PHILIPPINE NATIONAL STANDARD  PNS/BAF S _____:2014  
Code of Practice for the Prevention an d Reduction of Ochratoxin A  Contamination in Coffee  
 
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 Foreword  1 
This  Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Ochratoxin A (OTA) Contam ination 2 
in Coffee  was developed in response to the request of the  Philippine Council for Agriculture 3 
and Fishery (PCAF) Committee on Commercial Crops to develop Goo d Agriculture Practice  4 
(GAP)  for Coffee and other related standards. The Codex  Alimentarius Commission 5 
developed a Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Ochratoxin A (OTA) 6 
Contamination in Coffee in 2009 . This Code of Practice is therefore a n adoption of this 7 
Codex Code of Practice with some modifications to suit the local production practices in the 8 
Philippines. This Code of Practice specific for OTA  prevention and reduction is a 9 
supplement to the existing Good Agriculture Practice for Coffe e (PNS/BAF S_____:2014 ) and 10 
should be read in conjunction with it.  11 
A Technical Working Group (TWG) wa s created through Speci al Order No. 320 Series of 12 
2014  to develop the draft Code of Practice . The TWG represented the relevant agencies of 13 
the Department o f Agriculture (DA) , Department of Science and Technology (DOST), 14 
Academe  and the non -profit organization s. Public consultations were conducted in 15 
Cordillera Administrative Region  (CAR), Regions 4A, 10, 11 and 12 repr esenting the major 16 
hubs of coffee  produc tion and trade. C omments and recommendations  were solicited  from 17 
the relevant government agencies, academe, private sector and non -government 18 
organizations.  Therefore, this Code of Practice is the final output of the public -private 19 
sector collaboration between , and among the TWG and the relevant stakeholders who 20 
participated in the public consultations.      21 
I. Introduction  22 
1. This document is intended to provide guidance for all interested part ies producing 23 
and handling coffee  for human consumption to prevent an d reduce Ochratoxin A 24 
(OTA )  contamin ation in coffee . All coffee  beans should be prepared and handled in 25 
accordance with the Codex General Principles of Food Hygiene (CAC/RCP 1 -1969, Rev. 4, 26 
2003) , which are relevant for all foods being prepared for human consumption. This 27 
Code of Practice indicates the measures that should be implemented by all persons 28 
that have the responsibility for assuring that food is safe and suitable for human 29 
consumption.  30 
  31 
2. Ochratoxin A (OTA ) is a toxic fungal metabolite classified  by the International Agency 32 
for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a possible human carcinogen (group 2B). The Joint 33 
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) Expert 34 
Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) established a Provisional Tol erable Weekly 35 
Intake (PTWI) of 100ng/kg bodyweight for OTA . In recognition of this global concern, 36  
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 FAO developed Guidelines for the Prevention of Mould Formation in Coffee in 2006 as 37 
a strategy to enable coffee -producing countries to develop and implement their own 38 
national programs for  the prevention and reduction of  OTA  contamination.  39 
 40 
3. OTA is produced by a few species in the genera Aspergillus  and Penicillium . In coffee 41 
beans, only Aspergillus  species, specifically A. ochraceus  and related species ( A. 42 
westerdijkae  and A. steynii ), A. niger and related species, and A . carbonarius are 43 
involved in OTA  production.  OTA  is produced when favorable conditions of water 44 
activity, nutrition and temperature required for growth of fungi and OTA  biosynthesis 45 
are presen t. 46 
 47 
4. The coffee fruit  is composed of the pericarp and perisperm tissue. The perisperm 48 
gradually disappears and is progressively replaced by the endosperm (true seed). 49 
Initially present in a "liquid" state, the endosperm hardens as it ripens during the 50 
matur ation phase, as a result of accumulation of storage proteins, sucrose and 51 
complex polysaccharides representing the main reserves of the seed. The last step of 52 
maturation is characterized by the dehydration of the endosperm and the color 53 
change of the peric arp.  54 
  55 
5. The main commercial coffee varieties produced and traded are Coffea canephora  56 
(robusta coffee)  and Coffea  arabica  (Arabica coffee) . Coffea liberica  and Coffea excelsa  57 
is likewise cultivated.  The major coffee variety produced in the Philippines is  the 58 
robusta coffee.  59 
 60 
6. After harvest, the crop is sorted , dried (as cherries /berries  or a s beans), stored and 61 
traded. The moisture content of the beans is reduced to a maximum of 12% to 62 
prevent OTA  production.  63 
  64 
7. Possible contamination routes  for infection of OTA-producing fungi in the coffee 65 
[fruit ] are through the flow ers (without visible sign)  and through the soils , or by 66 
insect invasion such as coffee berry borer (CBB) ( Hypothemeus hampei ), that can 67 
carry spores to the fruit b y making hole in the cherries an d one or more tunnels in the 68 
beans leaving visible signs.  In the subsequent stages, it is in the drying process that 69 
provides for OTA -producing fungi opportunities for growth.  Consequently, the 70 
roasting process can significantly reduce OTA  between 65 and 100%.  71 
 72 
8. In the Phil ippines, the m ycoflora  of coffee  had been investigated by the Philippine 73 
