RESTRICTED
WT/TPR/G/312
3 March 2015
(15-1151)  Page: 1/24
Trade Policy Review Body  Original: English 
 
TRADE POLICY REVIEW 
REPORT BY 
AUSTRALIA  
Pursuant to the Agreement Establishing the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (Annex 3 of the 
Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Tr ade Organization), the policy statement by 
Australia is attached. 
 
 
Note: This report is subject to restricted circulation and press embargo until the end of the first 
session of the meeting of the Trade Policy Review Body on Australia. WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  Contents 
1   INTROD UCTION  .......................................................................................................... 4  
2   ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT .......................................................................................... 4  
2.1   Overview .................................................................................................................. 4  
2.2   Domestic  Econom y .................................................................................................... 4  
2.3   Monetary an d Fiscal Policy .......................................................................................... 5  
2.4   Sectoral Performance ................................................................................................. 5  
2.5   Market and Regulatory Re forms, including Tax Refo rm .................................................... 6  
2.5.1   Tax White Paper ..................................................................................................... 6  
2.5.2   Competition policy review ........................................................................................ 6  
2.5.3   Small busine ss policy ag enda ................................................................................... 7  
2.5.4   Deregulation ..........................................................................................................  7 
2.5.5   Financial Systems Inquiry ........................................................................................ 7  
2.5.6   Anti-dum ping refo rms ............................................................................................. 7  
2.6   International Economic  Engagement Overview ............................................................... 8  
2.6.1   Overview .............................................................................................................. . 8 
2.6.2   World Trade Organization (WTO) ............................................................................... 8  
2.6.3   Trade-related development assistance (Aid for trade) ................................................... 8  
2.6.4   G20 ................................................................................................................... ... 9 
2.6.5   Asia-Pacific Econ omic Cooperat ion (APEC) ................................................................. 10 
2.6.6   East Asia Summit (EAS) .......................................................................................... 11 
2.6.7   Organization for Economic Co -operation and Deve lopment (OECD) ............................... 11 
3   TRADE AND INVE STMENT PO LICY ............................................................................. 11  
3.1   Overview ................................................................................................................. 11 
3.2   Tariff  Regime ...........................................................................................................  12 
3.3   Agriculture ............................................................................................................. . 12 
3.4   Australia's Bios ecurity Arra ngements ........................................................................... 12 
3.5   Manuf acturi ng .......................................................................................................... 12 
3.6   Services ................................................................................................................ .. 13 
3.7   Intellectu al Property ................................................................................................. 14 
3.8   Energy and Reso urces ............................................................................................... 15 
3.9   Investment .............................................................................................................. 15 
3.10   Tourism ................................................................................................................. 16 
3.11   Trade an d Environment ........................................................................................... 16 
3.12   Trade and Inve stment Pr omotion .............................................................................. 16 
3.13   Multilateral Trade In itiatives – WT O Overview ............................................................. 17 
3.14   Concluding the Doha Round – Bali and Post-Bali .......................................................... 17 
3.15   Plurilateral  Negotiat ions ........................................................................................... 18 
3.15.1   Trade in Services Agreement (TiSA) ........................................................................ 18 
3.15.2   Information Tec hnology Agreem ent (ITA) ................................................................ 18 WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  3.15.3   Environmental Goods Agreem ent (E GA) .................................................................. 18 
3.16   WTO Disputes ........................................................................................................ 19 
3.17   Bilateral and Regional Trade Initiatives Overview ......................................................... 19 
3.18   FTAs Implemented .................................................................................................. 19 
3.18.1   ASEAN-Australia-New Zealan d Free Trade Agreem ent (AAN ZFTA) ............................... 19 
3.18.2   Australia New Zealand Closer Econom ic Relations Trade Agreement (ANZCERTA) .......... 19 
3.18.3   Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA) ........................................... 20 
3.18.4   Singapore–Australia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) ................................................. 20 
3.18.5   Thailand–Australia Free Trade Agreement (TAFTA) .................................................... 20 
3.18.6   Malaysia-Australia Free Trade Agreem ent (MAFTA) ................................................... 20 
3.18.7   Australia-Chile Free Trade Agreement (AClFTA) ........................................................ 21 
3.18.8   Korea-Australia Free Trade Agreement (KAFTA) ........................................................ 21 
3.18.9   Japan-Australia Economic  Partnership Agr eement (J AEPA) ......................................... 21 
3.19   FTAs Being Implem ented and Negotiated ................................................................... 22 
3.19.1   China-Australi a Free Trade Agreement .................................................................... 22 
3.19.2   Pacific Agreement on Closer  Economic Relation s (PACER) Plus .................................... 22 
3.19.3   Australia-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Free Trade Agreement ................................. 22 
3.19.4   Australia-Indi a Free Trade Agreement ..................................................................... 22 
3.19.5   Indonesia-Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement .......................... 22 
3.19.6   Trans-Pacifi c Partnershi p (TPP) .............................................................................. 22 
3.19.7   Regional Comprehensive Econ omic Partnership Ag reement (RCEP) .............................. 23 
4   TRADE AND ECON OMIC OUTLOOK ............................................................................. 23  
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 2 4 
 WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  1  INTRODUCTION 
1.1.  Australia's trade policy aims to promote op en markets, enhanced trade liberalisation, less 
red-tape and increased investment. The Government's objective is to position the economy to be efficient, highly competitive, and focused on capturing opportunities available in our region. 
1.2.  Australia's prosperity is more connected than ever to developments in the global economy. 
Our trade with the world is equivalent to 42% of our GDP – a number that has not dropped below 25% since 1900. The stock of foreign investment in Australia is at a record high of $A 2.5 trillion, 
while Australia's investments around the world total $A 1.6 trillion. Australia has the world's fifth 
highest GDP per capita and is the twelfth largest economy. Sustaining this performance requires strong international engagement.  
1.3.  Australia is strongly committed to the Wo rld Trade Organization (WTO) and its framework of 
rules. Australia supports growth in the reach and effectiveness of the multilateral trading system 
by upholding and further liberalising trade rules through the WTO. 
1.4.  In seeking enhanced international opportunities across all sectors, Australia has entered into, 
or is negotiating, several bilateral, regional, and plurilateral trade agreements to complement its 
multilateral endeavours. Australia continues to undertake unilateral and negotiated tariff reductions.  
1.5.  Economic development is at the centre  of Australia's aid programme. The Australian 
Government has set a target of increasing Australia's aid for trade investments to 20% of the total aid budget by 2020. 
2  ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT  
2.1  Overview 
2.1.  Australia has experienced 23 years of continuous economic growth, and the next four years 
look likely to continue this trend. As a result, Australians now enjoy some of the highest living 
standards in the world. However, a rebalancing of growth towards the non-resources sector is 
needed to address a sharp decline in resources in vestment and terms of trade. The economy faces 
some challenges in navigating this transition, with growth expected to be slightly below trend in 
the medium term. 
2.2  Domestic Economy 2.2.  Over the past decade, Australia has bene fited from strong growth in emerging Asia, 
particularly in China and India, which has driven  strong demand for Australia's commodities. This 
demand pushed commodity prices to record highs, driving unprecedented investment in the 
resources sector. However, as completed projects come online, resources exports are increasing substantially. This is contributing to rising gl obal supply, reducing the prices of key resource 
commodities. The net effect of rising export volumes, but falling prices and investment, means 
higher activity in other sectors is needed to boost overall economic growth. As noted in the 2014-15 Budget, the Australian economy is expect ed to grow by 2.5% in 2014-15 and by 3% 
in 2015-16. 
2.3.  Activity outside of the resources sector is expected to strengthen over coming years, 
supported by low interest rates and an exchange rate that has retreated from its highs of early 2013. The clearest sign of recovery in the non-resources sectors has been in the housing 
market, with housing construction responding to higher prices. The pick-up in the housing sector is 
an important transmission channel for monetary policy, boosting household wealth and ultimately consumption. Despite asset price gains, consumers remain cautious, and sustained strength in 
household demand remains a missing piece in the transition away from resources-led growth. A 
recovery in investment outside of the resources sector is also needed. While there are tentative signs that firms are responding to improved demand and existing levels of spare capacity are 
being absorbed, the scale and timing of the anticipated recovery remains uncertain. WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  2.4.  Following the global financial crisis, Australia's labour market performed strongly, compared 
with many other advanced economies. However, recent employment growth has been below trend 
and there is a high degree of excess capacity  in the labour market. This has seen the 
unemployment rate drift higher in recent times. Wi th the expectation of below-trend growth, it will 
take some time for the market to absorb the available labour. The 2014-15 Mid-Year Economic and 
Fiscal Outlook forecasted the unemployment rate to be 6.5% in the June quarters of both the 2015 and 2016 financial years. Excess capacity in the la bour market is expected to keep wage growth 
subdued and to contain inflation in the coming years. 
2.5.  Over the medium term, Australia faces the additional challenges of adjusting to declining 
terms of trade (from historical highs) and an ageing population. To deliver living standard improvements similar to the last two decade s, productivity will need to increase. 
