Final report for the non -regulated 
analysis of existing policy for fresh 
nectarine fruit from China  
April 2016  
 
 
 
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Cataloguing data  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources 2016, Final report for the non -regulated 
analysis of existing policy for fresh nectarine fruit from China , the Australian Government Department of Agriculture 
and Wa ter Resources, Canberra.  
This publication is available at agriculture.gov.au . 
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  
Postal address:  GPO Box 858 Canberra ACT 2601   
Switchboard:  +61 2 6272 39 33 or 1800 900 090  
Facsimile:  +61 2 6272 3307  
Email:  plant@agriculture.gov.au  
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Notwithstanding, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, its employees and 
advisers disclaim all liability, including liab ility for negligence and for any loss, damage, injury, expense or cost 
incurred by any person as a result of accessing, using or relying upon any of the information or data in this publication 
to the maximum extent permitted by law.  
 
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Contents  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources     iii Contents  
Acronyms and abbreviations  ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................  ix 
Summary  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................  1 
1 Introduction  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..............  3 
1.1 Australia’s biosecurity policy framework  ................................ ................................ ........................  3 
1.2 This import risk analysis  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................  3 
2 Method for pest risk analysis  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..............  6 
2.1 Stage 1 Initiation  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........  6 
2.2 Stage 2 Pest risk assessment  ................................ ................................ ................................ .................  7 
2.3 Stage 3 Pest risk management  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........  15 
3 China’s commercial production practices for nectarines  ................................ ......................  17 
3.1 Assumptions used in estimating unrestricted risk  ................................ ................................ ... 17 
3.2 Climate in production areas  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...............  17 
3.3 Pre-harvest  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................  21 
3.4 Harvesting and handling  procedures  ................................ ................................ .............................  23 
3.5 Post -harvest  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..............  24 
3.6 Export capability  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 27 
4 Pest risk assessments for quarantine pests ................................ ................................ ................  28 
4.1 Hawthorn spider mite  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  30 
4.2 Strawberry spider mite  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................  34 
4.3 Rhynchites weevils  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 38 
4.4 Oriental fruit fly  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 42 
4.5 Guava fruit fly  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........  45 
4.6 Spotted wing drosophila  ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................  48 
4.7 Comstock mealybug  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...............................  50 
4.8 Armoured scales  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 54 
4.9 Leaf rollers  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .................  58 
4.10  Codling moth  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............  62 
4.11  Grapholita moths  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 66 
4.12  Peach twig borer  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 70 
4.13  Peach fruit borer  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 74 
4.14  Thrips  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  77 
4.15  Brown rot ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................  81 
4.16  Apple scar skin or apple dapple  ................................ ................................ ................................ ........  85 
4.17  Tobacco necrosis viruses  ................................ ................................ ................................ .....................  88 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Contents  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources     iv 4.18  Plum pox virus  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  93 
4.19  Pest risk assessment conclusions  ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 97 
5 Pest risk management  ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................  101  
5.1 Pest risk management measures and phytosanitary procedures  ................................ ... 101 
5.2 Operational system for the maintenance and verification of phytosanitary status  . 113 
5.3 Uncategorised pests  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................  116 
5.4 Review of processes  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................  116 
5.5 Meeting Australia’s food standards  ................................ ................................ ..............................  117 
6 Conclusion  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............  118  
Appendix A  Initiation and categorisation for pests of fresh nectarine fruit from 
China   ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............  119  
Appendix B  Biosecurity framework  ................................ ................................ ..............................  247  
Glossary  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........................  252  
References  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .....................  256  
Figures  
Figure 1 Diagram of fresh nectarine fruit  ................................ ................................ ................................ ............  viii 
Figure 2 Mean monthly rainfall and mean maximum and minimum temperatures for the main 
nectarine producing provinces of China  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...............  19 
Figure 3 Summary of orchard and post -harvest steps for pe aches and nectarines grown in China 
for export  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............  26 
Tables  
Table 2.1 Nomenclature of qualitative likelihoods  ................................ ................................ ...........................  10 
Table 2.2 Matrix of rules for combining qualitative likelihoods  ................................ ................................ . 11 
Table 2.3 Decision rules for determin ing the consequence impact score based on the magnitude 
of consequences at four geographic scales ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........  14 
Table 2.4 Decision rules for determining the overall consequence rating for each pest  ..................  14 
Table 2.5 Risk estimation matrix  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..............................  15 
Table 3.1 China’s main peache/nectarine production provinces  ................................ ...............................  27 
Table 4.1 Quarantine pests for fresh nectarine fruit from China  ................................ ................................  29 
Table 4.2 Summary of unrestricted risk estimates for quarantine pests associated with fresh 
nectarine fruit from China  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........  98 
Table 5.1 Phytosanitary measures recommended for quarantine pests for fresh nectarine fruit 
from China  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 102 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Contents  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources     v Maps  
Map 1 Map  of Australia  ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... vi 
Map 2 A guide to Australia’s bio -climatic zones  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...vi 
Map 3 Main nectarine production areas in Australia  ................................ ................................ .......................  vii 
Map 4 Main peach and nectarine production areas in China  ................................ ................................ ........  18 
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Maps of Australia  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources     vi Map 1 Map of Australia  
 
Map 2 A guide to Australia’s bio -climatic zones  
 
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Maps of Australia  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources     vii Map 3 Main nectarine production areas in Australia  
1 Riverland, South Australia. 2 Sunraysia, Victoria. 3 Shepparton/Cobram, Victoria. 4 Sydney Hills, New 
South Wales. 5 Orange/Young, Central New South Wales. 6 Northern New South Wales. 7 Stanthorpe, 
Queensland. 8 Sunshine Coast, Gatton and Kumbia, Queensland. 9 Donnybrook, Western Australia. 10 
Perth Hills, Western Australia. 11 Tasmania.  
Source: Information provided by Summerfruit Australia Ltd., August 2014  
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Diagram of nectarine fruit  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources     viii Figure 1 Diagram of fresh nectarine fruit  
 
 
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Acronyms and abbreviations  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources     ix Acronyms and abbreviations  
Term or abbreviation  Definition  
ACT  Australian Capital Territory  
ALOP  Appropriate level of protection  
AQSIQ  General Administration for Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the 
People’s Republic of China (formerly CIQSA)  
BA Biosecurity Advice  
CIQ China Entry -Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau  
CIQSA  State Administration for Entry -Exit Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s 
Republic of China (now AQSIQ)  
DAFF  Acronym of the former Australian Government Department of Agriculture, 
Fisheries and Forestry, which is now the Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources  
DAFWA  Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia (formerly DAWA: 
Department of Agriculture, Western Australia)  
EP Existing policy  
EPPO  European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation  
FAO  Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations  
IPC International Phytosanitary Certificate  
IPM  Integrated  Pest Management  
IPPC  International Plant Protection Convention  
ISPM  International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures  
NPPO  National Plant Protection Organisation  
NSW  New South Wales  
NT Northern Territory  
PHA  Plant Health Australia Limited  
PRA  Pest  risk assessment  
Qld Queensland  
SA South Australia  
SAL  Summerfruit Australia Limited  
SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Acronyms and abbreviations  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources     x  Tas.  Tasmania  
USA  The United States of America  
Vic. Victoria  
WA Western Australia  
WTO  World Trade Organization  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Summary  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  1 Summary  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has prepared this 
final report to assess the proposal by China for market access to Australia for fresh ne ctarine 
fruit.  
The final report recommends that the importation of fresh nectarine fruit to Australia from all 
commercial production areas of China be permitted, subject to a range of quarantine conditions.  
The final report takes into account stakeholder c omments on the draft report. Information about 
China’s nectarine production systems and packinghouse procedures gathered during a 
verification visit in June 2015 to Shanxi province, one of China’s major nectarine production 
areas, has also been taken into account.  
The final report identifies 19 pests that require phytosanitary measures to manage risks to a 
very low level in order to achieve Australia’s appropriate level of protection (ALOP). The pests 
requiring measures are Amphitetranychus viennensis  (hawt horn spider mite), Pseudococcus 
comstocki  (comstock mealybug), Frankliniella intonsa  (Eurasian flower thrips), Frankliniella 
occidentalis  (western flower thrips), Bactrocera correcta (guava fruit fly), Bactrocera dorsalis  
(Oriental fruit fly), Drosophila s uzukii  (spotted wing drosophila), Adoxophyes orana 
(summerfruit tortrix), Argyrotaenia ljungiana  (grape tortrix), Carposina sasakii  (peach fruit 
moth), Grapholita funebrana  (plum fruit moth), Grapholita molesta (Oriental fruit moth), 
Spilonota albicana (wh ite fruit moth), Anarsia lineatella (peach twig borer), Monilinia fructigena  
(brown rot), Monilia mumecola  (brown rot), Monilia polystroma  (brown rot), Monilinia 
yunnanensis  (brown rot) and Plum pox virus . 
The recommended phytosanitary measures take accoun t of regional differences within 
Australia. Two pests that require risk mitigation, Grapholita molesta  and Frankliniella 
occidentalis  have been identified as a regional quarantine pest for Western Australia and 
Northern Territory respectively.  
The final re port recommends a combination of risk management measures and operational 
systems that will reduce the risk associated with the importation of fresh nectarine fruit from 
China into Australia to achieve Australia’s ALOP, that include:  
 visual inspection and remedial action for leaf rollers, mealybug, spider mite and thrips  
 area freedom or fruit treatment (cold disinfestation or irradiation) for fruit flies  
 area freedom or fruit treatment (methyl bromide fumigation or irradiation) or a systems 
approach approve d by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources for spotted wing drosophila  
 area freedom or area of low pest prevalence or fruit treatment (methyl bromide fumigation 
or irradiation) or a systems approach approved by the Austral ian Government Department 
of Agriculture and Water Resources for fruit borers  
 area freedom or area of low pest prevalence or alternative equivalent measures approved by 
the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources for brown rots  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Summary  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  2  area freedom or systems approach approved by the Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources for plum pox virus.  
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Introduction  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  3 1 Introduction  
1.1 Australia’s biosecurity policy framework  
Australia’s biosecurity policies aim to protect Australia against the risks that may arise from 
exotic pests entering, establishing and spreading in A ustralia, thereby threatening Australia's 
unique flora and fauna, as well as those agricultural industries that are relatively free from 
serious pests.  
The risk analysis process is an important part of Australia’s biosecurity policies. It enables the 
Austr alian Government to formally consider the risks that could be associated with proposals to 
import new products into Australia. If the risks are found to exceed Australia’s ALOP, risk 
management measures are recommended to reduce the risks to an acceptable level. But, if it is 
not possible to reduce the risks to an acceptable level, then no trade will be allowed.  
Successive Australian Governments have maintained a stringent, but not a zero risk, approach to 
the management of biosecurity risks. This approach is expressed in terms of Australia’s ALOP, 
which reflects community expectations through government policy and is currently described as 
providing a high level of protection aimed at reducing risk to a very low level, but not to zero.  
Australia’s risk anal yses are undertaken by the Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources using technical and scientific experts in relevant fields, and 
involve consultation with stakeholders at various stages during the process.  
The Australian Govern ment Department of Agriculture and Water Resources’ assessment may 
take the form of an import risk analysis (IRA), a non -regulated analysis of existing policy, or 
technical advice.  
Further information about Australia’s biosecurity framework is provided in Appendix B of this 
report and in the Import Risk Analysis Handbook 2011  located on the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  website.  
1.2 This import risk analysis  
1.2.1 Background  
The State Administration of Entry -Exit Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of 
China (CIQSA), now known as the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and 
Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China (AQSIQ), request ed market access for fresh peach 
fruit from Shandong province to Australia in 2001 (CIQSA 2001c) . This submission included 
information on the pests associated with peach and nectarine crops in China, including the plant 
parts affected, and some standard co mmercial production practices for fresh peach fruit in 
China.  
In 2006, AQSIQ extended this market access request to include peaches, nectarines, plums and 
apricot from all China (AQSIQ 2006b) . In September 2014, AQSIQ confirmed that nectarine fruit 
is its top summerfruit priority.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Introduction  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  4 On 4 February 2015, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources formally announced the commencement of this risk analysis, advising that it would be 
progressed as a non -regulated analysis of existing po licy or review, using the process described 
in the Import Risk Analysis Handbook 2011 . 
Officers from the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  
conducted a verification visit to Shanxi province, one of China’s major nectarine production 
areas , to observe nectarine production systems and packinghouse operations  on 6 -13 June 2015.  
1.2.2 Scope  
The scope of this risk analysis is to consider the biosecurity risk that may be associated with the 
importation of commercially produced fresh nectarine fruit ( Prunus persica  var. nectarina ), free 
from trash, from China, for human consumption in Australia.  
In this risk analysis, nectarine fruit is defined as fruit with or without a fruit stem (Figure 1). 
This risk analysis covers all commercially  produced fresh nectarine fruit of all cultivars/varieties 
and the provinces or regions of China in which they are grown for export.  
1.2.3 Existing policy  
International policy  
Import policy exists for fresh stonefruit including nectarines from the USA (Californi a, Idaho, 
Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b)  and New Zealand (Biosecurity Australia 
2006b) . The import of stonefruit including nectarines has occurred. Import policy also exists for 
apples, table grapes, pears and lychees and longans from  China (Biosecurity Australia 2005b, 
2010a, 2011; DAFF 2004) . The import of apples, pears and lychee and longan has also occurred. 
The import requirements  for these commodities can be f ound at the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources website.  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has previously 
considered all the pest groups in existing policies and, where relevant, the inf ormation in these 
assessments has been taken into account in this risk analysis. The Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources recognises the similarity of other stonefruit 
species (apricot, peach and plum) to nectarine fruit and the significant overlap of pests 
associated with these additional species. This policy is likely to form the basis of import 
conditions for these similar risk commodities.  
Domestic arrangements  
The Commonwealth Government is responsible for regulating the movement of plants and plant 
products into and out of Australia. However, the state and territory governments are responsible 
for plant health controls within their individual jurisdiction. Legislation relating to resource 
management or plant health may be  used by state and territory government agencies to control 
interstate movement of plants and their products. Once plant and plant products have been 
cleared by Australian biosecurity officers, they may be subject to interstate movement 
conditions. It is t he importer’s responsibility to identify, and ensure compliance with all 
requirements.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Introduction  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  5 1.2.4 Contaminating pests  
In addition to the pests of nectarine fruit from China that are assessed in this risk analysis, there 
are other organisms that may arrive with the im ported commodity. These organisms could 
include pests of other crops or predators and parasitoids of other arthropods. The Australian 
Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources considers these organisms to be 
contaminating pests that could po se sanitary and phytosanitary risks. These risks are addressed 
by existing operational procedures that require a 600 unit inspection of all consignments, or 
equivalent, and investigation of any pest that may be of quarantine concern to Australia.  
1.2.5 Consultat ion 
On 4 February 2015, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources notified stakeholders in Biosecurity Advice 2015/02 of the formal commencement of 
a non -regulated analysis of existing policy to consider a proposal from China for market access 
to Australia for fresh nectarine fruit.  
The draft report was released on 28 May 2015 (BA 2015/04) for comment and consultation 
with stakeholders, for a period of 30 days that concluded on 28 June 2015. Written submissions 
were received fr om 7 stakeholders. All submissions were carefully considered and, where 
relevant, changes were made to the final report.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  6 2 Method for pest risk analysis  
This chapter sets out the method u sed for the pest risk analysis (PRA) in this report. The 
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has conducted this PRA 
in accordance with the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs), including 
ISPM 2: Framewo rk for pest risk analysis  (FAO 2007b)  and ISPM 11: Pest risk analysis for 
quarantine pests  (FAO 2013)  that have been developed under the SPS Agreement (WTO 1995) . 
A PRA is ‘the process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to 
determine whether an organism is a pest, whether it should be regulated, and the strength of 
any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it’ (FAO 2015a) . A pest is ‘any species, strain or 
biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products’ (FAO 2015a) . 
Quarantine risk consists of two major components: the probability of a pest entering, 
establishing and spreading in Australia from imports; and the consequences should this happen. 
These two components are combined to give a n overall estimate of the risk.  
Unrestricted risk is estimated taking into account the existing commercial production practices 
of the exporting country and that, on arrival in Australia, the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resour ces will verify that the consignment received is as 
described on the commercial documents and its integrity has been maintained.  
Restricted risk is estimated with phytosanitary measure(s) applied. A phytosanitary measure is 
‘any legislation, regulation or official procedure having the purpose to prevent the introduction 
and/or spread of quarantine pests, or to limit the economic impact of regulated non -quarantine 
pests’ (FAO 2015a) . 
A glossary of the terms used is provided at the back of this report.  
The PR As are conducted in the following three consecutive stages: initiation, pest risk 
assessment and pest risk management.  
2.1 Stage 1 Initiation  
Initiation identifies the pest(s) and pathway(s) that are of quarantine concern and should be 
considered for risk analysis in relation to the identified PRA area.  
Appendix A of this risk analysis report lists the pests with the potential to be associated with the 
exported commodity produced using commercial production and packing procedures. 
Appendix  A does not presen t a comprehensive list of all the pests associated with the entire 
plant, but concentrates on the pests that could be on the assessed commodity. Contaminating 
pests that have no specific relation to the commodity or the export pathway have not been listed 
and would be addressed by Australia’s current approach to contaminating pests.  
The identity of the pests is given in Appendix A. The species name is used in most instances but a 
lower taxonomic level is used where appropriate. Synonyms are provided where t he current 
scientific name differs from that provided by the exporting country’s National Plant Protection 
Organisation (NPPO) or where the cited literature used a different scientific name.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  7 For this risk analysis, the ‘PRA area’ is defined as Australia fo r pests that are absent, or of limited 
distribution and under official control. For areas with regional freedom from a pest, the ‘PRA 
area’ may be defined on the basis of a state or territory of Australia or may be defined as a region 
of Australia consisti ng of parts of a state or territory or several states or territories.  
For pests that have been considered by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture 
and Water Resources in other risk assessments and for which import policies already exist, a 
judgement was made on the probability of entry of pests on the commodity and whether existing 
policy is adequate to manage the risks associated with its import. Where appropriate, the 
previous risk assessment was taken into consideration when developing the new policy.  
2.2 Stage 2 Pest risk assessment  
A pest risk assessment (for quarantine pests) is the ‘evaluation of the probability of the 
introduction and spread of a pest and of the magnitude of the associated potential economic 
consequences’ (FAO 2015a) . 
The f ollowing three, consecutive steps were used in pest risk assessment:  
2.2.1 Pest categorisation  
Pest categorisation identifies which of the pests with the potential to be on the commodity are 
quarantine pests for Australia and require pest risk assessment. A ‘qua rantine pest’ is a pest of 
potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or 
present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled (FAO 2015a) . 
The pests identified in Stage 1 were categorised using the  following primary elements to identify 
the quarantine pests for the commodity being assessed:  
 identity of the pest  
 presence or absence in the PRA area  
 regulatory status  
 potential for establishment and spread in the PRA area  
 potential for economic conseque nces (including environmental consequences) in the PRA 
area.  
The results of pest categorisation are set out in Appendix A. The quarantine pests identified 
during categorisation were carried forward for pest risk assessment and are listed in Table 4.1.  
2.2.2 Asse ssment of the probability of entry, establishment and spread  
Details of how to assess the ‘probability of entry’, ‘probability of establishment’ and ‘probability 
of spread’ of a pest are given in ISPM 11 (FAO 2013) . A summary of this process is given below , 
followed by a description of the qualitative methodology used in this risk analysis.  
Probability of entry  
The probability of entry describes the probability that a quarantine pest will enter Australia as a 
result of trade in a given commodity, be distrib uted in a viable state in the PRA area and Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  8 subsequently be transferred to a host. It is based on pathway scenarios depicting necessary 
steps in the sourcing of the commodity for export, its processing, transport and storage, its use 
in Australia and the ge neration and disposal of waste. In particular, the ability of the pest to 
survive is considered for each of these various stages.  
The probability of entry estimates for the quarantine pests for a commodity are based on the use 
of the existing commercial pr oduction, packaging and shipping practices of the exporting 
country. Details of the existing commercial production practices for the commodity are set out in 
Chapter 3. These practices are taken into consideration by the Australian Government 
Department of  Agriculture and Water Resources when estimating the probability of entry.  
