or specifications;  systems certificati on bodies which certify organizations for compliance 
with management systems standards, such as t hose on quality and environmental management;  and 
product certification bodies which certify that certain marks can be used by organizations to indicate that products comply with particular standards or specifications. 
77. The parties to a transaction for which conformity  is either claimed or required are described 
as:  first party - the supplier or manufacturer of the product or service (the party that claims 
conformity);  second party - the purchaser, or the party receiving the product or service (the party that 
requires conformity);  and third party - an i ndependent party unrelated to the transaction who 
undertakes an assessment of conformity, or otherwise. 
78. Whether first party or third pa rty conformity is accepted or re quired often varies according to 
the nature of the transaction and the risks posed by mistakes.  When standards are voluntary, the 
supplier of the service may typically make a self-assessment of compliance with the requirements set, 
and provide this information to the consumer.  Th e declaration may have a specific format mandated 
by law in order to ensure that the consumer ha s legal recourse to product/service liability laws.  
Declarations by a supplier are not normally admissible in areas where non-conformance may pose serious health, safety or environmental risks.  In such cases, regulations may require that a mandatory 
conformity assessment or certification be  undertaken by an independent party. 
79. Certification goes beyond testing and inspection in several respects.  Processes or 
product/service characteristics are assessed against a specific standard, whether voluntary or required 
by regulation, and a formal attestation (or certificat e) is issued when the product meets the required 
criteria.  This is particularly important when the seller or buyer wishes to communicate compliance S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 26  
 
  with a standard to the larger public or governme ntal authorities.  Certification institutions are 
characterized by the fact that they typically empl oy not only their own technical facilities but also the 
services of external laboratories and inspection resources.  They also provide for on-going 
surveillance and, if deficiencies are uncovered, may revoke their certificate/mark.  Aside from 
certifying product/service characteristics, certain bodies also attest to the conformity of systems, for 
example, an organization quality management system  to the relevant model of the ISO 9000 series of 
management standards.  This activity is re ferred to as quality system "registration". 
80. Accreditation bodies, in turn, have the role of  certifying the competence and independence of 
bodies conducting conformity of a product/service to a particular standard.  Accreditation bodies also 
need to demonstrate that they are independent a nd unbiased, and for this reason are often established 
as entities that are run or authorised by the governme nt.  In practice, conformity assessment which is 
undertaken in one country, even by a third party,  is not always automatically accepted by others.  
Confidence in the work of conformity assessment  bodies in other countries often needs to be 
established through multilateral co-ope ration.  To that end, a variety of international and regional 
forums have been established, most notably at th e accreditation level.  Their main objective is to 
facilitate mutual recognition agreem ents (MRAs) between members, i. e, the acceptance of conformity 
assessment results obtained by foreign bodies.  To  this end, international standards/guides on 
conformity assessment have been developed, mo st notably by the ISO Committee on Conformity 
Assessment (CASCO) in conjunction with representa tives of the IEC.  These principles are largely 
process-oriented.  Figure 3 shows the relationshi p between standards development, conformity 
assessment and accreditation. 
Figure 3:  Relationship between standardization, conformity assessment and accreditation 
 
   
 
     
 
    
 
    
Source :  Adapted from UNIDO/ISO (2008), Fast forward:  Natio nal Standards Bodies in Developing Countries, p.11 
 
81. An example of how conformity assessment might be undertaken for a service is provided in 
Box 7. 
 
 Metrology 
 
Establishment of accurate, 
reliable, traceable 
measurements 
 
(Basis for performance 
requirements in standards) Accreditation 
 
Demonstration of competence of 
testing and calibration laboratories, 
certification bodies and 
inspection bodies 
Standardization 
 
Standards facilitate trade, provide 
basis for technical regulation 
 
Developed by international, regional 
or national standards bodies Conformity 
assessment 
 
Sampling, inspection, 
testing, certification  S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 27 
 
 
   
