WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
23 October 2014  
(14-6110)  Page: 1/67  
Sub-Committee on Least-Developed Countries    
 
 MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST 
TO LEAST-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents 
1  INTRODUC TION ........................................................................................................... 4  
2  LDCS' TRADE PROFILE .................................................................................................. 5  
2.1  Trends in Goods an d Commercial Services ..................................................................... 5  
2.2  Merchandise Trade Developments ................................................................................ 10 
2.2.1  Commodity price movements ................................................................................... 10 
2.2.2  Trends in pr oduct comp osition .................................................................................. 12 
2.2.3  Geographic dive rsification of trade ............................................................................ 14 
2.2.4  Major markets and their imports structure .................................................................. 16 
2.2.5  Differentiation by export specialization ....................................................................... 18 
2.3  Developments in Trade in Commercial Services .............................................................. 20 
2.4  Trade Balance in Goods and Se rvices ........................................................................... 28 
2.4.1  Merchandis e trade balance ....................................................................................... 30 
2.4.2  Trade balance in  commercial services ........................................................................ 33 
3  TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PROD UCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS ............ 36  
3.1  Market Access in Developed Ec onomies ........................................................................ 36 
3.2  Market Access in Developing Economies ........................................................................ 43 
3.3  Non-Tariff Measures affectin g Market Access fo r LDC exports ........................................... 48 
4  RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS FOR LDC PRODUCTS ................. 50  
5  CONCLU SION ............................................................................................................. 51  
ANNEX ......................................................................................................................... .. 52 
 
                                               
1 This document has been prepared under the Secret ariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice 
to the positions of Members or to thei r rights and obligations under the WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
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  List of Tables 
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of good s and commercial servic es, 2000-2013 (BOP) ................. 6  
Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 1980-2013  (Billion 
dollars and pe rcentage) ..................................................................................................... 7  
Table 3: Export prices of pr imary commodities, 2000-2013 .................................................... 11 
Table 4: Top 20 export products of  LDCs by market  share,  2013 ............................................ 13 
Table 5: Product composition of LD C exports by dest ination, 2000-20 13 .................................. 15 
Table 6: LDCs' merchandise trade by export specialization, 2000-2013 .................................... 18 
Table 7: Product composition of  African LDC ex ports, 2000-20 13 ............................................ 19 
Table 8: Product composition of  Asian LDC expo rts, 2000 -2013 .............................................. 19 
Table 9: LDCs' commercial services exports by category, 2000-2013 ....................................... 21 
Table 10: Coverage ratios of mercha ndise trade of th e LDCs, 2000- 2013 ................................. 30 
Table 11: LDCs' merchandise trade ba lance by product groups, 2 000-20 13 .............................. 32 
Table 12: LDCs' commercial services trade balance by broad service sector, 2000-2013 ............. 33 
Table 13: Coverage ratios of commercial services trade of the LDCs, 2000-2013 ....................... 34 
Table 14: Proportion of developed-country imports from developing countries and LDCs 
admitted free of duty, by value, 1996-2012 (excluding arms and oil)  ...................................... 37 
Table 15: Average tariffs levied by developed countries on key products from developing 
countries and LDCs, 2000- 2012 ......................................................................................... 39 
Table 16: GSP tariff treatment of LDC export s in selected develo ped market s, 2012 .................. 41 
Table 17: Average tariffs imposed by selected developing countries on key products from 
LDCs, 2002-2012 (preliminary estimates)  ........................................................................... 43 
Table 18: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing markets, 2012 ....................... 45 
Table 19: Non-Tariff Measures on selected pr oducts of export inte rest to LD Cs, 2013 ................ 49 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
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List of Charts 
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of good s and commercial services, 2000-2013  Index, 
2000=100)  ..................................................................................................................... . 5 
Chart 2: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies 
(Indices, 200 0=100) ......................................................................................................... 6  
Chart 3: Concentration indices (Herfindahl-Hirschmann) of merchandise exports of 
selected region s, 1995-201 3 .............................................................................................. 8  
Chart 4: Share of top three LDC products in  their total merchandis e exports, 2013 .................... 9  
Chart 5: Share of commercial services  in total exports by LDCs, 2013 ...................................... 9  
Chart 6: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2013 .................................................... 10 
Chart 7: Composition of LDC merchandise exports by major product group, 2000 and 2013  
(Percent age) .................................................................................................................. . 12 
Chart 8: Evolution of merchandise ex port structure of LDCs, 2000 an d 2013  ............................ 14 
Chart 9: LDC merchandise exports by destination,  2000 and 2013 .......................................... 15 
Chart 10: Top 20 markets for LDC me rchandise export s, 2000 an d 2013 ................................. 17 
Chart 11: Commercial services export s by economic gr ouping, 2000- 2013 ............................... 20 
Chart 12: LDC exports by ma in service se ctor, 2013 ............................................................. 23 
Chart 13: Estimated structure of LDC commerc ial services exports by region, 2013 ................... 24 
Chart 14: International tourist arrivals to LDCs by region  of orig in, 2011 ................................. 25 
Chart 15: Cambodia: International tourist arrivals and travel exports, 2000-2013  ..................... 25 
Chart 16: Estimated structure of LDC transport exports by kind of transport service and by 
mode of tran sport, 2012 ................................................................................................... 26 
Chart 17: Liner Shipping Connectivity Index (LSCI) in selected LDCs ....................................... 26 
Chart 18: Mobile cellular subscriptions, internet users and communications services 
exports in LD Cs, 2005-20 13 .............................................................................................. 27 
Chart 19: Trade balance of goods & commercial services (BOP), as a percentage of GDP, 
2013 .............................................................................................................................. 30 
Chart 20: Trade balance of goods (BOP ), as a percentage  of GDP,  2013 .................................. 33 
Chart 21: Trade balance of services (BOP) as a percentage of GDP in selected LDCs, 2013 ......... 35 
Chart 22: Share of agricultural and clothing  duty free imports by developed economies 
originating from LDCs and comparison with tota l developing countries  (Percentage shares) ....... 37 
Chart 23: Share of export value imported duty  free by developed economies originating for 
individual LDCs, 1996-2012 (Percentage shares ) .................................................................. 38 
Chart 24: Number of bilateral NTMs faced by LDCs (all market s of destination) ......................... 48 
 
List of Annex Tables 
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and import s of LDCs by selected country grouping, 
2013 .............................................................................................................................. 52 
Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities , 2000 – 2014,  Q2 .................................. 54 
Annex Table 3: Leading merchandise exports of LDCs in 2013a ............................................... 56 
Annex Table 4: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2000-2013 ............... 60 
Annex Table 5: Coverage ratios of impo rts by exports of the LDCs, 2000-2013  ......................... 62 
Annex Table 6: Exports of commercial serv ices of the LDCs by catego ry, 2013 ......................... 64 
Annex Table 7: Major multilateral non-reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Membersa ....................................................................................................................... 65 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
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  1  INTRODUCTION 
1.1.  This Note prepared by the Secretariat respon ds to paragraph 8 of the WTO Work Programme 
for Least-Developed Countries (LDCs), which mand ates an annual review of market access for 
products originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11/Rev.1). It builds on previous Secretariat 
studies by updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditions. This 
year's edition gives a special focus on LDC trade in commercial services, and introduces new statistics on non-tariff measures (NTMs). 
1.2.  The Note is divided into four main parts, in addition to this introduction. Chapter 2, on trade 
profile, provides a description of the recent tr ends of LDCs' trade flows, both in goods and 
commercial services. It includes an analysis of LDC exports by main products and market destinations and specific information on trade in services. Chapter 3 is devoted to market access 
conditions facing LDC exports. Chapter 4 covers recent initiatives to improve market access for 
LDCs' products. A concluding section summarizes the findings of the Note, while a series of annex 
tables provide Members with additional background  information and references. The Note does not 
attempt to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition market access for LDCs' 
products. It should therefore be read in conjuncti on with previous Secretariat notes prepared on 
this topic, to gauge the different factors that determine market access for LDCs. 
1.3.  A few words of caution are required about the statistical coverage of LDCs, which is 
characterized by its incompleteness and often not the most up to date despite improvements in the production of national data. The Secretariat ha s been using reported national figures whenever 
available; however, in many instances, it is still necessary to rely on mirror statistics i.e. data 
reported by LDCs' trading partners. The disadvantage of using mirror data is that it does not allow 
taking into consideration intra-trade among the LDCs, as well as trade with non-reporting developing economies.  
1.4.  For the sake of statistical coherence (most rece nt reference year 2013), this Note still refers 
to Samoa as part of the LDCs even though Samoa graduated from LDC status as of the start of 2014. Due to non-availability of national data, South Sudan is not covered adequately in this Note. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
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  2  LDCS' TRADE PROFILE 
2.1  Trends in Goods and Commercial Services 
2.1.  In 2013, the LDC exports of goods and commercial services rebounded (by 5.2%) after a 
decrease in the previous year (-1.6%), reaching an overall high value of US$250.0 billion in 2013 
(US$237.7 billion in 2012). Over the 2000-2013-peri od, LDC exports grew by an annual average 
of 14.8%, markedly higher than the 11.2% aver age for other developing economies (excluding 
LDCs). LDCs' imports of goods and commercial services increased by 6.6% in 2013 (versus 9.2% 
in 2012) to US$310.6 billion (US$291.3 billion in 2 012). As imports increased more than exports, 
the overall trade deficit of LDCs also increased du ring this period, from US$ 53.6 billion in 2012 to 
US$ 60.6 billion in 2013. 
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2000-2013  
Index, 2000=100)   
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.2.  Prices for primary commodities decreased in 2013 (-2.7%), in particular petroleum/minerals 
and non-ferrous metals (-3.0% and -4.3%, respecti vely). Yet, LDC export s of fuels and mining 
products still showed an increase of 1.6% in valu e terms - thanks to an increase in trade volume. 
Similarly, exports of agricultural products increa sed by 6.6%, even though prices of food and non-
food agricultural raw materials did not change much (-0.1% and 1.8% respectively) in 2013. 
Exports of manufactured products expanded by 14. 3%, thus more markedly than world trade for 
this product group (3.2%). Exports of commercial services increased at a rate of 13.4%, while 
sales of other products grew at 7.7% (see Chart 1). 
2.3.  In volume terms, LDC exports grew by 8.8%  while their imports expanded by 9.4%, the 
highest increase recorded since 2008. In compar ison to 2000, exports more than doubled while 
imports almost tripled (see Chart 2). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
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  Chart 2: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies 
(Indices, 2000=100)  
50100150200250300
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013LDCs exports LDCs imports LDC trade other developing  economies'  trade
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. LDCs' data are computed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD. 
 
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of g oods and commercial services, 2000-2013 (BOP) 
(Billion dollars and percentage)  
  Values  Annual rate of growth 
  
2000 
2013 
2005 
2006 
2007 
2008 
2009 
2010 
2011 
2012 
2013 
2000-2013 
Total goods and 
commercial 
services 41.5 250.0 32.2 23.3 26.9 37.5 -23.9  27.5 23.0 -1.6 5.2 14.8 
Total goods 35.8 218.3 34.9 24.2  26.7 38.5 -26.8  28.9 23.4 -2.7 4.1 14.9  
Fuels and 
Mining 16.0 127.0 56.3 30.4 30.1 39.3 -32.9  28.4 25.1 -1.6 1.6 17.3 
Other 
goods 19.8 91.3 12.9 15.4  21.2 37.2 -16.1  29.6 21.1 -4.3 7.7 12.5  
Commercial 
services 5.7 31.7 11.3 15.0 29.1 27.6 7.1 16.9 19.4 8.0 13.4 14.1 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.4.  In 2013, LDCs' integration in global trade impr oved as the total value of their imports and 
exports of goods and commercial services grew 6%, more than twice the world average (2.6%). 
The share of LDCs in world trade increased from 1.19% in 2012 to 1.23% in 2013. The 
contribution of LDCs in world trade in goods is now more than double (1.24%) that that of 2000 
when their share was only 0.58%. The share of LD Cs in world trade of commercial services also 
increased from 0.64% in 2000 to 1.18% in 2013.  
2.5.  While LDCs' total trade in goods increased by 6.1% in 2013, well above the 3.7% posted in 
2012, their exports of goods increased much less (4.1%) than their imports (8.0%), leading to a higher trade deficit. A contrasting situation was ob served for total trade in commercial services. It 
increased by 4.1%, almost double the rate of th e world average (2.2%), due mainly to a strong 
growth in LDC exports (13.4%, more than double  of the world average of 5.6%) while imports 
grew by only 2.4%.  
  
  WT/COM TD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 7 - Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 1980-2013  
(Billion dollars and percentage) 
 Value Annual 
percentage 
change 
 1980 1990  1995  2000  2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2000-2013 
Total trade in goods and commercial servicesa               
   World 2304 4199 6231 7885 12782 14673 17064 19608 15663 18663 22090 22319 22898 8.5 
   LDC 48 57 73 94 204 243 308 418 350 413 508 529 561 14.7 
     Share in world 1.05 0.68 0.59 0.59 0.80 0.83 0.90 1.07 1.12 1.11 1.15 1.19 1.23 ... 
Total trade in goodsa               
   World 1919 3393 5047 6408 10331 11917 13766 15867 12268 14942 17914 18034 18385 8.4 
   LDC 39 45 57 75 168 202 254 345 280 336 414 429 455 14.9 
     Share in world 1.02 0.66 0.56 0.58 0.81 0.85 0.92 1.09 1.14 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.24 ... 
Total trade in commercial servicesa               
   World 385 806 1184 1478 2450 2756 3298 3741 3394 3721 4176 4285 4513 9.0 
   LDC 9 12 16 19 35 41 54 73 70 77 94 100 105 14.1 
     Share in world 1.19 0.74 0.69 0.64 0.73 0.75 0.83 0.99 1.04 1.05 1.15 1.18 1.18 ... 
Goods exports               
   World 1940 3418 5103 6406 10349 11972 13854 15934 12375 15085 18087 18204 18609 8.5 
   LDC 16 19 25 36 85 105 134 185 136 175 216 210 218 14.9 
     Share in world 0.82 0.57 0.48 0.56 0.82 0.88 0.96 1.16 1.10 1.16 1.19 1.15 1.17 ... 
Commercial services exports               
   World 367 789 1179 1491 2516 2845 3421 3847 3489 3828 4295 4397 4644 9.1 
   LDC 2 3 5 6 9 11 14 17 19 22 26 28 32 14.1 
     Share in world 0.66 0.41 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.37 0.40 0.45 0.53 0.57 0.60 0.64 0.68 ... 
Goods imports               
   World 1899 3368 4991 6409 10313 11862 13679 15800 12162 14800 17742 17863 18161 8.3 
   LDC 23 25 32 39 83 96 120 160 145 161 198 219 237 14.9 
     Share in world 1.22 0.75 0.64 0.61 0.81 0.81 0.88 1.01 1.19 1.09 1.12 1.23 1.31 ... 
Commercial services imports               
   World 404 823 1189 1464 2384 2666 3174 3635 3300 3613 4056 4174 4381 8.8 
   LDC 7 9 11 13 26 30 40 55 51 55 68 72 74 14.2 
     Share in world 1.72 1.08 0.96 0.90 1.10 1.13 1.26 1.52 1.55 1.52 1.69 1.72 1.68 ... 
a World total trade is calculated as the average of world export s and imports, according to the balance-of-payments presentatio n (excluding Mode 3 for trade in services). 
Total LDC trade in this table is approximated as the sum of thei r exports and imports. Total trad e shares are calculated in rel ation to the corresponding world exports 
plus imports. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
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  2.6.  Export concentration has been a structural characteristic of LDC economies. Due to a lower 
degree of development of their productive sectors, LDCs are heavily dependent on a few products where they enjoy some degree of comparative advantage (primary commodities as far as trade in goods is concerned, and tourism for services exporters). Even when LDCs were able to diversify 
into manufacturing, the range of exported products was usually limited to a few labour-intensive 
industries, mostly in clothing. Nevertheless, LDCs in Asia showed the lowest concentration index within this group of economies.  
Chart 3: Concentration indices (Herfindah l-Hirschmann) of merchandise exports of 
selected regions, 1995-2013  (Indices) 
 
  
 
 
 
Source: UNCTAD database. 
 