For the purpose of considering the probability of entry, the Australian Government Department 
of Agriculture and Water Resources divides this step into two components:  
 Probability o f importation —the probability that a pest will arrive in Australia when a 
given commodity is imported.  
 Probability of distribution —the probability that the pest will be distributed, as a result of 
the processing, sale or disposal of the commodity, in the P RA area and subsequently transfer 
to a susceptible part of a host.  
Factors considered in the probability of importation include:  
 distribution and incidence of the pest in the source area  
 occurrence of the pest in a life -stage that would be associated with the commodity  
 mode of trade (for example, bulk, packed)  
 volume and frequency of movement of the commodity along each pathway  
 seasonal timing of imports  
 pest management, cultural and commercial procedures applied at the place of origin  
 speed of transport an d conditions of storage compared with the duration of the lifecycle of 
the pest  
 vulnerability of the life -stages of the pest during transport or storage  
 incidence of the pest likely to be associated with a consignment  
 commercial procedures (for example, re frigeration) applied to consignments during 
transport and storage in the country of origin, and during transport to Australia.  
Factors considered in the probability of distribution include:  
 commercial procedures (for example, refrigeration) applied to cons ignments during 
distribution in Australia  
 dispersal mechanisms of the pest, including vectors, to allow movement from the pathway to 
a host  
 whether the imported commodity is to be sent to a few or many destination points in the 
PRA area  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  9  proximity of entry,  transit and destination points to hosts  
 time of year at which import takes place  
 intended use of the commodity (for example, for planting, processing or consumption)  
 risks from by -products and waste.  
Probability of establishment  
Establishment is defined a s the ‘perpetuation for the foreseeable future, of a pest within an area 
after entry’ (FAO 2015a) . In order to estimate the probability of establishment of a pest, reliable 
biological information (for example, lifecycle, host range, epidemiology, survival)  is obtained 
from the areas where the pest currently occurs. The situation in the PRA area can then be 
compared with that in the areas where it currently occurs and expert judgement used to assess 
the probability of establishment.  
Factors considered in the  probability of establishment in the PRA area include:  
 availability of hosts, alternative hosts and vectors  
 suitability of the environment  
 reproductive strategy and potential for adaptation  
 minimum population needed for establishment  
 cultural practices and  control measures.  
Probability of spread  
Spread is defined as ‘the expansion of the geographical distribution of a pest within an area’ 
(FAO 2015a) . The probability of spread considers the factors relevant to the movement of the 
pest, after establishment o n a host plant or plants, to other susceptible host plants of the same or 
different species in other areas. In order to estimate the probability of spread of the pest, 
reliable biological information is obtained from areas where the pest currently occurs. The 
situation in the PRA area is then carefully compared with that in the areas where the pest 
currently occurs and expert judgement used to assess the probability of spread.  
Factors considered in the probability of spread include:  
 suitability of the natur al and/or managed environment for natural spread of the pest  
 presence of natural barriers  
 potential for movement with commodities, conveyances or by vectors  
 intended use of the commodity  
 potential vectors of the pest in the PRA area  
 potential natural enemies of the pest in the PRA area.  
Assigning qualitative likelihoods for entry, establishment and spread  
In its qualitative PRAs, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources uses the term ‘likelihood’ for the descriptors it us es for its estimates of probability of 
entry, establishment and spread. Qualitative likelihoods are assigned to each step of entry, Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  10 establishment and spread. Six descriptors are used: high; moderate; low; very low; extremely 
low; and negligible (Table 2.1) . Descriptive definitions for these descriptors and their indicative 
likelihood ranges are given in Table 2.1. The indicative likelihood ranges are only provided to 
illustrate the boundaries of the descriptors and are not used beyond this purpose in qualit ative 
PRAs. These indicative likelihood ranges provide guidance to the risk analyst and promote 
consistency between different pest risk assessments.  
Table 2.1 Nomenclature of qualitative likelihoods  
Likelihood  Descriptive definition  Indicative probability (P) range  
High  The event would be very likely to occur  0.7 < P ≤ 1  
Moderate  The event would occur with an even likelihood  0.3 < P ≤ 0.7  
Low  The event would be unlikely to occur  0.05 < P ≤ 0.3  
Very low  The event would be very unlikely to occur  0.001 < P ≤ 0.05  
Extremely low  The event would be extremely unlikely to occur  0.000001 < P ≤ 0.001  
Negligible  The event would almost certainly not occur  0 < P ≤ 0.000001  
The likelihood of entry is determined by comb ining the likelihood that the pest will be imported 
into the PRA area and the likelihood that the pest will be distributed within the PRA area, using a 
matrix of rules (Table 2.2). This matrix is then used to combine the likelihood of entry and the 
likelih ood of establishment, and the likelihood of entry and establishment is then combined with 
the likelihood of spread to determine the overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread.  
For example, if the likelihood of importation is assigned a descripto r of ‘low’ and the likelihood 
of distribution is assigned a descriptor of ‘moderate’, then they are combined to give a likelihood 
of ‘low’ for entry. The likelihood for entry is then combined with the likelihood assigned for 
establishment of ‘high’ to give  a likelihood for entry and establishment of ‘low’. The likelihood 
for entry and establishment is then combined with the likelihood assigned for spread of ‘very 
low’ to give the overall likelihood for entry, establishment and spread of ‘very low’. This can  be 
summarised as:  
importation x distribution = entry [E]  low x moderate = low  
entry x establishment = [EE]  low x high = low  
[EE] x spread = [EES]  low x very low = very low  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  11 Table 2.2 Matrix of rules for combining qualitative likelihoods  
 High  Moderate  Low  Very low  Extremely 
low  Negligible  
High  High  Moderate  Low  Very low  Extremely 
low Negligible  
Moderate  Low  Low  Very low  Extremely 
low Negligible  
Low  Very low  Very low  Extremely 
low Negligible  
Very low  Extremely 
low Extremely 
low Negligible  
Extremely low  Negligible  Negligible  
Negligible  Negligible  
Time and volume of trade  
One factor affecting the likelihood of entry is the volume and duration of trade. If all other 
conditions remain the same, the overall likelihood of entry will increase as time passes and the 
overall volume of trade increases.  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources normally considers 
the likelihood of entry on the basis of the estimated volume of one year’s trade. This is a 
convenient value for the analysis that is relatively easy to estimate and allows for expert 
consideration of seasonal variations in pest presence, incidence and behaviour to be taken into 
account. The conside ration of the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread and subsequent 
consequences takes into account events that might happen over a number of years even though 
only one year’s volume of trade is being considered. This difference reflects biological and 
ecological facts, for example where a pest or disease may establish in the year of import but 
spread may take many years.  
The use of a one year volume of trade has been taken into account when setting up the matrix 
that is used to estimate the risk and  therefore any policy based on this analysis does not simply 
apply to one year of trade. Policy decisions that are based on the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources’ method that uses the estimated volume of one 
year’s trade a re consistent with Australia’s policy on appropriate level of protection and meet 
the Australian Government’s requirement for ongoing quarantine protection. Of course if there 
are substantial changes in the volume and nature of the trade in specific commod ities then the 
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has an obligation to 
review the risk analysis and, if necessary, provide updated policy advice.  
In assessing the volume of trade in this risk analysis, the Australian Govern ment Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources assumed that a substantial volume of trade will occur . 
2.2.3 Assessment of potential consequences  
The objective of the consequence assessment is to provide a structured and transparent analysis 
of the likely con sequences if the pests or disease agents were to enter, establish and spread in 
Australia. The assessment considers direct and indirect pest effects and their economic and Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  12 environmental consequences. The requirements for assessing potential consequences ar e given 
in Article 5.3 of the SPS Agreement (WTO 1995) , ISPM 5 (FAO 2015a)  and ISPM 11 (FAO 2013) . 
Direct pest effects are considered in the context of the effects on:  
 plant life or health  
 other aspects of the environment.  
Indirect pest effects are conside red in the context of the effects on:  
 eradication, control  
 domestic trade  
 international trade  
 environment.  
For each of these six criteria, the consequences were estimated over four geographic levels, 
defined as:  
Local —an aggregate of households or enterprises (a rural community, a town or a local 
government area).  
District —a geographically or geopolitically associated collection of aggregates (generally a 
recognised section of a state or territory, such as ‘Far North Queensland’).  
Regional —a geograp hically or geopolitically associated collection of districts in a geographic 
area (generally a state or territory, although there may be exceptions with larger states such as 
Western Australia).  
National —Australia wide (Australian mainland states and terri tories and Tasmania).  
For each criterion, the magnitude of the potential consequence at each of these levels was 
described using four categories, defined as:  
Indiscernible —pest impact unlikely to be noticeable.  
Minor  significance —expected to lead to a mino r increase in mortality/morbidity of hosts or a 
minor decrease in production but not expected to threaten the economic viability of production. 
Expected to decrease the value of non -commercial criteria but not threaten the criterion’s 
intrinsic value. Effe cts would generally be reversible.  
Significant —expected to threaten the economic viability of production through a moderate 
increase in mortality/morbidity of hosts, or a moderate decrease in production. Expected to 
significantly diminish or threaten the i ntrinsic value of non -commercial criteria. Effects may not 
be reversible.  
Major  significance —expected to threaten the economic viability through a large increase in 
mortality/morbidity of hosts, or a large decrease in production. Expected to severely or 
irreversibly damage the intrinsic ‘value’ of non -commercial criteria.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  13 The estimates of the magnitude of the potential consequences over the four geographic levels 
were translated into a qualitative impact score (A -G) using Table 2.3. For example, a 
consequen ce with a magnitude of ‘significant’ at the ‘district’ level will have a consequence 
impact score of D.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  14 Table 2.3 Decision rules for determining the consequence impact score based on the magnitude of 
conseque nces at four geographic scales  
Magnitude  Geographic scale  
Local  District  Region  Nation  
Indiscernible  A A A A 
Minor significance  B C D E 
Significant  C D E F 
Major significance  D E F G 
Note: In earlier qualitative PRAs, the scale for the impact scores  went from A to F and did not explicitly allow for the rating 
‘indiscernible’ at all four levels. This combination might be applicable for some criteria. In this report, the impact scale of A 
to F has been changed to become B -G and a new lowest category A (‘indiscernible’ at all four levels) was added. The rules 
for combining impacts in Table 2.4 were adjusted accordingly.  
The overall consequence for each pest is achieved by combining the qualitative impact scores 
(A–G) for each direct and indirect conseque nce using a series of decision rules (Table 2.4). These 
rules are mutually exclusive, and are assessed in numerical order until one applies.  
Table 2.4 Decision rules for determining the overall consequence rat ing for each pest  
Rule  The impact scores for consequences of direct and indirect criteria  Overall consequence 
rating  
1 Any criterion has an impact of ‘G’; or  
more than one criterion has an impact of ‘F’; or  
a single criterion has an impact of ‘F’ and each  remaining criterion an ‘E’.  Extreme  
2 A single criterion has an impact of ‘F’; or  
all criteria have an impact of ‘E’.  High  
3 One or more criteria have an impact of ‘E’; or  
all criteria have an impact of ‘D’.  Moderate  
4 One or more criteria have an impa ct of ‘D’; or  
all criteria have an impact of ‘C’.  Low  
5 One or more criteria have an impact of ‘C’; or  
all criteria have an impact of ‘B’.  Very Low  
6 One or more but not all criteria have an impact of ‘B’, and  
all remaining criteria have an impact of ‘A’. Negligible  
2.2.4 Estimation of the unrestricted risk  
Once the assessment of the probability of entry, establishment and spread and for potential 
consequences are completed, the unrestricted risk can be determined for each pest or groups of 
pests. This is d etermined by using a risk estimation matrix (Table 2.5) to combine the estimates 
of the probability of entry, establishment and spread and the overall consequences of pest 
establishment and spread. Therefore, risk is the product of likelihood and consequen ce. 
When interpreting the risk estimation matrix, note the descriptors for each axis are similar (for 
example, low, moderate, high) but the vertical axis refers to likelihood and the horizontal axis 
refers to consequences. Accordingly, a ‘low’ likelihood c ombined with ‘high’ consequences, is not 
the same as a ‘high’ likelihood combined with ‘low’ consequences —the matrix is not 
symmetrical. For example, the former combination would give an unrestricted risk rating of 
‘moderate’, whereas, the latter would be rated as a ‘low’ unrestricted risk.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  15 Table 2.5 Risk estimation matrix  
Likelihood of 
pest entry, 
establishment 
and spread  Consequences of pest entry, establishment and spread  
Negligible  Very low  Low  Moderate  High  Extreme  
High  Negligible 
risk Very low risk  Low risk  Moderate 
risk High risk  Extreme risk  
Moderate  Negligible 
risk Very low risk  Low risk  Moderate 
risk High risk  Extreme risk  
Low  Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Very low risk  Low risk  Moderate 
risk High risk  
Very low  Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Very low risk  Low risk  Moderate 
risk 
Extremely low  Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Very low risk  Low risk  
Negligible  Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Negligible 
risk Very low risk  
2.2.5 Australia’s appropriate level of protection (ALOP)  
The SPS Agreement defines the concept of an ‘appropriate level of sanitary or phytosanitary 
protection (ALOP)’ as the level of  protection deemed appropriate by the WTO Member 
establishing a sanitary or phytosanitary measure to protect human, animal or plant life or health 
within its territory.  
Like many other countries, Australia expresses its ALOP in qualitative terms. Australia ’s ALOP, 
which reflects community expectations through government policy, is currently expressed as 
providing a high level of sanitary or phytosanitary protection aimed at reducing risk to a very 
low level, but not to zero. The band of cells in Table 2.5 m arked ‘very low risk’ represents 
Australia’s ALOP.  
2.3 Stage 3 Pest risk management  
Pest risk management describes the process of identifying and implementing phytosanitary 
measures to manage risks to achieve Australia’s ALOP, while ensuring that any negative effects 
on trade are minimised.  
The conclusions from pest risk assessment are used to decide whether risk management is 
required and if so, the appropriate measures to be used. Where the unrestricted risk estimate 
exceeds Australia’s ALOP, risk management measures are required to reduce this risk to a very 
low level. The guiding principle for risk management is to manage risk to achieve Australia’s 
ALOP. The effectiveness of any recommended phytosanitary measures (or combination of 
measures) is evaluated, u sing the same approach as used to evaluate the unrestricted risk, to 
ensure it reduces the restricted risk for the relevant pest or pests to meet Australia’s ALOP.  
ISPM 11 (FAO 2013)  provides details on the identification and selection of appropriate risk 
management options and notes that the choice of measures should be based on their 
effectiveness in reducing the probability of entry of the pest.  
Examples given of measures commonly applied to traded commodities include:  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Method for pest risk analysis  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  16  options for consignments —for example, inspection or testing for freedom from pests, 
prohibition of parts of the host, a pre -entry or post -entry quarantine system, specified 
conditions on preparation of the consignment, specified treatment of the consignment, 
restrictions on end -use, d istribution and periods of entry of the commodity  
 options preventing or reducing infestation in the crop —for example, treatment of the crop, 
restriction on the composition of a consignment so it is composed of plants belonging to 
resistant or less suscepti ble species, harvesting of plants at a certain age or specified time to 
the year, production in a certification scheme  
 options ensuring that the area, place or site of production or crop is free from the pest —for 
example, pest -free area, pest -free place of  production or pest -free production site  
 options for other types of pathways —for example, consider natural spread, measures for 
human travellers and their baggage, cleaning or disinfestations of contaminated machinery  
 options within the importing country —for example, surveillance and eradication programs  
 prohibition of commodities —if no satisfactory measure can be found.  
Risk management measures are identified for each quarantine pest where the risk exceeds 
Australia’s ALOP. These are presented in Chapter 5 : Pest risk management, of this report.  
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  17 3 China’s commercial production practices for nectarines  
This chapter provides information on the pre -harvest, harvest and post -harvest practices, 
considered to be standard practices in China for the production of fresh nectarine fruit for 
export. The export capability of China is also outlined.  
3.1 Assumptions used in estimating unrestricted risk  
China provided Australia with informati on on the standard commercial practices used in the 
production of peaches and nectarines in different regions for all commercially produced peaches 
and nectarines varieties in China. This information was complemented with data from other 
sources and was ta ken into consideration when estimating the unrestricted risks of pests that 
may be associated with the import of nectarines.  
Officers from the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources 
visited Yuncheng, Shanxi province, one of Chi na’s major nectarine production areas, during 8 –11 
June 2015. During this visit officers were able to observe and verify commercial production 
practices related to pest management in orchards and packinghouses. Based on the information 
gathered during this  verification visit, where relevant, changes were made to this Chapter.  
In estimating the likelihood of pest introduction, it was assumed that the pre -harvest, harvest 
and post -harvest production practices for peaches and nectarines, as described in this chapter, 
are implemented for all regions for nectarine varieties within the scope of this analysis. Where a 
specific practice described in this chapter is not taken into account to estimate the unrestricted 
risk, it is clearly identified and explained in C hapter 4.  
3.2 Climate in production areas  
Peaches and nectarines are widely planted in China. China’s main peach and nectarine 
production areas include Anhui, Beijing, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shaanxi, 
Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan and Zhejiang prov inces (Moore et al. 2012; Scott et al. 2014) (Map 4).  
Climate data including the mean maximum and minimum temperatures and the mean monthly 
rainfall for these provinces of China are presented in Figure 2.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  18 Map 4 Main peach and nectarin e production areas in China  
 
Source: Scott et al. (2014)  
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  19 Figure 2 Mean monthly rainfall and mean maximum and minimum temperatures for the main nectarine 
producing provinces of China  
 
 
-50510152025303540
050100150200250300
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Hefei, Anhui
-15-10-50510152025303540
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Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Beijing, Beijing-20-15-10-50510152025303540
050100150200250300
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Shijiazhuzang, Hebei
-10-50510152025303540
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Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperaure (  C)Rainfall (mm)Zhengzhou, Henan
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Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Nanjing, Jiangsu
-10-50510152025303540
050100150200250300
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Xian, Shaanxi
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  20  
 
 
Source: (World Weather Online 2015)  
 
-10-50510152025303540
050100150200250300
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Jinan, Shandong
-15-10-50510152025303540
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Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Taiyuan, Shanxi
0510152025303540
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Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Hangzhou, Zhejiang
-30-20-10010203040
050100150200250300
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Shenyan, Liaoning
0510152025303540
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Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Chengdu, Sichuan
0510152025303540
050100150200250300
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JulAug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature (  C)Rainfall (mm)Wuhan, Hubei
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  21 3.3 Pre-harvest  
3.3.1 Cultivars  
Peach ( Prunus persica  L.) has been grow n in China for around 3  000 years. Peaches and 
nectarines are planted in most provinces. Varieties have been developed to accommodate 
diversified taste preferences in different localities. There are three major types of peaches, 
including common peach ( Prunus persica  (L.) Batsch), nectarine ( P .persica  var. nectarina  
Maxim) and flat peach ( P. persica  var. compressa  Bean) (AQSIQ 2006b) . 
The main nectarine varieties grown in China include Qian Niang Hong, Zao Hong Zhu, Zao Hong 
Bao Shi, Shu Guang, Hua Gang, Y uang Guang, Zhong You series, Lui Guang series, Zao Hong 2, Mei 
Gui Hong, Shuang Xi Hong, Qin Nan (AQSIQ 2006b)  and QinGuang series (China NorthWest A&F 
University, 2015, pers. comm., 3 February).  
3.3.2 Cultivation practices  
Stonefruit production in China is rel atively labour -intensive with pollination, bud thinning and 
pesticide and fertiliser applications commonly performed by hand. Limited in -field 
mechanisation permits relatively high planting densities and use of sloping ground that would 
be unsuitable for m echanised production.  
There are two major types of nectarine fruit tree canopies in China: open centre canopy and 
central leader canopy forms. Central leader canopy for high -density orchards is widely used in 
newly planted orchards (Figure 3).  
Figure 3 N ectarine tree canopy forms in China —open centre canopy (left) and central leader 
canopy (right)  
Source: photo courtesy of China NorthWest A&F University, February 2015  
Other commercial export peach and nectarine orchard management practices include orchard  
hygiene, irrigation, fertiliser application and pest management.  
