WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
5 October 2015  
(15-5180)  Page: 1/68  
Sub-Committee on Least Developed Countries    
 
 MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST 
TO LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIE S: A WTO@20 RETROSPECTIVE  
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents 
1  INTRODUC TION ........................................................................................................... 5  
2  LDCS' TRADE PROFILE .................................................................................................. 6  
2.1  Trends in Goods an d Commercial Services ..................................................................... 6  
2.2  Merchandise Trade Developments ................................................................................ 11 
2.2.1  Commodity price movements ................................................................................... 11 
2.2.2  Trends in pr oduct comp osition .................................................................................. 13 
2.2.3  Geographic dive rsification of trade ............................................................................ 17 
2.2.4  Major export markets for LDCs by product group ......................................................... 17 
2.2.5  Differentiation by export specialization ....................................................................... 20 
2.2.6  Merchandis e trade balance ....................................................................................... 23 
2.3  LDCs' Trade in Services 1995-2013 .............................................................................. 26 
2.3.1  Direction of trade .................................................................................................... 33 
2.3.2  Services exports by GATS modes of supply ................................................................. 34 
2.4  Foreign Affiliat es Statisti cs (FATS)................................................................................ 35 
3  TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PROD UCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS ............ 36  
3.1  Market Access in Developed Ec onomies ........................................................................ 36 
3.2  Market Access in Developing Economies ........................................................................ 43 
4  RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPR OVE MARKET ACCE SS FOR LDCS ................................. 49  
5  CONCLU SION ............................................................................................................. 50  
ANNEX ......................................................................................................................... .. 52 
 
                                               
1 This document has been prepared under the Secret ariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice 
to the positions of Members or to thei r rights and obligations under the WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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  List of Tables 
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 1995-2013 ........................... 6  
Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 1995-2013 ............................ 8  
Table 3: Export prices of prim ary commodities,  1995-2 014/15  ............................................... 12 
Table 4: LDCs' top 20 export products in terms of increase in world market share,  1995-
2014 .............................................................................................................................. 16 
Table 5: Product composition of LD C exports by dest ination, 1995-20 14 .................................. 18 
Table 6: LDCs' top ten expo rt markets, 1995 and 2 013 ......................................................... 20 
Table 7: LDC merchandise trade by  export speciali zation, 1995-2014  ...................................... 21 
Table 8: Product composition of  African LDC ex ports, 1995-20 14 ............................................ 22 
Table 9: Product composition of  Asian LDC expo rts, 1995 -2014 .............................................. 22 
Table 10: Coverage ratios of mercha ndise trade of th e LDCs, 1995- 2014 ................................. 23 
Table 11: LDCs' merchandise trade ba lance by product groups, 1 995-20 14 .............................. 24 
Table 12: LDC commercial services exports by cate gory, 1995- 2013 ....................................... 27 
Table 13: Average tariffs levied by developed countries on key products from developing 
countries and LDCs, 1996- 2014 ......................................................................................... 39 
Table 14: GSP tariff treatment of LDC export s in selected develo ped market s, 2013 .................. 40 
Table 15: LDC exports in select ed developed ma rkets, 2013 .................................................. 42 
Table 16: Average tariffs levied by selected developing countries on key products from 
developing countries and LDCs, 2001-2013 (excluding oil) ..................................................... 44 
Table 17: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing markets, 2013 ....................... 46 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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List of Charts 
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of go ods and commercial se rvices, 1995- 2013 ....................... 6  
Chart 2: Development in merchandise trade vo lume of LDCs and developing economies ............. 7  
Chart 3: LDCs' shares in world exports,  1995-2 013................................................................ 7  
Chart 4: Concentration indices (Herfindahl-Hirschmann) of merchandise exports of 
selected region s, 1995-201 3 .............................................................................................. 9  
Chart 5: Share of top three LDC products in their total merchandise exports, 1995 and 
2014 .............................................................................................................................. 10 
Chart 6: Export prices of primary commodities, 1995-2014 .................................................... 11 
Chart 7: Evolution of merchandise ex port structure of LDCs, 1995 an d 2014  ............................ 13 
Chart 8: Composition of LDC merchandise exports by major product group, 1995, 2000 
and 2014 ........................................................................................................................ 14 
Chart 9: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 1995 and 2014 ................................... 15 
Chart 10: LDC merchandise exports by destination,  1995 and 2014 ........................................ 17 
Chart 11: Geographical concentration of LDC exports: Share of top ten partners in total 
exports, by major produc t group, 1995 and 2013 ................................................................. 19 
Chart 12: Trade balance of goods (BOP), as a percentage of  GDP, 1995 and 2013  .................... 25 
Chart 13: Trade in commercial se rvices by LDC region, 1995-201 3 ......................................... 26 
Chart 14: Exports and imports of commercial services by leading LDCs, 1995 and 2013 ............. 28 
Chart 15: Structure of LDCs' exports of commercial serv ices, 1995 an d 2013 ........................... 28 
Chart 16: Travel exports of selected le ading LDC travel expo rters, 1995 and 2013  .................... 29 
Chart 17: LDCs' travel exports and estimated international tourist arrivals to LDCs, 1995-
2013 .............................................................................................................................. 29 
Chart 18: Estimated structure of LDC transp ort exports by mode of transport, 1995 and 
2012 .............................................................................................................................. 30 
Chart 19: Leading LDC exporters and impo rters of transport,  1995 and 2013 ........................... 31 
Chart 20: Growth of LDC exports by main service sector, 1995-2013  ...................................... 31 
Chart 21: Leading LDC exporters of co mmunications servic es, 1995 and 2013 .......................... 32 
Chart 22: European Union (28) – Impo rts of services fr om LDCs, 2006-20 12............................ 33 
Chart 23: LDCs: Estimated exports of commercia l services by mode of supply (BOP basis), 
2012 .............................................................................................................................. 34 
Chart 24: Zambia: Inward FATS sales by ec onomic activity and partner co untry, 2012 .............. 35 
Chart 25: Share of duty-free imports by developed economies originating from LDCs and 
comparison with total developing countries, 1996-2014 ......................................................... 36 
Chart 26: Share of export value imported duty  free by developed economies originating for 
individual LDCs, 1996-2014 ............................................................................................... 38 
Chart 27: Average tariffs levied by selected developing countries on key products from 
developing countries and LDCs, 2001-2013 (excluding oil) ..................................................... 43 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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List of Annex Tables 
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and import s of LDCs by selected country grouping, 
2014 .............................................................................................................................. 52 
Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities , 1995–2015,  Q2 .................................... 54 
Annex Table 3: Leading merchandise exports of LDCs in 2014a ............................................... 56 
Annex Table 4: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 1995-2014 ............... 60 
Annex Table 5: Coverage ratios of impo rts by exports of the LDCs, 1995-2014  ......................... 63 
Annex Table 6: Exports of commercial services of the LDCs by category, 1995 and 2013 ............ 65 
Annex Table 7: Major multilateral non-reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Membersa ....................................................................................................................... 66 
Annex Table 8: Notification of preferences in favour of LDC services and service suppliers .......... 68 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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1  INTRODUCTION 
1.1.  This Note prepared by the Secretariat respon ds to paragraph 8 of the WTO Work Programme 
for Least Developed Countries (LDCs), which mand ates an annual review of market access for 
products originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11/Rev.1). It builds on previous Secretariat 
studies by updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditions. In light of the 20
th Anniversary of the WTO, this year's edition provides an historical perspective on the 
developments of LDC trade since the establishment of the WTO in 1995.  
1.2.  The Note is divided into four main parts, in addition to the introduction. Chapter 2, on trade 
profile, provides a description of the recent tr ends of LDCs' trade flows, both in goods and 
commercial services. It includes an analysis of LDC exports by main products and market 
destinations and specific information on trade in services. Chapter 3 is devoted to market access 
conditions facing LDC exports. Chapter 4 covers recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs' products. A concluding section summarizes the findings of the Note, while a series of annex 
tables provide Members with additional background  information and references. The Note does not 
attempt to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition market access for LDCs' products. It should therefore be read in conjuncti on with previous Secretariat notes prepared on 
this topic, to gauge the different factors that determine market access for LDCs. 
1.3.  The statistical coverage of LDCs is characte rized by its incompleteness, and often not the 
most up-to-date, despite improvements in the production of national data. The Secretariat has been using reported national figures whenever available; however, in many instances, it is still 
necessary to rely on mirror statistics i.e. data reported by LDCs' trading partners. The 
disadvantage of using mirror data is that it does not allow taking into consideration intra-trade among the LDCs, as well as trade with non-reporting developing economies.  
1.4.  Samoa graduated from LDC status as of the beginning of 2014, thus will not be taken into 
account anymore starting with this year's edition. Due to non-availability of national data, South Sudan is not covered adequately in this Note. 
1.5.  Data based on balance of payments (the main source of information for trade in services) are 
only available for up to reference year 2013 for this  edition - due to methodological changes (fifth 
to sixth edition of the IMF Balance of Payments Manual (BPM)). To being able to cover a long-term time series back to 1995, data on trade in services have been presented according to 
BPM 5-methodology in this version. Market access data started to become available in 1996, 
following the establishment of what is now known as the IDB database. Also some other presentations might still refer to 2013 as most recent reference year instead of 2014 – due to data 
availability issues. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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  2  LDCS' TRADE PROFILE 
2.1  Trends in Goods and Commercial Services 
2.1.  Over the 1995-2013-period, LDC exports of goods and services grew by an annual average of 
12.6%, markedly higher than the 11.3% averag e for other developing economies. The rapid 
increase in the total value of goods and services exported by LDCs during the 2000s came to an 
abrupt halt in 2008, in the wake of the global financial crisis.  
2.2.   The growth of merchandise exports had accelerated since 2003, largely due to the rise in oil 
and commodity prices, while the exports of services  rose more markedly after 2006, a change that 
could be attributed to the dynamism of tourism and the higher prices of transport services. After the crisis, exports went back to distinctly po sitive growth rates and grew 27.5% in 2010 and 
returned to pre-crisis levels in 2011. After this ye ar, the growth in the total value of LDCs' exports 
was constrained by unfavourable developments in  the price of commodities. In 2013, the most 
recent year available based on comparable balance-of-payments (BOP) data , LDC exports 
increased by 5.2% reaching US$250 billion, while LDC imports grew by 6.6% reaching 
US$310.6 billion, resulting in an overall trade deficit of US$60.6 billion in 2013. In 1995, the trade 
deficit stood at US$14 billion, thus had increased by more than four times during this period - in nominal terms. 
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 1995-2013  
(BOP, BPM5) 
(Index, 1995=100)  
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 1995-2013 
(BOP, BPM5) 
(Billion dollars and percentage)  
  Values ($bn)  Annual rate of growth (%) 
  1995 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 1995-2013 
Total goods and commercial services 29.5 250.0 -23.9 27.5 23.0 -1.6 5.2 12.6 
Total goods 24.5 218.3 -26.8 28.9 23.4 -2.7 4.1 12.9 
Fuels and Mining 8.0 127.0 -32.9 28.4 25.1 -1.6 1.6 16.6 
Other goods 16.5 91.3 -16.1 29.6 21.1 -4.3 7.7 10.0 
Commercial services 5.0 31.7 7.1 16.9 19.4 8.0 13.4 10.8 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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  2.3.  Prices for primary commodities steadily increased until the crisis-induced drop in 2009, 
recovered in the 2010-2012 period, and started to drop again during 2013 (-2.6%) and 2014 (-6.9%). Energy prices (gas/petroleum/coal) fell more than any other commodity prices at that time. Yet, while the trade volume of other developing economies decreased by 8% during the 
crisis, LDC trade still showed positive growth of 4% in volume terms in 2009. 
2.4.  In volume terms, LDC merchandise exports grew by 5.9% in 2014, while their imports 
expanded by 9.4%. In comparison to 2000, export volume more than doubled while import 
volume almost tripled (see Chart 2).  
Chart 2: Development in merchandise trade vo lume of LDCs and developing economies  
(Indices, 2000=100)  
 
Source: WTO Secretariat. LDCs' data are computed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD. 
 
2.5.  Regarding LDCs' integration in global trade, chart 3 shows that LDCs were able to increase 
their shares in world exports of goods and comme rcial services from 0.5% in 1995 to 1.1% in 
2013. During the crisis in 2009, their export ma rket share decreased by 0.05 percentage points, 
but they more than compensated this loss in the following year. This general trend was mainly 
influenced by merchandise exports. LDCs' world market share of exports of commercial services 
stayed more or less stable at 0.4% until 2008, and thereafter started to increase - also during the crisis - registering 0.7% in 2013. Table 2 provid es more detail regarding LDCs performance in 
trade over the last twenty years as compared to  world trade. For example, it shows that LDCs' 
total trade in goods and services increased by an annual average of 12.5% between 1995 and 2013, thereby outperforming world trade which grew by 7.5% on average. 
Chart 3: LDCs' shares in world exports, 1995-2013  
(BOP, BPM5) 
(Percentage shares) 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 8 - Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 1995-2013  
(BOP, BPM5) 
(Billion dollars and percentage) 
 Value ($bn)  Annual 
percentage 
change 
 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 1995-2013 
Total trade in goods and commercial services  a             
   World 6231 7885 12782 14673 17064 19608 15663 18663 22090 22319 22898 7.5 
   LDC 73 94 204 243 308 418 350 413 508 529 561 12.0 
     Share in world 0.59 0.59 0.80 0.83 0.90 1.07 1.12 1.11 1.15 1.19 1.23 ... 
Total trade in goods  a             
   World 5047 6408 10331 11917 13766 15867 12268 14942 17914 18034 18385 7.4 
   LDC 57 75 168 202 254 345 280 336 414 429 455 12.3 
     Share in world 0.56 0.58 0.81 0.85 0.92 1.09 1.14 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.24 ... 
Total trade in commercial services  a             
   World 1184 1478 2450 2756 3298 3741 3394 3721 4176 4285 4513 7.7 
   LDC 16 19 35 41 54 73 70 77 94 100 105 10.9 
     Share in world 0.69 0.64 0.73 0.75 0.83 0.99 1.04 1.05 1.15 1.18 1.18 ... 
Goods exports             
   World 5103 6406 10349 11972 13854 15934 12375 15085 18087 18204 18609 7.5 
   LDC 25 36 85 105 134 185 136 175 216 210 218 12.9 
     Share in world 0.48 0.56 0.82 0.88 0.96 1.16 1.10 1.16 1.19 1.15 1.17 ... 
Commercial services exports             
   World 1179 1491 2516 2845 3421 3847 3489 3828 4295 4397 4644 7.9 
   LDC 5 6 9 11 14 17 19 22 26 28 32 10.8 
     Share in world 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.37 0.40 0.45 0.53 0.57 0.60 0.64 0.68 ... 
Goods imports             
   World 4991 6409 10313 11862 13679 15800 12162 14800 17742 17863 18161 7.4 
   LDC 32 39 83 96 120 160 145 161 198 219 237 11.7 
     Share in world 0.64 0.61 0.81 0.81 0.88 1.01 1.19 1.09 1.12 1.23 1.31 ... 
Commercial services imports             
   World 1189 1464 2384 2666 3174 3635 3300 3613 4056 4174 4381 7.5 
   LDC 11 13 26 30 40 55 51 55 68 72 74 10.9 
     Share in world 0.96 0.90 1.10 1.13 1.26 1.52 1.55 1.52 1.69 1.72 1.68 ... 
a World total trade is calculated as the average of world export s and imports, according to the BOP presentation (excluding Mod e 3 for trade in services) (BPM 5). Total 
LDC trade in this table is approximated as the sum of their expo rts and imports. Total trade shares are calculated in relation to the corresponding world exports plus 
imports. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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  2.6.  Export concentration has been a structural characteristic of LDC economies. Due to a lower 
degree of development of their productive sectors, LDCs are heavily dependent on a few products where they enjoy some degree of comparative advantage (primary commodities as far as trade in goods is concerned, and tourism for services exporters). Even when LDCs were able to diversify 
into manufacturing, the range of exported products was usually limited to a few labour-intensive 
industries, mostly in clothing. Moreover, the rise in the international price of commodities between 2003 and 2008 increased the weight of primary export s for most LDC exporters, leading to higher 
dependency. Accordingly, natural resources poor LDCs in Asia showed the lowest concentration 
index within this group of economies. The Herfindahl-Hirschmann index (see chart 4) confirms this concentration. 
Chart 4: Concentration indices (Herfindah l-Hirschmann) of merchandise exports of 
selected regions, 1995-2013  
(Indices) 
 
   
 
 
Source: UNCTAD database. 
 
2.7.  On average, almost 70% of total merchandise exports depended only on three main products 
in 2014 (composition varies from LDC to LDC). For instance, for nine LDCs, the top three products 
accounted for more than 95% of their export receipts, illustrating the vulnerability of these economies to fluctuations in international trade. In 1995, the situation was markedly different, 
with only around 40% of LDCs' exports that were  attributable to the top three products. Product 
concentration has thus distinctly increased.  "The Herfindahl-Hirschmann index shows the degree of market 
concentration. Its (normalized) values range from 0 to 1 (maximum concentration). An index value that is close to 1 indicates a very concentrated market, while a valu e closer to 0 demonstrates a 
homogeneous market between the exporters or importers." WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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  Chart 5: Share of top three LDC products in their total merchandise exports, 1995 and 
2014 (Percentage shares)  
 
Note:   Products are measured at the 2-digit level of the Harmonized System (HS). 
Source: UN Comtrade (reported data comp lemented by mirror data for missing). 
 
