WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
7 November  2017 
(17-6043 ) Page: 1/61 
Committee on Trade and Development  
   
 
 PARTICIPATION OF DEV ELOPING ECONOMIES IN  THE GLOBAL TRADING S YSTEM  
NOTE BY THE SECRETAR IAT* 
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 2 
2   INTRODUCTION  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  4 
3   OVERVIEW  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................  4 
3.1   Developing economies' exports and imports affected by weaker demand in 2015 and 
2016 ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 4 
3.2   Developing economies' participation in world merchandise trade almost unchanged 
since 2012  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........................  6 
4   MERCHANDISE TRADE DE VELOPMENTS BETWEEN 2 014 AND 2016  .............................  7 
4.1   2014 to 2016, a period of weak economic activity ................................ ............................  7 
4.2   South -South trade: intra -developing Asia trade gains s hares  ................................ ............  9 
4.3   Manufactures declined only moderately in the 2014 -2016 period  ................................ ......10 
4.4   Decline in fuel prices, top global headline  ................................ ................................ ......11 
4.5   Developing economies' merchandise trade by region  ................................ ....................... 13 
4.5.1    Latin America  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 13 
4.5.2    Developing Europe  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...15 
4.5.3    Africa  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... 16 
4.5.4    Middle East  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 17 
4.5.5    Developing Asia  ................................ ................................ ................................ .......18 
5   TRADE IN COMMERCIAL SERVICES DEVELOPMENT S BETWEEN 2014 AND 
2016  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..............................  20 
5.1   Transport  ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 23 
5.2   Travel  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 28 
5.3   Other commercial services and goods -related services  ................................ .................... 31 
6   THE IMPORTANCE OF GV CS FOR DEVELOPING EC ONOMIES EVIDENCED 
THROUGH THE TRADE IN  VALUE ADDED APPROACH  ................................ ......................  36 
ANNEX  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  41 
APPENDIX  ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................  44 
 
                                                           
* This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice  
to the positions of Members or  to their rights and obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
During the period 2014-2016, growth in the global economy remained sluggish , at 2.5% on annual 
average. Weak economic activity in both developed and developing regions , coupled with falling oil 
and commodity prices , a trend starting in mid-2014, reduced export earnings and constrained 
import demand in resource -rich developing regions .  
World merchandise trade volume growth decelerated from 2.7% in 2014 to 1.4% in 2016, well  
below the average annual rate of 4.7% recorded since 1980. In 2016, f or the first time since the 
financial crisis , world trade grew more slowly than world GDP. As a consequence, the ratio of world 
trade growth to world GDP growth fell to 0.6:1, the lowest  since 2001.   
As global demand weakened and prices collapsed , developing economies' total merchandise 
exports dropped  by 14% in 2015 , with sharp contraction s, by over 30% , in oil-exporting  Middle 
East and Africa. Similarly, in 2015, developing economies' m erchandise imports were down by 
13%, with double -digit declines in virtually all regions. China, the largest trader, saw its demand 
for goods, especially commodities, deteriorate as economic growth slowed  down . In 2016, 
developing economies' merchandise tr ade continued to  decrease , albeit at a slower pace  (-6%). 
As a result, in 2016, the share  of developing economies in world merchandise trade  contracted to  
42.5% for exports and 39.7% for imports, down  by around  1% compared to  2014. This marked a 
slowdown f rom the swift growth of the early 2000s .  
With an average share of 70% in total exports  in 2016 , manufactures remain ed the most 
important trade sector for most developing regions, a ccount ing for more than half of merchandise 
trade  in Latin America,  around 74% in developing Europe, to peak to 85% in developing Asia . 
Between 2014 and 2016 , developing economies' manufactures exports decreased by 4% on 
annual average, reflecting falling exports in many developing Asia n economies , in particular in 
China. In 2016 , over 42% of global manufactures originated from the developing group, of which 
more than one third from developing Asia alone .  
Increased global oil supply and dropping fuel prices  affected d eveloping economies' exports of 
fuels, which sunk by 43% in 201 5 and by 17% in 2016. Fuel pr ices began to stabilize towards the 
end of 2016, but remained depress ed compared to pre -2014 levels. Thus, t he share of fuels in 
developing economies' merchandise exports declined from 21% in 2014 to 12% in 2016. 
Developing eco nomies increased their participation in  exports and imports of a gricultural products 
by 1% in 2016 to 39% and 41 .1% respectively , as developing Asia and Latin America's exports 
recovered .  
In 2016, South -South merchandise flows represented 21% of world mer chandise trade , in slight 
decline  compared to 2014 . South -South trade, or trade between developing economies, continue s 
to account for an important share of developing economies ' total trade,  estimated at 50% in 2016.  
Although the developed group remained  the main services trader, i t is encouraging that d eveloping 
economies' contribution to world exports of commercial services continued to rise. Despite the 
heavy losses faced by the maritime transport sector,  in particular by developing Asian economies,  
reflecting overcapacity in the shipping industry, developing economies' participation in services 
exports  increased from 29.9% in 2014 to 30.5% in 2016 .  
Developing Asia, the Middle East, and, to a lesser extent, Latin America were the main drivers. F or 
the fourth consecutive year, the Middle East recorded the highest exports growth thanks to its 
thriving air transport and tourism  sectors. Regrettably, in Africa,  exports of virtually all services 
categories plunged , and travel receipts drop ped following terro ristic attacks  in various Northern 
African economies . In 2016, travel accounted for almost 40 % of Africa’s total exports of 
commercial services.  
Fuelled by enhanced air connectivity and cheaper airfares,  international tourist arrivals to 
developing economi es rose to 491 million in 201 6, some 41 million more than i n 201 4. In 
developing Asia, China played a key role in neighbouring economies' tourism growth.  The bulk of 
international tourism in developing economies is intra -regional , largely South -South trade .  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  Developing economies are progressively emerging as suppliers of other commercial services. Their 
participation reached almost one quarter of global exports in 2016  up from 23.4% in 2014 . The 
most rapid growth was recorded in intellectual property -relate d services , where participation was 
at the lowest  (6.4%) . Receipts for the use of licences and charges were up by 20% in 2015 and by 
5% in 2016 , followed by ICT services.  
However, a  closer look to exports by developing region confirms that other commercia l services 
exports are very concentrated, with developing Asia in the leading role. India, China and 
Singapore remain  the main contributors , accounting alone for two -thirds of developing Asia's 
exports . In 2016, the three economies exported twice as much a s all the other four developing 
regions together. Thus, on one hand, developing Asian economies should be praised for their 
success in penetrating global markets, especially in upstream s ervices. On the other hand, it 
suggests  that other developing regions , especially Africa, are still facing important obstacles to 
trade services internationally , including a digital divide .   
Developing economies' p articipation increased also on services imports, from 38% in 2014 to 
38.3% in 2016, with developing Asia's dem and for services and for travel overseas on the rise. 
However, over the period,  African economies recorded sharp declines . Falling energy prices cut 
revenues of African oil exporting countries, the largest services importers in the region, reducing 
their p urchasing power to buy services from abroad.  
Global  value chains (GVCs) are know n to play an important role in  developing economies' trade 
growth. The level of participation  of developing economies in GVCs  can be estimated with trade in 
value added data th at are available from the OECD -WTO Trade in Value Added (TiVA) database. 
The GVC participation index confirms their involvement not only as assemblers or natural 
resources exporters , but also as value added providers along the international supply chains.  
Statistics on t raditional trade in intermediate goods also reveal a shift in the division of roles in 
South -East Asia supply chains.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  2  INTRODUCTION  
This document has been prepared by the Secretariat to assist the Committee on Trade and 
Development (CTD) in meeting its requirement to continuously review the participation of 
developing economy Members in the multilateral trading system. It updates previous studies on 
this topic produced for the Committee since 1997 . The last report was produced in 2015.1 The first 
part of –the current report provides an overview of developing economies' trade since 201 4. The 
second part reviews detailed aspects and salient features of developing economies' merchandise 
trade from 201 4 to 201 6, while the third part focuses on the ir trade in commercial services. An 
update  of developing economies' involvement in GVCs , as measured by the TiVA statistics 
database , concludes the document. The Annex  describes some aspects of developing economies' 
domestic conditions for trading across b orders. Furthermore, the statistical appendix contain s 
specific tabulations as well as  the composition of regions and economic groupings used in this 
report .2 
Wherever relevant , tables include memorandum items on the trade performance of the least 
develope d countries (LDCs), which are a subset of developing economies.  Specific aspects of their 
trade are, however, not discussed as they are the subject of another recent in -depth study .3 
3  OVERVIEW  
3.1  Developing economies' exports and imports affected by weaker dem and in 2015 and 
2016  
3.1.  During the period 2014-2016, growth in the global economy remained sluggish , at 2.5% on 
annual average. After decelerating in 2011, growth in market weighted world real GDP has 
remained below 2.8% , the average rate since 1980. Weak eco nomic activity in both developed and 
developing regions reduced demand for imports, causing global trade growth to slow as well. 
World merchandise trade volume growth decelerated from 2.7% in 2014 to 1.4% in 2016, well 
below the average annual rate of 4.7%  since 1980.   
3.2.  In 2016, for the first time since the financial crisis, w orld trade grew more slowly than world 
GDP. As a consequence, the ratio of world trade growth to world GDP growth fell to 0.6:1, the 
lowest since 2001. The slowing of trade relative to  GDP partly reflects deep structural changes in 
the composition of global demand. Investment has been particularly weak in recent years as 
expenditure dipped in the United States and as China has continued to rebalance its economy 
away from investment and towards consumption. This had a disproportionately negative impact on 
trade since investment tends to have higher import content than other components of GDP. 
Meanwhile, falling prices for oil and other commodities since 2014 have also reduced export 
earnings and constrained import demand in resource -rich developing regions.  
                                                           
1 The 2015 document is WT/COMTD/W/212 and its Corrigenda 1 and 2.  
2 Data published in this document (unless otherwise indicated) are derived fro m the WTO's World Trade 
Statistical Review 2017 and the WTO's Statistics Database ( www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/statis_e.htm ). 
For more information on the definitions of indicators and detailed sources of data, see the Technical N otes in 
the above -mentioned report or the WTO's Statistics website.  
3 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/ 65. WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  Chart 1: World, developed, developing and CIS economies quarterly merchandise trade 
volume, 201 4-2017 4 
(Indices 2014 Q1=100, seasonally adjusted)  
 
3.3.  Prevailing conditions in the world economy affected the  growth of trade volume of developing 
economies , which decelerated from 2.3% in 2014 to 0.8% in 2016. Exports slowed down from 
2.9% in 2014 to 1.9% in 2015 and further to 1.6% in 2016. Developing economies' imports were 
almost flat, rec ording 0.5% growth in 2015 (down from 1.6% in 2014) and 0.1% in 2016. On a 
short term basis, the volume of merchandise trade of developing economies and the CIS rose at a 
quarterly average of 0.3%5, from Q4 2014 to  Q4 2016. However, trade in developing reg ions is 
improving in 2017 as demand is recover ing, with 6.3% growth for the year -to-date through Q2.  
3.4.  Dollar values of international trade have been largely affected by the strong appreciation of 
the US Dollar and declining  commodity prices since 2014.  As  a result, trade growth in value terms 
is more negative than in volume terms. Exports and imports of developing economies respectively 
declined by 14% and 13% in 2015, fuelled by a 35% average contraction in commodity prices. The 
pace of contraction was sl ower in 2016 when exports and imports of developing economies fell by 
5.1% and 5.9% , respectively , with commodity prices falling  by 10% on average . Trade in 
developing economies decelerated faster than total world trade.  
3.5.  In contrast, trade in commercial s ervices declined less sharply  than merchandise trade during 
the review period . Affected by the US Dollar appreciation, exports and imports of developing 
economies fell by  3% and 5% , respectively , in 2015. In 2016, trade in commercial services of 
developing  economies was flat with exports decelerating at 0.6% and imports growing at 0.3%. 
Developing economies ' exports and imports  grew faster than the world average  during the 
previous two years.  
                                                           
4 In this document, the CIS refers to the Commonwealth of Independent States, including  associate and 
former member States . 
5 This aggregate is a reliable approximatio n of developing economies, which account for over 90% of the 
total of developing plus CIS economies. Developing economies are not available separately from the CIS in 
WTO's quarterly merchandise trade volume statistics.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  Chart 2: World and developing economies' trade in merchandise  and commercial 
services, in nominal terms, 201 4-2016  
(Annual % change)   
 
 
3.2  Developing economies' participation in world merchandise trade almost unchanged 
since 2012  
3.6.  The share  of developing economies to world merchandise trade has increased significantly 
since the early 2000s but it has stabilized at around  40% since 2012, marking a slowdown from 
the swift growth of past years. Additionally, developing economies saw their participation in world 
trade contract in 2016 , to 42.5% for exports and 39.7% for impor ts, down by approximately 1 
percentage point compared to  2014.  
3.7.  Developing economies are playing an increasingly important role in trade in commercial 
services. Rising imports of commercial services boosted developing economies' participation in 
world impo rts, which expanded from 28.4% in 2005 to 38.3% in 2016. The share of developing 
economies in world exports rose at a relatively slower pace, from 24.4% in 2005 to 30.5% in 
2016.  
Chart 3: Share of developing economies in world trade, 200 5-2016 
(%) 
 
 
3.8.  Developing Asia remained the largest , fastest grow ing region in trade in goods and 
commercial services, reaching 28.9% and 27.1% of world exports and imports in 2016, compared 
with 21% and 19.7% , respectively,  in 2005 (Table 1). Developing Asia's share of worl d exports 
increased by about 1 percentage point between 2014 and 2016, but the overall share of non -Asian 
developing economies fell slightly over the period.  
3.9.  On imports, t he share of Latin America declined  from 6.0% in 2014 to 5.6% in 2016, largely 
due to  Brazil's economic recession, and remained almost unchanged for Developing Asia, 
increasing by merely 0.2 percentage points. Despite the fall in oil prices, the Middle East did not 
change its participation in world imports between 2014 and 2016.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  Table 1: Developing economies trade in goods and commercial services between 2005 
and 201 6 
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Exports  Imports  
 Value  Share in world  Value  Share in world  
 2016  2005  2014  2016  2016  2005  2014  2016  
Developing economiesa 8482 35.2 43.3 42.3 8166 31.7 42.3 41.7 
Developing Asiaa 5783 21.0 27.8 28.9 5300 19.7 26.9 27.1 
China  2199 6.2 10.6 11.0 1947 5.3 9.9 9.9 
Korea, Republic of  604 2.9 3.4 3.0 500 2.9 3.2 2.6 
Othera 2980 11.9 13.9 14.9 2853 11.5 13.8 14.6 
Non-Asian developing 
economies  2700 14.2 15.4 13.5 2866 12.0 15.4 14.6 
Latin America  1061 5.4 5.4 5.3 1098 4.9 6.0 5.6 
Brazil  217 1.1 1.1 1.1 201 0.8 1.4 1.0 
Middle East  971 4.9 6.1 4.8 901 3.3 4.6 4.6 
Memorandum items                  
Developed countries  11529  63.8 55.3 57.5 11389  67.9 56.7 58.2 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States 
(CIS), including associate 
and former member 
States  517 3.1 3.7 2.6 450 2.2 3.0 2.3 
a Excluding Hong Kong, China re -exports or imports for re -exports.  
Note:  Data for goods and commercial services is based on the B alance-of-Payments methodology.  
 
3.10.   From 2014 to 2016, of the 151 developing economies whose data or estimates are 
available, 82 recorded growth in exports of goods and commercial services that was faster than 
the world  average , while on the import side, the n umber was 72. Although 40% of the se 
economies recorded  positive expansions  during the period, only 42 of the m are net exporters of 
goods and services, and only two of them are LDCs. Of the 109 economies that are net importers, 
about 52% of them improved th eir cover ratio (the ratio of exports to imports) between 2014 and 
2016. Of the remaining economies , the cover ratio of 29 developing econoies, including 16 LDCs, 
deteriorated by more than five percentage points. Overall, 26 developing economies among the 
net importers had a cover ratio of less than  50% in 2016, including 19 LDCs.  
4  MERCHANDISE TRADE DE VELOPMENTS BETWEEN 2 014 AND 201 6 
4.1  2014 to 2016, a period of weak economic activity  
4.1.  Weak economic activity characterized the global economy from 2014 to 2016. Q uarterly 
merchandise trade data show falling merchandise exports and imports in several developing 
regions, notably Africa, the Middle East, Latin America, and the NICs6 (a subset of the developing 
Asia region). Other countries in  developing Asia showed a less pronounced export contraction , with 
several highly seasonal upticks (Chart 4 is based on non -seasonally adjusted data). In comparison, 
developing Europe's  exports were relatively stable during this period.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  Chart 4: Quarterly merchandise trade value of developing economies by region, 2014 -
2016  
(Indices 2014Q1 = 100, not seasonally adjusted)  
 
 
4.2.  Commodity prices declined in response to weakening demand from China, a key trade 
partner of many developing economies. Energy prices were especially affected a nd fuel -exporting 
economies saw steep export  contraction . Strong oil output from both OPEC members and 
non-OPEC producers added to the global surplus in supply, further suppressing fuel prices during 
this time. Chart 4 illustrates the correlation between the decline in exports in Africa, Middle East, 
and Latin America and f uel prices. Developing regions with robust  manufactur ing sectors 
(developing Asia, developing Europe ) were better able to weather this period.  
4.3.  Annual statistics confirm these developments . While developing economies' merchandise 
exports  contracted sharply in 2015  (-14%)  and by 5% in 2016 , performance varied across regions.  
Developed economies fared only marginally better. However , the most affected group was t he CIS, 
with over 30% drop in exports and imports  (Table 2) . 
Table 2: Developing economies merchandise trade by regions and selected economies, 
2014 -2016  
(Billion US$ and % change)  
 Exports  Imports  
 Value  Annual % change  Value  Annual % change  
 2016  2015  2016  2016  2015  2016  
Developi ng economiesa 6584 -14 -5 6268 -13 -6 
Latin America  886 -15 -4 931 -11 -9 
Developing Europe  170 -9 0 241 -14 -3 
Africa  348 -30 -11 493 -14 -11 
Middle East  776 -34 -8 653 -9 -7 
Developing Asiaa 4404 -7 -5 3950 -14 -4 
China  2098 -3 -8 1588 -14 -5 
NICs (6)a 1544 -11 -3 1412 -16 -5 
Other  762 -9 1 950 -9 -1 
Memorandum items              
Worlda 15494  -14 -3 15803  -13 -3 
Developed economies  8489 -12 -1 9201 -11 -1 
Commonwealth of Independent 
States (CIS), including associate 
and former member States  421 -32 -16 334 -32 -2 
LDCs (48)  149 -24 -3 220 -8 -7 
a Excluding Hong Kong, China re -exports or imports for re -exports.  
 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  4.2  South -South trade: intra -developing Asia trade gains shares  
4.4.  South -South trade, or trade between developing economies, continued to acc ount for an 
important share of developing economies ' trade, at 50% in 2016. As exchanges of commodities , in 
particular fuels, weakened , South -South trade in manufactured goods, dominated by  
Intra-developing Asia, gained shares . As a result, I ntra-developin g Asia trade increas ed its 
representation within South -South trade to 54% in 2016,  up from 47% in 2014.  
Chart 5: Developing economies' merchandise trade with developing, developed and CIS 
economies, 2000 -2016  
(Billion US$)  
 
 
4.5.  As seen in Table 3, imports b y developing Asia from other developing regions (developing 
Asia extra imports) declined significantly from 2014 to 2016. As China began to shift from an 
investment -driven growth model to a consumption -driven growth model, its demand for minerals 
and non -ferrous metals and fuel products slowed  down . China's imports from the Middle East 
(which represented 61% of its extra imports in 2014) fell by 42% in 2015 and by 14% in 2016. 
Imports from Africa and Latin America showed similar trends , with imports from Af rica contract ing 
by 36% in 2015 and by 18% in 2016,  imports from Latin America by 20% and by 3%.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  Table 3: Origins and destinations of developing economies' merchandise trade by 
economic groupings, 2014 -2016  
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Value  % change  Share in wo rld 
 2016  2015  2016  14-16a 2014  2015  2016  
South -South trade, of which  3321 -15 -6 -21 22.7 22.2 21.4 
Intra developing Asia  1803 -7 -3 -9 10.8 11.6 11.6 
Developing Asia extra imports of which  482 -36 -11 -43 4.6 3.4 3.1 
from Middle East  256 -42 -14 -50 2.8 1.9 1.7 
from other developing regions  226 -26 -8 -32 1.8 1.5 1.5 
Developing Asia extra exports of which  577 -9 -12 -20 3.9 4.1 3.7 
China  318 -2 -14 -16 2.0 2.3 2.1 
Other developing Asia  259 -16 -9 -24 1.8 1.8 1.7 
Trade among non -Asian developing             
economies  459 -22 -7 -28 3.4 3.1 3.0 
Exports to developed and CISb countries  3039 -12 -5 -16 19.7 19.9 19.6 
Imports from developed and CISb 
countries  2600 -12 -4 -15 16.5 16.9 16.8 
Memorandum item                
World trade  15494  -14 -3 -16 100.0  100.0  100.0  
a 2014-16: statistics on % change refer to the difference between 2014 and 2016 in % terms rather 
than the average annual % change. Data in the 2015 and 2016 columns refer to annual % changes.  
b Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), including associate and former member States . 
 