Center for Postharvest Dev elop ment and Mechanization (PhilMech ). The dominant 74 
Ochratoxin A (OTA ) forming fungus associated with coffee was Aspergillus niger . 75 
Other Ochratoxin A  forming fungi isolated include A. fumigatus , A. ochraceous  and A. 76  
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 carbonarius.  Ochratoxin A  contamination in coffee had been detected in Coffea 77 
liberica  and in Coffea robusta  to a lesser extent.  78 
 79 
II. Definitions  80 
 81 
For the purpose of this Code , the following terms are operationally defined  based on 82 
International Organization for Standardization. Coffee and Coffee Products – Vocabulary 83 
(ISO 3509 :2005):  84 
 85 
Section 1. Parts of the coffee fruit, undried  (please see Figure 1)  86 
Bean, fresh bean - endosp erm (seed) of the coffee fruit. There are generally two beans per 87 
fruit.  88 
 89 
Coffee Cherry – also known as coffee berry;  fresh, complete fruit of the coffee tree.  90 
Endocarp  - scientific term for “parchment .” The tough integument tightly pressed to the 91 
seed whe n fresh but from which the seed shrinks during drying.  92 
Endosperm - scientific term designating the tissues that fee d the embryo during 93 
germination.  T he bean consists of the endosperm and embryo ( i.e., the material inside the 94 
developing fruit ), which ultim ately forms the coffee beans. The endosperm fill the 95 
integument as the coffee cherry ripens.  96 
Epicarp or Exocarp -  scientific word designatin g the skin of the fruit, a mono -cellular 97 
layer covered with a waxy substance ensuring protection of the fruit.  98 
Floa ting coffee ( floaters )- cherry coffee of low density, buoyant in water.  99 
Mesocarp - intermediate layer of tissues between the epicarp and the endocarp 100 
(parchment). It consists mainly of pectinacious mucilage and pulp.  101 
Mucilage - common word to describe the sweet  slimy layer found between the pulp and 102 
adhering to the parchment inside a coffee cherry, but not removed by pulping. Not present 103 
in unripe cherries .  104 
Naked beans or endosperm -  parchment coffee that has been partly or entirely peeled  of 105 
its parch  during pulping and/or washing.  106 
Pulp -  part of the coffee cherry composed of the external exocarp and most of the internal 107 
mesocarp (mucilaginous tissue).  108 
Section 2. Parts of the coffee fruit, dried   109  
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 Parchment coffee  – coffee bean entirely or partially enc losed in its parchment (endocarp, 110 
pergamino).  111 
Coffee Bean - commercial term designating the dried seed of the coffee plant.  112 
Defects - the general term for common undesirable particles, which can include various 113 
types of beans, parts of beans, fruit tissue and foreign matter, found in green and roasted 114 
coffee beans. Diverse and specific terms, according to the producing country, are used to 115 
describe the defects. The fruit defects are generally caused by faulty processing, pest 116 
damage, or adverse climatic con ditions. Defects receive specific weight values to assist in 117 
the classification and grading of coffee lots under various national and international 118 
systems.  119 
Green coffee bean  - the dried seed of the coffee plant, separated from non -food tissues of 120 
the fru it. 121 
Hull, dried parchment  - dried endocarp of the coffee fruit.   122 
Husk, dried cherry pulp  - assembled external envelopes (pericarp) of the dried coffee 123 
fruit.  124 
Natural coffee, dried coffee cherry - dried fruit of the coffee tree, comprising its external 125 
envelops and one or more beans.  126 
Parchment (or Parch) or endocarp  - the coffee fruit endocarp located between the fleshy 127 
part (pulp) and the silver skin. It is a thin, crumbly paper -like covering left on wet - 128 
processed beans after pulping and fermentation, removed during hulling.  129 
Silverskin, dried testa, dried seed perisper m - coat of the coffee bean. It has generally a 130 
silvery or coppery appearance.  131 
Washed and cleaned coffee  –processed green coffee from which the silverskin has been 132 
removed by mechanical means in the presence of water.  133 
Section III. Processes  134 
Dehusking  - mec hanical removal of the husks (pericarp) from dry coffee cherries.  135 
Drying of parchment coffee  - operation to reduce the moisture content of parchment 136 
coffee to a level that allows hulling under satisfactory technical conditions and that will not 137 
be detrimen tal to further storage of the coffee.   138 
Dry process  - treatment of coffee cherries consisting in drying them, either under sunlight 139  
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 or in drying machines, to give husk coffee. This is usually followed by mechanical removal 140 
of the dried pericarp (husk) to produce “natural” green coffee.  141 
Ferment ation process  - treatment intended to digest the mucilaginous mesocarp 142 
adhering to the parchment of the pulped coffee, allowing its elimination by washing. The 143 
fermentation process can be replaced by a mechanical demucilaging system to remove the 144 
mucilage by friction.   145 
Gleaning (or sweeping)  - coffee fruit found lying on the ground beneath coffee bushes, 146 
detached during harvest or abscised during development.  147 
Hulling  - removal of the dried endocarp of parchment coffee to produce green coffee. 148 
Polishing: technological o peration to remove the residual silverskin (perisperm) from 149 
 green coffee by purely mechanical means.   150 
Pulping  – technological operation used in the wet process to remove the pulp (exocarp) 151 
