RMD -22-01: Risk management document – proposed amendments to risk 
management of light brown apple moth ( Epiphyas postvitta na) 
 
Effective date: TBD 
 
(Original)  
 
Preface  
 
As described by the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), Pest Risk Ana lysis (PRA) includes 
three stages: initiation, pest risk assessment and pest risk management. Initiating the PRA process 
involves identifying pests and pathways of concern and defining the PRA area. Pest risk assessment 
provides the scientific basis for th e overall management of risk. Pest risk management is the process of 
identifying and evaluating potential mitigation measures which may be applied to reduce the identified 
pest risk to acceptable levels and selecting appropriate measures.  
   
This Risk Man agement Document (RMD) includes a summary of the findings of a pest risk assessment 
and records the pest risk management process for the identified issue.  It is consistent with the 
principles, terminology and guidelines provided in the IPPC standards for pest risk analysis . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
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 Table of contents  
Preface  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........................  1 
Executive summary  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......  2 
Purpose  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .........................  3 
Scope  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................  3 
Definitions, abbreviations and acronyms  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 3 
Background  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................  3 
Pest risk assessment summary  ................................ ................................ ................................ .....................  4 
Biology and ecology  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 4 
Pathways for introduction and spread  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 5 
Suitability of the environment and availability of hosts  ................................ ................................ ...........  6 
Potential economic and environmental consequences  ................................ ................................ ............  6 
Risk management considerations  ................................ ................................ ................................ .................  7 
Standard s of the International Plant Protection Convention  ................................ ................................ ... 7 
Potential for management of the pest  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 7 
Feasibility of eradication  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  8 
Natural enemies  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........  8 
Risk of introduction  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 8 
Trade and economic impacts  ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................  8 
Pest risk management proposals  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................  9 
Proposal 1 – Deregulation  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........................  9 
Prop osal 2 – Redesign import program to focus on highest risk pathways  ................................ .............  9 
Recommended approach  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................  10 
References  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................  10 
 
Executive s ummary  
 
Epiphyas postvittana , commonly referred to  as light brown apple moth  (LBAM) , is a regulated pest in 
Canada.  In 20 07, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)  introduced an import program for E. 
postvittana  that included ph ytosanitary requirements for host arti cles from countries  where the pest 
occurred . Plant protection directive D-07-03: Phytosanitary Import Requirements to Prevent the Entry of 
Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth)  remains in effect , and the pest is absent from Canada.  
 
In December of 2021, the United States Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Ins pection 
Service  (USDA -APHIS)  announced the deregulation of E. postvittana . In response  to USDA -APHIS’  action  
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 to deregulate  E. postvittana , the CFIA committed to analyzing the risk posed by the pest, including the 
phytosanitary requirements intended to prev ent its introduction to Canada.  
 
An important pest in its n ative eastern Australia n range , E. postvittana  has successfully invaded and 
established in new areas, including New Zealand, Hawaii, the United Kingdom and most recently the 
State of California , United States. Once established, the impact of E. postvittana  has varied . In New 
Zealand and the United Kingdom, E. postvittana  has become one of the most abundant micro -
lepidopteran species. In California, the pest is reported to be controlled using standa rd pest 
management practices targeting routine pests of crops. In contrast, the United Kingdom reports damage 
in commercial cherry and plum production  where insecticides are not available, or not used for control 
of related pests.   
 
CFIA pest risk assessme nts conclude that establishment of the pest in parts of Britis h Columbia is highly 
probable . Introduction of the pest to British Columbia may lead to economic consequences for 
producers of fresh fruit, vegetable s and ornam entals, as well as disruption to t rade in those 
commodities . Urban  landscape  plants  are also expected to be impacted by larval feeding.  
 
Two options for managing the risk to Canada posed by E. postvittana  were considered practicable  and 
the approach recommended by the CFIA is to continue  regulating  the pest by applying phytosanitary 
import requirements to commodities that present the greatest risk of introducing the pest to Canada. 
The CFIA’ s recommended approach  is intended to delay the introduction of the pest to Canada.  
Purpose  
 
The pu rpose of this document is to communicate pest risk management considerations for E. 
postvittana  and present proposals fo r managing that risk in Canada.  
Scope  
 
This risk management proposal includes a summary of the CFIA’s pest risk assessments on E. postv ittana  
and presents two proposals for managing the risk associated with  the pest in C anada under the 
authority of the Plant Protection Act .  
 