2.3  Monetary and Fiscal Policy 
2.6.  Between November 2011 and August 2013, the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) cut the 
target for the cash rate by 225 basis points to 2.5% – the lowest level on record. This loosening of 
monetary policy reflected the combination of the generally weaker outlook for economic activity 
and a lowering of the expected profile for mining  investment. In addition, the economy had been 
growing below trend and the forward-looking labour  market indicators had generally declined. The 
cash rate has since remained at this low level. The Reserve Bank Board judges the current setting 
of monetary policy will support demand. Interest rates offered to borrowers by financial institutions have declined a little since the cash rate was last changed. Current market expectations, as well as public statements from the RBA indicate that the cash rate is likely to 
remain stable for some time.  
2.7.  The Australian Government's medium to lo ng-term fiscal strategy seeks to consolidate and 
strengthen public finances, on a timetable consistent with maintaining solid growth and low 
unemployment. A key initiative in the 2014-15 Budget was a commitment to significant 
infrastructure investment and reforms to the governance of nationally significant projects. This strategy aims to increase productive capacity and, over time, productivity by ensuring that 
investments are made prudently and assets are used efficiently. The most recent Budget update 
projects the underlying cash deficit to go from $A 40.4 billion in 2014-15 (2.5% of GDP) to a deficit of $A 11.5 billion (0.6% of GDP) by 2017-18. The Government remains committed to its objective of building a stronger economy and achieving surpluses that build to at least 1% of GDP 
by 2023-24. Australia remains well-placed in terms of fiscal sustainability, particularly in 
comparison to most other advanced economies. 
2.4  Sectoral Performance
1 
2.8.  The agriculture industry's output (measured by industry value added) increased by 9% from 
2010-11 to 2012-13. Over the same time, the value of exports from the agriculture industry grew 
by about 30%, reflecting both increases in prices received and export volumes, although 
performance varied across different commodities. Growth in this period occurred mostly through 
exports to China and the United States. 
2.9.  Labour productivity in the agriculture in dustry has been increasing over time, despite 
year-to-year variations due to the impact on output of factors such as the weather. Labour 
productivity over the past three years in creased, continuing the observed trend. 
2.10.  The mining industry's output fell by over 9% in the period 2010-11 to 2012-13. The value of 
exports from the mining industry decreased slightly, by 2%. In 2012-13, the mining industry 
contributed 55% of the total value of goods exported from Australia. The fall in mining output and 
export performance was mainly due to falling commodity prices (after accounting for exchange 
                                               
1 Output is measured in nominal industry value added from ABS 8155.0 (Australian Industry Table 3). 
Employment is measured in persons, series type original, ABS 6291.0.55.003 (Labour Force, Australia, Detailed, Quarterly Table 4). Labour productivity is measured in index terms, 2011-12 = 100 as is multifactor 
productivity, ABS 5260.0.55.002 (Estimates of Industry Mu ltifactor Productivity Tables 1 and 6). Exports are 
measured in nominal value terms, ABS 5368.0.55.006 (Characteristics of Australian Exporters, 2012-13 Tables 4 and 10.2). WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  rates), rather than falling export volumes. Falli ng commodity prices have been the result of 
increased global production.  
2.11.  Labour productivity in the mining in dustry dropped by 12% from 2010-11 to 2011-12, 
continuing the descending trend seen since the earl y 2000s. Labour productivity picked up slightly 
in 2012-13, which could reflect the closure of high-cost mines in the face of falling commodity 
prices. In general, the decline in labour productivity seen since the early 2000s has been due to the lag between capital investment and the correspon ding increase in output and the depletion of 
high-quality natural resources. 
2.12.  Output and exports of the manufacturing industry remained relatively stable over the 
period, with some reduction in output occurring in 2012-13. Employment fell over the period. This is likely to reflect, in part, sectors becoming less competitive in the face of strong import 
competition and the sustained high value of the Australian dollar. Sectors most affected include oil 
refining and metals manufacturing. The food processing sector increased its output and exports, partially making up for reduced output in other sectors. 
2.13.  The performance of the services sector was mixed, with many sectors remaining relatively 
flat. Output in construction increased, reflecting the infrastructure associated with mining and gas investment. Output and employment grew strongly in public administration, safety, health care, 
social assistance and education and training. This growth was largely driven by increased public 
spending in these areas. 
2.14.  The export performance of the service sectors was also mixed, with the strongest growth in 
financial services and the largest fall in construction services. However, these two sectors only 
accounted for 4% of total exports. Overall, there was a small growth in the total value of services 
exported, which was due to the increased value of exports to China and the United States, 
particularly in tourism (which accounts for more than half the value of total exports). 
2.5  Market and Regulatory Reforms, including Tax Reform 
2.5.1  Tax White Paper 2.15.  The Government has committed to a new era of reform in Australia aimed at lifting 
productivity and making the most of the underlying potential of the economy. As part of this 
broader reform agenda, the Government will produce a comprehensive Tax White Paper to provide a longer-term considered approach to tax reform that is consistent with the Government's core principles of fairness and simplicity. 
2.5.2  Competition policy review 
2.16.  Since the last review, the Australian Government has commissioned an independent "root 
and branch" review of Australia's competition laws and policy. This is in recognition of the fact that 
the Australian economy has changed markedly since the last major review of competition policy 
in 1993. The Review focuses on improving outcomes  for Australians by making markets work in 
the long term interests of consumers. It is led by Professor Ian Harper, with assistance from an 
expert Panel. Broadly, the Harper Review is testing whether Australia's competition policies, laws, 
and institutions remain 'fit for purpose' in light of the changing circumstances expected to confront 
the economy in the coming decade. Examples of changing economic circumstances include, increasing globalisation, ageing, and technologi cal change. The Harper Review released a Draft 
Report for public consultation on 22 September 2014, noting that: "In an environment where 
Australia's economic structure will continue to evolve in response to global forces, and markets become increasingly global through technology and stronger trade channels, fostering competitive 
processes in the interests of consumers becomes an ever-changing and challenging task." Further 
information and a copy of the Draft Report are available on the website: http://www.competitionp olicyreview.gov.au/ . WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  2.5.3  Small business policy agenda 
2.17.  The Australian Government has a long-term policy agenda to drive economic growth, reduce 
red tape burdens for business, and improve prod uctivity and competitiveness. The Australian 
Government's small business policy agenda focuses on three key priorities: 
• reducing red tape burdens for small business and improving how regulators engage with 
small business;  
• improving the operating environment facing small business; and  
• building small business capability by increasing the quality and effectiveness of 
government engagement with the sector. 
2.5.4  Deregulation 2.18.  In September 2013, the Australian Government embarked on a wide-ranging deregulation 
agenda aimed at improving Australia's productivi ty. The goal is to improve consultation and 
restore predictability so that policy serves to boost confidence, promote investment, and encourage employment.  
2.19.  The Government has taken a three-pronged approach to addressing regulatory burdens. Its 
focus is on reducing the flow of new regulations,  reviewing the stock of existing regulations and 
encouraging regulators to minimise the burdens they impose when administering regulation. As 
part of this agenda the Government is committed to reducing compliance costs by $A 1 billion per 
year for business, individuals and community organi zations. There is also a requirement that any 
new regulations are offset by reductions in other regulatory burdens.  
2.20.  The Government has issued Statements of Expectations to regulators, outlining the 
priorities for them to take into account in fulfi lling their statutory duties. These statements have a 
major focus on deregulation. In addition, the Government has set aside at least two parliamentary sitting days each year for repealing counterproductive, unnecessary or redundant legislation. 
Repeal Days were held in March and October 2014. 
2.5.5  Financial Systems Inquiry 2.21.  The Australian Government released the final report of the independent Financial System 
Inquiry on 7 December 2014. The Inquiry was ch arged with examining how the financial system 
could be positioned to best meet Australia's evolving needs and support Australia's economic growth. 
2.22.  The report made 44 recommendations to serv e as a blueprint for the financial system over 
the next decade. The recommendations are based on the themes of funding Australia's economy 
and boosting competition. They focus on five specific areas: resilience; superannuation and retirement incomes; innovation; consumer outcomes; and the regulatory system. 
2.23.  The Government is consulting on the Inquiry's recommendations before making any 
decisions, and is calling for written submissions from all stakeholders, including industry and members of the public. 
2.5.6  Anti-dumping reforms 
2.24.  Since January 2011, significant legislative and administrative changes have been made to 
Australia's anti-dumping system.  
2.25.  In 2011, in response to the 2009 Productivi ty Commission report "Australia's Anti-dumping 
and Countervailing System", the Government announced "Streamlining Australia's Anti-dumping 
System – An Effective Anti-dumping and Countervailing System for Australia" (Streamlining reforms). The Streamlining reforms included a numbe r of elements, such as: establishment of the 
International Trade Remedies Advisor (ITRA); esta blishment of an anti-circumvention framework; 
increased staffing of the previous Internationa l Trade Remedies Branch; establishment of the WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  Anti-Dumping Review Panel; increased monitoring of compliance with anti-dumping measures; and 
clarifying the parties permitted to participate in investigations. These reforms strengthened the anti-dumping system by improving access, time liness, decision making and compliance, and 
increasing consistency with other anti-dumping administrations. 