Box 7:  Conformity assessment pr ocedure for EN 15038 - Translation Services - Service Requirements 
EN 15038 is the European standard for translation servic es which is applicable to translation service providers 
(TSP) of all sizes and types throughout the world.  Its primary objective is to "establish and define the 
requirements for the provision of quality service for transl ation" and, as such, serves as a benchmark for quality 
and consistency of service. 
The standard was first proposed by the European Union of Associations of Translation Companies (EUATC) to 
enable the translation industry to be on an equal footing with other industries which already work to standards.  
It also provided an indicator of good practice allowing clients to evaluate different levels of conformity by 
TSPs. 
EUATC proposed two ways by which a TSP can demonstrate compliance with the standard: 
(i) 'Third party' independent conformity assessment 
 The TSP puts in place the requir ed procedures and processes, an d then submits to an audit by 
a third party.  To provide full assurance, the third party should be a certification body that has itself 
been audited by an accreditation body and assessed to  be competent against the EN 45011 standard 
in providing certification agains t product (including service) standards.  The accredited auditing 
company verifies that the TSP has understood the requirements, put in place the relevant detailed 
processes and procedures, including quality system aspects, and that the system complies with the 
requirements of EN 15038.   If the audit is successful, certifi cation is given for a limited period, and 
its continuation or renewal is subject to follow- up audits at specified intervals.  The TSP can 
thereafter carry the logo of a third-party certification body.  According to EUATC this is more 
expensive than any other mode of demonstrating conformity to the standard but provides a high level of assurance. 
(ii) 'First party' self-declaration 
 The TSP, after putting in place the processes requir ed by the standard, self-declares that it is in 
conformity.  That declaration can be done/substantiated in several ways:  (a) an independent 
third party is engaged to carry out the assessment, make its declaration of conformity on the basis of 
that report which will also be prime evidence fo r a declaration in conformity with ISO/IEC 17050 
Parts 1 and 2 (Conformity assessment - supplier's asse ssment of conformity);  (b) the TSP can carry 
out its own assessment of conformity to the standard , obtain, read and meet the requirements of the 
ISO/IEC 17050 standard Parts 1 and 2;  or (c ) the TSP can carry out its own assessment of 
conformity to the standard, decide that it does conform and make the declaration itself. 
Source :  European Union of Associations of Transatlantic Companies, available at:  
http://euatc.org/index.php?option=co m_content&task=view&id=21&Itemid=42  
 
82. Conformity assessment procedures have tremendous importance for international trade which 
is why trade agreements typically require that th ey be transparent and non-discriminatory.  Often 
these rules arose as a response to the growing co mplexity of conformity assessment systems for 
product certification and quality assurance, which can sometimes impose duplicative or 
discriminatory requirements.  The TBT Agreement, for instance, in essence lays down detailed rules 
which require Members to accord access to the releva nt procedures to third country suppliers of like 
products on a non-discriminatory basis (Article 5.1. 1).  Furthermore, the procedures themselves 
should not become unnecessary trade obstacles, meaning that they shall not be stricter or be applied more strictly than is necessary to give the im porting Member adequate confidence that products 
conform to the applicable technical regulations  or standards, taking account of the risks 
non-conformity would create (Article 5.1.2). 
83. In many cases, conformity assessment activities in developing countries are generally less 
developed that in their industrialized counterparts.   Without significant private sector involvement, the 
costs of establishing the relevant infrastructure may be prohibitively high for governments.  Producers and suppliers may also have less experience with conformity assessment procedures, as these are not 
practiced in their home market or the costs of obtai ning certification may be very high.  In the context S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 28  
 
  of the TBT Agreement, there are various prov isions which provide for technical assistance 
(Article 11) and special and diffe rential treatment (Article 12).
 
84. Members are also encouraged by the TBT Agre ement to enter into negotiations on mutual 
recognition for conformity assessment and on acceptan ce of the results of conformity assessment 
procedures in other Members whenever possible, provided that such procedures are considered 
adequate and offer an assurance of conformity e quivalent to their own procedures (Article 6).  
Although not specific to conformity assessment, Artic le VII of the GATS also provides the possibility 
to Members to accord recognition for the purposes of the fulfilment, in whole or in part, of its 
standards or criteria for the authorization, licensing or certification of service suppliers. 
85. Given that most of the experience with conf ormity assessment has been with respect to 
products, the question arises as to whether similar issues exist in the field of services, and if they 
would prove just as inhibiting of trade.  It is bey ond the scope of this Note to address this subject, as 
much work would still be needed to understand wh at are the various procedures being used in 
different service sectors to assess conformity.  In the case of accountancy services, for instance, the 
assessment of the conformity to the service or of  the service supplier with established standards is 
generally not performed on an a priori basis by any authority.  Rather, the point of control for 
conformity would be in the qualification frame work, which would include the administrative, 
procedural and substantive requirements to be met.  Thereafter, it is the accountant who would 
typically self-declare that the service complies with the requisite standards and regulations.  Whenever checks are impl emented, they occur a posteriori , and are conducted by the relevant 
professional bodies which, as part of their remit, often monitor the quality with which members 
perform their work, including adherence to standards.   While similarities are likely to exist for other 
regulated professions, it cannot, of course, be assumed that this would be the case for other service sectors.
 
III. SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS 
86. The purpose of this Note has been to provide  background information on technical standards 
as they apply to services.  It has sought to explain the role of standards and the standards development 
process, and has provided a number of examples of technical standards for services.  Given the purpose of this Note, which was requested to help  inform Members of how technical standards are 
developed for services, it does not seek to draw any par ticular conclusions.  It is envisaged that, in any 
ensuing discussions, Members would complement the information provided in the Note with their 
own specific experiences, as appropriate.  To assi st further discussions, some general observations 
based on the foregoing appear pertinent: 
(a) There is little or no distinction in the processes followed by standardizing bodies when 
developing product or services-specific standard s.  In very many cases, 'standards' are 
distinguished from 'regulations'.  The majority of standards are designed for voluntary use, in 
the sense that they are offered for adoption by standards developing organizations or industry 
without being mandated by law.  It is only wh en observance of a particular standard is 
required by law that such standards become ma ndatory, and then only within the jurisdiction 
covered by the legislation.  Usually, this is done by incorporation or by reference in the 
relevant act or rule.  The reasons for why certain standards will be incorporated into 
regulation will vary from country to country .  However, in general, an important 
consideration will be the risks of compromisi ng any societal interests (e.g. public safety, 
health and environment) which would justif y the imposition of regulatory requirements.  
Depending on the regulatory approach of the count ry, in principle, the greater the risk, the 
more likely standards will be implemented as mandatory requirements.  In principle, it 
follows that the sectors where the risks are assessed to be high will be where such 
requirements can be expected to be prevalent.  S/WPDR/W/49 
 Page 29 
 
 
  (b) There is great diversity in how the standards development infrastructure is organized at the 
national level.  Very generally, there are three main models which are followed.  The first is where standards development is highly centrali zed and national standard s can only be issued 
by a designated national standards body.  Th is body is usually a government entity and 
standards are often, though not always, synonym ous with mandatory regulations.  The second 
are hybrid arrangements where the national standards body is either a designated 
non-governmental or quasi-governmental body.  The third is where standards are primarily 
a private sector-driven activity with many organi zations involved in their development, with 
little or no direct governmental participation.  In the latter two models, standards do not tend 
to be mandatory but can be incorporated into, or made the basis of, regulations. 
(c) Technical standards in services, as with certain product standards, tend to be 
performance/process-related as they specify th e manner by which the service is to be 
produced or supplied, such as the design of th e process, the protocols followed, the actual 
conditions under which the service is perform ed, as well as the equipment/technology which 
is to be utilized.  Standardization of the servi ce based on its physical dimensions or material 
content is, however, rarely feasible and many of  the methods used in product standards cannot 
be used.  Standards are also used to define the terminology that can be used to describe 
a particular product or service.  
(d) Conformity assessments of quality and fitness for purpose, for instance, will be different for 
services as compared to goods.  Unlike a physical product, a service cannot easily be subjected to a laboratory test to see whether it contains particular materials or performs in 
a certain way.  Thus, greater emphasis has traditionally been given to assessing the 
competence of the service supplier and the satisfac tion of customers.  Both are indirect means 
of controlling for quality, as the former re lies on there being a positive link between the 
qualifications of the service supplier and the service supplied, while the latter can only assess 
outcomes.  It also suggests that, in services, there is a close relationship between qualification 
requirements and services standards.  Indeed , in many cases, the standard will specify 
requirements on the qualifications to be possessed by the service supplier.  Conformity assessment in services also tends to be on the process by which the service is supplied, as well as the inputs that are required for its performance,  rather than on testing of the service itself. 
(e) International standards bodies are increasingl y involved in developing services-specific 
standards though these appear to be far less nu merous than product standards.  However, 
there are important sectoral specificities that need to be taken into account.  For certain 
sectors, such as telecoms, postal, transport and fi nancial services, international standards have 
long been required for the compatibility and inte roperability of systems and protocols.  For 
these and other sectors, implementation of in ternational standards may reduce transaction 
costs and improve the access of service supplie rs to distribution channels and information 
networks, and facilitate their participation in worl d trade.  However, it is also generally well 
recognized that participation in standard maki ng at the international level is costly, and 
developing countries face particular capacity constr aints.  Active participation is an important 
factor in the establishment of appropriate standards. 
(f) Under the TBT Agreement, there is a clear di stinction between 'standards' as voluntary and 
'technical regulations' as mandatory, with di ffering sets of obligations on Members.  
Currently, no such distinction is made in the GATS.  However, it is important to recall that 
Article I of the GATS provides that the Ag reement "applies to measures by Members 
affecting trade in services".  It further provides in Article I:3(a) that "measures by Members" 
means measures taken by:  "(i) central, regiona l or local governments and authorities;  and 
(ii) non-governmental bodies in the exercise of powers delegated by central, regional or local 
governments or authorities".  The issue of de legated powers would a ppear relevant to S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 30  
 