and as much as possible of the mucilage (mesocarp) by mechanical means. A portion of the 152 
mucilaginous mesocarp usually remains adhering to the parchment (endocarp).  153 
Roasting  - heat treatment that produces fundamental chemical and physical changes in the 154 
structure and composition of green coffee, bringing about darkenin g of the beans and the 155 
development of the characteristic flavor of roasted coffee.  156 
Selection  - technological operation intended to eliminate foreign matter s (e.g. stones, 157 
twigs, leaves) and to sort coffee cherries according to size, density and degree of maturity.  158 
Sorting  - operation intended to remove foreign matter, fragments of coffee and defective 159 
beans from green coffee.  160 
Splitting of cherry  - a variation of dry processing wherein the cherry is mechanically split 161 
open and the fruit and seeds maintaine d together in a mass.  162 
Washing  - operation intended to remove by water all traces of the mucilaginous mesocarp 163 
from the surface of the parchment  bean . 164 
Wet process  - treatment of coffee cherries consisting of the mechanical removal of the 165 
exocarp (pulp) in t he presence of water, alternatively followed by  either (1) removal of the 166 
mucilage (mesocarp) by fermentation or other methods, followed by washi ng to give 167 
parchment coffee, or, (2) direct drying of the pulped beans within their mucilaginous 168 
parchment, fol lowed by hulling to produce “semi -washed” green coffee. Removal of the 169 
mucilage is usually followed by drying and hulling to produce “washed” green coffee.   170  
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 III.  Processing of Coffee Cherries  171 
 172 
9. The c offee cherries are processed under two basic systems (Figures 2 and 3): a) the 173 
dry processing system which produces what is called natural coffee or dried coffee 174 
cherry (the seed is enclosed in the whole fruit) , and b) the wet processing system, 175 
that generates what is called parchment coffee, where the seed is enclosed in the 176 
inner integument or endocarp.  177 
 178 
10. In the dry processing  system  of natural coffee, the who le fruit is either directly sun - 179 
dried, on bare soil, bricks,  laminated sacks,  tiles  and concrete  pavement , or dried 180 
using a combination of sun and mechanical drying (particularly more technologically 181 
advanced farms).  182 
 183 
11. In wet processing  system of parchment coffee , the fruit parts ar e mechanically 184 
separated, m aking  the pulp as the by-product and the parchment  coffee  as the main 185 
product. The latter is coated with mucilage , which can be degraded by fermentation 186 
and then washed or mechanically removed directly,  with or  without fermentation. 187 
After removing or not r emoving the mucilag e, the parchment  coffee  is usually sun - 188 
dried, in a drying yard, or on suspended tables with many variations and 189 
technological innovations. Sun and mechanical drying can be used in combination . 190 
 191 
12. After  dehulling or dehusking , the dried green coffee  beans   will passed through sizing 192 
(grading), sorting, polishing, cleaning and bagging  before being sold.   193 
 194 
13. Coffee roasting can remove a very significant percentage of OTA . Depending on the 195 
roasting process, 65 to 100% reduction of OTA  can be achi eved.  196 
 197 
14. While this Code of P ractice  is focused on the reduction of OTA  contamination, which is 198 
the primary food safety issue in the production of green coffee bean , industry food 199 
safety program s must also effectively manage other potential hazards associate d with 200 
the production, processing and handling of coffee.  201 
IV . Recommend ed Practices  202 
 203 
4.1 Pre-Harvest  204 
 205 
15. It is not certain whether OTA -producing fungi can infect co ffee fruits and grow to 206 
produce OTA  still on the plant. It is possible that infection on the p lant may involve   207 
two  different contamination routes, either through (1) the flowers without visible 208 
sign, or (2) by insect invasion such as the coffee berry borer (CBB) ( Hypothenemus 209  
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 hampei ), that can carry spores to the fruit by making holes in the cherr ies and one or 210 
more tunnels in the beans , leaving visible signs . 211 
 212 
16. Recommended practices to reduce the development and spore load from OTA - 213 
producing fungi on coffee plants and beans are:  214 
 215 
a) Keep coffee plants vigorous, through the regular use  of G ood Agricult ure 216 
Practices (GAP ), such as wee ding, improving soil texture, pruning, fertilization, 217 
pest and disease control, and irrigation.  218 
b) Do not use overhead irrigation during the flowering period. This could augment 219 
normal spore dispersal rate and increase the chan ce of infection of beans by OTA  220 
producers.  221 
c) Use traps (such as alcohol traps) for coffee berry borer  control before 222 
harvesting, and encourage the use of the integrated  pest management (IPM) 223 
program.  224 
d) Avoid disposal of uncomposted organic wastes, from coffee or any other source, 225 
in or around plantation. Coffee seeds and seed -associated material, such as dust, 226 
earth, parchment and other seed processing residues can allow proliferation of 227 
OTA -producing fungi.  228 
 229 
4.2 Harvesting  230 
 231 
17. The harvesting method chosen on any farm is a conjunction of the requirements of 232 
the processing method, e conomic considerations and labo r availability.  233 
 234 