Information pertaining to import requirements for specific plants or plant products may be obtained 
from the Automated Import Reference System . 
Definitions, abbreviations and a cronyms  
 
Definitions of terms used in this document can be found in the International Standard for Phytosanitary 
Measures 5: Glossary of phytosanitary terms  or Plant Health Glossar y of Terms . 
 
Epiphyas postvittana  is commonly referr ed to as light brown apple moth, apple leaf roller, Australian 
leaf roller and pyrale brun pâle de la pomme (in French).  
Background  
  
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 Epiphyas postvittana  was first detected on the North America n contine nt in  Berkeley,  California, United 
States in 2006 . The first findings were of two male moths  in a blacklight trap placed in an urban area.  
USDA -APHIS confirmed detections of the pest in 2007  (Brown et al. 2010) . Later that year, APHIS and the 
California Department of Food and Agricult ure (CDFA)  began an eradication program  intended to 
eradicate  the pest from California  and prevent further spread  (USDA -APHIS 2021) .  
 
At the t ime of the first detection of E. postvittana  in California  available science indicated that the pest 
would have a significant economic impact on North American agriculture.  The west coast  of North 
America , including  British Columbia , as well as much of the  southwest, southern and eastern US up to 
40-42°N, were considered suitable for  establishment of the pest (Lozier and Mills 2011) .  
 
Effective June 25, 2007, the CFIA implemented a phytosanitary import program , plant protection 
directive D-07-03: Phytosanitary Import Requirements to Prevent the Entry of Epiphyas postvittana (light 
brown apple moth) , intended  to prevent the introduction of the pest to Canada from  the State of 
California  and other origins where E. postvittana  occurred at the time  (CFIA 2007) . Prior to the 
publication of directive D-07-03, phytosanitary import requirements were applied to some fresh fruit  
commodities  from countries where E. postvittana  had been reported.  
 
Evidence of E. postvittana  spread by commercial trade is available in  international interception records.  
Establish ment  of populations  in new areas  is thought  to have resulted from trade in infested nursery 
stock,  providing additional  technical justification for the phytosanitary measures  that were applied by 
Canada.  
 
In the years that followed , the impact of the pest in California began to diverge from the impact  
predictions that had been developed based on available science . USDA -APHIS began to exempt 
commodities from the scope of their regulatory program  as new science o n the pest ’s impact  in 
California became available . Subsequent exemptions of commodities culminated  in the reclassification 
of E. postvittana  as a non -quarantine pest for the United States  in December , 2021  (USDA -APHIS 2021) . 
Since the original publication of plant protection directive D-07-03 in 2007, the CFIA has published 10 
revision s with the intention of minimizing  the impact of the phytosanitary import requirements, while 
also maintaining an appropriate level of risk mitigation for  a pest  regulated by  Canada.  
 
In addition to the import requirements applied to the United St ates to prevent the introduction of E. 
postvittana , the  CFIA  also regulates  commodities imported into Canada from other origins where the 
pest occurs.  
Pest risk assessment s ummary  
 
The CFIA  conducted multiple assessments on various aspects of E. postvitta na biology, pathways for 
introduction  and potential impact  over the past 25 years ( 1997 -20, 2007 -013, 2007 -016, 2007 -023, 
2008 -024, 2010 -005, 2011 -054, 2014 -045, 2015 -013, 2017 -042, 2018 -043, 2018 -120, 2021 -111). The 
following subsections summarize the fin dings of those assessments  with emphasis placed on the most 
up-to-date information .  
 
Biology and e cology  
  
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 Epiphyas postvittana  is a species of moth belonging to the lepidopteran family Tortricidae, c ommonly 
known as tortix or leaf roller moths. Larval (caterpillar) stages  of E. postvittana  feed on a wide variety of 
plants by constructing nests with webbing that incorporate plant tissue which  the developing larvae 
feed  on. Older larvae may form their feeding niches by bind ing various plant parts , including c lusters of 
fruit,  together  with webbing  to create nests . Damage to fruit is typically visible to the naked eye due to 
the presence of webbing and the accumulation of fr ass. Less  frequently, damage may be in conspicuous, 
such as when larva e bore into the cal yx end of apples and pears or the stem end of citrus fruits.  
 