4.3  Manufactures  declined only moderately  in the 2014 -2016 period  
4.6.  Compared to other product categories, m anufactures showed moderate declines in the period 
2014-2016. Developing economies' exports decreased by 5% in 2015 and 4% in 2016 . 
Manufactur es remain ed the most important sector for developing economies, accounting for the 
largest share of merchandise trade in Latin America (52%), developing Europe (74%), and 
developing Asia (85%). It is encouraging that in Africa, the contribution of manufactures to its 
total exports expanded to 30% in 2016, up from 21% in 2014. In 2016, over 42% of global 
manufactures originated from the developing group, of which more than one third from developing 
Asia alone.  
4.7.  Despite the c ontraction recorded by China, the largest trader of manufactures in the group , 
other economies in developing Asia, s uch as Viet Nam,  Bangladesh, and Cambodia, recorded high 
exports  growth  reflecting demand from the United States and the European Union . Sim ilarly,  in 
2016, developing Europe 's manufactures exports  to the European Union increased by 8%.  
4.8.   Weak global economic activity affected international trade of non -fuel minerals. Developing 
economies' exports of non -fuel minerals fell by 17% and by 4% in 2 015 and 2016. However,  
developing economies gained a 2% share in world exports of non -fuel minerals in 2016, thus 
accounting  for 42% of total world exports . In 2015 and 2016, developing economies' imports of 
non-fuel minerals declined  by 20% and by 4%. Thi s was due to a decrease in demand by 
developing Asia, the main importer within the developing group , which account ed for 39% share in  
global  imports of non -fuels.  
4.9.  Due to the global excess supply and collapsing fuel prices, d eveloping economies' exports of  
fuel products recorded sharp declines, dropping by  43% in 2015 and by 17% in 2016 . More than 
half (53%) of world exports of fuel products originated from developing economies in 2016 and the 
Middle East, alone, supplied a quarter of global exports. Howeve r, the share of fuels in the Middle 
East's total merchandise exports dropped from a 63% to 49% as their value  fell.  
4.10.   Developing economies' exports of agricultural products which contracted by 8% in 2015 , 
recovered  in 2016  (+1%), mirroring global developmen ts. China, which represent ed 26% of 
developing Asia's agricultural exports, saw its agricultural exports recover in 2016 (+4%) , in 
particular exports of b everages and tobacco, and food and live animals.  Developing 
economies'  imports of agricultural product s followed the same trend . 
4.11.   Nevertheless, developing economies increased their share of world trade in agricultural 
products of both exports and imports by 1% in 2016 to 39% and 41% respectively. Developing 
Asia was the top exporter of agricultural products  with US$293 billion in 2016 , with Latin America WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  follow ing closely with US$225 billion . In fact, agricultural exports represent ed a larger share of 
Latin America's total exports (25%) compared to developing Asia's  (7%).  
Table 4: Developing economies merch andise trade by product, 2014 -2016  
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Exports  Importsa 
Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  
2016  14 16 15 16 2016  14 16 15 16 
All products  6584 43.6 42.5 -14 -5 5922 39.2 38.2 -14 -5 
Agricultura l products  621 37.8 39.0 -8 1 653 40.3 41.1 -9 1 
Developing Asia  293 18.0 18.4 -9 1 383 22.4 24.1 -6 4 
Latin America  225 13.6 14.2 -7 1 85 5.5 5.4 -12 -1 
Fuels 808 55.9 53.4 -43 -17 656 42.5 43.4 -40 -15 
Middle East  384 26.6 25.4 -45 -14 37 2.6 2.5 -43 -19 
Developing Asia  209 12.6 13.8 -36 -14 464 30.3 30.7 -42 -14 
Africa  124 9.5 8.2 -44 -24 47 3.1 3.1 -36 -21 
Non-fuel minerals  229 40.1 41.8 -17 -4 270 48.8 49.4 -20 -4 
Latin America  85 15.7 15.6 -22 -2 18 3.4 3.3 -15 -14 
Developing Asia  80 13.0 14.6 -8 -7 216 38.7 39.3 -21 -2 
Manufactures  4649 41.8 41.7 -5 -4 4115 37.7 36.9 -7 -4 
Developing Asia  3749 33.4 33.6 -4 -5 2493 21.9 22.4 -6 -2 
Latin America  460 4.0 4.1 -3 -3 658 6.3 5.9 -7 -9 
a The import structure is derived from the WTO network of wo rld merchandise trade.  
 
4.4  Decline in fuel prices, top global headline  
4.12.   The excess global inventory of fuel products and the related decline in fuel prices were top 
headlines during the period 2014-2016. Several factors contributed to the global oil surplus 
including the continued growth of U.S. shale production and OPEC's decision to maintain oil output 
in an attempt to maintain market share. On the demand -side, China's previously strong demand 
for fuel and other mineral products slowed down considerably. Chin a's imports of fuels and mining 
products from developing economies declined by 36% in 2015 an d 11% in 2016. Given the 
supply -side and demand -side factors combined, overall pressure on fuel prices continued to 
remain weak.  
4.13.   The fall in fuel prices , which be gan in mid -2014, continued well into 2016. Prices began to 
stabilize towards the end of 2016, but remained depressed compared to pre -2014 levels. 
Weakening demand from China affected not only fuel exports  and imports, but trade of other 
commodities such as  copper. Minerals and non -ferrous metals also showed a relatively deep and 
steady decline in prices during this period. Copper, one of the metals most closely tied to 
manufacturing, saw a steep drop in price. Overall, falling  commodity prices signalled a s hift in 
China's economy and general fragility in the global economic environment.  
4.14.   Food and beverage prices contracted moderately  over the period spanning 2014 to 2016, 
decreasing by 16% in 2015 before recovering in 2016  (+1%) . The overall trend was relativ ely 
stable in comparison to the period 2010-2011 when severe weather conditions affected global 
supplies of wheat and maize, resulting in marked volatility of cereal prices.  Prices of a gricultural 
raw materials showed a similar trend , down by 13% in 2015 a nd up by 6% in 2016.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
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  Chart 6: Monthly price developments for selected primary commodities, 2014 -2017a 
(Indices, January 2014=100)  
 
a Fuels include crude oil (petroleum), natural gas, and coal. Minerals and non -ferrous metals include 
copper, aluminum, ir on ore, tin, nickel, zinc, lead, and uranium. Agricultural raw materials include 
timber, cotton, wool, rubber, and hides. The category of foods includes cereal, vegetable oils, meat, 
seafood, sugar, bananas, and oranges; beverages include coffee, tea, and cocoa.  
 
4.15.   As shown in Chart 7, developing economies' exports and imports tracked very closely world 
commodity prices in 2015 and 2016.  The side -by-side comparison of changes in exports/imports 
and prices of comparable commodity categories show similar variations. Price developments during 
this period benefited import -dependent economies . Although declines in fuel prices hurt the trade 
balance of fuel exporting economies, these developments were favourable for fuel importers. All 
featured categories in Chart 7, - excluding  food and beverages, saw two consecutive years of 
decreasing prices, symptomatic of sluggish economic growth worldwide.  
Chart 7: Selected flows in developing economies' trade and world prices, 2014 -2016  
(Annual % change)  
 
 
4.16.   As previously dis cussed, the decline in fuel prices dramatically affected the value of fuel 
exports. Consequently, the share of developing economies ' fuel exports dropped from 21% in 2014 
to 12% of  total exports in 2016 ( Chart 8). As a result, manufactures products gained shares, 
increasing from 64% in 2014 to 71% in 2016. Similarly, c lothing products (included in ''Other 
manufactures'' in Chart 8) and office and telecom equipment gained each 2% in  share in 
developing economies ' total exports during this period . WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 13 - 
 
  Chart 8: Pr oduct composition of developing economies' exports, 2014 -2016  
 
 
4.5  Developing economies' merchandise trade by region  
4.17.   Despite  the fragile  economic environment, regional ec onomic integration progressed among 
developing economies during this period.  Several eco nomic initiatives continued to advance. 
China's ''One Belt, One Road'' initiative, which was announced in 2013, moved forward with 
investments and projects to build and strengthen trade routes across Central Asia and Europe (the 
''One Belt'' portion of the  initiative) and Southeast Asia and Africa by sea (the ''One Road'' 
portion). Such investments included the Madaraka Express in Kenya, a 470 kilometre rail line 
connecting Kenya's capital, Nairobi, with the port city of Mombasa.  
Table 5: Developing econom ies merchandise trade by regions and selected economies, 
2014 -2016  
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Exports  Imports  
Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  
2016  14 16 15 16 2016  14 16 15 16 
Developing economiesa 6584 43.6 42.5 -14 -5 6268 41.0 39.7 -13 -6 
Latin America  886 5.9 5.7 -15 -4 931 6.2 5.9 -11 -9 
Mexico  374 2.1 2.4 -4 -2 398 2.2 2.5 -2 -2 
Other Latin America  512 3.7 3.3 -21 -6 533 4.0 3.4 -16 -14 
Developing Europe  170 1.0 1.1 -9 0 241 1.5 1.5 -14 -3 
Turkey  143 0.9 0.9 -9 -1 199 1.3 1.3 -14 -4 
Africa  348 3.0 2.2 -30 -11 493 3.4 3.1 -14 -11 
North Africa  97 0.8 0.6 -32 -6 174 1.2 1.1 -13 -7 
Sub-Saharan Africa  252 2.2 1.6 -29 -12 319 2.3 2.0 -14 -13 
South Africa  75 0.5 0.5 -12 -8 92 0.7 0.6 -14 -13 
Middle East  776 7.0 5.0 -34 -8 653 4.1 4.1 -9 -7 
Developing Asiaa 4404 26.8 28.4 -7 -5 3950 25.6 25.0 -14 -4 
China  2098 12.7 13.5 -3 -8 1588 10.5 10.0 -14 -5 
NICs (6)a 1544 9.6 10.0 -11 -3 1412 9.4 8.9 -16 -5 
Other  762 4.5 4.9 -9 1 950 5.7 6.0 -9 -1 
Memorandum items                      
Worlda 15494  100 100 -14 -3 15803  100 100 -13 -3 
Developed economies  8489 52.4 54.8 -12 -1 9201 56.3 58.2 -11 -1 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States 
(CIS), including 
associate and former 
member States  421 4.0 2.7 -32 -16 334 2.7 2.1 -32 -2 
LDCs (48)  149 1.1 1.0 -24 -3 220 1.4 1.4 -8 -7 
a Excluding Hong Kong, China re -exports or imports for re -exports.  
 
4.5.1   Latin America  
4.18.   In the period 2014-2016, Latin America 's merchandise trade exports decreased. Falling 
commodity prices and feeble deman d from the key trading partner, China, affected many 
economies in the region. Furthermore, Brazil, the region's second largest trader after Mexico, WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 14 - 
 
  faced political turmoil which contributed to its negative economic performance. Regional trade 
slowed down in part due to weaker Brazilian demand for imports from neighbouring countries. 
Following several years of growing demand for imports from other Latin American countries, 
Brazilian imports from regional partners declined by 27% in 2015 and by 11% in 2016.  
4.19.   Fuels, which accounted for 20% of the region's trade in 2014, only accounted for 10% of 
the region's trade in 2016 as the value of fuel exports dropped sharply in both 2015 and 2016.  
Economies which were severely affected by low energy prices during this period included 
Colombia, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, the Plurinational State of 
Bolivia, and Curaçao. These five oil and gas exporters saw double -digit decreases in the value of 
their exports in both 2015 and 2016. The Boliv arian Republic of Venezuela, whose oil revenues 
account for approximately 95% of its export earnings (as reported by OPEC), recorded a  sharp  fall 
in the value of its exports from 2014 to 2016.  
Table 6: Summary indicators on Latin America merchandise trade,  2014 -2016  
(% and number)  
 Exports  Imports  
 2014 -16a 2015  2016  2014 -16a 2015  2016  
Trade value, % change  -18 -15 -4 -20 -11 -9 
Trade volume, % change  5 3 2 6 1 5 
Economies with value growth higher than 
world trade (number, total=41)  21 23 20 22 26 13 
Main traders (% change)              
Mexico  -6 -4 -2 -3 -2 -2 
Brazil  -18 -15 -3 -40 -25 -20 
Chile -19 -17 -3 -19 -14 -6 
Argentina  -16 -17 2 -15 -8 -7 
Colombia  -43 -34 -13 -30 -16 -17 
Above 5, share in the region  - 79 80 - 74 75 
Region trade by product  (% change)              
Agricultural products  -6 -7 1 -13 -12 -1 
Fuels -59 -46 -24 -46 -37 -14 
Other mining products  -24 -22 -2 -26 -15 -14 
Manufactures  -6 -3 -3 -15 -7 -9 
Product share in region's trade (%)  2014 2015 2016 2014 2015 2016 
Agricultural  products  22.0 24.1 25.4 9.1 9.1 9.8 
Fuels 19.7 12.4 9.8 14.6 10.5 9.9 
Other mining products  10.4 9.5 9.6 2.3 2.2 2.1 
Manufactures  45.0 51.1 51.9 71.5 75.8 75.9 
a 2014-16: statistics on % change refer to the difference between 2014 and 2016 in % terms rather 
than the average annual % change. Data in the 2014 and 2016 columns refer to annual % changes.  
 
4.20.   However, approximately half of Latin American countries expanded more rapidly than world 
trade in the period from 2014 to 2016. Guyana showed strong exports growth  in 2016  (23%), 
after several years of declines . Its main exports remained  gold, rice, and bauxite, though this 
export composition may change in the future due to the discovery of offshore oil reserves. 
Deepwater oil reserves were first discovere d in mid-2015 and plans for oil production are currently 
underway. Barbados also showed positive growth in its exports, increasing by 11% in 2015 and 
7% in 2016, led by its manufacturing sector.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 15 - 
 
  Chart 9: Latin America merchandise exports by destination, 2 014-2016  
 
 
4.5.2   Developing Europe  
4.21.   Following  years  of expansion of merchandise exports, in 2015  developing Europe 's exports 
declined . However in 2016, all economies in the region, with the except ion of Turkey,  saw a return 
to positive growth , although global me rchandise  exports growth remained  negative. Accounting for 
more than half of developing Europe's exports in 2016,  up from 47% in 2014 , the European Union 
was the region's main  trading partner.  
4.22.   Turkey's  gold exports  to Iran and the United Arab Emirates , which had attained significant 
values  in 2012 , returned to pre -2012 levels  by 2014 . However, gold exports have since then 
begun increasing once again  to account  for approximately 2% of Turkey's total exports in 2016. As 
shown in Table 7, the exclusion of Tur key's gold exports to Iran and the United Arab Emirates 
results in a negative annual growth of developing Europe's  exports for 2015 and 2016, which 
otherwise would appear stagnant  in 2016.  
Table 7: Summary indicators on developing Europe merchandise trade , 2014 -2016  
(% and number)  
 Exports  Imports  
 2014 -16a 2015  2016  2014 -16a 2015  2016  
Trade value, % change  -9 -9 0 -17 -14 -3 
excl. Turkey's gold to Iran and UAE  -10 -9 -1       
Trade volume, % change  5 0 5 7 1 6 
excl. Turkey's gold to Iran and UAE  4 0 4       
Economies with value growth higher than 
world trade (number, total=6)  4 4 6 4 2 5 
Main traders (% change)              
Turkey  -10 -9 -1 -18 -14 -4 
excl. gold exports to Iran and UAE  -11 -9 -2       
Serbia  0 -10 11 -7 -12 6 
Bosnia and Herzegovi na -10 -13 4 -17 -18 2 
Above 3, share in the region  - 96 96 - 95 94 
Region trade by product (% change)              
Agricultural products  -7 -7 0 -9 -10 1 
Fuels -48 -27 -28 -49 -32 -25 
Other mining products  -19 -16 -3 -26 -20 -7 
Manufactures  -10 -11 1 -8 -7 -1 
Product share in region's trade (%)  2014 2015 2016 2014 2015 2016 
Agricultural products  12.6 12.8 12.8 9.0 9.4 9.7 
Fuels 4.3 3.5 2.5 16.3 12.8 9.8 
Other mining products  4.6 4.2 4.0 6.7 6.2 5.9 
Manufactures  75.1 73.5 74.3 65.3 70.1 70.9 
a 2014-16: statistics on % change refer to the difference between 2014 and 2016 in % terms rather 
than the average annual % change. Data in the 2015 and 2016 columns refer to annual % changes . 
 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 16 - 
 
  Chart 10: Developing Europe merchandise exports by destination, 20 14-2016  
 
4.5.3   Africa  
4.23.   Between 2014 and 2016, Africa's merchandise exports dropped significantly, declining 37% 
in value, due to a substantial decline in exports of fuels and other mining products. However, 
exports of agricultural products and manufactures recor ded positive growth in 2016 (2% and 4% 
respectively).  Half of African economies saw their exports grow at a rate higher than world trade in 
2016 (27 of 54).  
4.24.   The share of Africa's exports to other developing economies increased  by 1% . In 2016, half 
of the region's merchandise exports  were South -South trade.  It is significant that intra-Africa trade 
also increased , to account for 20% of its exports in 2016 , up from 15% in 2014 . 
4.25.   Africa's merchandise t rade remained very concentrated. In 2016 the top 12 traders  in the 
region represented 71% of the region's trade, down from 77% in 2014. However, this was due to 
declines in fuel exports in the eight African oil and gas exporters , caused by collapsing fuel prices  
rather than by the rising participation of other  economies in the region's total exports . Similarly to  
Latin America, the share of fuel products as a share of Africa's exports contracted  from 52% in 
2014 to 36% in 2016. The value of fuel exports decreased  by 44% in 2015 and 24% in 2016. 
Overall, the decline s in Africa exports followed the decline of fuel prices during this period, as 
illustrated in Chart 4.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 17 - 
 
  Table 8: Summary indicators on Africa merchandise trade, 2014 -2016  
(% and number)  
 Exports  Imports  
 2014 -16a 2015  2016  2014 -16a 2015  2016  
Trade value,  % change  -37 -30 -11 -23 -14 -11 
Trade volume, % change  7 5 2 -3 3 -6 
Economies with value growth higher than 
world trade (number, total=54)  24 22 27 22 25 23 
Main traders (% change)              
Oil and gas exporters (8)b -59 -45 -26 -34 -19 -18 
South Africa  -19 -12 -8 -25 -14 -13 
Egypt  -5 -20 19 -16 -5 -12 
Morocco  -5 -7 2 -10 -18 9 
Tunisia  -19 -16 -4 -22 -19 -4 
Above 12, share in the region  - 74 71 - 68 67 
Region trade by product (% change)              
Agricultural products  -2 -5 2 -19 -15 -5 
Fuels -57 -44 -24 -50 -36 -21 
Other mining products  -27 -24 -4 -22 -20 -2 
Manufactures  -10 -14 4 -20 -11 -10 
Product share in region's trade (%)  2014 2015 2016 2014 2015 2016 
Agricultural products  10.9 14.8 16.9 15.7 15.9 16.7 
Fuels 52.4 41.8 35.5 14.8 11.2 9.8 
Other mining products  9.1 9.8 10.5 2.1 2.0 2.1 
Manufactures  20.9 25.6 29.8 64.4 68.0 67.7 
a 2014-16: statistics on % change refer to the difference between 2014 and 2016 in % terms rather 
than the average annual % change. Data in the 2014 and  2016 columns refer to annual % changes.  
b Algeria, Angola, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Libya, Nigeria and Sudan.  
 