2.8.  Regarding services, the export dependence is generally lower, even though some LDCs - such 
as Afghanistan and Vanuatu - also depend on services for a sizeable share of their total export 
receipts. Travel, a close proxy of tourism receipts, is the dominant sector, especially for small 
islands where it represents the main source of export revenues.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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  2.2  Merchandise Trade Developments 
2.2.1  Commodity price movements 
2.9.  Regarding the price developments of primary commodities over the 1995 to 2014 period, 
energy prices clearly showed the steepest increa se; in 2014, energy prices were more than five 
times above the level of 1995. A first uncoupling of the prices for energy from the prices of the 
other categories of primary commodities happened in 2000, with some stabilizing years to follow. In 2003, energy prices continued to grow markedly again, reaching a peak in 2008. With the 
economic crisis of 2009 and the corresponding decl ine in demand, energy prices declined by 37% 
in comparison to 2008, but still were more than three times above the level of 1995. A second peak was reached in 2012, with a level of almo st six times above that of 1995; while the most 
recent years were characterized by constantly decreasing prices – in 2014 decreasing by 8% 
against the preceding year. 
2.10.  Minerals and non-ferrous metals were second-in-line in terms of price increases during the 
1995 to 2014 period. They nearly followed the price developments for energy, but on a lower 
scale. In 2014 (-10% against 2013), their prices were more than two times higher than in 1995. 
2.11.  The international prices for food and beverage products started accelerating in 2006 – six 
years after the first large increase of prices of extractive commodities (oil and minerals). Though 
prices of this product group declined during the crisis, they were still higher in 2009 than in 2007. 
In 2014, food and beverage prices were 1.6 times above their 1995 levels (-2% against 2013). 
2.12.  The average price of non-food agricultural commodities and manufactures increased slowly 
during the 2000s. While these products did not follow the 2008 bubble, they nevertheless 
registered a decrease in prices in 2009, which dr agged them almost back to their 2000 values. The 
most recent years were characterized by quite stable prizes - showing levels of around 15 to 30% (agricultural raw materials) and 15 to 20% (m anufactured products) above 1995. Raw materials 
increased by 2% in 2014, manufactured products stayed at around the level of 2013.  
Chart 6: Export prices of primary commodities, 1995-2014 
(Indices, 1995=100) 
0100200300400500600
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Food and beverages
Agricultural  raw materials
Minerals and non‐ferrous metals  (excluding  crude petroleum)
  Energy
Memo item: Manufacture  Unit Value
 
Source: WTO Secretariat and World Bank.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 12 - Table 3: Export prices of primary commodities, 1995-2014/15 
(Indices, 1995=100) 
  1995  2000  2005  2006  2007  2008  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013  2014  2014 Q-o-Q 2015  
                          Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Food and beverages 100  77  96  106  122  150  131  147  175  168  168  164  169  174  161  153  144  139  
Agricultural raw materials 100  81  87  94  99  98  82  108  133  116  118  121  123  123  120  117  113  110  
Minerals and non- ferrous metals 
(excluding crude petroleum) 100  82  139  217  255  235  190  281  319  265  254  228  237  230  231  214  191  188  
Total of above 100  79  108  132  151  162  137  173  204  183  181  174  180  181  173  164  153  149  
Energy 100  156  292  348  385  540  341  430  586  594  573  525  569  575  541  416  308  338  
All primary commodities 100  116  196  236  264  337  236  298  384  374  364  339  361  364  345  286  233  242  
Memo item: Manufacture Unit Value 100  87  95  98  104  112  105  109  119  117  115  116  … … … … … … 
Note: Period averages calculated from IMF indices based on dolla r prices. The data for manufacture corresponds to unit values. The quarterly figures are not seasonally 
adjusted. 
Source: WTO Secretariat and World Bank. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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  2.13.  In 2014, the value of LDCs' merchandise exports amounted to US$207.2 billion, after a 
decrease of 2.1% against the preceding year. LDCs, as a group, thus, underperformed other developing economies (excluding LDCs) with an ex port growth of 0.2% in 2014. This is mostly 
related to the distinct drops in fuel prices – a commodity that is of higher importance for the LDCs 
than for the other developing economies. This average hides heterogeneous situations at individual 
country level (see Annex 1 for detailed country data): six LDCs registered double-digit decline in their exports (ranging from -40% to -10%) whil e, at the other end, fifteen others achieved 
double-digit growth (ranging from 11% to 132%). LDC imports expanded by 5.4% to 
US$265.7 billion leading to an even higher trade de ficit than in 2013 (deficit of US$58.9 billion in 
2014 versus US$40.5 billion in 2013).  
2.2.2  Trends in product composition 
2.14.  Chart 7 shows the evolution in the commodity mix of the LDCs between 1995 and 2014. The 
pattern of demand from emerging economies and ri sing commodity prices, led to a shrinking share 
of manufactured products in total exports of LDCs  from 32% in 1995 to 28% in 2014. The share of 
fuels and mining products, on the other hand, increased from 34% in 1995 to 56% in 2014.
2 
During the same period, exports of agricultural products lost ground, from 34% in 1995 down to 
12% in 2014. Overall, the share of primary commodities in LDCs' merchandise exports stayed 
quite stable between 1995 (68%) and 2014 (67%). 
Chart 7: Evolution of merchandise ex port structure of LDCs, 1995 and 2014 
(Percentage shares) 
 
 
  
Source: 1995: UN Comtrade database (mirror data), 2014: WTO Secretariat.  
                                               
2 These shares are derived from the WTO network of LDCs by product an d destination compiled 
according to the United Nations Standard International Trade Classification (SITC). According to this classification, diamonds and non-moneta ry gold are not part of mineral pr oducts, the difference of the HS in 
use at the WTO. As a result, the shar es of fuels and mining product in total LDCs' exports derived from the LDC 
network differ from the shares of exporters of fuels and mining products discussed elsewhere in this report. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 14 - 
  
   
2.15.  Exports of textile and clothing products dominated LDCs' manufacture exports, both in 2014 
(64% share in total exports of manufactures) and 1995 (51% share) – with increasing importance 
over the years. However, the share of textiles and clothing in total exports of LDCs has not 
changed much over the years due to strong grow th in the exports of extractive resources. 
2.16.  Between 1995 and 2014, "fuels and mining products" was the product group with the 
highest average annual growth rate: 15% increase per year (see chart 8). "Machinery and 
transport equipment" and "clothing" followed with  14% and 13%, respectively. The share of "fuels 
and mining products" in LDCs' total merchandise exports increased from 32% in 1995 to 56% in 2014. The second-highest share was reached by "clo thing" exports – with a share of 16% in 2014 
(up from 13% in 1995). The product group that lost most in terms of share was "food" (down to 
an 9% share in 2014, from 22% in 1995), but also "agricultural raw materials" and "processed 
manufactures" lost distinctly in terms of shares. As mentioned, this increase in the weight of extractive commodities was mainly due to price effects. 
Chart 8: Composition of LDC merchandise exports by major product group, 1995, 2000 
and 2014 
(Percentage) 
 
Note: Data may include re ‑exports. In addition to mi nor differences in compositio n, data for textiles and 
clothing here differ from (HS 61 and 62) data in  Table 4 and Annex Table 3, mainly due to 
compilation methods, which in the case of Table 4 and Annex Table 3 are strictly based on imports 
of trading partners of LDCs. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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2.17.  Chart 9 shows the evolution of the top ten produc ts – and their respective shares - exported 
by LDCs between 1995 and 2014. While petr oleum products (HS 2709 and 2710) clearly 
dominated exports already in 1995 with a share of 23% in 1995, this share even increased up to 
45% of total exports in 2014. Also the share of clot hing products increased from 7% in 1995 up to 
11% in 2014. The importance of diamonds for LD Cs' exports dropped from a share of 9% in 1995 
(2nd-most-important product after petroleum oils in 1995) down to only 0.8% in 2014; while other 
precious/semi-precious stones reached a share of 6% in 2014 (up from 0.4% in 1995). Copper 
was still in the top ten products in 2014, but only  with half the share (2%) of that in 1995 (4%). 
Coffee and cotton both disappeared from the top ten (top three and top four product in 1995) 
between 1995 and 2014, dropping from shares of  7% and 4% in 1995 down to 1% and 0.5% in 
2014, respectively; for coffee this was the case even in the view of increased prices (+22% 
against 1995), while cotton prices decreased (-16%). 
Chart 9: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 1995 and 2014 
(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)  
 
Source: UN Comtrade database (mirror data).WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
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2.18.  Table 4 highlights the 20 top products (among LDCs' main 40 export products) for which 
LDCs were able to maximize their world market shares between 1995 and 2014. The top product in this listing was "cobalt ores and concentrat es" where LDCs increased their market share by 
52.7 percentage points up to almost 95% of world market share in 2014. However, this product 
represented only a share of 0.3% in LDCs to tal exports in 2014 (up from 0.1% in 1995). The 
product with the second-highest increase in terms of market share were 'mounted precious or semi-precious stones (excluding diamonds)' which gained almost 37 percentage points in terms of 
market share (up to 40.8% in 2014). LDCs were also in position to extend their world market 
share for copper between 1995 and 2014, 28 percenta ge points – even though this product had 
dropped from top 5 product (1995) to top 7 product (2014) as shown by chart 8. 
Table 4: LDCs' top 20 export products in te rms of increase in world market share,  
1995-2014 
(Million dollars and percentages) 
HS 
code Commodity description Value 
1995 
($mn) Value 
2014 
($mn) Increase 
in market 
share 
(%points) Market 
share 
2014 
(%) Share in 
LDC 
exports 
1995, 
(%) Share in 
LDC 
exports 
2014 
(%) 
2605 Cobalt ores and concentrates 16.9  620.8  +52.7 94.6  0.1  0.3  
7103 Mounted precious or semi-
precious stones, not diamond 94.7  13288.9  +36.8 40.8  0.4  6.5  
7402 Unrefined copper, copper 
anodes, electrolytic refinin 1.5  2115.8  +28.4 28.4  0.0  1.0  
1207 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruits 
nes 185.3  1708.6  +18.6 37.9  0.8  0.8  
8105 Cobalt mattes, etc, articles, 
waste or scrap 319.4  895.7  +17.8 38.4  1.4  0.4  
6203 Mens or boys suits, jackets, 
trousers etc not knit 311.7  6560.1  +15.1 16.7  1.3  3.2  
6109 T-shirts, singlets and other 
vests, knit or crochet 347.9  6306.8  +14.7 18.7  1.5  3.1  
6111 Babies garments, clothing 
accessories, knit or croche 19.7  947.9  +13.2 14.2  0.1  0.5  
4403 Wood in the rough or roughly 
squared 744.1  3766.1  +12.6 18.8  3.2  1.8  
6105 Mens, boys shirts, knit or 
crochet 129.0  1099.8  +11.5 14.7  0.5  0.5  
6205 Men's or boys' shirts 821.9  2754.5  +10.9 19.3  3.5  1.3  
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, 
etc, knit or crochet 282.1  6230.3  +10.7 12.0  1.2  3.0  
6104 Womens, girls suit, dress, skirt, 
etc, knit or croche 35.4  2441.4  +9.8 10.4  0.2  1.2  
2401 Tobacco unmanufactured, 
tobacco refuse 328.3  1569.0  +9.3 15.2  1.4  0.8  
0713 Vegetables, le guminous dried, 
shelled 211.2  1428.0  +9.0 17.4  0.9  0.7  
6108 Womens, girls underwear, 
nightwear, etc knit, crochet 76.1  1062.2  +8.6 10.3  0.3  0.5  
6204 Womens, girls suits, jacket, 
dress, skirt,  etc, wove 230.9  4207.3  +8.0 8.9  1.0  2.0  
2603 Copper ores and concentrates 9.1  2728.8  +5.3 5.5  0.0  1.3  
6201 Mens, boys overcoats, capes, 
windjackets etc, woven 167.6  733.4  +3.9 6.6  0.7  0.4  
2716 Electrical energy 3.8  1029.7  +3.6 3.7  0.0  0.5  
Note:  Calculations based on the 40 products  with the highest export values of LDCs. 
Source: UN Comtrade database (mirror data).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 17 - 
 
   
2.2.3  Geographic diversification of trade 
2.19.  While in 1995, the majority of LDC exports were directed to developed economies (Europe 
and North America), and only 30% to developing economies, the situation has drastically changed 
during the last 20 years. In 2014, the majority of LDC exports (57%) were shipped to developing 
economies. The main reason for this change was the growing demand of China, which accounted for 23% of LDC exports in 2014 as compared to only 3% in 1995. Intra-LDC trade increased from 
1% in 1995 to 5% in 2014, most of which took place within Africa. However, since intra-LDC trade 
is notoriously under-recorded, also due to informal cross-border trade, these numbers have to be seen as rough, lower-end estimates. 
Chart 10: LDC merchandise export s by destination, 1995 and 2014 
(Percentage shares) 
 
 
  
Source: 1995: UN Comtrade database (mirror data), 2014: WTO Secretariat. 
 
2.2.4  Major export markets for LDCs by product group 
2.20.  The product composition of LDC exports by destination confirms the general trend of 
increasing importance of the Asian market for LDCs, while the share of developed economies in 
LDCs' export is abating. Back in 1995, around half  of the exports of agricultural products were 
destined for either Europe (45%) or North America (5%), and only 39% for Asia. In 2014, the 
situation had changed: 42% of the exports went to Asia and 23% to Africa. In the last nineteen 
years, exports of agricultural products to Af rica and Asia grew on average by 13% and 6%, 
respectively and thereby contributed to the incr ease in the shares of these two regions as 
destination markets for agricultural products. Re garding fuels and mining products, 58% of LDC 
exports of fuels and mining products were transported to Asia in 2014; while back in 1995, Asia's 
share was still at 36% - at around the same size as the destination North America. In 1995, almost 90% of all manufacture exports of the LDCs went to developed economies (mostly Europe), 
while in 2014, this share had decreased to around 60%. Thus, developed economies still represent 
the biggest market for LDC exports in manufacturing. However,  Asia's share is rising (up to 23% in 2014, from 9% in 1995) and overtook North America as the second most important destination 
for manufactured products. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 18 - 
  
   
Table 5: Product composition of LD C exports by destination, 1995-2014 
(Billion dollars and percentages) 
  Value  Share in LDC exports  Annual % change 
  2014 1995 2000 2014 2013  2014 1995-2014  
Agriculture        
World 24.4 100 100 100 11 1 6 
Asia 10.2 39 30 42 11 5 6 
Africa 5.7 6 16 23 12 1 13 
Europe 5.4 45 37 22 7 6 2 
Middle East 2.1 4 7 9 15 -5 11 
North America 0.6 5 7 2 9 -7 2 
CIS 0.3 0 0 1 45 8 28 
South and Central America 0.1 1 1 0 -28 3 -1 
Fuels and mining products        
World 115.4 100 100 100 -1 -6 15 
Asia 66.9 36 46 58 -2 -3 18 
Europe 22.9 19 16 20 9 -5 15 
North America 9.3 36 25 8 -15 -30 6 
Africa 5.9 3 4 5 -1 0 18 
South and Central America 1.9 4 1 2 3 -4 10 
Middle East 1.8 2 1 2 60 0 13 
CIS 0.1 0 0 0 -9 8 69 
Manufactures        
World 57.3 100 100 100 13 6 11 
Europe 21.1 62 41 37 14 5 8 
Asia 12.9 9 14 23 8 12 17 
North America 11.3 24 35 20 11 1 10 
Africa 6.5 4 6 11 11 -6 17 
Middle East 1.1 0 1 2 11 8 25 
CIS 0.6 0 1 1 107 -3 30 
South and Central America 0.5 0 0 1 6 17 17 
Source: UN Comtrade mirror data (1995), WTO Secretariat (2000->). 
 
2.21.  Chart 11 shows the shares of the top ten markets for products originating from LDCs, by 
major product groups. These percentage shares can be interpreted as an indicator for the 
geographical concentration of the exports of the LDCs. On total level (all types of goods), the 
concentration has slightly decreased, from 87% in 1995 to 85% in 2013, but can still be seen as "very high" – meaning that still almost 90% of a l l  e x p o r t s  o f  t h e  L D C s  d e p e n d  o n  o n l y  t e n  
markets. For fuels and mining products, this  concentration even increased between 1995 and 
2013, from 90% to 92%, while for the two other product groups – agricultural products and 
manufactures - the dependency decreased (from 84% to 78% for agricultural products and from 94% to 86% for manufactures).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 19 - 
 
   
Chart 11: Geographical concentration of LDC ex ports: Share of top ten partners in total 
exports, by major product group, 1995 and 2013 (Percentage shares) 
 
 
Source: UN Comtrade (mirror data). 
 
2.22.  Table 6 lists the top ten markets by product groups for both 1995 and 2013. While in 1995, 
either the EU (all products, except fuels and mining) or the United States (fuels and mining products) were the most important destination for LDC exports, China took the lead in 2013 at 
total level, due to the fact that it moved to the first rank as importer of fuels and mining products 
from LDCs; in 1995, it was in fifth position. In 2013, China imported more fuels and mining products from the LDCs than the European Union, the United States and India altogether, reaching 
a share of 40% (up from 6% back in 1995). For the other two product categories, agricultural 
products and manufactures, the European Union maintained its top position in 2013, same as in 1995; but also for these products, China increased its importance as trading partner of LDCs against 1995. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 20 - 
  
  Table 6: LDCs' top ten ex port markets, 1995 and 2013 
(Billion dollars and percentage shares) 
Total trade  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining products  Manufactures  
1995 Value 
($bn) 1995 Value 
($bn) 1995  Value 
($bn) 1995 Value 
($bn) 
EU (28) 9.8 EU (28) 3.6 USA 2.8 EU (28) 4.6 
USA 5.0 Japan 0.8  EU (28)  1.5 USA 1.8  
Japan 1.6 Thailand 0.6 Japan  0.7 So. African 
Customs Union 0.1 
Thailand 0.9 India 0.4  Korea, Rep. Of  0.6 India 0.1  
China 0.9 USA 0.3 China  0.5 Hong Kong, 
China 0.1 
Korea, Rep. Of 0.7 China 0.3  Singapore  0.3 Singapore 0.1  
Singapore 0.7 Saudi Arabia 0.3 Thailand  0.3 Canada 0.1 
India 0.7 Singapore 0.3  Brazil  0.3 China 0.1  
Saudi Arabia 0.4 Chinese Taipei 0.2 Chinese Taipei  0.2 Japan 0.1 
Chinese Taipei  0.4 Indonesia 0.2  Saudi Arabia  0.2 Thailand 0.0  
Grand Totala 24.2 Grand Totala 8.2 Grand Totala 8.1 Grand Totala 7.6 
Share of top 10: 87.2 % Share of top 10: 84.1  Share of top 10:  90.4 %  Share of top 10: 93.8 %  
2013 Value 
($bn) 2013 Value 
($bn) 2013  Value 
($bn) 2013 Value 
($bn) 
China 59.4 EU (28) 5.3  China  52.6 EU (28) 25.3  
EU (28) 52.9 China 4.6 EU (28)  21.9 USA 10.0 
USA 23.6 India 3.0  USA 12.7 China 2.1  
India 14.3 Viet Nam 1.5 India 10.0 Japan 2.1 
Thailand 8.4 Nigeria 1.5  Thailand  7.1 Canada 2.0  
Japan 6.9 Saudi Arabia 1.4 Chinese Taipei  4.6 Congo 1.8 
Taipei, Chinese 4.8 Thailand 0.9  Japan  4.0 Turkey 1.2  
South Africa 4.7 Japan 0.8 South Africa  3.8 Korea, Rep. of 1.0 
Korea, Rep. of 4.3 USA 0.7  Korea, Rep. of  3.0 India 0.8  
Canada 4.0 Indonesia 0.5 Brazil  1.7 Côte d'Ivoire 0.7 
Grand Totala 215.1 Grand Totala 25.9  Grand Totala 132.1  Grand Totala 55.2  
Share of top 10: 85.2 % Share of top 10: 77.5 %  Share of top 10:  91.9 %  Share of top 10: 85.5 %  
a   "Grand Total" refers to sum of av ailable reporters (importers).   
Source:  UN Comtrade.  
2.2.5  Differentiation by export specialization  
2.23.  LDCs are subject to heterogeneous characteristics – a fact that is once again confirmed by 
table 7. In the last 19 years, the LDCs that are exporters of fuels and mining products expanded 
their exports by an annual average of 13%, compared to the 12% increase for exporters of 
manufactures or the 8% of exporters of agricultural  products. The weight of the African region in 
the LDC group increased during the period as most  of the mineral exporters are located in Africa. 
Nevertheless, with the background of stagnant or de creasing fuel prices in recent years, exporters 
of manufactured products registered the high est annual growth (8%) in 2014, followed by 
exporters of agricultural products (5%), while expo rters of fuels and mining products registered an 
overall decrease (-5%). LDC imports grew by an average of 12% per year between 1995 and 
2014. Here again, since the import capacity is closely related to export performance, the imports 
of fuel and mineral exporters grew at a slightly higher pace over the period (13%) than those of 
exporters of manufactured (11%) and agricultural products (11%).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 21 - 
 