2.7.  On average, more than 70% of total mercha ndise exports depended only on three main 
products (composition varies from LDC to LDC) in 2013. For instance, for ten LDCs, the top three products accounted for more than 95% of their export receipts, illustrating the vulnerability of 
these economies to fluctuations in international trade. Export dependence on services is usually 
lower, but some LDCs – such as Afghanistan, Samoa and Vanuatu - also depended on services for a sizeable share of their total export receipts. Travel, a close proxy of tourism receipts, is the 
dominant sector, especially for small islands where it represents the main source of export 
revenues.  "The Herfindahl-Hirschmann index shows the degree of market 
concentration. Its (normalized) values range from 0 to 1 (maximum concentration). An index value that is close to 1 indicates a very concentrated market, while a valu e closer to 0 demonstrates a 
homogeneous market between the exporters or importers." WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
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  Chart 4: Share of top three LDC products in their total merchandise exports, 2013 
(Percentage shares)  
  
 
 Chart 5: Share of commercial services  in total exports by LDCs, 2013 
(Percentage shares) 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
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  2.2  Merchandise Trade Developments 
2.2.1  Commodity price movements 
2.8.  The average price of primary commodities continued to decrease in 2013 (-2.7%, almost the 
same rate of -2.6% in 2012). Reasons for this overall price trend for commodities were however 
different between 2012 and 2013. While petroleum prices had remained at historically high levels 
in the preceding year, they finally started to fall in 2013, with an average price decrease of 3.0%. 
Whereas the average price of food and beverages re mained quite stable with only a slight decline 
of 0.1% in 2013, with the price of non-food agricultural raw materials increasing by 1.8% against 
2012. However, the price developments varied quite markedly by product; while cocoa and cotton prices stabilized (+2.6% and +1.3%, respective ly), prices of coffee and tea continued to fall 
(-18.2% and -23.8%, respectively). Similarly, prices of maize (-13.2%) and rice (-10.6%) 
dropped in 2013, as well as those of bananas (-5.9%) and sugar (-15.9%). On the other hand, 
distinct increases in prices were observed for fish (+41.9%), shrimp (+39.9%) and seafood (+41.3%).  
2.9.  In this overall context of declining prices, preliminary statistics show decreases in LDC 
exports of coffee (-12%) and cocoa (-24%). Despite stabilized cotton prices, the previous year's 
distinct expansion of LDC exports of cotton (+20% ) did not continue in 2013, they even decreased 
by 7.8% in value terms. LDC exports of fish an d crustaceans slightly increased (+0.5%) in value 
terms, but distinctly less than those of the corresponding prices. 
Chart 6: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2013 
(Indices, 2000=100) 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat and World Bank. 
  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 11 - Table 3: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2013  
(Annual and quarterly percentage changes) 
  2000  2001  2002  2003  2004  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2013 Q-o-Q  2014  Annual 
average  
2000-
2013                               Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Food and beverages -0.4  0.4  2.7  5.1  13.2  1.5  10.3  15.1  23.3  -13.1  12.2  19.5  -4.2  -0.1  0.7  0.9  -4.0  -2.8  4.7  3.0  6.2 
Agricultural raw materials  4.7  -5.0  1.8  3.8  5.4  1.6  8.6  5.0  -0.8  -16.8  32.3  22.7  -12.6  1.8  0.8  3.0  -1.3  3.5  1.3  0.2  3.0 
Minerals and non-ferrous 
metals (excluding crude 
petroleum) 12.1  -9.7  -2.7  12.3  36.2  26.5  55.9  17.5  -7.8  -19.4  48.1  13.6  -16.9  -4.3  7.1  -11.5  0.3  0.9  -4.2  -3.3  9.1 
Total of above 4.5  -4.0  0.8  6.9  18.6  10.3  23.1  14.1  7.5  -15.7  26.4  17.9  -10.0  -1.1  2.7  -2.8  -2.3  -0.6  1.3  0.6  6.6 
Energy 56.1  -11.6  -0.4  16.7  31.1  38.7  19.2  10.5  40.2  -36.8  25.9  36.4  1.4  -3.5  1.7  -7.0  4.5  0.3  -1.4  1.1  10.5 
All primary commodities 32.6  -8.9  0.1  13.0  26.6  29.1  20.6  11.8  27.7  -30.0  26.1  29.2  -2.6  -2.7  2.0  -5.6  2.1  0.0  -0.5  0.9  9.2 
Memo item: Manufacture 
Unit Value -1.3  -3.8  -1.2  5.2  6.8  3.2  2.5  6.1  7.8  -6.2  3.7  8.9  -1.2  -1.4  ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.2  
Note: Period averages calculated from IMF indices based on dolla r prices. The data for manufacture corresponds to unit values. The quarterly figures are not seasonally 
adjusted. 
Source: WTO Secretariat and World Bank. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
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  2.10.  In 2013, the value of LDCs' merchandise expo rts amounted to US$214.6 billion, which was 
an increase of 5.1% over that of the preceding year. LDCs, as a group, performed better compared 
to other developing economies' (excluding LDCs) export growth of 2.2%. Their imports, however, expanded by 7.3% to US$243.8 billion leading to an even higher trade deficit than 2012 
(US$29.2 billion in 2013 versus US$22.8 billion in 2012). This average hides heterogeneous 
situations at individual country level: ten LDCs registered double-digit decline in their exports (ranging from -48% to -10%) while, at the other end, fourteen others achieved double-digit 
growth (ranging from 10% to 74%).  
2.2.2  Trends in product composition 
2.11.  The year 2013 confirms the previous years' tren ds of general decline in the share of most 
agricultural and manufactured product categories in LDC exports and, on the other hand, the 
consistent rise in the share of fuels and mining  products. The 2000 to 2013 average annual growth 
rate of LDC exports of fuels and mining products was much higher (17%) than those of manufactured products (12%) and agricultural produc ts (11%). As mentioned, this increase in the 
weight of extractive commodities was mainly due to a price effect. 
Chart 7: Composition of LDC merchandise exports by major product group, 2000 and 
2013  
(Percentage)  
1016
91215
111217
02468101214161820
010203040506070
Textiles Machinery
and transportAgr. raw
materialsProc.
ManufacturesOthers Food Clothing Fuels  and
mineralsAverage  annual growth rate (%) Share (%)
2000 2013 Average  annual growth rate (2000 to 2013) 
Note: Data may include re ‑exports. In addition to mi nor differences in compositio n, data for textiles and 
clothing here differ from (HS 61 and 62) data in  Table 4 and Annex Table 3, mainly due to 
compilation methods, which in the case of Table 4 and Annex Table 3 are strictly based on imports 
of trading partners of LDCs. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.12.  The increasing weight of some commodities underscores the high concentration of LDC 
exports on a limited number of products. Of th e 20 top products exported by LDCs in 2013, 
petroleum accounted for 55% of the total LDC merchandise exports, clothing for 12% and 
agricultural products for 6%. The first agricultural product that appears in this list is dried leguminous vegetables, with 1% share in total LD Cs' exports. Another noteworthy feature of LDC 
exports is the considerable market share that some of their products maintain in world trade; LDCs 
may even achieve a major position in the exports of oil seeds (more than 30% of world exports), 
dried leguminous (21%) or men's shirts (20%). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 13 - 
 
  Table 4: Top 20 export products of LDCs by market share, 2013  
(Million dollars and percentage) 
HS07 Product Description  
LDC exports 
  World exports 
Value Share in Total 
Exports Value LDCs' Share 
in Total 
2709 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from 
bituminous minerals, crude. 94,171 47.7  1,547,261 6.1  
2711 Petroleum gases and other gaseous 
hydrocarbons. 11,224 5.7  396,349 2.8  
6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear). 5,794 2.9 
 33,013 17.5  
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, 
waistcoats and similar articles, knitted 
or crocheted. 5,110 2.6  42,193 12.1  
6109 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, 
knitted or crocheted. 4,930 2.5  26,962 18.3  
7403 Refined copper and copper alloys, 
unwrought. 4,255 2.2  54,945 7.7  
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or not 
stripped of bark or sapwood, or roughly squared. 3,713 1.9 
 19,189 19.3  
6204 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided 
skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, 
breeches and shorts (other than 
swimwear). 3,656 1.9  41,219 8.9  
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, including 
roasted iron pyrites. 3,405 1.7  149,724 2.3  
2710 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from 
bituminous minerals, other than crude; 
preparations not elsewhere specified or 
included, containing by weight 70% or 
more of petroleum oils or of oils 
obtained from bituminous  2,809 1.4  602,214 0.5  
2603 Copper ores and concentrates. 2,604 1.3  59,494 4.4  
6205 Men's or boys' shirts. 2,333 1.2  11,893 19.6  
0713 Dried leguminous vegetables, shelled, 
whether or not skinned or split. 1,949 1.0  9,557 20.4  
6104 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided 
skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, 
breeches and shorts (other than 
swimwear), knitted or crocheted. 1,810 0.9  18,075 10.0  
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed. 1,649 0.8  15,651 10.5  
7102 Diamonds, whether or not worked, but 
not mounted or set. 1,481 0.8  121,484 1.2  
1207 Other oil seeds and oleaginous fruits, 
whether or not broken. 1,457 0.7  3,877 37.6  
2401 Unmanufactured tobacco; tobacco 
refuse. 1,239 0.6  9,270 13.4  
0901 Coffee, whether or not roasted or 
decaffeinated; coffee husks and skins; coffee substitutes containing coffee in any proportion. 1,181 0.6 
 23,387 5.1  
0801 Coconuts, Brazil nuts and cashew nuts, 
fresh or dried, whethe r or not shelled or 
peeled. 1,014 0.5  4,461 22.7  
Source: Annex Table 3. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 14 - 
  
  Chart 8: Evolution of merchandise ex port structure of LDCs, 2000 and 2013  
(Percentage shares) 
 
  
Source: WTO Secretariat.  
 2.13.  Chart 8 shows the evolution in the commodity mi x of the LDCs in the last thirteen years. 
The pattern of demand from emerging economies and rising commodity prices, led to a shrinking 
share of manufactured products in total exports of LDCs from 30% in 2000 to 21% in 2013. The 
share of fuels and mining products, on the ot her hand, increased from 44% in 2000 to 59% in 
2013.
2 Meanwhile, with 11% share in 2013, exports of agricultural products lost ground from the 
17% share they recorded in 2000. Overall, the share of primary commodities in LDCs' merchandise exports increased from 61% in 2000 to 71% in 2013. 
2.14.  LDC exports of manufactures are dominated by textile and clothing products which 
accounted for 64% of their manufactures exports to the world in 2013. The 5 percentage point 
decline in the share of clothing in LDCs' total exports from 20% in 2000 to 15% in 2013 is not the result of weak export performance of LDCs in the sector but of the strong growth in the exports of 
extractive resources in the recent past. In fact, in the last thirteen years, LDC exports of clothing 
registered average annual growth of 12% comp ared to the world average of 7%. The other 
important exports of manufactures include semi -manufactures, such as leather and rubber, 
diamonds and footwear which accounted for 11% of LDCs' manufactures exports in 2013.  
2.2.3  Geographic diversification of trade 
2.15.  LDC exports to developing economies increased by 6% in 2013, those to developed 
countries declined by 1% reflecting in particular  the economic slowdown observed in Europe and 
reduced imports of fuels by the United States. Developing economies now absorb 55% of LDCs', 
and up from 40% in 2000. The share of developed economies as destination markets for products 
originating from LDCs continued to shrink and represented 39% in 2013 compared to 54% in 
2000. The share of the United States as destination market for LDC products was 10% in 
2013 - half of the 2000 share, the share of the European Union was 20% (27% in 2000). As seen 
in Chart 9, this growing importance of developing economies is mainly attributable to China (with a 
share of 23% in 2013), which alone was responsible fo r practically all the increase in the share of 
developing economies as markets for products originating from LDCs.  
                                               
2 These shares are derived from the WTO network of LDCs by product an d destination compiled 
according to the United Nations Standard International Trade Classification (SITC). According to this classification, diamonds and non-mo netary gold are not part of mine ral products, the difference of the 
Harmonized System in use at the WTO. As a result, the shares of fuels and mining product in total LDCs' exports derived from the LDC network differ from the shares of exporters of fuels and mining products 
discussed elsewhere in this report. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 15 - 
 
  Chart 9: LDC merchandise export s by destination, 2000 and 2013 
(Percentage shares) 
 
  
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.16.  Intra-LDC trade is notoriously under-recorded; it is estimated to account for 4% of LDCs' 
total exports and most of it takes place within Africa.3 Data, based mainly on available and 
partially estimated cross-border trade, indicate an average annual increase of 20% of intra-LDC 
trade between 2000 and 2013.   
Table 5: Product composition of LD C exports by destination, 2000-2013  
(Billion dollars and percentages) 
  Value Share in LDC exports Annual % change 
  2013 2000 2013 2012 2013 2000-2013 
Agriculture       
World 22.9 100 100 6 7 11 
Asia 9.1 30 40 7 10 13 
Africaa 5.3 16 23 17 0 14 
Europe 4.6 37 20 -5 -2 6 
Middle East 2.2 7 10 -11 19 13 
North America 0.6 7 3 -2 4 2 
CIS 0.3 0 1 -12 65 23 
South and Central America 0.1 1 1 14 28 7 
Fuels and mining products       
World 127.0 100 100 -2 2 17 
Asia 72.7 46 57 11 3 19 
Europe 24.0 16 19 -5 8 19 
North America 13.3 25 10 -23 -15 10 
Africaa 6.3 4 5 31 5 20 
South and Central America 1.9 1 1 4 -2 21 
Middle East 1.4 1 1 -21 25 24 
CIS 0.0 0 0 -48 -70 28 
Manufactures       
World 54.0 100 100 7 14 12 
Europe 20.4 41 38 7 10 11 
Asia 11.1 14 21 12 12 16 
North America 11.0 35 20 -1 9 8 
Africaa 6.7 6 12 12 8 19 
Middle East 1.0 1 2 5 5 16 
CIS 0.6 1 1 9 110 19 
South and Central America 0.5 0 1 1 8 25 
a Includes re-exports.  
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
                                               
3 Considering that informal cross-border trade especi ally in Africa is not reported or under-recorded, 
these figures obviously represent lower-end estimates. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 16 - 
  
   
2.2.4  Major markets and their imports structure 
2.17.  The product composition of LDC exports by destination indicates that – as in the preceding 
years - Asia dominates the destination market for primary commodities, both agricultural and fuels 
and mining products. Fifty-seven per cent of LD C exports of fuels and mining products were 
destined to Asia in 2013. In the last thirteen year s, exports of agricultural products to Africa and 
Asia grew on average by two-digit rates and thereb y contributed to the increase in the shares of 
these two regions as destination markets for agricultural products. For manufactured products, 
Europe (38%) and Asia (21%) are the major destination markets. Asia overtook North America in 2013 as second-most-important destination for manufactured products; China's imports of these products from the LDCs increased by 87% in 2013, Japan's imports by 23% and Korea's imports 
by 37%.  
2.18.  Chart 10 is based on partner import statistics and shows the top 20 markets for products 
originating from LDCs. In 2013, the top, three deve loping partners - China, India and Thailand -
registered 7.1%, -3.8% and 10.5% of annual percen tage change in their imports from LDCs; the 
annual percentage change for the top, three development partners were: the European Union (15.4%), Japan (-4.2%) and the United States (-5.4%). As mentioned earlier, the continuous 
decline in the imports of the United States is linked  to the drop in the US-imports of crude oil from 
LDCs, subsequent to an upsurge in domestic pr oduction. In 2013, 3% of the total imports of 
China, India and Thailand originated from LDCs. The corresponding figures for the European Union, 
Japan and the United States, were 0.9%, 0.8% and 1.0%, respectively.  
2.19.  LDCs most important markets for agricultural products in 2013 were the European Union 
(imports of US$5.0 billion of agricultural products; average annual percentage change of 4.7% for 2000 to 2013), followed by China (US$4.6 bil lion; 24.2% average annual growth) and India 
(US$3.0 billion; 12.9% average a nnual growth). In 2013, the top three importers of fuels and 
mining products were China (US$52.6 billion;  22.8% annual growth), the European Union 
(US$21.7 billion; 19.1% average annual growth) and the United States (US$12.7 billion; 8.3% 
average annual growth). The top three importers of manufactured products originating from the 
LDCs were the European Union (US$21.2 billion, 9.5% average annual growth), the United States 
(US$10.0 billion, 6.0% average annual growth) and China (US$2.1 billion, 28.4% average annual 
growth).  
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 17 - 
 
  Chart 10: Top 20 markets for LDC me rchandise exports, 2000 and 2013 
(Billion dollars) 
 
       Total trade           Agricultural products 
0 1 02 03 04 05 06 07 0
China
EU 28
United States
India
Thailand
Japan
Taipei, Chinese
South Africa
Korea, Republic of
Canada
Saudi Arabia  a
Brazil
Zambia
Singapore
Turkey
Viet Nam  a
Côte d'Ivoire
Russia
Malaysia
Norway2013
20000 5 10 15 20 25 30
EU 28
China
India
Saudi Arabia a
Viet Nam a
Thailand
Japan
USA
Indonesia
Malaysia
Russian Federation
Pakistan
Rep. of Korea
Zimbabwe
South Africa
Turkey
Egypt
Taipei, Chinese
Ghana
Singapore2013
2000
 
 
                 Fuels & mining products                    Manufactured products 
0 1 02 03 04 05 06 0
China
EU 28
USA
India
Thailand
Taipei, Chinese
Japan
South Africa
Rep. of Korea
Brazil
Canada
Zambia
Singapore
Saudi Arabia a
Norway
Uruguay
Malaysia
Viet Nam a
Malawi
Indonesia2013
20000 5 10 15 20 25 30
EU‐28
USA
China
Japan
Canada
Turkey
Rep. of Korea
India
Russian Federation
South Africa
Australia
Switzerland
Thailand
Zambia
Singapore
Brazil
Norway
Saudi Arabia a
Ghana
Rwanda2013
2000
 
a 2012 instead of 2013. 
Source: UN Comtrade database. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 18 - 
  
  2.2.5  Differentiation by export specialization  
2.20.  Table 6 once again confirms the heterogeneous characteristics of LDCs. In the last 13 years, 
the LDCs that are exporters of fuels and mining  products expanded their exports by an annual 
average of 16%, compared to the 12% increase for exporters of manufactured or agricultural 
products. Since most of the mineral exporters are in  Africa, the weight of this region in the LDC 
group increased during the period. Nevertheless, in  the backdrop of stagnant commodity prices in 
recent years, exporters of manufactured products registered the highest annual growth (15%) in 
2013, while the other two sub-groups, exporters of  agricultural and fuels and mining products, 
recorded more modest growth rates of 2% and 3% in their exports. Imports of LDCs, as a group, 
grew by an average of 14% per year between 2000 and 2013. Here again, since the import capacity is closely related to export performance,  the imports of fuel and mineral exporters grew 
at a higher pace over the period (16%) than those of exporters of manufactured (12%) and 
agricultural products (14%).  
Table 6: LDCs' merchandise trade by  export specialization, 2000-2013 
(Billion dollars and percentage) 
  Exports  Imports 
  Value Share in LDCs' 
exports Annual percentage 
change Value  Share in LDCs' 
imports Annual 
percentage 
change 
 2013 2000 2013  2013  2000-
13 2013  2000  2013 2013 2000-
13 
LDCs 214.6 100.0 100.0  5 15 243.8  100.0 100.0 7  14 
Exporters of 
fuels and minerals 154.1 60.4 71.8 3 16 124.4  41.3 51.0 9 16 
  Fuel exporters 115.5 46.5 53.8  2 16 69.8 23.6 28.6 7  16 
  Exporters of 
non-fuel minerals 38.6 13.9 18.0 4 17 54.6 17.7 22.4 10 16 
Manufacture 
exporters 43.0 27.7 20.0  15 12 65.4 35.6 26.8 8  12 
Exporters of 
agricultural 
products 14.7 9.3 6.9 2 12 46.5 19.2 19.1 3 14 
Diversified and 
others 2.8 2.6 1.3  4 9 7.5 4.0 3.1 6  12 
African LDCs  150.1 57.6 70.0 1 16 144.6  53.1 59.3 5 15 
Fuel exporters 94.6 30.5 44.1  -1 18 44.2 12.4 18.1 1  18 
Exporters of 
non-fuel minerals 36.4 13.0 16.9 4 17 51.5 16.5 21.1 11 16 
Exporters of 
agricultural 
products 13.7 8.6 6.4  3 12 36.0 15.9 14.8 5  14 
Diversified and 
others 2.8 2.6 1.3 4 9 7.4 4.0 3.1 6 12 
Manufacture 
exporters 2.7 2.9 1.3  10 8 5.4 4.4 2.2 -5  8 
Asian LDCs  54.4 30.3 25.3 17 13 83.0 39.1 34.0 10 13 
Manufacture 
exporters 39.4 23.9 18.3  16 12 56.3 28.8 23.1 9  12 
Exporters of 
fuels and minerals 11.7 4.8 5.5 25 16 13.1 5.9 5.4 29 13 
Exporters of 
agricultural products 1.0 0.7 0.5
 0 12 10.5 3.2 4.3 -1  17 
Diversified and 
others 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 30 0.0 0.0 0.0 -47 9 
Middle East and 
Caribbean                     
Yemen  (fuel 
exporter) 9.2 11.3 4.3 14 6 12.5 5.4 5.1 11 14 
Haiti 0.9 0.9 0.4  10 8 3.7 2.4 1.5 17  10 
Memorandum  
items:   Share in world 
exports 
        Share in world 
imports 
      