Fruit bagging is no longer a standard commercial practice for nectarine production in China, 
which is contrary to that identified in the draft report which was based on the information 
provi ded by AQSIQ in 2001 and 2006. Shanxi Entry -Exit Inspection and Quarantine Bureau (CIQ) 
advised that, in general, nectarine fruits are not bagged in China due to the few pests and 
diseases associated with nectarine production, and high labour costs of bagg ing (nectarine fruits 
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  22 are relatively small compared with peaches and apples and therefore must attract a higher price 
to justify the expense of bagging).  
3.3.3 Pest management  
Pest control programs (IPM, integrated pest management programs) may include physical , 
biological, cultural and chemical control. Good management of pests in the field is an important 
factor in reducing the number of pests associated with harvested fruit.  
Common pests of concern in peach and nectarine orchards include aphids, mites, moths,  peach 
shot hole, gummosis and peach trunk canker (CIQSA 2001c; Moore et al. 2012) . 
General orchard surveillance for quarantine and non -regulated pests and disease is conducted 
by qualified Plant Protection officers every 10 –15 days. Trees are selected for  inspection using a 
five-point sampling plan and fruit cutting is not normally undertaken unless suspect external 
symptoms are found. Plant with suspect disease symptoms is routinely sampled and sent for 
laboratory identification at CIQ technical centres a nd/or Agricultural Universities. Each orchard 
presented inspection records for the current season during the verification visit  to the major 
nectarine production areas in Shanxi province in June 2015. The records confirmed that the 
inspection program has b een implemented.  
Pest trapping and general monitoring form a critical component of the orchard management 
system. In Shanxi province, the following traps were observed in nectarine orchards registered 
for exports, during the verification visit, and CIQ out lined that additional trapping efforts will be 
put in place if required by importing countries. CIQ is responsible for setting up, servicing and 
inspecting the traps regularly.  
• Fruit fly traps, such as methyl eugenol, trimedlure, cuelure, protein bait and sugar 
vinegar solution, for monitoring economically important species such as spotted 
wing drosophila ( Drosophila suzukii ), Oriental fruit fly ( Bactrocera dorsalis ) and 
guava fruit fly ( B. correcta ). 
• Pheromone traps for fruit borers  
• Codling moth and oriental fruit moth traps  
While the specific practices in orchards vary according to local conditions, pest pressures and 
availability of equipment, there are common practices across the industry. These practices 
minimise the presence of pests and diseases  on the harvested nectarine fruits.  
Integrated pest and disease management programs (IPM and IDM) are often adopted to manage 
a range of pests and diseases that affect growth and development of fruit in peach and nectarine 
orchards. A range of effective, b ut low -toxicity and low -residue, insecticides and fungicides are 
used when required during the growing season to mitigate the impact of insects and diseases. 
Insect trapping devices and biological control agents are also used for surveillance and 
monitorin g and control.  
The orchard management measures are undertaken throughout the year. These measures 
comprise nine stages and include cultural, mechanical and chemical methods (CIQSA 2001c) . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  23 1) December to early March —orchard sanitation with removal of fallen le aves and twigs, winter 
pruning and management of dormant pests in the soil under nectarine trees.  
2) Mid to late March —prior to bud sprouting, fertilisers are applied to stimulate leaf growth and 
bud sprouting. Also, the recommended pesticides are applied to manage insects and diseases.  
3) April —general orchard operations include fertiliser application, blossom thinning and 
pollination and removal of late shoots. Chemicals are sprayed to manage aphids, shot hole, 
mites, moths, canker, peach brown rot and other pe sts. 
4) May —fruit thinning, post -blooming fertiliser application, irrigation and removal of late 
shoots. A range of recommended pesticides and fungicides may be applied to manage aphids, 
shot hole, mites, moths, canker, peach brown rot and other pests, accord ing to the pest 
prevalence.  
5) June —the insects and pathogens (listed in May operations) are controlled, if required, with 
recommended pesticides and fungicides. Harvesting of early season varieties may commence.  
6) July—general orchard operations include orchar d draining, branch thinning and fertiliser 
application. Pest management measures continue for pests and diseases including leaf rollers 
and fruit borers. Harvest of the early season varieties may commence.  
7) August —pest management practices are continued for  the pests identified earlier in the 
season, if required. Withholding periods are observed to avoid potential chemical residues. 
Harvest may start for mid -season varieties.  
8) September to October —harvest of late season varieties. Harvesting finishes and orch ard 
operations such as branch thinning, orchard hygiene and winter irrigation are undertaken to 
safeguard fruit trees during the winter season.  
9) November —complete cleaning of the orchards after leaf -fall. 
Chemicals prohibited by China’s Ministry of Agricult ure are not permitted to be sold or used for 
control of pests on nectarines. Growers are allowed to purchase chemicals only from approved 
agents. Spraying in orchards is conducted under technical supervision.  
3.4 Harvesting and handling procedures  
Nectarines a re harvested from June to October with the peak harvesting period between July 
and September. A small portion is grown in greenhouses with harvest starting in early May. 
Nectarine fruit usually have a thin peel, which may be damaged during the harvest and 
transportation process. Therefore, suitable containers must be used and care must be taken to 
minimise damage to fruits during harvesting and transportation to the packinghouses.  
The taste, quality and shelf life of nectarine fruit is greatly related to ma turity. When fruit has 
reached a suitable size with specific colour and tight pulp, then it is time for harvest. Harvesting 
is done based on two maturity standards:  
 Two harvesting periods: hard maturity and full maturity. For export markets, nectarines are  
normally harvested at fruit hardness of 9 kilograms per square centimetre.  
 Four grades: 70 per cent mature, 80 per cent mature, 90 per cent mature and fully mature 
(100 per cent).  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  24 3.5 Post -harvest  
3.5.1 Packinghouse  
Fruit are processed as soon as possible after har vest. Packinghouse processes include pre -
cooling, cleaning using a pressurised air gun, grading, packing and cold storage.  
Pre-cooling —harvested fruits should be cooled as quickly as possible, normally within 2 –3 
hours and for no more than 24 hours, to pos tpone the maturing process and maximise storage 
period.  
Cleaning —instead of washing and brushing, each individual nectarine fruit is cleaned using 
pressurised air gun and water trough ( Figure 4 ). 
Grading —during the initial grading process, damaged, inferio r, abnormal, dirty and perished 
fruit are discarded, and then fruits are graded by size. For shipments with specific requirements, 
the fruits are graded accordingly. There are usually three grade standards: grade one, grade two, 
and others.  
Packing —to minimise damage, suitable containers must be used and carefully handled during 
harvest. The most common containers used are cartons, wooden boxes and plastic boxes, with 
capacities of 5 –10 kilograms. The usual inner liner is bubble wrap underlay.  
Cold stor age—packed and sealed cartons are palletised and put into segregated post -processing 
cold storage rooms to bring the fruit temperature to 0.0 °C to 0.5 °C for short term storage.  
Figure 4  Use of a pressurised air gun and water trough to clean each individ ual nectarine fruit.  
 
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  25 3.5.2 Post -harvest treatments  
Post -harvest treatments, such as fungicide dipping and calcium chloride solution dipping, may 
be used in some production areas, but are not standard commercial practices for nectarines. For 
example, in Shanxi p rovince, these post -harvest treatments are not used.  
3.5.3 Quality assurance inspection  
Packed cartons of nectarines are randomly selected from the line on a continuous basis. The 
fruits are checked on a designated inspection table by trained packinghouse staff for quality and 
the presence of quarantine pests identified by the importing country.  
3.5.4 Transport  
Packed and sealed cartons should be transported and stored in cold storage rooms immediately 
to maintain the commercial quality of the fruit.  
A schematic diagra m summarising the harvesting, processing, treatment and storage system for 
nectarines prior to export is shown in Figure 5.  
While the unrestricted risk assessments undertaken in this policy review do not impose any 
mandatory measures during storage and transport, common commercial practices may impact 
the survival of some pests.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  26 Figure 3 Summary of orchard and post -harvest steps for peaches a nd nectarines grown in China 
for export  
 
Final report for Chinese nectarines  Commercial production practices  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  27 3.6 Export capability  
3.6.1 Production statistics  
China is the largest peach and nectarine producer in the world. China’s main peach and 
nectarine production provinces are listed in Table 3.1. In 2012, the total peach/nectarine 
production area was 745  000 hectares which produced about 11.4 million tonnes of fruit, which 
accounts for more than 50 per cent of the world’s total peach/nectarine production (Scott et al. 
2014) . 
Table 3.1 China’s main peach/nectarine production provinces  
Province  2010  2011  2012  
Area ha 
(x1000)  Yield MT 
(x1000)  Area ha 
(x1000)  Yield MT 
(x1000)  Area ha 
(x1000)  Yield MT 
(x1000)  
Shandong  101.2  2436  96.4  2401  100.2  2384  
Hebei  85.8  1462  82.6  1527  82.0  1573  
Henan  73.9  1017  75.5  1086  76.3  1106  
Hubei  49.1  607  56.6  690  53.9  674  
Shaanxi  31.2  594  30.4  567  30.9  641  
Liaoning  25.1  537  23.9  568  22.2  610  
Jiangsu  35.6  457  37.5  501  37.8  556  
Shanxi  16.1  321  17.6  441  18.8  512  
Anhui  24.1  430  27.0  424  30.5  478  
Sichuan  45.1  416  47.0  449  47.2  451  
Zhejiang  26.2  356  25.9  383  26.2  389  
Beijing  20.9  386  20.4  404  20.0  373  
ha hectare. MT million tonnes  
Source: (Scott et al. 2014)  
3.6.2 Export statistics  
Despite the high production volume, China is not a major peach and nectarine exporter. In 2013, 
China exported about 50  000 tonnes of fresh peaches and nectarines (Scott et al. 2014) . China’s 
main export markets include Southeast Asian markets (Hong Kong, Philippines, Malaysia, 
Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand), the United Arab Emirates and Russia (AQSIQ 2006b; Scott, Xu.F. 
& Bugang 2013) . 
3.6.3 Export season  
Peaches and nectarines are exported between May and October.  
Transportation of fruit from China to Australi a would be either by air freight or general sea 
freight, with the total time in transit, from the orchard until arrival in Australia, expected to be 
from a few days to as long as 3 –5 weeks (21 –35 days) (China Shipping Australia 2014) . 
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  28 4 Pest risk assessments for quarantine pests  
Quarantine pests associated with fresh nectarine fruit from China are identified in the pest 
categorisation process (Appendix A). This chapter assesses the likelihood of the entry, 
establishment and spread of th ese pests and the likelihood of associated potential economic, 
including environmental, consequences to provide an overall assessment of risk.  
Pest categorisation identified 29 quarantine pests associated with fresh nectarine fruit from 
China. Of these, 26  pests are of national concern and 3 are of regional concern. Table 4.1 
identifies these quarantine pests, and full details of the pest categorisation are given in 
Appendix  A. 
Pest risk assessments already exist for some of the pests considered here as the y have been 
assessed previously by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources. For these pests, the likelihood of entry (importation and/or distribution) could be 
different from the previous assessment due to differences in the  commodity, country and 
commercial production practices in the export areas, and hence may need to be re -assessed. 
Unless there is new information to suggest otherwise, the likelihood of establishment and of 
spread in the PRA area, and the consequences the  pests may cause will be the same for any 
commodity/country with which the pests are imported. Accordingly, there is no need to re -
assess these components and the risk ratings given in the previous assessment will be adopted. 
For a pest that has previously  been assessed and a policy already exists, this will be stated in the 
introduction of the pest risk assessment, and the acronym ‘EP’ (existing policy) is used to 
highlight this.  
Some pests identified in this final report have been recorded in some regions  of Australia, and 
due to interstate quarantine regulations are considered pests of regional concern. These pests 
are identified with the acronym, such as ‘WA’ (Western Australia), for the state for which the 
regional pest status is considered.  
The Austral ian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources is aware of the 
recent changes in fungal nomenclature which ended the separate naming of different states of 
fungi with a pleiomorphic life -cycle. However, as the nomenclature for these fungi is in a phase 
of transition, many priorities of names are still to be resolved and much of the primary literature 
uses the existing nomenclature, this report still uses dual names for most fungi. As official lists of 
accepted and rejected fungal names become available, these accepted names will be adopted.  
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  29 Table 4.1 Quarantine pests for fresh nectarine fruit from China  
Pest scientific  name  Common name  
Spider mites [Prostigmata: Tetranychidae]  
Amphitetranychus viennensis (EP)  
Tetranychus turkestani (EP)  hawthorn spider mite  
strawberry spider mite  
Weevils [Coleoptera: Curcurlionidae]  
Rhynchites auratus (EP)  
Rhynchites confragosicollis (EP)  
Rhynchites faldermanni (EP)  
Rhynchites heros (EP)  cherry weevil  
peach curculio  
peach weevil  
pear leaf weevil  
Fruit flies [Diptera: Tephritidae]  
Bactrocera correcta (EP)  
Bactrocera dorsalis (EP) guava fruit fly  
Oriental fruit fly  
Fruit fly [Diptera: Drosophilidae]  
Drosophila suzukii (EP)  spotted wing drosophila  
Mealybugs [Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae]  
Pseudococcus comstocki (EP)  comstock mealybug  
Scales [Hemiptera: Diaspididae]  
Pseudaonidia duplex  camphor scale  
Pseudaulacaspis prunicola (EP) armoured scale  
Moths [Lepidoptera: Tortricidae]  
Adoxophyes orana (EP)  
Argyrotaenia ljungiana (EP)  
Grapholita funebrana (EP)  
Spilonota albicana (EP)  
Cydia pomonella  (EP, WA)  summerfruit tortrix  
grape tortrix  
plum fruit moth  
white fruit moth  
codling moth  
Grapholita molesta (EP, WA)  Oriental fruit moth  
Twig borer [Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae]  
Anarsia lineatella (EP)  peach twig borer  
Fruit borer [Lepidoptera: Carposinidae]  
Carposina sasakii (EP)  peach fruit borer  
Thrips [Thysanoptera: Thripidae]  
Frankliniella intonsa (EP)  
Frankliniella occidentalis (EP, NT)  Eurasian flower thrips  
Western flower thrips  
Fungi  
Monilinia fructigena (EP)  
Monilia mumecola  
Monilia polystroma  
Monilinia yunnanensis  brown rot  
brown rot  
brown rot 
brown rot  
Viroids and Viruses  
Apple scar skin viroid (EP)  ASSVd  
Tobacco necrosis viruses (EP) TNV  
Plum pox virus (EP) PPV  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  30 4.1 Hawthorn spider mite  
Amphitetranychus viennensis  (EP) 
Amphitetranychus viennensis also known as  Tetranychus  viennensis  (hawthorn spider mite) 
belongs to the Tetranychidae family. Mites of this family are commonly referred to as spider 
mites due to their habit of spinning protective silken webbing on plants under which they feed 
(Zhang 2003) . The hawthorn spider mite has five life stages: egg, larva, two nymph stages 
(protonymph and deutonymph) and adult (Zhang 2003) . 
Amphitetranychus viennensis  was assessed in the existing import policy for apples from China 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . The assessment of hawthorn spider mite presented here builds 
on this previous assessment.  
The risk scenario of concern for A. viennensis is the presence of eggs, nymphs and/or adults on 
imported nectarines.  
Differences in the commodity, horticultural practic es, climatic conditions and the prevalence of 
A. viennensis  between previous export areas in China make it necessary to reassess the 
likelihood that A. viennensis will be imported into Australia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected  to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of apples from China. After importation, nectarines will be 
distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to apples from China. Therefore, 
it is considered unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of A. viennensis in Australia will be comparable 
regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which A. viennensis is imported into Australia, as th ese 
likelihoods relate specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of A. viennensis are also independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these compone nts of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, s pread and consequences as set out for  
A. viennensis in the existing policy for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . 
Therefore, those risk ratings will be adopted for this assessment.  
4.1.1 Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
4.1.2 Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that A. viennensis  will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh nectarines 
from China is: Moderate . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  31  Spider mites are associated with stonefruit (peach, nectarine, plum and apricot) production 
in China (Feng & Wang 2004) . Amphitetranychus vienne nsis is widespread in China including 
Henan, Liaoning, Shaanxi and Shandong provinces where China’s main stonefruit production 
areas are located (AQSIQ 2006b) . 
 Spider mite populations can rapidly increase, particularly in hot and dry conditions with 
severe  infestations resulting in defoliation. The life cycle of spider mites depends on the 
species and environmental factors. For example, there are five generations of A. viennensis  
per year (Alford 2007; David'yan 2009)  and on stonefruit in China spider mites  produce 
from 6 –10 generations a year depending on the conditions in the area of occurrence (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . 
 Spider mites are primarily found on the leaves of plants and are reported to both feed and 
lay eggs on leaves (Alford 2007) . However, spider mites are highly mobile and have the 
capacity to move onto all parts of the plant and may move to other parts of the host plant 
when populations become high (Jeppson, Keifer & Baker 1975) . 
 In colder climates , spider mites survive the winter temperatures by entering an inactive 
state or diapause. Only fertilised females overwinter under the bark or inside cracks on the 
stem and branches of the host plants (David'yan 2009) . They emerge in early spring and lay 
eggs on the underside of the leaves (Alford 2007) . 
 Spider mites are very small and difficult to see without the aid of a hand lens. Adult females 
of Amphitetranychus viennensis  range from 0.5 to 0.6 millimetres in length, males are 
0.37  millimetres long and eggs are 0.17 millimetres in diameter (Alford 2007) . The small size 
of spider mites and their eggs may make them difficult to detect, especially at low population 
levels and when they are present in the depression on the stem -end of fruit. The sorting, 
grading and packing processes may not reliably remove lightly infested fruit from the export 
pathway.  
 All harvested nectarines are cleaned using a pressurised air gun following harvest. This 
process would likely dislodge any mobile spider mites present on the surface of the fruit. 
However, it may not completely remove spider mites and/or eggs located in the depression 
in the stem -end of nectarine fruit. Mites associated with webb ing at the stem -end of fruit 
have been observed during packinghouse process (Curtis et al. 1992) . 
 After packing, nectarine fruit will be stored at 0.0 to 0.5 °C (AQSIQ 2006b) . Fertilised female 
spider mites overwinter and survive sub -zero temperatures (Vee rman 1985)  and are likely 
to survive cold storage and transportation to Australia.  
 There is a potential for spider mites to be associated with summer fruit after storage and 
transportation as live spider mites ( Tetranychus  spp.) have been intercepted numer ous 
times on stonefruit exported from New Zealand to Australia. While the time in transit from 
China is likely to be longer than from New Zealand, the interception data demonstrates that 
spider mites can survive packinghouse procedures and in -transit cold storage.  
Hawthorn spider mites are small and may not be detected during routine packinghouse 
processes. Fertilised female spider mites are likely to survive cold storage and transportation to 
Australia. However, although spider mites can be associated with  fruit when populations are 
high, they are primarily found on the leaves of the host plants. The stem end of the infested fruit 
often forms spider web, when the population is high, which makes the infestation readily visible Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  32 and is likely to be removed dur ing packinghouse procedures. But when the fruit is lightly 
infested, they may remain undetected. This information supports a likelihood estimate for 
importation of ‘moderate’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for A. viennensis asse ssed here would be the same as that for A. 
viennensis for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) , that is Moderate . 
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distrib ution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that A. viennensis will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China 
and be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host is: Low . 
4.1.3 Likelihood of establishment and spr ead 
The likelihood of establishment and of spread for A. viennensis  is based on the assessment for 
apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . That assessment used the same methodology 
as described in Chapter 2 of this report. The ratings from previous assessments are presented 
below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    Moderate  
4.1.4 Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that A. viennensis  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China, 
be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, e stablish in Australia and subsequently 
spread within Australia has been assessed as: Low . 
4.1.5 Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of A. viennensis  in Australia have been estimated 
previously for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . The overall consequences have 
been estimated to be Moderate . 