  Table 7: LDC merchandise trade by  export specialization, 1995-2014 
(Billion dollars and percentage) 
  Exports Imports 
  Value Share in LDCs' exports  Annual 
percentage 
change Value  Share in LDCs' imports Annual 
percentage 
change 
 2014 1995 2000 2014 2014 1995-
2014 2014 1995 2000 2014 2014 1995-
2014 
LDCs 211.1 100.0 100.0 100.0  -1.5 12.2 265.7  100.0  100.0 100.0 5.4  11.4 
Exporters of 
fuels and 
minerals 144.2 55.6 60.4 68.3 -5.0 13.4 138.1  40.4 41.3 51.9 8.1 12.9 
Fuel 
exporters 105.8 31.3 46.5 50.1  -7.2 15.0 80.7 18.2 23.6 30.3 11.5  14.5 
Exporters of 
non-fuel 
minerals 38.5 24.3 13.9 18.2 1.6 10.5 57.4 22.1 17.7 21.6 3.5 11.3 
Manufacture 
exporters 46.2 22.9 27.5 21.9  7.7 11.9 72.2 30.6 35.3 27.1 10.8  10.7 
Exporters of 
agricultural 
products 17.7 17.2 9.3 8.4 5.4 8.0 53.1 20.5 19.2 20.0 5.2 11.3 
Diversified 
and others 2.9 4.2 2.6 1.4  5.4 5.8 7.5 4.7 4.0 2.8 0.9  8.5 
African LDCs  140.7 64.8 57.6 66.6 -6.7 12.3 159.6  58.1 53.1 60.0 5.5 11.6 
Fuel 
exporters 82.2 19.1 30.5 38.9  -12.5  16.4 49.1 9.3 12.4 18.4 6.6  15.5 
Exporters of 
non-fuel 
minerals 35.8 23.0 13.0 17.0 0.7 10.4 54.1 20.4 16.5 20.3 3.2 11.4 
Exporters of 
agricultural 
products 16.6 15.6 8.6 7.9  5.5 8.2 43.5 18.5 15.9 16.3 8.7  10.7 
Diversified 
and others 2.9 4.2 2.6 1.4 5.4 5.8 7.4 4.7 4.0 2.8 0.9 8.5 
Manufacture 
exporters 3.1 2.8 2.9 1.5  10.6 8.4 5.5 5.1 4.4 2.1 0.1  6.2 
Asian LDCs  61.5 26.5 30.1 29.1 13.2 12.7 94.8 31.6 38.9 35.6 14.4 12.1 
Manufacture 
exporters 42.2 19.7 23.7 20.0  7.5 12.2 63.2 23.6 28.6 23.8 12.3  11.5 
Exporters of 
fuels and 
minerals 15.6 4.0 4.8 7.4 32.1 15.8 18.6 4.3 5.9 7.0 43.3 14.4 
Exporters of 
agricultural 
products 1.1 1.5 0.7 0.5  4.8 5.8 9.6 2.0 3.2 3.6 -8.1  15.1 
Diversified 
and others 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 - - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -14.3  3.7 
Middle East 
and Caribbean 8.9 8.6 12.2 4.2
 -2.6 8.0 16.6 6.6 7.7 6.2 -0.8  11.1 
Yemen (fuel 
exporter) 8.0 8.1 11.3 3.8 -3.6 7.7 13.0 4.7 5.4 4.9 -2.1 11.7 
Haiti 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.4  6.8 12.0 3.5 1.9 2.4 1.3 4.0  9.3 
Memorandum 
items:   Share in world exports        Share in world imports     
World 18426.6 100.0 100.0 100.0  0.6 7.1 18641.1  100.0  100.0 100.0 0.5  7.0 
Developing 
economies 
excluding 
LDCs 8078.6 26.1 30.5 43.8 0.8 10.0 7639.0  27.6 27.7 41.0 0.2 9.2 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 22 - 
  
  2.24.  African LDCs' commodity composition is shown in table 8. After only a small decrease in 
2013 (-1%), exports of fuels and mining products continued the negative trend at a higher level in 2014 (-7%). In the last 19 years, however, fuels and mining products gained more than 30 percentage points share in total African LDC ex ports. In contrast, the share of African LDCs' 
agricultural exports (12% in 2014) dropped by more than half of its 1995 level (38%). Exports of 
manufactured products (9% share in 2014) lost more than 13 percentage points of their share against 1995. 
Table 8: Product composition of  African LDC exports, 1995-2014 
(Billion dollars and percentages) 
  Value  Share in total exports  Annual percentage change  
  2014 1995 2000 2014 2013  2014 1995-2014 
Agriculture 16.8 37.4 21.1 11.9 8.8 0.6 5.7 
Food 13.3 27.6 14.9 9.4 8.4 -0.4 6.1 
Raw materials 3.5 9.8 1.5 2.5 10.7 4.6 4.5 
Fuels and mining products 102.8 39.7 55.9 73.0 -1.4 -6.9 15.9 
Fuels 83.2 24.4 48.6 59.1 -2.1 -9.4 17.6 
Non-fuel minerals 19.6 15.3 7.3 13.9 1.9 5.6 11.7 
Manufactures 12.1 21.9 14.4 8.6 3.6 2.0 6.9 
Textiles and clothing 1.4 2.4 3.0 1.0 16.3 9.4 7.3 
Total merchandise exports 140.8  100.0  100.0  100.0  -0.3 -5.0 12.3 
Source: UN Comtrade (1995, mirror data), WTO Secretariat (2000 onwards). 
 
2.25.  The export structure of Asian LDCs is dominated by manufactures, with a 77% share of their 
total exports in 2014 (table 9). Between 1995 and 2014, Asian LDCs' export value of agriculture 
exports as well as of fuels and mining products increased in average by 6% per year; while exports of manufactured products grew by an average 13% annually. The share of fuels and 
mining products decreased by more than 10 pe rcentage points between 1995 and 2014 while the 
share of manufactures increased by almost 30 percentage points.  
Table 9: Product composition of Asian LDC exports, 1995-2014 
(Billion dollars and percentage) 
  Value  Share in total exports  Annual percentage change  
  2014 1995 2000 2014 2013  2014 1995-2014 
Agriculture 7.1 28.0 13.2 12.4 17.9 4.0 5.9 
Food 4.6 14.3 9.6 8.1 19.1 4.5 7.3 
Raw materials 2.5 13.7 3.6 4.3 15.8 3.0 4.0 
Fuels and mining products 5.6 22.2 8.0 9.7 19.5 -2.1 5.8 
Fuels 5.3 21.5 7.4 9.2 19.9 -2.1 5.7 
Non-fuel minerals 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.5 11.6 -2.5 8.0 
Manufactures 44.3 49.4 76.6 77.2 16.2 7.3 13.2 
Textiles and clothing 34.5 41.2 63.4 60.1 16.8 7.0 12.7 
Total merchandise exports 57.4 100.0  100.0  100.0  16.6 5.8 10.5 
Source: UN Comtrade (1995, mirror data), WTO Secretariat (2000 onwards). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 23 - 
 
   
2.2.6  Merchandise trade balance  
2.26.  With the exception of the three years prior to  the global economic crisis (2006, 2007 and 
2008), the merchandise trade balance of the LDCs as a group remained in deficit. The overall 
favourable trade balance recorded in those three years were entirely the result of huge surpluses 
enjoyed by the fuel exporters which managed to  surpass the deficits incurred by non-fuel 
exporting LDCs. In 2014, the LDCs registered a new high trade deficit of US$59 billion. 
Table 10: Coverage ratios of mercha ndise trade of the LDCs, 1995-2014 
(Ratio of groups' merchandise exports to imports, expressed in percentage) 
  1995 2000  2005  2009  2010  2011  2012 2013 2014  
Developing economies 92 105 110 107 106 107 106 105 106 
Least developed countries 70 83 95 83 96 97 88 84 78 
  fuel exporters 120 164 195 139 189 190 168 152 131 
  non-fuel exporters 59 58 54 53 58 59 56 56 56 
   agricultural exporters 59 40 33 33 34 38 32 33 33 
   manufacture exporters 47 65 62 57 58 60 62 66 64 
   mineral exporters 77 65 66 70 81 77 72 68 71 
   diversified and others 63 55 43 40 43 41 38 38 39 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
2.27.  While only a few countries dominate LDCs' exports (the first ten major exporters accounted 
for some 80% of LDCs' total merchandise exports in 2014), imports are relatively less concentrated (65% of total LDCs' imports accounted for by the major ten importers). Once again, 
differentiation among the LDCs is necessary to gauge the trade balances of different category of 
exporters. The fuel exporters are the only ones to  show a positive trade balance (i.e. a coverage 
ratio of imports by exports above 100), while the no n-fuel exporters are characterized by systemic 
and growing trade deficits. In 2014, fuel exporter s recorded a trade surplus of US$24 billion (down 
from US$38 billion in 2013); while non-fuel exporters registered a high trade deficit of 
US$83 billion (up from US$79 billion in 2013). Agricultural exporters, comprising 20 LDCs, had the largest trade deficit. In 2014 – as in the previous year - only 33% of their imports were covered 
by their merchandise exports, with a trade deficit of US$36 billion. The lower coverage ratio is due 
to a combination of low gain on productivity at the supply side, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, an increase in the domestic demand for agricultural products linked to urban population 
growth and increase in household income. The six exporters of predominantly manufactured 
products achieved at least a coverage ratio of 64% in 2014 (trade deficit of US$26 billion), though worse than 2013 (66%). In the last 19 years, non-fuel exporters' trade deficit increased by 11% per year on average; while the surplus of fuel exporters grew by 17%.  
2.28.  When considering individual countries, only five - Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Democratic 
Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone and Zambia - posted positive trade balances in 2014. Among them, Angola markedly led with a surplus of US $34 billion. Ethiopia, Bangladesh and Afghanistan, 
on the other hand, posted the highest trade deficits in 2014 (US$14.6 billion, US$11.9 billion and 
US$7.2 billion, respectively). 
2.29.  The highest positive trade balances of goods in relation to GDP were observed for 
Equatorial Guinea (share of +61%), Angola (share of +35%) and Eritrea (+14%) in 2013 
(see chart 13). Other LDC economies with positive ratios for merchandise trade were Chad and Zambia. All the other LDCs showed negative shares, with Kiribati (-75%), Liberia (-74%) and Timor-Leste (-52%) at the end of the scale. For Kiri bati and Liberia, the main reasons for the high 
negative shares are the "imports" of ships (often under flag of convenience) which are registered 
as merchandise trade statistics. Back in 1995, Liberia's negative trade balance for ships was more than compensated by the high amount of Liberi a's exports of diamonds. Eritrea had a negative 
ratio back in 1995, but it had turned it into a posi tive one until 2013, particularly by positive trade 
balances for ores, gold and silver. 
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 24 - Table 11: LDCs' merchandise trade ba lance by product groups, 1995-2014 
(Billion dollars) 
 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 
Total merchandise -13.1  -7.3 -11.1 -9.7  -14.1  -10.5  -4.7 2.9 3.6 6.0  -26.0  -7.0 -7.0 -27.6  -40.8  -58.8 
Agriculturea 0.5 -0.9 -1.3 -2.0 -3.0 -3.3 -4.0 -5.1 -9.0 -14.8 -14.1 -17.0 -23.2 -23.0 -25.8 -28.2 
Fuels 3.8 12.5 12.5 14.9 17.6 26.7 41.5 55.3 71.8 99.6 61.7 79.4 95.3 95.9 89.5 78.8 
Non-fuel minerals 1.9 -2.0 -2.5 -2.5 -2.9 -4.1 -5.0 -8.5 -10.6 -14.2 -11.5 -18.6 -22.6 -22.0 -22.8 -24.3 
Manufactures -18.8 -16.6 -17.6 -19.1 -23.0 -29.5 -35.8 -44.3 -58.8 -78.4 -74.8 -88.6 -105.8 -113.3 -118.0 -132.6 
a  Includes forestry and fishery products. 
Note: Trade balances for the respective product groups are estima ted based on WTO network of world merchandise trade by product s and regions and refer to FOB valuation 
on both export and import sides. These es timates do not add up to the total merchandise trade balances, which are calculated fr om official statistics and calculated as 
FOB-based exports minu s CIF-based imports. 
Source: 1995: UN Comtrade (mirror data), 2000-14: WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 25 - 
 
  Chart 12: Trade balance of goods (BOP), as a percentage of GDP, 1995 and 2013  
(Percentage shares) 
 
Source: WTO Secretariat estimates and World Bank (for GDP).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 26 - 
  
  2.3  LDCs' Trade in Services 1995-2013 
2.30.  Commercial services play an increasingly important role in global trade. However, the 
integration of LDCs in international services trade remains limited due to a number of constraints including poor infrastructure, limited skills and lack of financial resources. Between 1995 and 
2013, the share of LDCs in world exports of comme rcial services increased from 0.4% to only 
around 0.7% while, on the import side, it rose from 1% to 1.7% (chart 14). Overall, participation remains too marginal to enable the LDCs to fully benefit from service trade-led economic 
development and poverty reduction. 
2.31.  Nevertheless, average annual growth of LDCs' serv ices trade was higher than for the rest of 
the world. Commercial services exports grew by 10.8% and imports by 10.9% compared to 7.9% 
in other countries. Exports were resilient also during the 2008-2009 global economic crises 
growing by 7.1%, unlike in other developing economies (-10.8%) and in developed economies 
(-8.6%).  
2.32.  LDCs' exports of commercial services reached US$31.5 billion in 2013, up from some 
US$5 billion in 1995. In the same year, LDCs imported services for US$73.4 billion compared to 
US$11.3 billion in 1995. LDCs in Africa (and Haiti) accounted for 61.4% of overall LDCs' services exports and for 77.8% of services imports in 2013.
3  
Chart 13: Trade in commercial serv ices by LDC region, 1995-2013 
(Billion dollars and percentages) 
 
  
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
 
2.33.  LDCs' services exports are dominated by a few players. In 2013, the first ten leading 
exporters accounted for more than two-thirds of the group's services receipts, a proportion virtually unchanged compared to 1995. In 2013, Afghanistan ranked as the leading exporter with 10% of exports, followed by Tanzania (9.4%) and Cambodia (8.5%). In Cambodia, the largest 
travel exporter among LDCs, exports grew  by 20% on average per year since 1995. 
2.34.  Imports are equally concentrated with Angola al one representing 30% of LDCs total services 
payments in 2013. Bangladesh confirmed as the second service importer (8.4%) followed by 
Ethiopia (4.7%). The most rapid growth rates over the period were recorded in Afghanistan (25%) 
and Equatorial Guinea (23%). 
 
                                               
3 For a more detail analysis of LDCs trade in serv ices by region refer to document WT/COMTD/W/59.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 27 - Table 12: LDC commercial services  exports by category, 1995-2013 
(Billion dollars) 
Value 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Commercial services 5,007 5,713 9,150 10,524 13,588 17,337 18,566 21,699 25,901 27,970 31,705 
Transport 1,065 1,179 2,095 2,401 2,778 3,459 3,247 4,190 5,633 6,316 7,504 
Travel 1,958 2,546 4,810 5,366 7,246 9,419 9,262 9,838 11,471 12,947 14,203 
Other commercial services a 1,984 1,989 2,245 2,757 3,564 4,459 6,056 7,671 8,798 8,707 9,998 
Growth Rate 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Commercial services 21.3 3.3 11.3 15.0 29.1 27.6 7.1 16.9 19.4 8.0 13.4 
Transport 15.5 1.4 24.8 14.6 15.7 24.5 -6.1 29.0 34.4 12.1 18.8 
Travel 49.6 0.6 16.0 11.6 35.0 30.0 -1.7 6.2 16.6 12.9 9.7 
Other commercial services a 4.6 8.3 -6.2 22.8 29.3 25.1 35.8 26.7 14.7 -1.0 14.8 
Structure 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Commercial services 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 
Transport 21.3 20.6 22.9 22.8 20.4 20.0 17.5 19.3 21.7 22.6 23.7 
Travel 39.1 44.6 52.6 51 53.3 54.3 49.9 45.3 44.3 46.3 44.8 
Other commercial servicesa 39.6 34.8 24.5 26.2 26.2 25.7 32.6 35.4 34 31.1 31.5 
 
a The aggregate "other commercial services" covers communicatio ns services, construction, insura nce services, financial service s, computer and information services, 
royalties and licence fees, other business services, and personal, cultural and recreational services. 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 28 - 
  
  Chart 14: Exports and imports of commercial services by leading LDCs, 1995 and 2013 
(Percentages) 
Exports 
 
Imports  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
 
2.35.  According to available data, low- to middle-skil led services sectors such as travel (tourism) 
and transport characterize the bulk of LDCs' services exports while the participation in higher segments of services trade such as finance, insurance, royalties and licence fees, remained 
negligible. 
Chart 15: Structure of LDCs' export s of commercial services, 1995 and 2013 
(Percentages) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 29 - 
 
  2.36.  Travel exports, recording the expenditure on g oods and services by foreign travellers during 
their stay in LDCs, reached US$14 billion in 2013 contributing to 44.6% of LDCs' exports, rising significantly from 38.8% in 1995. Overall, travel receipts recorded an annual average growth by 
12% since 1995 led by escalating exports of lead ing exporters, such as Cambodia, Tanzania and 
Uganda (chart 16).   
Chart 16: Travel exports of selected lead ing LDC travel exporters, 1995 and 2013 
(Million dollars) 
 