2.26.  In 2012, the "Review into Anti-Dumping Arrangements" (Brumby review) was released. The 
review made several findings and recommendat ions, including the establishment of a new 
anti-dumping agency reporting directly to the Minister for Industry. The Brumby review also 
recommended that the new agency be principally located in a major capital city where there is a 
high concentration of Australian industry. In late 2012, the Government announced the "Strengthening Australia's Anti-dumping Syst em Reforms" (Strengthening reforms), which 
implemented the primary recommendations of the Brumby review and also made other 
improvements to the system. These included: establishing the Anti-Dumping Commission in 
Melbourne, Australia; increasing funding to recruit additional staff; expanding the anti-circumvention framework; clarifying the application of retrospective duty provisions; 
increasing penalties for false statements; and continuing funding for the ITRA. 
2.27.  The Government transferred responsibility  for anti-dumping matters to the Minister for 
Industry (from the Minister for Home Affairs) follo wing the 2013 national election to capitalise on 
the Department of Industry's detailed understanding  of the issues facing industry stakeholders. 
2.28.  On 15 December 2014, further reforms to Australia's anti-dumping arrangements were 
announced to strengthen the anti-dumping system  and respond to industry concerns. The reforms 
included: enhanced information and support mechanisms for Australian businesses; improvements 
to the Anti-Dumping Review Panel's merits review process; changes to address circumvention 
activity to avoid dumping duties through minor product modifications; and other technical changes to the legislation that clarify the operation of the system. The proposed reforms are consistent 
with Australia's WTO obligations. 
2.6  International Economic Engagement Overview 2.6.1  Overview 
2.29.  As a medium-sized, open economy (reliant on raw commodity exports and foreign 
investment), Australia's economic prospects are significantly influenced by external developments. 
2.30.  Maintaining Australia's close trade and investment links to the rapidly growing Asian region 
is vital for its future prosperity. In recent years, strong growth in emerging Asia, particularly in 
China and India, has driven demand for Australia's commodities. The Treasury estimates that 
by 2050 four of the world's five largest economies will be in Asia — China, India, Indonesia and Japan — with Korea, Malaysia and Thailand also in the top twenty. 
2.31.  More broadly, the maintenance of open and competitive global trade and investment flows 
are essential to supporting global economic recovery. 
2.32.  Key risks to the Australian economy also need to be managed, including weak growth in the 
major advanced economies, negative spill-overs to major emerging markets, sovereign debt 
concerns in major advanced economies, unstable financial market conditions, and volatile commodity prices. 
2.6.2  World Trade Organization (WTO) 
2.33.  Australia is committed to the WTO and its framework of rules. Australia strongly supports 
efforts to conclude the Doha Round and will continue to work actively and constructively with other Members toward this end. See sections 3.13 and 3.14 for more detailed information. 
2.6.3  Trade-related developmen t assistance (Aid for trade) 
2.34.  Economic development is at the centre of Australia's aid programme. A key element of this 
programme is to promote and support sustaina ble economic growth and prosperity in the 
Indo-Pacific region through increased trade and investment. Aid for trade is about helping WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  developing countries address their internal constraints to trade, including cumbersome regulations, 
lack of skills, and poor infrastructure. 
2.35.  In June 2014, the Australian Government announced a new development policy and 
framework and has set a target of increasing Australia's aid for trade investment to 20% of the 
total aid budget (or Official Development Assistance) by 2020. 
2.36.  Australia has supported the global Aid for Trade Initiative of the WTO and the OECD since it 
began in 2005. Australia's aid for trade approach aligns with the definition of aid for trade set by 
the WTO and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 
2.37.  In 2013-14, Australia's aid for trade represented about $A 630 million or 12.5% of 
Australia's total Official Development Assistance. Th e majority of this assistance was for building 
productive capacity, including in agriculture (54% of total aid for trade), economic infrastructure 
(42%), and trade policy and regulation (4%).  
2.38.  Australia's aid for trade is undertaken and delivered through multilateral, regional and 
bilateral channels. For example, at the multilateral level, Australia has supported the WTO to help 
developing countries engage more effectively in trade negotiations. Australia also supported the 
World Intellectual Property Organization's efforts to assist developing countries build their intellectual property systems, and facilitate te chnology and knowledge transfer. On a regional 
basis, Australia has provided training for customs officials and helped established a common set of 
cross-border paperwork in the Mekong. At a bilateral level, Australia has provided research and training to farmers in the Pacific to improve their production methods and meet international export requirements. 
2.39.  To assist Least Developed Countries (LDCs) improve their trade, Australia has provided 
LDCs full duty-free and quota-free access to ou r markets since 2003. This has contributed to 
notable increases in LDC exports to Australia – averaging about 13% per year between 2003 
and 2013. 
2.40.  In 2013, Australia provided $A 400,000 to the WTO Trade Facilitation National Needs 
Assessment Trust Fund to help identify the techni cal assistance and capacity building required by 
developing countries to implement the WTO's draft consolidated negotiating text. Australia 
committed $A 6 million over the period 2013-17 to the WTO Global Trust Fund to help developing countries engage more effectively in multilater al trade negotiations and implement their WTO 
membership commitments. $A 3 million was al so committed to the Enhanced Integrated 
Framework over the same period to help LDCs address their constraints to trade. 
2.41.  In July 2014, Australia launched a new multilateral aid for trade initiative, the Australian 
Global Trade Integration Facility ($A 60 million over four years), which will mainly support projects 
on trade policy and regulatory reform. This Facility includes Australia's $A 6 million contribution 
over three years to the World Bank's Trade Facilita tion Support Program (TFSP), designed to assist 
developing countries undertake at-the-border reforms such as improvements to customs 
procedures and port practices. Australia has also  made a commitment of $A 1 million to assist 
developing nations implement the WTO Agreement on Trade Facilitation. 
2.42.  Beyond the WTO and OECD, Australia continues to advocate the importance of aid for trade 
in other forums, such as the G20 and the UN-led Post 2015 Development Agenda. 
2.6.4  G20 
2.43.  As G20 host in 2014, Australia focused on actions to support private sector-led growth, job 
creation and strengthening global economic resi lience. Representing around three-quarters of 
global trade, actions by G20 members can make a direct contribution to growth in trade.  
2.44.  The central outcome from Australia's agenda  was the G20's commitment to lift its collective 
GDP by more than 2% above the five year trajectory indicated by the October 2013 IMF World 
Economic Outlook . As part of this commitment, each G20 member delivered a comprehensive 
national growth strategy outlining its domestic actions to boost domestic growth and deliver employment opportunities. These plans focused on structural reforms, including removing WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  obstacles to trade. The combined growth strate gies of G20 member nations presented at the 
Brisbane Leaders' Summit – the 'Brisbane Action Plan' – contained more than 800 new policy measures, which the IMF and OECD have estimated will boost the collective GDP of G20 nations by 2.1% by 2018.  
2.45.  Trade measures included in growth strategies varied, but G20 Members included 
deregulatory measures, enhanced logistics, faster customs procedures, upgrades to trade-related infrastructure and reducing taxes at the border as actions to be taken in their strategies. Measures 
to lower the cost of trading across borders and faci litate participation by businesses in regional and 
global value chains were emphasised in all of the strategies.  
2.46.  Trade measures in Australia's growth strategy included: a move towards accession to the 
WTO Agreement on Government Procurement; a Trusted Trader Programme to support the 
enhancement of supply chain efficiency; implementa tion of completed free trade agreements with 
the Republic of Korea and Japan; regulatory burden reductions (e.g. reforms to Australia's coastal shipping industry to reduce costs); freight infrastructure investments; and funding for skills 
training.  
2.47.  Australia held the second G20 Trade Ministers meeting in Sydney on 19 July 2014, bringing 
together ministers from each of the G20 member countries and invited guests, along with the 
Director-General of the WTO and representative s of the OECD and World Bank Group. Trade 
Ministers had the opportunity to hear directly from the B20 (G20 business representatives) about their recommendations to boost growth and help  achieve the growth target through trade. 
Ministers also discussed how to forge a stronger global trading system. Key outcomes in the 
Chair's Summary included reaffirming the G20's commitment to standstill and roll back 
protectionist measures introduced since the global financial crisis and to aid for trade as a means of reducing poverty. Fi nally, ministers welcomed Turkey's announcement it would host another 
G20 Trade Ministers meeting in 2015.  
2.48.  At the G20 Summit in Brisbane in November 2014, Leaders discussed the need for a strong 
global trading system to create the conditions for business to drive growth and generate jobs. 
Leaders discussed how to ensure bilateral, region al and plurilateral agreements deliver economic 
growth and ways in which they can complement multilateral liberalisation. They focused on the need for a robust and effective WTO that responds to current and future challenges. Australia, as a 
G20 troika member, is working closely with the 2015 G20 host, Turkey, to develop a substantial 
trade agenda. The WTO and other international organizations will play a valuable role in analysis to 
inform future G20 discussions, including on th e role of regional trade agreements (RTAs). 
2.6.5  Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 
2.49.  Australia has a strong commitment to APEC as a regional forum for promoting trade and 
investment liberalisation and economic cooperation in the Asia-Pacific. APEC's work on trade and investment liberalisation, business facilitation and economic reform is instrumental in enabling 
sustained economic growth in the region's economies.  
