JOB/AG/149  
 
14 November 2018  
(18-7153) Page: 1/5 
Committee on Agriculture  
Special Session  Original: English  
 
OVERVIEW OF EXPORT RES TRICTIONS  
COMMUNICATION FROM JAPAN;  ISRAEL; KOREA, REPUBLIC OF; SINGAPO RE; SWITZERLAND AND 
THE SEPARATE CUSTOMS  TERRITORY OF  TAIWAN, PENGHU,  KINMEN AND MATSU  
The following communication, dated 13 November 2018, is being circulated at  the request of the 
aforementioned Members.  
 
_______________  
 
 
1  CURRENT SITUATION OF  WORLD AGRICULTURAL TRADE  
1.1.  A small number of countries in the world account for the majority of total exports in global 
agriculture trade, as shown in Table 1. This has an im pact on food supply and food prices. In any 
case, only a small share of a country 's agriculture production is actually used for export purposes.  
Table 1 - Major exporting countries and market share  
Commodity  Major exporting countries  Market share  
Wheat  EU, Russia n Federation , US, Canada, Australia  74% 
Rice India, Thailand, Viet  Nam, Pakistan, U S 82% 
Corn US, Brazil, Argentina, Ukraine, Russia n Federation  90% 
Soybean  Brazil, US, Paraguay, Canada, Argentina  96% 
Source:  Wheat and Rice:  "Members' participation in the normal growth of world trade in agricultural products " 
WTO Document G/AG/W/32/Rev.16 , 9 February 2018, WTO ; Corn and Soybean : "Production, Supply 
and Distribution ", Foreign Agricultural Service , USDA, September 2018.  
 
1.2.  In addition to supply and demand factors, food prices can fluctuate due to weather conditions 
and other causes. From 2008 to 2012, in particular, food prices skyrocketed, as shown in Figure 1, 
and many export restrictions were imposed during this period.  
Figure 1 - Trends in food price  
 
Source: Chicago Board of Trade (Wheat, Corn, Soybean); Board of Trade of Thailand (Rice).  
01002003004005006007008009001000
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018US$/ton
Rice
Soybean
Wheat
CornJOB/AG/149  
 
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  2  ANALYSIS OF NOTIFICA TIONS ON EXPORT REST RICTIONS  
2.1.  The analysis presented in this section is based on Members ' notifications on Expor t Restrictions 
(ER1) available  in the AG -IMS. This is summarized in Table 2. While there is a total of 22 ER1 
notifications, only 16 of them are actual ER1 notifications. This is because several notifications were 
submitted only to inform about the repeal of  the measure, cancelation of the notification or change 
of the content.1 
2.2.  According to the "WTO Report on G20 Trade Measures "2, as many as 23 export restrictio ns 
measures on agricultural products were introduced in G20 countries from 200 8 to 201 1, during 
which export restrictions drew much attention due to the food crisis and price fluctuations for food. 
The FAO also conducted a research on export restrictions during that time and published a review .3 
According to the review, 87 measures were taken during 2007 to 2011. These figures are shown in 
Table 2.  
Table 2 – Number of measures  
 Duration  # of notifications or measures  
ER1 notification  1995 – present  16 
Report on G20 trade Measures ( WTO) October 2008  to April 2011 23 
FAO Report  2007 to end March 2011  87 
2.3.  Regarding the timing for notifications, Article 12 of the Agreement on Agriculture requires 
Members to notify "as far in advance as practicable ". Out of the 16 notifications, eight notifications 
(i.e. 50%) were submitted before the date of implementation of the measure. Of these eight 
notifications, the average time in terms of submitting the notification was 9.6 days before the 
implementation of the measure. Another eight notificat ions were made after the date of 
implementation of the measure, one of which was 97 days after the event.  
2.4.  Regarding the duration of measures, GATT Article XI 2(a) requires export prohibitions or 
restrictions to be applied only "temporarily ". The average d uration of measures, calculated based on 
the 16 notifi cations, is five  months and 14 days. Among these notifications, the shortest duration is 
two months and 25 days, and the longest one is ten months. The  annual reports of the Director -
General to the Trad e Policy Review Body4 also cover s measures taken by countries, including export 
restrictive measures. According to the se report s, six cases are identified to have taken measures 
around one year or longer, as shown in Figure 2, five of which have not been n otified as ER1 to the 
Committee on Agriculture.   
  