4.26.   Of the remaining four traders in the top 12, Egypt and Morocco recorded  positive exports 
growth in 2016. Manufactures exports expanded by  6% in 2016, represent ing 71% of Morocco's 
total exports in particular, machinery and transport equipment  (12%). Egy pt also export ed a 
substantial amount of manufactures products; 42% of its total exports in 2016 were of this 
category. Other African countr ies which had positive growth in exports throughout 2015 and 2016 
included Tanzania, Uganda, Lesotho, Guinea -Bissau, and Djibouti.  
Chart 11: Africa merchandise exports by destination, 2014 -2016  
 
 
4.5.4   Middle East  
4.27.   All fuel -export oriented economies in the Mid dle East recorded large declines in exports 
between 2014 and 2016, most notably in 2015. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the State of 
Kuwait, and Iraq saw reductions of more than 40% in their exports in 2015. Other countries within 
the region suffered,  and still suffer, from ongoing conflict. Exact estimates of the export and WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 18 - 
 
  import statistics of the Syrian Arab Republic and of Yemen are unobtainable, but are estimated in 
a very low range.  
4.28.   Following the lifting of  economic sanctions by the European Unio n and the United States 
against Iran in January 2016, Iranian oil exports resumed. This additional oil production added to 
the global excess supply, and was one of the main reasons behind the 9% growth in Iranian 
exports in 2016.  
Table 9: Summary indicator s on Middle East merchandise trade, 2014 -2016  
(% and number)  
 Exports  Imports  
 2014 -16a 2015  2016  2014 -16a 2015  2016  
Trade value, % change  -40 -34 -8 -15 -9 -7 
Trade volume, % change  11 7 4 -6 -1 -5 
Economies with value growth higher than 
world trade ( number, total=13)  3 3 5 5 6 7 
Main traders (% change)              
United Arab Emirates  -29 -28 -2 -10 -8 -2 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  -47 -41 -10 -22 0 -22 
Israel  -12 -7 -6 -9 -14 6 
Iran -22 -29 9 -22 -18 -4 
Qatar  -56 -41 -26 5 7 -2 
Above 5, share in  the region  - 81 82 - 77 77 
Region trade by product (% change)              
Agricultural products  -19 -17 -3 -13 -11 -2 
Fuels -53 -45 -14 -54 -43 -19 
Other mining products  -13 -10 -3 -21 -10 -13 
Manufactures  -28 -24 -5 -18 -10 -8 
Product share in regi on's trade (%)  2014 2015 2016 2014 2015 2016 
Agricultural products  2.1 2.6 2.8 11.8 12.1 12.9 
Fuels 63.1 52.8 49.5 10.0 6.6 5.8 
Other mining products  1.7 2.4 2.5 2.1 2.2 2.1 
Manufactures  22.7 26.3 27.1 72.4 75.0 74.6 
a 2014-16: statistics on % change refer to the difference between 2014 and 2016 in % terms rather 
than the average annual % change. Data in the 2015 and 2016 columns refer to annual % changes.  
 
4.29.   Among  the main traders in the Middle East, Israel's  merchandise trade was, by comparison, 
the le ast affected by decline s. Manufactures , which are predominant in Israel's exports ( 92% of 
total exports in 2016 ), decreased only moderately, by 8% . 
Chart 12: Middle East merchandise exports by destination, 2014 -2016  
 
 
4.5.5   Developing Asia  
4.30.   In 2016, 34 of the 45  developing Asian economies saw their exports grow at a rate higher 
than world trade. However, overall, developing Asia exports and imports declined in the period 
from 2014 to 2016, though not as sharply as fuel exporting regions . Manufactures continues to  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 19 - 
 
  represent the largest share of developing Asia's exports and increased in share of exports from 
83% in 2014 to 85% in 2015.  
Table 10: Summary indicators on developing Asia merchandise trade, 2014 -2016  
(% and number)  
 Exports  Imports  
 2014 -16a 2015  2016  2014 -16a 2015  2016  
Trade value, % change  -11 -7 -5 -17 -14 -4 
Trade volume, % change  2 1 1 5 3 2 
Economies with value growth higher than 
world trade (number, total=45)  31 28 34 26 29 22 
Main traders (% change)              
China  -10 -3 -8 -19 -14 -5 
NICs (6)  -13 -11 -3 -20 -16 -5 
India -18 -17 -1 -22 -15 -8 
Viet Nam  18 8 9 18 12 5 
Indonesia  -18 -15 -4 -24 -20 -5 
Above 10, share in the region  - 96 96 - 94 93 
Region trade by product (% change)              
Agricultural products  -8 -9 1 -3 -6 4 
Fuels -45 -36 -14 -50 -42 -14 
Other mining products  -14 -8 -7 -22 -21 -2 
Manufactures  -9 -4 -5 -7 -6 -2 
Product share in region's trade (%)  2014 2015 2016 2014 2015 2016 
Agricultural products  6.4 6.3 6.7 8.8 9.6 10.3 
Fuels 7.7 5.3 4.7 20.7 14.0 12.5 
Other mining products  1.9 1.9 1.8 6.2 5.7 5.8 
Manufactures  82.7 85.4 85.1 60.3 66.0 67.3 
a 2014-16: statistics on % change refer to the difference between 2014 and 2016 in % terms rather 
than the average annual % change. Data in the 2015 and 2016 columns ref er to annual % changes.  
Note:  Hong Kong, China re -exports and imports for re -exports are excluded.  
 
4.31.   China, the region's largest trader, saw its import demand for goods, especially commodities, 
weaken  as its economic growth slowed  down . China's merchandise imports  fell by 14% in 2015 
and by 5% in 2016. Imports by the NICs6 showed a similar pattern. Worldwide, China is an 
important trading partner for many developing economies. In 2016, 52% of China's total imports 
originate d from developing economies. The la rgest decrease in China's imports from developing 
economies was in the category of fuels and mining products. After years of positive growth, 
imports of fuels and mining products from developing economies decreased 7% in 2014, 36% in 
2015, and 11% in 2016.  
4.32.   Several developing Asia economies showed sustained annual exports growth from 2014 
through 2016; these included Viet Nam, Bangladesh, Cambodia, and Lao People's Democratic 
Republic. Viet Nam's manufactures sector continued to perform well, notably in the category of 
office and telecom equipment (which include d telephone, electronic, and computer parts), 
increasing by 51% between 2014 and 2016. Manufactures is also a key sector for Bangladesh and 
its apparel sector contributed especially to its positive exp ort growth. Cambodia and Lao People's 
Democratic Republic also showed strong exports growth in 2016, increasing 18% and 21% 
respectively.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 20 - 
 
  Chart 13: Developing Asia merchandise exports by destination, 2014 -2016  
 
 
5  TRADE  IN COMMERCIAL SERVIC ES DEVELOPMENTS  BETWEEN 2014 AND 2016 
5.1.  At present, the main source of statistics on trade in com mercial services is the 
balance -of-payments (BOP) framework. However, BOP data alone cannot provide a complete 
picture of the international supply of services as defined in the General Agreement on Trade in 
Services (GATS ). Services transactions in the BOP (usually named "trade in commercial services")6 
provide a measure of the supply of services through GATS mode 1, mode 2 and mode 4, but 
services supplied through the establis hment of a commercial presence in a foreign economy  
(mode  3) are virtually not captured.7 Furthermore, statistics compiled on commercial presence 
within the  framework of  Foreign Affiliates Statistics ( FATS) are at present mainly available for the 
developed e conomies , although an increasing number of developing economies have  started to 
compile them .8  
5.2.  The analysis of the international supply of services by developing economies in this Section is 
essentially based on BOP statistics.  Estimates jointly compiled by WTO , the United Nations 
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)  and the International Trade Centre (ITC) , reflect 
the services classification contained in the 6th edition of the IMF Balance of Payments Manual  
(BPM6) .9  
5.3.  Between 2014 and 2016, d evelo ping economies' exports of commercial services declined  by 
3% on average per year , less than in the developed group ( -7%) to reach US$1466 billion in 
2016. Imports contracted by 5% on annual average to US$1796 billion in 2016.  The main reason 
for declining  services trade was lower transport activity. Transport accounts on average for around 
21-22% of developing economies’ services exports and 29 -30% of their imports. In 2015 and 
2016, developing economies’ trade in transport services dropped significantly due to adverse 
global economic conditions and subdued merchandise trade .  
5.4.  Nevertheless , developing economies' contribution to world exports of commercial services 
rose from 29.9% in 201 4, to 30.5% in 201 6. The increase was mainly due to developing Asia and 
the Middle East, and , to a lesser extent , Latin America . The three  region s expanded  their 
respective  share s in global services exports. Developing Asian economies ' share rose from 20% in 
2014 to 20.4%. For the fourth consecutive year, the Middle East recor ded the highest exports 
growth in the world thanks to its thriving air transport and tourism  sector . Latin America's exports 
                                                           
6 Commercial services are compiled as total services minus government goods and services n.i.e.  
7 With an exception for the BOP item construction for which recorded transactions are deemed to refer 
to trade in services through modes 3 and/or 4.  
8 Bosnia and Herzegovina; Costa Rica; Hong Kon g, China; Israel; Serbia; Thailand;  Viet Nam and 
Zambia are currently the only developing economies compiling FATS statistics.   
9 The new classification covers the following main categories: manufacturing services on physical inputs 
owned by others, mainte nance and repair services n.i.e., transport, travel, construction, insurance and pension 
services, financial services, charges for the use of intellectual property n.i.e, telecommunications, computer 
and information services, other business services, and p ersonal, cultural and recreational services. The WTO -
UNCTAD -ITC trade in services dataset starts from the year 2005.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 21 - 
 
  were sustained by Mexico's double digit travel  growth , the most important ser vices category for 
the region.  
5.5.  By contrast,  in Africa , exports of virtually all services categories plunged , as Northern Africa 
saw its  travel receipts dropped  following terroristic attacks  in Egypt and Tunisia . Similarly, in 
developing Europe, exports sunk due to Turkey's collapsing travel  earnings.    
5.6.  Developing economies increased their participation also in world imports of commercial 
services from 38% in 2014 to 38.3% in 2016 , with developing Asia  import ing rising amounts of 
services . Developing Asian economies ' share grew from 2 3.4% in 201 4 to 24.9% in 2 016, as 
China's payments  for travel abroad multiplied . The Middle East accounted for 5. 7% of global 
services imports  in 2016 . Among all regions, African economies recorded the sharpest declines in 
imports of other commercial services and in travel expendit ure overseas. Falling energy prices, 
which further deteriorated in 2016, cut revenues of African oil exporting countries, the largest 
services importers in the region, reducing their purchasing power to buy services from abroad.  
Table 1 1: Developing econom ies trade in commercial services by regions and selected 
economies, 201 4-2016  
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Exports  Imports  
 Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  
 2016  14 16 15 16 2016  14 16 15 16 
Developing economies  1466 29.9 30.5 -3 -1 1796 38.0 38.3 -5 0 
Latin America  168 3.4 3.5 -2 1 196 4.6 4.2 -10 -4 
Brazil  33 0.8 0.7 -16 -1 61 1.7 1.3 -20 -11 
Mexico  24 0.4 0.5 9 5 29 0.6 0.6 -3 0 
Developing Europe  50 1.3 1.1 -9 -14 29 0.7 0.6 -10 0 
Turkey  37 1.0 0.8 -10 -20 20 0.5 0.4 -10 -2 
Serbia  5 0.1 0.1 -6 7 4 0.1 0.1 -11 4 
Africa  90 2.0 1.9 -3 -6 135 3.5 2.9 -13 -10 
Egypt  14 0.4 0.3 -11 -23 16 0.3 0.3 -1 -3 
South Africa  14 0.3 0.3 -11 -5 15 0.3 0.3 -9 -4 
Middle East  179 3.3 3.7 4 4 267 5.8 5.7 -6 -1 
United Arab Emirate s 63 1.1 1.3 4 8 82 1.7 1.7 -4 3 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom 
of 15 0.2 0.3 15 11 51 1.3 1.1 -11 -8 
Developing Asia  979 20.0 20.4 -3 0 1170 23.4 24.9 -2 3 
China  207 4.3 4.3 -1 -4 450 8.7 9.6 1 4 
Singapore  149 3.0 3.1 -3 1 155 3.2 3.3 -3 1 
India 161 3.1 3.4 -1 4 133 2.6 2.8 -4 8 
Korea, Republic of  92 2.2 1.9 -13 -5 109 2.3 2.3 -3 -2 
Hong Kong, China  98 2.1 2.0 -2 -6 74 1.5 1.6 0 0 
Memorandum items                      
World  4808 100 100 -6 0 4694 100 100 -6 1 
Developed economies  3250 67.9 67.6 -7 1 2783 58.5 59.3 -6 2 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States  
(CIS) , including 
associate and former 
member States  92 2.2 1.9 -16 -2 115 3.5 2.4 -24 -12 
LDCs (48)  32 0.7 0.7 -3 -4 65 1.7 1.4 -16 -6 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.7.   At the sectoral level, b etween 201 4 and 2016, d eveloping economies' transport, travel , and 
other commercial services exports contracted  while exports of goods -related services saw an 
increase .10 However, data should be interpreted with caution as most developing economies are 
not yet collec ting information on these types of services.  On imports, travel was the most dynamic 
sector. Other commercial services  and, in particular,  transport  imports saw declines ( -2% and -7% 
respectively).   
                                                           
10 Goods -related services is a new aggregation of services in BOP statistics, which includes 
"manufacturing services on physical inputs own ed by others" and "maintenance and repair services n.i.e."  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 22 - 
 
  Chart  14: Developing economies' trade in commercial serv ices by main category, 
2014-2016 
(Billion US$)  
 
Source: WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.8.  In 201 6, "travel", which records the expenditure in goods and services by foreign travellers in 
the visited economy, accounted for one third of the group's exports of comme rcial services11, 
represent ing an important source of revenue , in particular for the LDCs .12 Transport made up for  
20.7% of developing economies' exports. As shown in Chart 14, both these shares are higher than 
in developed economies (respectively , 21.5% for  travel and 1 5.8% for transport). "Other business 
services"  comprised 2 0.9% of total services exports. This category includes different types of 
services, such as research and development services , professional and management consulting 
services  as well as  technical , trade-related , and other business services . Their contribution to 
developing economies' total commercial services exports is close to that of the developed group. 
Telecommunications, c omputer and information services represented  10.0% of develo ping 
economies' exports. However, d eveloping economies ' participation continued to lag behind in 
higher -skilled services such as intellectual property -related services ( charges for the use of 
intellectual property n.i.e .), insurance and pension services , as well as  financial services .   
                                                           
11 In BOP Statistics, "travel" covers all goods and services acquired by international travellers in the host 
economy, for their own use or to give away, such as accommodation, food, souvenirs, visi ts to museums, local 
transportation, etc. It excludes transportation to the host country.  
12 See Market Access for Products and Servi ces of Export Interest to Least Developed Countries,  
WT/COMTD/LDC /W/65.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 23 - 
 
  Chart  15: Structure of developing and developed economies' exports of commercial 
services, 201 6 
(%) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.1  Transport  
5.9.  Developing economies’ trade in transport services dropped significantly  in 2015 and 2016 . 
Transport exports plung ed to US$3 04 billion  in 2016 down from US$342 in 2014.  The Middle East 
was the only region with positive  exports growth  during the period . However, as exports 
contracted more pronouncedly in the developed group , the developing group  increased its share in 
global transport exports from 34.6% in 2014 to 35.6% in 2016.  
Chart  16: Developing  economies' trade in transport services by region, 201 4-2016 and 
2016 
(Annual % change)  
 
Source:   WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.10.   In developi ng economies, exports of sea transport services, largely freight transport by sea, 
dropped by 9% on average per year between 2014 and 2016, recording sharper declines than the 
air transport sector and in other modes of transport  (Chart 17). Weak merchandis e trade flows  due 
to stagnating economic conditions and overcapacity in the shipping sector push ed sea freight 
transport prices downwards.  In 2016, the dry bulk shipping sector recorded its worst performance 
. Freight shipping rates remained exceptionally low before recovering in the last quarter of 2016 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 24 - 
 
  due to increased demand. Container shipping prices followed the same trend, improving at the end 
of the year as the sector started tackling oversupply. As a result, in 2016, sea freight transport 
services a ccounted for 20% of developing economies' transport exports, down from 23% in 2014.  
Chart  17: Developing economies' transport exports by mode of transport and region, 
2014 -2016  
(Average annual % change)  
 
Source:  WTO estimates.  
Chart  18: Structure of d eveloping economies' transport exports by kind and by mode of 
transport, 2016  
(%) 
 
Source:  WTO estimates.  
 
5.11.   In developing Asian economies, the largest traders in the group, sea transport exports 
dropped on annual average by 10% , as maritime freight transport  services exports fell by 12% in 
2015 and by 18% in 2016 , according to Secretariat estimates . In particular, the Republic of 
Korea's sea freight transport exports sunk ( -31%) . In China, transport exports were down by 12% 
and by 6% in Hong Kong, China.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 25 - 
 
  5.12.   Despite declines in the region's largest transport traders, several economies' transport 
exports recorded positive growth such as Cambodia (+12%), Sri Lanka (+8%) and Viet Nam 
(+6%). Nevertheless, Developing Asian economies lost overall US$17 billion in trans port exports 
revenues in 2015 and US$14 billion in 2016.  
5.13.   Bilateral statistics from main developed  partner economies confirm  these developments . For 
example, in the United States, imports from developing Asia, started to drop from mid -2015 until 
the third quarter of 2016. A similar pattern was observed for transport services imports from the 
Middle East and, to a lesser extent, Latin America.      
Chart  19: United States - Transport services imports from selected developing regions, 
2014 -2016  
(Percentage ch ange , year -on-year ) 
 
Source:  U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA).  
 
5.14.   Over recent years, various developing economies have made progress in integrating into 
global sea transport services. The UNCTAD’s Liner Shipping Connectivity Index (LSCI) , which  aims 
at capturing a country’s level of integration into global liner shipping networks13, shows rapidly 
growing values for many economies such as Morocco, Viet Nam, and Colombia . However, other 
developing economies , especially LDCs and small island  economies , lag behind. In LDCs, for 
example, maritime  transport remains  mainly coastal navigation. Enhancements in port 
infrastructure  and efficiency  in developing economies  would help  attract liner  ships, lower ing 
freight shipping rates , and improv ing their maritime transport connectivity.  
                                                           
13 The index base year is 2004 on a country showing a  maximum figure (China) . The LSCI is generated 
from five components: (a) the number of ships; (b) the total container -carrying capacity of those ships; (c) the 
maximum vessel size; (d) the number of services; and (e) the number of companies that deploy con tainer 
ships on services from and to a country’s ports.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 26 - 
 
  Chart  20: UNCTAD Bilateral Liner Shipping Connectivity In dex in selected developing 
economies, 2004 -2016  
(Index 2004=100)  
 
 
Source:  UNCTAD  and WTO calculations based on UNCTAD statistics . 
 
5.15.   Air transport  services , in particular  air passenger transport  receipts  represent the bulk of 
developing economies' transport exports . According to Secretariat estimates they accounted for 
44% in 2016.  In 2016, c ommercial airlines in developing economies recorded average 
international passengers lo ad factors of more than 70 %, as international routes multiplied  and 
traffic increased . Latin American carriers recorded the highest international passenger load factor 
(81.3%), and African airlines the lowest (67.7%).  Despite rising numbers of internationa l 
passengers, lower airfares , also due to increased competition, affected air passenger yield, which, 
like cargo yields, continued to decline.14 Thus, in the period 2014 -2016, developing economies' air 
transport exports declined  by 3% on annual average .  
5.16.   However, the Middle East's transport exports continued to expand (Chart 20). The region 
posted the fastest international revenue for passenger  growth  in 2016 , almost doubling the world 
average , with t he United Arab Emirates  ranked second  in the world for international revenue 
passenger -kilom etre, behind the United States .15 16 
                                                           
14 IATA "Air passenger market analysis".  
15 ICAO, Annual Report of the Council 2016.  
16 Revenue passenger kilometre (RPK) is a measure of the volume of passengers  carried by an airline. A 
revenue passen ger-kilometre  is flown when a revenue passenger  is carried one kilometre . WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 27 - 
 
  Chart  21: International air passenger traffic growth by developing carrier region of 
registration , 201 5-2016  
(Annual percentage change)  
 
Source : IATA and WTO calculations  based on ICAO statistics.  
 