Two (2 ) basic harvesting systems are known: (1 ) single -pass stripping, where all 235 
branches bearing fruit a re har vested at once and (2 ) multi -pass selective picking 236 
(finger picking), where only rip e cherries are harvested . Of the two (2) systems, 237 
selective picking of ripe cherries is highly recommended.  238 
18. In general, berries that fall naturally onto the ground should not be collected, 239 
particular ly in humid conditions, as fungal growth may occur, which can give rise to 240 
OTA  contamination. However, during harvest fallen beans should be immediately 241 
collected within the day. T o avoid the risk of conta minating the rest of the crop, c are 242 
should be taken  to ensure that any fallen berries that are collected are rapidly 243 
subjected to the processing and drying stages, as these commodities may have a 244 
higher likelihood of fungal growth.  245 
 246 
19. The harvest should be started as soon as there are sufficient ripe cherrie s for it to be 247 
economically  viable . When the right time to commence harvest is decided, the 248 
following should first be carried out:  249  
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 a.        Remove weeds, fallen cherries and brush from the proximity of the trees 250 
before harvest.  251 
 252 
b. Place canvas , mats, or tarpau lins beneath the trees to prevent.  253 
 254 
c. Ensure that there are adequate arrangements for the subsequent storage and 255 
processing of the cro p, so that conditions favour mo ld growth or other damage 256 
are avoided.  257 
 258 
20. Coffee cherries should be processed as soon as possib le after harvesting. The harvest 259 
rate, processing performance and l abor availability must follow the pace of the drying 260 
rate.  261 
 262 
21. Coffee cherries ready to be processed should be sorted by water flotation to remove 263 
the low quality cherries or floaters (e.g. im mature fruit, insect damaged cherries) and 264 
foreign matters. It should be ensured that any material that is out sorted  out is 265 
disposed of f in an appropriate manner.  266 
 267 
4.3 Post -Harvest  268 
 269 
22. Senescence and changes follow once  coffee cherry is detached from the pl ant. The 270 
post -harvest period is characterized by initial, transitional and final phases.  271 
 272 
23. The initial or high moisture phase starts with harvest. The product is then in an 273 
unstable state, and spoilage can be controlled through competitor microorganisms, 274 
restricting oxygen and reducing the time which is critical in this state. In wet 275 
processing the high moisture phase may be extended and controlled through  276 
fermentation  (i.e. 12 to 36 hours) , but it is desirable to reduce the  time.  277 
 278 
24. The transitional phase is the least stable and most difficult to predict, when spoilage 279 
can only be controlled by time limitation. Mesophilic and xerophilic spoilage 280 
microorganisms have enough water to grow but not their hydrophilic competitors. 281 
Turning or stirring of the coffee is  essential to promote uniform drying. When harvest 282 
coincides with a rainy or high humidity season, measures to optimize drying,  must be 283 
adopted . 284 
 285 
25. The final or low moisture phase starts at the end of drying and continues until 286 
roasting. The product is in a stable condition and control is necessary to prevent 287 
water re -introduction or redistribution in the bulk coffee  beans . At some point during 288 
drying, there is no further growth as the product reaches the low moisture phase.  289  
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 4.4 Dry Processing  290 
 291 
26. In the dry pro cessing system ( Figure 2 ) the whole harvested fruit is dried. Although it 292 
is a simpler process compared to wet processing, a good quality finished product can 293 
only be obtained through the application of good practices and proper management.  294 
 295 
27. Wherever possi ble, freshly picked cherries should be dried on the same day that they 296 
are harvested. In some instances, the harvested fruit is retained in bags or heaps for 297 
up to a week. This practice  leads to high temperatures and quick fermentation, 298 
different in nature  from the fermentation process  employed in wet processing, 299 
causing quality losses and increasing the risk of OTA  in the product.  300 
 301 
28. Prior to drying, the harvested fruit should be sorted to remove immature and over 302 
mature c herries, and cherries damaged by  CBD  (Coffee Berry Disease). Sorting may 303 
be done either manually , or in  combination with water flo tation.  304 
 305 
4.5 Wet Processing   306 
 307 
29. Wet or washed processing ( Figure 3 ) requires a raw material composed of only ripe 308 
cherries that have been selectively picked or are mechanically separated in the 309 
process itself. Green immature cherries and dried fruits are removed in a water 310 
separator. The mucilage is removed, either by fermentation, mechanically or by using 311 
chemicals.  312 
 313 
30. In the fermentation process, the mucilage is brok en down by fermenting the beans in 314 
water at ambient temperature s (using microorganisms) for between 12 and 36 hours. 315 
The fermentation process must be carefully monitored to ensure that the coffee beans 316 
do not a cquire undesirable (sour) flavo rs. After ferme ntation is complete, the coffee 317 
beans are washed in clean water tanks or in special washing machines.  318 
 319 
31. After passing through the water  separators and before removal of the pulp, the 320 
separation of the green imma ture cherries from the ripe ones  can be perfor med, using 321 