                                                
1 Background paper on export prohibitions and restrictions was prepared in 2013 by the Secretariat 
(TN/AG/S/28). Fourteen  notifications are identified in the paper, which is different from the number in this 
paper. It is because the background paper counts s equential notifications by Ukraine (G/AG/N/UKR/5/*) as 
one. 
2 WTO, Report on G20 Trade measures ( mid-October 2010 to April  2011) . 
3 Sharma, R. (2011), "Food Export Restrictions: Review of the 2007 – 2010 Experience and 
Considerations for Disciplining Restr ictive Measures", FAO Commodity and Trade Policy Research Working 
Paper , No. 32.  
4 WTO documents in series WT/TPR/OV /13, 14 and 17 , Overview of Development in the International 
Trading Environment , Trade Policy Review Body . JOB/AG/149  
 
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  Figure 2 – Export restriction taken around one year or longer  
 
2.5.  Quantitative export restrictions also need to be notified to the Committee on Market Access .5 
Among all quantitative restrictions notified so far (those taken under GATT Article XI 2(a) regarding 
agricultural products are summarized in Table 3), none has been notified as ER1.  
2.6.  Export restrictions have an effect of reducing food supply to the international market, which in 
turn shrinks the market and makes it more volatile and less predictable. It makes it difficult for 
importing countries to access the market. Importing countries also face "lower terms of trade and 
have to pay a larger food import bill, which impacts negatively on trade balance and affects the 
strength of their currency ".6 There is evidence that export bans, although applied only temporarily, 
cause long lasting price effects on importing co untries until former trade relations are restored or 
replaced .7 This might cause a price hike and have a negative impact on food supply stability as it 
takes time for importing countries to find alternative sources of food. In the long run, export 
restrict ions might also have a negative impact on the country that takes such measures by causing 
income loss to some classes of society .8 
 
 
 
 
                                                
5 G/L/59/Rev.1  
6 FAO (2012), Guide for Policy and Programmatic Actions at Country Level to Address High and Volatile 
Food Prices, updated version . 
7 OECD (2017), Impact of Agricultural Export Restrictions on Prices in Importing Countries . 
8 Mermigkas, G (2018), Agriculture Export Restrictions,  FAO Geneva Agriculture Trade Talks, FAO, 
http://www.fao.org/3/CA0473EN/ca0473en.pdf . 
 
2006 
 2007 
 2008 
 2009 
 2010 
 2011 
 2012 
Export ban on rice (Egypt, 2008 - Oct. 2012)  
Export ban on pulses (India, 27 Jun. 2006 - 31 Mar. 2014)  
Export ban on wheat (India, Oct. 2007 - 9 Sep.  2011)  
Export ban on wheat, barley, rye and maize (Russian Federation, 15 Aug. 2010 - 1 July 2011)  
Export ban on edible oil (India, - 30 Sep.  2011)  
Export quota on wheat, rye, corn and barley  
(Ukraine, 28 Dec. 2010 - 25 May 2011)  
Export tariff on wheat, rye and corn  
(Ukraine, 25 May 2011 - 4 Oct. 2011)  
Export tariff on barley  
(Ukraine, 25 May 2011 - 1 Jan. 2012)   
  JOB/AG/149  
 
