WORLD TRADE  
ORGANIZATION   
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
1 October 2012 
 (12-5247) 
Sub-Committee on Least-Developed Countries  
 
  
MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST 
TO LEAST-DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 
 
Note by the Secretariat
1 
 
 
I.  INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. .. 3 
II.  LDCs' TRADE PROFILE ........................................................................................................ 4  
A.  TRENDS IN GOODS AND COMMERCIAL SERVICES  ........................................................................ 4  
B.  MERCHANDISE TRADE DEVELOPMENTS  ...................................................................................... 6  
1.  Price movements of pr imary commodities ............................................................................. 6  
2.  Trends and product composition ........................................................................................... 10  
3.  Direction of trade ............................................................................................................ ........ 13 
4.  Merchandise trade balance .................................................................................................... 20 
C.  COMMERCIAL SERVICES  ............................................................................................................ 23  
III. TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST 
TO LDC S .............................................................................................................................. ... 27 
D.  MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPED ECONOMIES  ........................................................................... 27  
E.  MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPING ECONOMIES  .......................................................................... 32  
IV.  RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS FOR LDC 
PRODUCTS ...................................................................................................................... ...... 37 
V.  CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... ... 40 
ANNEX ......................................................................................................................... ........................ 42  
                                                      
1 This document has been prepared under the Secret ariat's own responsibility and without prejudice to 
the positions of Members and to their rights and obligations under the WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 2  
 
  List of Tables 
 
Table 1: Trends in LDCs' e xports of goods and commercial services, 2000-2011. .................…… 5 
Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 1980-2011......……………... 5 
Table 3: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2011.......................................…....……… 9 
Table 4: Top 20 export products of LDCs by  market share, 2011…….…............................……. 12 
Table 5: Product composition of LDCs' exports by destination, 2000-2011..........................…… 15 
Table 6: LDCs' merchandise trade by export sp ecialization, 2000-2011..............……................. 18 
Table 7: Product composition of African LD Cs' exports, 2000-2011..........................…….......... 19 
Table 8: Product composition of Asian LDCs' exports, 2000-2011............................................... 20 
Table 9: LDCs' coverage of imports by  exports, 2000-2011………… ………….......................... 20 
Table 10: LDCs' merchandise trade balance by product groups, 2000-2011 .................................... 21 
Table 11: LDCs' commercial services exports  by category, 2000-2011........................................... 25 
Table 12: Proportion of develope d country imports from LDCs  
  admitted free of duty, by value, 2000-2010....................................................................... 27 
Table 13: Average tariffs imposed by devel oped countries on key products from LDCs,  
  2000-2010………….………............................................................................................. 28 Table 14: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in  selected developed markets, 2010…………………. 30 
Table 15: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in  selected developing markets, 2010………………… 33 
Table 16: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing economies:  summary     indicators, 2010…………………………………………………………………………. 36 
Table 17: DFQF access in GSP schemes of  developed Members, 2010…………………………... 39 
Table 18: DFQF access for LDC products in  selected developing countries…………………........ 39 
 
List of Charts 
 Chart 1: Evolution of LDCs' exports of goo ds and commercial servi ces, 2000-2011..... ................ 4 
Chart 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2011............................................................ 7 Chart 3: Development in merchandise tr ade volume of LDCs and developing 
 economies, 2000-2011........................................................................................................ 1 0 
Chart 4: Composition of LDCs' merchandise exports by major product group, 2000 and 2011..... 11 
Chart 5: Evolution in LDCs' merchandise expor t structure, 2000-2011.......................................... 13 
Chart 6: LDCs' merchandise exports by destin ation, 2000-2011..................................................... 14 
Chart 7: Top 20 markets for LDCs' exports in goods, 2000-2011................................................... 16 
Chart 8: Services value added in selected LDCs, 2000-2010.... ...................... ............................. .. 23 
Chart 9: LDCs' structure of commercial servi ces by sector, 2011.......... ...................... ...................  26 
Chart 10: Growth of communications services e xports in Bangladesh, Mali and Nepal.................. 26 
Chart 11: Effective preference margin of LDCs' exports for selected product groups, 2010............ 29 
 
List of Boxes  
 
Box 1: LDCs' exposure to high food prices..................... ...................... ...................... ..................... .. 22 
Box 2: LDCs and Foreign Direct Investment  (FDI) inflows…........................................................... 24 
 
List of Annex Tables 
 
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports  and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2011... 42 
Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary co mmodities, 2000-2012, Q2.......................................... 44 
Annex Table 3: Leading merchandise exports of  LDCs in 2011...................................................... 46 
Annex Table 4: Imports from LDCs by major ma rkets and product groups , 2000-2011................. 49 
Annex Table 5: Coverage ratios of imports by  exports of the LDCs, 2000-2011............................. 52 
Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non-recipr ocal LDC preference schemes undertaken 
by Members.............................................................................................................. 54  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 3 
 
 
  I. INTRODUCTION 
1. This note prepared by the Secretariat responds  to paragraph 7 of the WTO Work Programme 
for Least-Developed Countries (LDCs), which ma ndates an annual review of market access for 
products originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11).  It builds on previous Secretariat studies by 
updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditio ns, covering goods and, 
to some extent, trade in services. 
2. The note is divided into four main parts, in addition to this introduction.  Chapter II, on trade 
profile, provides a description of the recent trends of LDCs' trade flows, both in goods and commercial services.  It includes an analysis of LDCs' exports by main products and market destinations and specific information on trade in services.  Chapter III is devoted to market access 
conditions facing LDCs' exports.  Chapter IV covers recent initiativ es to improve market access for 
LDCs' products.  A concluding section summarizes th e findings of the note, while a series of annex 
tables provide Members with additional background information and references.  The note does not 
pretend to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition market access for LDCs' products.  
It should therefore be read in conjunction with prev ious Secretariat notes prepared on this topic, to 
gauge the different factors that determine market access for LDCs.
2 
3. A few words of caution are required about the statistical coverage of LDCs, which is 
characterized by its incompleteness and often not the most up to date despite improvements in the 
production of national data.  In pr evious reports, the Secretariat has been using reported national 
figures for total trade whenever available.  For trad e by commodity and destination, however, it relied 
heavily on mirror statistics i.e. data reported by LDCs ' trading partners.  This year, the Secretariat has 
made a special effort to compile statistics primarily based on LDCs' reported data in the 
United Nations commodity trade database (Comtrad e), complemented by information from national 
sources and mirror statistics.  When appropriate, the note still uses mirror statistics.  The disadvantage 
of using mirror data is that it does not allow taki ng into consideration intra-trade among the LDCs, as 
well as trade with non-reporting developing economies.  In addition, the note pr esents data relating to 
market access in developing countries (Chapter III).3 
                                                      
2 Since 2005, the following special topics have been covered:  (i) textiles and clothing 
(WT/COMTD/LDC/W/37);  (ii) non-tariff measures  (NTMs) (WT/COMTD/LDC/W/39 and its addenda);  
(iii) LDC trade in services (JOB(07)/32/Rev. 1 and JOB(07)/148);  (iv) LDC trade in  
food and agricultural products (WT/COMTD/LDC /W/43 and JOB(08)/49);  (v) preference  
utilization (WT/COMTD/LDC/W/41/Rev.1);  (vi)  impact of the global financial crisis 
(WT/COMTD/LDC/W/46/Rev.1);  (v ii) LDCs' trade balances (WT/ COMTD/LDC/W/48/Rev.1);  and 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/51. 
3 The Secretariat wishes to ack nowledge the collaboration received from the International Trade 
Centre (ITC) and the United Nations Confer ence on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 4  
 
  II. LDCs' TRADE PROFILE 
A. 
TRENDS IN GOODS AND COMMERCIAL SERVICES  
4. In 2011, the expansion of LDCs' exports of goods  and services continued at a faster pace.  
Having grown by a robust 23.9 per cent, the valu e of LDCs' total exports (goods and commercial 
services) attained a new record level of US$229.8 bil lion and surpassed the historic peak registered in 
2008 (US$192 billion).  Over the 2000-2011 period, LD Cs' exports grew by an annual average of 
16.8 per cent, significantly higher than the 12.6  per cent average for other developing economies 
(excluding LDCs). 
Chart 1:  Evolution of LDCs' exports of  goods and commercia l services, 2000-2011 
(Index, 2000=100) 
0100200300400500600700800900
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011Commercial services Other goods Fuels and Mining
 
 
Source :  WTO Secretariat. 
5. All major product categories contributed to the 2011 expansion.  Reflecting a 32 per cent 
price hike, the second largest in the last 11 years, LDCs' exports of fuels and mining products grew by 
25 per cent and regained the ground lost during the cr isis.  Prices of agricultural products rose by an 
unprecedented 20 per cent and led to an increase of 18.3 per cent in LDCs' exports of agricultural 
products.  Notwithstanding the economic crisis  in developed economies (main markets for 
manufactured products of LDCs), LDCs' exports  of manufactured products expanded by an 
astounding 26 per cent.  Exports of commercial services,  which have proven to be more resilient to 
the crisis, grew by a further 15.6 per cent.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 5 
 
 
  Table 1:  Trends in LDCs' exports of  goods and commercial services, 2000-2011 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 Values Annual rate of growth 
2000 2011 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2000-
2011 
Total goods and 
commercial 
services 41.5 229.8 4.0 9.3 16.6 29.4 32.2 23.3 26.8 30.4 -23.3 26.1 23.9 16.8 
Total goods 35.8 208.2 4.2 9.6 18.2 30.2 34.9 24.2 26.6 30.9 -25.3 27.8 24.8 17.4 
Fuels and mining 15.1 127.4 -2.1 9.3 29.4 47.2 58.4 31.4 30.0 41.1 -33.0 29.7 25.1 21.4 
Other goods 20.7 80.8 8.9 9.8 10.9 17.3 12.5 14.5 21.4 14.0 -9.7 24.9 24.5 13.2 
Commercial 
services 5.7 21.7 2.7 7.3 6.4 23.2 11.3 15.0 28.8 25.3 -2.9 13.0 15.6 12.9 
Source :  WTO Secretariat. 
 
6. In 2011, LDCs participated at a rapid pace in world trade (imports and exports) of goods and 
commercial services by registering 21.8 per cent gr owth as compared to 17.8 per cent for the world 
average.  As a result, the share of LDCs in world trade increased from 1.09 per cent in 2010 to 
1.12 per cent in 2011. 
Table 2:  LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 1980-2011 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 
Value Annual 
percentage 
change 
1980 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2000-2011 
Total trade in goods and commercial servicesa 
 World 2,304 4,214 6,232 7,871 12790 14,687 17,090 19,642 15,647 18,687 22,015 9.8 
 LDCs 48 57 73 94 204 243 308 403 345 406 494 16.3 
Share in world 1.05 0.67 0.59 0.60 0.80 0.83 0.90 1.03 1.11 1.09 1.12 … 
Total trade in goodsa 
 World  1,919 3,407 5,048 6,396 10,348 11,935 13,792 15,900 12,316 15,026 17,954 9.8 
 LDCs 39 45 57 75 169 202 254 332 279 334 411 16.7 
Share in world 1.02 0.66 0.56 0.59 0.81 0.85 0.92 1.04 1.13 1.11 1.14 … 
Total trade in commercial servicesa 
 World 385 807 1,184 1,476 2,441 2,752 3,299 3,742 3,331 3,661 4,061 9.6 
 LDCs 9 12 16 19 35 41 53 71 66 72 84 14.5 
Share in world 1.19 0.74 0.69 0.64 0.73 0.75 0.83 0.97 1.01 1.00 1.05 … 
Goods exports 
 World  1,940 3,432 5,105 6,394 10,369 11,992 13,882 15,963 12,407 15,138 18,102 9.9 
 LDCs 16 19 25 36 85 105 134 175 131 167 208 17.4 
Share in world 0.82 0.57 0.48 0.56 0.82 0.88 0.96 1.09 1.05 1.10 1.15 … 
Commercial services exports 
 World 367 788 1,179 1,491 2,507 2,842 3,420 3,847 3,421 3,765 4,169 9.8 
 LDCs 2 3 5 6 9 11 14 17 17 19 22 12.9 
Share in world 0.66 0.41 0.42 0.38 0.37 0.37 0.40 0.44 0.48 0.50 0.52 … 
Goods imports 
 World  1,899 3,382 4,992 6,397 10,327 11,878 13,702 15,838 12,225 14,914 17,806 9.8 
 LDCs 23 25 32 39 84 97 121 157 148 167 202 16.1 
Share in world 1.22 0.75 0.64 0.61 0.81 0.81 0.88 0.99 1.21 1.12 1.14 … 
Commercial services imports 
 World  404 826 1,188 1,460 2,376 2,663 3,177 3,637 3,241 3,557 3,953 9.5 
 LDCs 7 9 11 13 26 30 40 54 50 53 62 15.2 
Share in world 1.72 1.07 0.96 0.90 1.10 1.13 1.25 1.49 1.53 1.49 1.57 … 
 
 a World total trade is calculated as th e average of world exports and imports.  Total LDC trade in this table is 
approximated as the sum of their exports and imports.  Th is measure thus double counts tr ade among LDCs, which is not, 
however, so significant to affect the analytical value of the data.  Total trade shares are calculated in relation to the 
corresponding world exports plus imports. 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 6  
 
  7. While total trade in goods (imports and exports ) increased by 23 per cent, total trade in 
commercial services expanded by 16.6 per cent.  Driven by exports of fuels and mining products, 
LDCs' exports of goods expanded by  a robust 24.8 per cent compared to the 15.6 per cent increase in 
exports of commercial services.  The respectiv e shares in LDCs' total exports of goods and 
commercial services in 2011 was 90.6 per cent for go ods and 9.4 per cent for commercial services. 
8. LDCs' imports of goods increased by a slightly higher rate than that of the world average 
(21.1 per cent and 19.4 per cent respectively); their imports of commercial services, however, expanded at a much higher pace than world averag e (17.0 per cent versus 11.1 per cent of world 
average).  The shares of goods and those of commercial services in total imports of LDCs' goods and commercial in 2011 were 76.5 per cent and 23.5 per cent respectively.  
9. Thanks to the robust growth of commodities expor ts, the trade balance in goods of the LDCs, 
as a group, narrowed down considerably in 2011 (re gistering a deficit of US$3.3 billion as against 
US$26.5 billion in 2009).  On the other hand, LDCs  displayed an increasingly deteriorating trade 
balance in their trade in commercial services; between 1980 and 2011 their trade deficit increased 
from US$7 billion to US$41 billion.  Those aggregated results, nevertheless, hide a large 
heterogeneity at the individual level.  
B. 
MERCHANDISE TRADE DEVELOPMENTS  
1. Price movements of primary commodities 
10. Variations in prices of primary commodities impa ct directly the export performance of LDCs 
including growth, direction of trade, product compos ition, balance and terms of trade.  A closer look 
at recent price developments would, therefore, he lp better understand the cha nging pattern of trade of 
the LDCs. 
(a) Sluggish price developments between 1990 and 2002 
11. Prices of primary commodities were depressed in  the 1990s.  It was a decade when prices of 
energy and non-energy products contracted annually by an average of 1.7 per cent and 1.5 per cent 
respectively.  Likewise, prices of agricultural produc ts shrank by 1.5 per cent and those of metals and 
minerals by 2.0 per cent per year. 
12. After a brief period of recovery in 1999 a nd 2000 when prices of primary commodities 
increased by 10.3 per cent and 32.6 per cent resp ectively;  global demand weakened following the 
IT crisis and the 11 September 2001 event and pr ices of primary commod ities once again plunged 
8.9 per cent in 2001 and took two years to regain their 2000 level. 
(b) 2002 to 2008:  the commodity boom 
13. Growing demand in both industrialized and em erging economies triggered an uninterrupted 
increase in commodity prices throughout the years 2003 to 2008.  Prices of a range of commodities 
reached all-time highs in the first half of 2008.   Crude oil, which in January 2002 was selling at 
US$19 per barrel, traded at US$134 in July 2008.  Soybean was sold at US$634 per metric ton in July 2008 compared to US$188 in January 2002.  Li kewise, the price of rice peaked to a record high 
of US$902 per ton in May 2008 compared to just US$376 in January 2008.  In April 2008, the price 
of copper reached the first histor ical high of US$8,685 per ton. 
14. Growing, on average, by 25.4 per cent per year during the 2002 to 2008 period, prices of 
crude oil posted strong increase.  Prices of coal re gistered 30.5 per cent and those of gas registered 
23.8 per cent average annual growth during this peri od.  Prices of non-fuel minerals and non-ferrous  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 7 
 
 
  metals also recorded a robust 21.8 per cent annual growth.  Fuelled mainly by demand from China, 
prices of iron ore, tin, lead and copper grew ea ch by an annual average of about 30 per cent. 
15. Food prices increased annually by 7.2 per cent during the 2002-2006 period, much more 
moderately than those of fuels and other minera ls.  However, strong demand coupled with supply 
constraints appear to be behind the successively ro bust increases in prices of food during the 2006 to 
2008 period.  Prices of cereals increased consecutivel y by 22 per cent, 31 per cent, and 39 per cent in 
2006, 2007 and 2008. 
16. As a result, during the 2002-2008 pe riod, prices of primary commodities  experienced an 
annual average increase of 21.3 per cent. 
Chart 2:  Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2011 
(Indices, 2000=100) 
050100150200250300350400450
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011Food and beverages
Agricultural raw materials
Minerals and non-ferrous metals  (excluding crude petroleum)
Energy
Memo item: Manufacture Unit Value 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
 