5.17.   Between 2014 and 2016, d eveloping economies' transport export through  other transport 
modes such as r ailways and roads , as well as pipeline transport also dropped ( -5% on annual 
average). The sharpest declines were observed in developing Europ e, Africa  and Latin America.  
Exports through other modes represented 20% of total  transport exports  in 2016 .  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 28 - 
 
  Table 12 : Developing economies trade in transport  by region and selected econom y, 
2014-2016 
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Exports  Imports  
 Value  Share in  
world  Annual % 
change  Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  
 2016 14 16 15 16 2016 14 16 15 16 
Developing economies  304 34.6 35.6 -6 -5 489 48.4 47.7 -10 -5 
Latin America  27 3.1 3.2 -8 -4 56 5.8 5.4 -14 -6 
Brazil  5 0.6 0.6 -15 2 9 1.2 0.9 -27 -17 
Chile 3 0.5 0.4 -29 -10 4 0.5 0.4 -22 -9 
Developing Europe  15 1.8 1.8 -7 -8 10 1.1 1.0 -17 -3 
Turkey  13 1.6 1.5 -7 -10 8 0.9 0.8 -18 -4 
Serbia  1 0.1 0.1 -5 3 1 0.1 0.1 -10 0 
Africa  26 3.0 3.1 -2 -9 55 5.9 5.3 -14 -10 
Egypt  9 1.0 1.0 -1 -9 7 0.7 0.7 -12 -4 
Morocco  3 0.3 0.3 -12 -5 3 0.3 0.3 -17 7 
Middle East  49 4.8 5.8 0 3 69 7.0 6.8 -8 -9 
United Arab Emirates  25 2.4 3.0 -1 9 14 1.4 1.4 -16 3 
Qatar  8 0.6 0.9 15 3 11 1.0 1.1 -5 -4 
Developing Asia  186 21.8 21.8 -8 -7 299 28.6 29.2 -8 -4 
China  34 3.9 4.0 1 -12 81 8.1 7.9 -11 -6 
Singapore  48 5.3 5.7 -9 2 49 4.0 4.8 4 0 
India 15 1.9 1.8 -23 6 48 5.0 4.7 -11 -8 
Korea, Republic of  26 3.9 3.1 -10 -23 27 2.7 2.6 -8 -9 
Hong Kong, China  28 3.2 3.3 -7 -6 17 1.6 1.7 -6 -1 
Memorandum items                      
World  853 100 100 -10 -4 1025 100 100 -10 -4 
Developed economies  514 61.3 60.3 -12 -4 515 49.2 50.2 -10 -2 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States  
(CIS) , including 
associate and former 
member States  35 4.1 4.1 -13 -2 21 2.4 2.0 -23 -3 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.2  Travel  
5.18.   Despite rising security, safety, or health concerns in several  destinations , the number of 
international tourist arrivals to developing economies rose to 491 million in 201 6, some 41 million 
more than i n 201 4.17 The bulk of tourists reach ed developing Asia. International travellers' 
expenditure in goods and services during their stay  in developing economies (travel exports)  
reached  US$488 billion  in 2016 , accounting for 40.5% of world receipts of travel .  
                                                           
17 Aggregates for the developing economies and for the developing regions were compiled by the 
Secretariat on the basis of  statistics by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO ). WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 29 - 
 
  Chart 22: Developing economies' tr avel exports and international tourist arrivals by 
region, 2014 -2016  
(Billion US$ and million)  
 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates  and WTO aggregati ons on the basis of UNWTO data.  
 
5.19.   The Middle East recorded the most rapid average  travel export grow th (6% on average per 
year). The United Arab Emirates, the leading travel exporter  in the region , continued to attract 
rising  inflows of international travellers, in particular from India, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , and 
the United Kingdom.  As a result, between 20 14 and 2016, the United Arab Emirates'  travel 
earning s increased by 13% on annual average . Rapid growth was also recorded in the Kingdom of 
Saudi Arabia ( 16% on average per year ). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia remained the top travel 
spender in the region . However, over the same period , Saudis' travel expenditure  abroad 
contracted significantly , reflecting lower income following oil  prices decline s. 
5.20.   Sustained by increasing numbers of travellers from the United States, and despite the 
outbreak of the Zika viru s in several countries,  Latin America recorded the highest growth in 
international tourist arrivals, and its travel exports expand ed by 7% on annual average  between 
2014 and 2016 .  Mexico remained the largest exporter in the region , with a 25% share, ranking in 
2016 as the 8th world tourism destination , the 6th among developing economies . More than 80% of 
international tourists originated  from the United States.  
5.21.   Fuelled by enhanced air connectivity and cheaper airfares, developing Asian economies 
recorded t he second most rapid growth in international tourist arrivals . International tourism to 
developing Asia was largely from the same region. Intra-regional tourism lifted travel exports  in 
several developing Asian leading and emerging travel exporters . With t ravel receipts worth of 
US$50 billion  in 2016 , Thailand overtook China as t he largest  travel exporter in the  developing 
group , and the third globally after the United States and Spain. More than two thirds of 
international tourists who visited the country were from other developing Asian economies.   
Medical travel  to Thailand has grown  significantly over recent years , with health -related 
expenditure by foreign travellers reaching almost US$ 500 million in 2016 . International tourism 
and travel receipts boom ed also in o ther economies in the region such as India, Indonesia, and 
Sri Lanka .  
5.22.   China played a key role in neighbouring economies' tourism growth. In 2016, Chinese 
outbound travellers targeted regional destinations, preferring short trips over long haul  travel. In 
Thailand more than a quarter  of international tourist arrivals originated from China , close to half in 
the Republic of Korea , two-thirds in Macao, China and Hong Kong, China. However, in the latter, 
arrivals from China and average expenditure c ontracted. This translated into a negative travel 
exports growth for both economies. In 2016, China held a 21.8 % share in world payments for 
overseas travel.  
5.23.   By contrast, Africa’s travel receipts fell by 11% in 2015 and by 8% in 2016 due to a 
slowdown in international tourist arrivals. This was largely the result of a sharp drop in foreign 
tourists in Egypt following terrorist attacks, with the country’s travel receipts contracting by more WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 30 - 
 
  than a half. In Sub -Saharan Africa, however, growth remained positi ve. In 2016, travel accounted 
for almost 40 % of Africa’s total exports of commercial services.  The bulk of Africa's international 
tourism is intra -regional.  
5.24.   In developing Europe, the drop was more dramatic as Turkey's travel exports dropp ed 
sharply . Compa red to exports in 2014, the country lost almost US$11 billion in travel receipts . 
However, on a very small scale , other countries in the region  reported positive developments in 
their tourism sector such as Albania.  
Table 13 : Developing economies trade in travel  by region and selected econom y, 201 4-
2016 
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Exports  Imports  
 Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  
 2016  14 16 15 16 2016  14 16 15 16 
Developing economies  488 40.3 40.5 -3 0 581 45.1 48.5 2 2 
Latin America  79 5.8 6.6 4 5 51 4.9 4.3 -13 -2 
Mexico  20 1.3 1.6 9 10 10 0.8 0.9 5 1 
Brazil  6 0.6 0.5 -15 3 14 2.1 1.2 -32 -16 
Developing Europe  24 2.8 2.0 -10 -23 8 0.7 0.7 -2 -5 
Turkey  19 2.4 1.6 -10 -30 5 0.4 0.4 6 -11 
Albania  2 0.1 0.1 -12 13 1 0.1 0.1 -22 2 
Africa  35 3.5 2.9 -11 -8 21 2.1 1.7 -2 -18 
South Africa  8 0.8 0.7 -12 -4 3 0.3 0.2 -5 -5 
Morocco  7 0.6 0.5 -11 5 1 0.1 0.1 0 4 
Middle East  63 4.5 5.2 10 3 83 7.1 6.9 -4 0 
United Arab Emirates  19 1.2 1.6 15 12 17 1.3 1.4 5 3 
Saudi Arabia , Kingdom 
of 11 0.7 0.9 23 10 19 2.0 1.6 -20 -3 
Developing Asia  287 23.7 23.8 -5 2 418 30.4 34.8 7 5 
China  44 3.5 3.7 2 -1 261 18.5 21.8 10 5 
Thailand  50 3.1 4.1 17 11 8 0.6 0.7 9 8 
Hong Kong, China  33 3.1 2.7 -6 -9 24 1.8 2.0 5 5 
Korea, Republic of  17 1.4 1.4 -15 13 27 1.9 2.2 9 5 
Singapore  18 1.5 1.5 -13 11 22 2.0 1.8 -9 0 
Memorandum items                      
World  1205 100 100 -5 2 1199 100 100 -5 2 
Developed economies  698 57.9 57.9 -5 3 580 49.6 48.4 -9 5 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States  
(CIS), including 
associate and former 
member States  19 1.8 1.6 -17 -1 37 5.3 3.1 -26 -23 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.   
 
 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 31 - 
 
  Chart 23: Developing economies' travel exports and imports by region, 201 4-2016 and 
2016 
(Annual % change)  
 
Sourc e: WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.3  Other commercial services  and goods -related services  
5.25.   In the period 201 4-2016, developing economies' exports of "other commercial services" 
contracted  by 1% on annual average  down  to US$624 billion  in 2016 .18 Over the years, developing 
economies have emerged as suppliers of "other commercial services", although developed 
economies largely remain the main exporters. In 201 6, 24.2% of world exports of "other 
commercial services" originated from developing economies,  a share  that had gradually increa sed 
since 2005 (17. 0%).  
5.26.   On the imports side, developing economies' payments for other commercial services 
declined to  US$694 billion  in 2016 from US$717 in 2014 . Therefore, developing 
economies'  participation in world imports, on a constant  rise since  2005, contracted for the first 
time in 2015 to 29.3% from 29.7% in 2014, and remained at 29.4% in 201 6. This was largely due 
to Africa  and Latin America  which recorded the sharpest import declines. Falling energy prices, 
which further deteriorated in 2016, cu t revenues of African oil  exporting countries, the largest 
services importers in the region, thereby reducing their purchasing power to buy services  from 
abroad.  
 
                                                           
18 According to the BPM6 services classification, t he aggregate "other commercial services" covers 
construction, insurance and pension services, financial services, telecommunications, computer and information 
services, charges for the use of intel lectual property, n.i.e., other business services , and personal, cultural and 
recreational services.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 32 - 
 
  Chart 2 4: Developing economies' exports and imports of other commercial services by 
region, 2 014-2016 and 201 6 
(Annual % change)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
Table  14: Developing economies trade in other commercial services  by region and 
selected econom y, 201 4-2016 
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Exports  Imports  
 Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  Value  Share in 
world  Annual % 
change  
 2016 14 16 15 16 2016 14 16 15 16 
Developing economies  624 23.4 24.2 -1 1 694 29.7 29.4 -6 3 
Latin America  57 2.4 2.2 -7 -3 87 4.1 3.7 -6 -5 
Brazil  21 1.0 0.8 -16 -3 38 1.9 1.6 -11 -7 
Argentina  6 0.2 0.2 6 -6 7 0.3 0.3 4 3 
Developing Europe  9 0.4 0.3 -12 6 10 0.4 0.4 -10 5 
Turkey  5 0.2 0.2 -15 4 7 0.3 0.3 -10 7 
Serbia  2 0.1 0.1 -5 7 2 0.1 0.1 -14 1 
Africa  27 0.9 1.0 8 -1 59 3.2 2.5 -16 -8 
South Africa  4 0.1 0.1 -2 -2 6 0.2 0.3 -4 6 
Angola  0 0.0 0.0 2 -8 9 0.8 0.4 -34 -27 
Middle East  66 2.3 2.6 2 5 113 4.8 4.8 -6 5 
Israel  29 0.9 1.1 2 15 11 0.5 0.5 -4 4 
United Arab Emirates  18 0.6 0.7 3 2 51 2.1 2.2 -2 3 
Developing Asia  465 17.5 18.0 -1 0 424 17.3 18.0 -4 6 
China  105 4.3 4.1 -5 -3 106 4.4 4.5 -10 9 
India 123 4.4 4.8 2 3 68 2.2 2.9 3 24 
Singapore  76 2.8 2.9 5 -2 84 3.6 3.6 -5 1 
Korea, Republic of  45 1.9 1.8 -14 2 47 2.1 2.0 -6 -1 
Hong Kong, China  37 1.4 1.4 5 -2 22 0.9 0.9 2 0 
Memorandum items                      
World  2584 100 100 -5 1 2361 100 100 -5 3 
Developed economies  1926 75.0 74.5 -6 1 1613 67.1 68.3 -3 3 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States  
(CIS) , including 
associate and former 
member States  33 1.6 1.3 -17 -5 55 3.2 2.3 -22 -8 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.27.   Developing economies' participa tion in global exports of other commercial services varies 
considerably by type of service . In 201 6, the largest  share s continued to be recorded in 
construction  (45.3%), telecommunications, computer and information services  (29.8%), and 
personal, cultural and recreational services (29.4%). Participation in other business services  
reached 28.0% and 22.6% in insurance and pension services. The lowest contribution s were found WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 33 - 
 
  in financial services (15. 4%) and charges for the use of intellectual property n.i.e.  (6.4%), 
dominated by developed economi es exports.  
Chart 25: Exports of commercial services by sector and economic groupings, 201 6  
(%) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.28.   Despite the heavy losses faced by the transport industry, developing economies' trade in 
other services sectors continued to grow. In particular, the most rapid growth was recorded in 
IP-related services where receipts for the use of licences and charges were up by 20% in 2015 and 
by 5%  in 2016 and in ICT services. Despite the persisten t difficulties, in particular in terms of 
human skills and financial resources, it is encouraging that developing economies are progressively 
penetrat ing the hig hest segments of services trade . By contrast, after a decade of double -digits 
growth, developin g economies' construction exports fell by 10 % in 2016 , in a downward trend 
starting in 2015.  Exports of other business services saw again positive growth following a decline 
in 2015. 19 
 
                                                           
19 The aggregate "other business services" includes R&D services, professional and management 
consulting  services , and technical trade -related and other bus iness services.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 34 - 
 
  Chart 26: Developing economies' exports of other commercial services by main category, 
2015 and 2016  
(Annual percentage change ) 
 
Source:   WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.29.   A closer look to exports by developing region confirms that other commercial services 
exports are very concentrated, with developing Asia in the leading role. India, China and 
Singapore remain ed the main contributors, accounting alone for two -thirds of Developing Asia's 
exports. In 2016, t he three economies exported twice as much as all the other four developing 
regions together.  
Chart  27: Developing economies'  exports of other commercial services by developing 
region, 2016  
(%) 
 
Source: WTO -UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 35 - 
 
  5.30.   At the sectoral level, in 2016, Developing Asian economies held a n 82% share of developing 
economies' exports of financial services, thanks to Singapo re and Hong Kong, China. Developing 
Asia dominated also in intellectual property related services (79 %), sustained by thriving exports 
by the Republic of Korea and Singapore. Their share was very high also in construction, with China 
and the Republic of Ko rea, the largest global constructors on a Balance of Payments basis, and in 
other business services  as well as  ICT services, thanks to India.   
Chart  28: Developing economies' exports of other commercial services by main sector 
and by developing region, 2 016 
 (Percentage)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
5.31.   As an exception, personal, cultural, and recreational services were somewhat more evenly 
spread across developing regions. These services include also artistic services, such as live 
performances of art ists in concerts and plays in other countries. This confirms the importance of 
these services for the developing economies as a whole.  
5.32.   Finally, on one side, Developing Asian economies should be praised for their success in 
penetrating global markets, espe cially in upstream services. On the other hand, other developing 
regions, especially Africa, are still facing important obstacles to trade services internationally. 
Regulatory issues, infrastructural constraints including a digital divide, high trading cos ts, and lack 
of skills hinder their participation in trade, and ultimately prevent them from benefiting from 
services -trade led economic development and poverty reduction. 20  
5.33.   As mentioned earlier in the paper, g oods-related services is a new aggregat ion of services  in 
BOP statistics , which includes "manufacturing services on physical inputs owned by others" and 
"maintenance and repair services n.i.e.". The first category covers essentially manufacturing on a 
contract basis including activities s uch as proce ssing,  assembly, labelling, packing, etc . The second 
comprises maintenance and repair work by residents of an economy on goods that are owned by 
non-residents and vice versa . Many developing economies are currently in the process of collectin g 
data for the se new services arising  from globalization and the fragmentation of the production 
process  across different economies .  
5.34.   The Secretariat feels that the size of this new sector  remain s underestimated for the 
developing group, thus th e analysis of their trade  flows is preliminary. According to estimates, the 
                                                           
20 Data quality issues continue to affect imports statistics of "other commercial services". Thus, at 
present, it is not possible to provide a breakdown of imports of other commercial services by subsector and by 
geographical region/economic  grouping.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 36 - 
 
  input of developing economies to world exports of goods -related services totalled  29.9% in 201 6, 
increasing by 2% compared to 2014 . China was the main exporter with a  share in global  exports  
at 14. 3% and a ccounting for almost half of the developing group's exports.  
5.35.   The country is primarily engaged in manufacturing services on a contract basis, followed, in 
the same region by the Republic of Korea, Malaysia and Chinese Taipei. E xports by Singapore, 
which ra nked second among developing economies, related exclusively to maintenance and repair 
services  n.i.e. Goods -related exports are important also for economies in other regions such as 
Honduras , the leading exporter in Latin America , El Salvador,  and Nicaragu a, as well as Morocco in 
Africa,  and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia in developing 
Europe.  
6  THE IMPORTANCE OF GV CS FOR DEVELOPING ECONOMIES  EVIDENCED THROUGH TH E 
TRADE IN VALUE ADDED  APPROACH  
6.1.  Measuring trade related to  global production requires complementing traditional trade 
statistics with information on the domestic and foreign origin of inputs. The OECD -WTO project on 
estimating trade in value added, carried out in close cooperation with other national and 
internat ional organizations, has led to a first interactive "official statistics" database .21 Indicators 
included in the TiVA database are based on the OECD inter -country input -output (ICIO) tables that 
cover both goods and services classified by partner and sector . TiVA currently provides free access 
to indicators for 6 3 economies and 34 industries. Data  are available for the period 1995 -2011.22 
6.2.  The trade in value added (TiVA) measure enables to decompose traditional gross exports into 
domestic and foreign value add ed components and allows  the tracking of  trade within GVCs. Trade 
in this context refers to the exchange of intermediate goods and services , or inputs, within 
international production chains.  
6.3.  The GVC participation index, derived from the TiVA and exposed in Chart  29, illustrates the 
'Trade in Tasks' phenomenon and the multiple value added exchanges taking place within 
international production. GVC participation can be broken down in two components related to 
backward and forward linkages of a country with its foreign partners.  
6.4.  Backward participation in GVCs refers to the foreign value added content of exports, also 
referred to as vertical specialization.  This concept corresponds to the value added from inputs that 
were imported in order to produce interme diate or final goods and services for export. This is the 
'Buyer' perspective or sourcing side in GVCs, where a country imports intermediates to produce - 
exportable goods . Forward participation to GVCs captures the domestic value added contained in 
inputs  sent to third economies for further processing and exporting through a value chain. This is 
the 'seller -related' measure or supply side in the GVC participation index.  
6.5.  Chart  29 locates the set of developing economies available in the OECD -WTO TiVA databa se, 
according to their levels of backward and forward linkages to GVCs in 2011. Crossing the two 
dimensions of GVC participation provides information on the position and level of implication of 
economies in GVCs.  
                                                           
21 See http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TIVA_OECD_WTO  or http://www.wto.org/miwi . 
22 Due to the assumptions behind the c onstruction of ICIO tables and the lack of accurate data in some 
areas (e.g. bilateral trade in services), the TiVA data are estimates rather than actual measures of the value 
added exchanged across countries.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 37 - 
 
  Chart  29: Total forward and backward GVC p articipation, selected economies, 201 1  
(% in total gross exports)  
 
Source:  OECD -WTO TiVA database . 
 