  standardizing bodies, some of which, although non-governmental, are formally authorized to 
exercise such powers.   The term 'measure' is, in turn, defined in Article XXVIII as meaning 
"any measure by a Member, whether in the form of a law, regulation, rule, procedure, decision, administrative action, or any other form".  The form which a measure might take is not exhaustively listed.  Thus, in terms of assessing whether a technical standard would fall 
under the scope of the GATS, there would appear to be two cumulative factors to consider.  
Firstly, is it a 'measure by a Member' in the se nse of Article I:3(a)?  Secondly, does it 'affect 
trade in services'?  Should the answer to both questions be affirmative, the standard in 
question, be it voluntary or otherwise, could fall within the scope of the GATS.  A separate issue would then arise as to what domestic regulation disciplines could apply.  Given that this 
issue is the subject of negotiations by Members under the mandate of Article VI:4, it is 
outside the purview of this Note.  The scope of  any eventual discipline on technical standards 
would nevertheless have to be read according to the scope of the Agreement as provided for 
in Article I. 
_______________ 
   
  S/WPDR/W/49
Page 31ANNEX I 
 
Illustrative List of Horizontal and Sectoral Standardizing Bodies 
  
SECTOR 
 INTERNATIONAL WEBSITE REGIONAL WEBSITE 
Horizontal International Organization for 
Standardization (ISO) 
ASTM International, formerly 
known as Ameri can Society for 
Testing and Materials (ASTM) 
The World Wide Web 
Consortium (W3C)  http://www.iso.org/  
 
http://www.astm.org/  
 
 
http://www.w3.org/  
 African Organisation for Standardisation 
(ARSO) 
Arab Industrial Development and Mining 
Organization (AIDMO) Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC) 
ASEAN Consultative Committee for 
Standards and Quality (ACCSQ) Euro-Asian Interstate Council for 
Standardization, Metrology and 
Certification  http://www.arso-oran.org/  
 
http://www.aidmo.org/  
 
http://www.pascnet.org/  
http://www.aseansec.org/495
1.htm  
 
http://www.easc.org.by/inde
x_en.php  
   European Committ ee for Standardization 
(CEN) http://www.cen.eu/  
   Sub-regional 
MERCOSUR Standardization 
Association (AMN), 
CARICOM Regional Organisation for 
Standards and Quality (CROSQ) EAC East Africa Standards Committee 
Gulf Standardization Organization for 
GCC Arab Countries.   
http://www.amn.org.br/en/#  
 
http://crosq.org/  
 
http://www.eac.int/  
 
Legal Services International Bar Association 
(IBA) http://www.ibanet.org/   Council of Bars and Law Societies of the 
European Community (CCBE) 
 http://www.ccbe.eu/index.ph
p?id=32&L=0   
  S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 32 
SECTOR 
 INTERNATIONAL WEBSITE REGIONAL WEBSITE 
Accounting 
Services International Federation of 
Accountants (IFAC) 
International Organization of 
Securities Commissions (IOSCO)  
International Accounting 
Standards Board (IASB) 
 http://www.ifac.org/  
 