(c) Global crisis and recovery:  2009 to 2011 
17. The crisis resulted in an abrupt, sharp and si multaneous drop in prices across all commodities.  
Between July 2008 and February 2009, fuel prices  plunged by 64 per cent.  In March 2009, coal was 
selling at only one third of its July 2008 price.  Prices of metal and food fell by 43 per cent and 
29 per cent respectively.  Aluminium, which in July 2008 was trading at a historic high of US$3,071 per metric ton, was selling at US$1,330 only  after seven months - the first comparable low 
price is to be found way back in April 2003. 
18. The sudden drop in prices was however of short duration - thanks mainly to the resilient 
demand from emerging economies.  By December 2010, food prices regained the level of the WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 8  
 
  July 2008 peak, whereas metal prices, having rebou nded very rapidly, were  24 per cent above their 
pre-crisis level.  Although energy prices did not re gain their July 2008 leve l, they rose by robust 
26 per cent and 36 per cent in 2010 and 2011, respectively. 
19. Remarkably, prices of agricultural raw materials,  which had been relatively stable during the 
commodity boom (2002-2008) period, increased by 32.6 per cent and 22.7 per cent in 2010 and 2011 
respectively.  The recovery in 2010 from the crisis-induced price declines were strongest for 
rubber (+90 per cent), cotton (+65 per cent), hides an d skins (+60 per cent) and wool (+33 per cent).  
In 2011, the price of cotton increased by 49 per cent,  wool by 53 per cent and rubber by 32 per cent.  
These are all products of export interest to the LDCs. 
  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56
 Page 9Table 3:  Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2011 
(Annual and quarterly percentage changes) 
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2011 Q-o-Q 2012 Annual 
average  
2000-2011 
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2  
Food and beverages -0.4 0.4 2.7 5.1 13.2 1.5 10.3 15.1 23.3 -13.1 11.8 19.3 10.7 0.3 -3.8 -8.8 2.2 0.5 7.7 
Agricultural raw materials 4.7 -5.0 1.8 3.8 5.4 1.6 8. 6 5.0 -0.8 -16.8 32.6 22.7 15.3 1.9 -7.1 -11.7 0.4 0.5 4.6 
Minerals and non-ferrous metals 
(excluding crude petroleum) 12.1 -9.7 -2.7 12.3 36.2 26.5 55.9 17.5 -7.8 - 19.4 48.1 13.6 11.7 -2.8 -3.7 -16.1 5.1 -5.5 13.1 
Total of above 4.5 -4.0 0.8 6.9 18.6 10.3 23.1 14. 1 7.5 -15.7 26.2 17.8 11.8 -0.5 -4.3 -11.9 2.9 -1.6 8.9 
 Energy 56.1 -11.6 -0.4 16.7 31.1 38.7 19.2 10.5 40.2 -36.8 25.9 36.3 19.2 10.6 -2.4 -1.5 7.4 -7.3 12.8 
All primary commodities 32.6 -8.9 0.1 13.0 26.6 29.1 20. 6 11.8 27.7 -30.0 26.0 29.1 16.2 6.3 -3.1 -5.1 5.9 -5.5 11.5 
 Memo item:  Manufacture 
 Unit Value -1.9 -5.0 -0.6 7.0 7.7 3.0 2.2 6.3 7.8 -6.6 3.3 8.9 … … … … … … 3.0 
 
Note :   Period averages calculated from IMF i ndices based on dollar prices .  The data for manufacture corresponds to unit values.  The quarterly figures are not seasonally adjusted. 
Source :   WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 10  
 
  20. Overall, primary commodity prices having dro pped sharply by 30 per cent in 2009, rebounded 
26 per cent in 2010 and further expanded by 29 per cent in 2011.  Notwithstanding the crisis-induced 
drop in the latter half of 2008, prices of primar y commodities expanded by an annual average of 
11.5 per cent during the 2000 to 2011 period.  In 2012, however, given the slowdown in the growth of the Chinese economy and uncertainties in the Eurozone  and overall fall in global demand, the outlook 
for prices of non-agricultural commodities is bleak . The international price of some agricultural 
commodities have undergone an upward pressure in  mid-2012, following droughts in some of the 
main cereal producers in the Northern Hemisphere , in particular the Russian Federation and the 
United States.  
2. Trends and product composition 
21. In 2011, the value of LDCs' merchandise expor ts amounted to US$203 billion, which is an 
increase of 25 per cent over that of the preceding year.  LDCs, as a group, performed better compared 
to other developing economies' (excludi ng LDCs) export growth of 22.7 per cent. 
22. LDCs' merchandise exports, by volume, registered a 3 per cent decline in 2011 in contrast to a 
7 per cent increase in 2010.  The dollar value growth, therefore, derives exclusively from increase in 
prices. 
Chart 3:  Development in merchandise trade vol ume of LDCs and developing economies, 2000-2011 
(Indices, 2000=100) 
50100150200250
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011LDCs exports LDCs imports LDC trade other developing economies' trade
 
Source :  WTO Secretariat.  LDCs' data are comput ed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD. 
23. The volume of LDCs' imports, however, grew by 4 per cent.  As a result, the volume of total 
merchandise trade of LDCs stagnated compared to the 7 per cent growth of other developing 
economies.  In value terms, merchandise impor ts of LDCs expanded by 22 per cent to 
US$205.9 billion in 2011. 
24. Between 2000 and 2011, merchandise  exports of LDCs expanded on average by 17 per cent 
per year in value.  Consequently, their share in world merchandise exports doubled to 1.15 per cent.  
Their merchandise imports also grew by 15.2 per cen t per year during this period and their share in 
world imports increased from 0.61 per cent to 1.14 per cent. 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 11 
 
 
  25. As a consequence of the rise of commodity prices, the share of primary commodities in 
LDCs' total exports increased from 58 per cent in 2000 to 73 per cent in 2011.  In comparison, the 
share of primary commodities in other developing  economies' exports (exc luding LDCs) remained 
relatively stable (between 32 per cent in 2000 and 34 per cent in 2011). 
26. As illustrated in Chart 4, all products except fuel s and minerals saw their share in total exports 
of LDCs drop.  Clothing, the single major product in LDCs' exports of manufactures, experienced the 
largest loss of share in LDCs' total exports (from 17.5 per cent in 2000 to 10.7 per cent in 2011). 
Chart 4:  Composition of LDCs' merchandise exports by major product group, 2000 and 2011 
(percentage) 
 
10.9 12.810.911.012.0 14.511.821.4
010203040506070
Textiles Machinery and
transportAgr. raw
materialsProcess
manufacturesFood Others Clothing Fuels and
minerals2000
2011
 
 
Note:    Data may include re-exports.  The number over the 2011 bar indicates average annual growth rate for the 
period 2000-2011.  In addition to minor differences in com position, data for textiles a nd clothing here differ from 
(HS 61 and 62) in Table 4 and Annex Table 3, mainly due to compilation methods, which in the case of Table 4 and Annex 
Table 3 are strictly based on imports  of trading partners of LDCs. 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
27. Table 4 underscores the high concentration of LDCs' exports on limited number of products.  
Of the top 20 export products of LDCs, half of  them, representing 71 per cent of LDCs' exports, are 
petroleum and clothing products.  Re fined copper is next in the list with only 2.6 per cent share to be 
followed by iron ore with 1.1 per cent share.  The firs t agricultural product that appears in this list is 
coffee, with 1.1 per cent share in total LDCs' exports. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 12  
 
  Table 4:  Top 20 export products of LDCs by market share, 2011 
(million dollars and percentage) 
 
HS07 Product Description (HS04)  LDC exports World exports 
Value Share in 
total exportsValue LDCs' share 
in total 
2709 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous 
minerals, crude. 84,439 51.5 1,368,584 6.2 
2711 Petroleum gases and other gaseou s hydrocarbons. 9,514 5.8 366,870 2.6 
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, waistcoats and similar 
articles, knitted or crocheted. 4,782 2.9 47,200 10.1 
7403 Refined copper and copper allo ys, unwrought. 4,310 2.6 65,688 6.6 
6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear). 4,289 2.6 34,492 12.4 
6109 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, kn itted or crocheted. 4,187 2.6 28,939 14.5 
2710 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous 
minerals, other than crude; preparations not elsewhere specified or included, containing by weight 70% or 
more of petroleum oils or of oils obtained from 
bituminous minerals, these oils bei ng the basic. 2,540 1.5 679,847 0.4 
6204 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
dresses, skirts, divided skir ts, trousers, bib and brace 
overalls, breeches and shorts  (other than swimwear). 2,529 1.5 44,614 5.7 
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, including roasted iron 
pyrites. 1,837 1.1 175,174 1.0 
6205 Men's or boys' shirts. 1,825 1.1 12,861 14.2 
0901 Coffee, whether or not roasted or decaffeinated; coffee 
husks and skins; coffee substitutes containing coffee in 
any proportion. 1,740 1.1 31,177 5.6 
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or not stripped of bark or 
sapwood, or roughly squared. 1,425 0.9 14,220 10.0 
7601 Unwrought aluminium. 1,390 0.8 46,392 3.0 
6104 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
dresses, skirts, divided skir ts, trousers, bib and brace 
overalls, breeches and shorts  (other than swimwear), 
knitted or crocheted. 1,390 0.8 16,850 8.2 
7102 Diamonds, whether or not wo rked, but not mounted or 
set. 1,360 0.8 100,328 1.4 
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed. 1,280 0.8 18,470 6.9 
2603 Copper ores and concentrates. 1,053 0.6 41,782 2.5 
6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or crocheted. 938 0.6 7,328 12.8 
0303 Fish, frozen, excluding fish fillets and other fish meat 
of heading 03.04. 874 0.5 19,097 4.6 
0306 Crustaceans, whether in shell or not, live, fresh, 
chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in brine; crustaceans, in 
shell, cooked by steaming or by boiling in water, 
whether or not chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in brine; 
flours, meals and pellets of crus. 806 0.5 17,096 4.7 
Source : Annex Table 3. 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 13 
 
 
  28. Chart 5 shows the evolution in the commodity mix of the LDCs in the last 11 years.  The 
pattern of demand from emerging economies and rising commodity prices, led to a shrinking share of 
manufactured products in total exports of LDCs fro m 32 per cent in 2000 to 20 per cent in 2011.  The 
share of fuels and mining products4, on the other hand, increased from 42 per cent in 2000 to 
63 per cent in 2011. 
29. Meanwhile, with 10 per cent share in 2011, exports  of agricultural products lost ground from 
the 17 per cent share they recorded in 2000. 
Chart 5:  Evolution in LDCs' merchandise export structure, 2000-2011 
(percentage) 
 
 
  
 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
 
30. Clothing, a product with high import content, still represents more than half (52 per cent) of 
LDCs' exports of manufactured products.  However, in the last 11 years, clothing lost 6.8 percentage 
points of its share in total exports of LDCs and 2.4 percentage points in exports of manufactured 
products.  Semi-manufactures, which include diamonds and processed goods from domestic raw 
materials such as leather and wood, comprise the next major product category in LDCs' exports of 
manufactured products.  This group as well lost ground by ceding 7.2 percentage points of its share in 
LDCs' manufactures exports (from 21.6 per cent in 2000 to 14.4 per cent in 2011).  The fast-growing 
sector in the exports of LDCs in the past decade is "other manufactured products", a category which 
includes footwear and miscellaneous manufactured articles.  Between 2000 and 2011, exports of this 
product category expanded by an annual averag e of 20 per cent which lifted its share in 
LDCs' manufactures exports from 5.4 per cent to 11.6 pe r cent.  This reveals the potential that exists 
within the manufacturing sector for export diversification. 
3. Direction of trade 
31. The last decade has witnessed a fundamental change with regard to destination markets for 
goods originating from LDCs.  Expor ts of LDCs to developing economies increased at a rate of 
19.8 per cent per year on average between 2000 and 2011.  Over the same period, LDCs' merchandise 
                                                      
4 These shares are derived from the WTO network of LDCs by product and destination compiled 
according to the United Nations Standard Internationa l Trade Classification (SITC).  According to this 
classification, diamonds and non-monetary gold are not part  of mineral products.  While diamonds are classified 
under manufactured products, non-monetary gold is shown under the residual item "Commodities and 
transactions not classified elsewhere".  Besides gold, th is residual item, which in 2011 represented 7 per cent of 
total LDCs exports, may also include mining products which could not be identified separately.  As a result, the shares of fuels and mining product in total LDCs exports derived from the LDC network differ from the shares 
of exporters of fuels and mining products discussed elsewhere in this report. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 14  
 
  exports to the developed economi es expanded by 14 per cent annually.  At the beginning of the 
decade the developed economies were still the majo r destination markets for products originating 
from LDCs, absorbing some 53 per cent of their exports .  By 2011, their share shrank to 41 per cent.  
On the other hand, LDCs' exports to developi ng economies expanded more than seven-fold to 
represent 52 per cent of their total exports in 2011 - up from 40 per cent in 2000.  As seen in Chart 5, 
this growing importance of devel oping economies is mainly attributable to China, which alone was 
responsible for practically all the increase in th e share of developing economies as markets for 
products originating from LDCs. 
Chart 6:  LDCs' merchandise exports by destination, 2000-2011 
(percentage) 
 
Europe 
(developed) 
29%North 
America 
(excl. 
Mexico) 
22%
Other 
developing 
Asia 20%China 
9%
Other 
developing 
9%
Intra-LDC 
2%40%2000
Developing 
economies Europe 
(developed) 
23%North 
America 
(excl. 
Mexico) 
16%
Other 
developing 
Asia 17%China 
22%
Other 
developing 
11%
Intra-LDC 
3%52%2011
Developing 
economies
 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
 
32. Despite India's marginal increase in its shar e (from 5 per cent in 2000 to 6 per cent in 2011), 
other Asian developing economies (excluding China), lo st three percentage points of their share.  
Non-Asian developing economies, on th e other hand, recorded an increase of two percentage points in 
their share as destination markets. 
33. Both North America and Europe lost each six percentage points as destination markets for 
products originating from LDCs.  Accounting for 23 pe r cent, the share of Europe is practically the 
same to that of China, while that of North Amer ica is comparable to de veloping economies in Asia 
excluding China. 
34. Data, based mainly on available and partially estimated cross-border trade, indicate seven-
fold expansion of intra-LDC trade between 2000 a nd 2011.  This trade is estimated to account for 
3 per cent of LDCs' total exports.5  As expected, due to the presence of 33 LDCs in Africa and the 
geographic locations of some as adjacent neighbour s, 92 per cent of this trade is within Africa. 
                                                      
5 Considering that informal cross-border trade are und er-recorded in official statistics, this estimate 
obviously represents the lowest end.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 15 
 
 
   