- 4 - Table 3 – ER1 notifications  
 Country  Implementation 
date Duration of 
application  Notification date  Circulation date  Products  Symbol  Interval  
  (1)  (2)    (1) – (2) 
1 Hungary  25.10.1995  - 30.10.1995 30.10.1995 Maize  G/AG/N/HUN/2  -5 
2 Poland  1.01.1996  31.08.1996 
(8 months)  6.12.1995 11.12.1995 Wheat and meslin, rye, 
barley, oats G/AG/N/POL/2  +26 
3 Czech Republic  1.03.1996  - 6.06.1996 18.06.1996 Wheat and wheat or 
meslin flour G/AG/N/CZE/6  -97 
4 Hungary  8.08.1996  - 11.09.1996 24.09.1996 Barley, cereals, etc.  G/AG/N/HUN/6  -34 
5 Czech Republic  1.04.1997  - 12.03.1997 13.03.1997 Rye, oats, cereals, etc.  G/AG/N/CZE/11  +20 
6 Hungary9 10.11.2000  - 17.11.2000 21.11.2000 Maize fodder  G/AG/N/HUN/24  -7 
- (Republic of Moldova)10 - - - - - G/AG/N/MOL/2  - 
7 Republic of Bulgaria  1.10.2003  31.07.2004 
(10 months)  22.09.2003 24.09.2003 Wheat, mixture of 
wheat and rye and flour G/AG/N/BGR/10  +9 
8 Former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia  21.01.2004  30.06.2004 
(5 months 10 days)  26.01.2004 13.02.2004 Wheat and meslin, etc.  G/AG/N/MKD/1  -5 
9 Kyrgyz  Republic  5.07.2008  5.01.2009 
(7 months)  4.07.2008 9.07.2008 Wheat and meslin, 
sunflower seeds, etc.  G/AG/N/KGZ/2  +1 
10 Ukraine  4.10.2010  31.12.2010 
(2 months 27 days)  18.10.2010 28.10.2010 Wheat and meslin , corn, 
barley, rye, buckwheat  G/AG/N/UKR/5  -14 
11 Ukraine ( extension of 
UKR/5)  1.01.2011  31.03.2011 
(3 months)  30.12.2010 10.01.2011 Wheat and meslin, corn, 
barley, etc.  G/AG/N/UKR/5/Add.1  +2 
12 Ukraine ( extension of 
UKR/5/Add.1)11 1.04.2011  30.06.2011 
(3 months)  31.03.2011 7.04.2011 Wheat and meslin , corn, 
barley, rye, etc.  G/AG/N/UKR/5/Add.2  +1 
13 Kyrgyz Republic  5.11.2010  5.05.2011 
(7 months)  21.10.2010 7.01.2011 Oats, maize, cereals, 
etc. G/AG/N/KGZ/3  +15 
14 Republic of Moldova12 3.02.2011  1.05.2011 
(2 months 25 days)  2.03.2011 11.03.2011 Wheat and blend of 
wheat and rye  G/AG/N/MOL/3  -27 
15 Former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia  10.03.2011  6 months  7.03.2011 8.03.2011 Wheat and meslin G/AG/N/MKD/12  +3 
16 Former Yugoslav 
Republic of Macedonia  8.04.2011  15.09.2011 
(5 months 6 days)  15.04.2011 19.04.2011 Wheat flour  G/AG/N/MKD/13  -7 
                                                
9 Addendum (G/AG/N/HUN/24/Add.1) was circulated to inform the measure was lifted on 14 Feb ruary  2001.  
10 G/AG/N/MOL/2  was cancelled by Corrigendum (G/AG/N/MOL/2/Corr.1).  
11 Two addend a (G/AG/N/UKR/5/Add.3 and Add.4) were circulated to inform that corn, wheat and ray and barley are excluded from quantitative exp ort 
restriction.  
12 Addendum (G/AG/N/MOL/3 /Add.1) was circulated to inform  the measure was repealed.   
  JOB/AG/149  
 
- 5 - Table 4 – Quantitative Restrictions notifications on agricultural product under GATT XI 2(a)  
Year Country  Type of Restrictions  Products  WTO Justification  Symbol  
2012-2014 Thailand  Export Licensing  Rice GATT XI – 2(a) G/MA/QR/N/THA/1  
2012-2014 Thailand  Export Licensing  Bean cake  GATT XI – 2(a) G/MA/QR/N/THA/1  
2012-2014 China  Export quota and/or licensing 
administration  Live cattle, live swine, live chicken  GATT XI13, XX G/MA/QR/N/CHI/1, 
G/MA/QR/N/CHI/2, 
G/MA/QR/N/CHI/3,  
2012-2014 China  Export quota and licensing 
administration  Wheat, wheat powder, maize powder, 
rice powder, liquorice and its products, 
Chinese iris and its products  GATT XI14, XX G/MA/QR/N/CHI/1, 
G/MA/QR/N/CHI/2, 
G/MA/QR/N/CHI/3,  
2012-2014 China  Export quota, licensing and 
state trading administration  Maize, rice  GATT XI15, XVII, XX and 
Annex 2A2 of China' s 
Accession protocol  G/MA/QR/N/CHI/1, 
G/MA/QR/N/CHI/2, 
G/MA/QR/N/CHI/3,  
2012-2014 China  Export Licensing  Live cattle, live swine, live chicken, 
shilled and fresh beef, frozen pork, 
chilled and fresh chicken, frozen chicken  GATT XI16, XX, XXI  G/MA/QR/N/CHI/1, 
G/MA/QR/N/CHI/2, 
G/MA/QR/N/CHI/3,  
 
 
__________  
 
 
                                                
13 Which section of GATT XI is applied is not identified.  
14 Which section of GATT XI is applied is not identified.  
15 Which section of GATT XI is applied is not identified.  
16 Which section of GATT XI  is applied is not identified.