 
http://www.iosco.org/  
 
http://www.ifrs.org  
 Confederation of Asian and Pacific 
Accountants (CAPA) 
Eastern Central and Southern African 
Federation of Accountants Fédération des Experts Comptables 
Européens (FEE) 
Interamerican Acc ounting Association 
(IFAC) 
 http://www.capa.com.my/  
 
http://www.ecsafa.org/  
 
http://www.fee.be/  
 
http://www.ifac.org/about-
ifac 
Architectural 
Services Union Internationale des 
Architectes (UIA) 
 http://www.uia-architectes.org/    
Engineering 
Services Institute of Electrical and 
Electronics Engineers (IEEE)  http://www.ieee.org/  
  
Medical 
Services  World Health Organization 
(WHO) 
 http://www.who.int/    
Veterinary 
Services World Organisation for Animal 
Health:  OIE Terrestrial Animal 
Health Code 
 http://www.oie.int/international-
standard-setting/terrestrial-code/    
Energy 
Services International Electrotechnical 
Commission (IEC) 
 
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 
 http://www.iec.ch/  
 
 
http://www.iaea.org/  and 
http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/ 
default.asp?s=11&l=90  
 European Committee for electrotechnical 
standardization (CENELEC) http://www.cenelec.eu/about
cenelec/whoweare/index.ht
ml 
Postal Services Universal Postal Union (UPU) 
 http://www.upu.int/en/activities/sta
ndards/about-standards.html  
    
   S/WPDR/W/49
 Page 33SECTOR 
 INTERNATIONAL WEBSITE REGIONAL WEBSITE 
Telecommun-
ication 
Services International Telecommunication 
Union (ITU) 
 http://www.itu.int/  European Telecommunications 
Standards Institute (ETSI) 
 
Asia-Pacific Telecommunity (APT)  http://www.etsi.org/  
 
http://www.apt.int/APT-
Objectives  
Higher 
education 
services  UNESCO http://www.unesco.org/  
European Higher Education Area http://www.ehea.info/  
Financial 
services Basle Committee on Banking 
Supervision (prudential standards) 
 http://www.bis.org/bcbs/basel3.htm  
 European Supervisory Authorities 
(ESAs):  
 European Securities and Markets 
Authority (ESMA);  
 European Banking Authority (EBA); 
 
 European Insurance and Occupational 
Pensions Authority (EIOPA). 
 
Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB) 
 http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pages
/About/What/International/e
uropean/esas/index.shtml  
 
http://www.esma.europa.eu/  
 
http://www.eba.europa.eu/  
 
 
https://eiopa.europa.eu/  
 
http://www.ifsb.org/  
Tourism World Tourism Organization:  
Code of Ethics 
 http://unwto.org/en/content/about-
unwto    
Maritime 
Transport Services 
 International Maritime 
Organization (IMO)  http://www.imo.org/  
  
Air Transport 
Services International Civil Aviation 
Organization (ICAO)  
International Air Transport 
Association (IATA)  http://www.icao.int/  
 
 
http://www.iata.org/  European Aviation Safety Agency 
(EASA) http://www.easa.eu.int/flight
standards/   
  S/WPDR/W/49 
Page 34 
SECTOR 
 INTERNATIONAL WEBSITE REGIONAL WEBSITE 
Rail Transport 
Services International Union of Railways 
 
Intergovernmental Organisation 
for International Carriage by Rail http://www.uic.org/spip.php?article
528&lang=en  
 
http://www.otif.org/  The Association of the European Rail 
Industry (UNIFE) owns and manages the 
International Railway Industry Standard 
(IRIS) http://www.unife.org/page.a
sp?pid=2  
 
http://www.iris-rail.org  
 
Road 
Transport 
Services International Road Transport 
Union (IRU) 
 UN Economic Commission for 
Europe (UNECE) 
 http://www.iru.org/  
 
 http://www.u nece.org/trans/main/w
elcwp1.html  
   
 
__________