World 18816 100.0 100.0  2 9 18890  100.0  100.0 2  8 
Developing 
economies 
excluding LDCs 7989 29.7 42.5 2 12 7598 27.1 40.2 3 12 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 19 - 
 
  2.21.  The commodity composition of African LDCs is shown in Table 7. After a slight decrease in 
2012, exports of fuels and mining products stabilized again with a small increase of 0.4% in 2013. In the last 13 years, fuels and mining products ga ined 19 percentage points share in total African 
LDCs exports. In contrast, the share of African LDCs' agricultural exports dropped by more than 
half than it was in 2000. Exports of manufactured pr oducts lost 6 percentage points of their share 
against 2000.  
Table 7: Product composition of  African LDC exports, 2000-2013  
(Billion dollars and percentages) 
  Value Share in total exports  Annual percentage 
change 
  2013 2000 2013 2012 2013 2000-
20013 
Agriculture 15.9 21.1 10.6 10.7 1.9 10.4 
Food 13.2 14.9 8.8 11.9 5.0 11.8 
Raw materials 2.7 6.2 1.8 6.1 -10.8 5.9 
Fuels and mining products 112.6 55.9 75.0 -0.4 0.4 19.1 
Fuels 93.5 48.6 62.3 -0.1 -0.3 18.7 
Non-fuel minerals 19.1 7.3 12.7 -1.8 4.0 21.5 
Manufactures 12.0 14.4 8.0 13.3 5.4 11.2 
Textiles and clothing 1.2 3.0 0.8 -8.5 5.5 5.0 
Total merchandise exports 150.1 100.0 100.0 1.5 1.0 16.4 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.22.  The export structure of Asian LDCs is traditionally dominated by manufactures, with a 76% 
share of their total exports in 2013 (Table 8). Between 2000 and 2013, Asian LDCs' export value 
of fuels and mining products increased on aver age by 23% per year while agriculture exports 
increased with an average rate of 12%. The sh are of fuels and mining products increased by 
7.1 percentage points between 2000 and 2013 while the share of manufactures decreased by 
5.1 percentage points.  
Table 8: Product composition of Asian LDC exports, 2000-2013 
(Billion dollars and percentage) 
  Value Share in total exports Annual percentage 
change 
  2013 2000 2013 2012 2013 2000-
20013 
Agriculture 6.4 13.1 11.8 -3.5 19.3 12.2 
Food 3.7 9.4 6.8 -3.9 18.0 10.3 
Raw materials 2.7 3.7 5.0 -3.0 21.1 15.9 
Fuels and mining products 6.0 3.9 11.0 -3.4 11.7 22.5 
Fuels 5.0 3.7 9.1 -3.3 16.3 21.3 
Non-fuel minerals 1.0 0.2 1.9 -4.0 -6.0 32.6 
Manufactures 41.1 80.8 75.5 5.0 17.2 12.5 
Textiles and clothing 32.6 67.5 60.0 4.1 17.3 12.1 
Total merchandise exports 54.4 100.0 100.0 3.4 16.5 13.1 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 20 - 
  
  2.3  Developments in Trade in Commercial Services 
2.23.  In 2013, LDC exports of commercial services reached US$31.7 billion growing by 13%. On 
the import side, the value reached US$73.5 billion, growing by a modest rate of 2%. In 2013, the LDCs' accounted for 0.7% of world exports and 1.7% of world imports of commercial services. 
Although at 0.7%, the overall participation in world exports remains miniscule, the trend is 
encouraging: since 2000, LDC exports of commerc ial services have been growing on an annual 
average of 14%, much more rapidly than other developing economies (11%) and the rest of the 
world (8%). In more recent years, growth was fuelled by LDCs in Asia, due to the significant 
performances of Cambodia as a leading tourism destination, of Bangladesh as an emerging ICT exporter and, of Afghanistan as construction supplier.
4 According to Secretariat estimates, in 2013, 
Afghanistan ranked as the largest LDC exporter of commercial services with a share of 10% of 
LDCs' total services exports. In 2013, LDCs in Asia exported commercial services worth 
US$11.6 billion, up by 18% compared to 2012. 
2.24.  In African LDCs, the services sector benefitted in particular from Ethiopia's rise as air 
transportation services supplier and from Tanzania's  and Uganda's attraction as tourism exporters. 
In particular, in the period 2000-2013, Uganda's  exports had grown by 20% on average per year. 
In 2013, the bulk of LDCs' services receipts origin ated from LDCs in Africa whose exports rose by 
11% with earnings worth of US$19.3 billion. Export expansion, however, was not as rapid in LDCs' 
Islands whose services sector is less diversified. LDCs' Islands' exports of commercial services increased by 4% in 2013 reaching US$784 million.
5  
Chart 11: Commercial services export s by economic grouping, 2000-2013 
(Index 2000=100) 
 
Source: WTO-UNCT AD estimates. 
 
2.25.  According to Secretariat estimates, in 2013, "computer and information services" was the 
LDCs' most dynamic service sector, recording a 23% growth, mirroring trade trends at the global level.
6 Although exports from LDCs' IT services sector are still at a small scale, and concentrated 
on few economies, it has been expanding, particularly in Asian LDCs, where exports grew by 27% 
in 2013. 
  
                                               
4 The high value of services export recorded in Afgh anistan is largely related to servicing non-resident 
military and civilian organizati ons based in the country.   
5 The breakdown of LDCs by region is  coherent with UNCTAD's definition. 
6 Preliminary WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 21 - Table 9: LDCs' commercial services  exports by category, 2000-2013  
(Million dollars and percentage) 
Value  2000 2001  2002  2003  2004  2005  2006 2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013 
Commercial services   5,713   5,870   6,302   6,668   8,220   9,150    10,524    13,588    17,337    18,566    21,699    25,901    27,970    31,705  
Transport  1,179   1,224   1,319   1,456   1,679   2,095      2,401      2,778      3,459      3,247      4,190      5,633      6,316      7,504  
Travel  2,546   2,841   3,137   3,315   4,146   4,810      5,366      7,246      9,419      9,262      9,838    11,471    12,947    14,203  
Other commercial services 7 
  1,989   1,805   1,846   1,897   2,394   2,245      2,757      3,564      4,459      6,056      7,671      8,798      8,707      9,998  
Growth Rate 2000 2001  2002  2003  2004  2005  2006 2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013 
Commercial services  3 3 7 6 23 11 15 29 28 7 17 19 8 13 
Transport 1 4  8 10 15 25 15 16  25 -6 29 34 12 19 
Travel 1 12 10 6 25 16 12 35 30 -2 6 17 13 10 
Other commercial services  8 -9  2 3 26 -6 23 29  25 36 27 15 -1 15 
Structure 2000 2001  2002  2003  2004  2005  2006 2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013 
Commercial services  100.0 100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0 100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0 
Transport 20.6 20.9 20.9 21.8 20.4 22.9 22.8 20.4 20.0 17.5 19.3 21.7 22.6 23.7 
Travel 44.6 48.4  49.8 49.7 50.4 52.6 51.0 53.3  54.3 49.9 45.3 44.3 46.3 44.8 
Other commercial services  34.8 30.8 29.3 28.4 29.1 24.5 26.2 26.2 25.7 32.6 35.4 34.0 31.1 31.5 
Source: WTO and UNCTAD Secretariat estimates. 
 
                                               
7 The aggregate "other commercial services" covers communicatio ns services, construction, insurance services, financial services , computer and information 
services, royalties and licence fees, other business services, and personal, cultural and recreational services. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 22 - 
  
  Box 1: Services value added in LDCs 
 
The lower participation of LDCs in services export (0.7% of world trade) compared to goods 
(1.2%) reflects, among other things, the smaller domestic supply base. According to Secretariat 
estimates, the share of commercial services in total GDP (excluding public administration and 
defence and compulsory social security) in LDCs averaged 43% in 2011, significantly less than in higher-income economies (above 70%) and in middle-income economies (over 50%)  
 
In general, most of the economy is dominated by a large agricultural sector which represents more 
than a quarter of their total value added and employ s almost two-thirds of the LDCs' population. It 
is worth noting that the agricultural sector in high-income economies accounted for less than 2% 
of value added and 3% of employment.   Among those services, wholesale and retail trade, as  well as repairs, totalled 14% of LDCs' total 
value added, followed by transport and storage (7%) and communications (2%). Financial 
intermediation activities represented 3%, whereas it represented 6% of world's leading financial 
services traders. Similarly, value added from real  estate, renting and business activities totalled 
8% in LDCs compared to over 27% in the European Union.  
 Despite the importance of tourism in LDCs as key service export sector, the contribution of hotels 
and restaurants accounted for only 2% of their to tal GDP. Overall, value added from education, 
health and social work and other community, social and personal services accounted for 7%. Construction, not included under services in national accounts, represented alone 7% of the total.  
 
 
Chart: Estimated breakdown of value added  
by main economic activity in LDCs, 2011  
 
 
Source: WTO estimates on the basis of LDCs' National Accounts statistics. 
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 23 - 
 
  2.26.  "Other business services", a basket category  grouping all business, professional, and 
technical services, operational leasing services, as well as merchanting and other trade-related services, rose by 20%. Unfortunately, the lack of  disaggregated data under this category hinders 
the identification of the specific type of exported services. 
2.27.  In 2013, transportation services exports continued to thrive, principally driven by African 
LDCs, whose transport receipts increased by 20%. After a decline in 2012, LDCs' communications services expanded by 17% in 2013, led by LD Cs in Asia. Travel exports which cover the 
expenditure on goods and services by foreign travellers during their stay in LDCs, increased by 
10%. More modest increases were recorded in financial services and construction exports, which increased both by 6%. Finally, in 2013, a negative export growth was recorded for personal, cultural and recreational services, which includes also audio-visual services, and royalties and 
licence fees.
 8  
Chart 12: LDC exports by main service sector, 2013 
(Annual percentage change) 
 
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
 2.28.  In general, the LDCs' services exports are dominated by low- to middle-skilled services 
sectors, such as travel (tourism) and transport. Their aggregate contribution, in 2013, reached 
68.5% of total services exports compared to 54.4% for other developing economies and 39.9% for the developed countries. However, it should be noted that since these sectors are labour-intensive they reach out to a potentially large share of the population, thus creating employment 
opportunities in the LDCs. In 2010, in Ethiopia, employment in hotels and restaurants and in 
transport and storage activities was over 12% of the total employment.
9 In Uganda, according to a 
recent business census, the accommodation and food services sector alone accounted for 14.3% of 
total employment in 2011.10  
                                               
8 Data quality issues continue to a ffect import services statistics (except for the categories transport and 
travel). Thus, at present, it is not possible to pr ovide a similar breakdown by sector for imports for any 
geographical region/economic grouping.  
9 Source: ILO ILOSTAT database. 
10 Source: Uganda Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Abstract 2012. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 24 - 
  
  2.29.  The structure of commercial services exports vari es substantially from LDC to LDC. Although 
travel receipts, estimated at $14.2 billion in 2013, continue to account for the majority of LDC exports of commercial services, its importance varies across regions. Travel exports were 
predominant in LDC Islands (75.1%) and accounted  for roughly half of African LDCs' exports 
(46.8%). However, their relative contribution was much smaller in Asian LDCs, totalling 39.4% of 
their total commercial services exports. An estimated 86% of foreign travellers' expenditure in LDCs related to trips undertaken for personal reasons, essentially for tourism purposes and 
expatriate workers visiting home, while 14% related to travel to LDCs for business reasons. 
Overall, in 2012, travel exports contributed to 1.7% of LDCs GDP. 
Chart 13: Estimated structure of LDC comme rcial services export s by region, 2013 
(Percentage shares) 
 
Transport
29%
Travel
47%Communi ‐
cations
6%Construction
3%Insurance
1%Financial 
services
2%Computer  
and 
information
1%Royalties and 
licence fees
0%Other 
business 
services
10%Personal, 
cultural and 
recreational  
services
1%LDCs Africa and Haiti
Transport
15%
Travel
39%Communi ‐
cations
10%Construction
8%Insurance
1%Financial 
services
3%Computer  
and 
information
2%Royalties and 
licence fees
0%Other 
business 
services
22%Personal, 
cultural and 
recreational  
services
0%LDCs Asia
 
 
 
 
Transport
10%
Travel
75%Communi ‐
cations
4%Construction
2%Insurance
1%Financial 
services
1%Computer  
and 
information
0%Royalties  
and licence 
fees
0%Other 
business 
services
6%Personal,  
cultural and 
recreational  
services
1%LDCs Islands
Transport
24%
Travel
45%Communi ‐
cations
8%Construction
5%Insurance
1%Financial 
services
2%Computer  
and 
information
1%Royalties  
and licence 
fees
0%Other 
business 
services
14%Personal,  
cultural and 
recreational  
services
0%LDCs
 
 
 
Note: The breakdown of LDCs by region is coherent with UNCTAD's definition. 
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
 
2.30.  According to Secretariat estimates based on UNWTO data, in 2011, the latest available year, 
more than one-third of international tourists to LDCs originated from Africa, while 31% arrived 
from East Asia and the Pacific. European tourists accounted for 19% of total international arrivals. The Middle East and South Asia contributed, respectively, with 4% and 2% of tourists to the LDCs. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 25 - 
 
  Chart 14: International tourist arrivals  to LDCs by region of origin, 2011 
(Percentage shares) 
Africa
36%
East Asia and 
the Pacific
31%Europe
19%South Asia
2%Americas
8%Middle East
4%
 
 
Source: WTO estimates based on UN World Tourism Organization data. 
 
2.31.  In 2013, more than 4 million foreign tourist arrivals were recorded in Cambodia, the largest 
LDCs travel exporter, up from some 460,000 in 2000. Some 20% of foreign tourists originated 
from Viet Nam, followed by China (11%) and the Republic of Korea (10.3%) International tourists 
spent on average $462 during their stay in the country.  
Chart 15: Cambodia: International tourist arrivals and travel exports, 2000-2013 
(Thousands and million dollars) 
 
Source: Cambodia Ministry of To urism, IMF and WTO estimates. 
 
2.32.  Transport exports, which attained US$7.5 bi llion in 2013, are an important source of 
revenue in particular for African LDCs, where they accounted for 29% of services exports. This 
share is particularly high due to Ethiopia and Ta nzania the leading LDCs transport exporters, which 
together made up for 37.8% of LDCs' transport ex ports in 2013. The contribution of the transport 
sector was somewhat lower for the Asian LDCs (15%) as well as the LDCs' Islands (10%).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 26 - 
  
  2.33.  In 2012, according to Secretariat estimates most LDCs' transport services transactions 
related to passenger transport (44%), followed by  transport of freight (29%) and other transport 
services (27%). The modal breakdown of transpor t shows that, in the same year, 58% of LDCs' 
transport exports related to air transport, mostly passenger transport by air, while "other transport 
services", which includes, inter alia,  road and rail transport as well as pipeline transport and 
electricity transmission, represented 33% of LDCs' transport receipts. Sea transportation services exports accounted for only 9% of total transport exports.
 
Chart 16: Estimated structure of LDC transpor t exports by kind of transport service and 
by mode of transport, 2012 (Percentage shares) 
 
 
Source: WTO estimates. 
 
2.34.  Although it should be taken into account that many LDCs are landlocked (16), it is also a 
fact that the LDCs are not yet well integrated into global sea transport services; actually, most of sea transport services are of short-range coastal navigation. The UNCTAD’s Liner Shipping 
Connectivity Index (LSCI), which aims at capturing a country’s level of integration into global liner 
shipping networks
11, shows very low values for the LDCs. Among the LDCs, in 2013, the highest 
values were found for Djibouti and for Yemen, fo llowed by a distance by other LDCs (Chart 17). 
According to available data, Mozambique recorded  the highest receipts from sea transportation 
services among LDCs, at US$141 million in 2012, up by 65% compared to 2011. Djibouti's exports 
stood at US$62.6 million, while Yemen's exports were at US$41.7 million in 2011. 
Chart 17: Liner Shipping Connectivit y Index (LSCI) in selected LDCs 
Index (Maximum 2004=100) 
 
Source: UNCTAD. 
                                               
11 The index base year is 2004 on a country showing a maximum figure (China). The LSCI is generated 
from five components: (a) the number of ships; (b) the total container-carrying capacity of those ships; (c) the maximum vessel size; (d) the number of services; and (e) the number of companies that deploy container ships on services from and to a country’s ports.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 27 - 
 
  2.35.  The LDCs' air transport service sector is witnessing the increasing global participation of 
Ethiopia; its exports increased by 10% in 2012, the latest available year. According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), in 2012, Ethiopia ranked 36
th for international air 
passengers transport, and 30th for international air freight transport.12 Ethiopia's international 
operations made up between 98%-99% of total air transport services provided by the country. Air 
transportation services exports are also growing rapidly in other LDCs, although at a relatively 
smaller scale. For example, in 2012, Mozambique's and Tanzania's exports rose by more than 
30%.  
2.36.  The telecommunications sector has been growing ve ry rapidly in LDCs over recent years. In 
2013, almost 60% of the LDCs' population had a mo bile phone subscription compared to only 6% 
in 2005.13 In LDCs, mobile networks are often the main communications network in particular in 
rural areas, where they replace fixed-telecommunication lines.  
2.37.  However, differences exist among individual LDCs with respect to access to mobile 
communications. For example, in Cambodia, mobile  phone subscriptions stood at 134%, followed 
by Mali with 129%, and Mauritania at 103% - mean ing that each inhabitant in these countries had 
at least one subscription, and some had more than one. On the opposite end, in Eritrea, only 6% of the people had subscribed to a mobile phone. 
 