differences in pressure, in a green cherry separator. The soft ripe cherries pass 322 
through the holes of the screen. The hard, unripe cherries, which cannot pass through 323 
the holes, go to the edge of the cylinder where a counter weight controls the ir 324 
outflow.  325 
 326 
32. Factors that need to be controlled are as follow s: 327 
a.) Any equipment should receive regular maintenance, to reduce the possibility of 328 
failures , which could delay processing and compromise coffee quality and safety.  329 
 330  
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 a.1)  Before the beginning of t he harvest  season: clean, reassemble and lubricate the 331 
processing   equipment; inspect the installation and check if it is operational, so 332 
that there is enough time for repairs if any problem occurs.  333 
a.2) At the end of the harvest season: clean, repair, lu bricate, dust all equipment and 334 
protect from water. Check pulping surfaces for wear.  335 
b.) Provide proper orientation/training to the workers and define their responsibilities. 336 
In addition , define quality a nd acceptability criteria, the monitoring procedures and  337 
frequencies, and the corrective measures for each key e lement of the process for the 338 
following : 339 
 340 
b.1)   Cherries – maximum acceptable proportion of immature and over -mature/tree - 341 
dried cherries.  342 
b.2)   Pulping - acceptable proportion of un -pulped cherries a nd nipped beans  and  343 
cost -benefit to increase size uniformity of the cherries and effectiv eness of skin 344 
removal. The efficiency of the operation can be improved based on the various 345 
estimates of monitoring the quality and safety of the product.  346 
c.) Water quali ty - clean water  (i.e. water that does not compromise food safety in the 347 
circumstances of its use) should be used for processin g, as dirty water may  lead to 348 
conditions favourable to OTA production . 349 
 350 
d.) Fermentation should be as short as possible (12 to 36 hou rs), to get the mucilage 351 
degraded and the beans washable. Monitoring procedures should be established (e.g. 352 
temperature).  353 
 354 
e.) Avoid the presence of f ruit flies, as high populations can affect fermentation.  355 
 356 
f.) Secondary coffee  cherry , which can be defined as pro ducts separated by sorting or 357 
other procedures and are returned to the processing, should have a specific control 358 
program  e.g. good drying practices should be applied, such as maintenance of 359 
separate facilities for drying.  360 
 361 
g.) Washing protocols should be defi ned and implemented (e.g. by measuring the 362 
quantity of broken, nipped and naked beans and other foreign matters , and the 363 
quantity of water used).  364 
365  
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 4.6 Drying of Sorted and Processed Coffee B eans  366 
 367 
33. The main purpose of the drying operation is to efficiently d ecrease the high water 368 
content of the just  processed  cherries to a safe level in order to get a stable, safe and 369 
good quality product.  370 
 371 
34. There are two (2) basic types of processes: wet and dry. Most of the coffee produced 372 
is dried using direct sun light . 373 
 374 
35. In the sun -drying process, the product is spread on surfaces such as cement or brick 375 
terraces, p lastic canva s, bamboo and sisal mats, raised tables covered in wire mesh , or 376 
farm netting . 377 
 378 
36. The drying process can be divided into three  (3) stages. In each stage  OTA -producing 379 
fungi will have varying opportunities for growth.  380 
 381 
37. At the first  (1st) stage, there is a slight decrease in moisture content that  takes a time 382 
interval between one  (1) to three (3)  days for cherry coffe e and one  day or less for 383 
parchment coff ee. The high moisture content (a w > 0.95) provides unsuitable 384 
conditions for OTA -producing fungi to grow.  385 
 386 
38. The second (2nd) stage is the one of maximum loss in moisture content for both 387 
cherry and parchment coffee, under similar conditions at the same peri od of time. 388 
This is mainly depende nt on drying conditions and drying yard technology. During 389 
this stage, there are favourable conditions for OTA -producing fungi to grow and 390 
therefore it is necessary to implement precautionary measures as recom mended in 391 
paragraph 42. 392 
 393 
39. At the third stage  (3rd) both cherry and parchment coffee, is much drier compared to 394 
the previous two stage s. There is a slower slight decrease in the remaining moisture 395 
content. Condi tions at this stage do not favor the growth of OTA -producing  fungi.  396 
 397 
40. The OTA -producing fungi require favo rable conditions during a certain period of time 398 
to grow and produce the toxin. The level of available water is the most important 399 
factor to be considered. At high water activity (a w > 0.95) OTA -producing fungi will 400 
unlikely to grow, as fast -growing hydrophilic fungi and yeasts grow first. At lower 401 
activity (aw < 0.80) the OTA -producing fungi can be present but  incapable of 402 
producing  the toxin, and at a w below 0.78 -0.76 , they cannot grow. Therefore the most 403 
impor tant point is to control the period of time in which coffee remains in the drying 404 
yard, in the range of water activity where OTA -producing fungi can grow (aw  > 0.8 - 405  
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 0.95). According to experimental results, 5 days or less in the drying yard is enough 406 
and e ffective to prevent OTA  accumulation. In general, maximum a w of 0.67  to 0.70 407 