 
Source:  IMF and WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
 
2.37.  According to Secretariat estimates based on UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) data, 
international tourist arrivals to LDCs increa sed from US$3.7 million in 1995 to more than US$24 
million in 2013. Regional tourism is important, as over two-thirds of international arrivals originated from Africa and Asia. 
Chart 17: LDCs' travel exports and estimated international tourist arrivals to LDCs, 
1995-2013 (Million dollars) 
 
 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates and WTO estimates base d on UNWTO data. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 30 - 
  
  2.38.  Travel exports represent an important source of revenue for LDCs, constituting 1.7% of 
LDCs' GDP in 2013 as compared to 1.2% in 1995. In particular, in small islands such as Vanuatu, travel exports contribute up to one third of GDP. Travellers' expenditure enters directly the tourism 
value chain affecting industries such as accommodation, food and beverages, transport, retail, 
recreation and cultural activities, etc., creating employment opportunities especially in rural areas 
in LDCs. Tourism revenue also fosters the developm ent of other sectors such as agriculture (e.g., 
food supply to hotels and restaurants), construction, communications, utilities (e.g., supply of 
electricity and water to hotels), and conference and events management. 
2.39.  Tourism, however, is sensitive to external shocks such as natural disasters or economic 
recession. Indeed, the 2008-2009 global slowdowns affe cted LDCs tourism. As international tourist 
arrivals declined, LDCs' travel receipts contracted by 2%, after recording high growth in the two 
preceding years (35% in 2007 and 30% in 2008). In  Cambodia, exports dropped by 11% and in 
Tanzania by 10%. Yet, the tourism sector recovered promptly with exports increasing by 6% in 2010. 
2.40.  On the imports side, LDCs' participation in international travel remained relatively low with 
payments for travelling abroad at US$7.5 billion, and a progressively declining share in LDCs total 
services imports (9.7% in 2013). With US$1 billion of payments in 2013 up from US$0.36 billion in 
1995, Tanzania confirmed as the group's largest travel spender. 
2.41.  Transport is the second largest export service sector in LDCs. In 2013, transport receipts 
reached US$7.5 billion, and a 23.8% share of LDCs ' total exports compared to 21.5% in 1995. In 
2009, following sharp declines in merchandise trade, transport exports decreased by 7.2%. As in 
the case of travel, LDCs' transport expo rts rebounded the following year (+10%). 
2.42.  Between 1995 and 2013, air transport, mainly of  passengers, and "other transport" services 
increased in importance relative sea transport services.
4 In 2013, air transportation services 
represented some 58% of total tr ansport receipts up from an es timated 51% in 1995. Exports of 
"other transport" rose significantly, from 13% to 33%. The decrease in the relative importance of 
sea transportation services exports, which accoun ted for only 9% of total transport exports in 
2012, also reflects an increase in transport exports of landlocked LDCs such as Ethiopia.  
Chart 18: Estimated structure of LDC transp ort exports by mode of transport, 1995 and 
2012 (Percentages) 
 
Source:  WTO estimates. 
 
2.43.  Accounting for 27.4% of LDCs' global transp ort exports, and US$2 billion of exports, 
Ethiopia is the largest transport exporter of the LDCs. The country's transport sector grew by 13% on average per year since 1995, mostly thanks to expanding air transportation services. Transportation services constituted 76.5% of Ethiop ia's total services exports. In recent years, 
Ethiopia integrated into the international air transport value chain. One important step was that 
Ethiopian Airlines joined the largest global airline alliance (Star Alliance) in 2011. Air transportation services exports rose rapidly also in Tanzania and Mozambique, although on a smaller scale. 
                                               
4 "Other transport" includes , inter alia , road and rail transport, as well as pipeline transport and 
electricity transmission. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 31 - 
 
  Chart 19: Leading LDC exporters and importers of transport, 1995 and 2013  
(Million dollars) 
 
Source: IMF and WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
 
2.44.  The LDCs are net importers of transport services. In 2013, LDCs' imports stood at 
US$31.8 billion compared to only US$5 billion in  1995, recording a 10.8% average annual growth. 
Significant increases were recorded in several countries. In Bangladesh and Angola, the largest transport importers, they related mainly to paymen ts for freight transport services by sea, and in 
Ethiopia for supporting and auxiliary transport services in foreign airports.
5 
2.45.  In 2013, the aggregate "other commercial services" represented 31.5% of LDCs' total 
commercial services exports, a share significantly below than the average of other developing 
countries (45.3%) and the developed group (60%).6 In addition, while in other countries, the 
relative contribution of other services increased steadily over the years, in the LDCs, it has progressively shrunk (it was estimated at 39.6% in 1995).
7 
2.46.  Communications services, computer and information services, construction, travel, and 
transport were the most dynamic sectors, all recording double-digit average annual growth. On the 
contrary, royalties and licence fees was the only sector with negative growth. 
Chart 20: Growth of LDC exports by main service sector, 1995-2013 
(Percentages) 
 
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
                                               
5 Supporting and auxiliary tr ansport services cover, inter alia , loading and unloading of containers and 
storage and warehousing. 
6 The aggregate "other commercial services" covers communications services, construction, insurance 
services, financial services, comput er and information services, royalt ies and licence fees, other business 
services and personal, cultural  and recreational services. 
7 It should be noted that data qual ity issues affect LDCs statistics by  detailed services sector for earlier 
years.   WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 32 - 
  
   
2.47.  Communications services, largely telecoms, were the fastest growing services sector in 
LDCs. In 2013, some 59% of the LDCs' population  had a mobile phone subscription compared to 
less than 1% in 2000.8 In LDCs, mobile telecommunications often replace fixed telephone lines 
especially in remote areas. Between 1995 and 2 013, LDCs' exports of communications services 
rose by 15% on average per year reaching a value of US$2.4 billion.9 As a result, communications 
accounted for 7.6% of the group's total services exports up from 4% in 1995. Growth was remarkable in particular in Bangladesh, the leading exporter, Nepal, Senegal, and Mali. 
2.48.  By contrast, only 9% of LDCs' inhabitants used the Internet while in developed economies, 
in the same year, this share rose to 76.9%.
10 Infrastructural constraints, limited international 
internet bandwidth coupled with high prices and low level of skills may be among the factors 
impeding access of LDCs' population to the Intern et, in particular through broadband. Internet is 
essential to supply computer services internationally, which takes place to a large extent electronically. 
Chart 21: Leading LDC exporters of communications services, 1995 and 2013 
(Million dollars) 
 
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
 2.49.  Despite sustained period growth, LDCs' exports of computer and information services are 
modest, estimated at US$367 million in 2013, and a share in LDCs' total exports of 1.2%, up from 0.8% in 1995. In 2013, Bangladesh accounted fo r one third of LDCs' computer and information 
services exports. The country's IT sector has grown in recent years, becoming an attractive IT and 
business processing outsourcing destination ranking 26
th among the top 50 offshoring locations.11 
However, while traditional outsourcing remains relatively small, Bangladesh has emerged especially as a hub for freelance IT services via online marketplaces. Freelance professionals offer 
various services from simple data entry to application development and project management. 
2.50.  In 2013, construction accounted for 4.6% of total commercial services exports of LDCs with 
an estimated value of US$1.5 billion, on the rise compared to 3.7% estimated for 1995. However, 
the sector is highly concentrated with Afghanistan alone making up for more than half of total 
                                               
8 Aggregate calculated by WTO Secretariat on the basi s of ITU statistics, on www. itu.int  More details on 
mobile networks penetration rates in LDCs, see WT/COMTD/LDC/W/59. 
9 Telecommunications services in BOP statistics enco mpass the transmission of sound, images or other 
information by telephone, te lex, telegram, radio and television cable and broadc asting, satellite, electronic 
mail, facsimile services, etc. Also included are cellular  telephone services, Internet  backbone services and on-
line access services, including provision of access to the Internet.  
10 On the basis of UN M49 aggregate "developed economies", as reported by ITU.  
11  The 2014 A.T. Kearney Global Services Location Index. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 33 - 
 
  construction exports by the LDCs. Uganda ranked second with a contribution of over 16%. The 
bulk of LDCs' construction exports, such as that of Afghanistan, largely relates to the local supply 
of construction goods and services to foreign building companies present in the territory ("construction in the compiling economy"). 
2.51.  The contribution of "other business services" to LDCs' services exports remains low (14.4%) 
compared to other economies (26.8%). Over the period, its share dropped by 8 percentage points. Unfortunately, due to scarcity of statistics, it is not possible to provide a breakdown of the type of 
business services exported by the LDCs as a group.
12 Afghanistan and Mozambique were the 
leading exporters of other business services, with exports estimated, respectively, at US$1,645 million and US$477 million in 2013. 
2.3.1  Direction of trade 
2.52.  At present, it is difficult to determine the direction of LDCs' exports of services. Although an 
increasing number of developing countries have started data collection, bilateral statistics in the area of services are mainly compiled by developed economies. To the Secretariat's knowledge, 
only Bangladesh publishes statistics on bilateral trade in services among the LDCs. 
2.53.  To analyse the direction of trade in services of the LDCs, it is necessary to use available 
mirror statistics of developed economies. In 2012, EU (28) imports from the LDCs amounted to 
some US$10.5 billion, accounting for 1.6% of total services imports from non-EU countries, a 
share almost unchanged over the years. Imports from African LDCs represented 74% of total and a value of US$7.8 billion, while those from Asia n LDCs stood at US$2.7 billion. The value of 
EU (28) imports represented around 33% of the LDCs' estimated services exports in 2012. The 
EU (28) main partners within the group were Afghanistan (9.8%), Liberia (8.5%) Angola (7.6%) 
and Senegal (7.3%), accounting overall for one third of the EU's total services payments to the LDCs. 
Chart 22: European Union (28) – Imports of services from LDCs, 2006-2012 
(Billion dollars)  
 
Source: Eurostat. 
 
                                               
12 The aggregate "other business services" comprise s merchanting and other trade-related services, 
operational leasing services as well as miscellaneous business, professional and technical services.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 34 - 
  
   
2.3.2  Services exports by GATS modes of supply 
2.54.  Ideally, each BOP services transaction should be allocated to each individual mode of service 
supply as defined in the GATS. Compiling services statistics by GATS modes of supply requires 
designing specific surveys targeting primarily the firms engaged in services transactions. This 
exercise can be costly both in terms of human and financial resources. At present, only a few countries have started to explore this issue. 
2.55.  The Manual on Statistics of International Trade in Services proposes a simplified approach 
on the allocation of services statisti cal domains to GATS modes of supply.
13 Following the 
simplified approach, in 2012, more than half of LDCs' services exports took place through mode 2 (consumption abroad).
14 This is due to the magnitude of tr avel exports and, for some LDCs, of 
supporting and auxiliary transport services (such as loading and unloading of containers in ports 
and airports, storage and warehousing, etc.) which are supplied on a consumption abroad basis. Mode 1 exports (cross-border trade) accounted for 30% of total exports and include transport 
services (excluding supporting, auxiliary transp ort, and other transport services for available 
LDCs), communications services, insurance services, financial services, and royalties and licence fees. 
2.56.  Exports through modes 1 and 4 (cross-border trade and presence of natural persons) 
together made up 13% of total services exports. This category covers computer and information services, other business services (excluding merchanting and other trade related services, as well as operational leasing services, as available), personal, cultural and recreational services, which 
are services for which a dominant mode of supply cannot be determined. 
2.57.  Modes 3 and 4 (commercial presence and presence of natural persons) cover only 
construction in BOP statistics, and represented 5% in total exports in 2012. As for the vast 
m a j o r i t y  o f  d e v e l o p i n g  e c o n o m i e s ,  a l s o  i n  t h e  c a s e  o f  t h e  L D C s ,  n o  o u t w a r d  F A T S  e x i s t ,  a n d  
existing outward FDI statistics for LDCs point to very small amounts. 
Chart 23: LDCs: Estimated exports of comme rcial services by mode of supply (BOP 
basis), 2012 
(Percentages) 
 
Source: WTO estimates. 
 
                                               
13 UN - Eurostat - IMF - OECD - UNCTAD - UNWTO - WTO, "Manual on Statistics of International Trade 
in Services 2010 (MSITS 2010)". 
14 The year 2012 was chosen due to higher data availability. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 35 - 
 
   
2.4  Foreign Affiliates Statistics (FATS) 
2.58.  Zambia is among the few developing economies and the first LDC to compile detailed annual 
inward FATS statistics. Inward FATS provide important indicators on the activities of resident 
majority-owned foreign affiliates (MOFAs) of foreign firms. The variable Sales ( turnover ) by MOFAs 
engaged in services activities provides the cl osest measure of Zambia's imports of services 
through Mode 3. 
2.59.  According to the latest survey, in 2012, in Zambia there were 126 MOFAs accounting for 
approximately 10% of Zambia’s employment and contributing for 28% to the country's GDP. In 2012, total sales by MOFAs reache d US$13.2 billion, up by 3% co mpared to 2011. While mining 
and quarrying made up for almost half of MOFAs' sales, services activities and construction 
represented overall 28% of total sales. The main services sectors were a commercial presence was 
registered were wholesale and retail trade (16%), finance and insurance (4%) and telecommunications (3%).
15 
2.60.  A geographical breakdown shows that the bulk of MOFAs' sales in Zambia were made by 
developed economies, in particular, the United  Kingdom (21%) and Canada (16%). MOFAs from 
developing countries accounted for close to a third of total sales of MOFAs. China ranked as the 
first developing partner country (15%), followed by Mauritius (7%) and South Africa (6%). 
2.61.  MOFAs in Zambia exported services to other countries for some US$24 million, or only 5% 
of Zambia's total exports of commercial services, while their services imports were relatively higher at US$176 million, representing 14.6% of Zambia's total services imports. 
Chart 24: Zambia: Inward FATS sales by ec onomic activity and partner country, 2012 
(Percentages) 
 
Source:  Bank of Zambia. 
  
 
                                               
15 The survey, started in 2010, is carried out by the Bank of Zambia in collaboration, inter alia , with 
Zambia Development Agency, the Central Statistical Office, and Zambia's Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 36 - 
  
  3  TRENDS IN MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  
3.1.  The objective of this chapter is to monitor the evolution of market access conditions for LDC 
exports along two tariff related dimensions: the share of LDC exports benefiting from duty-free 
status in the importing markets and the average tariffs paid on dutiable products. For both 
indicators, the report identifies preferential trea tments that exporters may receive under existing 
LDC or other preferential schemes. The review includes LDCs' market access conditions in both developed and in selected developing country markets. In the latter case, the coverage is still 
limited by data availability.  
3.1  Market Access in Developed Economies 
3.2.  Chart 25 shows the share of the exports from deve loping countries and LDCs imported free of 
duty in developed markets. Since 1995, there was some erosion of the duty-free preference 
granted to LDCs in relation to other developing countries, leading to almost similar overall 
duty-free treatment in 2014. The trend toward s the convergence of LDCs and developing 
countries' share of duty-free exports along th e years can be explained by two facts.  
3.3.  The first factor is part of the trend towards lower tariffs, with more and more products being 
imported duty free by developed countries under Most Favoured Nation (MFN) treatment, including the Information Technology Agreement (ITA). In this case, which represents the majority of 
developing country exports, there is no true preference granted.
16 In contrast, most LDC exports 
which are duty free are truly preferential as th ey would have been dutiable in absence of 
preferences.  
3.4.  The second factor is more specific and re lated to the progressive phasing-out of the 
Multi-Fibre Arrangement (1974-94), which set quotas of apparel. This Arrangement gave way to 
the WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing, a ten-year liberalization process that was undertaken to remove the existing quota in stages up to 2004. This liberalization of trade affected 
the level of production and exports in regions where the textile and clothing industries had 
delocalized to avoid the quotas.  
Chart 25: Share of duty-free imports by deve loped economies originating from LDCs and 
comparison with total developing countries, 1996-2014  
(Percentage shares) 
 
Note:  Excluding arms and oil. 
Source: Based on CAMAD database co mpiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
                                               
16 True preferential duty-free access is defined as the percentage of exports offered duty-free treatment 
under the GSP-LDC and other preferential schemes, as co mpared to products offered duty-free entry under the 
MFN treatment. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 37 - 
 
   
3.5.  With relatively small year-to-year fluctuations, LDC and developing countries' duty-free 
market access continued improving in recent year s. In 2014, 79% of developing country exports 
(excluding arms and oil) benefit from a duty-fr ee treatment when imported by developed countries 
and this ratio rises to 84% in the case of products  exported by LDCs. A closer analysis shows that 
most of the decline observed for the wider group of developing countries is accounted for by an 
increase in dutiable exports to the EU after the revision of the list of GSP beneficiaries and the 
graduation of a number of developing or CIS countries.  
3.6.  The duty-free coverage by groups of produc ts varies significantly. Almost all (98%) 
agricultural exports from LDCs are exempted from duties by developed countries while this percentage is only 74% in the case of developing countries. A similar treatment (97%) is granted 
to manufacture products exported by LDCs (with th e important exception of textile and clothing in 
one developed market of major export interest to LDCs), against 86% for developing countries exports. Differences of treatment in favour of LDCs  are even larger for textile (71% of LDC exports 
are duty-free compared to 41% for the larger gr oup of developing countries) and clothing (76% 
and 34%, respectively). 
3.7.  Moreover, when looking at preferences, the nature of the competitive advantage remains 
significant for LDCs. About 60% of LDC exports be nefit from true preferential treatment, being 
exempted of duties on items that are normally dutiable, such as agriculture or clothing. This ratio has steadily increased in the recent years. In cont rast, most of developing country exports that are 
duty-free receive this treatment under the MFN tr eatment, thus without gaining any particular 
competitive margin over other exporters. 
3.8.  The evolution of duty-free coverage over time in dicates that about half the LDCs were already 
receiving close to 100% duty-free access in 1996 (exc luding arms and oil), after the conclusion of 
the Uruguay Round and the creation of WTO. For other LDCs, the extension of duty-free treatment 
has been significant. The gains have been in the range of 50% to 60% for Haiti, Lesotho and Somalia, more than 65% for Kiribati and up to 75% in the case of Yemen. The case of Cambodia is 
particular, in the sense that this is the sole LDC that recorded a decrease (34 percentage points) in 
the coverage of its duty-free treatment. This is  caused by its successful diversification out of 
traditional exports and towards apparels, a la rge share of them being exported to the 
United States. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 38 - 
  
   
Chart 26: Share of export value imported du ty free by developed economies originating 
for individual LDCs, 1996-2014 
 
Note:  Excluding arms and oil. 
Source: WTO-ITC-UNCTAD and based on CAMAD da tabase compiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 39 - 
 
  3.9.  Besides duty-free access, LDCs benefit from lower tariff duties for their merchandise exports, 
either because they tend to export on tariff lines with low MFN tariff (fuels and minerals) or thanks to preferential schemes. Table 13 provides information on the average tariffs levied on labour-intensive merchandises exported by the LDCs to developed countries and compares them 
with the tariffs faced by exporters in other developing countries.  
3.10.  The average tariffs faced by LDCs on their ke y products declined rapidly during 1996-2000. 
Thereafter, average tariffs decreased only slowly in recent years. They are now close to zero in the 
case of agriculture and manufactures (other than  textile and clothing products). The situation 
relative to competing exports from other developing countries varies according to the type of exported products. On agricultural products, the average preference granted by developed 
economies to LDCs is higher than what other deve loping countries can expect. The data indicate a 
difference of about 7 percentage points in 2014 (0.9% vs. 8.0%). The margin is much lower 
(slightly more than 1%) for clothing and textiles. 
Table 13: Average tariffs levied by developed countries on key products from developing 
countries and LDCs, 1996-2014 
(Percentage ad valorem excluding arms and oil)
a 
All developing 
countries b c 1996 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 
Agriculture 10.4 9.2 8.8 7.3 7.2 7.7 7.6 8.0 
Clothing 11.5 10.8 8.4 8.0 7.9 7.9 7.6 7.7 
Textile 7.3 6.6 5.3 5.0 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.5 
Other industries 2.0 1.4 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.9 
LDCs  1996 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 
Agriculture 6.6 3.6 3.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 
Clothing 3.3 7.8 6.4 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.5 
Textile 2.7 4.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.2 
Other industries 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 
a Average tariffs are based on best applicable tariffs  (MFN and preferential tr eatments granted to LDCs 
and developing  countries). 
b Includes LDCs. c Weighted average using a standard export struct ure based on 2000-2001 data, to limit the impact of 
the year-to-year changes in export composition and relative prices on the indicators. 
Source: Based on CAMAD database co mpiled by ITC, UNCTAD and WTO. 
 