4.1.6 Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and sp read 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  33 Unrestricted risk estimate for Amphitetranychus viennensis  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Low  
Consequences  Moderate  
Unrestricted risk  Low  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for A. viennensis  has been assessed as ‘low’, which is 
above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management measures are required for thi s 
pest.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  34 4.2 Strawberry spider mite  
Tetranychus turkestani  (EP) 
Tetranychus  turkestani  (strawberry spider mite) belongs to the Tetranychidae family. Mites of 
this family are commonly referred to as spider mites due to their habit of spinning protective 
silken webbing on plants under which they feed (Zhang 2003) . Spider mites have five life stages: 
egg, larva, two nymph stages (protonymph and deutonymph) and adult (Zhang 2003) . 
The risk scenario of concern for T. turkestani is the presence of eggs, nymphs or adults on 
imported nectarines.  
Tetranychus turkestani  was assessed in the existing po licy for stonefruit from the USA 
(California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . The assessment 
presented here builds on the previous assessment.  
Differences in horticultural practices, climatic conditions and the prevalence of T. turkestani  
between export areas in the US and China make it necessary to reassess the likelihood that 
T. turkestani  will be imported into Australia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October  which is 
similar to the timing of the import of stonefruit from the USA. After importation, nectarines will 
be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to stonefruit from the USA. 
Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reasses s the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of T. turkestani  in Australia will be comparable 
regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which T. turkestani  is imported into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relate specificall y to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of T. turkestani  are also independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for 
T. turkestani  in the existing policy for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . Therefore, those risk ratings will be adopted for this 
assessment.  
4.2.1 Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
4.2.2 Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that T. turkestani  will arrive in Australia with the importa tion of fresh nectarines 
from China is: Low . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  35  Tetranychus turkestani  has been reported on banana and cotton in Hainan province (Migeon 
& Dorkeld 2012; Zhang & Fu 2004)  and the Xinji ang Uyghur Autonomous Region  (Gu et al. 
2010)  of China, which does not coincide with China’s major nectarine production regions. In 
addition, no report of T. turkestani  on stonefruit was found in China.  
 Peaches and nectarines are hosts of T. turkestani  (Migeon & Dorkeld 2013) . This mite feeds 
in colonies mainly on the lower surface of the leaf, but the injury shows on the upper surface 
(Jeppson, Keifer & Baker 1975) . 
 Spider mite populations can rapidly increase, particularly in hot and dry conditions with 
severe infestations resulting in defoliation. The life cycle of spider mites depends on the 
species and environmental factors.  
 Spider mites are primarily found on the leaves of plants and are reported to both feed and 
lay eggs on leaves (Alford 2007; David' yan 2009) . However, spider mites are highly mobile 
and have the capacity to move onto all parts of the plant (Jeppson, Keifer & Baker 1975)  and 
may move to other parts of the host plant when populations become high (Jeppson , Keifer & 
Baker 1975) . 
 In colder climates, spider mites survive the winter temperatures by entering an inactive 
state or diapause stage. Only fertilised females overwinter under the bark or inside cracks on 
the stem and branches of the host plants (David' yan 2009) . They emerge in early spring and 
lay eggs on the underside of the leaves (Alford 2007) . Female mites may overwinter in the 
depression on the stem -end of the mature fruit (Curtis et al. 1992) . 
 Spider mites are very small (0.25 –0.5 millimetres) and  difficult to see without the aid of a 
hand lens (Berry 1998) . The small size of spider mites and their eggs may make them 
difficult to detect, especially at low population levels and when they are present in the 
depression on the stem -end of fruit. The so rting, grading and packing processes may not 
reliably remove lightly infested fruit from the export pathway.  
 All harvested nectarines are cleaned using a pressurised air gun following harvest. This 
process would likely dislodge any mobile spider mites pres ent on the surface of the fruit. 
However, it may not completely remove spider mites and/or eggs located in the depression 
in the stem -end of mature fruit. Mites associated with webbing at the stem -end of fruit have 
been observed during packinghouse process  (Curtis et al. 1992) . 
 After packing, nectarine fruit will be stored at 0.0 °C to 0.5 °C (AQSIQ 2006b) . Fertilised 
female spider mites overwinter and survive sub -zero temperatures (Veerman 1985)  and are 
likely to survive cold storage and transportation to Australia.  
 There is a potential for spider mites to be associated with stonefruit after storage and 
transportation as live spider mites ( Tetranychus  spp.) have been intercepted numerous 
times on stonefruit exported from New Zealand to Australia.  
 While the time in transit from China is likely to be longer than from New Zealand, the 
interception data demonstrates that spider mites can survive packinghouse procedures and 
in-transit cold storage.  
Spider mites are small and may not be detected during routine pac kinghouse processes. 
Fertilised female spider mites are likely to survive cold storage and transportation to Australia. 
However, the current distribution of the strawberry mite in China is limited and does not Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  36 coincide with major nectarine production regio ns and no reports of strawberry spider mite 
associated with stonefruit in China have been found. This information supports a likelihood 
estimate for importation of ‘low’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for T. turkestani  assessed here would be the same as that for T. 
turkestani  for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010b) , that is Moderate . 
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that T. turkestani  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China 
and be distributed in a viable state to a suscept ible host is: Low . 
4.2.3 Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and of spread for T. turkestani  is based on the assessment for 
stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 
2010b) . That a ssessment used the same methodology as described in Chapter  2 of this report. 
The ratings from previous assessments are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.2.4 Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that T. turkestani  will enter Australia as a result o f trade in nectarines from China, 
be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in Australia and subsequently 
spread within Australia has been assessed as: Low . 
4.2.5 Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of T. turkestani in Aust ralia have been estimated 
previously for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010b) . The overall consequences have been estimated to be Low . 
4.2.6 Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted r isk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  37 Unrestricted risk estimate for Tetranychus tu rkestani  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Low  
Consequences  Low  
Unrestricted risk  Very low  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for T. turkestani  has been assessed as ‘very low’, 
which achieves Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, no specific risk management measures are required 
for this pest.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  38 4.3 Rhynchites weevils  
Rhynchites auratus (EP), Rhynchites confragosicollis , Rhynchites faldermani , 
Rhynchites  heros  (EP) 
Rhynchites auratus (Korean pear weevil), R. confragosicollis  (peach curculio), R. faldermani  
(peach weevil) and R. heros  (pear leaf weevil) belong to the weevil family Rhynchitidae. Weevils 
of this family are distinguished from other beetles by their long snouts and mouth parts 
modified to allow them to chew into flower heads . 
Rhynchites  weevils have four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult (Booth, Cox & Madge 1990)  
and one generation per year and both adult and larval stages overwinter in the soil  (China Plant 
Pests 2007; USDA 1958) . In the northern hemisphere, overwintered adults emerge in April and 
start feeding on young foliage followed by mating within 3 –4 days, and egg laying starts two 
days later (USDA 1958) . 
The biology and taxonomy of these  four Rhynchites  weevil species are considered sufficiently 
similar to justify combining them into a single assessment. In this assessment, the term 
‘Rhynchites  weevils’ is used to refer to these four species unless otherwise specified.  
The risk scenario o f concern for R. auratus , R. cofragosicollis , R. faldermani  and R. heros  is the 
presence of eggs and developing larvae within imported nectarines.  
Rhynchites auratus and R. heros  were assessed in the existing import policy for apples from 
China (Biosecurit y Australia 2010a)  while R. heros  was also assessed in the final extension of 
policy for Chinese pears (Biosecurity Australia 2005b) . It is considered that these previous 
assessments for R. auratus and R. heros  can equally apply to R. cofragosicollis and R. faldermani . 
Therefore, the assessment of Rhynchites  weevils presented here builds on these previous 
assessments.  
Differences in commodity, horticultural practices, climatic conditions and the prevalence of 
R. auratus and R. heros  between previous export areas in China make it necessary to reassess the 
likelihood that R. auratus and R. heros  will be imported into Australia with nectarines from 
China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit may be imported from China from May to October which is similar to the 
timing of the import of pears and apples from China. After importation, nectarines will be 
distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to apples and pears from China. 
Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of distributio n. 
The likelihood of establishment and spread of R. auratus and R. heros in Australia will be 
comparable regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which R. auratus and R. heros are 
imported into Australia, as these likelihoods relate specifically to events that occur in Australia 
and are independent of the importation pathway. The consequences of R. auratus and R. heros 
are also independent of the importation pathway. Accordingly , there is no need to reassess these 
components of the risk.  
The establishment and spread of R. auratus and R. heros in Australia will be comparable for any 
commodity from which these species are imported into Australia, as these likelihoods relate 
specifi cally to events that occur in Australia and are largely independent of the importation Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  39 pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components, and the risk ratings for 
distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for R. aura tus and R. heros  in the 
import risk analysis reports for apples and pears from China (Biosecurity Australia 2005a, 
2010a) . 
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new in formation is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  R. 
auratus and R. heros  in the existing policy for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a)  
and for Chine se pears (Biosecurity Australia 2005b) . Therefore, those risk ratings will be 
adopted for this assessment.  
4.3.1 Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consi der pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that R. auratus , R. cofragosicollis , R. faldermani  and R. heros will arrive in Australia 
with the importation of fresh nectarines from China is: Very Low . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 Rhynchites  weevils are associated with summerfruit production in China and are widespread 
throughout the summerfruit production areas in China. Rhynchites auratus  is a pest of peach 
in Xinjiang and Hebei Provinces (CAAS 1992; Wang et al. 1998) . Rhynchites heros  has a wide 
host range including stonefruit and is widespread along the east coast and also extends to 
the west of China (Hanson 1963) . Rhynchites confragosicollis  is a pest of pe ach throughout 
southern China (Li, Wang & Waterhouse 1997) . Rhynchites faldermani  is a pest of peach 
along the east coast and gradually spread towards inland including Sichuan province in 
southern west of China (China Plant Pests 2007) . Rhynchites confrago sicollis  is an important 
pest of peach throughout Southern China (Li, Wang & Waterhouse 1997) . 
 Rhynchites weevils lay eggs a few millimetres deep in the developing fruit and sever the 
stalk. The infested fruit usually falls from the tree within a few days to facilitate larvae 
entering and pupating in the soil (Hanson 1963) . 
 Some infested fruit may remain hanging on the tree for some time, although it will not 
develop due to injuries made by the Rhynchites  weevil female at the stalk and will shrink in 
size (Hanson 1963) . The egg laying site is easily recognisable due to dark pigmentation that 
develops around it (INRA 1997) . Such fruit is very likely to be removed during the 
harvesting and packinghouse procedures.  
 Adult Rhynchites  weevils are visible to the na ked eye, for example R. auratus  range from 5.5 
to 9.5 millimetres in size (Alford 2007) . Adult weevils feeding on the fruit will be disturbed 
during harvest and fall off the fruit. It is unlikely that the mature nectarines will be infested 
with adult Rhync hites  weevils.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  40  After packing, nectarines will be stored at 0.0 °C to 0.5 °C (AQSIQ 2006b) . Rhynchites  weevil 
adults and larvae overwinter in cold climates (Alford 2007)  and are likely to survive cold 
storage and transportation to Australia if they are asso ciated with commercial fruit.  
Rhynchites weevils are widely distributed in China and nectarine is one of the major hosts. 
Rhynchites weevil’s ability to survive cold temperatures would allow immature life stages of 
weevils to survive cold transportation to  Australia. However, since infested fruit typically drop 
from the tree prior to harvest this would significantly reduce the likelihood that weevils would 
be associated with commercial quality fruit. In addition, any infested fruit that remains on the 
tree will have obvious signs of damage and is very likely to be removed during harvest and 
packinghouse procedures. This information supports a likelihood estimate for importation of 
‘very low’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for R. auratus  and R. heros  assessed here would be the same as that 
for R. auratus  and R. heros  for apples and pears from China (Biosecurity Australia 2005a, 
2010a) . It is considered that R. cofragosicollis  and R. faldermani  would have the same likelihood 
of distr ibution, that is Moderate . 
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that R. auratus , R. cofragosico llis, R. faldermani  and R. heros will enter Australia as 
a result of trade in nectarines from China and be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible 
host is: Very low . 
4.3.2 Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and of spread for R. auratus  and R. heros is based on the 
assessment for apples and pears from China (Biosecurity Australia 2005a, 2010a) . Those 
assessments used the same methodology as described in Chapter  2 of this report.  It is 
considered that R. cofragosicollis  and R. faldermani  would have the same likelihood of 
establishment and spread. The ratings from the previous assessment are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   Moderate  
Likelihood of spread:    Moderate  
4.3.3 Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood th at R. auratus , R. cofragosicollis , R. faldermani and R. heros will enter Australia as 
a result of trade in nectarines from China, be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, 
establish in Australia and subsequently spread within Australia has be en assessed as: Very Low . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  41 4.3.4 Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of R. auratus and R. heros in Australia have been 
estimated previously for apples and pears from China (Biosecurity Australia 2005b, 2010a) . 
Rhynchites cofragosicollis  and R. faldermani are considered to  have similar impact (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . The overall consequences have been estimated to be Moderate.  
4.3.5 Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment an d spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for R. auratus , R. cofragosicollis , R. faldermani  and R. heros  
Overall likelihood of entr y, establishment and spread  Very low  
Consequences  Moderate  
Unrestricted risk  Very Low  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for R . auratus, R. cofragosicollis, R. faldermani and 
R. heros  has been assessed as ‘very low’, which achieves Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, no specific 
risk management measures are required for these pests.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  42 4.4 Oriental fruit fly  
Bactrocera dorsalis  (EP) 
Bactrocera dorsalis (Oriental fruit fly) belongs to the Tephritidae  family which is a group of pests 
considered to be among the most damaging pests of horticultural crops.  
Bactrocera dorsalis has four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Eggs deposited into the fruit 
hatch into larvae which feed and develop inside the  fruit. There are three larval instars. Pupation 
occurs in the soil under the host plant. Adult fruit flies are long -lived and have high reproductive 
rates, producing several overlapping generations a year, depending on the temperature (White 
& Elson -Harri s 1992) . 
The risk scenario of concern for B. dorsalis  is the presence of eggs and developing larvae within 
imported nectarines.  
Bactrocera dorsalis  was assessed in the existing policy for longans and lychees from China and 
Thailand (DAFF 2004) , and mangoes  from Taiwan and India (Biosecurity Australia 2006c, 
2008) . Existing policy for B. dorsalis  was also adopted for a pples and table grapes from China 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011) . The assessment of B. dorsalis  presented here builds on 
these previous assessments.  
Differences in the commodity, horticultural practices, climatic conditions, and the prevalence of 
B. dorsalis between previous export areas (India, the Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand) and 
China make i t necessary to reassess the likelihood that B. dorsalis will be imported into Australia 
with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of apples, tabl e grapes, longans and lychees from China, 
mangoes from Taiwan and India and longan and lychee from Thailand. After importation, 
nectarines will be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to apples, table 
grapes, mangoes, longans a nd lychees. Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reassess the 
likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of B. dorsalis  in Australia will be comparable 
regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which B. dorsalis  is import ed into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relate specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of B. dorsalis  are also independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribu tion, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  B. 
dorsalis  in the existing policies for longans and lychees from China and Thailand (DAFF 2004) , 
mangoes from Taiwan and India (Biosecurity Australia 2006c, 2008) , and a pples and table 
grapes fro m China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011) . Therefore, those risk ratings will be 
adopted for this assessment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  43 4.4.1 Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that Bactrocera dorsalis will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh 
nectarines from China is: High . 
The following information provides supporting  evidence for this assessment.  
 Bactrocera dorsalis  has a wide host range and peach and nectarine are major hosts (CABI 
2015) . 
 Bactrocera dorsalis  is widespread in tropical Asia and is widespread in central, east, south 
and southwest regions of China (Yang 1988) . 
 Studies indicate that the northernmost distribution of B. dorsalis  distribution in China that 
would support permanent populations is 30 ± 2 degrees north latitude (Hou & Zhang 2005; 
Wu 2005; Yang, Carey & Dowell 1994)  including some of China’s major  peach and nectarine 
production areas . It has been reported to infest peach in Yunnan, Guangxi and Guangzhou 
area of Guangdong province (Chen & Ye 2007; Yang 1988) . 
 Bactrocera dorsalis infestations can occur throughout the year in southern provinces and 
only seasonally in the northern region of China (Chen, Ye & Liu 2006) . Females deposit eggs 
beneath the skin of host fruit and after hatching the larvae feed within the fruit until they are 
ready to pupate (Chen, Ye & Liu 2006; Dhillon et al. 2005) . 
 Infested fruit may show obvious signs of attack or tissue decay. Such fruit will be removed 
during sorting, packing and quality inspection procedures.  
 However, newly infested fruit may not be distinguished from un -infested fruit. Such fruit is 
unlikely to be detected during sorting, packing and quality inspection procedures due to the 
absence of visual blemishes, bruising or damage to the skin; eggs and/o r larvae are likely to 
escape detection.  
 Juvenile life stages are likely to survive the cold transportation to Australia from China as 
they are able to survive extended periods of cold (USDA 2010) . 
Bactrocera dorsalis is present in some of the major peach and nectarine production regions. 
Peach and nectarine are major hosts of B. dorsalis . Newly infested fruit may not be distinguished 
from un -infested fruit and such fruit is unlikely to be detected during sorting, packing and 
quality inspection procedures. The eggs and larvae are likely to survive the cold storage and 
transportation. This information supports a likelihood estimate for importation of ‘high’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for B. dorsalis  assessed here would be the s ame as that for B. 
dorsalis for longans and lychees from China and Thailand (DAFF 2004) , mangoes from Taiwan 
and India (Biosecurity Australia 2006c, 2008) , and a pples and table grapes from China 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011) , that is High.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  44 Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that B. dorsalis  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nect arines from China 
and be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host is: High . 
4.4.2 Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and of spread for Bactrocera dorsalis is based on the assessment 
for longans and lychees from Chin a and Thailand (DAFF 2004) , mangoes from Taiwan and India 
(Biosecurity Australia 2006c, 2008) , and a pples and table grapes from China (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010a, 2011) . The ratings from the previous assessments are presented below:  
Likelihood of establis hment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.4.3 Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, establishment and spread using the matrix of rules  shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that Bactrocera dorsalis will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from 
China, be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in Australia and 
subsequently spread within Australia has bee n assessed as: High . 
4.4.4 Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of Bactrocera dorsalis in Australia have been estimated 
previously as high for longans and lychees from China and Thailand (DAFF 2004) , mangoes from 
Taiwan and India (Biosecurity Australia 2006c, 2008) , and a pples and table grapes from China 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011) . The overall consequences have been estimated to be High . 
4.4.5 Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, es tablishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for Bactrocera dorsalis  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spre ad High  
Consequences  High  
Unrestricted risk  High  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for Bactrocera dorsalis  has been assessed as ‘high’, 
which is above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management measures are required for 
this pest.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  45 4.5 Guava fruit fly  
Bactrocera correcta  (EP) 
Bactrocera correcta (guava fruit fly) belongs to the Tephritidae family which i s a group 
considered to be among the most damaging pests of horticultural crops.  
Bactrocera correcta  has four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Eggs deposited into the fruit 
hatch into larvae which feed and develop inside the fruit. There are three larval instars. Pupation 
occurs in the soil under the host plant. Adult fruit flies are long -lived and have high reproductive 
rates, producing several overlapping generations a year, depending on the temperature (White 
& Elson -Harris 1992) . 
The risk scenar io of concern for B. correcta  is the presence of eggs and developing larvae within 
imported nectarines.  
Bactrocera correcta  was assessed in the existing policy for mangoes from India (Biosecurity 
Australia 2008) . The assessment of Bactrocera correcta  prese nted here builds on this previous 
assessment.  
Differences in the commodity, horticultural practices, climatic conditions, and the prevalence of 
B. correcta between previous export areas (India) and China make it necessary to reassess the 
likelihood that B. correcta  will be imported into Australia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of mangoes from India. After importation, nectarines will be 
distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to mangoes from India. 
Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of B. correcta in Australia will be comp arable 
regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which B. correcta is imported into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relate specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of B. correcta are a lso independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new informati on is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  B. 
correcta  in the existing policy for mangoes from India (Biosecurity Australia 2008) . Therefore, 
those risk ratings w ill be adopted for this assessment.  
4.5.1 Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that B. correcta will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh nectarines 
from China is: Low . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  46 The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 Bactrocera correcta  is a tropical species that is recorded from south and southwest China 
(Yang 1988)  including Guangdong and Yunnan provinces which are not major peach and 
nectarine production areas (Li, Wang & Waterhouse 1997; Liang et al. 1993) . 