2.50.  Australia makes a strong contribution to enhancing regional economic integration through 
APEC. For example, Australia led work to increase  transparency and encourage unilateral reform of 
measures affecting services trade in specific sectors (e.g. financial, transport and logistics, higher 
education). To support the realisation of a Free Trade Agreement for the Asia-Pacific, Australia is 
providing leadership on improving information-sharing on regional free trade agreements as a means of encouraging comprehensive, high-quality agreements. Australia also collaborated closely 
with economies in developing the 2012 APEC List of  Environmental Goods, for which tariffs will be 
reduced to 5% or less by the end of 2015. 
2.51.  Economic and technical cooperation and prac tical capacity-building assistance are key pillars 
of APEC's work. Australia provides strong policy and financial support for this work, particularly 
where it enhances developing economies' capacity to reap the benefits of improved trade and investment. For example, Australia's financial an d training support assisted developing APEC 
economies implement their structural reform priorities. Australia also supports targeted capacity 
building to improve the performance of region al supply chains and help APEC economies 
implement their obligations in the WTO Agreement on Trade Facilitation. WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  2.6.6  East Asia Summit (EAS) 
2.52.  Australia is a strong supporter of, and active participant in, both of the East Asia Summit's 
(EAS) economic streams – the Economic (Trade) Ministers' Meeting and the informal Finance Ministers' Meeting. Australia is keen to ensure the EAS develops strong economic institutions, 
allowing the region to realise its economic potential manage the associated risks and 
complications. Australia was a leading advocate for the formalisation of the EAS' economic stream in 2013 and continues to advocate formalisation of its finance stream. 
2.53.  The EAS economic stream has been contri buting to the progress of regional economic 
integration, including through connectivity activities related to physical, institutional and people-to-people linkages. It has also provided a useful forum for members to discuss regional and global economic developments, and trade liberalisation, including the Regional Comprehensive 
Economic Partnership (RCEP), Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) and WTO matters. It has also 
provided a mechanism to consider the contribution of the Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA) to the region's integration efforts. We expect this stream to play a greater 
role in supporting regional economic integration in the future.  
2.54.  Engagement under the EAS finance stre am has been supporting the emergence of the 
region's economic identity, by focusing Ministers' attention on the regional dimension of global 
economic issues, and other unique regional challenges. This has included consideration of the 
equity and environmental dimensions of sustainable economic growth, how to attract the region's surplus savings into financing the region's enormous infrastructure needs, and the benefits of sharing the considerable economic reform and management experience that already exists within 
the region. In the future, this stream could help ensure greater coordination of the region's 
macroeconomic policy settings and management of the increased complexities that come with economic development (e.g. protecting efficient tax bases and ensuring complementary financial 
market regulation). 
2.6.7  Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 
2.55.  Australia is an active player in the OECD, including through participation in the OECD Trade 
Committee and its subsidiary bodies. We welcome the OECD Trade Committee's continued 
advocacy of the benefits of trade liberalisation su pported by evidence-based analysis of the real 
cost of protectionism. In particular, we welcome the OECD's contributions to the 2014 Australian G20 Presidency's priorities of promoting strong er economic growth and employment, including 
identifying actions to boost trade. The OECD's work  in quantifying the potential trade cost impacts 
of trade facilitation measures, and in identifyin g potential services reforms through the Services 
Trade Restrictiveness Index were key inputs to the G20. Australia also takes a strong interest in 
the OECD's work on the policy implications of global value chains, as well as its ongoing analytical 
work in areas such as non-tariff measures, regional trade agreements, export credits, environment and trade, trade and develo pment and aid for trade. 
3  TRADE AND INVESTMENT POLICY 
3.1  Overview 3.1.  Australia is committed to a programme of tariff reductions and enhanced international 
opportunities across all sectors. In support of this objective, Australia has entered into, or is 
negotiating, a number of bilateral, regional, and plurilateral trade agreements to complement its 
multilateral endeavours.  
3.2.  Australia's prosperity is underpinned by its global economic engagement as articulated 
through the Government's economic diplomacy ag enda. Global trade reform in agriculture, 
manufacturing, environmental goods, services, intellectual property, energy and resources, investment and tourism are all priorities for the Australian Government. 
3.3.  Australia's economic diplomacy strategy targets global prosperity through its aid for trade 
programme, which supports sustainable economic growth and prosperity, primarily in the Indo-Pacific region. WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  3.2  Tariff Regime 
3.4.  Australia is committed to reducing tariffs. By 2015, more than 99% of Australia's tariff lines 
will be applied at a Most Favoured Nation (MFN) rate of 5% or less, with over 47% duty free. The average applied tariff rate will have fallen to 2.6%. Australia's passenger motor vehicle (PMV) 
duties have now been reduced to 5%, with tari ffs on remaining textile, clothing and footwear 
(TCF) lines reduced from 10% to no higher than 5% in 2015. 
3.3  Agriculture 
3.5.  Australia's major agricultural exports are wheat, beef, wool, dairy products, cotton and wine. 
Around 60% of Australia's agricultural production is exported. Wheat, beef and veal, and wool are 
the three largest agricultural exports by value. These exports have almost tripled in value (real 
terms) since the mid-1970s. In many rural and regional parts of Australia the agriculture sector 
makes a vital economic contribution and is a sign ificant employer. Over the last 20 years there has 
been a shift in emphasis from European to Asian markets and this trend is expected to continue. 
3.6.  Global agricultural trade reform is a key objective of Australia's international trade agenda. 
With over two-thirds of Australia's agricultural pr oduction exported to global markets, Australia is 
committed to a fair and market-oriented agricultural trading system. While agriculture is the most distorted area of international trade, Australia's agricultural sector is one of the most open, 
market-oriented and competitive in the world. Domestic and international prices for agricultural 
commodities are closely aligned and the level of assistance provided to agriculture means that Australia remains the second lowest subsidiser in the OECD. 
3.4  Australia's Biosecurity Arrangements 
3.7.  Australia manages its biosecurity risks offshore, at the border, and within Australia — the 
biosecurity continuum. This framework manages biosecurity risks at the point where intervention is most effective. Several historical reviews have identified improvements to Australia's biosecurity 
system.
2 Australia's biosecurity system is continuously reformed to ensure it keeps pace with the 
dynamic biosecurity environment. Central to these reform activities has been the focus on managing risks at all points on the biosecurity continuum. There is an emphasis on prevention, 
preparedness and early intervention. This includes activities offshore to reduce risks before they 
reach the border, actions at the border to deal with risks, and managing activities within Australia to minimise the impact of incursions and to faci litate trade. There is also a focus on aligning 
resources and regulatory effort based on the level of risk. This approach includes ensuring 
sustainable funding, improving legislative frameworks, modernising information and 
communications technology systems and enhancing the management of established pests and diseases. 
3.8.  The Australian Government introduced the Biosecurity Bill in 2014 to replace the Quarantine 
Act 1908. The Biosecurity Bill simplifies Australia's biosecurity laws while maintaining the standard of protection for human, animal, plant life and the environment. The Australian Department of 
Agriculture provides further advice  on the Biosecurity Bill 2014 at: 
http://www.agriculture.gov.au /biosecuritylegislation .  
3.9.  The Australian Government examined import risk analysis (IRA) processes in 2014 to ensure 
arrangements are sufficiently robust to minimise the risk of exotic pests and disease incursions in 
Australia. The Department of Agriculture sought input from stakeholders and trading partners on 
specific elements of the IRA process. Recommendations for administrative and regulatory improvements are being considered in the context of developing regulations and policies for import 
risk analyses under the Biosecurity Bill 2014. 
3.5  Manufacturing 3.10.  Australia's approach to manufacturing bu ilds on our strengths by improving productivity, 
rewarding entrepreneurship and providing structural support to companies. 
                                               
2 These reviews include Nairn Review (1996), the Beale Review (2008), and to some extent the reviews 
by Callinan (2008), Farmer (2011) and Matthews (2011).  WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  3.11.  The Entrepreneurs' Infrastructure Programme (EIP) recognises Australia's diverse business 
landscape and the changing nature of markets and industries in the global economy. With a national network of more than 100 experienced priv ate sector advisers, the EIP offers support to 
businesses through business management, research connections and commercialising ideas. 
3.12.  The Australian Government is delivering practical and targeted programmes that support 
Australia's manufacturing sector as it transition s towards higher-value, knowledge-based activities. 
3.13.  The Manufacturing Transition Programme prov ides grants to firms to assist them to move 
away from low-tech commodity style production that may not be globally competitive, to advanced 
manufacturing where specialised knowledge and skills gives Australia an advantage. 
3.14.  The Australian Government is also focused on ensuring Australian automotive workers, 
component makers and small businesses in the manufacturing supply chain have the opportunity 
and support to take advantage of new jobs and new markets. 
3.15.  The Automotive Diversification Programme is one part of the Australian Government's 
Growth Fund, which aims to drive development in  new industries before the end of local car 
manufacturing in 2017. The programme aims to conne ct the automotive supply chain to business 
opportunities in other markets and industry sectors such as defence, construction, mining and medical technology. 