3.11.  Table 14 provides more detailed information at the tariff line level. Most developed countries 
have been providing total or nearly total duty-free status to LDC exports under the general GSP-LDC scheme, either in terms of tariff lines (first group of columns of the table) or import value 
(second panel).
17 Moreover, LDCs may benefit from other types of preferences; this is particularly 
the case for the US market where other preferen tial schemes coexist with the GSP-LDC scheme, 
such as the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) for the eligible African LDCs. 
 
                                               
17 When 100% of tariff lines are covered, 100% of the imported value will be covered; the reverse is not 
true as 100% of imported value can be treated as DFQF even if some tariff lines are not duty free, as long as no imports are recorded for those dutiable tariff lines.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 40 - Table 14: GSP tariff treatment of LDC export s in selected developed markets, 2013 
Market  Sector  GSP-LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN-LDC countries b 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of  tariff lines  Number of tariff lines with imports from 
LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under 
GSP- LDC 
scheme TOTAL  Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied dutyd 
Australia 
 Total 0  100.0  992 622 0 816.8  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture 0 100.0 132 42 0 28.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec  0 100.0 855 580 0 739.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 4 0 0 15.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 32.7 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Canada 
 Total 105 98.6 2,132  988 2 4,001.2  1.7 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture 105 92.8 363 173 2 66.2 0.4 99.4 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 0 100.0 1,757 815 0 2,305.8 1.3 99.9 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 11 0 0 122.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 1,507.1 0.0 100.0 0.0 
European Union 
 Total 91  99.0 4,109  3,139  12 46,190.2  215.5  99.5 0.0 
Agriculture 73 96.5 686 498 7 3,547.1 15.8 99.6 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 18 99.8 3,401 2,641 5 24,990.0 199.7 99.2 0.1 
Ores 0 100.0 20 0 0 1,401.9 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 2 0 0 16,251.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Japan 
 Total 197 97.9 1,037  672 18 6,859.4  26.7 99.6 0.0 
Agriculture 69 96.5 154 83 3 390.7 0.9 99.8 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 128 98.3 878 589 15 5,413.3 25.8 99.5 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 4 0 0 118.7 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 936.7 0.0 100.0 0.0 
New Zealand 
 Total 0  100.0  839 538 0 99.3 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture 0 100.0 117 40 0 20.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 0 100.0 722 498 0 79.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 n.a n.a n.a  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 41 - Market  Sector  GSP-LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN-LDC countries b 
(million US$ and percentage)  Number of  tariff lines  Number of tariff lines with imports from 
LDC beneficiariesa 
Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN Dutiable 
under 
GSP- LDC 
scheme TOTAL  Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied dutyd 
Norway 
 Total 1 100.0  909 296 0 883.7  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture 0 100.0 141 65 0 28.8 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 1 100.0 765 231 0 264.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 2 0 0 12.3 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 1 0 0 578.5 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Switzerland 
 Total 0  100.0  1,291  1,110  0 627.9  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture 0 100.0 275 209 0 145.4 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 0 100.0 1,015 901 0 482.5 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Ores 0 100.0 1 0 0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 0 0 0 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 
United States of 
America 
 Total 1,862  82.6 1,892  1,253  612 22,748.2  8,936.2  60.7 6.7 
Agriculture 272 85.7 269 176 5 463.3 2.2 99.5 0.0 
Non-agriculturec 1,590 81.9 1,615 1,073 607 11,046.9 8,934.0 19.1 13.8 
Ores 0 100.0 6 2 0 145.2 0.0 100.0 0.0 
Petroleum 0 100.0 2 2 0 11,092.8 0.0 100.0 0.0 
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme ; some UN-LDC countries may be excluded; non-UN LDC countries may be included. The incidence of other 
preferential schemes such as AGOA is not included. 
b Forty-nine LDC countries as listed by the UN in 2013 (including Samoa which graduated from LDC status in 2014). 
c "Non-agriculture" covers NAMA products wi th the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
d Excludes non-ad valorem duties, except for the US. Source: IDB-WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 42 - 
 
   
3.12.  All the above-mentioned indicators based on best applicable tariffs are established on the 
hypothesis that available preferences are fully used  by the exporters. This may not be the case for 
a number of reasons; ranging from ineligibility –due to non-conformity to some criteria such as 
rules of origin – to excessive administrative co st to benefit from the preferential scheme. The 
utilization and effectiveness of such preferences have been intensively debated in the development 
economics literature (see Hoekman and Ozden, 2005 for a review). 18 Other limitations are closely 
related to supply-side issues; for example, due to poor pesticide and storage management, 
sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards are ofte n an obstacle for LDCs' agricultural exports to 
developed countries. Using the example of Senegal, Mbaye and Gueye (2014)19 relate how the 
issue of pesticide residues has become an issue fo r African exports to Europe over the past several 
years.  
3.13.  Constructing indicators on rates of utilization is a complex exercise, and the data provided in 
Table 15 are tentative. The relatively low number recorded in 2013 for the US reflects in large part 
a composition effect, due to a the sharp reduction in oil imports.  
Table 15: LDC exports in select ed developed markets, 2013 
Market  % of total LDC imports 
(2013)  Imports entering under 
preferential regime as a 
percentage of imports 
eligible to preferencea Eligible to 
any 
preference Entering 
under any 
preference  
Canada 45.6 43.8 96.1 
EU (low estimate)b 49.5 46.8 93.6 
EU (high estimate)b 49.9 48.1 97.3 
US 58.5 44.1 75.4 
a Covering GSP and other preferential schemes. 
b Low and high estimates depend upon the statis tical treatment of "unknown" inflows; the high 
estimate imputes them as having used the preferen ce while the low estimate considers that they did 
not.  
3.14.  The specificity, design and application of rules of origin can also make it difficult for LDC 
exporters to benefit from preference schemes. Stri ct rules of origin (or regional cumulation) were 
justified on the ground that they help in promotin g integrated production structure in the recipient 
country. This aim is now questioned as manufacture production is increasingly performed in the context of global industrial networks (Z edillo et al, 2005; Jara and Escaith, 2012
20) .  T h i s  i s  a  
particular problem in textiles and apparel, which are key exports for LDCs. 
3.15.  Granting LDCs preferences encourages LDC export  diversification; however, even when fully 
utilized, preferences are often eroded by higher transaction and transportation costs that reduce 
LDCs' competitiveness vis à vis  their main competitors. The comparison of trade costs confirms 
that LDCs face a comparative disadvantage when exporting goods. For example, in 2014, to export 
a container took, on average, 32 days in LDCs as compared to 25 days in lower-middle income 
countries.21 The problem is particularly acute for landlocked countries. As mentioned by Djankov et 
al22 (2010), each additional day that a product is delayed prior to being shipped reduces trade by 
more than 1%. Delays are particularly damaging for time-sensitive goods, such as perishable agricultural products, which are of particular interest to LDCs as they are both labour-intensive and high value-added. 
                                               
18 Hoekman, B., Ozden, C. (2005). Trade Prefer ences and Differential Treatment of Developing 
Countries: A Selective Survey, World Bank - Research Department. Volume V, Issue 1(9), Summer 2014. 
19 Mbaye, A.A, Gueye, A. (2014). SPS standards and in ternational competitiveness in Africa: the case of 
Senegal' in Connecting to Global markets: Challenges and opportunities presented by  WTO chair-holders; WTO. 
20 Zedillo, E., Messerlin, P. Nielson, J. (2005). Trade for Development, UN Millenium Project.  
Jara, A., Escaith, H. (2012). Global Value Chains, In ternational Trade Statistics and Policymaking in a 
Flattening World, World Economics, 13(4): 5-18. 
21 See Figure 1.3 in OECD/WTO (2015). Aid for Trade at a Glance 2015: Reducing Trade Costs for 
Inclusive and Sustainable Growth. 
22 Djankov, S., C. Freund; C-S. Pham. (2010). Tradin g on Time, Review of Economics and Statistics, 
92(1): 166-173. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 43 - 
 
  3.16.  High international trade costs are often correlated with poor inland transportation 
infrastructure which reduces not only the potential for international trade but also dampens the possibility for small producers in remote areas to ta p the potential of regional markets. The issue is 
particularly acute for Sub-Saharan Africa (Buysa et al., 2010
23) but is also representative of the 
situation of most large LDCs.  
3.2  Market Access in Developing Economies  
3.17.  Compiling time series of statistical indicators related to preferential market access to 
developing countries remains challenging from a statistical perspective. Chart 27 and Table 17 use 
the information received from 18 developing countries. In order to track changes in tariffs without interferences from changes in the value of products, the indicators produced in this exercise are based on a fixed Standard Import Structure (SIS). This SIS corresponds to the basket of LDC 
goods imported by these 18 developing countries between 2001 and 2013. Using the same fixed 
trade flows as weight across all years allows the indicator to capture only the changes in tariffs. The indicator remains subject to geographical composition effects as it is affected by changes in 
the relative weight of import markets; this geographical effect explains, for example, the increase 
in average MFN tariffs observed after 2011 in chart 27. 
Chart 27: Average tariffs levied by selected developing countries on key products from 
developing countries and LDCs, 2001-2013 (excluding oil) 
 
Notes and Sources:  See Table 16. 
 
3.18.  As seen in Chart 27, preferences weighted very little on the LDC South-South exports up to 
2006. After this date, the margin of preference granted to LDCs relative to the MFN treatment 
increased rapidly. The preferences focused first on clothing and agriculture, with preference 
margins raising in 2007 to 4.9 and 2.5 percentage points, respectively (see Table 15). Preferences 
on LDCs' textile exports (of lesser importance in the composition of LDC exports) increased a few 
years after, in 2010. On the basis of the last comprehensive information notified to WTO (2013), 
the LDCs benefitted from an average preference ma rgin of 5 percentage points, with the margin 
being highest in clothing (9.6 p.p.) and textiles (6.8 p.p.). The margin of preference is also 
significant on agricultural products (4.3 p.p.) but applies to a much higher average MFN tariff, 
resulting in applied rates still above 16% ad valorem . 
                                               
23 Buysa, P., Deichmann, U., Wheele, D. (2010). Road  Network Upgrading: Overland Trade Expansion in 
Sub-Saharan Africa, Journal of African Economies, 19 (3): 399-432. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 44 - 
 
   
Table 16: Average tariffs levied by selected developing countries on key products from 
developing countries and LDCs, 2001-2013 (excluding oil)  (Percentage ad valorem )
a 
 
    2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Totala MFN 11.0  10.9 10.8 9.8  9.8 9.0 8.8 7.8 7.9 7.7 7.3 8.3  8.2 
  Pref 10.8 10.7 10.6 9.5 9.3 8.5 6.6 5.6 5.4 3.0 3.4 3.2 3.2 
Of which:                
Agriculture MFN 24.4 24.4 24.0 23.1 24.4 22.5 21.0 15.6 16.0 15.1 16.3 20.3 20.6 
  Pref 23.9  23.9 23.6 22.6  23.6 21.6 18.5 13.4 13.8 11.3 13.3 15.9  16.2 
                 
Primary MFN 5.6  7.6 7.6 6.3  6.1 5.2 4.4 3.5 3.5 2.8 2.7 3.0  3.0 
  Pref 5.5 7.5 7.6 6.2 6.1 5.2 3.8 3.1 3.1 2.3 2.2 1.9 1.9 
                 
Clothing MFN 10.7 10.6 9.1 13.0 11.1 13.6 14.2 13.3 12.9 13.9 13.7 14.0 14.0 
  Pref 10.3  10.2 8.7 12.3  10.6 12.7 9.3 9.0 8.0 4.1 4.8 4.3  4.5 
                 
Textiles MFN 17.4  15.8 13.9 11.9  10.2 9.6 8.9 7.8 7.7 7.9 7.9 8.1  8.1 
  Pref 17.3 15.7 13.8 11.7 9.6 8.9 7.3 5.1 4.9 1.2 3.0 1.2 1.2 
                 
Otherb MFN 12.4 11.2 10.2 8.2 7.7 6.8 5.8 4.7 4.7 4.1 4.0 4.1 4.0 
  Pref 12.2  11.0 10.0 8.0  7.1 6.2 4.6 3.2 3.1 1.9 2.4 1.4  1.4 
 
a Average applied tariffs are based on  best applicable tariffs (MFN and preferential treatments granted 
to LDCs), and weighted using a standard export  structure based on th e 2001-2013 average. This 
indicator is still under construction and results ma y not be comparable with previous reports due to 
changes in methodology and coverage. The sample includes 18 economies, based on notifications received by WTO-IDB. China; Cost a Rica; El Salvador; Guatemala; India; Indonesia; Republic of 
Korea; Macao, China; Mauritius; Morocco; Ni caragua; Singapore; South Africa; Sri Lanka; 
Chinese Taipei; Turkey; Viet Nam. 
b Manufactures other than clothing and textiles; agricu lture, fishing and forestry  products not included 
in the AoA. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 45 - 
 
  3.19.  Table 17 presents available data for selected developing countries for the year 2013. 
Hong Kong, China, and Singapore are special cases as 100% of all products are duty free on an 
MFN basis. For a number of other importers, the duty-free imports from LDCs have been 
significant; around 95% and more for China and Chinese Taipei; over 86% for the Republic of 
Korea and between two-thirds to four-fifths for Br azil, India, Pakistan and South Africa. Yet, a 
large part of this result is attributable to imports of non-agricultural primary products (ores and petroleum) that are not dutiable under MFN.  
3.20.  The "true" duty-free treatment granted to LDCs on  tariff lines that are dutiable under MFN is 
much lower. This is also due to the fact that information on preferential tariffs enjoyed by LDCs in developing markets is still limited. Based on the available information, it is found that the Republic of Korea granted duty-free treatm ent on about 90% of its products, Turkey for some 80% while 
China has done the same for 62% of its tariff lines. Following the completion of a five-year 
implementation period, India granted duty-free covera ge to LDCs for 82% of its total tariff lines in 
2013. Since Table 17 is based on the year 2013, it does not reflect recent improvements in the 
DFQF coverage of China and India, as well as the introduction of new DFQF schemes by Chile and 
Thailand. Such recent initiatives are described in the next section and reflected in Annex Table 7. 
3.21.  Weighted applied duties vary markedly from importer to importer as a result of the 
differences in their tariff schedules, including LDC preferences, and the composition of their 
imports from LDCs. Average duties on agricultural imports, in particular, remained over 15% (a threshold used to indicate tariff peaks) in on e third of the surveyed importing countries, even 
without considering the incidence of non  ad valorem duties. Little changes on the average duties 
collected on dutiable products were observable  between 2012 and 2013. Most of them were due to 
changes either in the structure of imports or due to  drop in the international price of ores and oil 
or due to change in the volume of imports.  
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 46 - Table 17: Tariff treatment of LDC exports in selected developing markets, 2013 
Market Sector LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) 
Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from 
LDC beneficiaries  
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  Total  Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied duty  
Brazil  
 Total - - 763 713 - 998.8  330.2  66.9 8.3 
Agriculture  - - 48 40 - 36.8 34.8 5.5 12.1 
Non-agriculturec - - 710 669 - 412.4  287.8  30.2 19.0 
Ores - - 4 4 - 7.7 7.7 0.0 2.0 
Petroleum  - - 1 0 - 542.0  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Chile 
 Total - - - - - 139.2  139.2  0.0 6.0 
Agriculture  - - - - - 0.7 0.7 0.0 6.0 
Non-agriculturec - - - - - 138.1  138.1  0.0 6.0 
Ores - - - - - 0.3 0.3 0.0 6.0 
Petroleum  - - - - - 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 
China 
 Total 3,170  61.5 1,483  1,305  346 56,899.5  3,017.3  94.7 0.9 
Agriculture  506 56.5 138 128 35 1,754.8  926.9  47.2 17.5 
Non-agriculturec 2,664  62.1 1,322  1,177  311 11,471.6  2,090.4  81.8 1.6 
Ores 0 100.0  22 0 0 4,883.4  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  1 0 0 38,789.7  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Egypt  
 Total - - - - - 454.6  325.6  28.4 2.3 
Agriculture  - - - - - 177.9  59.7 66.4 0.7 
Non-agriculturec - - - - - 276.4  265.9  3.8 3.3 
Ores - - - - - 0.3 0.0 88.6 0.2 
Petroleum  - - - - - 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 
Hong Kong, China 
 Total - - - - - 1,209.1  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  - - - - - 48.4 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Non-agriculturec - - - - - 1,150.3  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores - - - - - 10.5 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - - - - 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 
India 
 Total 2,079  81.9 1,595  1,536  468.0  12,918.8  2,334.1  81.9 3.7 
Agriculture  743 50.5 283 265 153.0  2,156.5  1,141.0  47.1 19.3 
Non-agriculturec 1,336  86.5 1,290  1,250  315.0  3,393.1  1,193.0  64.8 1.7 
Ores 0 100.0  21 21 0.0 169.9  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - 1 0 - 8,941.0  0.0 100.0  0.0  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 47 - Market Sector LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) 
Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from 
LDC beneficiaries  
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  Total  Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied duty  
           