Chart 18: Mobile cellular subscriptions, in ternet users and communications services 
exports in LDCs, 2005-2013 (Per 100 inhabitants and million dollars) 
 
Source: WTO estimates based on ITU statistics and WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
 
2.38.  Despite these disparities among individual countries, the fast rise of mobile telephony 
resulted in a dramatic expansion of LDCs' commu nications services exports. Exports have been 
growing by 16% on average per year since 2000 reaching a value of around US$2.4 billion in 2013 
and LDCs' participation in world exports of communications services reached 2%, the largest 
achieved by the group.14     
2.39.  Communications is the largest individual services  export sector in the LDCs, after travel and 
transport, with a share in total commercial services exports of 4% in LDCs' Islands, 6% in LDCs in 
Africa (and Haiti), and 10% in Asian LDCs with the highest receipts in Bangladesh and Nepal. In the latter, in particular, exports expanded by 54% in 2013, after a 135% surge in 2012.  
                                               
12 ICAO, Annual Report of the Council, 2012.  
13 Aggregate calculated by WTO Secretariat on the basis of ITU statis tics, on www. itu.int. 
14 Telecommunications services in Balance-of-Payment s statistics encompass the transmission of sound, 
images or other information by tele phone, telex, telegram, radio and television cable and broadcasting, 
satellite, electronic mail, facsimile services etc. Also in cluded are cellular telephone services, Internet backbone 
services and on-line access services, includ ing provision of access to the Internet.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 28 - 
  
  2.40.  While mobile telecommunications showed a remarkable increase in 2013, only 9% of LDCs' 
inhabitants used the Internet. By contrast, in developed economies, in the same year, this share rose to 78%.
15 Among the LDCs, the highest Internet penetration rates were found in LDCs' 
Islands with 16% of individuals using the Internet, pointing to the importance of the Internet as a 
powerful tool to overcome geographical remoteness. In Asian LDCs on average 12% of individuals 
used the Internet with the greatest numbers in Bhutan (29.9%) and Yemen (20%). In general, in 2013, Internet penetration rates fell considerably in African LDCs where the Internet was used 
only by 7% of the inhabitants, with the lowest levels found in Eritrea with less than 1%.  
2.41.  Infrastructural constraints, limited international Internet bandwidth coupled with high prices 
and low level of skills may be among the factor s hindering access of LDCs' population to the 
Internet, in particular through broadband. The computer and information services exports account 
for only 1% of  LDCs' total commercial services exports. Internet access is a prerequisite for 
supplying computer services internationally, which takes place mostly through electronic means. In the future, mobile broadband services could help overcome these difficulties. 
2.42.  In 2013, construction accounted for 4.6% of total commercial services exports of LDCs with 
an estimated value of US$1.5 billion. The share of co nstruction is particularly high in Asian LDCs 
(8%) mainly due to Afghanistan's surge as constr uction exporter. Afghanistan alone accounted for 
more than half of total construction exports by the LDCs. Uganda ranked second with a 
contribution of over 16%. It should be noted that in balance-of-payments statistics "construction" covers not only work undertaken in foreign economies ("construction abroad") but also the local supply of construction goods and services to foreign building companies present in the territory 
("construction in the compiling economy"). The bulk of LDCs' construction exports, such as that of 
Afghanistan, relate to the latter category. In th e case of Uganda, operations were equally split 
between construction undertaken abroad and work within the country. 
2.43.  The overall contribution of "other business services" to LDCs' services exports remains low 
(14.3%) compared to other economies (26.9%). In 2013, in LDCs' Islands and in African LDCs, exports of other business services were estimate d at, respectively, 6% and 10%, while in Asian 
LDCs they totalled 22% mainly due to Afghanis tan's and Bangladesh's exports. Exports of 
higher-skilled services from LDCs (finance, in surance, royalties and licence fees) remained 
marginal (less than 4% altogether). 
2.4  Trade Balance in Goods and Services 
2.44.  The structural vulnerability of LDCs is not only related to its high dependence on a few 
export products, but also from the fact that most of these economies register a balance-of-payment deficit in their trade balances. As shown in chart 19, only five countries had 
positive trade balances in 2013. In some cases, the deficit is very high in relation to domestic 
product (GDP) and cannot be sustained without external income flows from official assistance, foreign capital or workers' remittances. For example, the largest gaps registered by Liberia and 
Tuvalu reflect imports of ships that are financed by foreign investors who operate the ships under 
flags of convenience. Similarly, greenfield foreign investments (see Box 2) result in imports of capital goods.
16  
                                               
15 On the basis of ITU aggregate "developed economies".  
16 A WTO working paper by Escaith and Tamenu (2013) reviews the role of worker remittances and 
official assistance in financin g part of the trade deficit. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 29 - 
 
  
Box 2: LDCs and Foreign Dire ct Investment (FDI) inflows 
 According to UNCTAD, in 2013, LDCs' FDI inflows reached US$28 billion, up by 14% compared to 
2012. Inflows to the LDCs are still relatively small,  representing only 1.9% of global inflows but 
they are rising steadily. In 2013, the main FDI beneficiaries were Mozambique, Sudan, Myanmar, 
the Democratic Republic of Congo and Equatorial Guinea. 
 
In general, FDI to the LDCs takes the form of  greenfield projects. In 2013, around 70% of the 
projects concentrated in the services sector, in particular, in utilities (46%) and transport, storage 
and communications (12%). Finance was the third largest group with 3.9% share. Business 
services accounted for 3.1% of total greenfield projects.     In 2013, investment from developed economies rebounded. They contributed to 64% of all 
greenfield projects in the LDCs, with Japan ranking as the single largest investor with a share of 
29%, followed by Iceland with 10%. Both economies' investment was related to electricity production. Japan targeted mainly Myanmar for the construction of a fossil fuel electric power 
project, while Iceland announced the building of a geothermal power station in Ethiopia.  
 India remained the largest investor among developing economies, with investment focused on 
African LDCs in the energy sector and telecommunications. South Africa and Nigeria ranked second 
and third, respectively, with announced projects' values tripling compared to 2012. South Africa's investment was concentrated especially in Mozambique while Nigeria targeted five LDCs in Africa and one in Asia (Nepal). 
 
Greenfield FDI projects in LDCs by  main industry and by origin, 2013 
(Percentage shares)  
 
 
 
Source:  UNCTAD World Investment Report 2014.  
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 30 - 
  
  Chart 19: Trade balance of goods & commercial services (BOP), as a percentage of GDP, 
2013 
(Percentage) 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat estimates and World Bank (for GDP).  
 
2.4.1  Merchandise trade balance  
2.45.  As already pointed out in previous reports, with  the exception of the three years prior to the 
global economic crisis (2006, 2007 and 2008), the merchandise trade balance of the LDCs as a 
group remained in deficit. The overall favourable trade balance recorded in those three years were 
entirely the result of huge surpluses enjoyed by the fuel exporters which managed to surpass the deficits incurred by non-fuel exporting LDCs. In 2013, the LDCs registered a new high trade deficit of US$29 billion. 
Table 10: Coverage ratios of mercha ndise trade of the LDCs, 2000-2013 
(Ratio of groups' merchandise exports to imports, expressed in percentage) 
  2000 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Developing economies 105 113 111 109 107 106 107 106 105 
Least-developed countries 83 103 103 104 83 96 97 90 88 
  fuel exporters 164 207 205 214 139 189 196 173 166 
  non-fuel exporters 58 60 56 52 53 58 59 56 57 
   agricultural exporters 40 32 33 31 33 34 38 32 32 
   manufacture exporters 65 65 60 56 57 58 59 62 66 
   mineral exporters 65 82 77 71 70 81 77 75 71 
   diversified and othersa 55 41 32 31 40 43 41 38 37 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 31 - 
 
  2.46.  While a few countries dominate the merchandise exports of LDCs (The first ten major 
exporters account for some 80% of LDCs' total merchandise exports), imports are relatively less concentrated, as the major ten importers account for 62% of the total merchandise imports of LDCs. Once again, differentiation among the LDCs is necessary to gauge the trade balances of 
different category of exporters. Only the fuel ex porters among the LDCs traditionally show up with 
a positive trade balance (i.e. a coverage ratio of imports by exports above 100), while the non-fuel 
exporters are characterized by systemic and gr owing trade deficits. In 2013, fuel exporters 
recorded a trade surplus of US$46 billion; while non-fuel exporters registered high trade deficit of 
US$75 billion. Agricultural exporters, comprising 20 LDCs, had the largest trade deficit. In 2013, for example, only 32% of their imports were covered by their merchandise exports, with a trade deficit of US$32 billion. The seven exporters of predominantly manufactured products achieved at 
least a coverage ratio of 66% in 2013 (trade deficit of US$22 billion). In the last 13 years, non-fuel 
exporters' trade deficit increased by 14% per year on average; while the surplus of fuel exporters 
grew by 16%.  
2.47.  When considering individual countries, only seven - Angola, Chad, Congo (Democratic 
Republic), Sierra Leone, Tuvalu and Zambia - posted positive trade balances in 2013. Among them, Angola markedly led with a surplus of US$44 billion. Ethiopia and Afghanistan, on the other 
hand, posted the highest trade deficits in 2013 (U S$9.5 billion and US$8.2 bi llion, respectively).  
2.48.  The highest positive trade balances of goods in relation to GDP were observed for Equatorial 
Guinea (share of +61%), Angola (share of +35%) and Eritrea (+14%) in 2013 (see chart 20). 
Other LDC economies with positive ratios for merchandise trade were Chad and Zambia. All the 
other LDCs showed negative shares, with Kiribati (-75%), Liberia (-74%) and Timor-Leste (-52%) 
at the end of the scale. For Kiribati and Liberia, the main reasons for the high negative shares are the "imports" of ships (often under flag of conven ience) which are registered as merchandise trade 
statistics.  
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 32 - Table 11: LDCs' merchandise trade ba lance by product groups, 2000-2013 
(Billion dollars) 
 2000  2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006  2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Total merchandise  ‐ 7.3 ‐ 11.1 ‐9.7‐14.1 ‐10.5 ‐4.7 2.9  3.6 6.0‐26.0 ‐7.0 ‐4.3‐18.4 ‐29.2 
Agriculture  a  ‐1.9 ‐2.3 ‐3.1 ‐4.1 ‐4.5 ‐5.3 ‐6.6 ‐9.3‐15.2 ‐14.4‐17.6 ‐23.4‐23.3 ‐25.7 
Fuels  10.5  10.1 12.7 15.1 23.0 37.2 47.5  62.8 87.7 52.3 63.7 75.5 75.2 72.5 
Non‐fuel minerals  1.1  1.5 1.5 1.6 2.6 3.3 6.6  8.0 10.0 7.8 13.2 16.5 15.9 16.4 
Manufactures  ‐ 17.5 ‐ 18.9 ‐20.7 ‐25.0 ‐31.7 ‐39.3 ‐48.6 ‐ 59.3 ‐78.7 ‐74.8‐89.1‐106.4‐114.7 ‐115.8 
a  Includes forestry and fishery products. 
Note: Trade balances for the respective product groups are estima ted based on WTO network of world merchandise trade by product s and regions and refer to FOB valuation 
on both export and import sides. These es timates do not add up to the total merchandise trade balances, which are calculated fr om official statistics and calculated as 
FOB-based exports minu s CIF-based imports. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 33 - 
 
  Chart 20: Trade balance of goods (BOP ), as a percentage of GDP, 2013  
(Percentage shares) 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat estimates and World Bank (for GDP).  
 2.4.2  Trade balance in commercial services  
2.49.  The LDCs, as a group, are net commercial services importers. Over the years, the LDCs' 
services trade deficit has widened reaching US$41.8 billion in 2013 up from US$7.4 billion in 2000. However, while both the transport sector and "other commercial services" sectors have 
experienced persistent trade deficits, travel (t ourism) has been recording an expanding surplus 
since 2000. In 2013, the travel surplus attained US$7.1 billion.  
Table 12: LDCs' commercial services trade balance by broad service sector, 2000-2013 
(Billion dollars)  
2000 
2001 
2002 
2003 
2004 
2005 
2006 
2007 
2008 
2009 
2010 
2011 
2012 
2013 
Total 
commercial services -7.4 -9.2 -8.5 -9.8 -12.9
 -17.0  -19.6  -26.4  -38.0  -32.6  -33.4 -42.5 -43.9  -41.8  
Transport -4.9 -5.3 -5.7 -6.8 -8.5 -10.3  -11.2  -14.4  -19.9  -18.4  -19.7 -22.6 -24.3  -24.3  
Travel 0.3 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.3  1.1 0.5 1.7 2.9 3.3 2.9 3.9 5.8  7.1 
Other 
commercial 
services -2.8 -4.6 -3.8 -4.0 -5.6 -7.8 -8.9 -13.7  -21.0  -17.5  -16.6 -23.9 -25.4  -24.6  
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 34 - 
  
  2.50.  In 2013, on average, the LDCs could finance only 43.1% of their commercial services 
imports through exports, while for other develo ping economies the coverage reached 362%. The 
import coverage ratio was even lower in LDCs in Africa (and Haiti), at 33.8%, recovering after the 
recession years. By contrast, in LDCs' Islands, the ratio has declined progressively since 2000 to 
67.9% in 2013. In Asian LDCs, exports covered more than 76% of imports, compared to 58.8% in 
2000. It is significant that LDCs' travel receipts covered alone 19.3% of LDCs' commercial services imports.  
Table 13: Coverage ratios of commercial  services trade of the LDCs, 2000-2013 
(Ratio of groups' total exports to imports, expressed in percentage) 
 2000 2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010 2011 2012 2013  
Least-Developed countries 43.5 38.9  34.9 34.0 31.3 36.3 39.4 37.9 38.9 43.1  
LDCs in Africa (and Haiti) 36.6 29.4 29.7 28.5 25.9 27.0 28.2 27.7 30.6 33.8 
LDCs in Asia 58.8 53.5  51.4 55.4 57.4 78.9 82.9 82.7 70.6 76.2  
LDCs Islands 122.2 120.3  119.4  110.6  88.7 74.8 64.3 48.1 67.9 67.9 
Other developing economies 91.2 161.1  187.8  229.8  265.7  237.1  282.5 318.3 344.3 362.0  
Note: Indicators based on total exports and imports for the reference group.  
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
 
2.51.  In 2013, the ratio of commercial services trade balance as a proportion of GDP was negative 
for most LDCs (see chart 21). The highest deficits, according to available data, were found in 
Tuvalu (-86%), Kiribati (-34%), Timor-Leste (-28%), Equatorial Guinea (-20%), and Angola (-18%). By contrast, some LDCs isla nds ranked at the top of the scale with a positive ratio to GDP. 
In Vanuatu and Samoa the ratios reached 22% and 16%, respectively. These two economies have 
been running positive ratios from 2000. Other LDCs with traditionally positive ratios over the years 
were Gambia, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Tanzania and Afghanistan. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 35 - 
 
  Chart 21: Trade balance of services (BOP) as a percentage of GDP in selected LDCs, 2013 
(Percentage) 
‐100‐90‐80‐70‐60‐50‐40‐30‐20‐1 00 1 02 03 04 0
Vanuatu
Samoa
Gambia
Liberia, Republic of
Cambodia
Afghanistan
Eritrea
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Tanzania
Madagascar
Djibouti
Togo
Nepal
Myanmar
Sudan
Rwanda
Senegal
Ethiopia
Benin
Sao Tome and Principe
Uganda
Haiti
Yemen
Bhutan
Malawi
Bangladesh
Zambia
South Sudan
Congo, Dem. Rep. of
Guinea‐Bissau
Solomon Islands
Burundi
Burkina Faso
Mali
Comoros
Sierra Leone
Guinea
Mozambique
Central African Republic
Niger
Lesotho
 
Source: WTO Secretariat estimates and the World Bank (for GDP). 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 36 - 
  
  3  TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  
3.1.  As in previous issues, the objective of this chapter is to monitor the evolution of market 
access conditions for LDCs' export along two tari ff related dimensions: the share of LDC exports 
benefiting from duty-free status in the importing markets and the average tariffs paid on dutiable 
products. For both indicators, the report identifi es preferential treatments that exporters may 
receive under existing LDC or other preferential schemes. The review includes LDCs' market access conditions in both developed and in selected developing country markets; in the latter case, the 
coverage is still limited by data availability. In addition, the chapter also provides new indicators 
on NTM that may be affecting LDC exports. 
3.1  Market Access in Developed Economies 
3.2.  The first indicator analyses the proportion of the exports from developing countries and LDCs 
imported free of duty in developed markets. Tw o distinctive trends can be observed. On the one 
hand, developed countries have increased their offer of duty-free treatment to LDCs; on the other hand, the LDCs have also been able to increase their exports of dutiable textile and agricultural 
products. Nevertheless, an increasing share of these dutiable products has been gradually 
incorporated in the preferential  duty-free schemes. In 2012, almost  100% of agricultural products 
and manufactures (excluding textile and clothing products) received duty-free treatment. This 
percentage drops to around 70% in the case of textile and clothing products, but this duty-free 
treatment is higher than what is observed in the case of the developing countries for these two products (35% and 28%, respectively). As a resu lt, the proportion of developed country duty-free 
imports from LDCs has always been higher than the developing countries (see Table 14). 
Moreover, most of the duty-free treatment enjoyed by the LDCs (54%) is of "true preferential" in 
nature in 2012, whereas the percentage of true  preferential duty-free access for developing 
countries was 20% in 2012.
17 The proportion of true preferences for LDCs has increased since 
2000, confirming the fact that more products of LDCs' export interest have been integrated in 
developed countries' duty-free and quota-free (DFQF) market access schemes.  
                                               
17 True preferential duty-free access is defined as the percentage of exports offered duty-free treatment 
under the GSP-LDC and other preferential schemes, as co mpared to products offered duty-free entry under the 
MFN treatment. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 37 - 
 
  Table 14: Proportion of developed-country im ports from developing countries and LDCs 
admitted free of duty, by value, 1996-2012 (excluding arms and oil)  
(Percentage of total value) 
a Including LDCs. 
b The true preferential portion is calculated by subtracting from the total duty-free access the value of 
all products receiving duty-free treatment under the MFN regime. The indicators are based on the 
best available treatment, including regional and preferential agreements. 
Source: WTO-ITC-UNCTAD and based on CAMAD da tabase compiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
 
3.3.  As indicated in Chart 22, almost 100% of agricultural products originating from LDCs are 
imported duty free by developed countries. This is 26 percentage points higher than what all 
developing countries were able to export under duty-free treatment for similar products. While the 
share of duty-free imports by developed countries from LDCs is lower in the case of clothing 
(71%), the LDCs enjoy a differential with competing products from developing countries whose 
share of duty-free imports by developed countries is 43 percentage points lower than the LDCs.  
Chart 22: Share of agricultural and clothing  duty free imports by developed economies 
originating from LDCs and comparison  with total developing countries  
(Percentage shares)  
 