3.16.  The Australian Government is also preparing a National Industry Investment and 
Competitiveness Agenda (NIICA), to focus on long-term issues relating to competitiveness, productivity and job opportunities in the industries of the future. The Industry Skills Fund is a key 
element of the NIICA. It will assist Australian industry to access training and support services and 
to develop innovative training solutions so that Australia will have the highly skilled workforce it 
needs to adapt to new business growth opportunities, rapid technological change and market driven structural adjustment. 
3.6  Services 
3.17.  The Australian Government recognises the important role services play in all modern 
economies and the positive potential this sector has to improve trade and economic growth. 
3.18.  Australia is a world-class provider of a range of services, such as telecommunications, 
travel, banking and insurance. The services sect or is a significant part of the economy and 
represents about 70% of Australia's GDP. The services sector employs more than four out of five Australians. Three of Australia's top five 'globally significant' industries are education, leisure 
tourism and financial services. 
3.19.  In 2013, total trade in services accounted for 19.3% of Australia's total trade in goods and 
services, and services exports accounted for 17.3 % of Australia's total exports. The value of 
Australia's services exports is even greater when taking into account the export role of 
intermediate services inputs ("embodied services"). OECD value-added analysis has further confirmed that approximately 40% of Australia's exports measured in value-added originates from 
services. 
3.20.  Australia's priority sectors for market opening in global services trade reform efforts include 
financial services, telecommunications, professional services, education, mining-related and environmental services. 
3.21.  Encouraging greater trade in services through open markets and non-discriminatory 
treatment can lead to higher employment levels, higher incomes and higher standards of living. 
Australia is working to enhance international opportunities for service industries through 
multilateral, bilateral and regional trade negotiations to remove non-tariff barriers to improve 
market access and address behind-the-border barriers. 
3.22.  Australia is one of the most active advocates of services trade reform in the WTO, in 
plurilateral and regional initiatives and in bilateral FTAs. It has some of the most open services 
sectors and one of the most highly transparent investment regimes in the world. Australia is jointly WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  leading a group of WTO Members negotiating Trad e in Services Agreement (TiSA), an agreement 
which will support multilateral negotiations on services. 
3.23.  Australia has undertaken significant reform across the services economy over the last 
twenty years to complement its work in improving market conditions internationally. The 
Government has pledged to cut red tape costs by  $A 1 billion a year to improve the nation's 
competitiveness, help to create more jobs and lower household costs. This reform agenda has been supported by close attention to the role of regulation and competition, including through the 
work of the Office of Best Practice Regulati on and the Australian Competition and Consumer 
Commission. 
3.7  Intellectual Property 3.24.  Australia continues to support the effective implementation of rights and obligations within 
the framework of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS 
Agreement). 
3.25.  A number of intellectual-property related legislative developments have occurred since 
Australia's last WTO Trade Policy Review: 
• The Intellectual Property Laws Amendment (Raising the Bar) Act 2012 came into full 
effect on 15 April 2013. The Act raises the quality of granted patents, allows free access 
to patented inventions for regulatory approvals and research, reduces delays in 
resolution of patent and trade mark applications, assists the operations of the intellectual property profession, improves mechanisms for trade mark and copyright enforcement, 
and simplifies some aspects of the intellectual property system. 
• The Therapeutic Goods Legislation Amen dment (Copyright) Act 2011 amended the 
Copyright Act 1968 to provide that copyright in product information for particular medicines would not be infringed by actions required under the Therapeutic Goods 
Act 1989. 
• Australia approved the Protocol Amending the TRIPS Agreement in 2007. Australia is 
currently progressing legislation to implement this Protocol. This would enable Australian 
medicine producers to manufacture and export patented pharmaceuticals to countries 
experiencing health crises, under a comp ulsory licence from the Federal Court. 
3.26.  In March 2013, Australia acceded to the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime. 
In June 2014, the Australian Government announced Australia's intention to ratify the Marrakesh 
Treaty to Facilitate Access to Published Works fo r Persons who are Blind, Visually Impaired, or 
otherwise Print Disabled. Since the last review, Australia has signed various free trade agreements which contain chapters relating to intellectual property protection and enforcement. 
3.27.  Australia continues to be an active participant in discussing intellectual property issues 
within a range of international and regional forums. These forums include the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the Intellectual Property Committee established under the 
ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreem ent (AANZFTA) to oversee the delivery of 
projects to improve intellectual property standards within the region. Australia has also been an active participant in negotiations centred on the Indo-Pacific region, including the Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership. 
3.28.  Australia continues to support the AANZFTA Economic Cooperation Work Programme 
(ECWP) which aims to facilitate the implementation of the AANZFTA through annual trade and investment related activities, including those concerning intellectual property. For example, funds 
f r o m  t h e  E C W P  h a v e  s u p p o r t e d  I P  A u s t r a l i a ' s  d e velopment of the Regional Patent Examination 
Training programme, a comprehensive competency  based online training programme targeted 
towards intellectual property offices in AANZFTA member states. WIPO funding has allowed the 
involvement of the African Regional Intellectual Property Office. 
3.29.  Through Australia's aid programme, $A 2 million was provided to WIPO to establish the 
WIPO-Australia Funds in Trust. The Funds in  Trust programme seeks to promote trade and WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  economic growth through improved application and us e of intellectual property rules by developing 
countries in the Indo-Pacific region. Activities under  the Funds in Trust include intellectual property 
capacity building, training to increase access to technology transfer, improving the ability to use intellectual property for research into neglected tropical diseases, malaria and tuberculosis, and 
utilising the intellectual property system for the benefit of the visually impaired. 
3.8  Energy and Resources 3.30.  Australia's resources sector is in a period of growth as it moves from the investment phase 
to the production phase of the mining boom. 
3.31.  The Australian Government works with industry and foreign governments to maximise 
export opportunities for Australia's resource and energy commodities, products, technologies and services, and to enhance domestic and regional energy security. The Australian Government also 
works with industry and foreign governments to maximise positive investment outcomes in 
Australia's resources and energy sectors. 
3.32.  Australia's energy and minerals policy priorities are advanced through many key forums 
including: APEC Energy Working Group, East As ia Summit Energy Cooperation Task Force, the 
G20, International Energy Agency (IEA), and the International Energy Forum (IEF). 
3.33.  Regional and bilateral free trade agreements are another way in which Australia seeks to 
maximise opportunities for its extractives industries. For example, the recent agreement with 
Japan (JAEPA) will lead to all of Australia's resource and energy products entering Japan duty free upon full implementation. Australia's agreement with the Republic of Korea also strengthens 
opportunities for the extractives sector. 
3.34.  Australia also engages in bilateral minerals and energy cooperation with China, India, 
Japan, the Republic of Korea, Chinese Taipei, an d the United States of America through Energy 
Dialogues. Bilateral dialogues aim to facilitate a mutual understanding of energy and mineral 
resource policies and issues, promote trade and investment, and stimulate bilateral commercial 
relationships for the benefit of all stakeholders. 
3.35.  Australia's G20 energy agenda for 2014 incl uded building the resilience of energy markets, 
strengthening global energy architecture, stre ngthening gas markets, and bolstering energy 
efficiency. The Group developed the G20 principles  on Energy Collaboration and the G20 Energy 
Efficiency Action Plan. The G20 principles establis hed a set of priorities for G20 collaboration on 
energy and lay the foundation for future work. The Energy Efficiency Action Plan documents six 
areas of practical energy efficiency work for on going collaboration among G20 members. In 2014, 
the G20 also held the inaugural G20-Intern ational Energy Forum Gas Market Dialogue. 
3.9  Investment 
3.36.  Australia has continued to pursue liberalisation of its foreign investment regime to reduce 
compliance costs and improve Australia's competitiveness as an investment destination. In March 2013, updates to Australia's Foreign Investment Policy improved its clarity and 
consistency, making it easier for foreign investors to understand their obligations. Updates 
included a relaxation of notification requirements  for foreign government banks that take security 
when lending, unless they later enforce the security and hold the assets for more than 12 months, and clearer definitions of "direct investment" and "new business". 
3.37.  The conclusion of free trade agreements are also contributing to the liberalisation of 
Australia's foreign investment regime. Invest ors from the United States, New Zealand (as 
of March 2013), Republic of Korea and Japan are pe rmitted a higher threshold of $A 1,094 million, 
before investments are subjected to scrutiny by the Foreign Investment Review Board. The higher 
threshold will also extend to Chinese investors up on entry-into-force of the China-Australia Free 
Trade Agreement. WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  3.10  Tourism 
3.38.  In late 2013, tourism joined the Foreign A ffairs and Trade Portfolio. Tourism is Australia's 
number one services export industry, valued at $A 27.0 billion. Australia is strengthening bilateral tourism relationships with major tourist source countries as part of the Government's economic 
diplomacy agenda and priorities under Tourism 2020. We are also increasing our engagement in 
key multilateral tourism forums such as the APEC Tourism Working Group and the OECD Tourism Committee. 
3.39.  In 2012-13, tourism, as a percentage of GDP, rose 3.7% to $A 42 billion (around 2.8% of 
total GDP), tourism industry exports rose 5.7% to $A 27 billion (8.9% of total exports), tourism industry imports contracted 0.1%, and tourism employment rose 2.2% to 543,600 – almost double the 1.2% growth rate of national empl oyment. Tourism's share of total employment is 
now 4.7%. In 2013, the number of international visitors to Australia aged 15 years and over 
increased 5.6% to 5.9 million and total trip expend iture grew 6% to $A 28.9 billion. Australia's top 
trading partner, China, accounted for the greatest total trip expenditure and saw the greatest 
increase in visitor numbers of any country between 2012 and 2013. 