6.6.  Saudi Arabia and Brunei Darussalam present high rates of forward GVC participation which 
reflects their roles as core oil suppliers to GVCs , with more tha n 42% of their exports sent across 
GVCs. Other primary products' exporters like Peru, Indonesia and Colombia intervene at the 
beginning of supply chains and are also positioned on the same side of the graph. All these 
economies require less inputs for thei r production, and even less foreign inputs, than for the 
manufacturing of more sophisticated products like cars or computers . 
6.7.  Mexico and China follow the same GVC patterns with emphasis on backward GVC linkages, 
meaning that they massively import foreign i nputs to produce their exports. Around one  third of 
their exports is composed of foreign inputs, which characterizes the impact of processing trade in 
their trade. It is worth noting that the graph relies on 2011 data and, in the most recent years, 
China h as developed further its domestic capacity to produce industrial inputs, thus potentially 
reducing its level of vertical specialization and increasing its exports of industrial inputs towards 
South -East Asia GVC partners.  
6.8.  Among major Latin American economi es, Argentina shows a relatively low participation in 
GVCs, with around 30% of its exports taking place within GVCs. This might be related to the fact 
that regional production chains are not as developed as in other regions. Brazil is more involved in 
forward GVC participation especially in the fields of primary products and basic industrial inputs.  
6.9.  Within the three African economies currently present in the TiVA database, South Africa acts 
as a key supplier of mining inputs to industries all over the world . Mining products represent more 
than 35% of South African value added sent to GVCs. The mining industry also imports significant 
amounts of mining inputs, which demonstrates its high integration to GVCs through the 
development of both upstream and downstr eam linkages with foreign partners.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 38 - 
 
  6.10.   Morocco and Tunisia have more or less the same position in the chart, with more prominent 
backward participation in GVCs. Imported inputs represented respectively 26% and 32% of the 
value added contained in their exports  in 2011. The two economies import textile inputs for their 
clothing industry and also machinery equipment (Tunisia) and basic chemical inputs (Morocco) for 
their production and exports.  
6.11.   Several  East Asian economies, including Cambodia, Korea, Malaysia, Si ngapore, Chinese 
Taipei, Thailand and Viet Nam, are located on top of the graph with high rates of vertical 
specialization, between 36% (Viet Nam) and 44% (Chinese Taipei). Such economies are engaged 
in “Factory Asia” - the name given to the region’s comple x of cross -border production chains - and 
also export intermediates to their partners. Their rates of forward GVC participation were ranging 
in 2011 from 15% (Thailand) to 24% (Chinese Taipei).  
6.12.   Trade in value added statistics allow decompos ing the GVC part icipation index by industry. 
Chart  30 illustrates the engagement of some developing economies in "Computer, electronic and 
optical equipment" supply chains (ISIC Rev. 3 classification, Divisions 30 to 33). In this case, 
backward participation corresponds t o the share of imported "Computer, electronic…" components 
in the exports of the same industry, whereas forward participation stands for the exports of IT and 
electronic components to downward production partners in the "Computer, electronic…" industry.  
Chart 30: Forward and backward GVC participation in the "Computer, electronic and 
optical equipment" industry, selected economies, 2011  
(% of total gross exports in the "Computer, electronic…"  industry)  
 
Source:  OECD -WTO TiVA database . 
 
6.13.   The Philippines plays a major role in Electronics supply chains, with 30 % of its trade in that 
sector (sum of backward and forward participation) within GVCs, the highest share observed in the 
sampled countries. The Philippines act as both an upstream and downstream producti on partner 
within Asian supply chains, with a strong specialization in the production and export of electronic 
components. Indeed, 21 % of Philippines' exports of goods in the "Computer, electronic and optical 
equipment" industry are sent through GVCs.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 39 - 
 
  6.14.   In general , the economies showing the highest  degrees of vertical specialization have low 
forward participation in GVCs, which confirms their focus on activities carried out at the end of the 
IT and electronics production chains (e.g. assembling). This is the case for East Asian economies 
like Malaysia, Thailand or Viet Nam as well as economies where processing trade is predominant 
like China and Mexico.  
6.15.   The development of Costa Rica within GVCs is largely due to the presence of global 
technology corporations located in the country resulting from incentive policies to attract FDI. 
Overall , 16% of the value added contained in Costa Rica exports of computers and electronics 
relate to GVC activities, either backward (10%) or forward contribution (6%).  
6.16.   The Republic  of Korea and Chinese Taipei hold central positions within Asian supply chains 
and show strong participations in IT -related GVCs. Their total GVC participations (both forward and 
backward) in this sector stand respectively at 21 % and 23 %. The two economies  import low -mid 
tech inputs to produce and export high value -added electronic components across GVCs (higher 
share of forward GVC participation).  
6.17.   Among the three African countries present in the TiVA database, Morocco is the economy 
most involved in electr onics' GVCs, thus reflecting Morocco specialization in the production and 
export of transistors and electric components to foreign industries.  
6.18.   In addition to the exploitation of trade in value added data, traditional trade statistics on 
intermediate goods can also provide useful insights on the recent evolution of trade in GVCs. 
Indeed, as shown in Charts  31 and 32,  breaking down Asian trade by sector and end -use provides 
some evidence on the recent shift in the division of roles in South East Asian GVCs an d also 
reveals triangular trade relationships.  
6.19.   Over the past two decades, production networks in Asia have developed tremendously and 
have become increasingly fragmented, providing incentives and opportunities to less -industrialized 
economies to join the m anufacturing process . Although China remains  a global centr e for the final 
assembly of numerous manufactured products, some labo ur-intensive final assembly activities 
have shifted from China to other low -cost economies. As a result, more emerging economies  from 
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) have been increasingly integrated into Factory 
Asia.  
6.20.   Chart 3 and  Chart 4 show that China has become an important supplier of manufactured 
intermediate goods  for many neighbouring lower -wage countrie s such as Cambodia and  Thailand. 
In their turn, the two economies assemble the received inputs to produce and export final products 
to the United States and European Union consumer markets.  
 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 40 - 
 
  Chart  31: Evolution of net trade in intermediate and final manuf actured goods between 
Thailand and its major trading partners, 2000 –2015  
(Million US$) 
 
Source:  OECD BTDI database . 
 
Chart  32: Evolution of net trade in intermediate and final manufactured goods between 
Cambodia and its major trading partners, 2000 –2016  
(Million US$) 
 
Source:  OECD BTDI database . WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 41 - 
 
  ANNEX  
THE DOMESTIC ENVIRON MENT FOR TRADING ACR OSS BORDERS  
1.  This annex is based on the Doing Business database  2017 and the 2017  report  published by the 
World Bank.  Most information is drawn from the "Trading acr oss borders" chapter.  The complete 
datab ase and reports can be found at: http://www.doingbusiness.org . Recently , the World Bank 
has changed its methodology  for Trading across Borders. Thus, the results contained  in the table 
below are not comparable with previous editions of this document.  
2.  Trading across Borders measures cumulative time and cost (excluding tariffs) associated with 
different procedures within the overall process of exporting or importing a shipmen t of goods.   
Documentary compliance  relate s to procedures for (i) o btaining, preparing and submitting 
documents during transport, clearance, inspections and port or border handling in origin economy ; 
(ii) o btaining, preparing and submitting documents requi red by destinations economy and any 
transit economies , and (iii)  covers all documents required by law and in practice, including 
electronic submissions of information as well as non -shipment -specific documents necessary to 
complete the trade.  
Border compli ance relates to (i) customs clearance and inspections by customs ; (ii) inspections by 
other agencies , and (iii) p ort of border handling at most widely used port or border of economy.  
Table 1:  Time and cost of trading across borders, 201 6a 
a  Computed according to WTO definitions as simple averages across economies composing the 
respective groups.  
b  Time is meas ured in hours, and 1 day is 24 hours . Since 2016, the time has been measured in 
hours, not in days.  
c All costs are related to international shipping, clearance and mandatory inspections by customs and 
other government agencies, port or border handling, d ocumentary compliance fees and the like.  
Source:  WTO calculations based on World Bank Doing Business database.  
 
3.  Trading across borders remains difficult and costly for developing economies , in particular for 
Africa which continued to register the longest average delays as well as high costs . In terms of  Documentary 
compliance  Border  
compliance  Documentary 
compliance  Border  
compliance  
 Exports  Imports  
Grouping or Region a Time to 
export  
(hours) b Cost to 
export 
(USD)c Time to 
export  
(hours) b Cost to 
export 
(USD)c Time to 
import 
(hours)b Cost to 
import  
(USD)c Time to 
import  
(hours)b Cost to  
import  
(USD)c 
Developing economies, of 
which  64 164 59 408 81 195 84 515 
Latin America  66 85 66 504 104 93 67 669 
Developing Europe  4 56 8 137 7 72 15 225 
Africa  91 219 101 572 113 319 146 664 
Middle East  84 314 64 428 100 311.2  112 533 
Developing Asia  77 145 58 397 81 181 79 486 
Memorandum items                  
World  42 134 41 287 42 114 41 288 
Developed economies  2 33 10 143 2 24 5 97 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States (CIS) , 
including  associate and 
former member States  60 211 52 312 43 116 33 251 
Landlocked developing 
economies  82 130 63 266 105 262 91 329 
LDCs  (48) 99 227 92 516 111 309 130 648 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 42 - 
 
  documentary compliance, in 2016, it took on average 6 4 hours for developing economies to 
export , with a peak of 99 hours for the LDCs, compared  with only 2 hours for the developed group.  
Similarly, it requir ed on average 5 9 hours for developing economies to satisfy border compliance  
to export , 48 additional hours than in developed economies. Regarding costs, documentary 
procedures , with an average cost of US$164, and border procedures at US$408 in 2016, were 
respectively five and three  times more expensive than in the developed group.  
4.  For developing economies, i mporting procedures  were more time -consuming  and more costly 
(excluding tariffs) in comparison to exports, with an average documentary compliance time  of 
81 hours and 8 4 hours for border compliance  and an overall procedural cost of US$705.  
5.  Although the del ays remain  very important, developing economies spent  on average less time 
in procedures for obtaining compliance  compared to 2015 , slightly less  than 2 hours for exporting 
and less than 3 hours for importing  (Chart 1) . In general, the implement ation in various 
economies of systems for the electronic submission of documents rather than in paper form 
translated into considerable  efficiency gains .  
6.  From a regional perspective, the biggest reductions in time to import were recorded in Latin 
America , where the delays  were cut on average by  more than 6 hours . Argentina introduced a new 
licensing system for importing, which reduced the time required for docum entary compliance.  This 
translated into a reduction of 144 hours for import compliance . On export s, Paraguay introduc ed a 
single window for exporting, which reduced the time required for border and documentary 
compliance  by 24 hours . Jamaica reduced the ti me of documentary  compliance for exporting by  
implementing ASYCUDA (Automated System for Customs Data) World, an  automated customs 
data management  system.  In addition, b oth Grenada and Jamaica made significant upgrades to 
their electronic platforms, result ing in a substantial decrease in the time required for international 
trade processes.  
Chart 1: Time to export and to import: Saving time for documentary and border 
compliance by economic groupings and regions, 2016  
(Hours)  
 
* Including  associate and forme r CIS member s. 
Source:  WTO calculations based on World Bank Doing Business database (s imple averages across economies 
composing the respective groups) . WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 43 - 
 
   
7.  Significant savings in terms of time to export and import were also made in t he Middle East  as 
various countries implemented a single window for  rapid electronic clearance of goods such as Iran  
and Oman. Kuwait  created a customs electronic links and facilitated the electronic exchange of 
information among various agencies . As a result the time to import decreased by 28 hours. 
Trading across borders also became easier in Bahrain by improving infrastructure and str eamlining 
procedures . 
8.  Africa n countries reduced in particular the time to import  (-4 hours)  although also on exports 
compliance procedures there wer e efficiency gains ( -1 hour).  Ghana recorded a cut of 206 hours in  
obtaining documentary compliance for import s by removing the mandatory pre -arrival assessment 
inspection at origin for imported products. In Niger and Rwanda, the removal of pre-shipment 
inspection for imported products  translated into a reduction of time and cost. In Niger , in terms of 
border compliance, time and cost decreased by 36 hours and US$300. In Rwanda , the reduction 
was by 208 hours and US$248. By contrast , in Egypt trading  across  borders became more  difficult  
as obtaining and  processing import documents  became more complex  (120 additional hours 
compared to 2015) . 
9.  In developing Asia, the time to export was reduced by close to 3 hours, with various economies  
adopt ing single windows and electronic systems for  simplifying trade logistics . For example, 
Indonesia improved the customs services and document submission functions of the Indonesia 
National Single Window , or Pakistan which introduc ed a new electronic platform for customs 
clearance. In Afghanistan,  the customs department introduced various technical improvements to 
the online document processing system. However, in Myanmar, traders had to face higher cost and 
time delays due to congestion at the port  of Yangon.  
10.  In 201 6, the largest gains in time to exports were recorded in the CIS  and its associate and 
former members, with a n average  reduction of 6 hours comparing with 2015. This was due to 
Georgia, which  reduced the time of export by 46 hours and time of import by 22 hour s. The 
country made import and export documentary compliance faster by improving its electronic 
document proce ssing system and  introducing an advanced electronic document submission option. 
Finally, t he Kyrgyz Republic decreased its procedural times and cost s for exporting by becoming a 
member of the Eurasian Economic Union.  
 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 44 - 
 