Note:  Left-hand scale: Percentage of  LDCs' exports imported duty free by  developed countries (shown as a 
line).  
 Right-hand side: Percentage point difference with  similar imports originating from all developing 
countries; a positive differenc e shows an advantage for LDCs. 
Source: WTO-ITC-UNCTAD and based on CAMAD da tabase compiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
    1996 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 
Total Duty Free        
Developing countriesa  53.8 64.8 74.9 78.8 79.7 79.6 
 Least-Developed Countries  77.6 69.8 80.4 80.4 83.4 83.7 
"True" Preferential Duty Free b       
Developing countries a  19.3 16.7 21.1 19.1 19.7 19.7 
 Least-Developed Countries  34.9 35.0 49.0 53.6 52.7 54.0 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 38 - 
  
  Chart 23: Share of export value imported du ty free by developed economies originating 
for individual LDCs, 1996-2012 (Percentage shares) 
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%Tuvalu
ChadLiberiaSao Tome Prn
Cent.Afr.Rep
Djibouti
Rwanda
Burkina Faso
Samoa
Mali
Comoros
Niger
Ethiopia
Burundi
Congo, Dm.R
Benin
Zambia
Gambia
Guinea
Uganda
Sudan
Eritrea
Sierra LeoneTogoMauritania TanzaniaBhutanAfghanistanSenegalSolomon IsMalawiGuineaBissauEast TimorEq.GuineaAngolaVanuatuMozambiqueHaitiLesothoSomaliaKiribatiYemenMaldivesMadagascarLao P.Dem.R.NepalMyanmarBangladeshCambodia
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%
1996
2012
 
Note:  Excluding arms and oil. 
Source: WTO-ITC-UNCTAD and based on CAMAD da tabase compiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
 
3.4.  The evolution of duty-free coverage over time indicates that for about half the LDCs, their 
exports (excluding arms and oil) were already receiving close to 100% duty-free access in 1996, after the conclusion of the Uruguay Round. For ot her LDCs, the extension of duty-free treatment 
has been very significant. The gains have been in  the range of 50% to 60% for Haiti, Lesotho and 
Somalia, more than 65% for Kiribati and up to 75% in the case of Yemen. The case of Cambodia is particular, in the sense that this is the sole LDC that recorded a decrease (34 percentage points) in the coverage of its duty-free treatment. This is  caused by its successful diversification out of 
traditional exports and towards apparels, a large share of them being exported to the United 
States. 
3.5.  Table 15 provides information on the average tariffs levied on labour-intensive merchandises 
exported by the LDCs to developed countries. Th e average tariffs faced by LDCs on their key 
products declined rapidly during 1996-2000. Thereafter, average tariffs decreased only slowly in recent years. They are now close to zero in the case of agriculture and manufactures (other than 
textile and clothing products). Tariffs paid on clothing products from LDCs increased to 6.7% in 
2010 and remained at this level in 2012. As usual when it comes to analysing the competitive advantage provided by preferences, those tariffs need to be compared with the tariffs faced by exporters in other developing countries. The largest difference in favour of LDC exports 
corresponds to agriculture (almost 7 percentage points). It is much lower for textiles, clothing and 
other industries (between 1.8 and 0.6 percenta ge point). The LDC averages conceal important 
differences at various regions. The average tariff on clothing exports from African LDCs was almost 
zero in 2010. On the contrary, the average tariff faced by Asian LDCs on their clothing exports was 
6.7%. Since those Asian LDCs are by far the la rgest exporters of apparel, the group average 
reflects largely their particular situation.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 39 - 
 
  Table 15: Average tariffs levied by developed countries on key products from developing 
countries and LDCs, 2000-2012 
(Percentage ad valorem )a 
 
All developing countries b c 
 1996 2000  2005  2010  2011 2012  
Agriculture 10.4 9.2 8.8 7.3 7.2 7.7 
Clothing 11.5 10.8  8.4 8.0 7.9 7.9  
Textile 7.3 6.6 5.3 5.0 4.9 4.9 
Other industries 2.0 1.4  1.1 0.9 0.8 0.9  
       
LDCs  1996 2000  2005  2010  2011 2012  
Agriculture 6.6 3.6 3.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 
Clothing 3.3 7.8  6.4 6.7 6.7 6.7  
Textile 2.7 4.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.1 
Other industries 0.9 0.3  0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3  
a Average tariffs are based on best applicable tariffs  (MFN and preferential tr eatments granted to LDCs 
and developing countries), preference utilization is usually lower (about 80% to more than 90%), see WT/COMTD/LDC/W/41 for an analysis of  the factors affecting those variations. 
b Includes LDCs. 
c Weighted average using a standard export structur e based on 2000-2001 data, to limit the impact of 
the year-to-year changes in export composition and relative prices on the indicators. 
Source: WTO-ITC-UNCTAD based on CAMAD data base compiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
 
3.6.  Table 16 provides more detailed information at tariff line level. Most developed countries 
have been providing total or nearly total duty-free status to LDC exports under the general 
GSP-LDC scheme, either in terms of tariff lines (first group of columns of the table) or import value 
(second panel).18 Moreover, LDCs may benefit from other types of preferences; this is particularly 
the case for the US market where other preferen tial schemes coexist with the GSP-LDC scheme, 
such as the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) for the African LDCs. 
                                               
18 When 100% of tariff lines are covered, 100% of the imported value will be covered; the reverse is not 
true as 100% of imported value can be treated as DFQF even if some tariff lines are not duty free, as long as no imports are recorded for those dutiable tariff lines. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 40 - 
  
   
Box 3: Facilitating trade and operat ionalizing market access preferences 
 
Trading involves a series of transaction costs that increase the final export price. When these costs 
are significantly higher than those of the competitor s, as it is often the case with the LDCs, they 
may lead to loss of market share or missed busi ness opportunities. These costs are part of the 
supply constraints that frequently reduce the international competitiveness of LDCs and limit their 
trade potential.   
The Table below indicates that in 2012, it took an LDC on average 33 days and that it cost almost 
US$1,900 to export a container, compared to 18 days and about US$1,200 on average for other developing countries. The differential - which translates into a loss of competitiveness - is even higher for landlocked LDCs where it took more than 40 days and cost almost US$4,000 to do the 
custom formalities in the exporting county and ship a container.  
 
Cost of exporting a standard container, 2012 
(Dollars)  
Cost of exporting goods 
(2012) Number of 
documents Number of days Cost per container 
LDCs   8 33     1,885  
of which:    
- LDC Asia 8 32     1,624  
- LDC Africa 8 33     2,016  
- Haiti 8 33     1,185  
- Yemen 6 29        995  
- Landlocked LDCs 9 42     2,977  
Memorandum item:    
     - Developing countries 
        (excluding LDCs) 7 18     1,212  
 
Source:  Based on World Bank "Doing Business" database. 
 
As mentioned by Djankov et al., (2010), each additional day that a product is delayed prior to 
being shipped reduces trade by more than 1%. The authors find also that delays are particularly 
damaging for time-sensitive goods, such as pe rishable agricultural products, which are of 
particular interest to LDCs as they are both labour-intensive and where value-addition is high. 
 
High international trade costs are usually correlated with poor inland transportation infrastructure which reduces not only the potential for international trade but also dampens the possibility for 
small producers in remote areas to tap the potential of regional markets. The issue is particularly 
acute for Sub-Saharan Africa (Buysa et al., 2010), but is also representative of the situation of a considerable number of LDCs. 
 
Cross-border bottlenecks such as border-crossing procedures, cumbersome documentation or complex regulations reduce the competitiveness of LDC exports. They are like a tax on the income 
of the exporters who are "price takers" and cannot include the higher transaction costs into their 
bidding prices. The problem, according to Escaith and Tamenu (2013) is compounded when LDCs 
intend to diversify their exports by joining global value chains. Delays in delivery and the necessity of maintaining high inventory levels to cope with them run against the core management model of 
international supply chains, based on just-in-time and minimum buffer stocks. 
______________________ 
Buysa, P., U. Deichmann and D. Wheele, (2010). 'Road Network Upgrading: Overland Trade Expansion in 
Sub-Saharan Africa' Journal of African Economies (2010) 19 (3): 399-432. 
Djankov, S., C. Freund; C-S. Pham (2010) 'Trading on Time' The Review of Economics and Statistics 
February 2010, Vol. 92, No. 1, Pages 166-173. 
Escaith, H. and B. Tamenu (2013). Least-Developed Coun tries’ Trade During the “Super-Cycle” and the Great 
Trade Collapse: Patterns and Stylized Facts' WTO ERSD Working Paper ERSD-2013-12.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 41 - Table 16: GSP tariff treatment of LDC export s in selected developed markets, 2012 
Market Sector 
 
 
 
 GSP-LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN-LDC countries b 
(million US$ and percentage) Number of tariff lines  Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under 
GSP- LDC 
scheme TOTAL  Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied dutyc 
Australia Total  0 100.0  926 588 0 709.9  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  0 100.0  116 40 0 40.0 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-ag riculture d 0  100.0  804 548 0 654.8  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  6 0 0 15.1 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Canada Total  105 98.6 2,121  1,009  1 5,135.3  0.1 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  105 92.8 316 144 1 49.1 0.1 99.8 0.0 
Non-agriculture d 0 100.0  1,796  865 0 2,445.8  0.1 100.0  0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  8 0 0 145.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  1 0 0 2,494.7  0.0 100.0  0.0 
European Union Total  91 99.0 3,887  3,003  12 40,448.9  463.8  98.9 0.1 
Agriculture  73 96.5 637 472 8 3,458.3  88.5 97.4 0.1 
Non-agriculture d 18  99.8 3,231  2,531  4 21,075.5  375.3  98.2 0.2 
Ores 0 100.0  17 0 0 1,401.3  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  2 0 0 14,513.8  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Japan Total  197 97.9 965 645 18 7,023.0  25.2 99.6 0.0 
Agriculture  69 96.5 145 81 4 363.8  2.0 99.4 0.1 
Non-agriculture d 128 98.3 813 564 14 5,281.9  23.1 99.6 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  6 0 0 170.9  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  1 0 0 1,206.4  0.0 100.0  0.0 
New Zealand Total  0 100.0  774 498 0 151.9  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  0 100.0  79 22 0 14.8 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agriculture d 0  100.0  694 476 0 58.4 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Petroleum  0 100.0  1 0 0 78.7 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Norway Total  1 100.0  848 272 0 442.4  0.2 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  0 100.0  118 49 0 27.7 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agriculture d 1 100.0  728 223 0 216.8  0.2 99.9 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  1 0 0 7.0 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  1 0 0 190.9  0.0 100.0  0.0   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 42 - Market Sector 
 
 
 
 GSP-LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN-LDC countries b 
(million US$ and percentage) Number of tariff lines  Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under 
GSP- LDC 
scheme TOTAL  Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied dutyc 
Switzerland Total  0 100.0  1,217  1,027  0 588.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  0 100.0  244 179 0 142.9  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agriculture d 0  100.0  973 848 0 445.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores 0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Petroleum  0 100.0  0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
United States of 
America Total  1,873  82.5 1,889  1,286  628 23,916.9  8,375.9  65.0 5.9 
Agriculture  280 85.2 242 147 4 429.4  0.5 99.9 0.0 
Non-agriculture d 1,593  81.8 1,640  1,136  624 11,173.8  8,375.4  25.0 12.6 
Ores 0 100.0  5 1 0 124.4  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  2 2 0 12,189.3  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Notes:  While tariff line data is available for more recent years, the latest available import data for most Members was 2012. Results at tariff line level for 2012 may not be 
comparable with previous years due to  changes in the Harmonized System.  
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme ; some UN-LDC countries may be excluded; non-UN LDC countries may be included. At the difference of 
Table 1 and Table 2, the incidence of other preferenti al schemes such as AGOA or EBA is not included. 
b 48 LDC countries as listed by the UN in 2012. c Excludes non-ad valorem  duties, except for the US. 
d "Non-agriculture" covers NAMA products wi th the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
Source: IDB-WTO  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 43 - 
 
  3.2  Market Access in Developing Economies  
3.7.  Compiling statistical indicators on preferential market access to developing countries remains 
challenging, due to the scarcity of data. Table 17 uses the available information for a select group of 12 developing countries to replicate the method ology used for tracking policy changes through 
time in developed countries.
19 In particular, the indicators produced in this exercise are not actual 
trade-weighted averages (tariffs weighted by actual bilateral trade flows for a given year) but are based on a fixed Standard Import Structure (SIS). This SIS corresponds to a fixed basket of LDC 
goods imported by these 12 developing countries between 2009 and 2011. Using the same fixed 
trade flows as weight across all years allows the indicator to capture only the changes in tariff policy. 
Table 17: Average tariffs imposed by select ed developing countries on key products 
from LDCs, 2002-2012 (preliminary estimates)  
(Percentage ad valorem )
a 
 
Products Tariff and preference 2002 2007 2012 
Agriculture Average MFN 31.8 27.5 22.3 
  Average Applied 30.9 26.5 19.1 
  Average Margin 0.8 1 3.2 
Clothing Average MFN 14 15.3 13.7 
  Average Applied 13.4 13.6 6.6 
  Average Margin 0.6 1.7 7.1 
Textile Average MFN 11.1 9.9 7.3 
  Average Applied 10.5 9 2.1 
  Average Margin 0.5 0.9 5.2 
Other  Average MFN 6 5.5 3.6 
  Average Applied 5.6 5.2 2 
  Average Margin 0.4 0.4 1.6 
Totalb Average MFN 12.8 11.1 8.7 
  Average Applied 12.3 10.5 6.1 
  Average Margin 0.5 0.6 2.6 
a Average applied tariffs are based on  best applicable tariffs (MFN an d preferential treatments granted 
to LDCs), and weighted using a standard export structure based on the three years average. This 
indicator is still under construction and results ma y not be comparable with previous reports due to 
changes in methodology and coverage. 
b Excluding oil.  
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
                                               
19 Namely; Brazil; China; India; Indonesia; Korea, Rep. of; Mexico; Philippines; South Africa; Sri Lanka; 
Chinese Taipei; Turkey and Viet Nam. Hong Kong, Chin a; and Singapore were not considered in the sample 
because their MFN duty is already zero (see Table 18). 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 44 - 
 
  3.8.  Up to the beginning of the present decade, actu al preference granted by developing countries 
to LDCs was very limited. Data for 2012 show a ch ange in this situation, with a deepening of 
preferences granted to apparels (8.5 percentage points over  the applied MFN tariff of 15.3%) but 
also preference being granted in textile products  (about 4 percentage points). The margin of 
preference on agriculture is among the smallest at  3 percentage points. In a weighted average of 
all products, except oil, the preference margin granted to LDCs is 2.1%.  
3.9.  Table 18 presents available data for selected developing countries for the year 2012. 
Hong Kong, China, and Singapore are special cases as 100% of all products are duty free on an 
MFN basis. For a number of other importers, the duty-free imports from LDCs have been 
significant; over 98% for China and Chinese Taip ei; over 90% for Korea and Turkey or close to 
80% for South Africa. Yet, a large part of this result is attributable to imports of non-agricultural 
primary products (ores and petroleum) that are not dutiable under MFN. The "true" duty-free 
treatment granted to LDCs on tariff lines that are dutiable under MFN is still considerably lower; this is largely due to the fact that information on preferential tariffs enjoyed by LDCs in developing 
markets is still limited. Based on the available information, it is found that Korea and Turkey have 
granted preferential treatment on about 90% of their dutiable products under MFN; China has 
done the same for more than 70% of their MFN dutiable products. 
3.10.  Weighted applied duties vary markedly from importer to importer as a result of the 
differences in their tariff schedules, including LDC preferences, and the composition of their imports from LDCs. Average duties on agricultural imports, in particular, remained over 15% (this 
threshold is considered as tariff peaks) in one third of the surveyed importing countries, even 
without considering the incidence of non ad valorem duties . Little changes on the average duties 
collected on dutiable products were observable  between 2011 and 2012. Most of them were due to 
changes either in the structure of imports or due to  drop in the international price of ores and oil 
or due to change in the volume of imports (for example, a reduction of more than ten percentage 
point were observed for agricultural imports by Korea).  
  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 45 - Table 18: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing markets, 2012 
Market Sector LDC duty scheme Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) 
Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa  
Dutiable Duty 
free 
(%) Total Dutiable 
under 
MFN Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme Total Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Weighted 
applied duty 
Brazil Total -  - 763 713 - 998.8  330.2  66.9 8.3 
Agriculture - - 48 40 - 36.8 34.8 5.5 12.1 
Non-agriculture c - - 710 669 - 412.4 287.8 30.2 19.0 
Ores - - 4 4 - 7.7 7.7 0.0 2.0 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 542.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Chile Total - - 309 309 - 284.8  284.8  0.0 6.0 
Agriculture - - 9 9 - 0.3 0.3 0.0 6.0 
Non-agriculture c - - 299 299 - 283.3 283.3 0.0 6.0 
Ores - - 1 1 - 1.2 1.2 0.0 6.0 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a. n.a. 
Chinad Total 3,150  60.5 1,372  1,169  311 52,684.4  958.4  98.2 0.1 
Agriculture 491 55.2 156 146 53 1,267.2 636.9 49.7 3.2 
Non-agriculture c 2,659 61.1 1,194 1,023 258 8,817.9 321.5 96.4 0.1 
Ores 0 100.0 21 0 0 3,606.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 38,992.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Egyptd Total - - 414 371 - 874.6  771.8  11.8 2.2 
Agriculture - - 72 53 - 203.3 116.4 42.7 0.9 
Non-agriculture c - - 340 316 - 671.1 655.1 2.4 2.5 
Ores - - 2 2 - 0.2 0.2 0.0 2.0 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a. n.a. 
Hong Kong, 
China Total -  - 921 0 - 1,308.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture - - 102 0 - 41.8 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculture c - - 816 0 - 1,262.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores - - 3 0 - 4.6 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a.   
Indiae Total - - 1,646  1,579  - 14,874.4  4,985.1  66.5 5.3 
Agriculture - - 285 266 - 2,202.0 1,508.5 31.5 25.7 
Non-agriculture c - - 1,338 1,291 - 3,540.8 3,286.0 7.2 6.2 
Ores - - 22 22 - 190.6 190.6 0.0 2.5   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 46 - Market Sector LDC duty scheme Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) 
Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa  
Dutiable Duty 
free 
(%) Total Dutiable 
under 
MFN Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme Total Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Weighted 
applied duty 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 8,941.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
           