 Bactrocera correcta  is a q uarantine pest for China and is considered absent from northern 
regions of China.  
 Peach and nectarine are known hosts of B. correcta  (Steck 2002)  which are sometimes 
heavily infested as it is for example in India (Kapoor 2002) . 
 Bactrocera correcta  has 4–5 generations per year in the Guangzhou area (Yang 1988)  and in 
Yunnan B. correcta  and B. dorsalis  are present in mixed populations throughout the year (Liu 
& Ye 2009) . 
 Females deposit eggs beneath the skin of host fruit and after hatching the larvae feed wi thin 
the fruit until they are ready to pupate (Chen, Ye & Liu 2006; Dhillon et al. 2005) . 
 Infested fruit normally show obvious signs of attack or tissue decay. Such fruit will be 
removed during sorting, packing and quality inspection procedures.  
 However, n ewly infested fruit may not be distinguished from un -infested fruit. Such fruit is 
unlikely to be detected during sorting, packing and quality inspection procedures due to the 
absence of visual blemishes, bruising or damage to the skin; eggs and/or larvae are likely to 
escape detection.  
  Juvenile life stages are likely to survive the cold transportation to Australia from China 
although B. correcta  is more sensitive to cold temperatures as it has higher developmental 
threshold temperatures compare to B. dors alis (Liu & Ye 2009) . 
Peach and nectarine are hosts of B. correcta . Newly infested fruit may not be distinguished from 
un-infested fruit and such fruit is unlikely to be detected during sorting, packing and quality 
inspection procedures. Bactrocera correct a is a tropical species and is sensitive to cold 
temperatures but some eggs and larvae would be likely to survive the cold storage and 
transportation. However, Bactrocera correcta is not present in major peach and nectarine 
production regions and is a regi onal quarantine pest of China. This information supports a 
likelihood estimate for importation of ‘low’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for B. correcta  assessed here would be the same as that for B. 
correcta  for mangoes from Indi a (Biosecurity Australia 2008) , that is High.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that B. corr ecta  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China 
and be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host is: Low . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  47 4.5.2 Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and of spread for Bactrocera correcta is base d on the assessment 
for mangoes from India (Biosecurity Australia 2008) . The ratings from the previous assessment 
are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.5.3 Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that Bactrocera correcta will enter Australia as a result  of trade in nectarines 
from China, be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in Australia and 
subsequently spread within Australia has been assessed as: Low . 
4.5.4 Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of Bactrocera correcta in Australia have been estimated 
previously as high for mangoes from India (Biosecurity Australia 2008) . The overall 
consequences have been estimated to be High . 
4.5.5 Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining th e likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for Bactrocera correcta  
Overall likelihood of entr y, establishment and spread  Low  
Consequences  High  
Unrestricted risk  Moderate  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for Bactrocera correcta  has been assessed as 
‘moderate’, which is above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management measures are 
required for this pest.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  48 4.6 Spotted wing drosophila  
Drosophila suzukii  (EP) 
The quarantine risks posed by Drosophila suzukii  from all countries and for all commodities has 
been assessed in a separate pest risk analysis (Department of Agriculture 2013) . This pest 
attacks a range of soft fruits including stonefruit (peaches, nectarines, plums, apricots and 
cherries). It is also d escribed as a major pest on cherry in China (Dai & Shi 2013) . The pest risk 
analysis report identified fresh fruit imports as a potential pathway for the introduction of 
Drosophila  suzukii  with an unrestricted risk that exceeds Australia’s ALOP.  
Drosophila  suzukii  is considered native to several Asian countries including China, where it is 
widespread (Anhui, Beijing, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Heilongjiang, Henan, 
Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai , Shanxi, Sichuan, 
Yunnan, Zhejiang) (CABI 2015; Dai & Shi 2013; Kai, Zhang & Carson 1993) . 
The risk scenario of concern for D. suzukii  is the presence of the eggs and larvae in imported 
nectarines.  
The likelihood estimates from the Final pest risk analysi s report for Drosophila suzukii  
(Department of Agriculture 2013)  are presented below.  
4.6.1 Likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
Likelihood of importation:   High  
Likelihood of distribution:   High  
Overall likelihood of entry:   High  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.6.2 Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the m atrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that Drosophila suzukii will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from 
China, be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in Australia and 
subsequently spread within Aust ralia has been assessed as: High . 
4.6.3 Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of Drosophila suzukii in Australia have been estimated 
previously in the Final pest risk analysis report for Drosophila suzukii  (Department of Agriculture 
2013) . The overa ll consequences are estimated to be High . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  49 4.6.4 Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for Drosophila suzukii  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  High  
Consequences  High  
Unrestricted risk  High  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for Drosophila suzukii  has been assessed as ‘high’, 
which is above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management measures are required for 
this pest.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  50 4.7 Comstock mealybug  
Pseudococcus comstocki  (EP) 
Pseudoc occus comstocki  (comstock mealybug) belongs to the Pseudococcidae or mealybug 
family. It has been recorded on Prunus persica  (Ben -Dov 2014c; CABI 2015)  and heavily infested 
peach and nectarine orchards in Europe after accidental introduction (Pellizzari et  al. 2012) . 
The risk scenario of concern for this mealybug is the presence of crawlers, immobile juveniles or 
adult mealybugs in the stem -end cavity of imported nectarines.  
Pseudococcus comstocki  was assessed in the existing import policies, such as for st onefruit from 
the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) , apples and 
table grapes from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011)  and Unshu mandarins from Japan 
(Biosecurity Australia 2009) . The assessment of P. comstoc ki presented here builds on these 
previous assessments.  
Differences in horticultural practices, climatic conditions and the prevalence of 
Pseudococcus  comstocki between previous export areas in Japan, the USA and China make it 
necessary to reassess the lik elihood that P. comstocki  will be imported into Australia with 
nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho , Oregon and 
Washington) and apples and table grapes from China. After importation, nectarines will be 
distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to stonefruit from the USA. 
Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reassess the lik elihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of P. comstocki  in Australia will be comparable 
regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which P. comstocki  is imported into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relate specifically to events  that occur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of P. comstocki  are also independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian G overnment Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  
P. comst ocki  in the existing policies, such as for stonefruit from the USA (Biosecurity Australia 
2010b) , apples and table grapes from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011)  and Unshu 
mandarins from Japan (Biosecurity Australia 2009) . Therefore, those risk rati ngs will be 
adopted for this assessment.  
4.7.1 Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of  importation  
The likelihood that P. comstocki  will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh nectarines 
from China is: High . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  51 The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 Pseudococcus comstocki  is widely distributed in China’s major peach/nectarine production 
regions including Beijing, Hebei, Henan, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi (AQSIQ 2005; 
Yang et al. 2011) . 
 Fruit bagging is not effective in preventing P. comstocki  from infesting fruit a s, with large 
populations, it still access to the fruit via the openings in the bag (Yang et al. 2011) . 
  Pseudococcus comstocki  has up to three generations a year in China and causes damage to 
nectarine and peach fruit, resulting in heavy economic loss (Ben-Dov 2014c; Pellizzari et al. 
2012; Yang et al. 2011) . 
 Third instar mealybug nymphs seek sheltered feeding sites such as in the fruit stem cavity 
(Pellizzari et al. 2012) . Their small size (0.3 -2.5 millimetres) makes them hard to detect 
(CABI 2015; Tavern er & Bailey 1995b) . 
 Females search for sheltered places to lay their eggs often in the stem end of nectarines and 
peaches (Pellizzari et al. 2012) . 
 The tendency for P. comstocki  to move from leaves to trunks, branches, fruits or other 
protected places incr eases in the second and third generation adult females, typically from 
the end of July to early August (Pellizzari et al. 2012) . There is potential for viable mealybug 
eggs, nymphs or adults to remain associated with fruit after harvesting.  
 Mealybugs that may be firmly anchored to the fruit or that are hidden in the stem -end cavity 
of fruit (Taverner & Bailey 1995a)  may not be completely removed by cleaning using 
pressurised air gun in the packinghouses. Eggs deposited in secluded places such as in the 
stem -end cavity of nectarine fruit also may not be completely removed by this cleaning 
process.  
 Sorting and grading would remove some mealybug infested fruit if clear symptoms of 
infestation are present. Low level infestations may be difficult to detect and it  is expected 
that some infested fruit would remain undetected.  
 Fruit is ideally stored at between 0 and 2 °C (Curtis et al. 1992; Summerfruit Australia 2014; 
Yokoyama, Miller & Crisosto 1999) . Overwintering egg masses of Pseudococcus comstocki  
have apparen tly not been affected by absolute minimum temperatures of –3.0 °C and –5.4 °C 
(Pellizzari et al. 2012) . Pseudococcus comstocki  also overwinters on trunks and branches of 
vines in northern China (Li, Liu & Wu 2004; Zhang 2005)  and would be likely to survive  cold 
storage and transportation. A related species, Pseudococcus affinis  (now Pseudococcus 
viburni ), can survive for up to 42 days at 0 °C (Hoy & Whiting 1997)  indicating that 
mealybugs are likely to survive cold storage during transportation to Australia . 
Pseudococcus comstocki  is widely distributed in China’s major peach and nectarine production 
regions. Fruit bagging is not effective in reducing P. comstocki  infestation. Packinghouse 
processes may not remove all P. comstocki  from the infested fruit. The  size of P. comstocki  is 
small and it may not be detected during routine packinghouse processes.  
Pseudococcus  comstocki  is likely to survive cold storage and transportation. This information 
supports a likelihood estimate for importation of ‘high’.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  52 Likelih ood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for P. comstocki  assessed here would be the same as that for 
stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 
2010b) , apples and table grapes from China (Biosecurit y Australia 2010a, 2011)  and Unshu 
mandarins from Japan (Biosecurity Australia 2009) , that is Moderate.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matri x of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that P. comstocki  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China 
and be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host is: Moderate . 
4.7.2 Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihoo d of establishment and spread for P. comstocki  is based on the assessment for 
stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 
2010b) , apples and table grapes from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011)  and Unshu 
mandarins from Japan (Biosecurity Australia 2009) . Those assessments used the same 
methodology as described in Chapter 2 of this report. The ratings from the previous assessments 
are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.7.3 Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The lik elihood that P. comstocki  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China, 
be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in Australia and subsequently 
spread within Australia has been assessed as: Moderate . 
4.7.4 Consequenc es 
The consequences of the establishment of P. comstocki  in Australia are being based on the 
assessments for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010b) , apples and table grapes from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011)  and 
Unshu mandarins from Japan (Biosecurity Australia 2009) . The overall consequences have been 
estimated to be Low . 
4.7.5 Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and s pread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table  2.5. Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  53 Unrestricted risk estimate for Pseudococcus comstocki  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Moderate  
Consequences  Low  
Unrestricted risk  Low  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for P. comstocki  has been assessed as ‘low’, which is 
above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management measures are required for this 
pest.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  54 4.8 Armoured scales  
Pseudaonidia duplex  and Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  (EP) 
Pseudaonidia duplex (camphor scale) and  Pseudaulac aspis prunicola belong to the Diaspididae 
family. Scales of this family are commonly referred to as armoured scales due to the insect’s 
production of a hard, fibrous, wax like covering that attaches the scale to the host plant (Carver, 
Gross & Woodward 199 1). These scale species share similar biology and taxonomy and cause 
similar impact on host plants.  
Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  was considered as a synonym of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona but was 
reinstated as a separate species in 1980 (Miller & Davidson 1990) . 
The biology and taxonomy of these two armoured scales species are considered sufficiently 
similar to justify combining them into a single assessment. In this assessment, the term 
‘armoured scales’ is used to refer to both species unless otherwise specifi ed. 
The risk scenario of concern for armoured scales is the presence of mobile or immobile juveniles 
or adult scales in the depression at the stem end of imported nectarines.  
Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  was assessed in the existing import policy for stonefru it from the USA 
(California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . Although P. duplex  
has not been assessed previously, it is considered that the previous assessment for P. prunicola  
could be equally applied to P. duplex  due to the si milarity of biology, taxonomy and economic 
impacts. Therefore, the assessment of P. duplex and P. prunicola  presented here builds on the 
previous assessment for Pseudaulacaspis prunicola . 
Differences in horticultural practices, climatic conditions and the prevalence of P. prunicola  
between the previous export area (the USA) and China make it necessary to reassess the 
likelihood that P. prunicola  will be imported into Australia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit may be imported from China from  May to October which is similar to the 
timing of the import of stonefruit from the USA. After importation, nectarines will be distributed 
throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to stonefruit from the USA. Therefore, it is 
considered unneces sary to reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of P. prunicola in Australia will be comparable 
regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which P. prunicola is imported into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relat e specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of P. prunicola are also independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In ad dition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences  as set out for  P. 
prunicola in the existing policy for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . Therefore, those risk ratings will be adopted for this 
assessment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  55 4.8.1 Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that  Pseudaonidia duplex  and Pseudaulacaspis pru nicola  will arrive in Australia 
with the importation of fresh nectarines from China is: Low . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 The armoured scales assessed here are widely distributed and are important pests of tea  
tree, citrus and figs in China (Li, Wang & Waterhouse 1997) . 
 Pseudaonidia duplex and Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  attack a wide range of deciduous plants 
and fruit trees (CABI 2015) . They feed, reproduce and develop on young shoots and leaves of 
their host p lants, with occasional fruit infestation when the populations are high (Watson 
2005) . 
 No reports of Pseudaonidia duplex on peaches and nectarines in China were found. However, 
P. duplex  was reported to occasionally infest peaches in the USA (Hodges 2005) . 
 Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  primarily infests bark and fruit of host plants. It has been 
frequently confused with P. pentagona  (Miller & Davidson 2005) . 
 Armoured scale infestations can cause visible symptoms on fruit and are likely to cause the 
fruit to be r ejected during harvesting, sorting and packinghouse processes. However, 
armoured scales are small and low infestations in the stem end may remain undetected.  
 The cleaning process using pressurised air gun would likely dislodge crawlers and a 
proportion of the sessile armoured scales present on the surface of the fruit. However, this 
cleaning process may not completely remove armoured scales and/or eggs located in the 
stem -end of nectarines.  
 Armoured scales are likely to survive the cold temperatures during storage and 
transportation although low temperatures would slow development of scales. 
Pseudaonidia  duplex and Pseudaulacaspis  prunicola  overwinter as fertilised females in 
continental climates (Li, Wang & Waterhouse 1997) . 
The armoured scales are widely d istributed in China. Peaches and nectarines are hosts of 
Pseudaonidia duplex and Pseudaulacaspis prunicola . Harvesting and packinghouse processes is 
unlikely to remove all armoured scales from the stem end of the infested fruit. Armoured scales 
are likely to survive the cold temperatures during storage and transportation. However, 
Pseudaonidia duplex and Pseud aulacaspis prunicola  only occasionally infest commercial fruit 
when populations are high. No reports of Pseudaonidia  duplex and Pseudaulacaspis  prunicola  on 
commercial nectarine fruit have been found in China. This information supports a likelihood 
estimat e for importation of ‘low’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  assessed here would be the same as 
that for Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  56 Washington)  (Biosecurity Australia 2010b)  and Pseudaonidia  duple  is considered to have the 
same likelihood of distribution, that is Low.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distri bution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that Pseudaonidia duplex and Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  will enter Australia as a 
result of trade in nectarines from China and be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host 
is: Low . 
4.8.2 Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and spread for Pseudaulacaspis  prunicola  is based on the 
assessment for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010b) . That assessme nt used the same methodology as described in Chapter 2 of this 
report. Pseudaonidia duplex is considered to have the same likelihood of establishment and 
spread. The ratings from the previous assessment are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High 
Likelihood of spread:    Moderate  
4.8.3 Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules  shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that Pseudaonidia duplex and Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  will enter Australia as a 
result of trade in nectarines from China, be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, 
establish in Australia and subsequently s pread within Australia has been assessed as: Very low . 
4.8.4 Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  are being based on the 
assessment for stonefruit from the USA (Biosecurity Australia 2010b)  for 
Pseudaulacaspis  prunicola . Pseudaonidia  duplex is considered to have similar impact. The overall 
consequences have been estimated to be Low . 
4.8.5 Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for Pseudaonidia duplex  and Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Very low  
Consequences  Low  
Unrestricted risk  Very Low  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  57 As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for Pseudaonidia  duplex  and 
Pseudaulacaspis  prunicola  has been assessed as ‘very low’, which achieves Australia’s ALOP. 
Therefore, no specific risk management measures are required for these pests.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  58 4.9 Leaf rollers  
Adoxophyes orana  (EP), Argyrotaenia ljungiana  and Spilonota albicana  (EP) 
Adoxophyes orana (summer fruit tortrix), Argyrotaenia ljungiana  (grape tortrix) and 
Spilonota  albicana (white fruit moth)  belong to the Tortricidae family. Moths of  this family are 
an economically important group commonly referred as leaf rollers due to their habit of 
spinning lea ves together or rolling leaves of their host plants for shelter (Alford 2007) . 
Leaf rollers damage fruit crops through larval feeding on buds, foliage, bracts, fruitlets and fruit 
(Alford 2007; Ovsyannikova & Grichanov 2009) . Leaf roller larval attack on m aturing fruit 
causes considerable damage in quality rendering fruit blemished and unmarketable.  Infestations 
of leaf rollers may also result in secondary infections by fungal pathogens causing fruit to rot 
(Alford 2007) . 
Leaf rollers have four life stages:  egg, larva, pupa and adult. Females lay eggs in batches on 
leaves of the host plants. Newly hatched larvae feed on the underside of the leaves, close to the 
mid -rib. Once they have rolled or webbed leaves together with silk to form a shelter, the larvae 
feed more extensively, usually at the shoot tips. Foliage is often rolled or webbed against the 
fruit and fruitlets, which are then also attacked.  
The biology and taxonomy of these three leafroller species and the impacts on host plants are 
considered suffi ciently similar to justify combining them into a single assessment. In this 
assessment, the term ‘leaf rollers’ is used to refer to these three species unless otherwise 
specified.  
The risk scenario of concern for leaf rollers is the presence of eggs on or larvae inside imported 
nectarines.  
Adoxophyes orana and S. albicana  were assessed in the existing import policy for apples from 
China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . Adoxophyes orana  was also assessed in the existing import 
policy for longan and lychees fro m China and Thailand (DAFF 2004) . It is considered that these 
previous assessment for A. orana and S. albicana  can also equally apply to A. ljungiana . 
Therefore, the assessment of the above -listed leaf rollers presented here builds on these 
previous assess ments.  
Differences in commodities, horticultural practices, climatic conditions and the prevalence of 
leaf rollers between previous export areas in China and Thailand and new export areas in China 
make it necessary to reassess the likelihood that leaf roll ers will be imported into Australia with 
nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of apples from China and longans and lychees from Thailand 
and Chin a. After importation, nectarines will be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale 
in a similar way to these fresh fruit commodities. Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to 
reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment  and spread of A. orana and S. albicana  in Australia will be 
comparable regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which A. orana and S. albicana  are 
imported into Australia, as these likelihoods relate specifically to events that occur in Australia Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  59 and ar e independent of the importation pathway. The consequences of A. orana and S. albicana  
are also independent of the importation pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these 
components of the risk.  
The likelihood of establishment and of spread of  the above -listed leaf rollers in Australia, and the 
consequences they may cause will be comparable for any fruit commodity from which these 
species are imported into Australia, as these likelihoods relate specifically to events that occur in 
Australia and  are largely independent of the importation pathway. Accordingly, there is no need 
to reassess these components.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for 
A. orana and S. albicana  in the existing policy for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 
2010a) . Therefore, those risk  ratings will be adopted for this assessment.  
4.9.1 Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that Adoxophyes orana, Argyrotaenia ljungiana and Spilonota albicana  will arrive 
in Australia with the importation of fresh nectarines from China is: Low . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for t his assessment.  
 Adoxophyes orana, A. ljungiana and S. albicana  are widely distributed in China including 
major peach and nectarine production regions and are major pests of a range of horticultural 
commodities including stonefruit and apples (Hua & Wang 20 06; Ma 2006) . 