Table 5:  Product composition of LDCs ' exports by destination, 2000-2011 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 
 Value Share in LDCs' exports Annual percentage change 
2011 2000 2011 2010 2011 2000-2011 
Agriculture        
World 20 100 100 17.0 18.3 11.5 
   Asia 7 30 36 22.2 12.7 13.3 
   Europe 5 37 26 13.3 29.0 7.9 
   Africa1 4 16 21 6.2 21.9 14.0 
   Middle East 2 7 9 29.6 12.2 13.9 
Fuels and mining products       
World 127 100 100 29.7 25.1 21.4 
   Asia 67 50 53 45.9 18.3 22.0 
   Europe 23 17 18 17.6 52.6 22.3 
   North America 21 25 17 20.4 14.1 16.9 
   Africa1 6 3 4 50.7 2.0 24.2 
   South and Central America 1 1 1 108.3 -5.8 18.9 
Manufactures       
World 41 100 100 17.9 26.0 12.3 
   Europe 15 48 37 4.2 37.5 9.8 
   North America 10 32 24 15.7 18.3 9.3 
   Asia 8 14 20 25.9 14.5 16.2 
   Africaa 4 5 10 22.3 15.4 20.6 
 
 a Includes re-exports. 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
 
35. The product composition of LDCs' exports by d estination indicates that Asia dominates the 
destination market for primary commodities, bot h agricultural and fuels and mining products.  
Fifty-three per cent of LDCs' exports of fuels and mi ning products were destined to Asia in 2011.  In 
the last 11 years, exports of agricultural products to Africa and Asia grew at rates faster than any other 
region and thereby contributed to the increase in  the shares of these two regions as destination 
markets for agricultural products.  Food represents  93 per cent of LDCs' exports of agricultural 
products to Africa.   
36. Europe, followed by North America, is still th e major destination markets for LDCs' exports 
of manufactures.  Nonetheless, Asia with 20 per cen t of supply of manufactures from LDCs in 2011 is 
catching up with North America. 
(a) Major markets and their import structure 
37. Chart 5, which is based on partner import sta tistics, shows the 20 top markets for products 
originating from LDCs.  The combined imports of  these 20 markets valued at US$34 billion in 2000 
jumped to US$180.4 billion in 2011.  Considering only the top five markets which account for 
80 per cent of these cumulative imports, it is obser ved that all these markets have considerably 
increased their imports from LDCs in the last 11 years.  Imports of China which were only 
US$4 billion in 2000 grew to US$52.7 billion in 2011( more than 13 fold increase).  Imports by the 
European Union more than tripled, increasing from US$11.8 billion to US$42.5 billion.  A similar 
trend is observed for the United States' imports, in creasing from US$9.7 billion to US$30 billion.  The 
next two Asian importers, India and Chinese Taipei, increased their imports by more than tenfold 
from US$1.2 billion to US$12.6 billion and US$0.7 billion to US$7.0 billion respectively.  As a 
result, LDCs as a group have gained market shar es in these economies; their share, which stood at WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 16  
 
  1.1 per cent in the total imports of these five ma rkets in 2000, grew to 2 per cent in 2011.  For 
example, LDCs' share in Chinese merchandise imports  increased from 1.8 per cent to 3.0 per cent.  
The share of LDCs in the total imports of Ch inese Taipei increased from 0.5 per cent in 2000 to 
2.5 per cent 2011.  
Chart 7:  Top 20 markets for LDCs' exports in goods, 2000-2011 
(billion dollars) 
 
0 1 02 03 04 05 06 0
China
EU 27
USA
India a
Chinese Taipei
Japan
Thailand
Canada
South Africa
Korea, Republic of
Brazil
Zambia
Mali a
Indonesia
Singapore
Russian Federation
Nigeria b
Chile
Peru
Malaysia2011
2000
 
 a 2011 estimated based on data for January to October 2011. 
 b 2010 instead of 2011. 
Source : UN Comtrade database and Global Trade Information Services (GTIS). 
38. Imports from LDCs in the five major markets are highly concentrated in few products.  In 
2011, the shares of fuels and minerals in the resp ective total imports from LDCs were 97 per cent for 
Chinese Taipei, 91 per cent for China, 68 per cent for India, 66 per cent for the United States and 
47 per cent for the European Union.  Imports of th e European Union are relatively diversified, as 
39 per cent of its imports are manufactured produc ts and 12 per cent agricultural products.  The 
United States' imports of manufactures also represent a relatively significant share in its total imports 
from LDCs (32 per cent). 
39. Clothing is by far the major manufactured product imported from LDCs by the major 
developed markets.  The share of LDCs in to tal extra-EU imports of clothing increased from 
8 per cent in 2000 to 12 per cent in 2011.  The share of clothing in European Union's imports of 
manufactures from LDCs increased from 52 per cent in  2000 to 76 per cent in 2011.  The share of 
LDCs in Canada's total imports of clothing incr eased from 4.4 per cent in 2000 to 15.8 per cent in 
2011.  Bangladesh and Cambodia accounted for 97 pe r cent of Canada's imports of clothing from 
LDCs in 2011. Japan's imports of clothing fro m LDCs increased by an annual average of  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 17 
 
 
  29.4 per cent between 2000 and 2011.  Only thr ee countries (Bangladesh, Cambodia and Myanmar) 
supply 97 per cent of Japan's clothing imports from LDCs. 
40. Developed economies' imports of manufactures are increasingly becoming concentrated on 
few suppliers.  Two countries, Bangladesh and Cambodia, accounted for 94 per cent of European Union's imports of clothing from LDCs in 2011.  Together with Lao PDR, Madagascar and 
Myanmar; the five countries represented 99 per cen t of European Union's imports of clothing from 
LDCs. 
41. Clothing also accounted for 90 per cent of United States' imports of manufactured products 
from LDCs.  While in 2000, 6.4 per cent of United States' imports of clothing originated from LDCs, 
this share increased to 9.7 per cent in 2011.  Bangladesh and Cambodia ar e the major source of 
clothing imports for the United States, accounting respectively for 55 per cent and 31 per cent of its 
total imports of clothing from LDCs in 2011.  The five major suppliers (Bangladesh, Cambodia, Haiti, 
Lao PDR and Lesotho) represent 99 per cent of the United States' imports of clothing from LDCs. 
42. Due to a variety of factors, including resource endowment and supply-side constraints, only a 
few LDCs dominate supplies to the five major economi es.  Angola, for example, is the biggest source 
of imports from LDCs for four of the five econom ies.  The exception is the European Union, for 
which it is the second source next to Bangladesh.  For Chinese Taipei, the five major suppliers 
account for 96 per cent of its impor ts from LDCs.  The corresponding figures for the United States, 
China, India and the European Union are 87 pe r cent, 83 per cent, 78 per cent and 72 per cent 
respectively.  Most of these LDCs are exporters of fuels and mining products.  For China, the top five 
LDC suppliers are all exporters of fuels and minerals .  For India and Chinese Ta ipei, four are fuel and 
mineral exporters.  Bangladesh and Cambodia, exporters of clothing, are to be found among the five 
major LDC suppliers to the European Union and the Un ited States.  All in all, no more than 13 LDCs 
appear within the top five suppliers of the five major import markets of the LDCs. 
(b) Differentiation by region and export specialization 
43. LDCs are heterogeneous with respect to thei r resource endowment and export structure.  
Grouping them according to their export specializ ation would help better understand their trade 
performance.  The following section looks into expo rt specialization and regional characteristics of 
the countries belonging to the LDC group. 
44. In the last 11 years, LDCs which are exporters  of fuels and mining products expanded their 
exports by an annual average of 19 per cent, compar ed to the 12.3 per cent and 13.8 per cent increase 
for exporters of manufactured and agricultural products .  As a result, the share of exporters of fuels 
and mining products in total expor ts of LDCs increased from 60 per cent in 2000 to 74 per cent in 
2011.  The share of manufactures exporters contracted to 17.7 per cent in 2011 from 27.7 per cent in 2000.  Agricultural exporters also witnessed thei r share declining from 9.3 per cent in 2000 to 
6.9 per cent in 2011. 
45. In 2011, exporters of fuels and mining products registered 24 per cent increase in their 
exports.  The other two sub-groups , exporters of agricultural a nd manufactured products, also 
recorded sharp growth of 31.8 per cen t and 29.8 per cent in their exports. 
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 18  
 
  Table 6:  LDCs' merchandise trade by export specialization, 2000-2011 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 
 Exports Imports 
2011 Share in LDCs' 
exports Annual percentage 
change 2011 Share in 
LDCs' 
imports Annual percentage 
change 
Value 2000 2011 2011 2000-2011 Value 2000 2011 2011 2000-2011 
LDC (48) 202.6 100 100 25 17 205.9 100 100 22 15 
 Exporters of fuels and 
 minerals 150.2 60 74 24 19 102.3 41 50 22 17 
 Fuel exporters  114.7 47 57 23 19 57.1 24 28 16 17 
 Non-fuel mineral exporters  35.5 14 18 25 19 45.2 18 22 32 17 
 Manufacture exporters  35.8 28 18 29 12 60.0 36 29 25 13 
 Agricultural exporters  13.9 9 7 32 14 37.2 19 18 16 15 
 Diversified  2.6 3 1 17 10 6.3 4 3 23 13 
African LDCs  144.6 58 71 24 19 123.7 53 60 21 17 
 Fuel exporters LDCs  93.1 30 46 23 21 39.6 12 19 15 20 
 Mineral exporters  33.1 13 16 24 19 42.5 16 21 32 18 
 Agricultural exporters  13.1 9 6 32 14 29.8 16 14 15 14 
 Manufactures exporters  2.7 3 1 38 9 5.5 4 3 13 10 
 Diversified  2.6 3 1 17 10 6.3 4 3 23 13 
Asian LDCs  45.6 30 23 23 14 70.7 39 34 31 14 
 Manufactures exporters  32.4 24 16 28 13 51.6 29 25 29 14 
 Exporters of fuels and 
 minerals 12.4 6 6 11 18 11.7 7 6 51 13 
 Agricultural exporters  0.9 1 0 25 13 7.5 3 4 20 16 
 Diversified  0.0 0 0 0 - 0.0 0 0 56 16 
Middle East and 
Caribbean           
 Yemen (fuel exporter) 11.6 11 6 38 10 8.5 5 4 -8 13 
 Haiti  0.8 1 0 33 8 2.9 2 1 -8 10 
Memorandum items: Share in world exports Share in world imports 
World 18,255 100 100 20 10 18,438 100 100 19 10 
Developing economies 
excluding LDCs 7,322 29 40 23 13 6,882 27 37 22 13 
 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
46. Imports of LDCs, as a group, grew by an av erage of 15 per cent per year between 2000 and 
2011.  Here again, the imports of fuel and minera l exporters grew at a higher pace than those of 
exporters of manufactured and agricultural products .  Though fuel and minera l exporters account for 
50 per cent of LDCs' imports, the shares of the ot her sub-groups are relatively higher than their 
corresponding shares in LDCs' exports. 
47. Between 2000 and 2011,  merchandise exports of African LDCs increased on average by 
19.3 per cent per year and contributed to the sharp gr owth of their share in to tal exports of LDCs from 
58 per cent to 71 per cent.  Likewise, their share in  world exports also increased from 0.3 per cent in 
2000 to 0.8 per cent in 2011.  Most of this grow th, however, comes from exporters of fuels and  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 19 
 
 
  minerals.  The share of African LDCs' fuel and mi neral exporters in total exports of African LDCs 
increased from 75 per cent in 2000 to 87 per cent in 2011.  While exporters of agricultural products 
lost nine percentage points of their shares, manuf actures exports dropped three percentage points.   
48. The share of Asian LDCs in total exports of all LDCs declined from 30 per cent in 2000 to 
23 per cent in 2011.  Despite the eight percentage point s loss to exporters of fuels and minerals in the 
last 11 years, Asian exporters of manufactured pr oducts still account for the lion's share (71 per cent) 
of Asian LDCs' exports; they also represent 73 per cent of total Asian LDCs' imports, as their imports 
include substantial intermediate input (mainly text iles) for the production of clothing which is their 
leading manufacture product. 
49. Due to differences in natural resource endowme nt, the product mix of African LDCs' exports 
is different from those of Asian LDCs.  As Table 7 amply indicates, African LDCs are increasingly 
relying on fuels and mining products.  In the last 11 years, exports of manufactured products lost 
12 percentage points of their share in total exports of Africa, while the agricultural sector's share is 
reduced to 9 per cent from 21 per cent. 
Table 7:  Product composition of African LDCs' exports, 2000-2011 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 Value Share in LDC exports Annual percentage change 
2011 2000 2011 2010 2011 2000-2011 
Agriculture 13.3 21.2 9.2 11.8 21.5 10.6 
   Food 10.4 15.1 7.2 15.5 19.0 11.5 
   Raw materials 2.9 6.1 2.0 -0.6 31.3 7.7 
Fuels and mining products 110.8 52.3 76.7 28.7 24.2 23.5 
   Fuels 92.6 45.0 64.0 22.9 24.6 23.2 
   Non-fuel minerals 18.3 7.3 12.6 68.1 22.2 25.3 
Manufactures 8.7 17.7 6.0 3.1 21.4 8.2 
   Textiles and clothing 1.3 3.1 0.9 -10.9 24.6 6.2 
Total merchandise exports 144.6 57.5 71.4 27.0 24.5 19.3 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
50. As major suppliers of primary commodities, African LDCs trade increasingly with emerging 
Asian economies as their resource s correspond to the latters' cons tantly growing demand for raw 
materials.  The share of Asia in African LD Cs' exports increased from 24 per cent in 2000 to 
40 per cent in 2011.  Over the same period, the shar e of Europe in African LDCs' exports shrank by 
12 percentage points, from 35 per cent to 23 per cent while that of North America dropped from 20 per cent to 16 per cent. 
51. As the following table illustrates, Asian LDCs specialize on exports of manufactured products 
which represent 76 per cent of all LDCs manufact ures exports.  While exports of manufactured 
products account for nearly 70 per cent of Asian LDCs ' total exports, 71 per cent of these are textiles 
and clothing.  As mentioned earlier, the clothing sector itself relies heavily on imported textiles.  In 2011, textile imports of Bangladesh and Cam bodia (the two leading exporters of clothing), 
amounted to US$5,562 million and US$2,444 million respectively. 
 
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 20  
 
  Table 8:  Product composition of Asian LDCs' exports, 2000-2011 
(billion dollars and percentage) 
 Value Share in LDC exports Annual percentage change 
2011 2000 2011 2010 2011 2000-2011 
Agriculture 6 13 13 27.5 10.1 14.0 
   Food 4 9 8 18.3 13.2 12.8 
   Raw materials 2 4 5 44.6 5.4 16.5 
Fuels and mining products 6 6 13 40.6 20.9 23.0 
   Fuels 5 5 11 42.2 17.0 20.9 
   Non-fuel minerals 1 0 3 33.7 38.2 41.1 
Manufactures 32 70 69 23.1 27.1 13.7 
   Textiles and clothing 22 57 49 15.9 27.8 12.2 
Total merchandise exports  46 30.3 22.5 27.6 23.0 13.8 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
 
52. Absorbing half of their exports in 2011, developed economies are still the major export 
destination markets for products originating from Asian LDCs.  Over the past decade, however, 
intra-regional trade has gained im portance; this grew by 16 per cent per year between 2000 and 2011 
and resulted in lifting the intra-regional share in As ian LDCs exports from 28 per cent to 36 per cent.  
This growth took place at the expense of North Amer ica, whose share as destination market for Asian 
LDCs exports declined from 30 per cent in 2000 to 19 per cent in 2011.  At around 30 per cent, 
Europe's share didn't change much in the last decade. 
4. Merchandise trade balance 
53. In the 1980s and 1990s, LDCs as a group were able to cover between 62 per cent and 
69 per cent of their import bills by their export earnings .  In the last decade, however, thanks to the 
commodity boom, the coverage ratio incr eased to an average of 90 per cent. 
54. LDCs posted their first merchandise trade surplus in 2006.  The modest surplus that continued 
through 2008, however, was interrupted by the r ecord high trade deficit in 2009.  The deficit 
continued through 2010 before turning into a nearly balanced trade in 2011. 
Table 9:  LDCs' coverage of  imports by exports, 2000-2011 
(percentage) 
 
 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 
Developing economies 105 109 112 111 108 106 106 106 
LDCs 83 95 103 103 104 83 96 98 
 Agricultural exporters 40 33 33 34 31 33 33 37 
 Fuel exporters 164 195 207 207 213 139 189 201 
 Mineral exporters 65 66 82 77 71 69 83 78 
 Manufacture exporters 65 61 65 60 56 57 58 60 
 Diversified and others 55 43 41 32 31 40 44 42 
 
Note : Indicators based on total exports a nd imports for the reference group. 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 21 
 
 
  55. Once again, differentiation by export specializa tion confirms that whatever improvement has 
been achieved in the merchandise trad e balances is attributable excl usively to the seven oil exporting 
LDCs.  These countries which benefited from increase in prices for the past few years have been 
running huge surpluses.  Excluding the oil exporters , other LDCs have been encountering chronic 
trade deficit.  In 2011, the exports of non-oil LDCs covered only 60 per cent of their merchandise 
imports.  Agricultural exporters, comprising 20 LDCs, suffer the most from large trade deficit.  In 
2011, for example, only 37 per cent of their imports  were covered by their merchandise exports.  The 
seven exporters of predominantly manufactured products  run practically the same size of deficit as 
those of agricultural exporters.   
56. Table 10 shows LDCs' trade balance by major pr oduct categories.  As expected, LDCs as a 
group enjoy positive trade balance in fuels and mi ning.  Trade deficit has been increasing for 
agriculture and manufactures since 2000.  The defic it in agricultural products arises exclusively from 
food.  In the last 11 years, LDCs' food deficit was increasing on average by 23 per cent per year. 
 