and moisture content of 12 % or below (wet basis) is sufficient for protecting 408 
parchment coffee from damage by fungi.  409 
 410 
41. Recommended measures to dry the coffee beans efficiently are:  411 
 412 
a.) The drying yard should be located away from the contaminant sources such as dusty 413 
areas and should receive maximum sun exposure and air circulation during most of 414 
the day, to speed up the drying of the beans. Shady and low areas should be avoided.  415 
 416 
b.) The s urface for the drying yard should be chosen according to the climate of the 417 
region, cost and quality of the dried product, as any type of surface has advantages 418 
and disadvantages. Bare soil is not recommended.  Plastic canvas s gets humid under 419 
the coffee la yer, promoting fungal growth. In rainy or wet regions coffee must be 420 
covered and re -spread, once the surface has dried. If parchment coffee is to be dried, 421 
ensure that  the drying surface is clean , in order to avoid picking up taints.  422 
 423 
c.) The pace and total ti me of the harvest should be based on the available areas of the 424 
drying yard and average time necessary for drying, considering both good and bad 425 
weather s. 426 
 427 
d.) The following practical measures should be incorporated into the drying process:  428 
 429 
d.1)   Dry coffee beans only in thin layers, i.e. 3 to 5 cm in depth which is equivalent to 430 
25 to 35 kg/m2 of fresh parchment of coffee cherry . In some cases (e.g. low air 431 
humidity, good air circulation and sun intensity, or in usually dry regions), 432 
thicker layers can be use d. 433 
d.2)  Turn over the coffee beans layer constantly during the day time to allow faster 434 
drying, to reduce the risk of fungi growing and help to produce a better quality 435 
product.  436 
d.3)  Allow for the appropriate ventilation of the wet coffee beans during the  night in 437 
order to avoid condensation. After one  (1) day of drying for parchment and 438 
three  (3) days for coffee  cherry , the coffee cherries can be heaped and covered 439 
at night during rainy weather, to avoid re -wetting.  440 
d.4)  Do not mix different types of cof fee beans nor coffee beans from different days 441 
of harvest. Use a specific identification for each one of them to identify each type 442 
of coffee beans and day of harvest.  443  
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 d.5)  Protect the drying yard area from animals, whic h can be a source of biological 444 
contamination in coffee beans during drying.  445 
d.6)  Regularly control CBB and other pest populations, using integrated pest 446 
management in drying yard.  447 
d.7)  Monitor  the drying process regularly (maximum of 12% moisture content  for 448 
both parchment and coffee  cherr y). Start taking samples from different points of 449 
each lot, two  (2) or three days  (3) before it is expected to be fully dry and 450 
continue re -evaluating it daily until it reaches the desired moisture content. 451 
Instrumental measurements should be adopted at fi eld level. Moisture content 452 
should be measured according to International Organization for 453 
Standardization. Green Coffee – Determination of Loss in Mass at 105oC (ISO 454 
6673:2003)  method.  455 
d.8) Avoid re -wetting the beans becau se it favo rs rapid funga l growth and the 456 
possibility of OTA production.  457 
e.) Provide a clear and practical training for drying yard workers, including adequate use 458 
of moisture meters.  459 
 460 
f.) Repair, clean, protect and keep equipment  in a clean storage area until the next 461 
season. Moisture meters  shou ld be regularly cross -checked and calibrated once a year 462 
before harvest according to  International Organization for Standardization. Green 463 
Coffee – Determination of Loss in Mass at 105oC (ISO 6673:2003) method.  464 
 465 
42. Mechanical driers are generally used as comp lementary after sun -drying, but in some 466 
regions it plays a major role in the drying process. Mechanical driers usually need to 467 
have control of two  (2) items: inlet temperature and duration of drying time. The 468 
most common problem with mechanical drying is o ver drying, causing weight loss 469 
and consequently income loss. The other problem is black beans from immature 470 
beans submitted to excessive inlet temperature, decreasing the quality of the product.  471 
 472 
4.7 Storage, Transportation and Trading  473 
43. Properly identified  lots of dried cherries or the dried parchment coffee should be 474 
stored, at the farm level or in out -of-farm warehouses, in bulk or in clean bags under 475 
appropriate storage conditions.  476 
 477 
44. Handling coffee in local trading varies in relation to the proper struct ure of the chain 478 
and the way the operations are performed. These functions include: post -cleaning, 479 
sorting, grading into size classes, re -bagging, sometimes re -drying, storage and 480  
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 transport. These operations add value to the traded product, before it is so ld and sent 481 
for roasting.  482 
 483 
45. During the entire process, the coffee must also be protected from re -wetting, 484 
degradation a nd cross -contamination. In long -term storage conditions, humidity 485 
should be kept under strict control. Under a relative humidity below 60%  coffee will 486 
continue to dry but if the relative humidity is above 80% the coffee will start to 487 
absorb water. Moisture in the storage place can originate from damp floors and walls, 488 