 Adoxophyes orana  females lay eggs on the surface of leaves or fruit of the host plants (Byun, 
Yan & Li 2003) . First instar larvae hatch in 8 -20 days and feed under a silk web on the 
underside of a leaf. Later instars feed inside rolled leaves  or web leaves to fruit and feed on 
the surface. Larvae complete five instars and pupation occurs in the final larval nest. Second 
or third instar larvae of the last generation hibernate until spring and complete development 
by feeding on buds and young le aves (Gilligan & Epstein 2014) . Larval feeding of the fruit 
includes external fruit damage (point -like holes) in the fruit tissue and grazing damage on 
fruit surface (Noma et al. 2010) . 
  Argyrotaenia ljungiana females deposit eggs in batches usually on the  upper surface of host 
plant leaves. The newly hatched larvae skeletonise the undersides of leaves along the midrib, 
later dispersing to feed inside leaves spun together or against fruit (Meijerman & Ulenberg 
2000a) . Beginning from the 3rd instar, they liv e in rolled or folded leaves and damage buds or 
fruits adjoining to those leaves, gnawing out surface cavities in fruits (Afonin et al. 2008) . 
The infested fruit will be readily detected.  
 Eggs laid on the surface of fruit would likely be dislodged by pres surised air gun cleaning. 
However, S. albicana (mainly a pome fruit pest) females may lay eggs in the calyx of its host 
fruit (CAAS 1992) . In the case of peach and nectarine fruit, it may lay its eggs in the Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  60 depression at the stem end and these eggs may no t be completely removed during the 
cleaning process.  
 Newly hatched later generations of S. albicana  larvae may bore into fruit from the calyx or 
stem end of the fruit. A spot or swelling is formed on fruit surface because of congestion of 
frass and would be readily detected (Afonin et al. 2008) . However, newly infested fruit is less 
likely to have any o bvious symptoms of presence of eggs or larvae on the fruit. Such fruit 
may escape detection during the packinghouse procedures.  
 Adoxophyes orana  and S. albicana  are present in the far North East region in China (Byun, 
Yan & Li 2003; Zhang & Li 2005) . Their  larvae survive the extreme winter temperatures in 
Liaoning and Heilongjiang provinces respectively. This indicates that these species have the 
potential to survive cold temperatures during the transportation of nectarines from China to 
Australia, hence, a re likely to survive storage and transportation.  
Leaf rollers are widely distributed in China’s major peach and nectarine production regions and 
are associated with peach and nectarine fruit. Leaf roller larvae and eggs are likely to survive the 
cold tempe ratures during storage and transportation. Obvious visible symptoms on fruit 
significantly reduce the risk of these pests on the packed commercial quality fruit. This 
information supports a likelihood estimate for importation of ‘low’.  
Likelihood of distri bution  
The likelihood of distribution for A. orana and S. albicana  assessed here would be the same as 
that for A. orana and S. albicana  for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a)  and it is 
considered that A. ljungiana  would have the same likelihoo d of distribution, that is Moderate.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that A. orana, A. lju ngiana and S. albicana  will enter Australia as a result of trade 
in nectarines from China and be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host is: Low . 
4.9.2 Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and of spread for the above -listed leaf rollers is based on the 
assessment for A. orana and S. albicana  for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . It is 
considered that A. ljungiana  would have the same likelihoods of establishment and spread. The 
ratings from the previous assessment are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.9.3 Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of ent ry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  61 The likelihood that the above -listed leaf rollers will enter Australia as a result of trade in 
nectarines from China, be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, e stablish in Australia 
and subsequently spread within Australia has been assessed as: Low . 
4.9.4 Consequences  
It is considered that the overall consequences of A. ljungiana would be similar as previously 
assessed for A. orana  and S. albicana . The consequences of the establishment of A. orana  and 
S. albicana  in Australia have been estimated previously for apples from China (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010a) . The overall consequences have been estimated to be Moderate . 
4.9.5 Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for Adoxophyes orana , Argyrotaenia ljungiana  and Spilonota albicana  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Low  
Consequences  Moderate  
Unrestricted risk  Low  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for A. orana , A. ljungiana  and S. albicana  has been 
assessed as ‘low’, which is above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management 
measures are required for these pests.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  62 4.10 Codling moth  
Cydia pomonella  (EP, WA)  
Cydia pomonella  is not present in Western Australia and is pest of reg ional quarantine concern 
for that state. Cydia pomonella  (codling moth)  belongs to the Tortricidae family.  
Cydia pomonella  is a serious pest of pome fruit (apples and pears) throughout temperate regions 
of the world except Japan and Korea. It has also been  shown to feed in nectarine and peach, as 
well as apricot, plum, quince and walnut (Alford 2007; Blomefield & Giliomee 2012; Men et al. 
2013; Neven 2013) . Cydia pomonella  is considered to occur only very rarely on stonefruit (Hely, 
Pasfield & Gellatley 198 2; McLaren et al. 1999) . In China, it was first reported in 1957 and has 
since spread throughout Xinjiang, Gansu and Heilongjiang provinces (Men et al. 2013; Yang, 
Tulake & Li 2005) . 
The risk scenario of concern for C. pomonella  is the presence of larvae i nside imported 
nectarines.  
Cydia pomonella was assessed in the existing policies for stonefruit from New Zealand and the 
USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2006b, 2010b)  and 
apples from New Zealand and China (Biosecurity Australia 2006a, 2010a) . 
Differences in commodities, horticultural practices, climatic conditions and the prevalence of 
codling moth between previous export areas (New Zealand, the USA and China) make it 
necessary to reassess the likelihood that codling mo th will be imported into Western Australia 
with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of apples from China and stonefruit from the USA. After 
impo rtation, nectarines will be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to 
apples from China and stonefruits from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington). 
Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reassess the likelihood o f distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of C. pomonella  in Australia will be comparable 
regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which C. pomonella  is imported into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relate specifically to events that occ ur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of C. pomonella  are also independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government  Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  
Cydia pomonella  in the existing policies for stonefruit from New Zealand and the USA (California, 
Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2006b, 2010b)  and apples from New 
Zealand and China (Biosecurity Australia 2006a, 2010a) . Therefore, those risk ratings wil l be 
adopted for this assessment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  63 4.10.1  Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of import ation  
The likelihood that Cydia pomonella  will arrive in Western Australia with the importation of 
fresh nectarines from China is: Extremely low . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 Cydia pomonella  is widespread thro ughout Xinjiang, Gansu and Heilongjiang provinces in 
China (Men et al. 2013) . 
 Cydia pomonella  is a major pest of apple and pear worldwide but can also feed nectarine and 
peach as well as apricot, plum, quince and walnut under certain conditions (Alford 2007; 
Blomefield & Giliomee 2012; Men et al. 2013; Neven 2013) . 
 There is no evidence that C. pomonella  can maintain populations in orchards of 
Prunus  persica  (Barnes 1991) . 
 Cydia pomonella  is considered to occur only very rarely on stonefruit and is essent ially a pest 
of apple and pear fruit (Hely, Pasfield & Gellatley 1982; McLaren et al. 1999) . 
 Fruit infested with C. pomonella  can have prominent entry and exit holes. Such fruit will be 
removed during the sorting and grading procedures.  
 Fully -grown larvae are 20 millimetres long and pupae are 8.0 to 11.5 millimetres. 
Consequently, there is a high likelihood that codling moth would be detected during 
packinghouse procedures. Cydia pomonella  is very rarely found in fruit that has passed 
packinghouse procedure s undetected.  
 Cydia pomonella  larvae feed internally within the fruit. The fruit infested at harvest time may 
not show any signs of infestation and may escape packinghouse procedures.  
 Cydia pomonella  larvae are reported to be cannibals. Rarely more than tw o young larvae 
penetrate the same fruit, however, only one survives to complete development (Chapman & 
Lienk 1971) . 
 Fifth instar C. pomonella  larvae exit the fruit to diapause during winter in cocoons. 
Overwintering C. pomonella  larvae survive severe winte r temperatures in the Pacific North 
West region which may drop as low as –25 °C (Neven 1999) . This indicates that this species 
would be able to survive cold temperatures during the transportation of nectarines from 
China to Australia.  
Nectarine is a very p oor host for C. pomonella . It is very unlikely the larvae would be present 
inside the nectarine fruit for export. In addition, infested fruit often show visible symptoms of 
damage and is very likely to be removed during the harvesting and packinghouse proc esses. This 
information supports a likelihood estimate for importation of ‘extremely low’.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  64 Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for C. pomonella  assessed here would be the same as that for C. 
pomonella  for stonefruit from New Zealand a nd the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2006b, 2010b)  and apples from New Zealand and China 
(Biosecurity Australia 2006a, 2010a) , that is Moderate.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determine d by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that C. pomonella  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China 
and be distributed in a viable state to a sus ceptible host is: Extremely low . 
4.10.2  Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and of spread for C. pomonella  is based on the assessment for 
stonefruit from New Zealand and the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington) (Biosecu rity Australia 2006b, 2010b)  and apples from New Zealand and China 
(Biosecurity Australia 2006a, 2010a) . The ratings from the previous assessments are presented 
below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.10.3  Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that C. pomonella  will enter Western Australia as a result of trade in nectarines 
from China, be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in Western Australia 
and subsequently spread within Western Australia has been assessed as: Extremely Low . 
4.10.4  Consequence s 
The consequences of the establishment of C. pomonella  in Australia have been estimated 
previously for stonefruit from New Zealand and the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2006b, 2010b)  and apples from New Zealand and C hina 
(Biosecurity Australia 2006a, 2010a) . The overall consequences are estimated to be Moderate . 
  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  65 4.10.5  Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences.  Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for C. pomonella  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Extremely Low  
Consequences  Moderate  
Unrestricted risk  Negligible  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for C. pomonella  has been assessed as ‘negligible’, 
which is below Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, no specific risk management measures are required 
for this pest.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  66 4.11 Grapholita moths  
Grapholita funebrana  and Grapholita molesta  (EP, WA)  
Grapholita funebrana is absent from Australia and is a pest of quarantine concern for all of 
Australia, while  G. molesta  is not present in Western Australia and is a pest of regional concern 
for that sta te. 
Grapholita funebrana (plum fruit moth)  and Grapholita molesta (Oriental fruit moth)  belong to 
the Tortricidae family.  The larvae of the genus Grapholita  feed internally on fruit and on twigs.  
Grapholita  moths have four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and  adult. Larvae generally have four to 
five instars (Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004) . Newly hatched larvae bore into the fruit, and larval 
feeding continues until they reach maturity (Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004) . The full grown larvae 
of the first generation pupa te in stem -end depressions on the fruit surface, in leaf axils or under 
bark, whereas the larvae of the later generation overwinter in cocoons in the soil, leaf litter or 
bark of the host plant, pupating the following spring (Brunner & Rice 1998; Meijerman  & 
Ulenberg 2004) . 
The biology and taxonomy of these two Grapholita  moth species and their impacts on hosts are 
considered sufficiently similar to justify combining them into a single assessment. In this 
assessment, the term ‘ Grapholita moths’ is used to r efer to these two species unless otherwise 
specified.  
The risk scenario of concern for Grapholita  moths is the presence of eggs on fruit or larvae that 
have bored into fruit.  
Grapholita molesta  was assessed in the existing import policies for stonefruit fr om New Zealand 
(Biosecurity Australia 2006b)  and the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010b) , and for apples from New Zealand (Biosecurity Australia 2006a)  
and China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . It is considered that these previous assessment for 
G. molesta  can also equally apply to G. funebrana . The assessment of G. funebrana and G. molesta  
presented here builds on these previous assessments.  
Differences in commodities within China and in horticultural practices, clim atic conditions and 
the prevalence of G. funebrana and G. molesta  between previous export areas (New Zealand, the 
USA) and China make it necessary to reassess the likelihood that G. funebrana and G. molesta  will 
be imported into Australia or Western Austra lia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of apples from China and stonefruit from the USA. After 
importation, nectarines will be distributed  throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to 
stonefruit from the USA and for apples from China. Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to 
reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of G. funebrana in Australia and G. molesta  in 
Western Australia  will be comparable regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which 
G. funebrana is imported into Australia and G. molesta  is imported into Western Australia, as 
these likelihoods relate specifically to even ts that occur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of G. funebrana in Australia and G. molesta  in Western Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  67 Australia  are also independent of the importation pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to 
reassess these co mponents of the risk.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of, and the consequences they may cause will be 
comparable for any commodity from which these species are imported into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relate specifically to events that occu r in Australia and are largely independent of the 
importation pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and n o new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  
Grapholita  molesta in the  existing policies for stonefruit and apples from New Zealand 
(Biosecurity Aust ralia 2006a, b)  and stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . Therefore, those risk ratings will be adopted for this 
assessment.  
4.11.1  Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts,  the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that G. funebrana will arrive in Australia or G. molesta  will arrive in Western 
Australia with the importation of fresh nectarines from China is: Moderate . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 Grapholita funebrana  and Grapholita molesta  are widely distributed in China incl uding major 
peach and nectarine production regions and are important pests of stonefruit and pome fruit 
in China (Feng & Wang 2004; Ma 2006) . 
 Grapholita funebrana  and G. molesta  infest nectarines and peaches as well as plums and 
apricots (Alford 2007; CABI  & EPPO 1997a; Oku, Ohira & Wakou 1988)   
 Grapholita  moths are significant pests of stonefruit (Murrell & Lo 1998) . Larvae damage the 
host plants by feeding internally and tunnelling in the shoots and/or fruit (Alford 2007; 
Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004) . Infes tations on fruitlets cause them to drop prematurely 
(Alford 2007) . Larvae bore into the fruit until they reach the seed. Severe infestations can 
lead to significant crop losses (Alford 2007; Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004) . 
 First generation G. funebrana  usually  lay eggs singly on fruitlets often close to the depression 
which passes from fruit stalk to fruit tip (Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004)  or near the base of 
maturing fruit (Gilligan & Epstein 2012) . Grapholita molesta  eggs are also laid singly on the 
host plant.  On the main stone -fruit hosts, the eggs are laid adjacent to young shoots, on the 
underside of leaves and sometimes on the smooth surface of newly developed twigs. Smooth 
surfaces are preferred to pubescent substrates, and eggs are rarely found on peach f ruits 
(Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004) . 
 A Grapholita  moth egg is about 0.8 millimetres in diameter (Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004) . 
The eggs laid in the stem -end depression may escape detection during packinghouse 
procedures.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  68  Grapholita funebrana  larvae feed within relatively large fruitlets. On entering the flesh, the 
young larva forms a narrow, winding tunnel under the surface, directed from the point of 
entry towards the fruit stalk (Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004) . From near the stalk, the tunnel 
is then extended to the centre of the fruit and as the larva grows the flesh around the stone is 
eaten and replaced by masses of wet, brown frass. The mature larva escapes through the 
side of the fruit, leaving a small circular hole in the skin (Meijerman &  Ulenberg 2004) . 
 First instar larvae of G. molesta  may penetrate stonefruit through the side of the stem. Such 
fruit has no obvious sign of infestation and the larva may remain inside the fruit, feeding 
until it is ready to pupate (Howitt 1993) . Such fruit  is likely to escape detection during 
packinghouse procedures.  
 Larval feeding on fruit nearing maturity leads to damage pulp filled with frass and the 
subsequent development of secondary fungal infections causing extra damage to the fruit 
(Meijerman & Ulen berg 2004) . In the case of G. funebrana attacked fruits ripen prematurely 
and are easily recognised amongst the developing crop. When infestations are initiated in 
nearly ripe fruits the larval tunnel runs directly from the point of entry to the stone. Res in 
oozes from the fruits damaged by this larval feeding (Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004) . Fruit 
showing such obvious signs of infestation are likely to be rejected during routine quality 
inspections and packinghouse procedures.  
 Any eggs laid directly on the sur face of the fruit would likely be dislodged by cleaning using 
pressurised air gun in the packinghouse. However, Grapholita funebrana  females often lay 
their eggs in the stem -end depression of fruit (Meijerman & Ulenberg 2004)  and these eggs 
may not be remo ved completely by using pressurised air gun.  
 Grapholita  moth larvae are likely to survive storage and transportation. Mature larvae of 
G. molesta  overwinter in northern China in the cracks of the branches and crown, or in the 
soil (Ma 2006) . This indicates  that this species would be able to survive cold temperatures 
during the transportation of nectarines from China to Australia.  
Grapholita moths are widely distributed in China’s major peach and nectarine production 
regions and are important pests of nectar ine and peach. Eggs laid in the stem end depression of 
fruit are likely to remain during the packinghouse processes. Larvae of Grapholita moths may 
penetrate stonefruit and feed internally. Immature fruit infested early would drop or show 
obvious symptoms.  However, late fruit infestation late may escape detection during 
packinghouses procedures. This information supports a likelihood estimate for importation of 
‘moderate’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for G. molesta  assessed her e would be the same as that for G. 
molesta  for stonefruit from New Zealand (Biosecurity Australia 2006b)  and the USA (California, 
Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) , and for apples from New Zealand 
(Biosecurity Australia 2006a)  and China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . It is considered that G. 
funebrana  would have the same likelihood of distribution that is Moderate.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation a nd of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  69 The likelihood that G. funebrana  will enter Australia and G. molesta  will enter Western Australia 
as a result of trade in nectarines from China and be distributed in a viable state to a susce ptible 
host is: Low.  
4.11.2  Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and spread for G. molesta  is based on the assessment of G. 
molesta  for stonefruit from New Zealand (Biosecurity Australia 2006b)  and the USA (California, 
Idaho, Ore gon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) , and for apples from New Zealand 
(Biosecurity Australia 2006a)  and China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . It is considered that G. 
funebrana  would have the same likelihood of establishment and spread. The rat ings from the 
previous assessments are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.11.3  Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combini ng the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that G. funebrana will enter Australia or G. molesta  will enter Western Australia as 
a result of trade in nectarines from China, be dist ributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, 
establish in Australia or Western Australia and subsequently spread within Australia or Western 
Australia has been assessed as: Low . 
4.11.4  Consequences  
It is considered that the overall consequences of G. funebrana  would be similar as previously 
assessed for G. molesta.  The consequences of the establishment of G. molesta  in Australia have 
been estimated previously for stonefruit from New Zealand (Biosecurity Australia 2006b)  and 
the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) , and for 
apples from New Zealand (Biosecurity Australia 2006a)  and China (Biosecurity Australia 
2010a) . The overall consequences are estimated to be Moderate . 
4.11.5  Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk  is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for G. funebrana and G. molesta  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Low  
Consequences  Moderate  
Unrestricted risk  Low  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for G. funebrana and G. molesta  has been assessed as 
‘low’, which is above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore specific risk management measures are 
required for these pests.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  70 4.12 Peach twig borer  
Anarsia lineatella ( EP) 
Anarsia lineatella (peach twig borer) belongs to the Gelechiidae family and is a significant pest of 
stonefruit (Damos & Savopoulou -Soultani 2010; Pickel et al. 2006) . 
Anarsia lineatella  damages stonefruit by boring into buds, shoots, branches and fruit. First 
generation larvae primarily bore into buds and feed on young shoots, causi ng the leaves to wilt 
and eventually killing the terminals (Alston & Murray 2007; Beljaev & Ponomarenko 2005; 
Damos & Savopoulou -Soultani 2010) . Later generation larvae mainly feed on fruit (CABI & EPPO 
1997b) . Larvae attack stonefruit primarily through th e stem end of the fruit, or where it touches 
foliage, branches or another fruit (Alston & Murray 2007; Reding & Alston 2003) , feeding 
beneath the skin and around the seed of the fruit (Alston & Murray 2007; Pickel et al. 2006) . 
Anarsia lineatella  has four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult and has 1 –4 generations per 
year, depending on the climate (Beljaev & Ponomarenko 2005; Damos & Savopoulou -Soultani 
2010) . 
The risk scenario of concern for A. lineatella  is the presence of developing larvae within 
nectarines, and eggs or, in some cases, pupae in the stem -end depression of imported nectarines.  
The assessment of A. lineatella  presented here builds on the previous assessment for fresh 
stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 
2010b) . 
Differences in horticultural practices, climatic conditions and the prevalence of A. lineatella 
between export areas in the USA and China make it necessary to reassess the likelihood that 
A. lineatella will be imported into Aust ralia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of stonefruit from the USA. After importation, nectarines will 
be distributed throughout Australi a for retail sale in a similar way to stonefruit from the USA. 