  APPENDIX  
APPENDIX TABLE 1: MERCHANDISE EXPORTS OF DEVELOPING ECONOMIES AND REGION S, 
2014-2016 
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
World  a 15493.90  100.000  100.000  - - -8 -14 -3 
Developing Economies  a 6583.62  43.622  42.492  100.000  100.000  -10 -14 -5 
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  886.03  5.860  5.719  13.435  13.458  -10 -15 -4 
Developing Europe  169.83  1.007  1.096  2.308  2.580  -4 -9 0 
Africa  348.22  2.991  2.247  6.857  5.289  -21 -30 -11 
Middle East  775.54  6.956  5.005  15.946  11.780  -22 -34 -8 
Developing Asia a 4404.00  26.807  28.424  61.454  66.893  -6 -7 -5 
Afghanistan  0.60 0.003  0.004  0.007  0.009 2 0 4 
Albania  1.96 0.013  0.013  0.030  0.030  -10 -21 2 
Algeria  28.88  0.340  0.186  0.780  0.439  -32 -45 -17 
American Samoa  0.39 0.002  0.003  0.005  0.006  1 0 3 
Angola  27.31  0.320  0.176  0.733  0.415  -32 -44 -18 
Antigua and Barbuda  0.08 0.001  0.001  0.001  0.001 -11 -33 18 
Argentina  57.73  0.370  0.373  0.848  0.877  -8 -17 2 
Aruba (the Netherlands 
with respect to)  0.30 0.001  0.002  0.003  0.005  8 29 -10 
Bahamas  0.44 0.005  0.003  0.010  0.007  -27 -37 -16 
Bahrain, Kingdom of  12.07  0.109  0.078  0.250  0.183  -23 -30 -15 
Bangladesh  34.97  0.164  0.226  0.377  0.531  7 6 8 
Barbados  0.52 0.002  0.003  0.005  0.008  9 11 7 
Belize  0.46 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.007  -12 -9 -14 
Benin  1.35 0.014  0.009  0.032  0.021  -27 -31 -24 
Bhutan  0.52 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.008  -5 -6 -4 
Bolivia, Plurinati onal 
State of  7.00 0.067  0.045  0.152  0.106  -25 -33 -16 
Bosnia and Herzegovina  5.33 0.032  0.034  0.073  0.081  -5 -13 4 
Botswana  7.36 0.046  0.048  0.106  0.112  -7 -26 16 
Brazil  185.28  1.217  1.196  2.790  2.814  -9 -15 -3 
Brunei Darussalam  5.22 0.057  0.034  0.130  0.079  -29 -40 -18 
Burkina Faso  2.40 0.013  0.015  0.030  0.036  -1 -11 10 
Burundi  0.11 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  -9 -9 -9 
Cabo Verde  0.06 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  -14 -17 -11 
Cambodia  10.07  0.037  0.065  0.085  0.153  21 25 18 
Cameroon  3.31 0.028  0.021  0.064  0.050 -20 -19 -21 
Central African Republic  0.09 0.001  0.001  0.001  0.001  -1 -11 9 
Chad 1.60 0.021  0.010  0.047  0.024  -35 -32 -38 
Chile 60.60  0.406  0.391  0.931  0.920  -10 -17 -3 
China  2097.63  12.666  13.538  29.036  31.861  -5 -3 -8 
Colombia  31.39  0.297  0.203  0.680 0.477  -24 -34 -13 
Comoros  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  14 -28 81 
Congo  3.57 0.049  0.023  0.113  0.054  -37 -51 -20 
Cook Islands  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -6 -21 13 
Costa Rica  9.63 0.061  0.062  0.139  0.146  -7 -16 2 
Côte d'Ivoire  11.77  0.070  0.076  0.161 0.179  -5 -10 0 
Cuba 2.90 0.026  0.019  0.060  0.044  -23 -31 -13 
Curaçao  0.42 0.004  0.003  0.009  0.006  -23 -34 -11 
Democratic Republic of 
the Congo  5.40 0.037  0.035  0.086  0.082  -12 -16 -7 
Djibouti  0.14 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  4 3 5 
Dominica  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -21 -16 -25 
Dominican Republic  9.86 0.054  0.064  0.123  0.150  0 -5 4 
Ecuador  16.80  0.139  0.108  0.319  0.255  -19 -29 -8 
Egypt  25.47  0.145  0.164  0.333  0.387  -3 -20 19 
El Salvador  5.34 0.029  0.034  0.065  0.081  1 4 -3 
Equatorial Guinea  4.80 0.068  0.031  0.156  0.073  -38 -48 -26 
Eritrea  0.34 0.003  0.002  0.008  0.005  -27 -22 -31 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 45 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
Ethiopia  2.92 0.019  0.019  0.042  0.044  -8 -11 -4 
Fiji 0.93 0.007  0.006  0.017  0.014  -18 -35 3 
French Polynesia  0.13 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  -11 -23 3 
Gabon  4.51 0.050  0.029  0.115  0.068  -30 -39 -20 
The Gambia  0.11 0.001  0.001  0.001  0.002  2 5 -2 
Ghana  11.28  0.071  0.073  0.164  0.171  -8 -22 9 
Grenada  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -11 -12 -9 
Guatemala  10.47  0.058  0.068  0.134  0.159  -2 -1 -2 
Guinea  2.41 0.011  0.016  0.025  0.037 9 -13 36 
Guinea -Bissau  0.26 0.001  0.002  0.002  0.004  26 52 4 
Guyana  1.44 0.006  0.009  0.014  0.022  11 0 23 
Haiti 0.99 0.005  0.006  0.010  0.015  8 22 -3 
Honduras  7.84 0.044  0.051  0.101  0.119  -2 1 -4 
Hong Kong, China  516.73  2.834  3.335  6.497  7.849  -1 -3 1 
domestic exports  25.53  0.085  0.165  0.194  0.388  28 -16 94 
India 264.40  1.745  1.706  4.000  4.016  -9 -17 -1 
Indonesia  144.84  0.953  0.935  2.185  2.200  -9 -15 -4 
Iran 69.00  0.480  0.445  1.101  1.048  -12 -29 9 
Iraq 43.89  0.457  0.283  1.048  0.667  -28 -42 -11 
Israel 60.16  0.370  0.388  0.849  0.914  -6 -7 -6 
Jamaica  1.20 0.008  0.008  0.018  0.018  -9 -13 -5 
Jordan  7.51 0.045  0.048  0.104  0.114  -5 -7 -4 
Kenya  5.69 0.033  0.037  0.076  0.086  -3 -3 -4 
Kiribati  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  4 8 0 
Korea, Democratic 
People's  Republic of  4.32 0.024  0.028  0.054  0.066  -1 -5 4 
Korea, Republic of  495.43  3.097  3.198  7.099  7.525  -7 -8 -6 
Kuwait, the State of  46.27  0.552  0.299  1.266  0.703  -33 -47 -15 
Lao People’s Democratic 
Republic  3.35 0.014  0.022  0.033  0.051  12 4 21 
Lebanese R epublic  3.93 0.025  0.025  0.056  0.060  -7 -12 -1 
Lesotho  0.89 0.004  0.006  0.010  0.014  4 2 6 
Liberia  0.17 0.002  0.001  0.006  0.003  -38 -40 -36 
Libya 6.00 0.114  0.039  0.260  0.091  -47 -51 -41 
Macao, China  1.26 0.007  0.008  0.015  0.019  1 8 -6 
Madagascar  2.16 0.012  0.014  0.027  0.033  -1 -7 5 
Malawi  1.02 0.007  0.007  0.017  0.015  -13 -20 -6 
Malaysia  189.41  1.265  1.223  2.900  2.877  -10 -15 -5 
Maldives  0.26 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.004  -8 -20 7 
Mali 2.54 0.015  0.016  0.034  0.039  -4 -2 -7 
Marshall Islands  0.05 0.000  0.000 0.001  0.001  -8 -15 0 
Mauritania  1.40 0.010  0.009  0.024  0.021  -15 -28 1 
Mauritius  2.36 0.017  0.015  0.038  0.036  -13 -14 -11 
Mexico  373.93  2.146  2.413  4.920  5.680  -3 -4 -2 
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.08 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.001  53 23 90 
Mongolia  4.92 0.031  0.032  0.072  0.075  -8 -19 5 
Montenegro  0.36 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.005  -10 -20 2 
Montserrat  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  9 -12 34 
Morocco  22.77  0.129  0.147  0.297  0.346  -2 -7 2 
Mozambique  3.35 0.024  0.022  0.055  0.051  -13 -23 -2 
Myanmar  11.24  0.062 0.073  0.142  0.171  -1 0 -2 
Namibia  4.08 0.025  0.026  0.057  0.062  -6 -12 0 
Nepal  0.70 0.005  0.004  0.011  0.011  -12 -19 -3 
New Caledonia  1.33 0.009  0.009  0.020  0.020  -9 -24 9 
Nicaragua  4.78 0.028  0.031  0.064  0.073  -3 -6 -1 
Niger  1.05 0.008  0.007  0.018  0.016 -15 -25 -4 
Nigeria  32.80  0.509  0.212  1.168  0.498  -41 -45 -36 
Niue 0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  22 50 0 
Oman  24.45  0.274  0.158  0.629  0.371  -31 -37 -23 
Pakistan  20.44  0.134  0.132  0.306  0.310  -9 -11 -7 
Palau  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -24 -44 2 
Panama  10.06  0.071  0.065  0.163  0.153  -13 -17 -8 
Papua New Guinea  7.02 0.047  0.045  0.109  0.107  -10 -4 -17 
Paraguay  8.49 0.052  0.055  0.119  0.129  -6 -13 2 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 46 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
Peru 37.02  0.214  0.239  0.490  0.562  -3 -13 8 
Philippines  57.41  0.336  0.371  0.770  0.872  -4 -5 -2 
Qatar  57.25  0.710  0.370  1.627  0.870  -34 -41 -26 
Rwanda  0.74 0.004  0.005  0.009  0.011  1 -5 9 
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  -5 -3 -8 
Saint Lucia  0.12 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  -14 12 -34 
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.001 0.001  -1 -5 2 
Samoa  0.06 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  5 16 -5 
Sao Tome and Principe  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -11 -34 21 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom 
of 182.30  1.851  1.177  4.243  2.769  -27 -41 -10 
Senegal  2.64 0.015  0.017  0.034  0.040  -2 -5 1 
Serbia  14.86  0.080 0.096  0.184  0.226  0 -10 11 
Seychelles  0.46 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.007  -8 -23 11 
Sierra Leone  0.64 0.008  0.004  0.019  0.010  -36 -67 24 
Singapore  338.08  2.213  2.182  5.074  5.135  -9 -15 -2 
Sint Maarten  0.13 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  0 -3 2 
Solomon Islands  0.42 0.002  0.003  0.006  0.006  -5 -12 3 
Somalia  ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 
South Africa  75.09  0.498  0.485  1.143  1.141  -10 -12 -8 
Sri Lanka  10.31  0.061  0.067  0.140  0.157  -4 -7 -2 
Sudan  3.09 0.024  0.020  0.055  0.047  -17 -29 -2 
Suriname  1.45 0.012  0.009  0.027 0.022  -18 -23 -12 
Swaziland  0.00 0.011  0.000  0.025  0.000  -100 -10 -100 
Syrian Arab Republic  1.80 0.012  0.012  0.029  0.027  -12 -26 6 
Chinese Taipei  280.32  1.731  1.809  3.968  4.258  -6 -11 -2 
Tanzania  5.17 0.025  0.033  0.057  0.079  6 7 5 
Thailand  215.42  1.230  1.390  2.820  3.272  -3 -6 0 
The former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia  4.79 0.027  0.031  0.062  0.073  -2 -9 6 
Timor -Leste  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  14 16 11 
Togo 1.03 0.007  0.007  0.016  0.016  -12 -24 2 
Tonga  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  8 -7 24 
Trinidad and Tobago  8.00 0.079  0.052  0.181  0.122  -26 -26 -26 
Tunisia  13.57  0.091  0.088  0.208  0.206  -10 -16 -4 
Turkey  142.53  0.852  0.920  1.954  2.165  -5 -9 -1 
Tuvalu  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  0 -12 13 
Uganda  2.54 0.012  0.016  0.028  0.039  6 0 12 
United A rab Emirates  265.90  2.028  1.716  4.649  4.039  -16 -28 -2 
Uruguay  7.02 0.049  0.045  0.113  0.107  -12 -16 -9 
Vanuatu  0.05 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  -10 -38 30 
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Republic of  23.87  0.404  0.154  0.926  0.363  -43 -50 -36 
Viet Nam  176.78  0.812  1.141 1.862  2.685  8 8 9 
Yemen  1.00 0.042  0.006  0.097  0.015  -64 -87 0 
Zambia  6.51 0.052  0.042  0.120  0.099  -18 -27 -7 
Zimbabwe  2.84 0.017  0.018  0.038  0.043  -4 -12 5 
Memorandum                  
Developed Economies  8489.31  52.412  54.791  120.152  128.946  -6 -12 -1 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States 
(CIS), including 
associate and former 
member States  420.97  3.966  2.717  9.092  6.394  -24 -32 -16 
LDCs (48)  148.63  1.082  0.959  2.481  2.258  -14 -24 -3 
NICS (6)  1544.19  9.621  9.966  22.055  23.455  -7 -11 -3 
a Excluding H ong Kong, China re -exports.  
- Not applicable.  
... Not available.  
Note:  Recent figures for a number of countries and territories have been estimated by the Secretariat.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 47 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 2:  MERCHANDISE IMPORTS OF DEVELOPING ECONOM IES AND REGIONS , 
2014-2016 
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
World a 15802.72  100.000  100.000  - - -8 -13 -3 
Developing Economies a 6267.69  40.951  39.662  100.000  100.000  -9 -13 -6 
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  930.95  6.205  5.891  15.152  14.853  -10 -11 -9 
Developing Europe  240.70  1.548  1.523  3.781  3.840  -9 -14 -3 
Africa  492.93  3.446  3.119  8.414  7.865  -12 -14 -11 
Middle East  652.71  4.134  4.130  10.096  10.414  -8 -9 -7 
Developi ng Asia a 3950.40  25.618  24.998  62.557  63.028  -9 -14 -4 
Afghanistan  6.53 0.041  0.041  0.101  0.104  -8 0 -15 
Albania  4.67 0.028  0.030  0.068  0.074  -6 -17 8 
Algeria  46.73  0.314  0.296  0.767  0.746  -11 -12 -10 
American Samoa  0.28 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.004  -11 -19 -2 
Angola b 12.54  0.153  0.079  0.374  0.200  -34 -28 -39 
Antigua and Barbuda  0.50 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.008  -3 -14 9 
Argentina  55.61  0.350  0.352  0.854  0.887  -8 -8 -7 
Aruba (the Netherlands 
with respect to) b 1.21 0.007  0.008  0.018  0.019  -5 -7 -4 
Bahamas  2.59 0.018  0.016  0.044  0.041  -12 -12 -12 
Bahrain, Kingdom of  8.70 0.075  0.055  0.182  0.139  -21 -29 -12 
Bangladesh  44.83  0.221  0.284  0.539  0.715  4 2 7 
Barbados  1.62 0.009  0.010  0.023  0.026  -3 -7 0 
Belize  0.97 0.005  0.006  0.013  0.015  -2 2 -6 
Benin  2.25 0.021 0.014  0.050  0.036  -23 -40 -3 
Bhutan  1.03 0.005  0.007  0.012  0.016  5 14 -3 
Bolivia, Plurinational 
State of  8.37 0.056  0.053  0.138  0.134  -11 -9 -13 
Bosnia and Herzegovina  9.13 0.059  0.058  0.144  0.146  -9 -18 2 
Botswana  6.14 0.043  0.039  0.106  0.098  -13 -10 -15 
Brazil  143.47  1.283  0.908  3.132  2.289  -23 -25 -20 
Brunei Darussalam  2.67 0.019  0.017  0.047  0.043  -14 -10 -17 
Burkina Faso  3.17 0.019  0.020  0.047  0.051  -6 -14 3 
Burundi  0.62 0.004  0.004  0.010  0.010  -11 -6 -15 
Cabo Verde  0.67 0.004  0.004  0.010  0.011  -7 -22 10 
Cambodia b 12.63  0.057  0.080  0.140  0.202  9 11 6 
Cameroon  5.17 0.041  0.033  0.099  0.083  -17 -20 -14 
Central African Republic  0.38 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.006  -3 -15 10 
Chad 2.20 0.017  0.014  0.041  0.035  -16 -16 -15 
Chile 58.83  0.391  0.372  0.954 0.939  -10 -14 -6 
China  1587.93  10.509  10.048  25.661  25.335  -10 -14 -5 
Colombia  44.89  0.343  0.284  0.839  0.716  -16 -16 -17 
Comoros  0.22 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.003  -11 -23 3 
Congo b 4.95 0.035  0.031  0.086  0.079  -13 -16 -10 
Cook Islands  0.12 0.001  0.001  0.002 0.002  -3 -10 6 
Costa Rica  15.12  0.094  0.096  0.229  0.241  -7 -7 -7 
Côte d'Ivoire  9.49 0.060  0.060  0.146  0.151  -8 -15 0 
Cuba 10.35  0.070  0.065  0.171  0.165  -11 -10 -12 
Curaçao  1.42 0.010  0.009  0.024  0.023  -12 -16 -7 
Democratic Republic of 
the Congo  4.80 0.035  0.030  0.086  0.077  -15 -5 -24 
Djibouti b 1.13 0.004  0.007  0.011  0.018  19 35 4 
Dominica  0.21 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.003  -4 -7 0 
Dominican Republic b 17.48  0.093  0.111  0.226  0.279  1 -2 3 
Ecuador  16.32  0.149  0.103  0.363  0.260  -23 -22 -24 
Egypt  55.79 0.358  0.353  0.875  0.890  -9 -5 -12 
El Salvador  9.85 0.056  0.062  0.138  0.157  -3 -1 -5 
Equatorial Guinea  2.80 0.030  0.018  0.072  0.045  -29 -38 -18 
Eritrea  1.06 0.006  0.007  0.015  0.017  -3 -10 3 
Ethiopia  16.59  0.083  0.105  0.204  0.265  3 9 -2 
Fiji 2.32 0.017 0.015  0.043  0.037  -16 -36 11 
French Polynesia  1.49 0.009  0.009  0.023  0.024  -8 -13 -2 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 48 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
Gabon  2.16 0.021  0.014  0.051  0.035  -25 -21 -29 
The Gambia  0.37 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.006  -3 8 -12 
Ghana  13.35  0.078  0.084  0.191  0.213  -4 -8 -1 
Grenada  0.35 0.002  0.002 0.004  0.006  2 10 -6 
Guatemala  17.00  0.098  0.108  0.239  0.271  -4 -4 -4 
Guinea  2.15 0.013  0.014  0.031  0.034  -5 -7 -2 
Guinea -Bissau b 0.25 0.001  0.002  0.003  0.004  8 6 10 
Guyana  1.45 0.010  0.009  0.023  0.023  -10 -18 -2 
Haiti 3.42 0.020  0.022  0.049  0.055  -4 -2 -7 
Honduras b 10.56  0.059  0.067  0.145  0.168  -2 0 -5 
Hong Kong, China  547.34  3.222  3.464  7.869  8.733  -5 -7 -2 
retained imports  121.12  0.804  0.766  1.963  1.932  -10 -11 -10 
India 359.77  2.483  2.277  6.063  5.740  -12 -15 -8 
Indonesia  135.65  0.956  0.858  2.334  2.164  -13 -20 -5 
Iran 40.00  0.274  0.253  0.668  0.638  -11 -18 -4 
Iraq 38.71  0.285  0.245  0.696  0.618  -15 -27 -1 
Israel  68.84  0.405  0.436  0.989  1.098  -5 -14 6 
Jamaica  4.77 0.031  0.030  0.076  0.076  -10 -14 -5 
Jordan  19.21  0.122  0.122  0.298  0.306  -8 -10 -6 
Kenya  14.11  0.099  0.089  0.241  0.225  -12 -13 -12 
Kiribati  0.09 0.001  0.001  0.001  0.001  -11 7 -26 
Korea, Democratic 
People's Republic of  4.85 0.030  0.031  0.073  0.077  -7 -14 1 
Korea, Republic of  406.19  2.819  2.570  6.883  6.481  -12 -17 -7 
Kuwait, the State of  30.82  0.166  0.195  0.406  0.492  0 0 0 
Lao People’s Democratic 
Republic  4.74 0.023  0.030  0.056  0.076  5 23 -9 
Lebanese Republic  18.95  0.113  0.120  0.277  0.302  -5 -13 3 
Lesotho  1.85 0.011  0.012  0.028  0.030  -7 -6 -8 
Liberia  1.31 0.011  0.008  0.026  0.021 -19 -15 -22 
Libya 10.60  0.102  0.067  0.249  0.169  -25 -32 -18 
Macao, China  8.92 0.060  0.056  0.148  0.142  -11 -6 -16 
Madagascar  2.85 0.017  0.018  0.042  0.046  -6 -13 2 
Malawi  2.43 0.015  0.015  0.036  0.039  -7 -17 5 
Malaysia  168.39  1.120  1.066  2.735  2.687  -10 -16 -4 
Maldives  2.13 0.011  0.013  0.026  0.034  3 -5 12 
Mali 3.51 0.021  0.022  0.051  0.056  -5 -3 -8 
Marshall Islands  0.15 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  3 2 4 
Mauritania  1.95 0.014  0.012  0.035  0.031  -14 -26 0 
Mauritius  4.65 0.030  0.029  0.073  0.074  -9 -15 -3 
Mexico  397.52  2.208  2.515  5.391  6.342  -2 -2 -2 
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.17 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.003  3 0 6 
Mongolia  3.36 0.028  0.021  0.069  0.054  -20 -27 -12 
Montenegro  2.29 0.013  0.014  0.031  0.036  -2 -14 12 
Montserrat  0.04 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001 -6 -6 -7 
Morocco  41.53  0.248  0.263  0.606  0.663  -5 -18 9 
Mozambique  5.21 0.050  0.033  0.122  0.083  -25 -10 -38 
Myanmar  15.38  0.087  0.097  0.213  0.245  -3 4 -9 
Namibia  6.84 0.046  0.043  0.111  0.109  -10 -9 -11 
Nepal  8.65 0.041  0.055  0.099  0.138  7 -12 30 
New Caledonia  2.40 0.018  0.015  0.043  0.038  -15 -18 -11 
Nicaragua  7.06 0.037  0.045  0.091  0.113  1 2 0 
Niger  1.57 0.012  0.010  0.029  0.025  -15 -10 -21 
Nigeria  39.00  0.322  0.247  0.786  0.622  -19 -20 -19 
Niue 0.01 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -4 0 -8 
Oman  23.26  0.157 0.147  0.384  0.371  -11 -1 -20 
Pakistan  47.16  0.254  0.298  0.621  0.752  0 -8 8 
Palau  0.15 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  -4 -9 2 
Panama  18.71  0.125  0.118  0.304  0.299  -10 -13 -8 
Papua New Guinea  2.05 0.024  0.013  0.059  0.033  -33 -36 -29 
Paraguay  9.75 0.065  0.062 0.159  0.156  -10 -15 -5 
Peru 36.26  0.227  0.229  0.555  0.579  -7 -10 -4 
Philippines  85.91  0.363  0.544  0.887  1.371  13 4 22 
Qatar  32.06  0.163  0.203  0.399  0.511  3 7 -2 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 49 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
Rwanda  2.29 0.013  0.015  0.032  0.037  -4 -4 -4 
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.33 0.001  0.002  0.004 0.005  11 11 12 
Saint Lucia  0.65 0.003  0.004  0.008  0.010  2 -9 15 
Saint Vincent and the 
Grenadines  0.33 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.005  -4 -8 0 
Samoa  0.35 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.006  -5 -4 -5 
Sao Tome and Principe  0.14 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  -9 -16 -2 
Saudi Arab ia, Kingdom 
of 135.89  0.932  0.860  2.277  2.168  -12 0 -22 
Senegal  5.48 0.035  0.035  0.085  0.087  -8 -14 -2 
Serbia  19.24  0.111  0.122  0.270  0.307  -3 -12 6 
Seychelles  1.04 0.006  0.007  0.015  0.017  -5 -13 5 
Sierra Leone  1.56 0.008  0.010  0.021  0.025  0 -2 2 
Singapore  291.91  1.964  1.847  4.797  4.657  -11 -19 -2 
Sint Maarten  0.86 0.005  0.005  0.013  0.014  -8 -15 0 
Solomon Islands  0.43 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.007  -7 -6 -8 
Somalia  ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 
South Africa  91.58  0.654  0.580  1.597  1.461  -13 -14 -13 
Sri Lanka  19.40  0.104  0.123  0.254  0.310  0 -2 2 
Sudan  8.32 0.049  0.053  0.121  0.133  -5 3 -12 
Suriname  1.25 0.011  0.008  0.026  0.020  -21 1 -39 
Swaziland  1.42 0.009  0.009  0.022  0.023  -8 -18 2 
Syrian Arab Republic  4.50 0.036  0.028  0.088  0.072  -18 -25 -10 
Chine se Taipei  230.57  1.512  1.459  3.692  3.679  -10 -16 -3 
Tanzania  9.49 0.064  0.060  0.157  0.151  -11 -10 -12 
Thailand  194.18  1.222  1.229  2.983  3.098  -8 -11 -4 
The former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia  6.76 0.039  0.043  0.096  0.108  -4 -12 5 
Timor -Leste  0.78 0.005 0.005  0.011  0.012  -5 6 -14 
Togo 2.36 0.014  0.015  0.033  0.038  -4 -9 2 
Tonga  0.26 0.001  0.002  0.003  0.004  9 -4 24 
Trinidad and Tobago  8.80 0.060  0.056  0.148  0.140  -12 -16 -7 
Tunisia  19.46  0.133  0.123  0.325  0.311  -11 -19 -4 
Turkey  198.62  1.299  1.257  3.172 3.169  -9 -14 -4 
Tuvalu  0.03 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  12 66 -24 
Uganda  5.10 0.033  0.032  0.080  0.081  -8 -9 -8 
United Arab Emirates  225.00  1.341  1.424  3.274  3.590  -5 -8 -2 
Uruguay  8.14 0.062  0.051  0.150  0.130  -16 -17 -14 
Vanuatu  0.42 0.002  0.003  0.004 0.007  17 18 16 
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Rep. of  13.55  0.232  0.086  0.565  0.216  -44 -23 -59 
Viet Nam  174.23  0.793  1.103  1.936  2.780  9 12 5 
Yemen  6.77 0.065  0.043  0.158  0.108  -25 -45 3 
Zambia  7.54 0.052  0.048  0.128  0.120  -12 -13 -11 
Zimbabwe  3.70 0.023  0.023 0.055  0.059  -6 -5 -8 
Memorandum                  
Developed Economies  9200.98  56.341  58.224  137.580  146.800  -6 -11 -1 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States 
(CIS), including 
associate and former 
member States  334.04  2.708  2.114  6.612  5.330  -19 -32 -2 
LDCs (48)  220.28  1.389  1.394  3.391  3.515  -8 -8 -7 
NICS (6)  1412.37  9.441  8.937  23.053  22.534  -10 -16 -5 
a Excluding Hong Kong, China imports for re -exports.  
b Imports are valued f.o.b.  
- Not applicable.  
... Not available.  
Note:  Recent figures for a number o f countries and territories have been estimated by the Secretariat.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 50 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 3:  COMMERCIAL SERVICES EXPORTS OF DEVELOPIN G ECONOMIES AND 
REGIONS, 201 4-2016 
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
chan ge 
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
World  4807.69  100.000  100.000  - - -3 -6 0 
Developing economies  1466.37  29.864  30.501  100.000  100.000  -2 -3 -1 
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  168.16  3.360  3.498  11.252  11.468  -1 -2 1 
Developing Europe  50.49 1.272  1.050  4.261  3.443  -12 -9 -14 
Africa  90.29  1.953  1.878  6.539  6.158  -5 -3 -6 
Middle East  178.89  3.255  3.721  10.898  12.200  4 4 4 
Developing Asia  978.54  20.024  20.354  67.050  66.732  -2 -3 0 
Afghanistan  0.28 0.023  0.006  0.076  0.019  -51 -46 -55 
Albania 2.61 0.048  0.054  0.162  0.178  3 -10 18 
Algeria  3.50 0.068  0.073  0.229  0.239  0 -2 3 
Angola  1.16 0.033  0.024  0.111  0.079  -17 -25 -8 
Anguilla  0.14 0.003  0.003  0.009  0.010  1 0 2 
Antigua and Barbuda  0.49 0.009  0.010  0.031  0.033  2 2 3 
Argentina  12.50  0.266 0.260  0.892  0.852  -4 2 -9 
Aruba (the Netherlands 
with respect to)  2.01 0.040  0.042  0.133  0.137  0 2 -3 
Bahamas  2.78 0.053  0.058  0.176  0.190  2 1 3 
Bahrain, Kingdom of  3.17 0.066  0.066  0.220  0.216  -3 -1 -4 
Bangladesh  1.92 0.032  0.040  0.108  0.131  8 2 15 
Barbados  1.46 0.026  0.030  0.087  0.100  5 4 6 
Belize  0.53 0.009  0.011  0.031  0.036  6 1 12 
Benin  0.37 0.009  0.008  0.030  0.025  -10 -25 9 
Bhutan  0.14 0.002  0.003  0.008  0.010  8 1 15 
Bolivia, Plurinational 
State of  1.18 0.023  0.025  0.077  0.080  0 4 -3 
Bosnia  and Herzegovina  1.70 0.036  0.035  0.120  0.116  -3 -9 3 
Botswana  1.22 0.025  0.025  0.082  0.083  -1 -6 4 
Brazil  32.57  0.769  0.677  2.575  2.221  -9 -16 -1 
Brunei Darussalam  0.48 0.011  0.010  0.037  0.033  -7 15 -25 
Burkina Faso  0.40 0.008  0.008  0.028  0.027  -3 -14 9 
Burundi  0.02 0.001  0.000  0.002  0.001  -23 -37 -6 
Cabo Verde  0.57 0.012  0.012  0.041  0.039  -4 -19 15 
Cambodia  3.85 0.073  0.080  0.245  0.263  2 2 2 
Cameroon  1.58 0.038  0.033  0.128  0.108  -10 -26 10 
Cayman Islands  1.96 0.036  0.041  0.120  0.133  4 8 0 
Centra l African Republic  0.05 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.004  -2 -9 5 
Chad 0.16 0.004  0.003  0.013  0.011  -12 -8 -15 
Chile 9.63 0.217  0.200  0.726  0.656  -7 -11 -2 
China  207.28  4.294  4.311  14.380  14.135  -3 -1 -4 
Colombia  7.70 0.139  0.160  0.465  0.525  4 4 5 
Comoros  0.09 0.001  0.002  0.005  0.006  6 6 7 
Congo  0.52 0.014  0.011  0.048  0.035  -16 -13 -19 
Costa Rica  8.27 0.139  0.172  0.466  0.564  8 5 11 
Côte d'Ivoire  0.66 0.015  0.014  0.050  0.045  -7 -15 3 
Cuba 11.24  0.249  0.234  0.835  0.767  -6 -10 -1 
Curaçao  1.50 0.035  0.031  0.116  0.102  -8 -12 -2 
Democratic Republic of 
the Congo  0.07 0.005  0.001  0.015  0.005  -45 -51 -38 
Djibouti  0.27 0.004  0.006  0.013  0.018  18 21 16 
Dominica  0.14 0.003  0.003  0.009  0.009  2 0 3 
Dominican Republic  7.99 0.133  0.166  0.444  0.545  9 8 10 
Ecuador  1.97 0.044 0.041  0.147  0.134  -6 0 -11 
Egypt  14.01  0.399  0.291  1.336  0.955  -17 -11 -23 
El Salvador  2.42 0.043  0.050  0.144  0.165  5 4 6 
Equatorial Guinea  0.03 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.002  -26 -15 -35 
Eritrea  0.45 0.008  0.009  0.026  0.031  8 8 8 
Ethiopia  2.76 0.055  0.057 0.183  0.188  0 1 -1 
Fiji 1.17 0.023  0.024  0.076  0.079  0 1 -1 
French Polynesia  0.83 0.018  0.017  0.062  0.057  -6 -11 0 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 51 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
chan ge 
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
Gabon  0.31 0.008  0.006  0.027  0.021  -14 -16 -12 
The Gambia  0.18 0.003  0.004  0.010  0.012  9 12 7 
Ghana  5.96 0.039  0.124  0.130  0.406  74 204 -1 
Grenada  0.19 0.004  0.004  0.012  0.013  3 5 1 
Guatemala  2.60 0.053  0.054  0.177  0.177  -2 1 -4 
Guinea  0.19 0.002  0.004  0.007  0.013  34 17 52 
Guinea -Bissau  0.04 0.001  0.001  0.003  0.002  -12 -25 3 
Guyana  0.22 0.004  0.005  0.012  0.015  11 -21 56 
Haiti 0.57 0.013  0.012  0.042  0.039  -6 5 -16 
Honduras  2.68 0.049  0.056  0.163  0.183  4 7 2 
Hong Kong, China  98.34  2.104  2.045  7.045  6.706  -4 -2 -6 
India 161.25  3.084  3.354  10.327  10.997  1 -1 4 
Indonesia  23.47  0.451  0.488  1.511  1.601  1 -6 9 
Iran 9.95 0.184  0.207  0.616 0.678  3 3 3 
Iraq 4.74 0.079  0.099  0.264  0.323  9 53 -23 
Israel  38.88  0.696  0.809  2.331  2.652  5 0 10 
Jamaica  3.19 0.058  0.066  0.193  0.218  5 4 5 
Jordan  6.04 0.130  0.126  0.435  0.412  -4 -10 2 
Kenya  3.16 0.079  0.066  0.266  0.216  -11 -11 -12 
Kiribati  0.01 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  -5 -13 4 
Korea, Dem. People's 
Rep. of  … … … … … … … … 
Korea, Republic of  91.80  2.185  1.909  7.317  6.260  -9 -13 -5 
Kuwait, the State of  4.97 0.112  0.103  0.375  0.339  -7 -4 -9 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  0.86 0.015  0.018  0.050  0.058  7 6 7 
Lebanese Republic  14.25  0.289  0.296  0.969  0.972  -1 6 -9 
Lesotho  0.03 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  13 61 -21 
Liberia  0.05 0.001  0.001  0.005  0.003  -19 -14 -23 
Libya 0.45 0.002  0.009  0.005  0.031  139 … -7 
Macao, China  32.42  0.891  0.674  2.982  2.211  -15 -26 -3 
Madagascar  0.97 0.025  0.020  0.085  0.066  -13 -17 -9 
Malawi  0.09 0.002  0.002  0.007  0.006  -7 6 -19 
Malaysia  33.84  0.827  0.704  2.768  2.308  -10 -18 -2 
Maldives  2.87 0.059  0.060  0.198  0.195  -2 -4 -1 
Mali 0.41 0.008  0.008  0.027  0.028  0 0 0 
Marshall Isla nds 0.00 … … … … … … … 
Mauritania  0.15 0.005  0.003  0.017  0.010  -24 -21 -27 
Mauritius  2.84 0.061  0.059  0.206  0.193  -5 -10 1 
Mexico  24.10  0.415  0.501  1.390  1.643  7 9 5 
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.03 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  -1 -4 2 
Mongolia  0.80 0.012 0.017  0.040  0.054  15 13 16 
Montenegro  1.40 0.027  0.029  0.090  0.095  1 -2 4 
Montserrat  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  2 2 3 
Morocco  14.68  0.304  0.305  1.017  1.001  -2 -9 4 
Mozambique  0.42 0.014  0.009  0.048  0.029  -24 0 -42 
Myanmar  3.91 0.061  0.081  0.205  0.266  12 22 3 
Namibia  0.65 0.020  0.014  0.068  0.044  -20 -11 -29 
Nepal  0.99 0.022  0.021  0.072  0.068  -5 -4 -6 
New Caledonia  0.37 0.008  0.008  0.027  0.025  -5 -10 0 
Nicaragua  1.49 0.026  0.031  0.086  0.101  7 3 11 
Niger  0.24 0.005  0.005  0.018  0.016  -6 -19 9 
Nigeria  3.20 0.029  0.067  0.099  0.218  46 83 17 
Oman  3.46 0.062  0.072  0.206  0.236  5 11 -1 
Pakistan  3.56 0.070  0.074  0.235  0.243  0 -6 7 
Panama  12.22  0.211  0.254  0.707  0.833  7 12 2 
Papua New Guinea  0.08 0.003  0.002  0.012  0.006  -31 -38 -23 
Paraguay  0.79 0.016 0.016  0.054  0.054  -2 -6 2 
Peru 6.15 0.114  0.128  0.382  0.419  3 5 1 
Philippines  31.34  0.502  0.652  1.680  2.137  11 14 8 
Qatar  14.55  0.252  0.303  0.842  0.992  7 10 3 
Rwanda  0.60 0.008  0.012  0.026  0.041  22 47 2 
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.19 0.003  0.004  0.011  0.013  6 8 4 
Saint Lucia  0.46 0.009  0.010  0.029  0.032  2 2 2 
Saint Vincent and the 0.16 0.003  0.003  0.010  0.011  4 3 5 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 52 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
chan ge 
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
Grenadines  
Samoa  0.16 0.004  0.003  0.013  0.011  -10 -8 -12 
Sao Tome and Principe  0.08 0.001  0.002  0.005  0.006  9 11 7 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdo m 
of 15.27  0.236  0.318  0.789  1.041  13 15 11 
Senegal  1.07 0.023  0.022  0.077  0.073  -4 -11 3 
Serbia  5.06 0.099  0.105  0.332  0.345  0 -6 7 
Seychelles  0.88 0.016  0.018  0.054  0.060  3 2 5 
Sierra Leone  0.18 0.004  0.004  0.013  0.012  -5 -15 5 
Singapore  149.36  3.015 3.107  10.096  10.186  -1 -3 1 
Sint Maarten  1.07 0.022  0.022  0.073  0.073  -2 1 -5 
Solomon Islands  0.10 0.002  0.002  0.007  0.007  -4 -9 3 
Somalia  0.26 0.005  0.005  0.017  0.018  1 1 2 
South Africa  13.97  0.324  0.291  1.085  0.953  -8 -11 -5 
South Sudan  0.03 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.002  2 13 -8 
Sri Lanka  7.10 0.110  0.148  0.368  0.485  13 14 12 
Sudan  1.53 0.030  0.032  0.101  0.104  0 7 -7 
Suriname  0.15 0.004  0.003  0.013  0.010  -12 -15 -8 
Swaziland  0.13 0.005  0.003  0.018  0.009  -30 -11 -45 
Syrian Arab Republic  0.12 0.010  0.003 0.032  0.008  -50 -59 -38 
Chinese Taipei  41.11  0.812  0.855  2.717  2.803  0 -1 1 
Tanzania  3.69 0.067  0.077  0.223  0.252  5 10 0 
Thailand  66.13  1.087  1.375  3.639  4.510  9 11 8 
The former Yugoslav of 
Macedonia  1.59 0.034  0.033  0.114  0.109  -4 -12 5 
Timor -Leste 0.06 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.004  0 -7 8 
Togo 0.48 0.009  0.010  0.029  0.033  5 1 9 
Tonga  0.07 0.001  0.002  0.003  0.005  23 22 24 
Trinidad and Tobago  1.08 0.028  0.023  0.092  0.074  -12 -2 -21 
Tunisia  2.96 0.090  0.062  0.300  0.202  -19 -31 -5 
Turkey  37.02  1.005  0.770 3.365  2.524  -15 -10 -20 
Tuvalu  0.00 0.000  0.000  0.000  0.000  -4 -13 5 
Uganda  1.33 0.036  0.028  0.121  0.091  -15 5 -31 
United Arab Emirates  62.52  1.097  1.300  3.672  4.263  6 4 8 
Uruguay  2.97 0.065  0.062  0.218  0.203  -5 -7 -4 
Vanuatu  0.33 0.006  0.007  0.021 0.022  1 -13 18 
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Rep. of  1.40 0.031  0.029  0.103  0.095  -5 -5 -6 
Viet Nam  12.24  0.215  0.255  0.720  0.834  6 2 10 
Yemen  0.15 0.030  0.003  0.099  0.010  -69 -63 -73 
Zambia  0.89 0.017  0.018  0.056  0.060  2 1 3 
Zimbabwe  0.33 0.007  0.007  0.022 0.023  0 2 -2 
Memorandum                  
Developed Economies  3249.64  67.942  67.593  - - -3 -7 1 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States 
(CIS), including 
associate and former 
member States  91.68  2.194  1.907  - - -9 -16 -2 
LDCs (48)  31.88  0.677  0.663  2.268  2.174 -4 -3 -4 
NICS (6)  480.57  10.029  9.996  33.580  32.773  -3 -5 -1 
- Not applicable.  
... Not available.  
Note:  Recent figures for a number of countries and territories have been estimated by the Secretariat.  WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 53 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 4:  COMMERCIAL SERVICES IMPORTS OF DEVELOPING ECONOMIES  AND 
REGIONS, 201 4-2016 
(Billion US$ and %)  
 Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
World  4694.09  100.000  100.000  - - -3 -6 1 
Developing economies  1796. 48 37.993  38.271  100.000  100.000  -2 -5 0 
Latin America and the 
Caribbean  195.51  4.610  4.165  12.134  10.883  -7 -10 -4 
Developing Europe  28.81  0.652  0.614  1.715  1.604  -5 -10 0 
Africa  135.36  3.504  2.884  9.222  7.534  -12 -13 -10 
Middle East  266.57  5.787  5.679 15.233  14.839  -3 -6 -1 
Developing Asia  1170.23  23.440  24.930  61.696  65.140  1 -2 3 
Afghanistan  1.14 0.036  0.024  0.096  0.063  -20 -16 -24 
Albania  1.71 0.041  0.036  0.108  0.095  -8 -19 4 
Algeria  10.32  0.228  0.220  0.599  0.574  -4 -6 -2 
Angola  12.04  0.491  0.257 1.293  0.670  -30 -32 -27 
Anguilla  0.07 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.004  2 4 -1 
Antigua and Barbuda  0.23 0.004  0.005  0.012  0.013  2 0 5 
Argentina  19.45  0.332  0.414  0.874  1.083  9 7 11 
Aruba (the Netherlands 
with respect to)  0.82 0.018  0.018  0.046  0.046  -3 -4 -2 
Bahamas  1.43 0.035  0.030  0.091  0.080  -9 -27 14 
Bahrain, Kingdom of  1.74 0.033  0.037  0.086  0.097  4 5 3 
Bangladesh  8.16 0.150  0.174  0.394  0.454  5 0 11 
Barbados  0.72 0.014  0.015  0.036  0.040  3 7 0 
Belize  0.20 0.004  0.004  0.011  0.011  -2 -3 -1 
Benin  0.70 0.018  0.015  0.047  0.039  -11 -25 6 
Bhutan  0.19 0.004  0.004  0.010  0.011  2 3 1 
Bolivia, Plurinational 
State of  2.74 0.060  0.058  0.159  0.153  -4 -7 -1 
Bosnia and Herzegovina  0.47 0.010  0.010  0.027  0.026  -3 -9 3 
Botswana  0.55 0.014  0.012  0.036  0.030  -10 -21 3 
Brazil  61.45  1.739  1.309  4.578  3.421  -15 -20 -11 
Brunei Darussalam  1.63 0.034  0.035  0.089  0.091  -1 -26 31 
Burkina Faso  1.23 0.026  0.026  0.069  0.068  -3 -11 6 
Burundi  0.18 0.005  0.004  0.013  0.010  -14 -16 -12 
Cabo Verde  0.34 0.007  0.007  0.020  0.019  -4 -17 11 
Cambodia  1.94 0.038  0.041  0.099  0.108  2 1 3 
Cameroon  2.16 0.052  0.046  0.138  0.120  -9 -17 1 
Cayman Islands  1.08 0.022  0.023  0.057  0.060  0 6 -5 
Central African Republic  0.22 0.005  0.005  0.013  0.012  -5 -14 4 
Chad 2.54 0.063  0.054  0.167  0.141  -10 -13 -7 
Chile 13.08  0.300  0.279  0.790  0.728  -6 -8 -4 
China  449.83  8.722  9.583  22.957  25.040  2 1 4 
Colombia  10.66  0.282  0.227  0.741  0.593  -12 -15 -10 
Comoros  0.10 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.006  3 -17 28 
Congo  2.30 0.065  0.049  0.171  0.128  -15 -4 -25 
Costa Rica  3.18 0.052  0.068  0.136  0.177  12 10 13 
Côte d'Ivoire  2.92 0.063  0.062  0.166  0.163  -3 -9 3 
Cuba 2.08 0.042  0.044  0.111  0.116  0 -3 3 
Curaçao  0.89 0.018  0.019  0.047  0.050  0 2 -1 
Democratic Republic of 
the Congo  1.48 0.055  0.032  0.145  0.083  -26 -36 -15 
Djibouti 0.25 0.004  0.005  0.011  0.014  13 25 2 
Dominica  0.10 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.005  1 -3 6 
Dominican Republic  3.15 0.057  0.067  0.151  0.175  6 6 5 
Ecuador  3.11 0.069  0.066  0.182  0.173  -5 -9 0 
Egypt  16.13  0.340  0.344  0.895  0.898  -2 -1 -3 
El Salvador  1.68 0.029 0.036  0.075  0.093  9 5 13 
Equatorial Guinea  2.01 0.056  0.043  0.146  0.112  -14 -12 -16 
Eritrea  0.16 0.002  0.003  0.006  0.009  15 15 15 
Ethiopia  3.58 0.058  0.076  0.152  0.199  12 12 12 
Fiji 0.46 0.012  0.010  0.031  0.025  -12 -11 -13 
French Polynesia  0.41 0.010 0.009  0.026  0.023  -8 -16 1 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 54 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
Gabon  2.01 0.048  0.043  0.126  0.112  -8 -21 8 
The Gambia  0.17 0.002  0.004  0.006  0.009  20 5 37 
Ghana  5.59 0.078  0.119  0.204  0.311  21 69 -14 
Grenada  0.11 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.006  3 5 1 
Guatemala  2.93 0.061  0.062  0.160  0.163  -1 3 -6 
Guinea  0.52 0.012  0.011  0.031  0.029  -6 -9 -2 
Guinea -Bissau  0.13 0.002  0.003  0.006  0.007  8 13 3 
Guyana  0.46 0.009  0.010  0.023  0.025  4 -1 8 
Haiti 0.78 0.017  0.017  0.046  0.043  -5 -11 2 
Honduras  1.72 0.036  0.037  0.093  0.096  -1 0 -2 
Hong Kong, Chin a 74.30  1.494  1.583  3.933  4.136  0 0 0 
India 133.03  2.579  2.834  6.789  7.405  2 -4 8 
Indonesia  30.59  0.670  0.652  1.763  1.703  -4 -7 -1 
Iran 13.91  0.317  0.296  0.836  0.774  -6 -13 1 
Iraq 9.90 0.295  0.211  0.776  0.551  -18 -15 -20 
Israel  23.49  0.450  0.500  1.184  1.308  3 0 6 
Jamaica  2.07 0.044  0.044  0.116  0.115  -3 -4 -1 
Jordan  4.34 0.092  0.092  0.243  0.241  -2 -3 -2 
Kenya  2.72 0.055  0.058  0.144  0.151  0 -19 24 
Kiribati  0.05 0.001  0.001  0.002  0.003  6 10 3 
Korea, Dem. People's 
Rep. of  … … … … … … … … 
Korea, Repub lic of 109.05  2.323  2.323  6.115  6.070  -3 -3 -2 
Kuwait, the State of  25.42  0.452  0.542  1.190  1.415  7 -1 15 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  0.59 0.010  0.013  0.026  0.033  10 18 2 
Lebanese Republic  12.40  0.265  0.264  0.698  0.690  -3 2 -7 
Lesotho  0.26 0.006  0.005  0.016  0.014  -9 -4 -13 
Liberia  0.20 0.008  0.004  0.021  0.011  -30 -27 -32 
Libya 3.85 0.132  0.082  0.346  0.214  -23 -37 -5 
Macao, China  3.83 0.076  0.082  0.199  0.213  1 -6 9 
Madagascar  0.91 0.022  0.019  0.058  0.051  -8 -11 -6 
Malawi  0.22 0.005  0.005  0.013  0.012  -5 8 -16 
Malaysia  39.09  0.914  0.833  2.405  2.176  -7 -12 -2 
Maldives  0.99 0.016  0.021  0.042  0.055  12 11 13 
Mali 1.39 0.024  0.030  0.063  0.077  9 -2 21 
Marshall Islands  0.00 … … … … … … … 
Mauritania  0.63 0.017  0.013  0.045  0.035  -14 -29 5 
Mauritius  2.04 0.049  0.043  0.129  0.113  -8 -10 -7 
Mexico  29.50  0.614  0.628  1.617  1.642  -1 -3 0 
Micronesia, Federated 
States of  0.07 0.001  0.001  0.004  0.004  -4 -10 2 
Mongolia  1.92 0.038  0.041  0.100  0.107  1 -26 39 
Montenegro  0.52 0.009  0.011  0.023  0.029  9 5 13 
Montserrat  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  1 -1 3 
Morocco  7.36 0.158  0.157  0.416  0.409  -3 -11 5 
Mozambique  3.17 0.073  0.068  0.193  0.177  -6 -18 6 
Myanmar  3.94 0.046  0.084  0.120  0.219  32 8 61 
Namibia  0.80 0.023  0.017  0.060  0.045  -15 -11 -19 
Nepal  1.24 0.024  0.026  0.063  0.069  3 1 5 
New Caledonia  1.30 0.026  0.028  0.069  0.072  0 -3 3 
Nicaragua  1.03 0.020  0.022  0.053  0.057  2 -9 14 
Niger  1.03 0.021  0.022  0.055  0.057  0 -7 6 
Nigeria  11.89  0.467  0.253  1.229  0.662  -28 -19 -36 
Oman  8.34 0.202  0.178  0.531  0.464  -9 1 -17 
Pakist an 7.44 0.162  0.158  0.425  0.414  -3 -4 -3 
Panama  4.34 0.092  0.093  0.242  0.242  -2 0 -4 
Papua New Guinea  0.77 0.046  0.016  0.120  0.043  -42 -41 -42 
Paraguay  1.06 0.022  0.023  0.058  0.059  -1 -1 -1 
Peru 7.79 0.152  0.166  0.401  0.433  2 4 0 
Philippines  23.88  0.417 0.509  1.098  1.329  8 13 2 
Qatar  29.73  0.608  0.633  1.599  1.655  0 -5 5 
Rwanda  0.96 0.010  0.020  0.028  0.053  36 72 8 
Saint Kitts and Nevis  0.16 0.003  0.003  0.007  0.009  11 17 5 
Saint Lucia  0.18 0.004  0.004  0.010  0.010  -1 -1 -1 
Saint Vincent and the 0.09 0.002  0.002  0.005  0.005  0 -3 3 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 55 - 
 