Korea, Republic of 
 Total 1,171  90.4 1,400  1,213  163.0  4,336.1  600.8  86.1 1.5 
Agriculture  695 59.7 231 218 95.0 196.9  79.7 59.5 19.6 
Non-agriculturec 466 95.5 1,156  990 64.0 3,687.5  89.3 97.6 0.4 
Ores 0 100.0  9 1 0.0 19.9 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  10 0.0 4 4 4.0 431.8  431.8  0.0 3.0 
Mexico 
 Total - - - - - 419.8  328.7  21.7 18.9 
Agriculture  - - - - - 20.8 19.8 4.5 24.9 
Non-agriculturec - - - - - 394.7  308.8  21.8 18.8 
Ores - - - - - 4.3 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - - - - 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 
Pakistan 
 Total - - - - - 557.5  124.2  77.7 3.5 
Agriculture  - - - - - 302.5  82.4 72.8 4.9 
Non-agriculturec - - - - - 245.9  32.9 86.6 1.6 
Ores - - - - - 9.1 8.9 1.5 4.9 
Petroleum  - - - - - 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 
Singapore 
 Total - - - - - 1,673.0  0.1 100.0  0.0 
Agriculture  - - - - - 116.6  0.1 99.9 0.0 
Non-agriculturec - - - - - 985.2  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Ores - - - - - 11.6 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - - - - 559.6  0.0 100.0  0.0 
South Africa 
 Total - - - - - 4,688.6  1,355.4  71.1 3.8 
Agriculture  - - - - - 263.0  188.4  28.4 6.5 
Non-agriculturec - - - - - 2,001.4  1,166.9  41.7 10.6 
Ores - - - - - 11.3 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  - - - - - 2,412.8  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Chinese Taipei  
 Total 5,962  31.7 835 658 602 4,286.3  109.9  97.4 0.3 
Agriculture  1,067  24.3 106 75 72 73.2 38.1 48.0 7.0 
Non-agriculturec 4,895  32.7 725 583 530 774.0  71.8 90.7 0.9 
Ores 0 100.0  2 0 0 0.6 0.0 100.0  0.0 
Petroleum  0 100.0  2 0 0 3,438.5  0.0 100.0  0.0   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 48 - Market Sector LDC duty scheme  Imports from UN-LDC countriesb 
(million US$ and percentage) 
Number of tariff lines Number of tariff lines with imports from 
LDC beneficiaries  
Dutiable  Duty 
free 
(%) Total  Dutiable 
under MFN  Dutiable 
under LDC 
scheme  Total  Dutiable  Duty free 
(%) Weighted 
applied duty  
Thailand 
 Total - - - - - 8,382.6  5,546.5  33.8 3.5 
Agriculture  - - - - - 412.7  294.3  28.7 21.5 
Non-agriculturec - - - - - 5,929.6  5,227.1  11.8 3.5 
Ores - - - - - 26.3 25.1 4.5 1.0 
Petroleum  - - - - - 2,013.9  0.0 100.0  0.0 
Turkey Total  2,480  79.0        
Agriculture  1,659  26.0        
Non-agriculturec 818 91.4        
Ores 3 92.3        
Petroleum  0 100.0         
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme ; some UN-LDC countries may be excluded; non-UN LDC countries may be included. 
b Forty-nine LDC countries as listed by the UN in 2013 (includi ng Samoa which graduated from LD C status in 2014). Weighted appl ied duty excludes non ad valorem  
duties. 
c "Non Agriculture" covers NAMA products with the exclusion of ores and petroleum. 
- No national LDC scheme or data not provided to WTO-Secretariat. Source: IDB-WTO. 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 49 - 
 
  4  RECENT INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE MARKET ACCESS FOR LDCS 
4.1.  Annex Table 7 provides a non-exhaustive list of major multilateral non-reciprocal market 
access schemes undertaken by Members in favour of LDCs. It updates the previous year's information based on Members' notifications and statements at the WTO as well as submissions 
made to WTO's IDB. The Table does not include regional or bilateral agreements/initiatives under 
which, too, LDCs receive preferences. 
4.2.  Progress has continued in advancing market access opportunities for LDCs. Since the last 
report, one additional developing country Memb er – Thailand- has notified a DFQF scheme in 
favour of LDCs (WT/COMTD/N/46–G/C/W/714). The scheme, which came into effect on 9 April 2015, provides DFQF market access on 73.2% of Thailand's tariff lines.  
4.3.  While formal notifications have been limited over the reporting period, a number of Members 
indicated progress in their market access schemes related to LDCs. At the CTD Meeting on 
26 March 2015, China informed Members that it had extended its DFQF scheme for LDCs. Since January 2015, it has been according LDCs DFQF market access on 97% of its tariff lines 
(WT/COMTD/M/93). At the CTD Meeting on 23 September 2015, the delegation of the United 
States reported that necessary legislative steps ha ve been taken to eliminate duties for LDCs for 
five tariff lines of upland cotton covering out-of-quota quantities of these products. This would 
come in addition to the seven tariff lines of up land cotton which were designated for duty-free 
treatment under GSP for LDCs in 2012. 
4.4.  As has been reported in the past, most of the developed Members grant either full or nearly 
full DFQF market access. A number of developing countries have also taken concrete steps to 
provide duty-free access to LDC products. In this regard, six developing countries have made 
notifications pursuant to the established procedure including under the Transparency Mechanism for the Preferential Trade Arrangements. These countries are: Chile, China, India, Republic of 
Korea, Chinese Taipei and Thailand.
24 Most of them grant a significant degree of DFQF market 
access to LDC products, and a number of them have reached or are in the process of attaining comprehensive DFQF coverage for LDCs. Members have continued discussions on DFQF at the 
WTO. On 21 September 2015, a CTD meeting was he ld dedicated to discuss the state of play on 
DFQF market access as well as issues surrounding the implementation of DFQF for LDC products. 
4.5.  Continuous efforts are being made to help LDCs with preferential rules of origin. In line with 
the Decision on Preferential Rules of Origin for LDCs (WT/L/917) of the Bali Ministerial Conference, 
the Committee on Rules of Origin held its first annual review on developments in preferential rules 
of origin applicable to imports from LDCs in October 2014. In an informal dedicated session of the Committee on Rules of Origin in July 2015, LDCs and preference-granting Members discussed, 
inter alia , the relationship between the existing rules of origin and the guidelines set in the 2013 
Bali Ministerial Decision.  
4.6.  In March 2015, the EU amended its GSP rules of or igin by further refining the system of self-
certification of origin, which will come into force in 2017 (WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7). On 6 August 
2015, Japan notified a simplification of its preferential rules of origin for its DFQF scheme with respect to HS Chapter 61 - Articles of apparel and clothing accessories (G/RO/N/131). As of April 2015, such articles qualify as originating goods if  they are manufactured from fabrics while before 
they had qualified if manufactured from yarns. 
4.7.  Progress was made with respect to preferential treatment of services and services suppliers 
from LDCs. In 2011, Ministers adopted the LDC Services Waiver (WT/L/847) which enables 
Members to provide market access preferences to services and service suppliers of LDCs. Following 
the process outlined in the Bali Decision relating  to the operationalization of the LDC Services 
Waiver (WT/L/918), the LDCs submitted a collective request (S/C/W/356, S/C/W/356/Corr.1, 
S/C/W/356/Corr.2) in July 2014 and a high-level m eeting of the Services Council was held on 
5 February 2015. 
4.8.  At the high-level meeting, some 25 delegati ons indicated sectors and modes where they 
intended to provide preferences to LDC services and service suppliers. Annex Table 8 provides the 
list of Members that have already submitted notifications in this respect. As of end 
September 2015, 15 Members (Australia; Canada; China; Hong Kong, China; India; Japan; Republic of Korea; Mexico; New Zealand; Norway; Singapore; Switzerland; Chinese Taipei; 
                                               
24 The references to their notifications can be found in Annex Table 7. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 50 - 
  
  Turkey; and the United States) had notified prefer ences. Two further Members, the EU and Chile, 
circulated to the Services Council a submission stating their intention to notify preferences. 
5  CONCLUSION 
5.1.  Over the 1995-2013 period, LDC exports of goods and services grew by an annual average of 
12.6%, markedly higher than the 11.3% averag e for other developing economies. The rapid 
increase in the total value of goods and services exported by LDCs during the 2000s came to an 
abrupt halt in 2008, in the wake of the global financial crisis. Prices of commodities dropped in 
2013 and 2014, resulting in declining total export values for the LDC group. LDCs were still able to 
s h o w  a  5 . 9 %  g r o w t h  i n  v o l u m e  t e r m s .  H o w e v e r ,  the growth rate of imports outpaced that of 
exports, leading to a new high overall trade deficit of US$60.6 billion in 2013, up from US$53.6 billion in 2012. 
5.2.  The share of LDC exports in world merchandise trade stood at 1.2% in 2013, more than 
double its share in 1995 (0.5%). The participation of  LDCs in services exports is still very low 
(0.7%) compared to their participation in merc handise exports. Moreover, the present situation 
represents only a modest increase compared to 1995 participation (0.4%), reflecting, amongst 
others, a lower supply capacity in services compared to goods. 
5.3.  LDC exports remain highly concentrated in a few products, mainly primary commodities for 
merchandise exporters and tourism receipts for commercial services exporters. The 2003-2011 
boom in commodity prices increased particularly the weight of fuels and mining products leading to a decline in the share of agricultural and manufacture products for the LDC group. Despite falling prices in 2014, fuels and mining products still accounted for 56% of LDC merchandise exports in 
2014 as compared to 32% in 1995. Services exports have remained undiversified, with travel and 
transport comprising nearly 70% of LDCs' commercial services exports in 2013. On a more positive note, the communication services sector has been expanding in a few LDCs, though from 
a small scale.  
5.4.  The direction of LDC merchandise exports has witnessed developing economies outweighing 
developed economies. The increasing demand for primary goods characterised the rapid growth of 
emerging economies over the past 20 years, especi ally in Asia. While most of LDC exports were 
directed to developed economies in 1995, 57% of them are now going to developing economies. China continues to be the top destination for total LDC exports, accounting for 23% of LDC exports in 2013. The EU remains the top destination for ag ricultural and manufacture products. Intra-LDC 
trade also increased, especially in Africa. It now represents 5% of LDC exports, which is likely to 
be an underestimation due to lack of data. 
5.5.  Despite the growth of export revenues, the LDC group continues to register a trade deficit; 
the sole exception were the three years prior to the global economic crisis (2006, 2007 and 2008). 
The overall favourable trade balance recorded in those three years was the result of huge surpluses enjoyed by the fuel exporters. While this LDC sub-group was still able to record a 
surplus in 2014 and cover 131% of their import bill through export revenues, the remaining LDCs 
could only finance 56% of their imports using ex port revenues and therefore had to look for 
additional sources of hard currency (especially official assistance and remittances). The trade balance situation is particularly negative for the sub-group of agricultural exporters, which were 
able to finance only 33% of their imports through exports in 2014. 
5.6.  The LDC group is also characterized by a structural deficit in trade in commercial services, 
which amounted to US$42 billion in 2013 and where export receipts could only cover 43% of 
imports. Travel, i.e., tourism, is the main source  of services revenue and registers a net surplus. 
Mode 4 (presence of natural person) is anothe r source of net exports, but it cannot be 
satisfactorily measured due to lack of data. Acco rding to the scant available information, the bulk 
of LDCs' services exports is concentrated in low- to middle-skilled services sectors such as tourism 
and transport, while the participation in higher segments of services trade such as finance, insurance, royalties and licence fees remains negligible. 
5.7.  After significant improvements in market access opportunities for LDC exports to developed 
countries over the past decade, additional progress remained somewhat limited in the recent 
years. As has been reported in the past, most developed Members today grant either full or nearly full duty-free access to LDC products. In fact, almost 100% of agricultural products exported by 
the LDCs are imported free of duty by the de veloped countries. However, in the case of 
manufacturing exports from LDCs, in particular clothing exports, which are the most dominant WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 51 - 
 
  manufacturing item for the Group, the proportion of duty-free imports by developed countries was 
about 75% over the recent years.  
5.8.  The average tariffs faced by LDCs on their key products in developed markets declined 
rapidly during 1996-2000. Thereafter, average tariffs decreased only slowly in recent years. They 
are now close to zero in the case of agriculture and manufactures (other than textile and clothing 
products). The margin of preference for LDCs relative to other developing countries exports is high for agricultural products (nearly 7 percentage poin ts) but low in the case of clothing and textile 
products (slightly above 1 percentage point). 
5.9.   An increasing number of developing countries have also taken concrete steps to improve 
market access opportunities for LDC exports. However, overall information on developing countries' preference schemes remains limited. Ba sed on available information, the margin of 
preference granted to LDCs relative to MFN tr eatment increased rapidly after 2006. In 2013, the 
margin of preference was on average of 5 percen tage points, excluding oil. Clothing and textiles 
exports received the highest preference margin (9.6 and 6.8 percentage points less than MFN 
tariffs, respectively). The margin was also significant on agricultural products at about 4 points.  
5.10.   The forthcoming WTO Ministerial Conference in Nairobi in December 2015 offers an 
opportunity for Members to improve market access for LDC goods and services. Another key 
component for fostering LDCs' participation in world trade is lowering their trade-related costs, 
which are generally much higher than for other countries. Enhanced efforts from, and increased collaboration with, development partners are re quired to address these constraints for better 
participation of LDCs in world trade.  
 
_______________ 
 
   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 52 - ANNEX 
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2014 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2014 1995-2014  2012 2013 2014 2014 1995-2014  2012 2013 2014 
LDCs 207,164  12.0 0.8 3.6 -2.1 265,678  11.4 10.6 8.9 5.3 
Exporters of agricultural products 17,399 7.9 1.6 14.9 3.8 53,232 11.3 20.4 11.2 5.4 
Afghanistan 571 6.7 14.1 20.1 10.8 7,729 17.1 39.2 -3.8 -11.4 
Benin 2,010 8.6 2.3 29.6 7.5 2,481 6.5 10.4 31.9 -20.0 
Burkina Faso 2,489 12.3 -9.0 7.9 5.7 3,730 11.7 33.0 21.9 -4.4 
Burundi 125 0.9 8.1 -29.6 33.0 769 6.5 -0.2 8.0 -5.2 
Central African Republic 90 -3.3 5.3 -25.0 -40.0 255 2.0 3.2 -21.9 1.9 
Comoros 25 4.5 -24.4 0.6 29.3 275 8.1 -1.2 4.1 -3.5 
Ethiopia 4,437 13.2 0.6 41.0 8.8 18,987 15.9 33.9 25.1 27.4 
Gambia 108 10.5 25.2 -10.6 2.1 370 3.8 11.6 -7.8 5.6 
Guinea-Bissau 162 10.6 -46.3 7.7 15.9 228 1.1 -25.0 1.2 23.7 
Kiribati 5 -1.7 -32.4 14.8 -19.1 95 5.4 18.3 -10.5 -2.2 
Liberia 583 -1.8 25.2 21.7 4.2 1,046 3.9 -3.8 14.4 -9.0 
Malawi 1,374 6.6 -17.0 2.1 13.7 2,973 10.1 -2.8 20.5 4.5 
Rwanda 736 14.7 27.3 19.0 4.7 2,457 13.1 12.8 0.1 6.8 
Sao Tome and Principe 17 6.7 10.2 5.9 33.4 170 9.7 -1.8 15.8 11.6 
Solomon Islands 450 5.3 19.5 -10.4 0.4 509 6.5 3.7 7.2 -2.3 
Somalia 510 6.0 3.8 -3.7 -1.9 1,300 8.7 0.0 8.3 0.0 
Timor-Lestea 20 - 133.2 -47.9 24.6 940 - 108.3 26.9 11.5 
Togo 1,350 6.9 11.5 15.8 -11.3 2,800 8.5 8.8 12.0 5.0 
Uganda 2,274 8.8 9.2 2.1 -5.6 5,874 9.5 7.3 -3.7 1.0 
Vanuatu 63 4.3 -18.7 -29.6 62.9 311 6.4 -2.6 5.7 -0.8 
Fuel exportersb 102,536 14.8 -2.1 -1.2 -8.1 78,307 14.3 11.3 9.1 6.5 
Angola 62,400 16.1 5.6 -4.0 -8.6 28,320 16.9 17.2 11.1 7.5 
Bhutan 555 9.3 -20.7 1.6 2.1 810 11.0 -5.0 -8.3 -10.9 
Chad 3,600 15.2 -8.3 -13.6 -5.3 4,300 13.9 6.1 14.3 7.5 
Equatorial Guinea 12,600 27.3 16.3 -6.4 -14.3 6,500 23.3 15.4 -6.7 -7.1 
Myanmar 11,031 14.4 -3.9 26.5 -1.8 16,226 14.1 2.0 30.9 34.7 
Sudan 4,350 11.4 -60.1 17.8 -9.2 9,211 11.2 -0.1 7.5 -7.1 
Yemen 8,000 7.7 -14.4 0.0 -3.6 12,940 11.7 17.9 0.2 -2.7  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 53 -   Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2014 1995-2014  2012 2013 2014 2014 1995-2014  2012 2013 2014 
Manufacture exporters 46,062 11.9 4.5 15.4 7.4 72,396 10.1 1.2 8.0 10.8 
Bangladesh 30,405 12.0 2.8 15.9 4.4 42,268 10.2 -5.6 8.5 14.0 
Cambodia 10,800 14.3 16.9 18.0 16.8 13,500 13.7 22.0 12.8 5.5 
Haiti 917 11.8 6.3 8.6 3.6 3,600 9.4 5.0 7.4 5.8 
Lesotho 925 9.7 -17.0 -12.9 9.2 2,208 3.7 4.0 -15.4 0.4 
Madagascar 2,126 7.8 -4.7 26.8 10.6 3,259 9.1 6.5 5.3 0.0 
Nepal 889 5.1 -0.9 -3.5 1.2 7,561 9.6 5.0 8.3 15.1 
Exporters of non-fuel mineralsc 38,215 10.4 6.4 1.9 1.5 54,122 10.9 14.1 8.1 -2.4 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 6,900 8.1 -4.5 -1.6 11.3 6,600 11.2 10.9 3.3 4.8 
Eritrea 766 12.2 11.6 -31.3 132.1 1,127 4.9 2.1 6.2 9.4 
Guinea 1,400 3.7 -9.3 0.0 7.7 2,032 4.9 7.0 -6.8 -3.3 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 2,650 11.9 3.7 -0.3 17.1 3,300 9.5 27.1 -1.2 9.3 
Mali 2,100 8.6 9.9 -10.4 -10.2 3,977 9.0 3.3 9.7 4.6 
Mauritania 1,946 7.5 -3.9 0.4 -26.6 2,666 10.1 26.8 -2.7 -12.4 
Mozambique 4,725 19.2 7.0 4.4 17.4 8,747 14.2 37.6 16.2 -13.4 
Niger 1,500 9.1 16.0 10.3 -6.3 2,250 9.9 -13.2 6.3 11.4 
Sierra Leone 1,886 22.2 220.8 70.9 -1.6 1,489 13.6 -6.6 11.0 -16.4 
Tanzania 4,645 10.6 17.2 -20.5 5.3 12,390 11.1 5.1 6.8 2.2 
Zambia 9,696 12.5 4.0 13.1 -8.5 9,545 14.7 22.7 15.4 -6.1 
Diversified and othersd 2,951 5.8 0.6 5.1 5.9 7,621 8.6 9.1 5.2 3.1 
Djibouti 139 13.0 27.3 1.4 16.2 970 9.4 10.5 27.5 34.8 
Senegal 2,812 5.6 -0.4 5.3 5.5 6,639 8.5 8.9 3.5 -0.3 
Tuvalu 0 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 12 4.0 20.0 -53.3 -14.3 
Worlde 18,421,813  7.1 0.2 2.1 0.6 18,568,550  7.0 0.4 1.3 0.8 
a Time series data start in 2003. 
b Includes exports of electricity (Bhutan). c Includes exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. a ccording to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) an d diamonds (normally included in 
manufactures according to the UN classification). 
d Includes exporters without a clear speciali zation in a specific category of goods. 
e Excluding re-exports of Hong Kong , China; including EU-intra trade. 
Source: WTO Secretariat.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 54 - Annex Table 2: Export prices of  primary commodities, 1995–2015, Q2 
(Indices 2005=100) 
  