Table 10:  LDCs' merchandise trade balance by product groups, 2000-2011 
(billion dollars) 
  
  2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 
Total merchandise -7.3 -11.1 -9.7 -14.1 -10.5 -4.7 3.0 4.1 5.9 -26.5 -6.6 -3.3 
Agriculturea -1.9 -2.2 -2.9 -3.9 -4.4 -5.2 -6.5 -9.0 -14.8 -13.7 -17.0 -24.0 
Fuels 9.6 9.2 10.4 14.2 21.7 35. 7 46.5 61.4 87.0 51.8 64.5 76.1 
Non-fuel minerals 1.2 1.7 1.6 1. 7 2.7 3.5 6.6 7.9 10.3 8.0 14.0 17.2 
Manufactures -18.0 -19.0 -21.0 -25.1 -30.9 -38.8 -47.8 -58.9 -78.9 -75.3 -91.0 -109.2 
 
 aIncludes forestry and fishery products. 
Note : Trade balances for the respective product groups are esti mated based on WTO network of world merchandise trade 
by products and regions and refer to FOB valuation on both expo rt and import sides.  These estimates do not add up to the 
total merchandise trade balances, which are calculated from official statistics and calculated as FOB-based exports minus 
CIF-based imports. 
Source : WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 22  
 
  Box 1:  LDCs' exposure to high food prices  
 
The total value of LDCs' imports of f ood increased annually by an average of 17 per cent to reach US$40.4 billion in 2011 
from US$7 billion in 2000, nearly six-fold increase. The co rresponding annual increases for developing and developed 
economies were 15 per cent and 9 per cent respectively. 
 
For LDCs as a group, the share of food in their total mercha ndise imports was 17 per cent in 2011 - double those of developed 
and developing economies. This share has rema ined stable in the last decade, ranging from 16 per cent to 18 per cent. On the 
other hand, available statistics  indicate a declining share of food in their total merchandise exports from 12 per cent in 2000  to 
8 per cent in 2011. Thus, the net position of the trade balance in foodstuff has deteriorated for the LDC group. In 2011, LDCs 
spent 20 per cent of their total merchandise export earnings on food imports.  
 Most LDCs are net food importers. Out of 28 LDCs for which re ported data are readily availabl e, 21 countries are net food 
importers. The coverage of their food imports by food expor ts ranged from 5 per cent for Central African Republic to 
88 per cent for Mauritania. For 15 LDCs, their food exports could only finance less than 50 per cent of their food import bills .  
 
Chart Box 1:  Export prices of food  and agricultural raw materials, 2000-2011 
(Indices, 2000=100)  
   
Source: WTO based on data from the World Bank.  
 
The above chart shows that from 2004 to 2008, prices of food were  growing at a higher pace than prices of agricultural raw 
materials. During the 2008 food crisis, LDCs' import bill for food in creased by 33 per cent. Likewise, in 2011, prices of food 
hiked to nearly the 2008 level and LDCs food imports increased by 31 per cent.  While the price of food had somewhat 
declined at the beginning of the year (ava ilable statistics indicate a 9 per cent dec line in the prices of food in the first ha lf of 
2012 compared to the first half of 2011), supply shortages in ma in cereal producing count ries due to severe  drought have been 
pushing key prices such as wheat and soya up in the second semest er. In order to confront the situation and avoid a repetition 
of the food price spike that triggered riots in poorer countries  in 2008, the G-20 held a series of talks in August. Further 
analysis was called to know if the situati on could justify an early convening of a mee ting to discuss the rise in food prices.  If 
decided so, the meeting would be the first of the so-called Rapid Response Forum, a newly created body to promote early 
discussion among decision-level officials abou t abnormal international market conditions.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 23 
 
 
   
C. COMMERCIAL SERVICES  
57. In 2010, the last available year, the share of serv ices in total value added in the LDCs reached 
48.9 per cent, up from 43.8 per cent in 2000.  Th e contribution of services to the economy rose in 
particular in Burundi and Nepal. 
Chart 8:  Services value added in selected LDCs, 2000-2010 
(percentage) 
 
 
 Source :  World Bank.  
58. In 2011, the value of LDCs' commercial services exports reached US$ 21.7 billion, up from 
US$5.7 billion in 2000.  Despite the 15.6 per cent  rise recorded by the group, the participation of 
LDCs in world exports of commercial services remain ed marginal, at 0.5 per cent.  In 2011, services 
exports accounted only for 9 per cent of total goods and services exports.  Poor infrastructure, limited 
skills and lack of financial resources, continue to  hinder LDCs' export performance in services trade. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 24  
 
  Box. 2:  LDCs and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows 
 
Foreign Direct Investment plays a fundamental role in tran sferring technology and skills to the LDCs, especially in 
the area of services.  However, according to UNCTAD, FDI flows to the LDCs are very modest, accounting for 
only 1 per cent of global inflows in 2011. 
 
In 2011, LDCs' FDI inflows stood at US$15 billion, declin ing for the third consecutive year.  FDI flows to the 
LDCs are unevenly distributed, mainly targeting extract ion activities in resource-rich economies in Africa.  For 
instance, in the last decade , Angola was the largest reci pient of FDI.  In 2011, Mozambique, Sudan and Chad 
accounted for around 40 per cent of all FDI flows to the group.  Investme nt in the services sector is, however, 
increasing, especially in utilities, tran sport and storage, as well as in tel ecommunications, in particular in Asian 
LDCs. 
 
In general, FDI to the LDCs takes mainly the form of greenfield projects.  In 2011, about half of the investment came from other developing economies, with India ranking as the largest developing economies' investor, followed 
by China and South Africa. 
 
 
LDCs FDI inflows, 2006-2011 
(billion dollars) 
 
  Source :  UNCTAD World Investment Report 2012. 
59. LDCs' services exports are dominated by the tourism sector.  In 2011, travel exports 
accounted for 52 per cent of LDCs' total commercia l services exports, up from 44.6 per cent in 2000.  
In the period 2000-2011, LDCs' travel exports grew by an annual average of 15 per cent.  In 2011, Cambodia and Tanzania remained the largest exporters within th e group, accounting respectively for 
some 15 per cent and 13 per cent of the LDCs' travel receipts.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 25 
 
 
  Table 11:  LDCs' commercial services exports by category, 2000-2011 
(million dollars and percentage) 
 
Value 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 
Commercial services 5,713 5,870 6,302 6,702 8,258 9,189 10,566 13,607 17,056  16,568 18,729 21,658
Transport 1,179 1,224 1,329 1,456 1,679 2,095 2,400 2,761 3,463 3,134 4,023 4,884
Travel 2,546 2,841 3,137 3,348 4,184 4, 849 5,409 7,279 9,199 9,119 9,822 11,305
Other commercial 
services 1,989 1,805 1,846 1,898 2,395 2,246 2, 757 3,568 4,395 4,315 4,884 5,469
Growth rate 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 
Commercial services 3.3 2.7 7.3 6.4 23.2 11.3 15.0 28.8 25.3 -2.9 13.0 15.6
Transport 1.4 3.9 7.7 10.4 15.3 24.8 14.6 15.0 25.4 -9.5 28.4 21.4
Travel 0.6 11.6 10.4 6.7 25.0 15. 9 11.5 34.6 26.4 -0.9 7.7 15.1
Other commercial 
services 8.3 -9.2 2.3 2.8 26.2 -6.2 22. 8 29.4 23.2 -1.8 13.2 12.0
Composition 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 
Commercial services 100.0 100.0 100.0 100. 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Transport 20.6 20.9 20.9 21.7 20.3 22.8 22.7 20.3 20.3 18.9 21.5 22.6
Travel 44.6 48.4 49.8 50.0 50.7 52.8 51.2 53.5 53.9 55.0 52.4 52.2
Other commercial 
services 34.8 30.8 29.3 28.3 29.0 24.4 26.1 26.2 25.8 26.0 26.1 25.3
Source :  WTO Secretariat. 
 
60. In 2011, transportation services receipts represen ted 22.6 per cent of the LDCs' total exports, 
with peaks in Djibouti (77 per cent in 2010) and Ethiopia (59 per cent).  The aggregate other commercial services represented overall one quarter of total commercial services exports.  The most 
important subsectors were other business servic es, which accounted for 10 per cent of total 
commercial services exports, and communications services (6 per cent).  Thanks to the rapid 
expansion of mobile telephony, communications ser vices exports have been increasing rapidly in the 
LDCs group, in particular in Bangladesh, Mali and Nepal, where average annual growth ranged 
between 20 and 30 per cent. 
61. In 2011, exports of computer and informati on services, financial services, and construction 
represented each 2 per cent of the LDCs ' total commercial services exports.
6  Insurance services and 
royalties and licence fees stood at only 1 per cent. 
62. Despite the LDCs' group dependence on tourism receipts, some countries are trying to 
diversify their services exports.  For example, Banglad esh's IT sector has grown in recent years, and 
the country is emerging as an attractive IT and IT-enabled services outsourcing destination, ranking 
among the top 30 offshoring locations.7  In 2011, Bangladesh's exports of computer services, grew by 
60 per cent. 
 
   
                                                      
6 These estimates, however, should be  taken with caution as data quality issues affect LDCs' services 
trade statistics. 
7 Gartner's 30 Leading Locations for Offshore Services, 2010-2011. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 26  
 
  Chart 9:  LDCs' structure of commercial services by sector, 2011 
(percentage) 
 
  
 
     
 
    
 
  
 Source:  WTO estimates. 
 
 
Chart 10:  Growth of communications ser vices exports in Bangladesh, Mali and Nepal 
Index (2000=100) 
 
 
0200400600800100012001400160018002000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011Bangladesh Mali Nepal
 
 
  
 Source :  IMF, Balance of Payments Statistics. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 27 
 
 
   
III. TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO 
LDC S 
63. This chapter analyses the market access cond itions that LDCs face in their main export 
markets along two tariff related dimensions:  th e share of LDC exports benefiting from duty-free 
access in the importing market;  and th e average tariffs paid on dutiable  products.  For both indicators, 
the report identifies preferential treatments that exporters may receive under existing LDC or other 
preferential schemes.  The review includes develope d and main emerging countries; in the latter case, 
the coverage is still limited by data availability.  
D. MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPED ECONOMIES  
64. Table 12 shows that around 80 per cent of the value of imports from LDCs as well as 
developing countries was duty free in developed markets (excluding arms and oil) in 2010.  This share 
has remained almost constant for LDC exports since 2005, while it gradually improved for other 
developing countries.  There are important differences in the preferential nature of this access: most 
LDCs enjoy considerable degree of true duty-free preferential access.8  Meanwhile, most of the 
improvements recorded for other developing countries in general were due to elimination of tariffs 
under MFN treatment.  In 2010, out of nearly 79 per cent of duty-free imports of developed countries 
from other developing countries, only 19 per cent corr esponded to true preferential access.  For LDCs, 
despite the similar share of duty-free exports (80 per cent), the proportion covered by true duty-free 
preferences was 53.5 per cent.  Notably, despite th e improvements in the coverage of DFQF market 
access, the share of duty-free imports of devel oped countries from LDCs has changed little since 2005 
(hovering around 80 per cent during 2005-2010).  This  indicates that imports were not recorded for 
tariff lines that gradually were made duty free on an MFN basis, suggesting perhaps supply 
constraints of LDCs in those lines.  In 2010, one fifth of LDC exports still faced duties, suggesting 
scope for a fuller implementati on of the Hong Kong Decision on dut y-free and quota-free (DFQF) 
market access for LDCs. 
 
Table 12: Proportion of develope d country imports from LDCs ad mitted free of duty, by value 
2000-2010 (percentage) 
 
2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 
Total Duty Free 69.8 80.4 79.1 79.8 80.6 80.4 80.4 
DF under MFN 34.9 31.4 26.4 28.0 31.8 27.6 26.9 
DF under true preference 35.0 49.0 52.7 51.9 48.7 52.9 53.5 
Memo item:   All developing countries 
Total Duty Free 64.8 74.8 76.1 77.4 78.7 77.0 78.8 
DF under true preference 16.7 21.1 20.4 19.6 19.5 19.6 19.1 
 
Note:  The true preference margin is calculated by subtracti ng from the total duty-free access all products receiving 
duty-free treatment under the MFN regime.  Th e indicators are based on the best avai lable treatment, including regional and 
preferential agreements. 
Source:   WTO-ITC-UNCTAD based on CAMAD compiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
                                                      
8 True preferential duty-free access is defined as the percentage of exports offered duty-free treatment 
under the GSP-LDC and other preferential schemes, as compared to products offered duty-free entry under the 
MFN treatment. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 28  
 
   
65. As for average tariffs on labour-intensive products  of particular interest from a development 
perspective, the average tariffs on agricultural pr oducts imported from LDCs fell slightly between 
2009 and 2010 from 1.2 per cent to 1.1 per cent, ma inly due to the implementation of measures 
concerning some agricultural products by the EU.9  Tariffs on textile imports remained unchanged, 
while tariffs paid on clothing products from LDCs increased slightly from 6.4 per cent in 2009 to 
6.7 per cent in 2010.   
Table 13:  Average tariffs imposed by deve loped countries on key products from LDCs  
2000-2010 (percentage ad valorem) 
 
2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 
Preferential Agriculture 3.6 3.0 2.7 1.9 1.6 1.2 1.1 
Clothing 7.8 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.7 
Textile 4.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 
Preference 
margin Agriculture 1.5 2.5 2.7 3.7 4.0 4.7 4.8 
Clothing 5.6 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.6 
Textile 2.7 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.0 
 
Note:  Average tariffs are based on best applicable tariffs (MFN and preferential treatments granted to LDCs and 
developing countries), and weighted usi ng a standard export structure based on 2000-2001 data, to limit the impact of the 
year-to-year changes in export composition and relative prices on the indicators. Pr eference margin (in percentage points) 
indicate the difference with MFN treatment. 
Source :  WTO-ITC-UNCTAD based on CAMAD compiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
 
66. Comparing the specific LDC preferential treatment relative to the overall preferences offered 
by developed economies to all developing countries in general, it appears that the largest difference, 
in favour of LDC exports, correspond to agriculture (Chart 11).  Average tariffs faced by the LDCs 
for clothing was more or less close to the average of other developing countries indicating an insignificant margin of preference for LDCs for this product. 
                                                      
9 It should be noted that the trend analysis is derived from a fixed structure of LDC export; the 
weighting structure is centred on y ear 2000 and is based on a three year (1999-2001) average. This fixed 
structure allows isolating changes that are due only to tariff policy.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 29 
 
 
   
Chart 11:  Effective preference margin of LDCs' exports for selected product groups, 2010 
 
02468AgricultureClothingTextile
DVGs
LDCs
 
 
Note : Best average tariffs faced by LDCs and by all developing countries (DVGs) in developed markets. 
Source : Based on CAMAD compiled by  ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
 
67. The variance observed results from two types of differences: some types of products may be 
taxed more than others (e.g., tropical fruits vs. da iry products) on the importing market, irrespective of 
the preferential status of the exporter, a nd some exporting countries may benefit from more 
preferences than others.  The average tariffs faci ng small LDC islands are the lowest as weighted 
average; close to zero for agriculture , but higher for clothing (5.5 per cent) and textiles (7 per cent) in 
the case of Pacific Islands, while Haiti's exports be nefit from almost complete duty-free treatment.  
African LDCs benefit from the best treatments on average (less than 2 pe r cent for agriculture, 
2.6 per cent for textile and 3.6 per cent for clothing).  Asian LDCs confront higher  tariffs in general, at 
about 3 per cent for agriculture, 2.6 per cent for textiles, and 6.7 per cent for clothing.  
68. The heterogeneity stems also from differences in th e coverage of preferences.  Information on 
preferential treatments presented in Table 14 focuses on the GSP treatment specific for LDCs, excluding other preferential agreements.  For this reason,  it is important to note that data is not always 
comparable across countries.  Some countries, like  Australia, Canada, Japan or Switzerland, rely 
almost exclusively on their GSP-LDC treatment to  grant preferences, while others, like the EU and 
the US also grant preferenc es to LDCs under other schemes.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 30 Table 14: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developed markets, 2010 
 