   Value  Share in world  Share in 
developing 
economies  Annual percentage 
change  
 2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014 -
16 2015  2016  
Grena dines 
Samoa  0.08 0.001  0.002  0.004  0.004  5 -3 13 
Sao Tome and Principe  0.05 0.002  0.001  0.004  0.003  -16 -20 -12 
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom 
of 50.97  1.269  1.086  3.340  2.837  -10 -11 -8 
Senegal  1.34 0.029  0.029  0.075  0.075  -3 -10 5 
Serbia  4.03 0.089  0.086  0.233  0.225  -4 -11 4 
Seychelles  0.50 0.010  0.011  0.027  0.028  0 -1 2 
Sierra Leone  0.48 0.024  0.010  0.064  0.027  -37 -58 -5 
Singapore  155.36  3.223  3.310  8.483  8.648  -1 -3 1 
Sint Maarten  0.29 0.006  0.006  0.016  0.016  -1 -5 3 
Solomon Islands  0.21 0.004  0.004  0.012  0.012  -2 -19 19 
Somalia  1.24 0.025  0.026  0.067  0.069  0 -4 4 
South Africa  14.55  0.337  0.310  0.886  0.810  -6 -9 -4 
South Sudan  0.36 0.010  0.008  0.025  0.020  -13 -12 -14 
Sri Lanka  6.13 0.113  0.131  0.298  0.341  5 5 4 
Sudan  1.43 0.039  0.030  0.102  0.080  -14 -13 -14 
Suriname  0.56 0.016  0.012  0.043  0.031  -16 -11 -22 
Swaziland  0.31 0.013  0.007  0.033  0.017  -30 -11 -44 
Syrian Arab Republic  2.49 0.057  0.053  0.150  0.139  -6 -7 -5 
Chinese Taipei  51.74  1.029  1.102  2.708  2.880  1 0 2 
Tanzania  2.03 0.053  0.043  0.139  0.113  -12 1 -22 
Thailand  41.88  0.910  0.892  2.395  2.331  -3 -6 -1 
The former Yugoslav of 
Macedonia  1.13 0.024  0.024  0.064  0.063  -3 -6 1 
Timor -Leste  0.44 0.007  0.009  0.019  0.025  11 5 18 
Togo 0.40 0.009  0.008  0.023  0.022 -4 -13 6 
Tonga  0.08 0.002  0.002  0.004  0.005  3 -9 16 
Trinidad and Tobago  2.03 0.041  0.043  0.107  0.113  0 11 -9 
Tunisia  2.67 0.063  0.057  0.166  0.149  -7 -11 -4 
Turkey  20.43  0.467  0.435  1.229  1.137  -6 -10 -2 
Tuvalu  0.02 0.000  0.000  0.001  0.001  13 7 20 
Uganda  2.25 0.054  0.048  0.143  0.125  -9 1 -17 
United Arab Emirates  82.04  1.674  1.748  4.407  4.567  0 -4 3 
Uruguay  2.22 0.064  0.047  0.168  0.124  -16 -19 -13 
Vanuatu  0.15 0.003  0.003  0.008  0.009  4 24 -13 
Venezuela, Bolivarian 
Rep. of  12.07  0.326  0.257  0.858  0.672  -13 -14 -13 
Viet Nam  18.30  0.300  0.390  0.789  1.018  11 10 12 
Yemen  0.88 0.055  0.019  0.144  0.049  -43 -54 -29 
Zambia  1.34 0.032  0.029  0.085  0.075  -8 -13 -3 
Zimbabwe  1.33 0.038  0.028  0.101  0.074  -16 -23 -10 
Memorandum                  
Developed Eco nomies  2782.72  58.534  59.281  - - -2 -6 2 
Commonwealth of 
Independent States 
(CIS), including 
associate and former 
member States  114.88  3.473  2.447  - - -18 -24 -12 
LDCs (48)  64.76  1.660  1.380  4.369  3.605  -11 -16 -6 
NICS (6)  471.41  9.893  10.043  26.039  26.241 -2 -3 0 
- Not applicable.  
... Not available.  
Note:  Recent figures for a number of countries and territories have been estimated by the Secretariat.  
 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 56 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 5:  CHANGES IN EXPORT PRICES OF PRI MARY COMMODITIES , 2014-2016 
(Annual % change, in ter ms of US$)  
 2014 -16 2015  2016   2014 -16 2015  2016  
Food and beverages  -8 -16 1 Agricultural raw 
materials  -10  -13  -6  
Food -8  -17  2  Timber  -4  -4  -4  
Cereals  -23  -32  -12  Cotton  -5  -15  5  
Wheat  -23  -23  -23  Wool 0  -9  10  
Maize  -9  -12  -6  Rubber  -8  -20  5  
Rice -5  -11  2  Hides and skins  -18  -20  -15  
Barley  -6  -12  1         
Vegetable oils & 
protein meals  -10  -20  2  Minerals and non -
ferrous metals a -15  -23  -5  
Meat -4  1  -8  Copper  -16  -20  -12  
Beef -11  -10  -11  Alumini um -7  -11  -4  
Lamb  -10  -17  -1  Iron ore  -22  -42  4  
Swine meat  -22  -34  -8  Tin -10  -27  12  
Poultry  1  4  -3  Nickel  -25  -30  -19  
Seafood  0  -19  23  Zinc -2  -11  8  
Fish 4  -20  35  Lead -6  -15  4  
Shrimp  -18  -15  -22  Uranium  -11  10  -28  
Sugar  2  -19  29         
Bananas  4  3  5  Energy  -33  -45  -18  
Oranges  7  -14  32  Natural gas  -34  -33  -34  
Beverages  -4  -3  -5  Crude petroleum  -34  -47  -18  
Coffee  -8  -17  1  Coal -4  -19  14  
Cocoa beans  -3  2  -8         
Tea 10  43  -16  All primary 
commodities  -24  -35  -11  
a Excluding crude petroleum.  
 