1995 2000 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2014  2015  
  Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Food and beverages 104 80  87 100 110 127 157 136 153 182  175 175 171 176 181 168 160   
Food 102 81 88 100 111 127 157 134 150 180 176 178 170 177 181 166 158   
Cereals 117 78  95 100 122 159 222 161 166 230  236 218 180 191 198 167 164     
Wheat 116 75 96 100 126 167 214 147 147 207 206 205 187 195 211 172 169     
Maize 125 90  107 100 124 166 227 168 189 297  303 263 196 214 217 177 176     
Rice 111 71 69 100 106 116 243 205 181 192 202 180 148 153 142 151 146     
Barley 109 81  110 100 123 181 211 135 167 218  251 217 154 171 176 140 128     
Vegetable oils and protein meals  98 72 96 100 103 143 193 154 170 209 216 206 191 203 212 180 169     
Meat 78 79  82 100 95 99 103 98 117 134  132 136 159 143 156 174 165     
Beef 73 74 76 100 97 99 102 101 128 154 158 155 189 162 165 213 216     
Lamb 70 70  99 100 96 101 106 91 91 93  63 66 81 77 84 83 81     
Swine meat 93 88 79 100 94 94 96 82 110 132 122 128 152 137 170 167 133     
Poultry 75 80  90 100 94 106 115 116 116 118  128 141 149 142 148 153 154     
Seafood 128 112 84 100 121 113 113 114 140 139 113 160 162 186 171 150 141     
Fish 118 90  74 100 125 112 119 121 151 146  117 166 163 191 171 146 142     
Shrimp 159 180 117 100 105 116 91 85 98 115 97 136 160 166 172 165 138     
Sugar 123 81  77 100 133 102 117 152 172 211  175 148 146 144 154 151 136     
Bananas 77 73 65 100 118 117 146 147 153 169 171 161 162 164 161 163 158     
Oranges 63 43  81 100 98 114 132 108 118 102  99 111 90 89 96 89 85     
Beverages 121 78 80 100 108 123 152 154 176 206 167 147 178 168 181 183 180     
Coffee 152 76  59 100 112 129 150 132 165 231  180 147 185 168 193 188 192     
Cocoa beans 93 59 114 100 103 127 167 187 203 193 154 158 198 191 200 209 193     
Tea 76 115  90 100 112 98 125 145 146 160  161 123 110 115 103 108 114     
Agricultural raw materials 115 93 93 100 109 114 113 94 124 153 133 136 139 141 142 138 134   
Timbe r 103 90  86 100 108 107 109 102 101 111  107 107 109 110 111 110 106     
Cotton 178 107 115 100 105 115 129 114 188 280 162 164 151 170 168 140 125     
Wool 105 83  113 100 104 144 138 115 153 234  215 196 178 186 182 177 167     
Rubbe r 105 46 72 100 140 153 174 128 243 321 225 186 130 150 141 122 108     
Hides and skins 134 122  104 100 105 110 98 68 110 125  127 144 168 164 167 169 172     
Minerals and non-ferrous metals (excluding 
crude petroleum) 72 59 58 100 156 183 169 136 202 229 190 182 164 171 165 166 154   
Coppe r 80 49  48 100 183 194 189 141 205 240  217 199 187 191 185 190 180     
Aluminum 95 82 75 100 135 139 136 88 114 126 106 97 98 90 95 105 104     
Iron ore 44 44  49 100 119 130 219 285 522 597  457 482 345 429 365 321 263     
Tin 84 74 66 100 119 196 250 184 276 353 286 302 297 307 313 297 269     
Nickel 56 58  65 100 163 251 143 99 148 155  119 102 114 99 125 126 107      
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 55 -   
1995 2000 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2014  2015  
  Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Zinc 75 82 60 100 237 235 137 120 157 159 141 138 157 147 150 167 162     
Lead 65 47  53 100 132 265 215 177 221 246  212 220 215 216 215 224 205     
Uranium 42 30 40 100 171 355 230 167 165 201 175 138 120 126 107 111 135     
Total of above 93 74  76 100 123 140 151 127 161 190  171 169 162 167 168 161 153     
Energy 34 54 55 100 119 132 185 117 147 201 203 196 180 195 197 185 142   
Natural gas 39 60  63 100 115 117 174 110 113 154  171 165 160 169 165 153 152     
Crude petroleum 32 53 54 100 121 133 182 116 149 204 208 201 184 200 203 191 142     
Coal 77 53  57 100 104 138 266 149 206 254  202 177 149 163 155 144 134     
All primary commodities  51 59 61 100 121 135 172 121 152 197 191 186 173 184 186 176 146     
Note: Beginning with the first quarter of 2011, the crude oil price index is computed excluding West Texas Intermediate (WTI), in order to better reflec t prices in international 
trade. The price of WTI, which accounts for one third of the IMF's original crude oil index, became largely dislocated from int ernational markets in early 2011. Although 
suited for measuring oil price worldwide, the WTI inclusion in a crude oil price index would however considerably distort an in dex meant to measure oil prices in 
international trade. 
Source: IMF commodity prices. 
 
 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 56 - 
 
  Annex Table 3: Leading merchand ise exports of LDCs in 2014a 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
HS07 Product 
Description LDC exports 
 World exports 
Value Share 
in Total 
Exports  Exports to   
Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World  Developed 
Economies  Developing 
Economies 
TOTAL All Commodities 205,434  100.0  85,937  119,099 15,849,325 1.3  
27 Mineral fuels, 
mineral oils and 
products of their 
distillation; 
bituminous 
substances; mineral 
waxes 96,233 46.8  28,228 68,005 2,593,810 3.7  
2709 Petroleum oils and 
oils obtained from bituminous minerals, crude. 80,852 39.4 
 25,020 55,832 1,347,127 6.0  
2711 Petroleum gases 
and other gaseous 
hydrocarbons. 11,398 5.5  2,199 9,199 379,063 3.0  
2710 Petroleum oils and 
oils obtained from bituminous minerals, other than crude; preparations not elsewhere specified or included, containing by weight 70 % or more of petroleum oils or of oils 
obtained from 
bituminous minerals, these oils being the basic c 2,366 1.2 
 870 1,496 688,427 0.3  
61 Articles of apparel 
and clothing 
accessories, knitted 
or crocheted 21,143 10.3  19,592 1,475 182,604 11.6  
6109 T-shirts, singlets 
and other vests, knitted or crocheted. 6,307 3.1 
 5,856 428 33,810 18.7  
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, 
cardigans, 
waistcoats and 
similar articles, 
knitted or 
crocheted. 6,230 3.0  5,775 427 51,735 12.0  
6104 Women's or girls' 
suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, 
trousers, bib and 
brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear), knitted or crocheted. 2,441 1.2 
 2,309 125 23,432 10.4  
6105 Men's or boys' 
shirts, knitted or 
crocheted. 1,100 0.5  1,019 77 7,485 14.7  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 57 - 
 
  HS07 Product 
Description LDC exports 
 World exports 
Value Share 
in Total 
Exports  Exports to   
Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World  Developed 
Economies  Developing 
Economies 
62 Articles of apparel 
and clothing accessories, not knitted or crocheted 17,530 8.5 
 15,775 1,692 180,151 9.7  
6203 Men's or boys' 
suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, 
trousers, bib and 
brace overalls, 
breeches and shorts 
(other than 
swimwear). 6,560 3.2  5,995 548 39,176 16.7  
6204 Women's or girls' 
suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts, divided skirts, 
trousers, bib and 
brace overalls, breeches and shorts (other than swimwear). 4,207 2.0 
 3,857 332 47,055 8.9  
6205 Men's or boys' 
shirts. 2,754 1.3  2,441 303 14,248 19.3  
71 Natural or cultured 
pearls, precious or semi-precious stones, precious metals, metals cladwith precious metal, and articles thereof; imitation jewellery; coin 16,629 8.1 
 2,122 14,507 472,929 3.5  
7102 Diamonds, whether 
or not worked, but 
not mounted or set. 1,737 0.8  1,541 196 124,207 1.4  
26 Ores, slag and ash 9,375 4.6  1,812 7,447 229,563 4.1  
2601 Iron ores and 
concentrates, 
including roasted 
iron pyrites. 3,596 1.8  491 3,105 130,602 2.8  
2603 Copper ores and 
concentrates. 2,729 1.3  216 2,513 49,720 5.5  
2606 Aluminium ores and 
concentrates. 890 0.4  683 102 4,126 21.6  
2605 Cobalt ores and 
concentrates. 621 0.3  0 621 656 94.6  
74 Copper and articles 
thereof 6,741 3.3  1,168 5,573 134,919 5.0  
7403 Refined copper and 
copper alloys, unwrought. 4,315 2.1 
 1,076 3,239 53,508 8.1  
44 Wood and articles 
of wood; wood 
charcoal 4,594 2.2  183 4,410 124,686 3.7  
4403 Wood in the rough, 
whether or not stripped of bark or sapwood, or roughly squared. 3,766 1.8 
 46 3,720 20,061 18.8  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 58 - 
 
  HS07 Product 
Description LDC exports 
 World exports 
Value Share 
in Total 
Exports  Exports to   
Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World  Developed 
Economies  Developing 
Economies 
03 Fish and 
crustaceans, 
molluscs and other 
aquatic 
invertebrates 2,848 1.4  1,759 1,081 94,486 3.0  
0306 Crustaceans, 
whether in shell or not, live, fresh, chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in brine; crustaceans, in shell, cooked by steaming or by boiling in water, whether or not chilled, frozen, dried, salted or in 
brine; flours, meals 
and pellets of crus 1,056 0.5 
 846 207 22,439 4.7  
0303 Fish, frozen, 
excluding fish fillets 
and other fish meat 
of heading 03.04. 817 0.4  253 558 17,580 4.6  
12 Oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits; miscellaneous grains, seeds and fruit; industrial or medicinal plants; straw and fodder 2,047 1.0 
 331 1,716 94,578 2.2  
1207 Other oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, 
whether or not 
broken. 1,709 0.8  255 1,454 4,513 37.9  
64 Footwear, gaiters 
and the like; parts of such articles 1,997 1.0 
 1,758 226 112,742 1.8  
6403 Footwear with outer 
soles of rubber, 
plastics, leather or 
composition leather 
and uppers of 
leather. 1,154 0.6  1,064 84 52,519 2.2  
09 Coffee, tea, mate 
and spices 1,986 1.0  1,576 404 39,807 5.0  
0901 Coffee, whether or 
not roasted or 
decaffeinated; 
coffee husks and 
skins; coffee 
substitutes 
containing coffee in 
any proportion 1,310 0.6  1,251 54 28,245 4.6  
07 Edible vegetables 
and certain roots and tubers 1,814 0.9 
 297 1,514 56,902 3.2  
0713 Dried leguminous 
vegetables, shelled 1,428 0.7  127 1,300 8,230 17.4  
24 Tobacco and 
manufactured tobacco substitutes 1,621 0.8 
 1,076 466 34,585 4.7  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 59 - 
 
  HS07 Product 
Description LDC exports 
 World exports 
Value Share 
in Total 
Exports  Exports to   
Value LDCs' 
Share 
in 
World  Developed 
Economies  Developing 
Economies 
2401 Unmanufactured 
tobacco; tobacco 
refuse 1,569 0.8  1,065 425 10,337 15.2  
76 Aluminum and 
articles thereof 1,407 0.7  1,296 112 140,161 1.0  
7601 Unwrought 
aluminium 1,299 0.6  1,290 9 45,866 2.8  
08 Edible fruit and 
nuts; peel of citrus 
fruit or melons 1,310 0.6  298 1,008 94,025 1.4  
0801 Coconuts, Brazil 
nuts and cashew 
nuts, fresh or dried 629 0.3  52 576 4,951 12.7  
63 Other made up 
textile articles; sets; worn clothing and worn textile articles 1,162 0.6 
 934 228 48,466 2.4  
6302 Bed linen, table 
linen, toilet linen 
and kitchen linen 630 0.3  610 19 17,072 3.7  
52 Cotton 990 0.5  71 919 37,619 2.6  
5201 Cotton, not carded 
or combed 882 0.4  57 826 10,293 8.6  
72 Iron and steel 940 0.5  39 900 322,806 0.3  
85 Electrical machinery 
and equipment and 
parts thereof; 
sound recorders 
and reproducers, 
television image 
and sound 
recorders and 
reproducers, and 
parts and 
accessories of such 
articles 928 0.5  155 772 2,168,046 0.0  
 Total of above 191,296 93.1  78,470 112,454 7,162,886 2.7  
a Based on imports from LDCs by 112 countries and economies (available reporters) reporting their 
trade to the United Nations Comtrade database. 
Source: WTO, based on UNSD Comtrade database.   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 60 - Annex Table 4: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 1995-2014 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
  All Commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Regions and 
major markets* Value Share of 
total Annual percentage 
change Value Share of 
total Annual percentage 
change Value Share of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change 
  1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-2014 1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-
2014 1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-
2014 1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-
2014 
Africa 907 12287 100 -10 15 439 3231 26 1 11 181 6881 56 -7 21 285 2019 16 -29 11 
South Africa2 331 4401 100 -6 15 79 300 7 5 7 105 3468 79 -9 20 146 627 14 3 8 
Nigeria2 107 1970 100 0 19 97 1488 76 0 17 1 414 21 0 44 9 68 3 0 12 
Egypt 69 469 100 3 11 57 189 40 7 7 2 248 53 15 29 10 33 7 -8 6 
Mali3 49 1240 100 0 22 1 92 7 0 32 24 779 63 0 24 24 369 30 0 19 
Zambia 17 1620 100 -18 27 8 14 1 -25 3 4 1458 90 -10 36 4 147 9 -56 21 
Malawi4 23 529 100 0 19 17 125 24 0 12 2 294 56 0 32 4 110 21 0 20 
Kenya4 23 455 100 0 18 13 291 64 0 19 4 42 9 0 14 6 121 27 0 18 
Côte d'Ivoire 69 420 100 -62 10 50 289 69 7 10 12 80 19 -33 10 6 49 12 -93 12 
Sudan5 25 266 100 0 15 6 51 19 0 13 3 16 6 0 10 16 78 29 0 10 
Ethiopia4 36 34 100 0 0 3 13 37 0 8 2 6 18 0 6 30 15 45 0 -4 
Ghana2 32 378 100 0 16 10 164 43 0 18 8 13 3 0 3 14 180 47 0 16 
Morocco4 71 117 100 0 3 69 80 69 0 1 1 8 7 0 12 1 28 24 0 21 
Tanzania4 18 233 100 0 15 11 69 30 0 11 1 14 6 0 19 7 148 64 0 18 
Senegal6 3 59 100 5 18 2 8 14 -6 10 1 41 69 26 24 1 10 16 -35 17 
Mauritius 33 96 100 10 6 16 59 61 7 7 10 0 0 -80 -22 7 37 38 25 10 
Americas 5662 27319 100 -12 9 477 982 4 9 4 3262 13040 48   8 1888 13006 48 1 11 
North America 5225 23855 100 -15 8 393 900 4 6 4 2933 10142 43 -30 7 1864 12522 52 1 11 
USA 4974 19989 100 -15 8 344 740 4 6 4 2843 8870 44 -30 6 1756 10158 51 1 10 
Canada 226 3449 100 -14 15 41 139 4 15 7 89 1254 36 -24 15 95 1989 58 -2 17 
Mexico 25 417 100 -2 16 8 21 5 -26 6 1 18 4 -77 16 13 375 90 18 19 
South and 
Central America 437 3465 100 16 12 84 82 2 47 0 329 2899 84   12 24 484 14 2 17 
Brazil 342 2523 100 26 11 81 36 1 418 -4 250 2232 88 29 12 11 255 10 -2 18 
Peru 1 34 100 -86 20 0 1 3 -83 4 0 0 1 -100 - 1 32 96 40 23 
Chile 74 505 100 262 11 0 1 0 31 7 71 439 87 431 10 3 64 13 16 18  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 61 -   All Commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Regions and 
major markets* Value Share of 
total Annual percentage 
change Value Share of 
total Annual percentage 
change Value Share of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change 
  1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-2014 1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-
2014 1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-
2014 1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-
2014 
Ecuador 2 35 100 86 16 0 7 20 55 23 1 0 1 -9 -9 1 28 78 97 20 
Uruguay 2 236 100 -47 28 0 2 1 48 16 1 227 96 -47 37 2 6 3 -20 8 
Venezuela4 0 18 100 0 37 0 2 13 0 29 0 0 0 - - 0 15 87 0 40 
Argentina 12 37 100 -16 6 2 14 37 52 11 6 0 1 -38 -13 4 23 62 -33 10 
Guatemala 1 2 100 -30 5 0 1 56 -15 11 0 0 0 - - 1 1 44 -43 2 
El Salvador 0 7 100 -50 24 0 4 54 -62 - 0 0 0 - - 0 3 46 -18 19 
Colombia4 3 58 100 0 19 0 12 21 0 21 1 0 0 -100 -100 2 46 79 0 21 
Costa Rica4 1 12 100 0 13 0 2 13 0 16 0 0 0 0 -23 1 10 87 0 13 
Asia and 
Pacific 6764 119668 100 15 16 3171 12926 11 13 8 2885 83569 70 0 19 681 22294 19 171 20 
China 862 75665 100 27 27 272 5870 8 28 18 499 54890 73 4 28 90 14905 20 597 31 
India 661 14073 100 -2 17 410 3323 24 11 12 107 8816 63 -12 26 141 1172 8 42 12 
Thailand 940 7967 100 -5 12 620 736 9 -19 1 283 6477 81 -8 18 35 752 9 90 17 
Japan 1585 6262 100 -9 7 827 812 13 3 0 662 2957 47 -25 8 81 2478 40 17 20 
Chinese 
Taipei4) 406 4839 100 0 15 166 157 3 0 0 214 4573 94 0 19 25 98 2 0 8 
Korea, 
Republic of4 691 4350 100 0 11 70 335 8 0 9 600 3033 70 0 9 21 982 23 0 24 
Singapore 668 2116 100 26 6 257 146 7 -2 -3 315 1580 75 27 9 96 373 18 37 7 
Indonesia4 193 797 100 0 8 160 459 58 0 6 21 247 31 0 15 11 90 11 0 12 
Malaysia 198 1238 100 29 10 95 411 33 -3 8 73 622 50 72 12 28 201 16 19 11 
Hong Kong, 
China 256 640 100 -1 5 143 180 28 4 1 12 4 1 -64 -5 99 455 71 -1 8 
Pakistan 189 674 100 20 7 110 357 53 1 6 63 275 41 67 8 16 42 6 -8 5 
Australia 52 868 100 7 16 26 67 8 26 5 5 93 11 17 17 20 639 74 16 20 
Philippines 54 84 100 -58 2 12 39 46 -13 6 31 1 1 -99 -18 11 44 53 31 7 
New Zealand 9 94 100 -3 13 4 33 35 26 12 0 1 1 -95 30 5 61 65 1 14 
Europe and 
CIS 10310 56711 100 11 9 3699 6052 11 8 3 1672 20383 36 -9 14 4803 29442 52 30 10 
EU 28 9845 54182 100 12 9 3594 5848 11 17 3 1501 20187 37 -7 15 4619 27775 51 31 10 
Norway 74 386 100 -56 9 19 41 11 30 4 26 62 16 -90 5 30 284 73 8 13 
Switzerland 91 695 100 11 11 50 162 23 9 6 2 0 0 -89 -17 34 533 77 11 16 
CIS 300 1448 100 -3 ... 36 0     ... 143 134 9 -32 ... 120 851 59 2 ...   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60  
 