Therefore, it is unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of A. lineatella  in Australia will be comparable 
regardless of the fresh frui t commodity in which A. lineatella  is imported into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relate specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of A. lineatella  are also independent of the importat ion 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would sign ificantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  
A. lineatella  in the existing policy for fresh stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . There fore, those risk ratings will be adopted for this 
assessment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  71 4.12.1  Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that Anarsia lineatella  will arrive in Australia with the importation of fresh 
nectarines from China is: Moderate . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 Anarsia li neatella  is recorded in Guangdong (Kondo & Miyahara 1930) , Shaanxi, Jilin (Park, 
Lee & Lu.L. 2000)  and Xinjiang (Yang, Tulake & Li 2005)  in China. However, record of A. 
lineatella  in Shaanxi and Jilin could not be verified. Shaanxi is a major peach and nectarine 
production region of China.  
 Anarsia lineatella  attacks both the shoots and fruit of stonefruit (Bentley, Hasey & Day 2012; 
Gencsoylu et al. 2006) . Anarsia lineatella  female s lay eggs at the base of buds, on the 
underside of leaves, on the shoots, on the bark of trunks and branches and on growing fruit.  
 Depending on fruit maturity and population density, the second and subsequent generation 
A. lineatella  adults may attack eit her branches or fruit (Bentley & Day 2012) . 
 Newly emerged larvae that hatch from eggs laid on fruit bore into the fruit and usually enter 
the fruit through the stem -end feeding just below the skin (Bentley & Day 2012) . 
 Larvae feeding just below the surface  of the fruit cause clearly visible feeding damage 
(Weakley, Kirsch & Zalom 1990) . Infested fruit is also susceptible to infections by micro -
organisms that causes fruit rotting (Reding & Alston 2003) . Such fruit would be removed 
during the harvest and pack inghouse procedures.  
 Females also oviposit on stonefruit from the time of colour break to mature hard -ripe fruit 
(Sidney et al. 2008) . Fruit infested near harvest time is unlikely to show any signs of 
infestation and is unlikely to be detected by packingho use procedures.  
 First generation larvae pupate in bark cracks on the trunk or branches. Later generation 
larvae may pupate in the stem -end depression of stonefruit (Beljaev & Ponomarenko 2005) . 
 Eggs, larvae or pupae on the external surface of the fruit are  likely to be removed by cleaning 
using pressurised air gun. However, eggs, or larvae, that may have pupated in the stem -end 
depression of stonefruit (Beljaev & Ponomarenko 2005)  may not be removed completely 
during this process.  
 Anarsia lineatella  eggs ar e very small in size and if laid in the stem -end depression of 
nectarine fruit are unlikely to be detected during harvest or even during packinghouse 
procedures.  
 Anarsia lineatella  overwinters in the first and second larval stages in northern China where 
winter conditions are quite severe, resuming their development when the temperature rises 
(Beljaev & Ponomarenko 2005) . This indicates that these stages are likely to be the most 
cold tolerant (Bentley & Day 2012)  and would be most likely to survive the col d 
temperatures experienced during the transportation of nectarines from China to Australia.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  72 Anarsia lineatella  is present in one of China’s major peach and nectarine production regions. 
Early generations of A. lineatella  mainly feed on vegetative tissues. Immature fruit damaged by 
later generation larvae often show obvious symptoms. However, fruit infested close to harvest 
time is unlikely to show any signs of infestation and is unlikely to be detected during 
packinghouse procedures. This information suppor ts a likelihood estimate for importation of 
‘moderate’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for A. lineatella  assessed here would be the same as that for A. 
lineatella  for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washing ton) (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010b) , that is Low.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that A. lineatella  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China 
and be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host is: Low.  
4.12.2  Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and of spread for A. lineatella  is based  on the assessment of A. 
lineatella  for fresh stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . That assessment used the same methodology as described in 
Chapter 2 of this report. The ratings from the previou s assessment are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.12.3  Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of e ntry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that A. lineatella  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China, 
be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in Au stralia and subsequently 
spread within Australia has been assessed as: Low . 
4.12.4  Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of A. lineatella  in Australia have been estimated 
previously for fresh stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . The overall consequences for A. lineatella  are estimated to be 
Moderate . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  73 4.12.5  Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for Ana rsia lineatella  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Low  
Consequences  Moderate  
Unrestricted risk  Low  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for Anarsia lineatella  has been assessed as ‘low’, 
which is above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management measures are required for 
this pest.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  74 4.13 Peach fruit borer  
Carposina sasakii  (EP) 
Carposina sasakii (peach fruit borer) belongs to the Carposinidae family and is known as an 
important pest of peach and pome fruits (CABI 2015) . Carposina sasakii  larvae damage the host 
plants by feeding and tunnelling in the fruit (Shutova 1978) . 
Carposina sasakii  has four  life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult (Ma 2006) . Seasonal prevalence 
of C. sasakii is variable in China (Ma 2006) . In the mountainous regions of Qingling of Shaanxi 
province, C. sasakii  has only one generation per year (Baozhen et al. 1998) . However, in  
subtropical areas of China it may have three to four overlapping generations. Overwintering 
larvae can survive the severe cold climates of north China and Far East Russia where 
temperatures can drop to a minimum of –45 °C (Shutova 1978) . 
The risk scenario  of concern for C. sasakii  is the presence of larvae inside imported nectarines.  
Carposina sasakii  was assessed in the existing import policy for apples from China (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010a) . The assessment presented here builds on this previous assessm ent. 
Differences in commodities, horticultural practices, climatic conditions and the prevalence of 
C. sasakii  between other export areas and new export areas in China make it necessary to 
reassess the likelihood that C. sasakii  will be imported into Austr alia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of Chinese apples. After importation, nectarines will be 
distributed throughout Australia for reta il in a similar way to Chinese apples. Therefore, it is 
unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of C. sasakii  in Australia will be comparable 
regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which C. sas akii is imported into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relate specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of C. sasakii  are also independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there i s no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings  for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  C. 
sasakii in the existing policy for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . Therefore, 
those risk ratings will be adopted for this assessment.  
4.13.1  Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that C. sasakii  will arrive in Austra lia with the importation of fresh nectarines 
from China is: High . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  75  Carposina sasakii  is widely distributed in China including major peach and nectarine 
production regions Anhui, Heb ei, Henan, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, and 
Zhejiang (CABI 2015) . 
 Carposina sasakii  is recorded as a major pest in China, where it damages a wide range of 
rosaceous fruit crops including nectarine and peach (CABI 2015; Xu & Hua 2004) . 
 Fema les lay 1 –10 eggs in the ribs of peach and apricot fruit (Shutova 1978) . Several eggs 
may be laid on each fruit and it is notable that several larvae can survive in a single fruit, 
feeding on the flesh and seeds (CABI 2015) . Larvae have a higher survivorsh ip rate in early 
peach cultivars than late peach cultivars (Kim & Lee 2002) . 
 The larvae of C. sasakii  feed deep in the fruit pulp without leaving any trace of infestation on 
the fruit skin until they make exit holes to leave the fruit for pupation (Ishiguri & Toyoshima 
2006; Toyoshima, Arai & Yaginuma 2010) . 
 Carposina sasakii  may have up to four generations per year in warmer regions and larvae at 
different stages of development can be found in the fruit since these generations overlap 
(Shutova 1978 ). The fruit harvested late in the season may contain many larvae of C. sasakii . 
Such infested fruit, when larvae have not completed development and exited the fruit to 
pupate, do not show any obvious signs of infestation and is likely to escape detection during 
the packinghouse procedures.  
 Overwintering larvae may pupate at any time between mid -May and late July in China (Xu & 
Hua 2004) , depending on soil temperature and soil humidity. The full grown larvae 
overwinter in a thick cocoon in the soil (Shutova  1978; Toyoshima, Arai & Yaginuma 2010) . 
Overwintering larvae may sometimes diapause in the soil for two years (CABI 2015) . 
 Carposina sasakii  larvae are likely to survive storage and transportation. Mature larvae of C. 
sasakii  overwinter in cocoons and can  survive temperatures as low as –45 °C (Shutova 
1978) . This indicates that C. sasakii  larvae would be able to survive the cold temperatures 
during the transportation of nectarines from China to Australia.  
 Larvae can survive for long periods in cold stored fruits. Carposina sasakii  was intercepted 
almost every year on commercial fresh fruit from Japan and Korea to the USA (CABI 2015) . 
Carposina sasakii  is widely distributed in China including almost all major peach and nectarine 
production regions. Fruit inf ested with immature larvae is very likely to escape detection as the 
infested fruit may not show any external sign of infestation and these larvae are likely to survive 
cold temperatures during cold storage and transportation and has been repeatedly detect ed in 
commercial consignments of fresh fruit. This information supports a likelihood estimate for 
importation of ‘high’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for C. sasakii  assessed here would be the same as that for C. sasakii  
for app les from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) , that is High.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  76 The likelihoo d that C. sasakii  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China and 
be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host is: High.  
4.13.2  Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and of spread for C. sasakii  is based on the assessment for apples 
from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . This assessment used the same methodology as 
described in Chapter 2 of this report. The ratings from the previous assessment are presented 
below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High 
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.13.3  Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules sho wn in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that C. sasakii will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China, be 
distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in Australia and subsequently spread 
within Australia has been assessed as : High . 
4.13.4  Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of C. sasakii  in Australia have been estimated previously 
for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . The overall consequences for C. sasakii 
have been estimated to be Moderate . 
4.13.5  Unrestrict ed risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table  2.5. 
Unrestricted risk estimate for Carposina sasakii  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  High  
Consequences  Moderate  
Unrestricted risk  Moderate  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for C. sasakii has been assessed as ‘moderate’, which 
is above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management measures are required for this 
pest.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  77 4.14 Thrips  
Frankliniella intonsa  (EP) and Frankliniella occidentalis  (EP, NT)  
Frankliniella intonsa is absent from Australia and i s a pest of quarantine concern for all of 
Australia. Frankliniella occidentalis  is not known to be present in the Northern Territory and is a 
pest of regional concern and can be a potential vector for Impatiens necrotic spot virus (INSV) 
for all of Austral ia. 
Frankliniella intonsa and F. occidentalis  belong to the Thripidae family. Members of Thripidae 
have four main life stages: egg (that is inserted into the green tissue of plants), two active larval 
instars that feed, followed by two relatively inactive pupal instars that normally do not feed, and 
finally adults of one or both sexes which may be winged or wingless. (Jensen, Flaherty & Luvisi 
1992; Roques 2006) . 
The biology and taxonomy of these two species and their impacts on host plants are considered 
sufficiently similar to justify combining them into a single assessment. In this assessment, the 
term ‘thrips’ is used to refer to these two species of Thripidae unless otherwise specified.  
Frankliniella intonsa and F. occidentalis  are also known as vectors  of several tospoviruses (Morse 
& Hoddle 2006) , some of which are of quarantine concern to Australia. Of the viruses that 
F. intonsa and F. occidentalis  are able to vector, Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) and Impatiens 
necrotic spot virus  (INSV) are present in China (CABI 2015) . Of these, INSV is not present in 
Australia and is a quarantine pest. Tospoviruses such as INSV are acquired by the first instar or 
early second -instar larvae when feeding on an infected plant, and are then transmitt ed only later 
when these larvae develop into adults; it is not possible for an adult to acquire and then transmit 
a tospovirus (Moritz, Kumm & Mound 2004) . Tospoviruses are persistently transmitted by 
thrips such as F. occidentalis,  meaning that once the i mmature stage has acquired the virus it 
remains infective for life (Jones 2005; Persley, Thomas & Sharman 2006) . Tospoviruses are 
transmitted to host plants via virus -laden saliva, injected during probing or feeding (Whitfield, 
Ullman & German 2005) . Howev er, tospoviruses are not known to be transmitted between 
thrips, or passed on to the next generation through their eggs (Wijkamp, Goldbach & Peters 
1996) . Although Prunus  has not been recorded as a host of tospoviruses, F. occidentalis  can first 
acquire th is virus from another host plant and may subsequently move onto nectarines prior to 
export, providing a pathway for the tosporivuses to enter Australia with the thrips.  
The risk scenario of concern for F. intonsa  and F. occidentalis  is the presence of eggs , larvae 
and/or adult stages on nectarines from China.  
Frankliniella intonsa  and F. occidentalis have previously been assessed with the importation of 
stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 
2010b) . 
Differe nces in commodities, horticultural practices, climatic conditions and the prevalence of 
pests between previous export areas in China and the USA make it necessary to reassess the 
likelihood that F. intonsa  will be imported into Australia and F. occidentali s will be imported into 
the Northern Territory with nectarines from export production areas in China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of stonefruit from the USA. A fter importation, nectarines will Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  78 be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to stonefruit from the USA. 
Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and sprea d of F. intonsa  in Australia and F. occidentalis  in the 
Northern Territory will be comparable regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which 
F. intonsa  is imported into Australia and F. occidentalis  is imported into the Northern Territory, 
as these likel ihoods relate specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of 
the importation pathway. The consequences of F. intonsa  in Australia and F. occidentalis  in the 
Northern Territory  are also independent of the importation pathway. Accordin gly, there is no 
need to reassess these components of the risk.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of F. intonsa  in Australia and F. occidentalis  in the 
Northern Territory, and the consequences it may cause will be comparable for any fruit 
commodit y from which this species is imported into Australia, as these likelihoods relate 
specifically to events that occur in Australia and are largely independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components.  
In addition , the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as se t out for 
F. intonsa  and F. occidentalis in the existing policy for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, 
Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . Therefore, those risk ratings will be 
adopted for this assessment.  
4.14.1  Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that Frankliniella intonsa  will arri ve in Australia and Frankliniella  occidentalis  in 
the Northern Territory with the importation of fresh nectarines from China is: High . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 Frankliniella intonsa  and F. occidentalis  are widely distributed in China including some of the 
major peach and nectarine production regions (CABI 2015; Ding & Gai 2000; Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997; Mirab -balou et al. 2011) . 
 Frankliniella intonsa  feeds and lays eggs in fruit and is reported as a pest of peach (CABI 
2015) . Frankliniella occidentalis  is one of the most important thrips pests in the world with 
nectarine  and peach being major hosts (CABI 2015) . 
 Thrips can insert their eggs into the green tissue of plants, such as buds, furled leaves or 
around fruit stems (Dreistadt & Phillips 2007a) , and including fruit (Morse & Hoddle 2006; 
Palmer et al. 1989) . Frankliniella occidentalis  female can produce 20 –40 eggs (Roques 2006) . 
The eggs are very small (about 200 µm long) and may be laid on, or inserted under the skin 
of fruit or leaves (Mau & Martin Kessing 1993)  which can make detection difficult. Feeding 
and egg -laying by thrips on plant material generally results in visible morphological changes Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  79 in affected tissues and affected fruit is typically scarred on the surface (Lewis 1973) . 
However, the damage caused by thrips may be difficult to detect at low population levels.  
 Adult and immature stages of  Frankli niella intonsa  and F. occidentalis  are very small (usually 
less than 2 millimetres) (CABI 2015; Roques 2006)  and tend to be inconspicuous, hiding in 
cryptic habitats such as the crevices found at the stem end of fruit, suggesting that they may 
not be remov ed from fruit during harvesting and packinghouse procedures.  
 Thrips are opportunistic species, well adapted to survive harsh climatic conditions and are 
known to survive temperatures below freezing over extended periods (McDonald, Bale & 
Walter 1997) . Fran kliniella occidentalis  overwinters in an active state, feeds and develops as 
temperatures and food availability allow (McDonald, Bale & Walter 1997) . It appears to have 
some ability to survive periods of cold and food deprivation under winter field conditi ons in 
England (McDonald, Bale & Walters 1997) . Therefore, thrips are likely to be capable of 
tolerating cold conditions and potentially survive cold storage and transportation.  
 The lifecycle of F. occidentalis  varies in length depends on temperatures (CAB I & EPPO 
1997e)  with the optimum range from 26  °C to 29  °C. At lower temperatures, such as those 
that may be used in the transportation and storage of summerfruit being sent from China to 
Australia, thrips might have longer life cycles. Viable thrips could  therefore still be present 
on shipments when they arrive in Australia.  
 Thrips have been detected on stonefruit (apricots, nectarines, peaches) entering Australia 
from New Zealand, demonstrating that thrips are capable of surviving packinghouse 
procedures,  cold storage and transport conditions.  
Frankliniella intonsa  and F. occidentalis  are widely distributed in China’s major peach and 
nectarine production regions and are likely to be associated with nectarine fruit. Thrips are very 
small and likely escape d etection during packinghouse processes. Thrips are likely to survive 
cold storage and transportation. This information supports a likelihood estimate for importation 
of ‘high’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for F. intonsa  in Aus tralia and F. occidentalis  in the Northern 
Territory assessed here would be the same as that for F. intonsa  and F. occidentalis  for stonefruit 
from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) , that is 
Moderate.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that F. intonsa  will enter Australia and F. occidentalis  will ente r Northern 
Territory as a result of trade in nectarines from China and be distributed in a viable state to a 
susceptible host is: Moderate.  
4.14.2  Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and spread for F. intonsa  in Australia and F. occidentalis  in the 
Northern Territory is based on the assessment for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  80 Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . This assessment used the same 
methodology as described in Chapter 2 of this report. The  ratings from the previous assessment 
are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:    High  
Likelihood of spread:     High  
4.14.3  Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihood of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that F. intonsa  will enter Australia or F. occidentalis  will enter the Northern 
Territory, as a result of trade in fresh nectarin es from China, be distributed in a viable state to a 
susceptible host, establish in Australia and subsequently spread within Australia has been 
assessed as: Moderate . 
4.14.4  Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of F. intonsa  in Australia or F. occid entalis  in the 
Northern Territory have been estimated previously for stonefruit from the USA (California, 
Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . The consequence ratings for 
F. intonsa  and F. occidentalis  were consistently rated as ‘low’ for both species. The overall 
consequences have been estimated to be Low . 
4.14.5  Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the estimate of conse quences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using the risk 
estimation matrix shown in Table  2.5. 
Unrestricted risk estimate for Frankliniella intonsa  and Frankliniella occidentalis   
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Moderate  
Consequences  Low  
Unrestricted risk  Low  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for F. intonsa  and F. occidentalis  has been assessed as 
‘low’, which is above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management measures are 
required for these pests.  
In addition, F. occidentalis  may be identified as a potential vector for Impatiens necrotic spot 
virus (INSV) for all of Australia. If detected during quarantine inspections, this potential vector 
would be managed under contaminating pest policy. If live F. occidentalis is detected during 
quarantine inspections, remedial actions must be taken for the relevant consignments.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  81 4.15 Brown rot  
Monilinia fructigena  (EP), Monilinia yunnanensis , Monilia mumecola  and Monilia polystroma  
Brown rot is a fungal disease of stone and pome fruit caused by a number of closely related 
species of the genus Monilinia. The anamorph of the fungus is the genus  Monilia . The genus 
belongs to family Sclerotiniaceae and it can cause severe losses and damage to stonefr uit crops 
(Zhu, Chen & Guo 2011) . The biology and taxonomy of the four species Monilinia  fructigena, 
M. yunnanensis,  Monilia  polystroma and M. mumecola  are considered sufficiently similar to justify 
combining them into a single assessment. The assessment o f the four pathogens has been largely 
based on the scientific information on M. fructigena  as it is predicted to pose a similar risk and 
require similar mitigation measures. Unless explicitly stated, the information presented is 
considered as applicable to  all species. In this assessment, the common name brown rot is used 
to refer to all four species unless otherwise specified.  
The risk scenario of concern for Monilinia  fructigena  M. yunnanensis,  Monilia  polystroma and 
M mumecola  is that symptomless infecte d fruit might enter Australia and result in the 
establishment of these fungi in Australia.  
Monilinia fructigena  was assessed in the existing import policy for apples (Biosecurity Australia 
2010a)  and table grapes from China (Biosecurity Australia 2011) . The assessment of 
Monilinia  fructigena,  M. yunnanensis,  Monilia  polystroma and M. mumecola  presented here builds 
on these existing policies.  