Kenyaf Total - - 988 722 - 315.6  212.7  32.6 16.0 
Agriculture - - 166 144 - 162.4 155.4 4.3 23.7 
Non-agriculture c - - 819 578 - 150.1 57.3 61.8 8.5 
Ores - - 3 0 - 3.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a. n.a 
Korea, Republic 
of Total 1,170  90.4 1,302  1,140  161.0  3,349.7  298.8  91.1 1.3 
Agriculture 695 59.7 197 188 90.0 141.8 45.1 68.2 18.9 
Non-agriculture c 465 95.6 1,092 951 70.0 3,018.9 67.5 97.8 0.4 
Ores 0 100.0 12 0 0.0 2.8 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 10 0.0 1 1 1.0 186.2 186.2 0.0 3.0 
Mexico Total - - 1,169  647 - 379.2  325.5  14.2 20.3 
Agriculture - - 46 32 - 23.3 21.8 6.5 19.5 
Non-agriculture c - - 1,117 615 - 350.1 303.8 13.2 20.7 
Ores - - 6 0 - 5.8 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a. n.a. 
Pakistan Total -  - 595 488 - 528.8  116.9  77.9 3.5 
Agriculture - - 168 121 - 283.2 97.9 65.4 5.6 
Non-agriculture c - - 424 365 - 245.0 18.9 92.3 1.1 
Ores - - 3 2 - 0.7 0.1 91.4 0.4 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 n.a n.a. n.a.  
Singapore Total - - 1,622  2 - 1,412.4  0.2 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture - - 315 2 - 150.6 0.2 99.9 0.0 
Non-agriculture c - - 1,302 0 - 829.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores - - 3 0 - 1.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum - - 2 0 - 430.7 0.0 100.0 0.0 
South Africa Total -  - 2,265  1,104  - 4,897.3  1,072.9  78.1 2.1 
Agriculture - - 273 162 - 243.6 157.4 35.4 4.6 
Non-agriculture c - - 1,973 942 - 1,791.2 915.4 48.9 7.0 
Ores - - 18 0 - 22.5 0.0 100.0 0.0  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 47 - Market Sector LDC duty scheme Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) 
Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports 
from LDC beneficiariesa  
Dutiable Duty 
free 
(%) Total Dutiable 
under 
MFN Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme Total Dutiable Duty 
free (%) Weighted 
applied duty 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 2,840.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Chinese Taipei Total 5,961  31.7 720 551 498 6,017.2  112.0  98.1 0.2 
Agriculture 1,069 24.2 101 69 65 60.6 29.7 51.0 6.8 
Non-agriculture c 4,892 32.7 616 482 433 519.7 82.3 84.2 1.6 
Ores 0 100.0 2 0 0 1.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 5,435.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Thailandd Total -  - 1,815  1,625  - 6,498.7  4,324.5  33.5 2.0 
Agriculture - - 210 200 - 261.3 144.6 44.7 12.6 
Non-agriculture c - - 1,594 1,417 - 4,761.9 4,164.1 12.6 2.4 
Ores - - 10 8 - 17.2 15.9 7.4 0.9 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 1,458.4 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Turkeyd Total 2,384  79.7 793 647 67 1,483.4  103.5  93.0 1.7 
Agriculture 1,605 26.3 76 48 42 145.7 91.0 37.6 15.2 
Non-agriculture c 776 91.9 716 598 24 1,337.5 12.4 99.1 0.2 
Ores 3 92.3 1 1 1 0.1 0.1 0.0 1.5 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a. 
Notes:  Results at tariff line level for 2012 may not be comparable with previous years due to changes in the Harmonized System .  
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme ; some UN-LDC countries may be excluded; non-UN LDC countries may be included. 
b 48 LDC countries as listed by the UN in 2012. Weighted applied duty excludes non ad valorem  duties. 
c "Non Agriculture" covers NAMA products with the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
d Year 2011. It is noted that China has extended DFQF coverage for LDCs to 95% of its tariff lines in 2013 (WT/COMTD/LDC/M/71).  
e  While preferential data were not available in the IDB for 2012, it is noted that India has attained DFQF coverage of 85% of its  tariff lines for LDCs by October 2012 
(http://www.cbec.gov.in ). 
f Year 2010. 
Source: IDB-WTO. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 48 - 
  
  3.3  Non-Tariff Measures affecting Market Access for LDC exports  
3.11.  With the lowering of tariff duties in developed and – increasingly - developing countries, the 
attention of market access analysts has been focusing on NTMs and their possible incidence on trade. The Integrated Trade Intelligence Portal (I-TIP), the most recent market access database 
developed by the WTO Secretariat, seeks to provide comprehensive information on NTMs applied 
by WTO Members in merchandise trade. The information includes Members' notifications of NTMs as well as information on Specific Trade Concerns (STCs) raised by Members at WTO committee 
meetings. 
3.12.  Using I-TIP information, it appears that over the last 20 years, some 37 measures have 
been identified as specific to  the LDCs, which is a low number compared to some 40,000 to 50,000 
measures notified to the WTO. Seven of these 37 are anti-dumping measures; five of them are not 
in force today. No countervailing measure has been applied to imports from LDCs. Other type of 
NTMs applied on a bilateral basis relates to Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPS); ten out of 19 SPS measures have been applied under the emergency procedure (10 out of 19). All of these 
measures have been applied in the last five years; more than half of them have been applied  by 
developing countries.  
3.13.  Taking into account only notified measures  affecting merchandise trade (and without 
considering licensing, quantitative restrictions and a few agricultural measures), Chart 24 shows 
that NTMs have been on the rise since 2008. Most of these measures are applied on an MFN basis, and the overall picture does not indicate that the LDC products face target ed NTMs. In particular, 
no anti-dumping measure has been applied since 2008. It is to be noted that the frequency of 
NTMs has  increased lately: in 2013 and during the first quarter of 2014, 12 SPS measures taken 
by Members are of direct relevance to the LDCs.  
Chart 24: Number of bilateral NTMs face d by LDCs (all markets of destination) 
 
Source: Based on WTO I-TIP database. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 49 - 
 
  3.14.  Based on the notifications received, no safeguard measure has been taken on products 
exported by LDCs. The available information indicates a relatively low incidence of trade-defence measures against LDCs. Therefore, LDC exports are probably more concerned by the NTMs  that are taken on an MFN basis. 
3.15.  In order to better gauge the effects on LDCs of  NTMs taken on an MFN basis, 22 products of 
special interest to LDCs' exports covering more than 80% of their total merchandise exports have 
been analysed. As can be seen from Table 19, the prevalence of NTMs affecting LDC exports 
directly is relatively low (between 2% and 11% depending on the particular measure). In the 
cases of both TBT and SPS measures, around 10% of those measures taken apply to products of export interest to the LDCs. With regard to STCs, seven measures relate to tobacco.
20 Similarly, 
most quantitative restrictions taken on an MFN basis apply to tobacco and tobacco products; other 
bilateral quantitative restriction measures are related to global security concerns.21 Most of the 13 
special agricultural safeguards (SSG) relate to beans.  
Table 19: Non-Tariff Measures on selected pr oducts of export interest to LDCs, 2013 
  1. Measures applying to 
HS4 headings exported 
by LDCs  2. Total number of 
measures in force (All 
HS4 headings)Prevalence  
([1]/[2] in %)  
Safeguards   0  114 - 
TBT  153  1456 10.5 
TBT STC   7  422 1.7 
SPS  240  2562 9.4 
SPS STC   6  206 2.9 
SSG  13  569 2.2 
Note:  Based on 22 products at HS4 digit. Agriculture (AoA plus other related products): cotton, tobacco, 
beans, coffee, fish, meat, wood; Mi nerals: crude oil and gas, gold, ir on ore, copper and aluminium; 
Manufacture:  suits, jackets and trousers, knitted or not. 
Source: WTO I-TIP database. 
                                               
20 The economic implications for some exporters may be more important if exports are concentrated on 
the few products like tobacco that are covered by such MFN measures. 
21 The 13 measures applied on bilateral basis cover mo stly arms to/from countries in conflict and some 
chemicals used as precursors in drug production. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 50 - 
  
  4  RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS FOR LDC PRODUCTS 
4.1.  Annex Table 7 provides a non-exhaustive list of major multilateral non-reciprocal market 
access schemes undertaken by Members in favour of LDCs. It updates the previous year's information based on Members' notifications made to the WTO as well as submissions made to 
WTO's IDB. The Table does not include regional or bilateral agreements/initiatives under which, 
too, LDCs receive preferences. 
4.2.  Progress has continued in advancing market access opportunities for LDCs. Since the last 
report, one developing country Member – Chile- has undertaken a DFQF scheme in favour of LDCs 
(WT/COMTD/N/44 and WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1). The scheme, which came into effect in February 2014, provides DFQF coverage to 99.5% of Chile's tariff lines.  
4.3.  While formal notifications have been limited over the reporting period, a number of Members 
indicated progress in their market access schemes related to LDCs. At the meeting of the 
Sub-Committee on LDCs in April 2014, China reported that it had already extended DFQF coverage for LDCs for 95% of its tariff lines and that this coverage would soon be extended to 97%. At the 
same meeting, the United States reiterated that it provided 97.5% DFQF access for LDC 
beneficiaries of the AGOA. The current duty-free status under the United States' GSP scheme for LDCs is 82.6%. 
4.4.  As has been reported in the past, most of the developed Members grant either full or nearly 
full DFQF access. A number of developing countri es have also taken concrete steps to provide 
duty-free access to LDC products. In this regard, five developing countries have made notifications pursuant to the established procedure including under the Transparency Mechanism for the 
Preferential Trade Arrangements. These countri es are: Chile, China, India, Korea and 
Chinese Taipei.
22 Most of them grant a significant degree of DFQF market access to LDC products, 
and a number of  them have reached or are in the process of attaining comprehensive DFQF 
coverage for LDCs. 
4.5.  It may be noted that the Bali package adopted at the Ninth WTO Ministerial Conference 
(MC9) in Bali in December 2013 contains decisions aimed at enhancing market access 
opportunities for LDC products. First, the Bali Decision on DFQF market access for LDCs 
(WT/L/919) brings, inter alia , enhanced transparency in reviewing the steps taken by Members to 
provide DFQF market access to the LDCs. Second, the Decision on preferential rules of origin 
applicable to imports from LDCs (WT/L/917) provides a set of multilateral guidelines which 
Members may wish to draw upon as they develop or improve upon their rules of origin in favour of 
LDCs. The Decision also provides for greater tr ansparency, including requiring the Committee on 
Rules of Origin to annually review the developments in preferential rules of origin according to the 
guidelines contained in the Decision. Third, the Decision relating to the operationalization of the 
LDC Services Waiver (WT/L/918) sets out a process to help LDCs benefit from the Waiver Decision (WT/L/847) which was adopted in 2011 to enable Members to provide preferential treatment to 
services and service suppliers of LDCs. 
                                               
22 The references to their notifications can be found in Annex Table 7. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 51 - 
 
  5  CONCLUSION 
5.1.  During 2013, LDC exports of goods and services continued to grow at a slightly higher rate 
than in the previous year (5.2% versus 4.7% in 2013), reaching an overall high value of US$250 billion (US$237.7 billion in 2012). However, the growth rate of imports outpaced that of 
exports, leading to a new high overall trade deficit of US$60.6 billion in 2013, up from 
US$53.6 billion in 2012. 
5.2.  The share of LDC exports in world merchandise trade stood at 1.17% in 2013 – a very 
modest improvement from 1.15% in the previous year. The participation of LDCs in services 
exports is still very low compared to their participation in merchandise trade. The share of LDC exports in commercial services trade in 2013 was 0.68% – which also represented a marginal improvement from 0.64% in the previous year.  
5.3.  LDC exports remain highly concentrated on a few products, mainly primary commodities for 
merchandise exporters and tourism receipts for commercial services exporters. Primary commodities (which include fuels and minerals) accounted for 71% of LDC merchandise exports in 
2013, up from 60% in the year 2000. In fact, there has been a consistent rise in the share of fuels 
and mining products in LDC merchandise exports accompanied with a gradual decline in the share of agricultural and manufacture products. Similarl y, travel and transport comprised nearly 70% of 
LDCs' commercial services exports in 2013. Of note is that the communication services sector has 
been expanding in a few LDCs, though on a small scale.  
5.4.  The direction of merchandise trade in 2013 exhibited the same trend as before, with 
developing countries absorbing 55% of LDC expo rts, while developed countries accounted for 
39%. China was the top destination for total LDC exports, accounting for 23% of LDC exports in 
2013.  
5.5.  After significant improvements in market access opportunities for LDC exports to developed 
countries over the past decade, additional progress remained somewhat limited in the recent 
years. As has been reported in the past, most developed Members today grant either full or nearly full duty-free access to LDC products. In fact, almost 100% of agricultural products exported by 
the LDCs are imported free of duty by the develo ped countries. However, in case of manufacturing 
exports from LDCs, in particular clothing exports - which is the most dominant manufacturing item for the Group – the proportion of  duty-free imports by developed countries was around 70% over 
the past few years. The average tariffs faced by the LDCs in developed markets in the past few 
years show that the margin of preference for LDCs was higher for agricultural products (nearly 
7%) as compared to their manufacturing exports; in particular, the margin for clothing products was insignificant (1.2%). 
5.6.  An increasing number of developing countries have also taken concrete steps to improve 
market access opportunities for LDC exports. So fa r, China, Chile, India, Korea and Chinese Taipei 
have made notifications of their LDC DFQF schemes. Most of these countries' DFQF coverage in 
favour of LDCs is significant. However, overall information on developing countries' preference 
schemes remains limited.  
5.7.  Trends in LDC merchandise exports to developing countries point to a significant reduction of 
tariffs since 2005. Excluding oil, one of the main LDC export items to other developing countries 
where it is mostly MFN duty free, the average a pplied duty on LDC products stood at 5.5% in 
2012. More than half of this reduction was due to  improved preferences granted to the LDCs over 
MFN treatment.   
5.8.  The WTO's MC9 adopted a number of decisions aimed at improving the market access 
opportunities for LDCs, both in the area of goods and services. The Bali Decisions relating to DFQF market access as well as preferential rules of origin mark a step forward towards providing 
increasingly greater market access for LDC products. The Decision relating to the 
operationalization of the LDC Services Waiver initiates a process with a view to increasing the participation of LDCs in world services trade. 
 
_______________ 
    
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 52 - ANNEX 
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2013 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
  Exports Imports 
  Value Annual percentage change Value Annual percentage change 
  2013 2000-13 2011 2012 2013 2013 2000-13 2011 2012 2013 
LDCs 214,622  14.7 24.5 1.1 5.1 243,788  14.2 22.6 9.3 7.3 
Exporters of agricultural products 14,710 12.0 29.8 1.1 2.4 46,513 14.0 17.5 19.9 3.2 
Afghanistan 515 10.7 -3.3 14.1 20.1 8,724 16.7 26.4 39.2 -3.8 
Benin 1,500 10.9 -2.4 7.9 11.1 2,400 11.1 3.6 3.3 9.1 
Burkina Faso 2,160 19.7 50.8 -9.0 -1.1 3,600 14.6 17.5 33.0 12.5 
Burundi 99 5.4 22.0 8.1 -25.7 811 14.0 47.9 -0.2 8.0 
Central African Republic 150 -0.5 35.7 5.3 -25.0 250 6.0 3.3 3.2 -21.9 
Comoros 20 2.6 25.2 -24.4 0.6 284 15.6 18.9 -1.2 4.1 
Ethiopia 2,700 14.1 23.4 0.6 -6.6 12,200 19.1 3.4 33.9 2.4 
Gambia 90 14.8 170.8 5.6 -10.0 350 4.9 20.6 17.1 -13.0 
Guinea-Bissau 190 9.0 91.2 -46.3 46.2 240 11.4 22.2 -8.4 9.1 
Kiribati 8 5.8 120.8 -32.4 29.0 112 8.2 25.5 18.3 3.2 
Liberia 559 4.2 65.3 25.2 21.7 1,150 4.3 47.1 -3.8 14.4 
Malawi 1,208 9.3 33.7 -17.0 2.1 2,845 13.8 11.7 -2.8 20.5 
Rwanda 703 22.2 56.2 27.3 19.0 2,302 20.2 42.5 12.8 0.1 
Sao Tome and Principe 16 13.7 1.0 36.8 6.0 152 13.3 19.2 -1.8 15.8 
Solomon Islands 440 15.3 85.6 18.8 -10.8 519 14.2 16.7 6.0 3.8 
Somalia 540 8.2 15.6 3.8 0.0 1,300 10.8 42.9 0.0 8.3 
Timor-Leste a 16 7.2 -19.5 133.2 -47.9 843 20.6 29.4 108.3 26.9 
Togo 1,350 10.6 20.7 1.8 12.5 2,300 11.4 22.6 1.8 9.5 
Uganda 2,408 14.7 33.4 9.2 2.1 5,818 10.8 20.7 7.3 -3.7 
Vanuatu 39 3.1 38.1 -18.7 -29.6 313 10.4 6.7 -2.6 5.7 
Fuel exportersb 115,529 16.0 23.6 -1.8 2.4 69,801 15.9 19.5 10.8 7.2 
Angola 68,800 18.1 33.0 5.6 -3.2 24,500 17.4 21.4 17.2 3.3 
Bhutan 510 13.1 5.2 -17.8 -8.0 1,040 14.7 23.2 -6.3 5.5 
Chad 4,200 27.3 33.3 -4.2 -8.7 2,800 18.2 12.5 11.1 -6.7 
Equatorial Guinea 14,500 22.0 35.0 14.8 -6.5 7,000 23.5 25.0 15.4 -6.7 
Myanmar 11,233 16.1 6.7 -3.9 26.5 12,043 13.3 89.5 1.8 31.2 
Sudan 7,086 11.1 -15.0 -58.0 74.3 9,918 15.3 -8.1 2.6 4.7 
Yemen 9,200 6.5 19.8 -16.5 13.6 12,500 13.8 8.4 12.2 11.0  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 53 -   Exports Imports 
  Value Annual percentage change Value Annual percentage change 
  2013 2000-13 2011 2012 2013 2013 2000-13 2011 2012 2013 
Manufacture exporters 43,006 11.9 27.9 4.5 15.4 65,447 11.7 24.9 0.6 8.3 
Bangladesh 29,114 12.4 27.3 2.8 15.9 36,377 11.5 30.2 -5.6 6.4 
Cambodia 9,300 15.8 30.3 16.9 18.7 13,000 15.8 37.0 18.3 18.2 
Haiti 900 8.3 32.4 6.3 10.4 3,700 10.3 -4.0 5.0 16.7 
Lesotho 847 10.9 33.6 -17.0 -12.9 2,200 8.0 8.7 4.0 -15.4 
Madagascar 1,900 6.6 38.3 -4.7 25.3 3,200 8.6 12.4 6.5 3.4 
Nepal 883 0.7 7.4 -0.9 -3.0 6,604 11.7 12.5 5.0 8.9 
Samoa 62 -0.3 -5.7 14.8 -18.4 367 10.0 11.6 -0.1 6.1 
Exporters of non-fuel minerals c 38,618 17.0 22.6 7.2 3.7 54,561 16.3 28.4 10.1 10.2 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 6,300 17.1 24.5 -4.5 0.0 6,300 18.6 22.2 10.9 3.3 
Eritrea 330 18.3 3207.7 11.6 -31.3 1,030 6.2 43.9 2.1 6.2 
Guinea 1,300 5.3 -2.6 -9.3 0.0 2,100 9.9 49.9 7.0 -6.8 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 2,264 16.0 25.4 3.7 -0.3 3,020 14.2 16.7 27.1 -1.2 
Mali 2,339 11.9 18.9 9.9 -10.4 3,900 12.9 -2.2 3.3 12.6 
Mauritania 2,674 16.8 33.9 -4.9 1.3 3,250 16.3 27.5 28.5 2.5 
Mozambique 4,300 20.9 20.1 13.8 4.9 8,800 16.9 37.1 7.8 29.4 
Niger 1,550 14.0 8.7 20.0 3.3 2,100 13.7 -11.5 -11.9 8.8 
Sierra Leone 1,917 46.8 2.5 220.8 70.9 1,780 21.0 122.9 -6.6 11.0 
Tanzania 5,050 16.0 16.9 17.2 -9.0 12,120 17.3 37.1 5.1 6.8 
Zambia 10,594 21.0 25.0 4.0 13.1 10,162 20.6 34.9 22.7 15.4 
Diversified and others d 2,760 8.5 17.3 0.6 4.1 7,465 11.9 24.6 9.1 6.2 
Djibouti 120 10.8 8.9 27.3 1.4 719 10.1 36.6 10.5 27.5 
Senegal 2,640 8.4 17.6 -0.4 4.3 6,730 12.1 23.6 8.9 4.6 
Tuvalu 0 29.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 16 9.4 56.3 20.0 -46.7 
World e 18,816,339  8.6 19.8 0.4 2.2 18,890,065  8.3 19.3 0.6 1.5 
a 2003-2013, as no 2000-2002 data were available. 
b Includes exporters of electricity (Bhutan). c
 Includes exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. acco rding to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) and diamonds (normally included in 
manufactures according to the UN classification). 
d Includes exporters without a clear speciali zation in a specific category of goods. 
e Includes significant re-exports  and imports for re-export. 
Source: WTO Secretariat.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 54 - Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000 – 2014, Q2 
(Indices 2005=100) 
  2000  2001  2002  2003  2004  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2013  2014  
 
               Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Food and beverages 80  81 83 87  98 100 110 127 157 136 153 182  175 175 178 180 173 168 176 181 
Food 81 82 84 88 100 100 111 127 157 134 150 180 176 178 181 183 176 170 177 181 
Cereals 78  82 94 95  102 100 122 159 222 161 166 230  236 218 240 231 209 191 191 198 
Wheat 75 83 97 96 103 100 126 167 214 147 147 207 206 205 211 206 201 202 195 211 
Maize 90  91 101 107  114 100 124 166 227 168 189 297  303 263 310 296 244 203 214 217 
Rice 71 60 67 69 85 100 106 116 243 205 181 192 202 180 198 191 175 156 153 142 
Barley 81  99 115 110  104 100 123 181 211 135 167 218  251 217 252 244 207 166 171 176 
Vegetable oils and protein 
meals 72 70 82 96 111 100 103 143 193 154 170 209 216 206 212 213 204 198 203 212 
Meat 79  85 80 82  100 100 95 99 103 98 117 134  132 136 135 136 139 135 143 156 
Beef 74 81 80 76 96 100 97 99 102 101 128 154 158 155 163 153 149 154 162 165 
Lamb 70  81 91 99  103 100 96 101 106 91 91 93  63 66 60 65 68 72 77 84 
Swine meat 88 91 70 79 105 100 94 94 96 82 110 132 122 128 118 131 141 122 137 170 
Poultry 80  86 85 90  102 100 94 106 115 116 116 118  128 141 136 141 144 142 142 148 
Seafood 112 99 85 84 88 100 121 113 113 114 140 139 113 160 149 166 159 168 186 171 
Fish 90  71 72 74  82 100 125 112 119 121 151 146  117 166 159 177 161 169 191 171 
Shrimp 180 181 124 117 105 100 105 116 91 85 98 115 97 136 109 123 151 161 166 172 
Sugar 81  82 70 77  83 100 133 102 117 152 172 211  175 148 153 145 145 149 144 154 
Bananas 73 101 91 65 91 100 118 117 146 147 153 169 171 161 162 158 162 161 164 161 
Oranges 43  71 67 81  101 100 98 114 132 108 118 102  99 111 94 122 131 95 92 94 
Beverages 78 66 76 80 83 100 108 123 152 154 176 206 167 147 152 147 145 146 168 181 
Coffee 76  54 54 59  70 100 112 129 150 132 165 231  180 147 161 153 143 132 168 193 
Cocoa beans 59 70 115 114 100 100 103 127 167 187 203 193 154 158 143 149 160 179 191 200 
Tea 115  92 83 90  92 100 112 98 125 145 146 160  161 123 148 122 113 108 115 103 
Agricultural raw materials 93 88 90 93 98 100 109 114 113 94 124 153 133 136 133 137 135 139 141 141 
Timbe r 90  83 82 86  96 100 108 107 109 102 101 111  107 107 104 109 107 109 110 110 
Cotton 107 87 84 115 112 100 105 115 129 114 188 280 162 164 163 168 166 158 170 168 
Wool 83  78 101 113  105 100 104 144 138 115 153 234  215 196 218 190 179 199 186 182 
Rubbe r 46 40 51 72 87 100 140 153 174 128 243 321 225 186 210 193 173 168 150 141 
Hides and skins 122  129 123 104  102 100 105 110 98 68 110 125  127 144 131 143 146 157 164 167 
Minerals and non-ferrous metals 
(excluding crude petroleum) 59 53 52 58 79 100 156 183 169 136 202 229 190 182 199 176 176 178 171 165 
Coppe r 49  43 42 48  78 100 183 194 189 141 205 240  217 199 216 195 193 195 191 185 
Aluminum 82 76 71 75 90 100 135 139 136 88 114 126 106 97 105 97 94 93 90 95  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 55 -   2000  2001  2002  2003  2004  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2013  2014  
 
               Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Iron ore 44  46 45 49  58 100 119 130 219 285 522 597  457 482 528 446 473 480 429 365 
Tin 74 61 55 66 115 100 119 196 250 184 276 353 286 302 326 283 289 310 307 313 
Nickel 58  40 46 65  94 100 163 251 143 99 148 155  119 102 117 101 94 94 99 125 
Zinc 82 64 56 60 76 100 237 235 137 120 157 159 141 138 147 133 135 138 147 150 
Lead 47  49 46 53  91 100 132 265 215 177 221 246  212 220 235 211 216 217 216 215 
Uranium 30 31 35 40 65 100 171 355 230 167 165 201 175 138 153 146 128 125 126 107 
Total of above 74  71 72 76  91 100 123 140 151 127 161 190  171 169 175 170 166 165 167 168 
Energy 54 47 47 55 72 100 119 132 185 117 147 201 203 196 203 188 197 197 195 197 
Natural gas 60  60 48 63  70 100 115 117 174 110 113 154  171 165 168 168 161 162 169 165 
Crude petroleum 53 46 47 54 71 100 121 133 182 116 149 204 208 201 208 192 203 203 200 203 
Coal 53  65 54 57  113 100 104 138 266 149 206 254  202 177 193 179 161 174 163 155 
All primary commodities  59 54 54 61 77 100 121 135 172 121 152 197 191 186 192 182 185 185 184 186 
Note: Beginning with the first quarter of 2011, the crude oil price index is computed excluding West Texas Intermediate (WTI), in order to better reflec t prices in international 
trade. The price of WTI, which accounts for one third of the IMF's original crude oil index, became largely dislocated from int ernational markets in early 2011. Although 
suited for measuring oil price worldwide, the WTI inclusion in a crude oil price index would however considerably distort an in dex meant to measure oil prices in 
international trade. 
Source: IMF commodity prices. 
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 56 - 
 
  Annex Table 3: Leading merchand ise exports of LDCs in 2013a 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
HS07 Product 
Description LDC exports 
 World exports 
Value Share 
in Total 
Exports  Exports to   Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World  Developed 
Economies  Developing 
Economies 
TOTAL All Commodities 197,445 100.0  79,337 117,728 14,089,513 1.4  
27 Mineral fuels, 
mineral oils and 
products of their 
distillation; 
bituminous 
substances; mineral 
waxes. 109,752 55.6  32,864 76,887 2,742,651 4.0  
2709 Petroleum oils and 
oils obtained from bituminous minerals, crude. 94,171 47.7 
 28,520 65,651 1,547,261 6.1  
2711 Petroleum gases 
and other gaseous 
hydrocarbons. 11,224 5.7  3,036 8,188 396,349 2.8  
2710 Petroleum oils and 
oils obtained from bituminous minerals, other than crude; preparations not elsewhere specified or included, containing by weight 70% or more of petroleum oils or of oils obtained from bituminous minerals. 2,809 1.4 
 1,172 1,636 602,214 0.5  
61 Articles of apparel 
and clothing 
accessories, knitted 
or crocheted 16,777 8.5  15,585 1,149 147,367 11.4  
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, 
cardigans, 
waistcoats and 
similar articles, knitted or crocheted. 5,110 2.6 
 4,731 361 42,193 12.1  
6109 T-shirts, singlets 
and other vests, 
knitted or 
crocheted. 4,930 2.5  4,582 336 26,962 18.3  
6104 Women's or girls' 
suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear), knitted or crocheted. 1,810 0.9 
 1,728 80 18,075 10.0  
6105 Men's or boys' 
shirts, knitted or 
crocheted. 922 0.5  848 71 6,269 14.7  
62 Articles of apparel 
and clothing accessories, not 15,449 7.8 
 13,603 1,810 151,801 10.2  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 57 - 
 
  HS07 Product 
Description LDC exports 
 World exports 
Value Share 
in Total 
Exports  Exports to   Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World  Developed 
Economies  Developing 
Economies 
knitted or 
crocheted. 
6203 Men's or boys' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, 
blazers, trousers, 
bib and brace 
overalls, breeches 
and shorts (other 
than swimwear). 5,794 2.9  5,276 509 33,013 17.5  
6204 Women's or girls' 
suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear). 3,656 1.9 
 3,352 294 41,219 8.9  
6205 Men's or boys' 
shirts. 2,333 1.2  2,017 309 11,893 19.6  
26 Ores, slag and ash. 8,748 4.4  1,579 6,989 262,116 3.3  
2603 Copper ores and 
concentrates. 2,604 1.3  110 2,494 59,494 4.4  
2601 Iron ores and 
concentrates, 
including roasted 
iron pyrites. 3,405 1.7  497 2,909 149,724 2.3  
2606 Aluminium ores and 
concentrates. 887 0.4  659 101 5,663 15.7  
2605 Cobalt ores and 
concentrates. 500 0.3  0 500 524 95.5  
74 Copper and articles 
thereof. 7,203 3.6  398 6,806 136,620 5.3  
7403 Refined copper and 
copper alloys, unwrought. 4,255 2.2 
 319 3,936 54,945 7.7  
71 Natural or cultured 
pearls, precious or 
semi-precious 
stones, precious 
metals, metals clad 
with precious metal, 
and articles thereof; 
imitation jewellery; 
coin. 4,582 2.3  2,019 2,563 418,736 1.1  
7102 Diamonds, whether 
or not worked, but 
not mounted or set. 1,481 0.8  1,378 102 121,484 1.2  
44 Wood and articles of 
wood; wood 
charcoal. 4,421 2.2  175 4,246 106,132 4.2  
4403 Wood in the rough, 
whether or not stripped of bark or sapwood, or roughly squared. 3,713 1.9 
 55 3,658 19,189 19.3  
03 Fish and 
crustaceans, 
molluscs and other 
acquatic 
invertebrates. 2,254 1.1  1,404 843 77,578 2.9  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 58 - 
 
  HS07 Product 
Description LDC exports 
 World exports 
Value Share 
in Total 
Exports  Exports to   Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World  Developed 
Economies  Developing 
Economies 
0306 Crustaceans, 
whether in shell or 
not, live, fresh, 
chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in brine; crustaceans, in shell, cooked by steaming or by boiling in water, whether or not chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in brine; flours, meals and pellets of crus. 852 0.4 
 689 160 17,517 4.9  
0303 Fish, frozen, 
excluding fish fillets 
and other fish meat 
of heading 03.04. 680 0.3  193 482 16,243 4.2  
07 Edible vegetables 
and certain roots and tubers. 2,236 1.1 
 198 2,036 52,967 4.2  
0713 Dried leguminous 
vegetables, shelled, 
whether or not 
skinned or split. 1,949 1.0  78 1,872 9,557 20.4  
08 Edible fruit and 
nuts; peel of citrus fruit or melons. 1,782 0.9 
 198 1,581 75,690 2.4  
0801 Coconuts, Brazil 
nuts and cashew 
nuts, fresh or dried, 
whether or not 
shelled or peeled. 1,014 0.5  35 978 4,461 22.7  
12 Oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits; miscellaneous grains, seeds and fruit; industrial or medicinal plants; straw and fodder. 1,790 0.9 
 245 1,543 83,284 2.1  
1207 Other oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, 
whether or not 
broken. 1,457 0.7  182 1,275 3,877 37.6  
52 Cotton. 1,769 0.9  66 1,704 41,115 4.3  
5201 Cotton, not carded 
or combed. 1,649 0.8  54 1,596 15,651 10.5  
09 Coffee, tea, mate 
and spices. 1,703 0.9  1,312 391 32,617 5.2  
0901 Coffee, whether or 
not roasted or 
decaffeinated; 
coffee husks and 
skins; coffee 
substitutes 
containing coffee in 
any proportion. 1,181 0.6  1,070 111 23,387 5.1  
28 Inorganic 
chemicals; organic or inorganic compounds of precious metals, of 1,541 0.8 
 944 597 104,038 1.5  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 59 - 
 
  HS07 Product 
Description LDC exports 
 World exports 
Value Share 
in Total 
Exports  Exports to   Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World  Developed 
Economies  Developing 
Economies 
rare-earth metals, 
of radioactive 
elements or of 
isotopes. 
64 Footwear, gaiters 
and the like; parts 
of such articles. 1,535 0.8  1,311 215 89,052 1.7  
6403 Footwear with outer 
soles of rubber, plastics, leather or composition leather and uppers of leather. 906 0.5 
 841 62 40,341 2.2  
24 Tobacco and 
manufactured 
tobacco substitutes. 1,268 0.6  672 521 28,312 4.5  
2401 Unmanufactured 
tobacco; tobacco refuse. 1,239 0.6 
 665 498 9,270 13.4  
76 Aluminum and 
articles thereof. 1,172 0.6  1,008 164 120,097 1.0  
7601 Unwrought 
aluminium. 1,009 0.5  1,004 5 38,954 2.6  
63 Other made up 
textile articles; sets; 
worn clothing and 
worn textile articles; 
rags. 1,132 0.6  834 298 41,679 2.7  
6302 Bed linen, table 
linen, toilet linen and kitchen linen. 563 0.3 
 550 13 14,626 3.9  
72 Iron and steel. 843 0.4  17 826 293,737 0.3  
 Total of above. 185,959 94.2  74,430 111,169 5,005,589 3.7  
a Based on imports from LDCs by 84 countries and economies (available repo rters) reporting their 
trade to the United Nations Comtrade database. 
Source: WTO, based on UNSD Comtrade database.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 60 - Annex Table 4: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2000-2013 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
  All Commodities Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions and major markets1Value Share  
of 
total Annual 
percentage  
change Value  Share of 
total Annual 
percentage  
change Value  Share of  
total Annual 
percentage  
change Value  Share of total  Annual 
percentage
change 
  2000  2013 2013  2013  2000-
2013  2000  2013  2013 2013  2000-2013  2000  2013 2013  2013  2000-
2013  2000  2013  2013  2013  2000-2013  
Africa 1180 11360  100 8  19 425 1823 16 5 12 455 7005 62 2 23  296 2348  21 32 17
South Africa 174 4691 100 -4 29 50 285 6 8 14 47 3795 81 -11 40 78 609 13 62 17
Nigeria2 120 203  100 -36  4 86 90 44 -42 0 3 16 8 -21 15  31 97  48 -33 10
Egypt 100 455 100 -21 12 78 176 39 28 6 17 215 47 -47 22 6 36 8 15 15
Mali2) 83 1240  100 19  25 3 92 7 49 33 52 779 63 5 25  28 369  30 51 24
Zambia 34 1979 100 38 37 4 18 1-73 12 25 1628 82 41 38 5 332 17 54 38
Malawi 23 529  100 -  27 9 125 24 - 22 3 294 56 - 41  10 110  21 - 20
Kenya 47 446 100 -2 19 21 285 64 -6 22 11 41 9 11 11 15 119 27 4 17
Côte d'Ivoire2 64 584  100 25  20 48 326 56 -4 17 4 67 12 -2 27  11 189  32 233 27
Sudan2) 25 266 100 10 22 10 51 19 11 15 2 16 6 -88 18 14 78 29 41 16
Ethiopia2 247 90  100 -48  -8 5 13 15 -45 8 236 59 66 -55 -11  51 8  19 14 10
Ghana 137 377 100 12 8 30 163 43 5 14 31 13 3 55 -6 73 178 47 5 7
Morocco2 53 105  100 16  6 51 73 69 -3 3 0 9 9 (*) -  22 3  22 52 25
Tanzania 16 233 100 22 23 2 69 30 -40 30 4 14 6 -16 11 10 148 64 149 23
Senegal2 47 5  100 -25  28 25 6 4 5 60 5 7 7 6 - 3 5 6  21 4  18 -64 20
Mauritius 53 88 100 3 4 25 55 63 2 6 20 1 1 -95 -25 7 30 34 51 11
Americas 10519 31042  100 -3 9 692 906 3 3 2 4811 16896 579153 -8 10  4960 12859  28 8
North America 10061 28061  100 -8 8 555 848 3 4 34530 14436 51 -17 9 4919 12395  44 7 7
United States 9725 23637  100 -5  7 495 698 3 4 3 4486 12720 54 -13 8  4689 10053  43 7 6
Canada 282 4002 100 -22 23 36 121 3 22 10 44 1642 41 -38 32 201 2024 51 6 19
Mexico 54 422  100 10  17 25 28 7 -28 1 0 74 18 179 52  29 318  75 2 20
South and Central America  458 2982 100 114 15 136 58 2-11 -6 281 2460 82 159 18 41 464 16 23 21
Brazil 179 2003  100 282  20 80 7 0 -72 -17 85 1734 87 542 26  14 262  13 14 25
Peru 7 240 100 -45 32 2 6 2181 9 4 211 88 -50 35 1 23 10 54 33
Chile 102 139  100 -51  2 0 1 1 155 35 95 83 59 -67 -1  75 6  40 45 18
Ecuado r 19 19 100 335 0 0 524 74 23 17 0 1 42 -29 1 14 74 820 23
Uruguay 64 442  100 (*)  16 0 1 0 -17 19 63 432 98 (*) 16  18  21 9 2 0
Venezuela3 26 5 100 -83 -13 19 0 6112 -31 0 0 0 - - 7 5 94 -84 -3
Argentina 25 44  100 6  4 2 9 21 -22 14 16 1 1 (*) -22  73 4  78 16 13
Guatemala 0 2 100 59 19 0 146 10 14 0 0 0 - - 0 1 54 158 25
El Salvado r 11 4  100 93  20 1 10 72 84 26 0 0 0 - -100  14  28 120 14
Colombia 34 62 100 33 5 33 16 26 7 -5 0 0 0 -100 -100 1 46 74 46 34 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59  
 