- 62 -   All Commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures 
Regions and 
major markets* Value Share of 
total Annual percentage 
change Value Share of 
total Annual percentage 
change Value Share of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change Value Share 
of 
total Annual 
percentage 
change 
  1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-2014 1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-
2014 1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-
2014 1995 2014 2014 2014 1995-
2014 
Russian 
Federation2 214 1075 100 0 10 27 361 34 0 16 73 18 2 0 -8 113 696 65 0 11 
Ukraine6 79 257 100 -6 7 6 73 28 16 15 70 106 41 -17 2 2 78 30 -2 21 
Kazakhstan 4 72 100 -32 16 0 12 17 -18 36 0 10 14 -80 49 4 49 69 27 14 
Belarus … 41 100 5 ... … 16 39 -14 ... … 0 0 -98 ... … 25 61 32 ... 
Kyrgyzstan4 3 2 100 0 -3 3 0 30 0 -10 0 0 7 0 - 0 1 63 0 - 
Azerbaijan6 0 1 100 42 13 0 0 30 -2 - 0 0 3 76 - 0 1 67 74 11 
 Notes: 1 data for 1995 refer to South African Customs Union. 
 21996-2013 only, as neither 1995 nor 2014 data were available. 
 31996-2012 only, as neither 1995, nor 2014 nor 2013 data were available. 
 41995-2013 only, as 2014 data were not available. 
 51995-2012 only, as neither 2013 nor 2014 data were available. 
 61996-2014 only, as 1995 data were not available. 
 (*) Regional totals are based on the info rmation available, and may not coinci de with aggregated trade figures. 
Sources: UN Comtrade database and Global Trade Information Services (GTIS). WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 63 - 
 
  Annex Table 5: Coverage ratios of impo rts by exports of the LDCs, 1995-2014 
(Percentage) 
  1995 2000 2005  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013 2014 average 
1995-
2014 
LDC (Least developed 
countries)a 70 83 95  83 96 97 88 84 78 88  
Agricultural exporters 59 40 33 33 34 38 32 33 33 35 
Afghanistan 43 12 16  12 8 6 5 6 7 9  
Benin 56 64 57 59 62 66 61 60 81 62 
Burkina Faso 61 34 37  48 78 100 68 60 67 56  
Burundi 45 34 22 17 20 16 18 12 16 21 
Central African Republic 98 138 73  44 47 61 63 60 35 75  
Comoros 17 33 12 7 9 9 7 7 9 11 
Ethiopia 37 39 22  21 27 32 24 27 23 25  
The Gambia 9 9 3 22 24 28 31 30 29 15 
Guinea-Bissau 18 105 85  60 64 101 72 78 100 72  
Kiribati 21 9 6 9 5 9 5 7 6 9 
Liberia, Republic of 161 49 42  27 31 35 46 49 56 57  
Malawi 85 71 44 59 49 59 50 42 46 55 
Rwanda 23 25 26  18 21 23 26 31 30 25  
Sao Tome and Principe 17 10 14 8 10 8 9 8 10 10 
Solomon Islands 109 75 56  61 55 89 103 86 88 80  
Somalia 63 56 40 56 54 43 45 40 39 47 
Timor-Leste … … 7  3 7 4 5 2 2 4  
Togo 64 65 62 60 58 54 55 57 48 59 
Uganda 44 26 40  37 35 38 39 41 39 38  
Vanuatu 30 30 25 19 17 22 18 12 20 22 
Fuel exporters 120 164 195  139 189 190 168 152 131 165  
Angola 248 261 289 180 304 333 300 259 220 267 
Bhutan 92 59 67  94 75 65 54 60 69 73  
Chad 67 58 324 140 150 145 126 95 84 132 
Equatorial Guinea 105 243 539  175 192 208 209 210 194 246  
Myanma r 64 68 198 153 182 102 96 93 68 105 
Sudan 46 116 71  85 114 110 44 48 47 80  
Yemen 123 176 104 68 88 86 63 62 62 84 
Manufacture exporters 47 65 62  57 58 60 62 66 64 61  
Bangladesh 52 72 67 69 69 67 74 79 72 70 
Cambodia 72 72 79  72 76 72 69 72 80 75  
Haiti 17 31 32 27 18 25 26 26 25 26 
Lesotho 14 27 46  40 38 47 37 39 42 38  
Madagasca r 81 75 50 33 44 55 49 59 65 55 
Nepal 26 51 38  19 17 16 15 13 12 23  
Mineral exporters 77 65 66 70 81 77 72 68 71 73 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 179 118 89  90 118 120 103 98 105 106  
Eritrea 19 8 2 2 2 45 49 32 68 20 
Guinea 86 109 104  99 105 68 58 62 69 88  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 64 - 
 
    1995 2000 2005  2009  2010  2011  2012  2013 2014 average 
1995-
2014 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 53 62 63 72 85 91 74 75 80 74 
Mali 57 68 71  71 58 71 75 62 53 68  
Mauritania 113 78 44 91 107 111 84 87 73 88 
Mozambique 24 31 74  57 65 57 44 40 54 55  
Niger 77 72 52 45 46 57 76 79 67 61 
Sierra Leone 32 9 46  44 44 20 70 108 127 63  
Tanzania 41 48 51 47 51 44 49 36 37 44 
Zambia 149 100 71  113 135 125 106 104 102 108  
Diversified and others 63 55 43 40 43 41 38 38 39 43 
Djibouti 8 15 14  17 23 18 21 17 14 16  
Senegal 70 61 45 43 45 43 39 40 42 45 
Tuvalu 3 0 0  2 2 1 1 2 3 1  
a Weighted average. 
Note: Coverage ratio of imports by exports = (exports/imports*100). Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 65 - 
 
   
Annex Table 6: Exports of commercial servic es of the LDCs by category, 1995 and 2013 
(Million dollars and percentage) 
  Value Share in commercial services 
  Commercial  
services Transportation 
services Travel  Other commercial 
services 
  2013 1995  2013  1995  2013  1995 2013  
LDCs 31,500  21.5 23.8 38.8 44.6 39.7 31.6  
Afghanistan 3,184  … 10.5 … 1.9 … 87.6 
Angola 864  31.8 2.8 0.0 90.6 68.2 6.6  
Bangladesh 1,876  15.0 28.7 5.3 7.9 79.7 63.5 
Benin 437  25.8 26.2 53.2 41.6 21.1 32.2  
Bhutan 123  … 27.0 … 69.0 … 4.0 
Burkina Faso 437  17.4 13.0 47.8 20.7 34.8 66.4  
Burundi 17  46.2 15.9 32.4 9.1 21.5 75.0 
Cambodia 2,700  30.5 12.7 51.7 72.0 17.7 15.3  
Central African Republic 32  45.2 7.7 28.2 48.3 26.6 44.0 
Chad 227  22.9 3.1 67.8 73.7 9.2 23.2  
Comoros 62  15.8 5.2 77.3 65.9 6.9 28.9 
Congo, Dem. Rep. of 235  30.0 39.6 30.0 3.1 40.0 57.2  
Djibouti 161  56.2 74.1 18.7 13.7 25.1 12.2 
Equatorial Guinea 35  … 1.9 … 81.4 … 16.7  
Eritrea 133  70.4 27.8 3.1 62.6 26.5 9.5 
Ethiopia 2,685  76.9 76.5 5.3 15.6 17.9 7.9  
Gambia 211  21.7 32.9 73.4 53.0 5.0 14.1 
Guinea 94  75.3 3.1 5.1 0.9 19.7 96.0  
Guinea-Bissau 22  18.2 1.8 0.0 32.5 81.8 65.7 
Haiti 595  5.1 0.0 91.9 95.5 3.0 4.5  
Kiribati 6  11.7 11.9 7.5 69.3 80.7 18.7 
Lao People's Dem. Rep. 598  22.8 8.1 76.0 82.5 1.2 9.3  
Lesotho 57  7.0 0.9 90.9 69.5 2.1 29.6 
Liberia, Republic of 226  78.3 36.1 21.7 63.6 0.0 0.3  
Madagasca r 1,423  29.8 31.6 26.3 45.4 43.9 23.1 
Malawi 110  27.6 17.4 72.4 32.9 0.0 49.7  
Mali 327  32.5 0.8 37.3 46.2 30.2 53.0 
Mauritania 134  9.1 2.6 57.9 82.7 33.0 14.7  
Mozambique 1,579  24.8 35.8 0.0 24.7 75.2 39.5 
Myanma r 659  6.5 26.8 42.7 51.0 50.9 22.2  
Nepal 962  9.3 3.0 30.0 45.0 60.7 51.9 
Niger 77  3.3 7.4 57.8 75.3 38.9 17.2  
Rwanda 386  60.6 19.0 21.9 76.1 17.6 5.0 
Sao Tome and Principe 18  0.0 1.2 65.1 87.3 34.9 11.4 
Senegal 1,225  15.4 11.4 46.1 38.5 38.4 50.1 
Sierra Leone 191  13.7 11.3 80.5 26.3 5.8 62.4  
Solomon Islands 129  3.9 24.5 44.4 53.6 51.7 21.9 
Somalia  …  … … … … … …  
South Sudan 240  - 1.3 - 90.8 - 7.9 
Sudan 1,023  0.9 13.8 9.7 75.6 89.5 10.6  
Tanzania 2,979  0.3 26.4 88.6 57.6 11.1 16.0 
Timor-Leste 33  … 2.3 … 70.6 … 27.1  
Togo 513  33.9 50.9 19.9 21.7 46.1 27.4 
Tuvalu 4  … 11.2 … 68.3 … 20.5  
Uganda 2,166  17.9 12.5 75.1 54.6 7.0 32.9 
Vanuatu 326  14.8 10.2 60.4 82.9 24.9 6.8  
Yemen 1,490  21.9 18.4 35.3 71.7 42.8 9.9 
Zambia 488  65.6 50.3 18.5 34.0 15.9 15.7  
Memorandum item:        
World  4,644,377  26.3 19.5  33.7  39.3 54.9  
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates. 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 66 - 
 
   
Annex Table 7: Major multilateral non-recipr ocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Membersa  
Preference 
granting 
country Description Duty-free tariff line 
coverageb (and major 
exclusions) References 
 
Australia 
 Duty- and quota-free entry 
for LDCs Entry into force:  1 July 2003 100%  
 WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada GSP – Least-developed 
Countries' Tariff 
Programme (LDCT) 
Entry into force: 1 January 
2000. Extended until 31 
December 2024. 98.6% (dairy, eggs and poultry) WT/COMTD/N/15 
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1 
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.2 
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.3 
 
China Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs Entry into force: 1 July 2010 97% as of 1 January 2015 
 WT/COMTD/N/39 
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1 WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1 WT/COMTD/M/93 
Chile DFQF scheme for the LDCs 
Entry into force: 
28 February 2014 99.5% (wheat, wheat flour and 
sugar)  
 WT/COMTD/N/44  
WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1/Rev.1 
WT/COMTD/PTA/2/1 
EU GSP - Everything But Arms 
(EBA) initiative Entry into force:  5 March 2001 99.0% (arms and ammunitions) 
 WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2 
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4 WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5 WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6 
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7 
India  
 Duty-Free Tariff Preference 
Scheme (DFTP) 
Entry into force: 
13 August 2008 96.4% as of 1 April 2014 (dairy 
products, vegeta bles, tobacco, 
copper products, beverages and 
spirits) WT/COMTD/N/38  
WT/COMTD/M/93 
WT/COMTD/LDC/M/73 
Iceland GSP – Tariff preferences 
for the world’s poorest countries Entry into force:  29 January 2002 91.8% (meat and dairy 
products, eggs, vegetables and plants, cereals and starch, other food preparations) WT/COMTD/N/17 
Japan GSP – Enhanced duty- and 
quota-free market access 
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007 
Extended until 
31 March 2021 98% (rice, sugar, fishery 
products, articles of leather) WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14 
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.15  
WT/COMTD/W/150 
Korea, Rep. 
of  Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for LDCs Entry into force:  1 January 2000 95% (meat, fish, vegetables, 
food products) WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1   
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1 
New 
Zealand GSP- Tariff  Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001 100%  WT/COMTD/27 - WT/GC/36  
 
Norway  GSP – Duty - and quota-
free market access Entry into force:  1 July 2002 100%  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5 
Russian 
Federation The GSP scheme, in the 
context of the Customs 
Union between Belarus, 
Kazakhstan and the 
Russian Federation. 
Entry into force: 
1 January 2010 38.4% (exclusions cover a wide 
range of products, including 
petroleum products, copper, 
iron ores, textiles, clothing, 
leather, footwear) WT/COMTD/N/42 
G/RO/N/84, G/RO/N/84/Corr.1 
Switzerland GSP – Revised Preferential 
Tariffs Ordinance  Entry into force:  1 April 2007  100% 
 WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4 WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.5 
Chinese 
Taipei Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force: 31.7% Some 131 products 
enjoy exclusive duty-free 
access, including selected WT/COMTD/N/40 
WT/COMTD/N/40/Corr.1 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 67 - 
 
  Preference 
granting 
country Description Duty-free tariff line 
coverageb (and major 
exclusions) References 
 
17 December 2003 plastic items, raw hides and 
skins, textile and clothing 
articles, parts of vehicles, 
precious stones, etc. Exclusions 
cover a wide range of products.  
Thailand  DFQF scheme for the LDCs 
Entry into force:  9 April 2015 73.2% WT/COMTD/N/46 
 
Turkey 
 GSP  
Entry into force:  
31 December 2005 79% (meat, fish, food, steel 
products, etc.) 
 WT/TPR/S/259/Rev.1 (p.132) 
 
United States GSP for least-developed 
beneficiary developing 
countries (LDBDC). The 
Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015 (Title II) authorizes GSP until December 31, 2017 and makes GSP retroactive to July 31, 2013. 82.6% (dairy products, sugar, 
cocoa, articles of leather, 
cotton, articles of apparel and 
clothing, other textiles and textile articl es, footwear, 
watches, etc.) WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7 
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8 
 (AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000 
Extended until 
30 September 2025 (Title 
I) 97.5%  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/L/754 
WT/L/929 
WT/COMTD/LDC/M/71 
 
 Caribbean Basin Trade 
Partnership Act (CBTPA) Entry into force:  1 October 2000, extended until 30 September 2025 (Title III) Duty free for most products, 
including textiles and apparels. The Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement (HOPE) Act of 2006 provided new trade benefits, especially of apparel imports from Haiti.  The HOPE II Act of 2008 enhanced 
duty-free treatment for 
qualifying apparel imports from Haiti.  The Haiti Economic Lift Program (HELP) Act of 2010 provided duty-free treatment for additional textile and apparel products from Haiti. WT/L/753 
WT/L/928 
a  This table represents a non-exhaustive list of no n-reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives 
undertaken in favour of LDCs.  
b The DFQF coverage is derived from the most recent  notifications or statements made by Members in 
formal meetings of the WTO when available. If DFQF  coverage is not explicitly stated, information on 
DFQF coverage is taken from the most recent  WTO IDB submissions. For certain Members, 
information on major exclusions could not be derive d from the notification or statement. In certain 
cases, the DFQF coverage differs from Tables 14 and 17 as those take WTO IDB submissions as 
primary source and the year 2013 as reporting period. 
Source: WTO Secretariat. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/60 
 
- 68 - 
 
   
Annex Table 8: Notification of preferences in favour of LDC services and service 
suppliers 
Notifying 
Member Date of notification References 
 
Australia  29 May 2015 S/C/N/805 
Canada 5 March 2015 S/C/N/792 
Norway 25 June 2015 S/C/N/806 
Korea 10 July 2015 S/C/N/808 
China 22 July 2015 S/C/N/809 
Hong Kong, China 24 July 2015 S/C/N/810 
Chinese Taipei 24 July 2015 S/C/N/811 
Singapore 24 July 2015 S/C/N/812 
New Zealand 28 July 2015 S/C/N/813 
Switzerland 30 July 2015 S/C/N/819 
Japan 31 July 2015 S/C/N/820 
Mexico 20 August 2015 S/C/N/821 
Turkey 03 September 2015 S/C/N/824 
United States 03 September 2015  S/C/N/825 
India 29 September 2015  S/C/N/833 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 
__________