Market Sector GSP-LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from 
LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable Duty free (%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under GSP- 
LDC scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty free (%) Weighted 
applied duty1 
Australia Total 0 100.0 859 535 0 307.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Agriculture 0 100.0 113 37 0 35.7 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 0 100.0 744 498 0 269.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 2 0 0 2.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Canada Total 102 98.8 2,023 971 0 3,796.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Agriculture 102 92.6 303 141 0 39.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 0 100.0 1,710 830 0 1,452.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 9 0 0 80.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 2,225.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 
European Union Total 22 99.8 3,674 2,838 5 27,731.3 182.5 99.3 0.1 
Agriculture 0 100.0 597 449 0 3,032.6 0.4 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 22 99.7 3,056 2,389 5 15,009.5 182.0 98.8 0.1 
Ores 0 100.0 19 0 0 1,250.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 2 0 0 8,438.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Japan Total 164 98.2 845 557 18 3,730.6 4.7 99.9 0.0 
Agriculture 69 96.3 125 62 0 288.5 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 95 98.7 714 495 18 1,690.3 4.7 99.7 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 5 0 0 80.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 1,670.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
New Zealand Total 0 100.0 717 452 3 38.8 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Agriculture 0 100.0 66 20 0 8.7 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 0 100.0 651 432 3 30.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56
 Page 31Market Sector GSP-LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from 
LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable Duty free (%) Total Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under GSP- 
LDC scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty free (%) Weighted 
applied duty1 
Norway Total 1 100.0 751 247 1 215.3 6.3 97.1 6.0 
Agriculture 1 99.9 99 48 1 21.2 6.1 71.3 60.7 
Non-agriculturec 0 100.0 650 199 0 180.1 0.2 99.9 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 2 0 0 14.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Switzerland Total 2 100.0 845 722 0 294.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Agriculture 2 99.9 149 110 0 93.4 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 0 100.0 696 612 0 201.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
United States Total 1,834 82.4 1,721 1,122 579 24,097.7 7,259.5 69.9 4.9 
Agriculture 278 84.5 213 133 6 400.8 0.5 99.9 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 1,556 81.9 1,499 985 573 9,666.2 7,259.0 24.9 12.3 
Ores 0 100.0 7 2 0 98.5 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 2 2 0 13,932.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
 
 a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme ; some UN-LDC countries may be excluded; non-UN LDC countries ma y be included. 
b Forty-nine LDC countries as listed by the UN in 2010. 
c"Non-agriculture" covers NAMA products with the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
 1 Excludes non-ad valorem duties, except for the United States. 
Source:   IDB-WTO. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 32  
 
   
69. Most developed countries have been providing to tal or nearly total duty-free status to LDC 
exports, either in terms of tariff lines or import value (Table 14).10  In some cases, the situation varies 
according to sectors.  For instance, in the area of agriculture only six tariff lines were dutiable in 2010 
in the United States, out of a total of 213 that  registered imports from LDCs - with almost 
100 per cent of the value of imported agricultural goods entering duty free.  The share of duty-free 
imports was much lower (25 per cent) for non-agricu ltural products (excluding ores and petroleum) in 
2010, since 573 traded tariff lines remain dutiable under the general GSP-LDC scheme.  Overall, 
duty-free status under the United States' GSP scheme was 82.4 per cent in 2010. 
70. The United States also grants duty-free access to  AGOA beneficiaries, 26 of which are LDCs 
(Annex Table 6).  As per the United States' tariff notification to the IDB (2012), 1,740 tariff lines 
have been designated as AGOA duty-free lines.  In addition, the AGOA beneficiaries have access to 
duty-free lines under GSP (3,475 tariff lines) as well as those granted on an MFN basis (3,868 tariff lines).  In total, therefore, the duty-free tari ff lines under AGOA constitute around 90 per cent (taking 
into account some 545 tariff lines under HS Chapters 61-62 which could be duty free under certain 
conditions).
11   
E. MARKET ACCESS IN DEVELOPING ECONOMIES  
71. Table 15 presents available data on preferential treatments to LDCs by selected developing 
countries for the year 2010.  Although detailed data re main limited, increasing efforts have been made 
by a number of developing countries to provide data at tariff line le vel (See Section V).  Unlike last 
year's edition, data is appearing on the LDC duty scheme column of the Table which is a positive 
development towards transparency of preferential sch emes undertaken in favour of LDCs.  It may be 
noted that a number of schemes provide for a gr adual phasing-in of duty-free access (e.g. India), and 
hence the number of duty-free tariff lines under LDC duty scheme will further expand with the 
completion of the phasing-in period of some preferential schemes.   
72. Calculation from Table 15 indicates that in 2010, almost 64 per cent of imports of LDCs 
(excluding oil) entered duty-free in the select group of developing countries.12  Including oil, the 
duty-free imports from LDCs to those developing countries was nearly 77 per cent in 2010.  Oil and ores entered almost entirely free of duty.  Sixty-th ree per cent of non-agricultural goods (oil and ores 
excluded) entered duty free while 43 per cent of agri cultural products enjoyed duty-free entry in 2010 
(See Table 16).   
 
                                                      
10 When 100 per cent of tariff lines are covered, 100 per cen t of the imported value will be covered; the reverse is 
not true as 100 per cent of imported value can be treated as DFQF even if some ta riff lines are not duty free, as long as no 
imports are recorded for t hose dutiable tariff lines. 
11 This duty-free figure could be higher for LDC AGOA count ries, since some dutiable lines in Chapters 50 
through 60 and Chapter 63 could become AGOA eligible under certain conditions. 
12 Based on a group of 13 developing countries fo r which data has been compiled in Table 15.   
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56
 Page 33Table 15: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing markets, 2010 
 
Market Sector LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from LDC 
beneficiariesa 
Dutiable Duty free (%) Total Dutiable under 
MFN Dutiable under 
LDC scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied duty1 
Brazil Total - - 276 266 - 1,142.9 127.7 88.8 2.8 
Agriculture - - 19 19 - 9.2 9.2 0.0 12.6 
Non-agriculturec - - 255 246 - 348.3 118.4 66.0 9.0 
Ores - - 1 1 - 0.1 0.1 0.0 2.0 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 785.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Chile Total - - 293 293 - 552.8 552.8 0.0 6.0 
Agriculture - - 13 13 - 0.2 0.2 0.0 6.0 
Non-agriculturec - - 279 279 - 552.4 552.4 0.0 6.0 
Ores - - 1 1 - 0.2 0.2 0.0 6.0 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
China2 Total 3,161 60.2 1,417 1,229 329 43,306.8 669.3 98.5 0.4 
Agriculture 488 55.6 167 155 60 1,041.5 404.1 61.2 12.9 
Non-agriculturec 2,673 60.8 1,226 1,073 269 6,722.6 265.2 96.1 0.5 
Ores 0 100.0 23 1 0 2,747.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 32,794.8 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Hong Kong, 
China Total - - 774 0 - 466 0 100 0.0 
Agriculture - - 74 0 - 39 0 100 0.0 
Non-agriculturec - - 694 0 - 410 0 100 0.0 
Ores - - 6 0 - 17 0 100 0.0 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0 0 n.a n.a 
India3 Total 10,967 3.2 1,669 1,586 1,586 11,096.6 10,509.6 5.3 7.1 
Agriculture 1,351 5.6 260 239 239 1,539.3 1,151.3 25.2 22.2 
Non-agriculturec 9,555 2.9 1,394 1,332 1,332 2,160.1 1,961.0 9.2 4.6 
Ores 60 0.0 14 14 14 26.0 26.0 0.0 1.3 
Petroleum 1 0.0 1 1 1 7,371.2 7,371.2 0.0 4.8  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 34 
Market Sector LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from LDC 
beneficiariesa 
Dutiable Duty free (%) Total Dutiable under 
MFN Dutiable under 
LDC scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied duty1 
Korea, 
Republic of Total 2,135 82.0 1,155 1,010 275 2,457.1 404.3 83.5 1.5 
Agriculture 1,235 22.1 164 160 122 81.6 30.6 62.5 13.2 
Non-agriculturec 890 91.3 978 847 151 2,310.5 327.9 85.8 1.2 
Ores 0 100.0 11 1 0 19.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 10 0.0 2 2 2 45.8 45.8 0.0 3.0 
Mexico Total - - 973 584 973 306.1 224.9 26.5 21.0 
Agriculture - - 45 34 45 29.7 27.9 6.0 22.4 
Non-agriculturec - - 922 550 922 276.3 197.0 28.7 20.8 
Ores - - 6 0 6 0.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum - - 0 0   0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Pakistan Total - - 537 444 - 460.3 110.1 76.1 3.3 
Agriculture - - 150 108 - 301.8 78.7 73.9 3.7 
Non-agriculturec - - 385 335 - 158.4 31.3 80.2 2.8 
Ores - - 2 1 - 0.0 0.0 79.2 1.0 
Petroleum - - 0 0 - 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Singapore Total - - 1,264 2 - 491.9 0.2 100.0 0.0 
Agriculture - - 276 2 - 58.9 0.2 99.7 0.0 
Non-agriculturec - - 987 0 - 358.4 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores - - 0 0 - 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 74.6 0.0 100.0 0.0 
South Africa Total - - 2,002 964 - 3,145.1 336.7 89.3 1.5 
Agriculture - - 217 120 - 145.4 110.2 24.2 4.3 
Non-agriculturec - - 1,771 844 - 939.6 226.5 75.9 4.9 
Ores - - 13 0 - 2.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 2,058.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Chinese Taipei Total 5,975 31.6 672 518 466 3,833.8 144.7 96.2 0.3 
Agriculture 1,074 24.2 99 69 64 62.5 26.7 57.3 6.1 
Non-agriculturec 4,900 32.6 570 448 401 574.8 44.2 92.3 0.8 
Ores 0 100.0 1 0 0 1.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 1 50.0 2 1 1 3,195.4 73.9 97.7 0.1  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56
 Page 35Market Sector LDC duty scheme 
Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from LDC 
beneficiariesa 
Dutiable Duty free (%) Total Dutiable under 
MFN Dutiable under 
LDC scheme TOTAL Dutiable Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied duty1 
Thailand Total - - 1,503 1,335 - 4,827.1 3,702.9 23.3 2.5 
Agriculture - - 175 168 - 271.3 158.0 41.8 8.0 
Non-agriculturec - - 1,318 1,160 - 3,914.9 3,540.3 9.6 2.9 
Ores - - 9 7 - 4.9 4.6 5.3 0.9 
Petroleum - - 1 0 - 636.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Turkey Total 2,447 79.5 713 577 57 1,147.9 127.3 88.9 2.3 
Agriculture 1,605 26.1 68 39 30 132.6 103.1 22.2 17.9 
Non-agriculturec 839 91.4 643 538 27 1,015.0 24.2 97.6 0.3 
Ores 3 92.3 2 0 0 0.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 n.a n.a 
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC sche me; some UN-LDC countries may be excluded; non-UN LDC countries m ay be included. 
b Forty-nine LDC countries as listed by the UN in 2010. 
c"Non-agriculture" covers NAMA products with the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
1 Excludes non-ad valorem duties. 
2 China's DFQF Programme for LDCs was launched on 1 July 20 10 but total annual imports from LDC beneficiaries are used. 
3 The 27 LDC beneficiaries of the India-Duty Free Tariff Preferen ce Scheme enjoy preferential duty for 85 per cent of India's na tional tariff lines.  These tariff lines are expected to be duty 
free by the end of 2012.  On average, the preferen ce margin over the MFN duty is around 6 per cent.   
Source:  IDB-WTO.                WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 36  
 
   
73. Table 16 contains information on the weighted average duties paid by LDCs, which indicates 
that duties are somewhat higher for agricultural products (15 per cent) than for non-agricultural 
products (2.3 per cent, excluding oil and ores).  In a ddition, there still exists some degree of dispersion 
across developing countries as is evident from Table 15 where it can be found that weighted applied 
duty varies from 21 per cent (Mexico) to merely 0.4 per cent (China). 
 
Table 16: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing economies: summary indicators, 
2010 
 
 Duty free (%) Applied dutya 
Weighted average 
 Standard Deviation 
 
Total 76.9 3.9 5.9 
Agriculture 43.4 15.1 7.6 
Non-agricultureb 63.1 2.3 5.7 
Ores 98.9 0.0 1.7 
 
 a On all imports, dutiable and non-dutia ble, excludes non-ad valorem duties. 
 b"Non-agriculture" covers NAMA products with the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
Source:   Based on Table 15. 
 
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 37 
 
 
   
IV. RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS FOR LDC PRODUCTS 
74. Annex Table 6 provides a non-exhaustive list of  major multilateral non-reciprocal market 
access schemes undertaken by Members in favour of LDCs.  It updates the previous year's 
information mostly based on notifications made to the WTO.  The Table does not include regional or 
bilateral agreements/initiatives under which,  too, LDCs receive preferences.  
75. Market access opportunities for LDCs have con tinued to advance over the reporting period.  
At present, most developed Members provide 100 per cent or close to 100 per cent DFQF market 
access to the LDCs.  In addition, progress has been  registered with regard to conditions that 
accompany GSP schemes through which most of the DF QF preferences are granted to the LDCs.  For 
instance, Switzerland, which has been providi ng comprehensive DFQF access to LDCs since 
September 2009, introduced its new GSP rules of  origin as of May 2011 - under which specific 
treatment to the LDCs has been granted.  This tr eatment is characterized, in general, by allowing a 
maximum content of non-originating materials of up to 70 per cent, for conferring origin to the 
exporting LDC.  The new rules of origin, whic h were notified to the WTO in November 2011 
(WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4), also provide for regional cu mulation in addition to bilateral cumulation.  
All such relaxations and simplifications are inte nded to further facilitate imports from LDCs into 
Switzerland.   
76. Steps are continuously being taken to impr ove duty-free coverage for LDC products.  For 
example, following the annual GSP review for th e year 2011, the United States added seven cotton 
fibre products under duty-free coverage exclusivel y for the least-developed beneficiary developing 
countries (LDBDCs).13  This was reiterated by the delegation of the United States at the meeting of 
the Committee on Trade and Development (CTD) he ld in July 2012 which indicated that 
consultations are ongoing with the US Congress on th e next steps to allow quota-free treatment to 
these imports from LDCs.   
77. The United States submitted a notification in July 2012 which, inter alia , provided the results 
of its annual GSP reviews for the years 2009 and 2010 (WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8).  The United States' GSP scheme which expired on 31 December 2010 wa s reauthorized through 31 July 2013, with 
benefits retroactively applicable for eligible pr oducts that entered the United States on or after 
1 January 2011.  It may also be noted that one  of the key provisions of AGOA - the third-country 
fabric provision - which was set to expire on 30 September 2012 - was renewed until September 2015, 
thereby continuing to grant special treatment to  the eligible LDCs under AGOA to facilitate their 
apparel exports to the United States.   
78. Since the last report, a number of developing countries have notified details of their DFQF 
preference schemes undertaken in favour of LD Cs.  These notifications were made under the 
provisions of the waiver for preferential tariff tr eatment for LDCs (WT/L/759) as well as pursuant to 
the Transparency Mechanism for Preferential Tr ade Arrangements (PTAs).  China made three 
notifications on its DFQF programme for LDCs , during October-December 2011 (WT/COMTD/N/39, 
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1, and WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/ Rev.1), providing details of tariff lines that 
have been granted duty-free access to the LDCs.  Chin a, which currently offers DFQF access to LDCs 
for 60 per cent of its tariff lines, further intends to expand the coverage to  97 per cent of all tariff 
lines.   
79. Chinese Taipei notified its DFQF scheme for LDCs (WT/COMTD/N/40)  in October 2011.  
The scheme, which had been in place since Dece mber 2003, includes 151 products under duty-free 
coverage exclusively granted to the LDCs.  In add ition, 30 per cent of Chinese Taipei's tariff lines are 
                                                      