3.11  Trade and Environment 3.40.  Australia's objectives in negotiations on trade and environment issues are to liberalise 
international trade in environmental goods and services, recognising the important role that trade 
can play in addressing climate change and pursui ng other environmental goals. Australia continues 
to work with other WTO Members on the relationship between WTO rules and specific trade obligations in multilateral environmental agreements, ensuring that trade measures do not clash 
with other relevant treaties and that environmental measures do not act as an avenue for trade 
protectionism. Australia is playing a lead role in negotiations with other WTO Members for a plurilateral agreement to liberalise trade in environmental goods. 
3.41.  Australia has also sought to pursue environmental objectives and enhance international 
cooperation in environmental matters of shared in terest through FTA negotiations. Provisions are 
included in all of Australia's FTAs which allow governments to provide legitimate protection for 
their environments, while simultaneously guarding against trade distorting policies taken in the 
guise of environmental protection. Three of Australia's finalised FTAs also contain specific chapters on the environment: Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA), the Australia-Chile Free Trade Agreement (ACI-FTA) and the Aust ralia-Korea Free Trade Agreement (KAFTA). 
3.12  Trade and Investment Promotion 
3.42.  Austrade is the Australian Government's international trade, education and investment 
promotion agency. It also has responsibility fo r tourism policy, programmes and research. Through 
a global network of offices, Austrade assists Australian enterprises to develop international 
business, helps win foreign direct investment into Australia, and promotes the international education and training sectors. Austrade's services and activities contribute to Australia's economic 
prosperity. 
3.43.  Australian businesses and institutions face a range of barriers in different markets that 
impede successful market entry and the identification of relevant commercial opportunities. Austrade provides support to internationally-ready Australian businesses and institutions by 
focusing on markets where those barriers are strongest: where different language and business 
cultures can be challenging, where there is less openness of regulatory frameworks and 
transparency of business processes, where there are difficulties accessing distribution channels 
and commercial connections, and where the value of the 'badge of government' is highest. 
Austrade directs more of its resources to Asian and other growth and emerging markets, which have significant commercial potential and provide opportunities aligned with Australia's 
comparative advantages. 
3.44.  Austrade works closely with Australian state and territory governments to attract and 
facilitate productive foreign direct investment into Australia. In February 2014, Australian ministers responsible for trade and investment agreed to focus their collaborative efforts on five 
national investment priority areas which play to the country's strengths and offer opportunities for WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  investors. Investment priorities include: agribusiness and food; resources and energy; major 
infrastructure; tourism infrastructure; and advanced services, manufacturing and technologies. The appointment of Senior Investment Specialists has increased Australia's capacity to attract foreign investment by promoting Australia as a place to invest. 
3.45.  Austrade promotes Australia's international education and training sector in markets 
overseas, contributing to the growth of demand for Australian education, and assisting education providers with up-to-date market intelligence. Austrade also supports the tourism industry to 
deliver high quality products and services by he lping overcome a number of supply-side barriers. 
In particular, it is focusing on policy reforms to enhance investment, ameliorate labour and skills shortages and to increase transport capacity and visa access. 
3.13  Multilateral Trade Initiatives – WTO Overview 
3.46.  3.46. Australia supports growth in the reac h and effectiveness of the multilateral trading 
system by upholding and further liberalising trade rules through the WTO. Australia will continue to advocate a strong, rules-based architecture for global trade. 
3.47.  3.47. In recent negotiations, Australia prioritised resolving obstacles preventing the 
adoption of the Protocol of Amendment to open  the Agreement on Trade Facilitation (ATF) for 
acceptance. 
3.14  Concluding the Doha Round – Bali and Post-Bali 
3.48.  Australia remains committed to concluding the Doha Round. Our approach to developing the 
post-Bali work programme is that we should focus on elements that are practical and doable, with a view to concluding the Doha Round as soon as possible. 
3.49.  The Bali Package agreed in December 2013 was an important stepping stone towards 
concluding the Doha Round. Australia keenly endors ed all elements of the Bali Package, including 
the timetable for implementation. Australia is strongly committed to the ATF and development 
components of the package. 
3.50.  Australia's commitment to developing and least-developed countries is tangible, with 
assistance provided to developing countries to undertake trade facilitation reforms. Australia is 
contributing $A 6 million  over three years to the World Bank 's Trade Facilitation Support Program 
to assist developing countries undertake at-the-border reforms such as improvements to customs procedures. Australia co-funded a workshop for Pacific Islands WTO Members on ATF implementation from 12-15 May 2014 in Nadi, Fiji. Australia has also made a commitment of 
$A 1 million to the WTO to assist developing nations implement the Agreement, but this is 
contingent upon adoption of the Agreement. 
3.51.  Australia considers the ATF a very effective means of cutting red-tape, speeding up border 
clearances and reducing the costs of doing busi ness internationally.  The Australian Government 
had commenced its domestic approval processes to accept the Agreement when WTO Members missed the July 2014 deadline for opening the ATF protocol for acceptance. The Agreement was 
tabled in Parliament on 18 June 2014.  
3.52.  As with all proposed treaties, the Australian Parliament's Joint Standing Committee on 
Treaties (JSCOT) must review the ATF. Given the non-adoption of the Agreement's Protocol of Amendment on 31 July 2014, JSCOT agreed on 26 August 2014 to suspend consideration of the 
ATF. Now that the Agreement is open for adoption, Australia is seeking to recommence the JSCOT 
process and is looking to formally accept and notify the WTO of acceptance in the first half of 2015. 
3.53.  The 2013 WTO Bali Package contained a number of measures related to agriculture, 
including a declaration in relation to export competition and decisions on tariff rate quota administration, general services, cotton and public stockholding. While Australia welcomed 
the 2013 Bali Package as a credible step forward in the Doha Round negotiations, there remains 
much work to be done to achieve substantial re ductions in agricultural support and protection. WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  3.54.  Australia is Chair of the Cairns Group in the WTO, which celebrated its 28th year in 2014. 
The Cairns Group represents a broad global cross-section of both developing and developed country agricultural exporters and provides an  interface between primary producers and policy 
makers in the member countries. The Cairns Group is committed to further agriculture trade 
reform, in order to create a fairer and more open trading environment for all agriculture producers, 
developed and developing. Representatives of Cairns Group member countries meet regularly within the WTO and will continue efforts, both at a technical and political level, to resolve the 
outstanding issues in the current Doha Round negotiations. 
3.55.  Australia supports the four Bali Ministerial Decisions relating to development and least 
developed country (LDC) issues. Australia acknowledges that special and differential treatment is an integral part of WTO Doha Round negotiations. It exists to balance the structural asymmetry 
between developing and developed countries, but fl exibilities should be designed in a way that 
reduces the distortions and restrictions in the international agricultural trading system.  
3.56.  Australia is committed to the effective operationalization of the LDC Services Waiver. 
Australia has been working with LDCs to identify meaningful services trade preferences in areas of 
LDC export interest and complementary capacity building activities to increase LDC participation in trade in services. While Australia welcomed the 2013 Bali Package as a credible step forward for 
the Doha Round, there remains much work to be done to achieve substantial reductions in 
agricultural support and protection. 
3.15  Plurilateral Negotiations 3.57.  Australia continues to proactively negotiate plurilateral agreements under the auspices of, 
and alongside, the WTO. Australia is party to negotiations on the Trade in Services Agreement 
(TiSA), Information Technology Agreement (ITA),  and the Environmental Goods Agreement (EGA). 
3.15.1  Trade in Services Agreement (TiSA) 
3.58.  Formal negotiations for the Trade in Services Agreement (TiSA) commenced in early 2013. 
The negotiations, which currently involve 23 Parties, are based on delivering a high-quality and comprehensive services-only trade agreement. The objective is to negotiate an agreement which is 
compatible with the WTO General Agreement on Trade in Services, will attract broad participation, 
and will support and feed back into multilateral trade negotiations. The TiSA will set a new standard in services trade commitments, capturing the progress that has been made through unilateral liberalisation and in free trade agreements outside the multilateral system. Many of the 
current parties already have relatively open services markets. Locking in existing market access 
would provide certainty for Australian services suppliers. As participation continues to expand, the TiSA could offer significant additional benefits. 
3.59.  The TiSA negotiations would cover all services sectors, including financial services; ICT 
services (including telecommunications and e-commerce); professional services; maritime transport services; air transport services; comp etitive delivery services; energy services; 
temporary entry of business persons; government procurement; and new rules on domestic 
regulation to ensure regulatory settings do not operate as a barrier to trade in services. In addition to improved market access commitments, the negotiations also provide an opportunity to develop new disciplines (or trade rules) in areas where th ere have been significant developments since the 
WTO Uruguay Round negotiations. 
3.15.2  Information Technology Agreement (ITA) 3.60.  Australia is a participant in the negotiations  to expand the coverage of the ITA. Negotiations 
resumed in November 2014 following a delay since late 2013. We look forward to concluding the 
agreement as expeditiously as possible. 