The number of annual generations of E. postvittana  varies with latitude within its range  in New Zealand . 
There is considerable overlap between generations, with development driven by temperatur e and the 
larval host plant. In northern New Zealand four  generations are completed annually, while only  two 
generations are completed on the southern end of the North Island. In Australia, the number of 
generations varies from three  to four , with three  occurring in most area s. In the United Kingdom , there 
are two generations per year , with more generation s expected in future years as a result of climate 
change. Larval development has  five to six  instar stages. There is no winter resting stage  (diapause) , 
although overwintering larvae tend to develop slowly, with a lower threshold of development for all 
stages of 7.5 °C and an upper threshold of 31 °C. Larvae overwinter in prolonged phases of the second, 
third and fourth instars typically feeding o n herbaceous plants and shrubs.  Pupation takes place within 
or near the last nest .  
 
Pathways  for introduction and spread  
 
Epiphyas postvittana  is highly polyphagous . Any above -ground plant part originating from an area where 
the pest occurs  could theoretically car ry eggs, larvae and pupae  in international trade. The pest’s broad 
host range has likely contributed to it becoming one of the most abundant micro -lepidopteran species in 
New Zealand and the United Kingdom.  
 
Pest interception data from a variety of internatio nal sources indicates that the pest has been detected 
in association w ith cut flowers, live plants, as well as  fresh fruit  and vegetables  (including, but not 
limited to apples, blueberries, grapes, peaches, pears and strawberries)  moving in international t rade . 
The United States reports that the main source of interceptions of E. postvittana  was personal effects of 
international airline passengers. Introductions  of the pest to new areas, for example  New Zealand and 
the United Kingdom , are reported to have r esulted from nursery stock  moving in international trade 
(CABI 2022) .  
 
Once established in a new area, lo cal spread  has been documented , although the rate of that spread is 
relatively low . The natural rate of spread of  E. postvittana  appears to be less than 1 km per  generation  
due to the limited  flight  abilities of females  (Suckling et al. 2014) . Larvae may also disperse by 
ballooning. For example, it took many decades for E. postvittana  to spread throughout the UK and for 
signs of damage  to be recognized. Similarly, 15 years after first being reported in California, E. 
postvittana  has not invaded neighbouring states that , based on modeling , have climates suitable for 
establishment of the pest. However, the efforts of regulatory bodies to manage the pest, especially in 
California , have likely impacted the rate of natural and human -mediated spread . In the absence of any 
regulatory controls  now that the pest has been deregulated  in the United States,  E. postvittana  is 
expected to disperse naturally to the states of Oregon and Washington, and eventually the province of 
British C olumbia. The establishment of new populations of E. postvittana  in the United States closer to 
British Columbia’s border would  serve to  accelerate the timeline for introduction to Canada.  For  
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 example, E. postvittana  was first reported from  Polk County,  Oregon in 2010, with  additional trap 
captures  in 2015 and 2016.  Murray and Jepson report that an eradication program is underway  in 
Oregon (Murray and Jepson 2019).  
 
Suitability of the environment  and availability of hosts  
 
Based on the results of modelin g, CFIA ’s most recent  risk assessments  predict that e stablishment of E. 
postvittana  is highly probable along the entire  western coast  of British Columbia , including Vancouver 
Island . The pest is currently expected to be able to establish in the lower two -thirds of the Fraser River 
Valley , and will likely be able to extend its range to cover the entire valley. Climate matching models 
indicate that o ther parts o f Canada, including the Avalon P eninsula of Newfoundland, southern Nova 
Scotia, as well as the interi or valleys of British Columbia are potentially suitable  for establishment . 
However, models that take into consideration the biological characteristics of the pest suggest that 
those areas may not be suitable.   
 
The availability of suitable host plants  thro ughout the year  along the entire west coast of British 
Columbia further  supports that British Columbia is most obviously at risk of establishment.  
 
Greenhouses and other protected environments throughout Canada are also at risk of invasion by E. 
postvitta na. Biosecurity measures employed by  growers and propagators , including scouting, removal  of 
infested plant parts, release of beneficial  insects  and the application of pesticides are effective against 
the pe st. Those interventions could help to reduce the impact of E. postvittana  in a greenhouse, but 
they may be impractical, costly, or  disrupt ive.   
 
Potential economic and environmental consequences  
 
Economic damage  to crops  results from feeding by the larval  stages of E. postvittana  which may  destroy, 
stun t or deform young seedlings; spoil the appearance of ornamental plants; and injure deciduous fruit -
tree crops, citrus and grapes. Damage to fruit is t ypically superficial, although larvae will sometimes 
tunnel into  fruit . Both types of damage are typically  considered defects reducing the value of  the fruit.  
Severe damage has been reported in grape production when larval feeding damage allows rot organisms 
to infect berries.  
 