13 Information obtained from http://www.ustr.gov/webfm_send/3487 .  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 38  
 
  MFN duty free.  Necessary information on the progr amme, including details of the 151 tariff lines (at 
the HS 8-digit level) is available on the De partment of Customs Administration's website 
(http://doca.mof.gov.tw/public/Data/1101891847152.xls ). 
80. Korea, which has been providing duty-free tr eatment to LDC products since 2000, expanded 
its DFQF access to LDCs in November 2011 by cove ring 95 per cent of its tariff lines.  This was 
notified to the WTO in March 2012 (WT/COMTD/N/ 12/Rev.1/Add.1).  The expansion, effective 
from the beginning of 2012, also relaxed the rul es of origin criteria asso ciated with the DFQF 
programme, by reducing the level of domestic va lue addition required to qualify from 50 per cent to 
40 per cent.   
81. Information received through the above three notif ications has provided greater transparency 
and clarity on the preferences given to LDCs by de veloping countries.  It goes some way towards 
filling the information gaps that remain on deve loping countries' preference schemes for LDCs.  
These three notifications, along with the notification of  India which was reported at the previous issue 
of the Secretariat Note, were reviewed at th e meeting of the Sub-Committee on LDCs held in 
April 2012.  At that meeting, the delegation of India reiterated that its Duty-Free Tariff Preference 
(DFTP) scheme, which had been operational sin ce September 2008, would provide duty-free access 
on 85 per  cent of tariff lines, phased-in through annual 20  per cent cuts over a five-year period.  
Information on the Indian Commerce Ministry's website 
(http://commerce.nic.in/trade/international_tpp_DFTP.pdf ) dated 1 January 2012 indicates that four 
tranches of tariff reductions have been implemen ted, with the final 20 per cent reduction to be 
completed in 2012. 
82. The review of developed and developing countries' preference schemes for LDCs 
demonstrates that market access conditions for LDC' s exports are being contin ually improved.  Most 
of the developed Members grant DFQF market acces s to the LDCs, in line with the DFQF Decision 
taken at the Hong Kong Ministerial Conference in 2005.  The extent of positive duty on products of 
export interest to LDCs is narrowing down, albeit at a slower pace in some markets (see Table 17).  A 
number of developing countries, despite enjoying fl exibility in coverage and in phasing-in DFQF 
commitments as per the DFQF Decision, have granted a significant degree of DFQF access to LDC products (see Table 18).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 39 
 
 
   
Table 17:  DFQF access in GSP schemes of developed Members, 2010 
 
Country Duty-free coverage and exclusions Number of Dutiable lines 
(national tariff lines) 
Australia 100 per cent None 
Canada 98.8 per cent (dairy, eggs and poultry) 102  
European Union 99.8 per cent (arms and ammunitions)  22 
Japan 98.2 per cent (rice, sugar, fishery products, 
articles of leather) 164  
New Zealand 100 per cent None 
Norway 100 per cent (except roses)  1  
Switzerland 100 per cent (except two cheese items)  2  
United States 82.4 per cent (dairy products, sugar, cocoa, 
articles of leather, cotton, articles of apparel and clothing, other textiles and textile articles, 
footwear, watches, etc.) 1,834  
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
 
83. The Hong Kong Decision on DFQF access for LDCs remains a standing item on the CTD's 
agenda.  Over the reporting period, Members, at the CTD as well as at the Sub-Committee, have continued to share steps being taken to provide DFQF market access to LDC products.  The LDCs 
have called for expeditious and fu ll implementation of the Decision.  Some Members continue to 
reiterate that DFQF remains an important part of the single undertaking of the Doha Round.   
 
  Table 18:  DFQF access for LDC products in selected developing countries 
 
Country Duty-free coverage 
China At present, 60 per cent of all tariff lin es covered by DFQF access, with an aim to 
increase to 97 per cent of its tariff lines 
India Duty-free access for 85 per cent of tariff lines by 2012, and a margin of 
preference above MFN for an additiona l 9 per cent of tariff lines  
Korea, Republic of 95 per cent of tariff lines (as of January 2012) 
Chinese Taipei Nearly 32 per cent of tariff lines (2010) 
Turkey Nearly 80 per cent of tariff lines (2010) 
Source : WTO Secretariat. 
 
84. In spite of the continuing absence of concrete progress in the Doha Round of negotiations, the 
issue of DFQF for LDCs has remained prominent on the international policy agenda.  At the Eighth 
WTO Ministerial Conference (MC8) in December 2011, Ministers urged full implementation of 
Decision 36 of Annex F of the Hong Kong Ministeria l Decision on measures in favour of LDCs.  The 
G-20's Development Working Group presented a pr ogress report at the G-20 leaders' summit in 
Los Cabos, Mexico, held in June 2012, where th e Group recognized that DFQF access, along with 
simple and transparent rules of origin, can play a major role in increasing trade that supports growth 
and poverty reduction in the LDCs.   
 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 40  
 
   
V. CONCLUSION 
85. After the 2008-2009 global crisis, LDCs' exports have registered  two years of robust growth. 
The share of LDCs in world trade increased from 1. 09 per cent in 2010 to 1.12 per cent in 2011.  In 
2010, LDCs' exports of goods and ser vices grew by 26.1 per cent, faster than the 19.4 per cent growth 
registered by the rest of the world.  In 2011, despite global economic uncertainties, LDCs' goods and 
services exports continued to expa nd, growing by a further 24 per cent, compared to17.8 per cent for 
the rest of the world.  By 2011, LDCs' exports of  goods had surpassed their 2008 pre-crisis peak by 
19 per cent.   
86. Goods exports dominate the export basket of LDCs accounting for 91 per cent of overall LDC 
exports to the world in 2011.  The share of LDC exports in world merchandise trade, which surpassed 
one per cent mark in 2008, stood at 1.15 per cent in 2011, registering an improvement from the year 2010 (1.10 per cent).  Although services exports had made up the ground lost during the crisis by 
2010, LDCs' participation in world exports of comme rcial services remains marginal.  The share of 
LDC exports in world commercial services continue s to remain static at around 0.5 per cent. 
87. LDCs' exports remain intrinsically linked to  movements in commodity prices. Commodity 
prices influence both the composition and the ge ographical distribution of LDCs' merchandise 
exports.  While primary commodity prices plunged by 30 per cent amidst the 2008-2009 crisis, they 
quickly rebounded by 26 per cent in 2010 and a further 29.8 per cent in 2011.  The share of fuels and mining products in LDC exports stood at 63 per cent in 2011, up from 42 per cent in 2000.  As a 
consequence, the share of manufactured products dr opped from 32 per cent in 2000 to 20 per cent in 
2011.  Agricultural products also lost ground, fa lling from 17 per cent of total exports in 2000 to 
10 per cent in 2011. 
88. Resource endowment varies considerably acro ss LDCs, and they are heterogeneous with 
respect to their export structure and trade performan ce.  In the past decade, LDC exporters of fuels 
and mining products expanded their total exports by an annual average of 19 per cent, compared to 
12 per cent and 14 per cent for the LDC exporters  respectively oriented towards manufactures and 
agricultural products.  Fuel exporters have been running huge surpluses, but other LDCs have faced 
chronic trade deficit.  In 2011, agricultural exporters, comprising 20 LDCs, had only been able to cover 37 per cent of their import bill through their merchandise exports.  The coverage ratio for the 
same year was 60 per cent for LDC manufacture exporters. 
89. Changing patterns of commodity demand have also influenced the direction of trade.  In 
2000, the developed economies were the major destination markets for products originating from 
LDCs, absorbing some 53 per cent of their exports.  By 2011, this share had shrunk to 41 per cent. 
Over the same period, LDCs' exports to developi ng economies expanded, reaching 52 per cent of their 
total exports in 2011 from 40 per cent in 2000.  China continues to remain the leading export destination of LDC merchandise exports, accounti ng for 22 per cent of LDC exports in 2011. 
90. Asia emerged as the major destination market fo r LDCs' exports of primary commodities.  In 
2011, Asia imported 53 per cent of LDCs' fuel and mining exports.  Angola, Sudan and Yemen 
supplied 88 per cent of Asian imports of fuels and mining products from LDCs.  Asia, along with 
Africa, has also become increasingly important des tinations for LDC agricultural exports, since the 
two continents' imports of LDC agricultural products grew faster than any other region.  Europe and 
North America remain the major d estination markets for LDC exports of manufactures.  In 2011, the 
European Union and the United States accounted for 78 per cent of exports of clothing from LDCs.  
LDCs exports of clothing are dominated by a couple of Asian countries.  Only two countries, 
Bangladesh and Cambodia accounted for 94 per cent of European Union's and 86 per cent of the 
United States' imports of clothing from LDCs in 2011.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 41 
 
 
  91. The last decade has witnessed significant im provements in market access opportunities for 
LDC exports to developed countries, although progress has been somewhat  limited in the recent past.  
Most of the developed Members of the WTO prov ide nearly total DFQF access to LDC products.  
The exceptions to duty-free treatment  are limited to a few sectors and a few developed countries.  The 
duty-free coverage by the United States to all LDCs  was 82.4 per cent in 2010.  This coverage is 
higher for eligible LDCs under AGOA.   
92. Despite the comprehensive DFQF coverage of LDC products, due to concentration of LDCs' 
exports on a few products, some of which are subj ect to import duties, around 80 per cent of LDC 
exports (excluding oil) entered duty free into develo ped country markets in 2010.  This proportion has 
been roughly stable for the past six years.   
93. Developing countries have not only taken concre te steps to incrementally improve market 
access opportunities for LDC exports, but a number of them (China, India, Korea, Chinese Taipei) 
have also submitted notifications of their LDC sc hemes to the WTO providing greater transparency 
and clarity on preferences granted to the LDCs .  However, overall information on developing 
countries' preference schemes remains limited.  Data available for a select group of developing 
countries show that 64 per cent of exports from LDCs  (excluding oil) entered duty free in developing 
country markets in 2010.   
94. Trends in average trade-weighted tariffs on LDC merchandise exports to developed countries 
point to a continued reduction.  The average tariffs on LDC agricultural products imported by 
developed countries stood at 1.1 per cent in 2010.  Tariffs on LDC textiles remained unchanged, while 
tariffs on clothing products slightly increased to 6. 7 per cent 2010 from 6.4 per cent in 2009.  In case 
of developing countries, average tariffs were high fo r agricultural products (15 per cent) and quite low 
for manufactures (2.3 per cent) in 2010.  The review  of the above trade-weighted tariffs indicates 
scope for improvements in market access for clot hing and agricultural products in developed and 
developing country markets, respectively.   
95. Given the continued concentration of LDCs' export structure, enhanced market access 
opportunities for all products of expo rt interest to LDCs would be of significant value to them.  
Further improvement of LDCs' market access cond itions, including in line with the Hong Kong DFQF 
Decision, could increase export earnings of LDCs and coul d contribute to their developmental efforts.   
 
 
_______________ 
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 42  
 
  ANNEX  
 
Annex Table 1:  Merchandise exports and imports  of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2011 
(million dollars and percentage) 
 
 Exports Imports 
 Value Annual percentage change Value Annual perc entage change 
 2011 2000-
2011 2009 2010 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2009 2010 2011 
LDCs 202,559 17.0 -24.2 27.4 24. 9 205,856 15.2 -5.1 9.8 21.9
Exporters of agriculture 13,926 13.8 -0.1 15.6 31.6 37, 245 14.4 -4.9 15.2 16.4
Afghanistan 350 8.9 -25.3 -3.7 - 9.9 6,300 16.5 10.5 54.5 22.2
Benin 1,800 14.9 -4.5 13.5 29. 5 2,700 14.4 -9.8 4.6 25.0
Burkina Faso 2,000 22.8 29.9 43. 0 55.3 2,600 14.1 -7.3 9.5 26.9
Burundi 125 8.7 17.3 50.2 23.1 752 15.9 -0.1 26.5 47.9
Central African Republic 160 -0.1 - 20.0 16.7 14.3 380 11.3 -10.0 11.1 26.7
Comoros 25 5.5 129.4 37.8 22.1 277 18.4 17.2 10.6 18.9
Ethiopia 2,615 16.5 1.0 44.0 12.2 8,896 19.4 -7.4 12.2 3.4
Gambia 95 18.2 383.0 -47.0 170.8 344 5.7 -5.7 -6.2 20.6
Guinea-Bissau 230 12.7 -5.2 -1. 3 91.7 300 15.9 15.7 -4.3 36.4
Kiribati 20 16.9 40.0 -28.6 33.3 110 9.6 -7.9 7.6 50.1
Liberia 358 0.8 -38.6 49.2 61.3 1 ,044 4.1 -32.3 28.8 47.1
Malawi 1,427 12.8 35.1 -10.2 33. 9 2,426 14.8 -8.3 7.5 11.6
Rwanda 464 22.0 -12.6 27.0 56. 2 1,776 21.4 11.5 9.4 24.1
Sao Tome and Principe 11 12.5 - 23.7 35.5 0.0 125 13.9 -9.4 8.6 11.5
Solomon Islands 413 17.7 -21.5 35. 7 84.6 467 15.9 -9.3 42.8 15.4
Somalia 450 8.0 0.0 7.1 0.0 1,100 11.2 -15.7 12.0 31.0
Timor-Lestea 20 8.7 -34.7 96.3 20.0 300 7.9 9.9 1.0 0.6
Togo 1,100 10.6 -6.2 0.0 37.5 1,700 10.6 -0.1 -0.6 13.3
Uganda 2,200 16.7 -9.1 3.3 35. 9 5,360 12.0 -6.2 9.8 14.9
Vanuatu 64 8.5 0.0 -14.7 31.3 288 11.5 -6.2 -3.8 1.8
Fuel exportersb 114,674 19.1 -32.3 25.2 23.1 57,081 16.9 3.9 -8.0 15.6
Angola 65,500 21.2 -36.1 23.9 29. 5 22,000 19.7 8.0 -26.4 32.0
Bhutan 650 18.2 -4.9 29.3 1.4 950 16.6 -2.6 61.3 11.3
Chad 4,600 34.1 -32.8 25.0 31. 4 2,400 20.2 0.0 5.0 14.3
Equatorial Guinea 13,300 25.5 - 40.2 8.8 34.3 6,000 26.5 33.0 9.6 5.3
Myanmar 9,330 17.1 -3.3 30.4 6 .6 8,000 11.6 2.4 9.4 66.4
Sudan 9,694 16.5 -29.2 38.1 -15. 0 9,231 17.6 3.6 3.7 -8.1
Yemen 11,600 10.0 -17.5 34.2 38. 1 8,500 12.5 -12.9 0.3 -7.7
Manufacture exporters 35,819 12.3 -5.3 23.4 28.9 59, 958 13.1 -6.4 21.7 24.8
Bangladesh 24,436 13.0 -1.9 27.3 27.3 36,188 13.6 -8.5 27.4 30.1
Cambodia 6,950 15.8 -10.9 22.6 35. 1 9,300 15.3 -10.4 16.5 37.0
Haiti 770 8.4 20.1 0.5 33.0 2,900 9.8 -8.3 48.1 -7.8
Lesotho 1,100 15.8 -17.0 19.5 25.3 2,600 11.2 2.8 24.3 13.0
Madagascar 1,590 6.2 -19.7 1.8 48. 4 2,850 9.1 -15.3 -21.1 12.8
Nepal 919 1.2 -12.4 4.0 7.4 5 ,774 12.5 22.1 17.1 12.5 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 43 
 