3.15.3  Environmental Goods Agreement (EGA) 
3.61.  In January 2014, Australia and 13 other WTO Members, including China, the 
European Union, Japan and the United States launched negotiations for a plurilateral agreement on the liberalisation of trade in environmental goods. The EGA will be a non-preferential plurilateral WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  agreement, reinforcing the multilateral trading system and benefiting all WTO Members by 
applying the principle of Most Favoured Nation. The EGA will build on commitments made by APEC 
Leaders in 2012 for reductions in tariffs on a list of 54 environmental goods, and will likely include other goods that directly and positively contribu te to green growth and sustainable development. 
Australia is the current chair of the negotiations , which commenced in July 2014. When concluded, 
the agreement will eliminate tariffs on an agreed range of goods to help protect the environment and address climate change. 
3.16  WTO Disputes 
3.62.  Australia continues to be a strong proponent of the WTO dispute settlement system as a 
means of ensuring the rules-based multilateral trading regime remains open, equitable and enforceable. Since 1995, Australia has been a complainant in 7 cases, respondent in 15 disputes 
(including as respondent in 5 current disputes related to Australia's tobacco plain packaging 
measure), and third party in 85 disputes, making it an active Member on WTO dispute settlement. It views the system as an important mechanism for promoting and defending Australia's trade 
interests, particularly as the system provides all WTO Members with confidence that the 
commitments and obligations contained in the WTO Agreement will be respected. Australia will continue to engage actively in the negotiations  for the review of the WTO's dispute settlement 
system in order to support efforts to strengthen this important mechanism. 
3.17  Bilateral and Regional Trade Initiatives Overview 3.63.  As part of its comprehensive trade strate gy, Australia concludes WTO-consistent bilateral 
and regional free trade agreement (FTAs) where these yield significant market openings, are 
comprehensive, and complement and support multilateral liberalisation efforts. Australia 
negotiates high quality regional trade agreements which can serve as building blocks for wider multilateral liberalisation. 
3.18  FTAs Implemented 
3.18.1  ASEAN-Australia-New Zealan d Free Trade Agreement (AANZFTA) 
3.64.  The Agreement Establishing the ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Area (AANZFTA) 
entered into force for Australia on 1 January 2010. The Agreement is Australia's first multi-country 
FTA and in 2013 accounted for 18% of Australia's two-way goods and services trade with ASEAN. The deal provides tariff-free treatment on 96% of  Australia's recent exports to ASEAN nations by 
2020. Prior to AANZFTA's entry into force, only 67% of Australia's exports to the region were 
tariff-free. The AANZFTA FTA Joint Committee (FJC) oversees an in-built agenda covering goods; 
services; investment; intellectual property; standards, technical regulations and conformity assessment procedures; competition; sanitary and phytosanitary measures; and economic 
cooperation. The AANZFTA Economic Cooperation Support Program (AECSP) is supporting 
AANZFTA implementation and AANZFTA Parties benefit from a range of capacity building activities 
and technical assistance under the Agreement. 
3.65.  The Protocol to Amend the AANZFTA was signed on 26 August 2014 in Nay Pyi Taw, 
Myanmar. The Protocol addresses a range of administrative issues that are hindering business utilisation of AANZFTA's tariff commitments. It will enter into force 30 days after Australia, 
New Zealand and at least four ASEAN Member States notify completion of their respective 
domestic procedures. The WTO Committee on Regional Trade Agreements reviewed AANZFTA in 
September 2014. 
3.18.2  Australia New Zealand Closer Econom ic Relations Trade Agreement (ANZCERTA) 
3.66.  The Australia New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement (ANZCERTA) 
entered into force on 1 January 1983 and covers substantially all trans-Tasman trade in goods and services. Since 1 July 1990, all goods meeting th e ANZCERTA rules of origin (ROOs) have been 
free of duty and quantitative import restrictions. In 2010, an ANZCERTA ROOs review 
recommended that Product Specific Rules (PSR) appl ying to a relatively small number of tariff lines 
for which factory-cost Regional Value Content requirements had been retained in 2007 be amended to Change of Tariff Classification-only rules, bringing them into line with other FTA WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  commitments. The Trade in Services Protocol brought services into ANZCERTA from January 1989, 
providing for free trade in services in all but a very small number of areas listed as inscriptions in an Annex to the Protocol. The Protocol is reviewed from time to time to ensure the scope for liberalising trade by removing remaining inscriptions is regularly tested. The Protocol on 
Investment to ANZCERTA entered into force on 1 March 2013. The Protocol will reduce compliance 
costs and provide greater legal certainty for trans- Tasman investors by prov iding higher thresholds 
at which foreign investments will be screened. ANZCERTA also provides the foundation for a large 
number of related agreements and arrangements to facilitate trade and promote economic 
integration. This includes mutual recognition arrangements relating to goods and registered occupations (the trans-Tasman Mutual Recognitio n Agreement) and the Single Economic Market 
initiative, which aims to create a seamless regulatory environment for business, consumers and 
investors on both sides of the Tasman Sea. 
3.18.3  Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA) 
3.67.  The Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA) entered into force on 
1 January 2005. AUSFTA has deepened Australia's trade and investment re lationship with the 
United States. The Agreement sets out a broad range of provisions for liberalising trade and 
investment. It also contains substantial commitments in areas such as government procurement, 
competition policy, electronic commerce and intellectual property rights. As we approach the 
10
th anniversary in 2015, AUSFTA continues to provide a comprehensive set of rules for the 
strengthening of the economic relationship across all sectors. 
3.18.4  Singapore–Australia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) 
3.68.  The Singapore–Australia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) entered into force on 28 July 2003. 
SAFTA is a comprehensive agreement, making substantial commitments in goods, services and investment between Australia and Singapore. In addition to complete tariff elimination, SAFTA 
guarantees liberal conditions of access for many service suppliers, and provides a more open and 
predictable business environment. SAFTA provides for ministerial-level review of the agreement 
every two years or as otherwise deemed necessary by Ministers. The first SAFTA review was held 
in July 2004 and the second SAFTA review was substantively concluded in July 2009. 
3.18.5  Thailand–Australia Free Trade Agreement (TAFTA) 3.69.  The Thailand–Australia Free Trade Agreement (TAFTA) entered into force on 
1 January 2005. TAFTA achieved strong, liberalising outcomes on goods, eliminating immediately 
or loc k ing  in  ze ro tariffs  on 7 8 %  of Aus tralian e xp orts  to T hail and  and  83%  of T hai e xp orts  to 
Australia at the time of entry into force. Under ph ased tariff elimination, ar ound 95% of tariffs on 
goods traded bilaterally at the time of entry in to force had been reduced to zero by the start 
of 2010, with the remaining tariffs phasing to zero in 2015 for Australia and in 2015 or 2020 for 
Thailand. TAFTA liberalises bilateral trade in se rvices by binding "GATS-plus" commitments in 
some key sectors. TAFTA also mandates further negotiations on trade in services, with the aim of 
enhancing the commitments given by both Parties. The Agreement also provides for further 
negotiations on government procurement, business mobility, and investment and competition policy. 
3.18.6  Malaysia-Australia Free Trade Agreement (MAFTA) 
3.70.  The Malaysia-Australia FTA (MAFTA) entered into force on 1 January 2013. The Agreement 
builds on outcomes from the ASEAN-Australia-New  Zealand FTA, which started for Australia and 
Malaysia in 2010. MAFTA achieves a higher level of tariff elimination by Malaysia than under 
AANZFTA and accelerates AANZFTA tariff elim ination commitments for both countries, and 
contains "AANZFTA-plus" outcomes on serv ices and investment. MAFTA also includes 
business-friendly rules of origin provisions and commitments in other trade-related areas, such as 
intellectual property and electronic commerce. The WTO Committee on Regional Trade Agreements 
reviewed MAFTA in September 2014. WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  3.18.7  Australia-Chile Free Trade Agreement (AClFTA) 
3.71.  The Australia-Chile Free Trade Agreement (AClFTA) celebrated its fifth anniversary of entry 
into force on 6 March 2014. The Agreement is Austra lia's first bilateral FTA with a Latin American 
country. The first meeting of the Joint FTA Committee was held in Santiago on 26 May 2011 and 
the second in Canberra on 2-3 October 2014. The AClFTA provides substantial liberalisation in 
goods and services trade. The agreement covered 99.5% of Chilean goods exports to Australia and 98.6% of Australian goods exports to Chile by value on entry into force. By 2015, tariffs will be 
eliminated on all traded lines. The Agreement delivers WTO-plus outcomes through commitments 
to open and non-discriminatory market access for services and investment, including but not limited to the key sectors of education, prof essional services, mining and engineering, 
management consulting and financial services. 
3.18.8  Korea-Australia Free Trade Agreement (KAFTA) 
3.72.  The Korea-Australia Free Trade Agreement (KAFTA) entered into force on 
12 December 2014. KAFTA is a comprehensive agreement that substantially liberalises Australia's 
trade with the Republic of Korea, its third-larges t export market and fourth-largest overall trading 
partner. 