As of 2007, l osses in Australia due to E. postvittana  were estimated to be of the order of AU $21M per 
annum a cross a range of industries.  A pest profile for E. postvittana published on the CDFA’s website , 
which is assumed to have been published in the mid -2000’s,  reports that lost production and control 
costs in California alone could b e $133 million annua lly (CDFA 2022) . Mor e recently , USDA -APHIS reports 
in Federal Order DA -2021 -29 that “the moth ’s impact was not as significant as expected.”  
 
A recent study by Mills (2021)  using E. postvittana  as a model  correlates CLIMEX model output with 
larval density in a given area. The findings of the study suggest  that the levels of harm , which are 
assumed to b e proportional to larval abundance , seen in California are no t typical of the moth . Harm 
levels are expected to increase as the moth spreads northwards through the Pacific Northwest into 
British Columbia , where environmental conditions are more favourable.  When the methodologies 
employe d by Mills are applied to sout hern British Columbia, population levels and the resulting harm 
caused by E. postvittana  is expected to exceed that seen in California b y a measurable margin. In the 
United Kingdom where predicted levels of harm are greater than those predicted for souther n British  
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 Columbia, the pest is reported to be a “sporadic pest ” of apples, that can generally be controlled by 
insecticidal sprays targeting codling moth and other tortricid pests . The pest more often causes damage 
to cherry and plum because insecticides that are active against other caterpillar pests are not used on 
cherry and plum in the United Kingdom  (Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board 2021) .  
 
There is no potential for the moth to degrade the environment, to  alter the composition of ecosystems,  
to cause human or animal health problems, or to have an adverse  sociological impact; none of these  
things has happened where this insect  occur s, including areas where  E. postvittana  has been introduced.  
 
In New Zealand, where E. postvittana  is common in gardens  and unsprayed horticultural crops, it also 
feeds on many escaped or weedy host plants, including gorse  (Ulex europaeus ) and broom ( Cytisus 
scoparius ). Both gorse and broom are considered invasive species in southern, coastal British Columbia 
after being introduced as landscaping plants . E. postvittana  is expected to be a pest of urban landscape 
plants  in the at -risk areas of Bri tish Columbia.  
 
Overall , the impact resulting from  the introduction  of E. postvittana  to Canada are considered low, but 
not negligible.  
Risk management c onsiderations  
 
Standards of the International Plant Protection Convention  
 
International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures 5 (ISPM 5) defines a quarantine pest as a pest of 
potential economic importance to the area endangere d thereby and not yet present there, or present 
but not widely distributed and being officially controlled  (IPPC 2022a) . E. postvittana  has n ever been 
reported from Canada.  Specific and general surveillance performed b y the CFIA has not detected the 
pest.  Further , community science platforms contain no record s of E. postvittana  detections in Canada.   
 
Epiphyas postvittana  satisfies the criteria of being not present in Canada and being of potential 
economic importance.    
 
International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures 1 (ISPM 1) describes phytosanitary principles for 
plant protection that are embodied in the International Plant Protection Convention  (IPPC 2016) . Among 
the principles listed in the standard are managed risk,  minimal impact , and technical justification. These 
principles necessitate regular review of import programs based on new  information about pests and 
their potential impact.  
 
Potential for management  of the pest  
 
Belonging to the family Tortricidae, E. postvittana  is one of m any leafroller moths that threaten  
Canada’s resource base. Both  native leafrollers, such as  Grapholita packardi  (cherry fruitworm ), and 
exotic (introduced) leafrollers, such as Cydia pomonella  (codling moth ), are present in Ca nada and 
require management under certain circumstances  to prevent damage to growing points and directly to 
fruit.  The presence of ot her leafroller species in Canada may create direct competition for E. postvittana , 
serving to limit  its impact . However, the establishment of E. postvittana  in Canada may serve to 
complicate, or render ineffective, efforts to control important pests that a re already pre sent .    
  
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 One such ex ample of a management  program for a plant pest is the Okanagan -Kootenay Sterile Insect 
Release ( OKSIR) Program. Established in 1992, the OKSIR program is reported to have achieved a 90% 
reduction in ove rall codling moth l evels . As a result of  reduc ing codling moth populations in this 
important fruit -producing area , the SIR program reports  a 96% reduction in the amount of pesticide 
used against codling moth  (OKSIR 2022b) . Should E. postvittana  be introduced to this area, the result 
could be an increased  need for the application  of insecticides.  
 