 
   Exports Imports 
 Value Annual percentage change Value Annual perc entage change 
 2011 2000-
2011 2009 2010 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2009 2010 2011 
Samoa 54 -1.6 -36.1 29.4 -8.6 346 11.4 -19.9 34.4 11.6
Exporters of non-fuel 
mineralsc 35,502 19.5 -15.8 48.5 25.0 45,229 17.5 -13.2 23.6 32.0
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 6,600 21.1 -20. 5 51.4 24.5 5,500 29.0 -9.3 15.4 22.2
Eritrea 400 24.2 0.0 9.1 3,233.3 900 6.1 -1.7 16.9 30.4
Guinea 1,630 8.5 -21.8 40.1 10.8 2,106 11.9 -22.4 32.5 49.9
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 2,400 19. 8 -3.6 65.9 37.4 2,700 15.9 4.1 41.0 31.0
Mali 2,391 14.4 -15.4 12.5 19. 8 3,250 13.5 -25.5 14.6 14.0
Mauritania 2,769 20.5 -23.7 52.0 33.5 2,464 16.6 -22.8 29.2 27.3
Mozambique 3,600 23.2 -30.2 56.5 24.1 6,300 16.6 -6.1 22.2 37.0
Niger 1,250 14.5 9.9 4.0 20.2 2,400 17.8 29.7 4.5 4.3
Sierra Leone 350 34.9 7.0 47.9 2 .5 1,708 24.8 -2.6 48.0 121.8
Tanzania 5,098 19.3 -4.4 45.0 17.9 10,724 19.4 -16.7 22.1 37.0
Zambia 9,015 23.4 -15.4 67.0 25.2 7,178 20.9 -24.3 38.9 34.9
Diversified and othersd 2,637 9.7 -6.4 7.2 17.4 6,344 12.5 -27.4 -0.3 22.9
Djibouti 95 10.5 12.5 10.0 11. 6 410 6.4 -21.4 -19.3 12.7
Senegal 2,542 9.7 -7.1 7.1 17. 6 5,909 13.1 -27.8 1.5 23.6
Tuvalu 0 36.2 50.0 0.0 0.0 25 15.8 -47.0 14.3 56.3
Worlde 18,255,000 9.9 -22.3 21.8 19.5 18,438,000 9.6 -23.0 21.4 19.2
 a 2003-2011, as no 2000-2002 data were available. 
b Includes exporters of electricity (Bhutan). 
 c Includes exporters of gold (normally cl assified in n.e.s. according to the UN Standard International Trade 
Classification) and diamonds (normally included in manufactures according to the UN classification). 
 d Includes exporters without a clear specia lization in a specific category of goods. 
 e Includes significant re-exports and imports for re-export. 
Note :   Groups and countries ranked by valu e.  Data for 2011 are largely estimates. 
Source : WTO Secretariat.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 44 Annex Table 2:  Export prices of primary commodities, 2000-2012, Q2 
(Indices 2005=100) 
 
 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2011 2012 
            Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Food and beverages 80 81 83 87 98 100 110 127 157 136 152 181 189 189 182 166 169 170 
Food 81 82 84 88 100 100 111 127 157 134 149 179 186 187 179 164 169 171 
 Cereals 78 82 94 95 102 100 122 159 222 161 166 230 230 241 235 216 216 215 
 Wheat 75 83 97 96 103 100 126 167 214 147 147 207 217 222 207 184 183 176 
 Maize 90 91 101 107 114 100 124 166 227 168 189 297 288 318 307 274 282 274 
 Rice 71 60 67 69 85 100 106 116 243 205 181 192 182 176 201 208 193 209 
 Barley 81 99 115 110 104 100 123 181 211 135 167 218 208 220 222 222 227 247 
 Vegetable oils and protein meals 72 70 82 96 111 100 103 143 193 154 170 209 221 216 210 190 203 217 
 Meat 79 85 80 82 100 100 95 99 103 98 117 134 130 136 136 133 135 132 
 Beef 74 81 80 76 96 100 97 99 102 101 128 154 156 156 150 155 163 158 
 Lamb 70 81 91 99 103 100 96 101 106 91 91 93 93 96 94 88 78 62 
 Swine meat 88 91 70 79 105 100 94 94 96 82 110 132 118 137 142 129 126 124 
 Poultry 80 86 85 90 102 100 94 106 115 116 116 118 116 117 119 121 124 127 
 Seafood 112 99 85 84 88 100 121 113 113 114 136 133 154 154 120 103 110 112 
 Fish 90 71 72 74 82 100 125 112 119 121 151 146 173 173 128 107 116 119 
 Shrimp 180 181 124 117 105 100 105 116 91 85 76 83 81 81 85 86 84 83 
 Sugar 81 82 70 77 83 100 133 102 117 152 172 211 225 192 225 200 193 173 
 Bananas 73 101 91 65 91 100 118 117 146 147 153 169 171 175 166 165 181 170 
 Oranges 43 71 67 81 101 100 98 114 132 108 122 106 98 104 123 98 92 100 
Beverages 78 66 76 80 83 100 108 123 152 154 176 206 216 213 208 185 175 163 
 Coffee 76 54 54 59 70 100 112 129 150 132 165 231 235 246 231 212 200 180 
 Cocoa beans 59 70 115 114 100 100 103 127 167 187 203 193 216 199 197 160 152 143 
 Tea 115 92 83 90 92 100 112 98 125 145 146 160 162 152 166 161 157 158 
Agricultural raw materials 93 88 90 93 98 100 109 114 113 94 125 153 161 164 152 135 135 136 
 Timber 90 83 82 86 96 100 108 107 109 102 102 111 107 111 116 111 105 109 
 Cotton 107 87 84 115 112 100 105 115 129 114 188 280 376 328 230 188 182 164 
 Wool 83 78 101 113 105 100 104 144 138 115 153 234 223 258 243 213 241 219 
 Rubber 46 40 51 72 87 100 140 153 174 128 243 321 380 353 310 240 257 239  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56
 Page 45 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2011 2012 
            Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
 Hides and skins 122 129 123 104 102 100 105 110 98 68 110 125 120 134 131 115 118 128 
Minerals and non-ferrous metals 
(excluding crude petroleum) 59 53 52 58 79 100 156 183 169 136 202 229 248 241 232 195 205 193 
 Copper 49 43 42 48 78 100 183 194 189 141 205 240 262 249 244 204 226 214 
 Aluminium 82 76 71 75 90 100 135 139 136 88 114 126 132 137 126 110 115 104 
 Iron ore 44 46 45 49 58 100 119 130 219 285 522 597 636 625 626 501 505 496 
 Tin 74 61 55 66 115 100 119 196 250 184 276 353 405 390 334 282 311 278 
 Nickel 58 40 46 65 94 100 163 251 143 99 148 155 182 165 149 124 133 116 
 Zinc 82 64 56 60 76 100 237 235 137 120 157 159 174 163 161 138 147 140 
 Lead 47 49 46 53 91 100 132 265 215 177 221 246 267 262 252 205 215 203 
 Uranium 30 31 35 40 65 100 171 355 230 167 165 201 230 202 186 188 186 184 
Total of above 74 71 72 76 91 100 123 140 151 127 161 189 200 199 190 168 172 170 
Energy 54 47 47 55 72 100 119 132 185 117 147 200 189 209 204 201 216 200 
 Natural gas 60 60 48 63 70 100 115 117 174 110 113 154 129 151 165 173 171 180 
 Crude petroleum 53 46 47 54 71 100 121 133 182 116 149 204 193 214 206 203 220 202 
 Coal 53 65 54 57 113 100 104 138 266 149 206 254 269 254 253 238 234 199 
All primary commodities 59 54 54 61 77 100 121 135 172 121 152 196 193 205 199 189 200 189 
 
Note :   Beginning with the first quarter of 2011, the crude oil pric e index is computed excluding West  Texas Intermediate (WTI), in  order to better reflect prices in international trade.  The price of 
WTI, which accounts for one third of the IMF's original crude oi l index, became larg ely dislocated from international markets i n early 2011.  Although suited for measuring oil price worldwide, the 
WTI inclusion in a crude oil price index would however considerably  distort an index meant to measure oil prices in internation al trade. 
Source : IMF commodity prices. 
  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 46 Annex Table 3:  Leading merchandise exports of LDCs in 2011a 
(million dollars and percentage) 
 
HS07 Product description LDCs' exports World exports 
Value Share in total exports Developed 
economies Developing 
economies Value LDCs' share in 
world 
TOTAL All commodities 163,958 100.0  78,858 83,364 14,643,405 1.1  
27 Mineral fuels, mineral oils an d products of their distillation; 
bituminous substances; mineral waxes 97,382 59.4  37,821 59,558 2,626,481 3.7  
2709 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous mi nerals, crude. 84,439 51.5  33,921 50,518 1,368,584 6.2  
2711 Petroleum gases and other gaseous hydro carbons. 9,514 5.8  2,408 7,106 366,870 2.6  
2710 Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous minerals, other 
than crude; preparations not elsewhere specified or included, containing by weight 70 % or more of petroleum oils or of oils 
obtained from bituminous minerals, these oils bei ng the basic. 2,540 1.5  1,474 1,063 679,847 0.4  
61 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories, knitted or crocheted 14,493 8.8  13,541 708 160,427 9.0  
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, waistcoats and similar articles, knitted 
or crocheted. 4,782 2.9  4,459 229 47,200 10.1  
6109 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, knitted or  crocheted. 4,187 2.6  3,901 195 28,939 14.5  
6104 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, 
divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear), knitted or croc heted. 1,390 0.8  1,319 51 16,850 8.2  
6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or crocheted. 938 0.6  880 49 7,328 12.8  
62 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories, not kn itted or crocheted 11,435 7.0  10,476 813 162,289 7.0  
6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, trousers, bib and 
brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than  swimwear). 4,289 2.6  4,036 210 34,492 12.4  
6204 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, 
divided skirts, trousers, bib and brace overalls, breeches and shorts 
(other than swimwear). 2,529 1.5  2,388 106 44,614 5.7  
6205 Men's or boys' shirts. 1,825 1.1  1,690 117 12,861 14.2  
74 Copper and articles thereof 6,930 4.2  552 6,378 162,947 4.3  
7403 Refined copper and copper alloys, unw rought. 4,310 2.6  424 3,886 65,688 6.6  
26 Ores, slag and ash 5,718 3.5  1,804 3,796 272,931 2.1  
2603 Copper ores and concentrates. 1,053 0.6  37 1,016 41,782 2.5  
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, including roaste d iron pyrites. 1,837 1.1  871 966 175,174 1.0  
2605 Cobalt ores and concentrates. 776 0.5  0 776 953 81.4  
2606 Aluminium ores and concentrates. 593 0.4  484 0 3,793 15.6   
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56
 Page 47HS07 Product description LDCs' exports World exports 
Value Share in total exports Developed 
economies Developing 
economies Value LDCs' share in 
world 
03 Fish and crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic invertebrates 2,491 1.5  1,375 1,088 79,615 3.1  
0306 Crustaceans, whether in shell or not, live, fresh, chilled, frozen, 
dried, salted or in brine; crustaceans, in shell, cooked by steaming 
or by boiling in water, whether or not chilled, frozen, dried, salted 
or in brine; flours, meals and pellets of crustaceans. 806 0.5  634 153 17,096 4.7  
0303 Fish, frozen, excluding fish fillets and other fish meat of 
heading 03.04. 874 0.5  165 699 19,097 4.6  
76 Aluminium and articles thereof 1,452 0.9  1,377 73 136,526 1.1  
7601 Unwrought aluminium. 1,390 0.8  1,369 22 46,392 3.0  
09 Coffee, tea, mate and spices 2,508 1.5  1,755 702 40,956 6.1  
0901 Coffee, whether or not roasted or  decaffeinated; coffee husks and 
skins; coffee substitutes containing coffee in any proportion. 1,740 1.1  1,594 102 31,177 5.6  
71 Natural or cultured pearls, precious  or semi-precious stones, precious 
metals, metals clad with precious  metal, and articles thereof; 
imitation jewellery; coin 3,008 1.8  1,972 1,034 358,965 0.8  
7102 Diamonds, whether or not worked , but not mounted or set. 1,360 0.8  1,218 140 100,328 1.4  
44 Wood and articles of wood; wood charco al 1,904 1.2  164 1,737 99,925 1.9  
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or not stripped of bark or sapwood, or 
roughly squared. 1,425 0.9  82 1,343 14,220 10.0  
24 Tobacco and manufactured tobacco s ubstitutes 1,137 0.7  636 271 33,689 3.4  
12 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruits; misce llaneous grains, seeds and fruit; 
industrial or medicinal plants; straw and fodder 911 0.6  181 727 72,397 1.3  
1207 Other oil seeds and oleaginous fruits, whet her or not broken. 717 0.4  125 593 2,565 28.0  
64 Footwear, gaiters and the like; parts of su ch articles 1,136 0.7  1,005 111 96,623 1.2  
6403 Footwear with outer soles of rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leather and uppers of leather. 806 0.5  729 65 46,019 1.8  
28 Inorganic chemicals; organic or inorganic compounds of precious 
metals, of rare-earth metals, of ra dioactive elements or of isotopes 848 0.5  554 48 119,636 0.7  
81 Other base metals; cermets; article s thereof 659 0.4  173 486 17,856 3.7  
8105 Cobalt mattes and other interm ediate products of cobalt 
metallurgy; cobalt and articles thereof, including waste and scrap. 647 0.4  168 480 2,651 24.4  
52 Cotton 1,352 0.8  140 1,209 48,611 2.8  
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed. 1,280 0.8  121 1,157 18,470 6.9   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 48 HS07 Product description LDCs' exports World exports 
Value Share in total exports Developed 
economies Developing 
economies Value LDCs' share in 
world 
63 Other made up textile articles; sets ; worn clothing and worn textile 
articles; rags 911 0.6  774 122 41,674 2.2  
6302 Bed linen, table linen, toilet linen a nd kitchen linen. 581 0.4  551 16 15,284 3.8  
40 Rubber and articles thereof 817 0.5  321 465 187,352 0.4  
4001 Natural rubber, balata, gutta-perch a, guayule, chic le and similar 
natural gums, in primary forms or  in plates, sheets or strip. 785 0.5  306 455 34,144 2.3  
53 Other vegetable textil e fibres; paper yarn and woven fabrics of 
paper yarn 384 0.2  81 272 2,764 13.9  
99 Commodities not specified according to kind 448 0.3  432 15 217,156 0.2  
 Total of above 155,925 95. 1 75,134 79,616 4,938,818 3.2 
 
 a Based on imports from LDCs by 93 countries and economies repor ting their trade to the United Nations Comtrade database. 
Source : WTO, based on UNSD Comtrade database. 
  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56
 Page 49Annex Table 4:  Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2000-2011 
(million dollars and percentage) 
 