rain (wind -driven or through leaks), dead air, and the mixing of dry with wet coffee. 489 
Appropriate storage facilities, the use of good storage practice and regular monitoring 490 
can prevent or reduce problems.  491 
 492 
46. In lower grade coffee, it has been observed that fruits with black and sour defects 493 
contained the highest levels of OTA . Tolerance for such defects in sorted green beans 494 
should be low and the sorted defective beans should not be re -blended into clean 495 
coffee or sold directly to roasters unless representative sampling plan and direct OTA  496 
analysis has shown them to be acceptable.  497 
 498 
47. From the production areas coffee may be transported by different means of 499 
transportation to the trading points. The main aspect of concern here is to avoid re - 500 
wetting of coffee, due to possible climatic changes between different regions, and 501 
taking the n ecessary control measures.  502 
 503 
48. In the production chain, the local market is the most sensitive part from where 504 
improvements in prac tice can be administered. T he competent authorities, through 505 
regulatory and non -regulatory mechanisms , can enforce and influence  practices in 506 
order to guarantee that producers reliably operate in a way as to assure the product 507 
safety.  508 
 509 
49. Stakeholders should adopt procedures to protect coffee in each pa rt of the chain, 510 
refuse coffee  suspected of contamination,  and avoid practices that  could generate or 511 
increase a problem. Dried coffee must be protected from re -wetting through contact 512 
with water, mixture with wet lots, absorption from wet air or surfaces or 513 
redistribution of water within the lot. Protection from contamination by other 514 
materials is also necessary.  515 
 516 
a) Minimum hygiene requirements and a rapid assessment method (including a 517 
sampling method with repr esentative sub -sample of the in coming lot for moisture 518 
content determination, defect levels, general physical quality assessment and visual 519 
or smell signs of mo ldiness), should be established.  520  
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 b) The warehouse design and structure should be adequate to maintain dryness and 521 
uniformity of the stored coffee.  522 
 523 
b.1)  The desirable characteristic s are: cement floor with a damp -proof course; no t 524 
subject to flooding; water pipelines properly located to avoid wetting coffee in 525 
case of plumbing problems; waterproof windows and roof; and a high ceiling to 526 
allow good air circulation.  527 
 528 
b.2)  Do not expose stored coffee to direct sunlight nor store it n ear heating sources, 529 
to avoid the possibility of temperature differentials and water migration.  530 
c) The operation of a storage facility must be optimiz ed to prevent cross contamination, 531 
the re -introduction of moisture, and to allow the best execution of receiv ing, sale and 532 
value -added operations that will preserve the coffee quality until it is sold to the next 533 
stakeholder in the production chain. The main recommendations are:  534 
 535 
c.1) Record initial condition and age of the received stocks.  536 
c.2)  Arrange the coff ee bags on pallets and away from walls, to allow good air 537 
circulation.  538 
c.3)  Implement cl eaning and maintenance program s in order to ensure that storage 539 
facilities are periodically inspected, cleaned and renewed.  540 
c.4)  Check coffee bean weevil in the wareh ouse, implement integrated pest 541 
management.  542 
c.5)  Farms and other operations should separate coffee types. This requires 543 
planning of the stora ge area and adoption of a label ing system. Non -food 544 
materials should not be stored with coffee to prevent contamin ation or taints in 545 
the product.  546 
d) Coffee cleaning and sorting should not physically damage the product as this will 547 
make it more susceptible to contamination/deterioration nor introduce new 548 
contamination and should assure reduction of undesirable materials t o acceptable 549 
pre-determined levels.  550 
 551 
d.1)  Ensure the facilities and equipment are regularly inspected maintained and 552 
cleaned, through implementation of cle aning and maintenance programs . 553 
 554 
d.2)  When cleaning and sorting of coffee beans are done in the same  storage facility,  555 
attention is required to avoid contamination of post -cured coffee with the 556 
curing by -products of dust and foreign matter, (e.g. through the use of partition 557 
walls or extractor fans).  558  
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 d.3)  Remove defects from main -crop production, discar ding or screening them 559 
before their inclusion into the food chain. There is no uniform distribution of 560 
defects within the classes of beans separated from bulk coffee . Evidence shows 561 
that defective beans and husk ( dried pulp also a defect) sometimes contain  562 
higher OTA  levels than sound beans. Based on further investigations of OTA  563 
contamination of defects , competent  authorities should provide clear guidance 564 
to the stakeholders.  565 
e) Transport of coffee also requires the adoption of practices to avoid re -wetting, to 566 
maintain temperature as uniform as possible and to prevent contamination by other 567 
materi als. The main requirements are:  568 
 569 
e.1)     Cover coffee loading and unloading areas to protect against rain;  570 
e.2) Vehicles must be cleaned from residues of the previo us cargo  before receiving a 571 
new cargo ; 572 
e.3) Floor, side walls and the ceiling of closed vehicles must be checked for the 573 