Feasibility of eradication  
 
Eradication of a polyphagous leafroller  is generally consider ed a difficult and costly  undertaking . There 
are examples of succes sful eradications of leafrollers  from North America, for example the eradication 
of Oriental fruit moth  (Grapholita molesta ) from BC in 1960 (OKSIR 2022a) . However, a more recent 
attempt at eradicating E. postvittana  from the State of California was not successful. Due to the cost and 
difficulty of eradication, it is most effect ive to prevent the introduction of E. postvittana  by applying 
technically justified phytosanitary measures.  
 
Natural enemies  
 
At the time of establishing the CFIA’s E. postvittana  import program, it was noted that no natural 
enemies of the pest were known  to occur in North America  (CFIA 2007) . Studies conducted in California 
following the introduction of E. postvittana  identified a variety of parasitoids  of E. postvittana  eggs,  
larvae,  and pupae, as well as  predato rs of all life stages  (Hogg et al. 2013; Wang et al. 2012) . Continued 
research on this topic supports that parasitoids and p redators  that are already present in North America 
may suppress E. post vittana  populations , but nonetheless did not prevent establishment of the p est or 
eradicate it completely.  
 
Risk of introduction  
 
Introduction of a pest is defined as entry of a pest to an area where it is not present and leading to 
establishment. Establishment is further de fined as perpetuation of a pest for the foreseeable future. 
Due to the biology of E. post vittana , plants for planting are the most likely pathway  to lead to 
establishment. While it is also possible for E. postvittana  to enter all areas of Canada in associa tion with 
fresh fruits or vegetables for consumption , or fresh cut flowers for decorative p urposes, it is less likely 
that E. postvittana  would be able to establish  in Canada  via this pathway.  
 
Trade and economic impacts  
 
Epiphyas postvittana  is considere d a quarantine pest for several countries  (IPPC 2022b) . Among those 
countries are trading partners where  Canada has market access for horticultural commodities . The 
introduction of E. postvittana  to Canada has the potential to impact export markets due to trading 
partners imposing phytosanitary requirements. In the United States where the pest is now considered 
non-quarantine at the federal level, no  export  impact s are  anticipated. Further, no US state plant pest 
regulatory authorities have indicated that they intend to regulate E. postvittana  in their territory.  
 
Direct and indirect economic impacts of the introduction of E. postvitt ana are difficult to predict. If 
introduced, federal and provincial resources would be required to investigate the infestation, and  
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 develop and communicate control strategies . These activities may be necessary to  ensure continued 
access to export markets. Producers of horticultural commodities could also be directly impacted when 
implementing pest management  strategies .  
Pest risk m anagement  proposals  
 
Two  pest risk m anagement proposals for E. post vittana  are presented below . Both  proposal s include a 
descri ption of how the CFIA’s  current E. postvittana  import program would be modified , as well as 
associated pros and cons. Stakeholders will have an opportunity to provide comment s on the proposals, 
which will be taken into conside ration by the CFIA when making  a risk management decision. Once a risk 
management decision has been finalized, this document will be revised to include inf ormation related to  
the decision and any resulting next steps for changes to import programs.  
 
Proposal  1 – Deregulation  
 
Under thi s option E. postvittana  would be removed from the list of pests regulated by Canada. All 
existing phytosanitary import requirements specific to E. postvittana  would be removed . 
 
Pros:  
 no phytosanitary import requirements specific to E. postvittana  would b e applied to  regulated 
host articles  
Cons:  
 increased likelihood of E. postvittana  being introduced to  Canada earlier than would be 
expected through  natural spread alone  
 
Proposal  2 – Redesign import program to focus on highest risk pathways  
 
Under this opt ion the CFIA would undertake a thorough revision of the existing import program for E. 
postvittana . This option differs from p roposal 1 in that the CFIA would continue to regulate the pest , and 
all imports to Canada would be required to be free from the pe st. Specific  phytosanitary measures 
would be applied to commodit y classes that present the greatest  risk of introducing the pest to Canada . 
Phytosanitary import requirements would continue to be applied to commodities  intended for planting, 
growing or prop agation.  
 