Regions and 
major markets1 All commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of totalAnnual 
percentage 
change 
2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 
Africa 1,180 9,965 100 11 21 425 1,885 19 34 15 455 5,915 59 6 26 296 2,152 22 9 20 
South Africa 174 3,491 100 11 31 50 211 6 29 14 47 2,975 85 9 46 78 303 9 20 13 
Nigeria2 120 886 100 -26 22 86 203 23 66 9 3 12 1 -70 14 31 671 76 -35 36 
Egypt 100 610 100 10 18 78 203 33 19 9 17 386 63 32 33 6 21 3 -77 12 
Mali2 83 1252 100 7 31 3 60 5 -54 35 52 977 72 51 33 28 214 23 -35 25 
Zambia2 34 1343 100 137 44 4 20 1 44 17 25 1,085 81 127 46 5 238 18 215 47 
Malawi2 23 192 100 -54 24 9 103 54 8 27 3 12 6 -94 13 10 77 40 -41 22 
Kenya 47 508 100 49 24 21 320 63 79 28 11 50 10 -2 15 15 138 27 24 22 
Côte d'Ivoire 64 469 100 32 20 48 338 72 21 19 4 69 15 29 30 11 57 12 170 16 
Sudan3 25 247 100 0 29 10 34 14 0 15 2 88 36 - 51 14 122 49 0 28 
Ethiopia 247 172 100 36 -3 5 24 14 104 15 236 132 77 26 -5 5 15 9 67 10 
Ghana 137 335 100 8 9 30 147 13 -16 -7 31 8 17 45 -4 73 180 70 7 3 
Morocco 53 92 100 -50 5 51 75 81 12 4 0 1 1 - - 2 16 18 24 23 
Tanzania 16 170 100 75 24 2 74 44 121 37 4 45 26 50 26 10 51 30 52 16 
Senegal 4 100 100 341 34 2 3 3 -51 3 0 59 59 432 63 2 38 38 637 34 
Mauritius 53 98 100 77 6 25 70 71 126 10 20 18 18 36 -1 7 11 11 -5 3 
Americas 10,519 39,086 100 20 13 692 946 2 14 3 4,811 25,723 66 19 16 4,960 11,887 30 19 8 
   North America 10,061 35,994 100 18 12 555 878 2 10 4 4,530 23,021 64 17 16 4,919 11,564 32 18 8 
USA 9,725 29,982 100 13 11 495 726 2 7 4 4,486 19,667 66 13 14 4,689 9,505 32 15 7 
Canada 282 5,555 100 46 31 36 112 2 35 11 44 3,219 58 39 48 201 1,782 32 37 22 
Mexico 54 456 100 46 21 25 40 9 12 4 0 135 30 161 73 29 277 61 27 23 
   South and Central 
America 458 3,092 100 51 19 136 67 2 124 -6 281 2,702 87 49 23 41 323 10 56 21 
Brazil 179 1,350 100 18 20 80 28 2 52 -9 85 1,133 84 11 27 14 189 14 86 27 
Peru 7 713 100 205 53 2 1 0 -46 -11 4 699 98 208 60 1 13 2 139 33 
Chile 102 738 100 33 20 0 1 0 324 43 95 706 96 32 20 7 31 4 84 15  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 50 
Regions and 
major markets1 All commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of totalAnnual 
percentage 
change 
2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 
Ecuador 19 47 100 (*) 9 0 7 16 (*) 34 17 39 82 (*) 8 1 1 2 29 0 
Uruguay 64 128 100 (*) 6 0 1 1 112 21 63 122 95 - 6 1 5 4 13 18 
Venezuela 26 5 100 -83 -13 19 0 6 112 -31 0 0 0 - - 7 5 94 -84 -3 
Argentina 25 52 100 104 7 2 7 14 69 14 16 0 1 46 -29 7 45 86 111 18 
Guatemala 0 3 100 71 26 0 3 82 110 27 0 0 0 -  - 0 1 18 -8 22 
El Salvador 1 13 100 -58 23 1 11 88 782 32 0 0 0 -100 -100 1 2 12 82 7 
Colombia 34 31 100 41 -1 33 6 21 228 -14 0 0 1 -79 23 1 25 78 30 34 
Costa Rica 2 11 100 127 19 0 1 9 97 17 0 3 26 -  63 2 7 66 65 16 
Asia and Pacific 11,869 93,210 100 28 21 2,687 9,733 10 32 12 8,042 77,364 83 25 23 1,120 5,824 6 68 16 
China 4,007 52,674 100 22 26 274 3,183 6 30 25 3,650 48,052 91 19 26 83 1,439 3 221 30 
India4 1,202 12,644 100 37 27 617 2,721 22 0 16 293 8,540 68 54 40 287 1,262 10 12 16 
Thailand 1,393 6,499 100 35 15 331 652 10 1 6 1,027 5,688 88 43 17 27 159 2 -17 18 
Japan 1,234 6,600 100 76 16 584 731 11 17 2 448 4,452 67 99 23 200 1,362 21 57 19 
Chinese Taipei 659 7,041 100 83 24 91 133 2 11 3 539 6,807 97 86 26 29 100 1 61 12 
Korea, Republic 
of 1,828 3,284 100 33 5 74 230 7 55 11 1,691 2,550 78 27 4 64 503 15 68 21 
Singapore 580 1,043 100 110 5 154 240 23 149 4 239 588 56 135 9 185 176 17 117 0 
Indonesia 178 1,049 100 144 18 121 701 67 182 17 28 275 26 119 23 29 73 7 31 9 
Malaysia 177 701 100 26 13 115 495 71 64 14 43 159 23 -27 13 18 43 6 27 8 
Hong Kong, 
 China 226 450 100 23 6 136 148 33 7 1 3 25 5 -17 21 87 276 61 40 11 
Pakistan 157 585 100 27 13 131 367 63 -1 10 18 192 33 214 24 7 25 4 -12 12 
Australia 172 490 100 63 10 27 50 10 -2 6 59 15 3 -44 -12 86 358 73 60 14 
Philippines 43 93 100 -2 7 26 62 67 32 8 4 19 20 -50 16 13 9 10 -22 -3 
New Zealand 12 59 100 53 16 6 17 30 49 10 0 2 4 85 39 6 39 66 54 19  
   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56
 Page 51Regions and 
major markets1 All commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Value Share 
of total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of totalAnnual 
percentage 
change 
2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 2000 2011 2011 2011 2000-
2011 
Europe and CIS 12,365 44,502 100 48 12 2,858 6,388 14 32 8 2,403 20,146 45 66 21 6,766 17,448 39 40 9 
EU 27 11,790 42,526 100 49 12 2,755 5,761 14 33 7 2,237 19,802 47 67 22 6,463 16,445 39 38 9 
Norway 244 258 100 20 1 12 28 11 10 8 3 37 14 164 24 227 193 75 11 -1 
Switzerland 100 427 100 46 14 33 145 34 54 14 3 0 0 222 -20 65 280 66 41 14 
CIS 231 1,290 100 43 17 59 454 35 20 20 160 306 24 17 6 11 530 41 104 42 
    Russian 
Federation 134 1,002 100 47 20 37 350 35 17 23 86 192 19 23 8 10 460 46 106 42 
Ukraine 62 209 100 15 12 12 57 27 3 16 50 109 52 3 7 0 43 20 102 60 
Kazakhstan 4 30 100 133 22 3 11 37 73 12 0 5 15 (*) 80 0 15 48 126 42 
Belarus 7 46 100 82 19 7 34 74 86 16 0 0 0 -100 - 0 12 26 73 34 
Kyrgyzstan 0 1 100 -36 12 0 1 59 (*) 11 0 0 0 - - 0 0 41 -74 16 
Azerbaijan 24 1 100 57 -23 0 1 89 49 25 23 0 0 - - 0 0 11 218 36 
 
1 Regional totals are based on the information available, and may not coincide with aggregated trade figures. 
2 2000-2010 only, as no 2011 data were available. 
3 2000-2009 only, as neither 2010 nor 2011 data were available. 
4 2011 estimated based on  data for January to October 2011. 
(*) High annual percentage change due to  base effect (not shown in table). 
Sources : UN Comtrade database and Global Trade Information Services (GTIS).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 52  
 
  Annex Table 5:  Coverage ratios of imports by exports of the LDCs, 2000-2011 
(percentage) 
 
 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Average 
2000-2011
LDCsa 83 95 103 103 104 83 96 98 94 
Agricultural exporters 40 33 33 34 31 33 33 37 34 
Afghanistan 12 16 16 18 18 12 8 6 11 
Benin 64 57 60 51 56 59 64 67 60 
Burkina Faso 34 37 45 37 34 48 63 77 47 
Burundi 34 22 14 18 14 17 20 17 19 
Central African Republic 138 73 78 71 50 44 47 42 70 
Comoros 33 12 9 10 4 7 9 9 13 
Ethiopia 39 22 20 22 19 21 27 29 24 
Gambia 8 3 4 4 4 22 12 28 10 
Guinea-Bissau 105 85 58 64 64 53 55 77 71 
Kiribati 9 6 10 14 20 31 20 18 14 
Liberia 49 42 34 40 30 27 31 34 39 
Malawi 71 44 55 63 40 59 49 59 55 
Rwanda 25 29 27 23 23 18 21 26 24 
Sao Tome and Principe 10 14 11 9 9 8 10 9 10 
Solomon Islands 75 56 56 56 67 58 55 89 67 
Somalia 56 40 37 39 47 56 54 41 46 
Timor-Leste … 7 8 5 5 3 6 7 5 
Togo 65 62 58 55 56 53 53 65 61 
Uganda 26 40 38 38 38 37 35 41 37 
Vanuatu 30 25 22 22 18 19 17 22 22 
Fuel exporters 164 195 207 207 213 139 189 201 183 
Angola 261 289 363 325 305 180 304 298 273 
Bhutan 59 67 99 128 96 94 75 68 79 
Chad 58 324 248 204 208 140 167 192 168 
Equatorial Guinea 243 539 406 431 389 175 174 222 282 
Myanmar 69 198 179 191 162 153 182 117 142 
Sudan 116 71 70 101 125 85 114 105 96 
Yemen 176 104 110 74 72 68 91 136 98 
Manufacture exporters 65 61 65 60 56 57 58 60 60 
Bangladesh 72 67 74 67 64 69 69 68 68 
Cambodia 72 79 77 75 72 72 76 75 76 
Haiti 31 32 31 31 21 27 18 27 26 
Lesotho 27 46 46 44 49 40 38 42 43 
Madagascar 75 50 55 47 35 33 42 56 50 
Nepal 51 38 34 28 26 19 17 16 28 
Samoa 61 37 24 37 25 20 19 16 32  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 53 
 
 
   2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Average 
2000-2011
Mineral exporters 65 66 82 77 71 69 83 78 74 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 118 89 94 91 102 90 118 120 103 
Eritrea 8 2 2 3 2 2 2 44 9 
Guinea 109 104 108 99 98 99 105 77 98 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 62 63 83 86 78 72 85 89 77 
Mali 68 71 85 71 63 71 70 74 72 
Mauritania 78 44 117 102 92 91 107 112 90 
Mozambique 31 74 83 79 66 49 63 57 64 
Niger 72 52 54 58 54 45 45 52 52 
Sierra Leone 9 46 59 55 40 44 44 20 36 
Tanzania 48 51 45 42 41 47 55 48 48 
Zambia 100 71 123 115 101 113 135 126 109 
Diversified and others 55 43 41 32 31 40 44 42 41 
Djibouti 15 14 16 12 12 17 23 23 16 
Senegal 61 45 43 34 33 43 45 43 44 
Tuvalu 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 1 
 
 a Weighted average. 
Note : Coverage ratio of imports by  exports= (exports/imports*100). 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 54  
 
  Annex Table 6:  Major multilateral non-reciprocal  LDC preference schemes undertaken by Members
a 
 
Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Beneficiary
(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference References 
 
Australia 
 Duty- and quota-free 
entry. 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 LDCs  All products. WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada GSP – Least-
developed Countries' 
Tariff Programme 
(LDCT) 
Entry into force: 
1 January 2003, 
extended until 
30 June 2014  LDCs  With the exception of over-quota 
tariff items for dairy, poultry and 
egg products, Canada provides 
duty-free access under all tariff 
items for imports from LDCs. 
 WT/COMTD/W/159 
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1 and 
Add.2 
 
China Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs LDCs  As of 1 July 2010, China has 
granted zero-tariff treatment to 
4,762 tariff lines - which accounts 
for nearly 60 per cent of its total 
tariff lines. China intends to 
continue to expand this coverage 
with the aim of achieving the final 
objective of reaching 97 per cent 
of tariff lines under zero-tariff 
treatment.   WT/COMTD/N/39 
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1 
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1 
EU GSP - Everything 
But Arms (EBA) 
initiative 
Entry into force:  
5 March 2001 
   LDCs  Since 1 October 2009, the EBA 
has been granting DFQF access for 
all products from all LDCs (except 
arms and ammunitions). The EU 
introduced revised rules of origin 
for the GSP, as of 1 January 2011, 
simplifying rules specially for the 
LDCs.  WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2, Add.4 
and Add. 5  
WT/TPR/S/214/Rev.1 
http://ec.europa.eu   
Iceland GSP – Tariff 
Preferences in 
Regard to the 
Importation of 
Products Originating in the World's 
Poorest Developing 
Countries  
Entry into force:  
29 January 2002  LDCs  
 Essentially all products with some 
exceptions in agricultural products 
(HS chapters: 04, 15, 18, 19, 21 
and 22) and non-agricultural 
products (HS sub-headings:  3502 and 3823, and all of HS 16 with 
the exception of sub-headings 
1603 to 1605).  WT/COMTD/N/17 and Corr.1  
WT/TPR/S/164/Rev.1 
 
 
India   
 Duty-Free Tariff 
Preference Scheme 
(DFTP) 
Entry into force: 
13 August 2008 LDCs  Duty-free access on 85 per cent 
tariff lines at HS 6-digit level by 
2012. WT/COMTD/N/38  
http://commerce.nic.in/trade/inter
national_tpp_DFTP.pdf   
Japan GSP – Enhanced 
duty- and quota-free 
market access 
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007 
Extended till 2021 
 LDCs Duty-free access on 8,859 tariff 
lines (or 98 per cent at the tariff 
line level), covering over 99 per 
cent in terms of the import value 
from LDCs. WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14  
and Add..15   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
 Page 55 
 
 
  Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Beneficiary
(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference References 
 
Korea, Rep. of  Presidential Decree 
on Preferential 
Tariff for LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2000 LDCs As of January 2012, Korea has 
provided duty-free access to 
LDCS covering 95 per cent of its 
tariff lines. WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1   
WT/GC/M/120 
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1 
Morocco Preferential tariff 
treatment for LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2001 
 33 African 
LDCs  Duty-free access on 61 products 
(at the HS 4 to 10-digit level). 
Under the Global System of Trade 
Preferences among Developing 
Countries (GSTP), signed by 
Morocco, a special treatment is 
provided to LDCs.  WT/LDC/SWG/IF/18 and G/C/6  
WT/TPR/S/217/Rev.1  
New Zealand GSP- Tariff  
Treatment for LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001 
 LDCs All products. WT/COMTD/27, WT/GC/36  
WT/TPR/S/216/Rev.1  
Norway  GSP – Duty - and 
quota-free market 
access 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 LDCs All products, except one item.  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
Switzerland GSP – Revised 
Preferential Tariffs 
Ordinance  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007  LDCs Duty-free access for all products 
originating from all LDCs as of 
September 2009.  New GSP rules 
of origin, with special treatment to 
LDCs, introduced as of May 2011.TN/CTD/M/28 
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.2 and 
Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4 
Chinese Taipei Duty-free treatment 
for LDCs LDCs Duty-free access to nearly 32 per 
cent of tariff lines, exclusively for 
the LDCs. WT/TPR/S/232/Rev.1 
WT/COMTD/N/40 
http://doca.mof.gov.tw/public/Da
ta/1101891847152.xls   
Turkey 
 GSP  
Entry into force:  
31 December 2005 LDCs Duties are eliminated for LDCs on 
the basis of EU's EBA Initiative. WT/TPR/S/192/Rev.1 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/56 
Page 56  
 
  Preference 
granting 
country 
 Description Beneficiary
(ies) Coverage/margin  of preference References 
 
United States GSP for least-
developed 
beneficiary 
developing countries 
(LDBDC) 
 43 
designated 
LDCsb Preferential duty-free treatment for 
3,511 products from 128 
designated beneficiary countries 
(BDCs) and territories, including 
43 least developed beneficiary 
developing countries (LDBDCs);  
an additional 1,464 products are 
GSP-eligible for LDBDCs (2011). WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7 
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8 
WT/TPR/S/235/Rev.1 
http://www.ustr.gov   
 African Growth and 
Opportunity Act 
(AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000, 
extended until 
30 September 2015 40 
designated 
sub-Saharan 
African 
Countries 
(including 
26 LDCs c) 1,835 products, available for duty-
free treatment, in addition to 
products designated for duty-free 
treatment under GSP. d WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/TPR/S/235/Rev.1 
WT/L/754 
WT/L/818 and Corr.1 
 Caribbean Basin 
Trade Partnership 
Act (CBTPA) 
Entry into force:  
1 October 2000, 
extended until 
30 September 2020 17 
designated 
beneficiaries 
(including 
one LDC, 
i.e. Haiti) in 
Central 
America and 
the 
Caribbean  Duty free for most products, 
including textiles and apparels.  
The Haitian Hemispheric 
Opportunity through Partnership 
Encouragement (HOPE) Act of 
2006 provided new trade benefits, 
especially of apparel imports from 
Haiti.  The HOPE II Act of 2008 
enhanced duty-free treatment for 
qualifying apparel imports from 
Haiti.  The Haiti Economic Lift 
Program (HELP) Act of 2010 
provided duty-free treatment for 
additional textile and apparel 
products from Haiti. WT/TPR/S/235/Rev.1 
WT/L/753 
WT/L/817 
http://www.ustr.gov   
 
 a This table represents a non-exhaustive list of non-reciprocal multilateral mark et access initiatives undertaken in 
favour of LDCs.  For those measures taken in favour of e xports originating from LDCs prior to 2001, see document 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/38.   
 b Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burk ina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic, 
Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, East  Timor, Ethiopia, The Gambia , Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, 
Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Maurit ania, Mozambique, Ne pal, Niger, Rwanda , Samoa, São Tomé 
and Principe, Sierra Leone, Solomon Isla nds, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, T ogo, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Yemen and 
Zambia. 
 c Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, 
Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritani a, Mozambique, Niger, Rwa nda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, 
Tanzania, Togo, Uganda and Zambia. 
 d The LDCs eligible for AGOA apparel be nefits are:  Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, The Gambia, Lesotho, 
Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Rwa nda, Senegal, Sierra Leone,  Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia.  
 
__________