- 61 -   All Commodities Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
Regions and major markets1Value Share  
of 
total Annual 
percentage  
change Value  Share of 
total Annual 
percentage  
change Value  Share of  
total Annual 
percentage  
change Value  Share of total  Annual 
percentage
change 
  2000  2013 2013  2013  2000-
2013  2000  2013  2013 2013  2000-2013  2000  2013 2013  2013  2000-
2013  2000  2013  2013  2013  2000-2013  
Costa Rica 2 12  100 -63  16 0 2 13 241 19 0 0 0 -100 -29  21 0  87 -55 16
Asia and Pacific 11869 103927  100 4 18 2687 11454 11 11 12 8042 83540 757994 2 20 1120 8262  1 26 17
China 4007 59368  100 7  23 274 4596 8 21 24 3650 52632 89 4 23  83 2140  48 7 2 8
India 1202 14333  100 -4 21 617 2990 21 8 13 293 10020 70 -8 31 287 824 6 -25 8
Thailand 1393 8383  100 10  15 331 906 11 20 8 1027 7076 84 8 16  27 397  53 5 2 3
Japan 1234 6876 100 -4 14 584 786 11 -7 2 448 3964 58 -14 18 200 2115 31 23 20
Chinese Taipei 659 4879  100 -19  17 91 158 3 22 4 539 4573 94 -21 18  29 138  32 5 1 3
Korea, Republic of 1828 4351 100 30 7 74 335 8 32 12 1691 3033 70 27 5 64 982 23 37 23
Singapore 580 1678  100 18  9 154 149 9 -23 0 239 1247 74 112 14  185 273  16 -9 3
Indonesia 178 798 100 -21 12 121 459 58 20 11 28 247 31 -54 18 29 91 11 12 9
Malaysia 177 969  100 26  14 115 434 45 -20 11 43 362 37 178 18  18 170  18 91 19
Hong Kong, China2 226 616 100 37 9 136 162 26 9 1 3 11 2 -56 11 87 443 72 60 15
Pakistan 157 563  100 6  10 131 353 63 5 8 18 165 29 -2 18  74 6  87 9 1 5
Australia 172 816 100 12 13 27 54 7-10 5 59 79 10 354 2 86 551 68 16 15
Philippines 43 198  100 148  12 26 44 22 -16 4 4 120 61 (*) 30  13 34  17 25 7
New Zealand 12 98 100 -35 18 6 27 27 28 12 0 12 12 -86 50 6 60 61 20 20
Europe and CIS 12365 51243  100 16  12 2858 5171 10 -5 5 2403 22478 222741 17 19  6766 22730  10 20 10
EU 28 11790 48237  100 15 11 2755 4991 10 3 52237 21688 45 15 19 6463 21155  44 20 10
Norway 244 885  100 100  10 12 32 4 -6 8 3 591 67 199 49  227 262  30 24 1
Switzerland 100 628 100 7 15 33 149 24 2 12 3 1 0 301 -11 65 479 76 8 17
CIS 231 1494  100 17  15 59 0    160 198 13 -19 2  11 835  56 39 39
Russian Federation 134 1075 100 17 17 37 361 34 12 19 86 18 2 -81 -11 10 696 65 39 39
Ukraine 62 272  100 17  12 12 63 23 2 14 50 129 47 12 7  08 0  29 41 56
Kazakhstan 4 105 100 56 30 3 15 14 80 13 0 52 49 77 98 0 39 37 29 45
Belarus 7 39  100 -7  14 7 19 48 -35 8 0 2 4 134 -  01 9  48 49 33
Kyrgyzstan2 0 1 100 -29 8 0 027 -67 0 0 0 0 320 - 0 1 73 25 17
Azerbaijan 24 1  100 -91  -23 0 0 43 -77 10 23 0 3 -100 -42  00  55 478 42
Notes: 1Regional totals are based on the information available,  and may not coincide with aggregated trade figures. 
 22000-2012 only, as no 2013 data were available. 
 32000-2011 only, as neither 2013 nor 2012 data were available. 
 (*) High annual percentage change due to  base effect (not shown in table). 
Sources: UN Comtrade database and Global Trade Information Services (GTIS). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 62 - 
 
  Annex Table 5: Coverage ratios of impo rts by exports of the LDCs, 2000-2013 
(Percentage) 
  2000 2006 2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012 2013 Average 
2000-
2013 
LDCsa 83 103 103  104 83 96 97 90 88 93  
Agricultural 
exporters 40 32 33 31 33 34 38 32 32 34 
Afghanistan 12  15 15  18 12 8 6 5 6 9  
Benin 64 60 51 56 59 62 59 61 63 59 
Burkina Faso 34  45 37  34 48 78 100 68 60 55  
Burundi 34 14 18 14 17 20 16 18 12 18 
Central African 
Republic 138 78 71  50 44 47 61 63 60 71  
Comoros 33 9 10 4 7 9 9 7 7 11 
Ethiopia 39  20 22  19 21 27 32 24 22 24  
Gambia 8 4 4 4 22 12 28 25 26 13 
Guinea-Bissau 105  58 64  64 60 64 101 59 79 75  
Kiribati 9 10 14 10 9 5 9 5 7 8 
Liberia 49  34 40  30 27 31 35 46 49 41  
Malawi 71 55 63 40 59 49 59 50 42 53 
Rwanda 25  25 23  23 18 21 23 26 31 25  
Sao Tome and 
Principe 10 11 9 9 8 10 8 11 11 10 
Solomon Islands 75  56 56  64 61 55 88 99 85 73  
Somalia 56 37 39 47 56 54 43 45 42 46 
Timor-Leste …  8 5  5 3 7 4 5 2 4  
Togo 65 58 55 56 60 58 57 57 59 60 
Uganda 26  38 38  38 37 35 38 39 41 38  
Vanuatu 30 22 22 18 19 17 22 18 12 20 
Fuel exporters 164  207 205  214 139 189 196 173 166 179  
Angola 261 363 325 305 180 304 333 300 281 281 
Bhutan 59  99 128  96 94 75 64 56 49 71  
Chad 58 248 204 208 140 150 178 153 150 161 
Equatorial Guinea 243  406 369  402 175 192 208 207 207 257  
Myanma r 68 179 193 162 153 182 102 97 93 124 
Sudan 116  70 101  125 85 114 105 43 71 88  
Yemen 176 110 74 72 68 88 97 72 74 88 
Manufacture 
exporters 65 65 60  56 57 58 59 62 66 61  
Bangladesh 72 74 67 64 69 69 67 74 80 70 
Cambodia 72  77 75  72 72 76 72 71 72 74  
Haiti 31 31 31 21 27 18 25 26 24 26 
Lesotho 27  48 48  49 40 38 47 37 39 43  
Madagasca r 75 55 47 35 33 44 55 49 59 51 
Nepal 51  34 28  26 19 17 16 15 13 24  
Samoa 61 24 37 25 20 23 19 22 17 30 
Mineral 
exporters 65 82 77  71 70 81 77 75 71 74  
Congo, Dem. Rep. 
of 118 94 91 102 90 118 120 103 100 102 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 63 - 
 
    2000 2006 2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012 2013 Average 
2000-
2013 
Eritrea 8  2 3  2 2 2 45 49 32 17  
Guinea 109 108 99 98 99 105 68 58 62 87 
Lao People's Dem. 
Rep. 62 83 86  78 72 85 91 74 75 77  
Mali 68 85 71 63 71 58 71 75 60 69 
Mauritania 78  117 102  92 91 107 112 83 82 88  
Mozambique 31 83 79 66 57 65 57 60 49 61 
Niger 72  54 58  54 45 46 57 78 74 58  
Sierra Leone 9 59 55 40 44 44 20 70 108 55 
Tanzania 48  44 40  41 47 51 44 49 42 46  
Zambia 100 123 115 101 113 135 125 106 104 108 
Diversified and 
others 55 41 32  31 40 43 41 38 37 39  
Djibouti 15 16 12 12 17 23 18 21 17 17 
Senegal 61  43 34  33 43 45 43 39 39 43  
Tuvalu 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 
a Weighted average. 
Note: Coverage ratio of imports by exports = (exports/imports*100). Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 64 - 
 
   
Annex Table 6: Exports of commercial se rvices of the LDCs by category, 2013 
(Million Dollars and percentage) 
  Value Share in commercial services 
  Commercial  
services Transportation 
services Travel  Other commercial 
services 
  2013 2005  2013  2005  2013  2005 2013  
LDCs       31,705  22.9 23.7 52.6 44.8 24.5 31.5  
Afghanistan         3,184  30.0 10.5 30.0 1.9 40.0 87.6 
Angola            864  10.2 2.8 49.9 90.6 39.9 6.6  
Bangladesh         1,876  23.8 28.7 14.8 7.9 61.4 63.5 
Benin            437  18.3 26.2 57.7 41.6 24.0 32.2  
Bhutan            123  25.0 27.0 25.0 69.0 50.0 4.0 
Burkina Faso            437  2.1 13.0 71.2 20.7 26.7 66.4  
Burundi              17  25.6 15.9 22.2 9.1 52.2 75.0 
Cambodia         2,700  11.9 12.7 78.9 72.0 9.1 15.3  
Central African Republic              32  8.0 7.7 47.9 48.3 44.1 44.0 
Chad            227  3.2 3.1 73.5 73.7 23.3 23.2  
Comoros              62  12.1 5.2 61.0 65.9 27.0 28.9 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of            235  12.0 39.6 3.3 3.1 84.7 57.2  
Djibouti            161  79.1 74.1 7.5 13.7 13.4 12.2 
Equatorial Guinea              35  2.0 1.9 81.2 81.4 16.8 16.7  
Eritrea            133  26.8 27.8 64.2 62.6 9.0 9.5 
Ethiopia         2,685  59.0 76.5 21.3 15.6 19.7 7.9  
Gambia            211  19.4 32.9 70.8 53.0 9.9 14.1 
Guinea              94  34.4 3.1 0.0 0.9 65.6 96.0  
Guinea-Bissau              22  10.6 1.8 34.9 32.5 54.5 65.7 
Haiti            595  0.0 0.0 89.6 95.5 10.4 4.5  
Kiribati                6  41.1 11.9 31.8 69.3 27.1 18.7 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.            598  17.7 8.1 75.4 82.5 6.9 9.3  
Lesotho              57  2.5 0.9 84.8 69.5 12.7 29.6 
Liberia, Republic of            226  13.6 36.1 82.9 63.6 3.5 0.3  
Madagasca r         1,423  28.2 31.6 43.7 45.4 28.2 23.1 
Malawi            110  46.0 17.4 45.0 32.9 8.9 49.7  
Mali            327  13.8 0.8 58.5 46.2 27.6 53.0 
Mauritania            134  2.6 2.6 82.7 82.7 14.7 14.7  
Mozambique         1,579  28.3 35.8 41.1 24.7 30.6 39.5 
Myanma r            659  50.4 26.8 28.5 51.0 21.1 22.2  
Nepal            962  12.0 3.0 48.4 45.0 39.6 51.9 
Niger              77  10.1 7.4 51.2 75.3 38.7 17.2  
Rwanda            386  36.1 19.0 58.6 76.1 5.3 5.0 
Samoa            205  4.2 3.3 69.7 78.7 26.1 18.1  
Sao Tome and Principe              18  1.6 1.2 81.2 87.3 17.2 11.4 
Senegal         1,225  18.4 11.4 35.1 38.5 46.5 50.1  
Sierra Leone            191  14.9 11.3 81.9 26.3 3.2 62.4 
Solomon Islands            129  21.8 24.5 4.2 53.6 73.9 21.9  
Somalia  …  … … … … … … 
South Sudan            240  … 1.3 … 90.8 … 7.9  
Sudan         1,023  3.4 13.8 88.7 75.6 7.9 10.6 
Tanzania         2,979  18.3 26.4 67.8 57.6 13.9 16.0  
Timor-Leste              33  … 2.3 … 70.6 … 27.1 
Togo            513  55.0 50.9 14.0 21.7 31.0 27.4  
Tuvalu                4  12.5 11.2 57.2 68.3 30.3 20.5 
Uganda         2,166  2.3 12.5 77.8 54.6 20.0 32.9  
Vanuatu            326  19.0 10.2 63.4 82.9 17.6 6.8 
Yemen         1,490  16.1 18.4 63.3 71.7 20.6 9.9  
Zambia            488  41.4 50.3 47.5 34.0 11.1 15.7 
Memorandum item:        
World  4,644,377        23           20           28            25             49             55  
Note: Most 2013 data are preliminary Secretariat estimates. 
Source: WTO Secretariat.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 65 - 
 
  Annex Table 7: Major multilateral non-recipr ocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Membersa  
Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Duty-free tariff line 
coverageb (and 
major exclusions) References 
 
Australia 
 Duty- and quota-free 
entry for LDCs Entry into force:  1 July 2003 100%  WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada GSP – Least-developed 
Countries' Tariff 
Programme (LDCT) 
Entry into force: 
1 January 2003, The 
scheme expired on 
30 June 2014  98.6% (dairy, eggs 
and poultry). WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1 
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.2 
China Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs Entry into force: 1 July 2010 As per latest IDB 
submission, the DFQF coverages is 61.5%.  
The exclusions include  
chemicals, machinery,  
paper and wood 
products, cotton, textiles, steel products, etc.  It is noted that the DFQF coverage has been extended to 95% in 2013. WT/COMTD/N/39 
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1 WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1 WT/COMTD/LDC/M/71 
Chile DFQF scheme for the 
LDCs 
Entry into force: 
28 February 2014 99.5% (wheat, wheat 
flour and sugar). WT/COMTD/N/44  
WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1 
EU GSP - Everything But 
Arms (EBA) initiative Entry into force:  5 March 2001 99% (arms and 
ammunitions). WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2 
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4 WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5 WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6 http://www.ec.europa.eu   
India  
 Duty-Free Tariff 
Preference Scheme 
(DFTP) 
Entry into force: 
13 August 2008 85%; an additional 9% 
of tariff lines provide 
margin of preference to 
LDCs. The exclusions 
include chemicals, 
petroleum products, 
copper, iron and steel 
products, coffee, 
vegetables, beverages 
and spirits, etc.  WT/COMTD/N/38  
http://www.commerce.nic.in/trade/intern
ational_tpp_DFTP.pdf   
http://www.cbec.gov.in  
 
Japan GSP – Enhanced duty- 
and quota-free market access Entry into force:  1 April 2007 Extended until 31 March 2021 98% (rice, sugar, 
fishery products, articles of leather). WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14 
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.15  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 66 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Duty-free tariff line 
coverageb (and 
major exclusions) References 
 
Korea, Rep. 
of 
 Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2000 90% (meat, fish, 
vegetables, food 
products, etc.). WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1   
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1 
New 
Zealand GSP- Tariff  Treatment 
for LDCs Entry into force:  1 July 2001 100% WT/COMTD/27, WT/GC/36  
 
Norway  GSP – Duty - and quota-
free market access 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 100%  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5 
Russian Federation The GSP scheme, in the 
context of the Customs Union between Belarus, Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation. Entry into force: 1 January 2010 38% (Exclusions cover 
a wide range of products, including petroleum products, copper, iron ores, Textiles, clothing, leather, footwear, etc.).  WT/COMTD/N/42 
G/RO/N/44 
Switzerland GSP – Revised 
Preferential Tariffs 
Ordinance  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007  100% WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4 
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.5 
Chinese Taipei Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs Entry into force: 17 December 2003 31.7%. Some 131 
products enjoy exclusive duty-free access, including selected plastic items, raw hides and skins, textile and clothing articles, parts of 
vehicles, precious 
stones, etc. The exclusions cover a wide range of products.  WT/COMTD/N/40 
http://www.doca.mof.gov.tw/public/Data
/1101891847152.xls   
Turkey 
 GSP  
Entry into force:  
31 December 2005 79.7% (meat, fish, 
food, steel products, 
etc.). WT/TPR/S/259/Rev.1 
 
United 
States GSP for least-developed 
beneficiary developing countries (LDBDC). Legal authorization of the GSP Programme expired on 31 July 2013. The US Congress is considering legislation that would extend the authorization of GSP beyond this date. 82.6% (dairy products, 
sugar, cocoa, articles of leather, cotton, articles of apparel and clothing, other textiles and textile articles, footwear, watches, etc.).  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7 
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8 http://www.ustr.gov   
 (AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000, extended 
until 30 September 2015 97.5%  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/L/754 
WT/L/929 
WT/COMTD/LDC/M/71 
 
 Caribbean Basin Trade 
Partnership Act (CBTPA) 
Entry into force:  1 October 2000, extended until 30 September 2020 Duty free for most 
products, including 
textiles and apparels. The Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement (HOPE) Act of 2006 provided new trade benefits, WT/L/753 
WT/L/928 
http://www.ustr.gov   
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59 
 
- 67 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Duty-free tariff line 
coverageb (and 
major exclusions) References 
 
especially of apparel 
imports from Haiti.  The HOPE II Act of 2008 enhanced duty-free treatment for qualifying apparel imports from Haiti.  The Haiti Economic Lift Program (HELP) Act of 2010 provided duty-free treatment for additional textile and 
apparel products from 
Haiti. 
a  This table represents a non-exhaustive list of no n-reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives 
undertaken in favour of LDCs.  
b The DFQF coverage is derived from most recent  WTO IDB submissions or taken from most recent 
notifications by Members. In certain cases, the nu mber differs from Tables 16 and 18 as they relate 
to different reporting period. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
  
__________