Pros:  
 phytosanitary import requirements would provide a technically justified level of pest risk 
mitigation against E. post vittana  
 phytosanitary import requirements would be aligned with the plant protection principle s of 
minimal impact , techni cal justification , and equivalence , as outlined in ISPM 1  
 phytosanitary import requirements would be applied consistently across all origins where the 
pest occurs  
Cons:  
 imported consignments would  continue to  be required to meet phytosanitary import 
requi rements, for example a phytosanitary certificate  or other documentation . However, there 
would be a reduction in the scope  of requirements applied to imported articles compared  to 
those currently described in D-07-03  
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 Recommended approach  
 
Epiphyas postvittana  is currently absent from Canada. If introduced to Canada , E. postvittana  is 
expected  to cause economic impacts that could  otherwise be delayed using the regulatory tools 
afforded by Canada’s Plant Protection Act  and Regulations . While  the CFIA’s plant  protection directive D-
07-03 has successfully contributed to preventing the pest from establishing in Canada, the level of pest 
risk mitigation may not be aligned with plant protection principles of minimal impact and technical 
justification . The CF IA recommend s proceeding with Proposal 2 – Redesign import program to focus on 
highest risk pathways . 
References  
  
Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board. 2021.  Apple Best Practice Guide. [Online] Available: 
https://apples.ahdb.org.uk/light -brown -apple -moth/  [May 5, 2022].  
Brown, J. W., Epstein, M. E., Gilligan, T. M., Passoa, S. C. and Powell, J. A. 2010 . Biology, Identification, 
and History of the Light Brown App le Moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: 
Tortricidae: Archipini) in California: An Example of the Importance of Local Faunal Surveys to 
Document the Establishment of Exotic Insects. American Entomologist 56(1):34 -43. 
CABI. 2022.  Crop Protection  Compendium. [Online] Available: https://www.cabi.org/cpc . 
CDFA. 2022.  Light Brown Apple Moth Pest Profile. [Online] Available: 
https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/plant/pdep/target_pest_disease_profiles/LBAM_PestProfile.html  
[May 5, 2022].  
CFIA. 2007.  Canadian Food Inspection Agency Introduces New Regulatory Controls to Prevent the 
Introduction of Light Brown Apple Moth. [Onlin e] Available: 
https://www.canada.ca/en/news/archive/2007/06/canadian -food -inspe ction -agency -
introduces -new -regulatory -controls -prevent -introduction -light -brown -apple -moth.html  
[December 16, 2021].  
Hogg, B. N., Wang, X. -G., Levy, K., Mills, N. J. and Daane, K. M. 2013 . Complementary effects of 
resident natural enemies on the suppress ion of the introduced moth Epiphyas postvittana. 
Biological Control 64(2):125 -131.  
IPPC. 2016 . ISPM 1 Phytosanitary principles for the protection of plants and the application of 
phytosanitary measures in international trade. FAO, Rome.  
IPPC. 2022a . ISPM 5  Glossary of phytosanitary terms. FAO, Rome.  
IPPC. 2022b . List of Regulated Pests. [Online] Available: 
https://www.ippc.int/en/countries/all/regulatedpests/  [May 6, 2022].  
Lozier, J. D. and Mills, N. J. 2011 . Predicting the potential invasive range of light brown apple moth 
(Epiphyas postvittana) using biologically informed and correlative species distribution models. 
Biological Invasions 13(10):2409 -2421.  
Mills, N. J. 2021 . Abundance –suitability relationships for invasive species: Epiphyas postvittana as a case 
study. Biological Invasions 23(7):2205 -2220.  
Murray, K . and Jepson , P. An Integrated Pest Management Strategic Plan for Hazenuts in Oregon and 
Washington. [Online] Available: https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/em9223  [June 6, 
2022].  
OKSIR. 2022a.  Pest Watchlist. [Online] Available: https://www.oksir. org/the -pests/pest -watchlist/  [May 
5, 2022].  
OKSIR. 2022b.  Program Benefits. [Online] Available: https://www.oksir.org/the -program/program -
benefits/ .  
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 Suckling, D. M., Stringer, L. D., Bai rd, D. B., Butler, R. C., Sullivan, T. E. S., Lance, D. R. and Simmons, G. 
S. 2014 . Light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) colonization 
of California. Biological Invasions 16(9):1851 -1863.  
USDA -APHIS. 2021.  Federal Order R emoval of the Domestic Quarantine for Light Brown Apple Moth DA -
2021 -29. [Online] Available: https://www.aphis.usda.g ov/aphis/newsroom/stakeholder -
info/stakeholder -messages/plant -health -news/lbam -deregulation -spro -fo [December 16, 2021].  
Wang, X. -G., Levy, K., Mills, N. J. and Daane, K. M. 2012 . Light Brown Apple Moth in California: A 
Diversity of Host Plants and Indige nous Parasitoids. Environmental Entomology 41(1):81 -90.