 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 57 - 
 
  APPENDIX TABLE 6: NETWORK OF DEVELOPIN G ECONOMIES MERCHAND ISE TRADE BY PRODUCT  
AND REGION, 201 4-2016 
(Billion US$)  
 Destinations  
Reporter 
(origin)  World  Developed 
economies  Develo ping economies  
Total  Developing 
Asia Other  
product  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  
Developing economies  
Agricultural 
products  666.6  620.7  260.1  244.7  381.1  357.8  216.7  212.7  164.4  145.1  
Food 572.9  539.0  224.3  215.6  324.9  306.7  171.0 170.7  153.9  136.0  
Fuels and 
mining products  1992.7  1036.6  747.4  356.3  1163.1  617.1  926.9  494.9  236.2  122.1  
Fuels 1706.1  807.7  636.6  272.2  990.5  474.7  790.0  379.9  200.5  94.8 
Non-fuel 
minerals  286.6  228.8  110.8  84.2 172.6  142.3  136.9  115.0  35.8 27.3 
Manufactures  5137.5  4649.2  2422.9  2271.4  2559.0  2274.2  1643.6  1536.9  915.5  737.3  
Iron and steel  189.1  140.0  66.3 43.2 118.4  94.0 66.3 56.3 52.1 37.6 
Office & 
telecom 
equipment  1229.9  1137.9  573.5  513.5  638.4  614.8  528.3  535.8  110.1  79.0 
Automotive 
produc ts 347.0  332.3  189.2  206.4  142.7  119.0  44.2 42.7 98.6 76.3 
Textiles  210.1  192.7  73.0 68.9 128.0  117.7  74.0 72.5 54.0 45.2 
Clothing  341.2  313.3  239.6  224.6  81.6 73.5 32.9 28.5 48.7 45.0 
Total 
merchandise  8066.9  6583.6  3485.3  2937.1  4191.6  3321.5  2837.8  2285.2  1353.8  1036.2  
           
Latin America and the Caribbean  
Agricultural 
products  238.8  225.1  105.4  101.9  122.9  116.1  58.5 58.8 64.3 57.3 
Food 217.2  205.0  94.9 92.5 112.7  106.2  51.0 51.4 61.7 54.8 
Fuels and 
mining products  325.5  172.2  158.3  73.7 164.5 97.3 106.9  67.0 57.6 30.3 
Fuels 213.2  86.7 114.1  42.1 96.8 43.8 52.1 21.4 44.7 22.5 
Non-fuel 
minerals  112.3  85.5 44.2 31.6 67.7 53.5 54.8 45.7 12.9 7.8 
Manufactures  487.9  459.7  353.7  351.0  132.9  107.8  18.6 16.8 114.3  91.0 
Iron and steel  21.4 14.2 12.9 7.7 8.4 6.5 2.1 1.7 6.3 4.8 
Office & 
telecom 
equipment  69.6 63.9 61.0 57.7 8.5 6.2 3.1 2.4 5.5 3.7 
Automotive 
products  113.5  113.9  85.2 91.8 28.1 22.0 2.8 1.9 25.2 20.1 
Textiles  6.5 5.7 2.7 2.7 3.8 2.9 0.1 0.1 3.6 2.8 
Clothing  19.3 18.0 15.6 15.2 3.7 2.8 0.1 0.1 3.6 2.7 
Total 
merchandise  1083.8  886.0  640.1  549.0  422.4  324.3  185.0  144.2  237.4  180.2  
           
Developing Europe  
Agricultural 
products  23.4 21.7 9.7 9.4 10.7 10.3 0.8 0.9 9.9 9.5 
Food 22.0 20.4 8.8 8.6 10.3 9.9 0.7 0.7 9.6 9.1 
Fuels and 
mining products  16.5 11.1 7.9 5.2 7.4 5.2 2.6 2.1 4.8 3.1 
Fuels 8.1 4.2 3.6 1.6 3.8 2.3 0.3 0.3 3.5 2.0 
Non-fuel 
minerals  8.5 6.9 4.3 3.6 3.6 2.9 2.3 1.8 1.2 1.1 
Manufactures  139.8  126.1  78.9 78.4 43.4 37.9 3.4 3.5 40.0 34.4 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 58 - 
 
   Destinations  
Reporter 
(origin)  World  Developed 
economies  Develo ping economies  
Total  Developing 
Asia Other  
product  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  
Iron and steel  12.5 8.5 4.7 3.7 7.1 4.4 0.4 0.2 6.7 4.2 
Office & 
telecom 
equipment  2.7 2.2 2.1 1.7 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.3 
Automotive 
products  19.8 21.4 16.1 18.5 2.5 2.4 0.1 0.1 2.5 2.3 
Textiles  12.9 11.3 6.9 6.8 3.9 3.6 0.5 0.5 3.4 3.1 
Clothing  18.5 16.8 14.9 12.9 2.5 2.9 0.1 0.2 2.4 2.7 
Total 
merchandise  186.2  169.8  100.3  99.3 63.7 57.7 7.4 7.0 56.3 50.7 
           
Africa  
Agricultural 
products  60.5 59.0 25.7 26.2 33.3 31.6 12.0 10.7 21.4 20.9 
Food 49.0 49.8 21.1 22.8 26.5 25.9 6.8 6.3 19.7 19.5 
Fuels and 
mining prod ucts 340.1  160.5  173.3  75.9 155.0  78.0 104.4  51.2 50.6 26.8 
Fuels 289.9  123.8  147.8  58.0 130.6  59.5 85.6 37.3 45.1 22.2 
Non-fuel 
minerals  50.2 36.7 25.5 17.9 24.3 18.4 18.8 13.9 5.6 4.5 
Manufactures  115.7  103.7  57.8 49.9 56.1 52.0 10.7 9.8 45.5 42.2 
Iron and steel  8.4 6.9 3.2 2.2 5.1 4.7 2.1 2.2 3.0 2.5 
Office & 
telecom 
equipment  4.1 3.7 1.4 1.4 2.6 2.2 0.5 0.4 2.1 1.8 
Automotive 
products  11.4 13.6 7.4 9.7 3.9 3.8 0.5 0.5 3.4 3.3 
Textiles  4.0 3.3 2.4 1.9 1.5 1.4 0.1 0.1 1.5 1.3 
Clothing  9.9 8.9 8.9 7.8 1.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 
Total 
merchandise  553.1  348.2  265.4  162.0  269.6  174.8  140.4  74.3 129.2  100.4  
           
Middle East  
Agricultural 
products  26.7 21.5 3.1 2.8 21.8 17.8 3.7 2.5 18.1 15.3 
Food 24.9 20.1 2.6 2.3 20.7 16.9 3.2 2.2 17.4 14.8 
Fuels and 
mining products  833.9  403.5  279.9  126.4  495.6  224.4  427.1  188.0  68.5 36.4 
Fuels 811.4  383.9  275.3  121.6  478.9  210.4  418.2  180.9  60.6 29.5 
Non-fuel 
minerals  22.5 19.6 4.6 4.8 16.7 14.0 8.9 7.1 7.8 6.9 
Manufactures  292.0  210.3  76.1 65.8 196.8  134.6  78.7 62.2 118.1  72.4 
Iron and steel  6.4 5.2 0.9 1.1 5.1 3.9 0.8 0.4 4.3 3.5 
Office & 
telecom 
equipment  43.3 14.6 4.4 3.8 32.7 9.6 7.4 5.0 25.3 4.5 
Automotive 
products  18.1 10.7 0.9 0.8 14.2 8.7 2.2 2.1 12.0 6.6 
Textiles  4.5 4.0 1.1 1.0 3.2 2.8 0.5 0.4 2.7 2.4 
Clothing  4.4 3.7 1.7 1.7 2.5 1.9 0.1 0.1 2.4 1.8 
Total 
merchandise  1286.4  775.5  366.5  199.8  726.5  383.9  516.1  256.5  210.5  127.4  
           
Developing Asia  
Agricultural 
products  317.2  293.4  116.2  104.5  192.4  181.9  141.6  139.8  50.7 42.1 
Food 259.8 243.8  96.9 89.4 154.8  147.8  109.2  110.1  45.5 37.7 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 59 - 
 
   Destinations  
Reporter 
(origin)  World  Developed 
economies  Develo ping economies  
Total  Developing 
Asia Other  
product  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  2014  2016  
Fuels and 
mining products  476.7  289.3  128.0  75.2 340.7  212.1  285.9  186.6  54.8 25.5 
Fuels 383.5  209.2  95.8 48.9 280.4  158.6  233.8  140.1  46.6 18.6 
Non-fuel 
minerals  93.2 80.2 32.2 26.3 60.3 53.5 52.1 46.5 8.3 7.0 
Manufactures  4102.0  3749.4  1856.5  1726.3  2129.8  1941.9  1532.2  1444.6  597.6  497.3  
Iron and steel  140.4  105.1  44.6 28.6 92.6 74.5 60.9 51.9 31.8 22.7 
Office & 
telecom 
equipment  1110.2  1053.5  504.6  448.9  594.0  596.4  517.2  527.7  76.8 68.7 
Automotive 
products  184.3  172.7  79.6 85.7 94.0 82.0 38.5 38.1 55.5 44.0 
Textiles  182.3  168.5  59.9 56.5 115.6  107.0  72.8 71.4 42.8 35.6 
Clothing  289.0  265.8  198.5  186.9  71.9 64.9 32.6 28.2 39.3 36.7 
Total 
merchandise  4957.5  4404.0  2113.1  1927.0  2709.3  2380.7  1988.9  1803.2  720.4  577.5  
           
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
 WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 60 - 
 
  APPENDIX 7: COMPOSIT ION OF REPORTER AND PARTNER GROUPS  
DEVELOPING ECONOMIES include  
 
Latin America (including the Caribbean):  
 
 Mexico (classified within North America in the International  Trade Statistics 
publication);  
 Central America : Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and 
Panama;  
 South America : Argentina ; Bolivia, Plurinational State of;  Brazil ; Chile ; Colombia ; 
Ecuador ; Guyana ; Paraguay ; Peru ; Suriname ; Urug uay; Venezuela, Bolivarian Rep ublic  
of; 
 The Caribbean: Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba  (the Netherlands with respect to) , 
Bahamas, Barbados, Cayman Islands; Cuba, Curaçao , Dominica, Dominican Republic, 
Grenada, Haiti, Jamaic a, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint  Lucia , Sint Maarten , Saint Vincent 
and the Grenadines; and Trinidad and Tobago.  
 Other countries and territories in Latin America n.e.s.  
 
Developing Europe :  
 
Albania;  Bosnia and Herzegovina;  Montenegro;  Serbia;  the former Yugoslav Republic of 
Macedonia and Turk ey. 
 
Africa :  
 
 North Africa : Algeria, Egypt, Libya , Morocco and Tunisia.  
 Sub-Saharan Africa : Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cameroon; Cape 
Verde; Central African Republic; Chad; Congo;  Comoros; Côte d'Ivoire; Democratic 
Republic of the Con go; Djibouti; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Gabon;  the 
Gambia; Ghana; Guinea; Guinea -Bissau; Kenya; Lesotho;  Liberia; Madagascar; Mali; 
Malawi; Mauritania; Mauritius; Mozambique;  Namibia;  Niger; Nigeria; Rwanda;  Sao 
Tome and Principe; Senegal; Seyc helles; Sierra Leone; Somalia; South Africa;  
South  Sudan;  Sudan; Swaziland;  Tanzania,  United Republic of ; Togo; Uganda;  Zambia;  
and Zimbabwe . 
 
Middle East :  
 
Bahrain, Kingdom of;  Iraq;  Iran;  Israel;  Jordan;  Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of; Kuwait, the 
State of ; Leban ese Republic ; Oman;  Qatar;  Syrian Arab Republic; United Arab Emirates;  
and Yemen.  
 
Developing Asia :  
 
Afghanistan; Bangladesh; Bhutan; Brunei Darussal am; Cambodia; China; Fiji; Hong  Kong 
Special Administrative Region of China (Hong Kong, China); India;  Indonesia; Kiribati; 
Korea, Republic of ; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Maldives; Macau, China; 
Malaysia; Micronesia, Federated States of; Mongolia; Myanmar; Nepal; Pakistan; Papua 
New Guinea; Philippines; Samoa; Singapore; Solomon Islands; Sri  Lanka; Separate 
Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei); Thailand; WT/COMTD/W/230  
 
- 61 - 
 
  Tonga; Tuvalu; V anuatu; Viet Nam;  and other countries and territories in Asia and the 
Pacific n.e.s.  
 
THE LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (LDCs) include:  
 
Afghanistan, Ango la, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, 
Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, 
Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea -Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, Lao 
People's Democrat ic Republic, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi,  Mali, Mauritania, 
Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Niger, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra 
Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan,  Sudan, Timor -Leste, Togo, Tuvalu, 
Uganda, United Republic o f Tanzania, Vanuatu, Yemen and Zambia.  
 
Note: the LDCs is a sub -group of developing economies  in the report . 
 
 
DEVELOPED ECONOMIES include:  
 
North America (excluding Mexico for this report):  
 
Bermuda, Canada, United States of America, and territories in No rth America n.e.s.  
 
Developed Europe : 
 
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, 
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, 
Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Polan d, Portugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, 
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and territories in Europe n.e.s.  
 
Developed Asia : 
 
Australia, Japan and New Zealand.  
 
 
THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES including associate and former member  
States (CIS) include:  
 
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, Russian 
Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.  
 
 
THE NICs (6) or "Six East -Asian traders" include:  
 
Hong Kong, China; the Republic o f Korea; Malaysia; Singapore; Separate Customs 
Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei ); and Thailand . 
 
__________