presence of points where exhaust fumes o r water from rain can be channe led 574 
into the coffee cargo. Tarpaulins and plastic canva ss used t o cover the cargo 575 
should also be regularly checked to ensure they are clean and without holes. 576 
The vehicles should also receive regular maintenance to be kept in good 577 
condition;  578 
e.4) Select operators that have r eliable transport service -providers that adop t the 579 
recommended good transportation practices.  580 
4.7 Ship Transportation  581 
50. Coff ee is transported from the Philippines  to other countries  in jute bags, usually in to 582 
20 to 40 -footer  containers. Temperature fluctuations, during the transportation time, 583 
can cau se condensation of the remaining water (present even in well -dried beans) 584 
and local re -wetting. The redistribution of water can lead to fungal growth, with the 585 
possibility of OTA  production. The recommended practices during transportation in 586 
the port are:  587 
 588 
a.) Cover coffee loading and unloading areas to protect against rain.  589 
 590 
b.) Check coffee lots to ensure that they ar e uniformly dried and with 12 % 591 
moisture content  or below , free of foreign matter and respecting the established 592 
defect levels.  593 
 594  
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 c.) Check containers, be fore loading, to ensure they are clean, dry and without 595 
structural damage that could allow water entrance into the container.  596 
 597 
d.) Bags should be well stacked and crossed over for mutual support in order to 598 
avoid the formation of empty vertical columns (chimne ys). The top layer and 599 
sides of bags should be covered with materials that can absorb condensed 600 
water, such as silica gel or cardboard for protection against the growth of fungi 601 
that could result in OTA  production.  602 
 603 
e.) Choose an appropriate place, not direct ly exposed to the weather, aboard the 604 
ship to reduce the possibility of undesirable situations mentioned that can lead 605 
to OTA  contamination.  606 
 607 
f.) Keep the ventilation holes in the containers free.  608 
 609 
g.) Avoid unprotected stowage on the deck (top layer) and stow awa y from boilers 610 
and heated tanks or bulkheads.  611 
 612 
h.) The moisture content level should not e xceed 12 % anywhere, from the point 613 
where the coffee leaves the loading area to the point at which the coffee is 614 
unloaded, stored and/or subjected to other processing proc edures such as 615 
roasting.  616 
 617 
 618 
 619 
 620 
 621 
 622 
 623 
 624 
 625 
626  
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 References:  627 
Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards (BAFPS). Philippine National 628 
Standards (PNS): Green Coffee  Beans (PNS/BAFPS 01:2012 ). 629 
Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards (BAFPS). Phili ppine National 630 
Standards  (PNS): Good Agriculture Practices for Coffee (PNS/BAFPS  ____:2014 ). 631 
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction 632 
of Ochratoxin A Contamination in Coffee (CAC/RCP 69 -2009).  633 
Codex Alimentari us Commission (CAC). Recommended International Code of Practice – 634 
General Principles of Food Hygiene (CAC/RCP 1 -1969, Rev. 4, 2003).  635 
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Coffee and Coffee Products - 636 
Vocabulary (ISO 3509:2005).  637 
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Green Coffee – Determination of Loss 638 
in Mass at 105oC (ISO 6673:2003 ). 639 
Alvindia, D.G. & Acda. MA. 2010. Mycoflora of coffee bean in the Philippines. J. ISSAAS Vol. 640 
16 (2). 116 -125 641 
Regpala, E., Este ves, L.A, Santiago M.C,  Acda. MA. Incidence of Ochratoxin A in green coffee. 642 
(unpublished) PHilMech  643 
 644 
 645 
 646 
 647 
 648 
 649 
 650 
 651 
 652 
 653 
 654 
 655 
 656  
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 Department of Agriculture (DA)  657 
Bureau of Ag riculture and Fisheries Standards (BAF S) 658 
 659 
Committe e on Commercial Crops - Coffee  Industry De velopment Sub -Committee of 660 
the National Agriculture and Fishery Council (NAFC)  661 
 662 
Chair  
 
Ruby J. A pilado, PhD/Leah N. Castillo  
Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI)  
Department of Science and Technology  
(DOST)  
Members  
 
 Alexander Joel Gibe, PhD /Rogelio G. Idago  
 Philippine Center for Postharvest 
Develop ment and Mechanization (PhilMech ) 
Departmen t of Agriculture (DA)  
 
Alejandro C Mojica, PhD  
Cavite State University  (CvSU)  
 
 
  
 
David T. Santos/ Josephine V. Ramos  
Philippine Council for Agriculture and 
Fishery (PCAF)/  
Organization for Partnerships, Teamworks 
and Initiatives on Opportunities for Natu re 
Stewards (OPTIONS), Inc.  
 
Jocelyn M. Sales, PhD /Luz D. Padilla  
 Food Development Center (FDC)  
 Department of Agriculture (DA)  
 
Secretariat  
 
Chairpersons  
 
Karen Kristine A. Roscom  
OIC-Executive Director  
BAFS - DA 
 
Lara V. Navarro  
OIC-Division Chief  
Standards Development Division  
BAFS -DA 
 
Member  
 
Maria Charissa B. Grepo  
Research Assistant I  
Standards Development Division  
BAFS -DA 
 663  
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 664 
 665 
Figure 1. Coffee Cherry  (CAC/RCP 69 -2009)  666 
 667 
 668 
 669 
 670 
 671 
 672  
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 673 
 674 
 675 
Figure 2. Dry Processing Flow  (CAC/RCP 69 -2009)  676 
 677 
 678 Reject   
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 679 
 680 
Figure 3. Wet Processing Flow  (CAC/RCP 69 -2009)  681 Reject