3.73.  Australia will eliminate 100% of its tariffs on Korean goods, including motor vehicles, 
automotive parts, plastics and steel, within seven years of entry into force of the Agreement, most 
on entry into force. KAFTA gives Australian exporters significantly improved goods market access. On entry into force, Korea's tariffs will be set at zero for 84% of Australia's exports to Korea, with 
most other tariffs phased out quickly. 99.8% of Australian goods exports will enter Korea duty free 
on full implementation. KAFTA protects Australia's competitive position in the Korean market, 
particularly in agriculture, where producers from other agricultural exporting countries are already 
receiving preferential access. 
3.74.  KAFTA gives Australian exporters significantly improved market access in goods and 
services and improves bilateral investment protections. The Agreement provides Australian services exporters with outcomes equivalent to  the best treatment Korea has agreed with any 
trading partner. This includes new market access for suppliers of legal, accounting and 
telecommunications services and guaranteed access in a range of other services including financial and education services. The Agreement includes an investor-state dispute settlement mechanism, which incorporates safeguards in policy areas such as public health and environmental measures. 
3.18.9  Japan-Australia Economic  Partnership Agreement (JAEPA) 
3.75.  The Japan-Australia Economic Partnership Agreement (JAEPA) entered into force on 
15 January 2015. JAEPA covers trade in goods and services, investment, intellectual property, 
government procurement and competition policy. 
3.76.  Australia will eliminate 100% of its remainin g tariffs on Japanese goods, including vehicles 
and automotive parts, plastics, and textiles, clothing and footwear, within seven years of entry into 
force of the Agreement, most on entry into force.  More than 97% of Australia's exports to Japan 
will receive preferential access or enter duty-f ree when the Agreement is fully implemented, 
including beef, wine, dairy, seafood and many hort icultural products. On full implementation of 
JAEPA, all of Australia's current resources, en ergy and manufactured goods exports will benefit 
from duty-free entry into Japan.  
3.77.  JAEPA will ensure that customs procedures are applied in a predictable, consistent, 
transparent, impartial and reasonable manner to facilitate trade. JAEPA establishes transparent 
and effective rules of origin and clear origin procedures that promote compliance without creating 
red tape or unnecessary obstacles to trade. A specific mechanism to review and address non-tariff measures on a case-by-case basis will be established and will be activated at the request of either 
Australia or Japan. 
3.78.  The agreement goes beyond existing commitments on trade in services under the WTO, 
including in areas such as financial, education, legal and telecommunications services. It includes a framework to advance mutual recognition of services qualifications and to support mutual WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  recognition initiatives by professional bodies in Australia and Japan. JAEPA will provide enhanced 
protections and certainty for investors from both countries, with provisions to ensure non-discrimination, and protection and security for investments. 
3.19  FTAs Being Implemented and Negotiated 
3.19.1  China-Australia Free Trade Agreement 
3.79.  Prime Minister Tony Abbott and President Xi Jinping announced the conclusion of 
negotiations for the China-Australia Free Trade Agreement (ChAFTA) on 17 November 2014. 
Negotiations on ChAFTA were launched in May 2005, and concluded after 21 formal rounds of 
negotiations. ChAFTA is a comprehensive Agreement that will enhance the growing trade and investment relationship between China and Australia's highly complementary economies.  
3.80.  Australia will eliminate 100% of its remainin g tariffs on Chinese goods within four years of 
entry into force of the Agreement, most on entry into force. ChAFTA will ensure the 
competitiveness of Australia's agricultural and manufacturing industries, protect and ensure the competitiveness of Australia's services providers and attract greater investment in Australia. Over 
85% of the value of Australia's goods exports to Ch ina will enter duty free upon entry into force, 
rising to 93% after four years and 95% when ChAFTA is fully implemented. Australian services providers will benefit from new access to China's significant and growing services sector. 
3.19.2  Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations (PACER) Plus 
3.81.  The Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations (PACER) Plus negotiations commenced 
in August 2009, and progress to date has been good in the comprehensive negotiations covering goods, services and investment. The most recent  negotiating session, held from 29 September to 
3 October 2014 in Wellington included representatives from Australia, Cook Islands, 
Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Marshall Islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. 
3.19.3  Australia-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Free Trade Agreement 
3.82.  Australia and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) FTA negotiations commenced on 
30 July 2007. The GCC suspended FTA negotiations with Australia and all of its negotiating 
partners in 2009. On 4 March 2014, GCC Foreign Ministers approved conditional resumption of FTA 
negotiations, but did not indicate with which countries and when this would occur. Australia has been actively advocating being a priority country for the GCC. There is no indication yet as to when the GCC will resume FTA negotiations with Australia. 
3.19.4  Australia-India Free Trade Agreement 
3.83.  Australia and India commenced negotiations in May 2011. Negotiations are still at an early 
stage, with five rounds of negotiations held to date and a sixth expected in early 2015. Securing 
access for goods and services in a large and growing trade partner is a priority. 
3.19.5  Indonesia-Australia Comprehens ive Economic Partnership Agreement 
3.84.  The entry into force of the ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand FTA for Indonesia in January 2012 
provided the basis for the Indonesia-Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement 
(IA-CEPA) negotiations to commence. Negotiations are still in the preparatory phase, including consideration of the joint position paper submitted by the Indonesia-Australia Business Partnership Group (comprising Indonesia and Australia's respective chambers of commerce and bilateral 
business associations). 
3.19.6  Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) 3.85.  Australia is participating in the 12 party Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) Agreement 
negotiations along with Brunei, Canada, Chile,  Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, 
Singapore, the United States and Viet Nam. Australia is committed through the TPP to achieving a high-quality, comprehensive, 21st century, region al free trade agreement, which will strengthen WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  economic integration in the Asia-Pacific region, particularly as membership expands over time. We 
are seeking a comprehensive outcome that includes new market access for Australian agricultural and other commodities, commercially meaningful outcomes for Australian service providers and investors, and rules that facilitate global value chains and deal with contemporary commercial 
challenges. Significant progress has been made in recent months and negotiations are now at an 
advanced stage. Australia hosted a meeting of  TPP Ministers in Sydney on 25-27 October 2014 
where significant progress was achieved in market access negotiations and on trade and 
investment rules. 
3.19.7  Regional Comprehensive Econ omic Partnership Agreement (RCEP) 
3.86.  Leaders launched RCEP negotiations on 20 November 2012 in the margins of the 7
th East 
Asia Summit. The RCEP negotiations include all ten members of ASEAN and the six countries which 
have FTAs with ASEAN: Australia, New Zealand, China, India, Japan and Korea. In 2013, the 
16 participating countries accounted for almost half of the world's population and almost 30% of global GDP (in U.S. dollars). Together they accounted for around 59% of Australia's two-way trade 
in 2013. Six rounds of negotiations have been held to date, most recently in India in 
December 2014.  
4  TRADE AND ECONOMIC OUTLOOK 
4.1.  Australia has traditionally been a net importer of capital. This has facilitated the development 
of our natural resources endowments at a faster pace than would have been possible if domestic savings were the only source of investment funds.  Australia has traditionally run a current account 
deficit, reflecting the net inflow of capital from  the rest of the world. According to the 2014-15 
Budget, Australia's current account deficit is expected to widen to 4% of GDP in 2014-15, before 
narrowing slightly to 3.75% of GDP in 2015-16, driven mainly by changes in the trade balance. 
4.2.  Australia's trade balance moved into a surplus position in 2010-11. As commodity prices have 
moderated the trade balance has weakened, although it has moved back towards surplus on the 
back of increased commodities production. While export volumes will rise, further expected weakness in export prices means that the trade balance is likely to remain in deficit over the next 
few years. 
4.3.  Exporters are expected to benefit from the solid growth in Australia's major trading partners. 
The strong rise in resources exports over recent years is expected to continue as capacity in the resources sector continues to come on line. The already lower exchange rate is likely to support 
modest growth in non-commodity goods exports. Se rvices exports have been improving, ending a 
period of weakness that began around the global financial crisis, and buoyed by higher tourism 
arrivals, particularly from China and South-East Asia, a trend that is expected to continue. 
4.4.  Imports of capital goods are expected to decline as construction on liquefied natural gas 
(LNG) projects winds down. Imports of consumption goods are expected to grow reflecting near trend consumption growth and the elevated exchan ge rate, but at more moderate rates than the 
average over the previous decade. 
4.5.  Australia's net income deficit is expected to widen as the economy transitions from the 
investment to the exports phase of the mining bo om, due to the high degree of foreign ownership 
in Australia's resources sector. WT/TPR/G/312 • Australia 
 
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  REFERENCES 
Callinan, I. (2008), Equine influenza: The August 2007 outbreak in Australia . Viewed at: 
http://www.agriculture.gov.au/a bout/publications/eiinquiry .  
Farmer, B. (2011), Independent Review of Australia's Livestock Export Trade . Viewed at: 
http://www.agriculture.gov.au/bio security/export/live-animals /advisory-notices/2011/2011-05  
and http://vic.amieu.net/files/independent-review.pdf .  
Matthews, K. (2011), A review of Australia's preparedness for the threat of foot-and-mouth 
disease . Viewed at: http://www.agriculture.go v.au/animal-plant-he alth/pests-diseases-
weeds/animal/fmd/review-foot-and-mouth-disease . 
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