Differences in commodity and horticultural practices for apples and table grapes and for 
nectarines from China make i t necessary to reassess the likelihood that brown rot will be 
imported into Australia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of apples and tab le grapes from China. After importation, 
nectarines will be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to apples and 
table grapes from China. Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of 
distribution.  
The lik elihood of establishment and spread of brown rots in Australia will be comparable 
regardless of the fresh fruit commodity in which brown rots is imported into Australia, as these 
likelihoods relate specifically to events that occur in Australia and are ind ependent of the 
importation pathway. The consequences of brown rots are also independent of the importation 
pathway. Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture an d Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  
Monilinia  fructigena  in the existing policy fo r apples (Biosecurity Australia 2010a)  and table 
grapes (Biosecurity Australia 2011)  from China. Therefore, those risk ratings will be adopted for 
this assessment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  82 4.15.1  Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of im portation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that Monilinia  fructigena  M. yunnanensis,  Monilia  polystroma and M mumecola  will 
arrive in Australia on n ectarines from China is: High . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 Peaches and nectarines are major hosts of Monilinia fructigena  (Byrde & Willets 1977; Farr 
& Rossman 2014) . 
 Monilinia fructigena, M. yunnanensis and Monilia mumecola  have been reported on stonefruit 
including apricot, peach and nectarine from all major growing areas in China including 
Beijing, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Liaoning, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Jiangsu, Anhui, Zhejiang, Sichuan, 
Fujian and Yunnan provin ces (Hu et al. 2011; Zhu, Chen & Guo 2011) . 
 Monilia polystroma  was reported on plums in China and is an important pest (Zhu & Guo 
2010) . It has been recently reported causing fruit brown rot on peaches in Italy (Martini et 
al. 2014) . 
 Brown rot fungi overwinter mainly in or on infected mummified fruit, either attached to the 
tree or on the ground (Byrde & Willets 1977) . Mycelia can survive long periods of adverse 
environmental conditions within mummified fruits, twigs, cankers and other  infected 
tissues. In spring or early summer when temperature, day length, moisture conditions and 
relative humidity are suitable for sporulation, sporodochia are formed on the surface of 
mummified fruit and other infected tissues and bear chains of conidi a (Byrde & Willets 
1977; Jones 1990) . 
 The conidia of M. fructigena  are dry airborne spores, transported by wind, water or insects 
to young fruit (Batra 1991; Jones 1990) . 
 Initial infection by brown rot can be via wounds on fruit or on sound fruit and subse quent 
spread by contact between adjacent fruit is possible (Byrde & Willets 1977) . Infected tissue 
can produce several crops of conidia throughout the year which can initiate secondary 
infection (Batra 1991) . 
 Brown rot fungi have the ability to cause laten t infection in fruit (Gell et al. 2009) . The 
infected fruit do not produce symptoms of disease until the fruit begins to ripen during 
storage and transport, on the market shelf, or as the fruit senesces (Byrde & Willets 1977) . 
 At harvest, apparently health y fruit can be contaminated with conidia (Ma 2006) . Wounded 
fruit may also be contaminated with conidia during packinghouse processes via fruit to fruit 
contact (Xu & Robinson 2000) . Fruit rots develop during the postharvest period.  
 The mycelia of brown ro t fungi survive long periods of adverse environmental conditions, 
particularly over winter. The fungi also survive within mummified fruit, infected twigs, 
cankers and other infected tissues (Byrde & Willets 1977) . This suggests that in infected fruit 
fungi  may survive cold storage and transportation processes.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  83 Brown rot fungi are widely distributed in the major stonefruit growing regions in China and are 
important pests of stonefruit fruit. Brown rot fungi have the ability to cause latent infection in 
fruit , and symptomless infected fruit is likely to pass through packinghouse processes 
undetected. Brown rot mycelia in latently infected fruit are likely to survive cold storage and 
transportation. This information supports a likelihood estimate for importatio n of ‘high’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for M. fructigena  M. yunnanensis,  Monilia  polystroma and 
M. mumecola  assessed here would be similar assessed for M. fructigena  for apples (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010a)  and table grapes (Biosecurity Australia 2011)  from China, that is High.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood tha t M. fructigena  M. yunnanensis,  Monilia  polystroma and M. mumecola  will enter 
Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China and be distributed in a viable state to a 
susceptible host is: High.  
4.15.2  Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood  of establishment and spread for brown rot is based on the assessment for apples 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010a)  and table grapes (Biosecurity Australia 2011)  from China. Those 
assessments used the same methodology as described in Chapter  2 of this report. T he ratings 
from the previous assessments are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment:   High  
Likelihood of spread:    High  
4.15.3  Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by  combining the 
likelihoods of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules for combining 
qualitative likelihoods shown in Table  2.2. 
The likelihood that Monilinia  fructigena  M. yunnanensis,  Monilia  polystroma and M mumecola  will 
enter Au stralia as a result of trade in nectarines from China, be distributed in a viable state to a 
susceptible host, establish in Australia and subsequently spread within Australia is: High . 
4.15.4  Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of Monilinia fructig ena in Australia have been estimated 
previously for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . Monilinia  yunnanensis,  
Monilia  polystroma and M mumecola  are considered to have similar impact. The overall 
consequences have been estimated to be: Moderate . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  84 4.15.5  Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the outcome of overall consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using 
the risk estimation matrix shown i n Table 2.5.  
Unrestricted risk estimate for Monilinia fructigena , M. yunnanensis , Monilia polystroma  and M. mumecola  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  High  
Consequences  Moderate  
Unrestricted risk  Moderate  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for Monilinia  fructigena, M.  yunnanensis, 
Monilia  polystroma  and M. mumecola  has been assessed as ‘moderate‘, which is above Australia‘s 
ALOP. Therefore, spe cific risk management measures are required for these pests.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  85 4.16 Apple scar skin or apple dapple  
Apple scar skin viroid  (EP) 
Apple scar skin or apple dapple disease is caused by Apple scar skin viroid  (ASSVd). ASSVd is the 
type species of the genus Apscaviroid  of the family Pospiviroidae  (Koganezawa et al. 2003) .  
The risk scenario of concern for Apple scar skin viroid  is that symptomless infected fruit might 
enter Australia and result in the establishment of this viroid in Australia.  
ASSVd was assessed in the existing import policy for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 
2010a) . The assessment of ASSVd presented here builds on this existing policy.  
Differences in commodity and horticultural practices for apples and for nectarines from China 
make it necessa ry to reassess the likelihood that ASSVd will be imported into Australia with 
nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of apples from China. After im portation, nectarines will be 
distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in the similar way to apples from China. 
Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of ASSVd in Australia will be comparable regardless 
of the fresh fruit commodity in which ASSVd is imported into Australia, as these likelihoods 
relate specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the importation 
pathway. The consequences o f ASSVd are also independent of the importation pathway. 
Accordingly, there is no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  
Apple scar skin viroid  in the existing policy for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . 
Therefo re, those risk ratings will be adopted for this assessment.  
4.16.1  Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that Apple scar skin viroid  will arrive in Australia with the importation of 
nectarine from China is: Low . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 ASSVd is primarily  a pathogen of apple and pear (Han et al. 2003) . It was one of the most 
damaging apple and pear diseases in China in the 1950s and 1960s (Koganezawa et al. 
2003) . However, the current status of ASSVd in China is not precisely known as ASSVd rarely 
occurs i n modern apple orchards in China, probably due to the use of tolerant cultivars.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  86  There are only limited reports of ASSVd on stonefruit trees from Xinjiang in China including 
apricot and peach, on which ASSVd was detected on leaves (Wang, Zhao & Niu 2012; Zhao & 
Niu 2008a; Zhao & Niu 2008b) . 
 The viroid is detected in most of the plant parts of apple including fruit skin, seed, flesh and 
pulp (Hadidi et al. 1991) . Although no reports of ASSVd on nectarine fruit were found, it is 
possible that ASSVd may be pr esent in fruits from infected nectarine trees because it can 
move systemically in infected host plants.  
 Seed transmission of ASSVd has been reported on apples with 7.7 per cent of seedlings 
raised from infected apple seeds showed ASSVd infection (Kim et al . 2006) . No ASSVd seed 
transmission on stonefruit has been reported.  
 Nectarine fruit is cleaned using pressurised air gun prior to grading operations and packing 
for export. However, this would not remove the viroids from the fruits as ASSVd may be 
system ically distributed within the fruits.  
 ASSVd can be symptomless and also may have a long incubation period. Many hosts may be 
infected for several years before symptoms become apparent (Desvignes, Grasseau & 
Cornaggia 1999; Koganezawa 1986) . 
 Infected sympto mless nectarine fruits would not be removed in the grading process and 
could be exported to Australia.  
ASSVd was previously widely distributed in China but the current status of ASSVd in China is not 
precisely known. It is likely that symptomless infected  fruit can pass through packinghouse 
processes undetected. However, there were very limited reports of ASSVd on stonefruit trees in 
China and no report of ASSVd on nectarine fruit was found. This information supports a risk 
rating for importation of “Low”.  
 Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for ASSVd  assessed here would be the same as that for ASSVd  
for apples (Biosecurity Australia 2010a)  from China, that is High.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determ ined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that ASSVd  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China and 
be distributed in a viable state to a suscept ible host is: Low.  
 
4.16.2  Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and spread for Apple scar skin viroid  is based on the assessment 
for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . That assessment used the same 
methodology as de scribed in Chapter 2 of this report. The ratings from the previous assessment 
are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment  Moderate  
Likelihood of spread  Low  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  87 4.16.3  Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihoods of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The overall likelihood that Apple scar skin viroid  will enter Australia as a result of trade in 
necta rine fruit from China, be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in 
Australia and subsequently spread within Australia is: Very low . 
4.16.4  Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of Apple scar skin viroid  in Australia have been  estimated 
previously for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . The overall consequences have 
been estimated to be: Moderate . 
4.16.5  Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spre ad 
with the outcome of overall consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using 
the risk estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for Apple scar skin viroid  has been assessed as ‘very 
low‘, which achieves Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, no specific risk management measure is 
required for this pest.  Unrestricted risk estimate for Apple scar skin viroid  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Very lo w 
Consequences  Moderate  
Unrestricted risk  Very low  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  88 4.17 Tobacco necrosis viruses  
Tobacco necrosis virus A  (TNV -A) and Tobacco necrosis virus D  (TNV -D), tobacco necrosis virus 
Nebraska isolate or relate viruses (EP)  
The taxonomy of ‘tobacco necrosis virus’ (TNV) has been revised. Tobacco necrosis virus A (TNV -
A) and Tobacco necrosis virus D  (TNV -D) have been recognised as distinct species in the 
Necrovi rus genus (Coutts et al. 1991; Meulewaeter, Seurinck & Van Emmelo 1990) , as have 
Chenopodium  necrosis virus  (ChNV) and Olive mild mosaic virus  (OMMV), which were previously 
considered TNV isolates (Cardoso et al. 2005; Tomlinson et al. 1983) . TNV isolates from 
Nebraska and Toyama (TNV -NE and TNV -Toyama) represent another species in the genus, as 
yet not officially recognised (Saeki et al. 2001; Zhang, French & Langenberg 1993)  and molecular 
sequence data indicates some other necroviruses called ‘tobacco nec rosis viruses are also 
distinct species (NCBI 2009) . 
The risk scenario of concern for tobacco necrosis viruses (TNVs) is that symptomless infected 
fruit might enter Australia and result in the establishment of these viruses in Australia.  
TNVs were assessed  in the existing import policy for apples from China (Biosecurity Australia 
2010a) , stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010b)  and table grapes from China (Biosecurity Australia 2011) .The assessment of 
TNVs presented here builds on these existing policies.  
Differences in commodity and horticultural practices for apples and table grapes and for 
nectarines from China, and climate conditions and the prevalence of pests between previous 
export areas (for exa mple the USA) make it necessary to reassess the likelihood that TVNs will 
be imported into Australia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of  stonefruit from the USA and apples and table grapes from 
China. After importation, nectarines will be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a 
similar way to stonefruit from the USA and apples and table grapes from China. Therefore, it is 
considered unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of TNVs in Australia will be comparable regardless 
of the fresh fruit commodity in which TNVs is imported into Australia, as these likelihoods relate  
specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the importation pathway. 
The consequences of TNVs are also independent of the importation pathway. However, the 
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has r eassessed the 
consequences of a TNV species outbreak in Australia in light of the taxonomic changes and 
additional information.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no n ew information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment and spread as set out for  Tobacco necrosis 
viruses  in the existing policy for apples (Biosecurity Australia 2010a)  and table grapes 
(Biosecurity Au stralia 2011)  from China and stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon 
and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . Therefore, those risk ratings will be adopted for 
this assessment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  89 4.17.1  Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  
Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that Tobacco necrosis viruses will arrive in Australia with the importatio n of 
nectarines from China is: Moderate . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 TNVs have been reported in Xinjiang on soybean, mulberry, potato and melon since the 
1980s (Huang et al. 1984; Xi et al. 2008) .  
 TNVs have a broad host range and have been reported on 298 species in 167 genera of 
54 families (Staniulis 2003) . 
 TNVs have been isolated from trees of apple, pear, apricot (Uyemoto & Gilmer 1972) , peach 
(Mitrofanova & Teslenko 1982)  and plums (Paulechova & Baumgart enerova 1980)  in 
Europe.  
  Stonefruit trees are not often reported to be infected by TVNs and the infected trees were 
symptomless associated with the virus (NCPN -FT 2014) . 
 TNVs have been isolated from apple leaves and fruit of experimentally inoculated appl e trees 
(Uyemoto & Gilmer 1972) . 
 If TVNs infect nectarines, the virus particles may be present within the fruit.  
 Fruits with obvious symptoms will be discarded during grading process. However, if infected 
symptomless nectarine fruits were on the pathway, t hey would not be removed in the 
grading process and could be exported to Australia.  
TVNs have a wide range of hosts and some TVNs infect stonefruit trees. Symptomless infected 
fruit would not be detected during picking and would pass packinghouse processes . However, 
no report of TVNs associated with commercial nectarine fruit was found. This information 
supports a risk rating for importation of ‘Moderate’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for TVNs assessed here would be the same as that for TVNs for 
apples and table grapes from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011)  and stonefruit from the 
USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) , that is 
Moderate.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelih ood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using the matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  
The likelihood that TVNs will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China and be 
distributed in a viab le state to a susceptible host is: Low.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  90 4.17.2  Likelihood of establishment and spread  
The likelihood of establishment and spread for tobacco necrosis viruses is based on the 
assessment for apples and table grapes from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a, 2011)  and 
stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 
2010b) . That assessment used the same methodology as described in Chapter 2 of this report. 
The ratings from the previous assessment are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment  High  
Likelihood of spread  High  
4.17.3  Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihoods of entry, of establishment and of spread using the ma trix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The overall likelihood that Tobacco necrosis viruses will enter Australia as a result of trade in 
nectarines fruit from China, be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in 
Australia and subsequently  spread within Australia is: Low . 
4.17.4  Consequences  
The consequences of the establishment of Tobacco necrosis viruses in Australia have been 
estimated to be ‘Very low’ previously for apples, table grapes from China (Biosecurity Australia 
2010a, 2011)  and stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010b) .  
The consequences of the establishment of Tobacco necrosis viruses in Australia have been 
reviewed in light of the taxonomic changes and additional infor mation. The overall 
consequences have been estimated to be: Low . 
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
Criterion  Estimate  
DIRECT   
Plant life or 
health  D – significant at the district level  
Among the hosts in which TNVs cause disease, carrot, potato and strawberry are the 
most economically important in Australia. In 2009/10, the estimated value of the 
carrot, potato and strawberry crops is $176m, $614m and $308m respectively (HAL 
2012) . 
TNVs cause sporadic diseases in vegetable and ornamental crops in some years 
(Kassanis 1970; Nemeth 1986; Smith et al. 1988; Uyemoto 1981; Zitikaite & Staniulis 
2009) . No reports of adverse effects on fruit trees have been found (Nemeth 1986) . A 
disease in trem bling aspen ( Populus tremuloides ) may be caused by TNVs (Hibben, 
Bozarth & Reese 1979) . 
TNVs cause rusty root disease of carrot, Augusta disease of tulip, stipple streak 
disease of common bean, and necrosis diseases of cabbage, cucumber, soybean and 
zucchi ni and ABC disease of potato (Smith et al. 1988; Uyemoto 1981; Xi et al. 2008; 
Zitikaite & Staniulis 2009) . 
Losses between 20 per cent and 50 per cent have been reported in glasshouse grown 
cucumbers and in tulips (CABI 2015) . Lower losses probably occur more frequently Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  91 than such high losses. No estimates of losses in carrot, potato and strawberry have 
been found but it is possible that substantial losses occur sometimes. Symptomless 
viral infections of plants, in general, may  cause no yield loss, but they may cause yield 
losses as high as 15 per cent (Bos 1999; Gibbs & Harrison 1976) . 
Naturally infected vegetable crop s show a range of symptoms, including spots, flecks, 
streaks, necrosis and stunting. In strawberry in the Czech Republic, TNV has caused 
dwarfing and leaf and root necrosis (Martin & Tzanetakis 2006) .  
Stipple streak disease has been reported in Qld causin g small yield losses (Teakle 
1988) , but no reports of TNVs causing other diseases in Australia have been found, 
suggesting that the combinations of virus strain, vector biotype and host plant 
cultivar that result in disease have not occurred in Australia.  
Strains have been distinguished by various characteristics, including the symptoms 
they cause, their host ranges and genetic sequences (Kassanis 1970) . The diseases 
recorded in common bean and cucumber are probably caused by distinct TNV strains 
(Brunt & T eakle 1996; Zitikaite & Staniulis 2009) . The TNV strains detected in apple 
caused lesions in tests with cowpea ( Vigna sinensis ) and Chenopodium quinoa  
(Uyemoto & Gilmer 1972) , but no report of further investigation of their disease 
causing potential was fo und.  
A satellite virus replicates with some strains of TNV (Kassanis 1970; Uyemoto 1981)  
but no report has been found indicating greater disease when the satellite virus is 
present.  
Because the wide host range of TNVs and their chytrid vectors it is possi ble that some 
native plants will be susceptible, although no supporting evidence was found.  
Other 
aspects of 
the 
environment  A – Indiscernible at the local level  
There are no known direct consequences of these species on other aspects of the 
environment.   
INDIRECT   
Eradication, 
control etc.  D – significant at the district level  
Virus control measures in fields are limited and eradication may not be possible 
unless an outbreak is detected at an early stage. If detected at an early stage, an 
outbreak might  be controlled or eradicated by removing host plants and deep 
burying or incinerating potentially infected plant material, then leaving the fields 
fallow and controlling weed hosts. Further action might be required including 
cropping with non -host species and altering and lengthening crop rotations. 
Resistant cultivars may be planted, if they are available (CABI 2015) . Establishment 
and spread in a glasshouse may be controlled by reducing or eliminating Olpidium 
infestation of soil by chemical treatment or by heating by composting or soil 
pasteurisation (Asjes & Blom -Barnhoorn 2002; CABI 2015) . This may add 
significantly to costs. TNVs  tolerate temperatures as high as 95 degrees Celsius 
(Brunt & Teakle 1996) , so the temperatures achieved by composting and 
pasteurisation may not eliminate the viruses. Propagation of virus free plants and 
careful sanitation may reduce the chance of outbre aks (CABI 2015; Smith et al. 1988) . 
Domestic 
trade  C – minor significance at the district level  
Australian states are unlikely to  set up restrictions on interstate trade if a foreign 
TNV becomes established unless it causes significant disease, which is unlikely.  
International 
trade  C – minor significance at the district level  
If a damaging foreign TNV became established in Australia, additional restrictions 
might be introduced on the international trade of some vegetables or ornamentals 
that might lead to the loss of markets and some industry adjustment.  
Environment  A – Indiscernible at the local level  
There are no known in direct consequences of these species on the environment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  92 4.17.5  Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihood of entry, establishment and spread 
with the outcome of overall consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are c ombined using 
the risk estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5.  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for Tobacco necrosis viruses  has been assessed as 
‘very low’, which is achieves Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, no specific risk management measure 
is required for this pest.Unrestricted risk estimate for Tobacco necrosis viruses  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  Low  
Consequences  Low  
Unrestricted risk  Very low  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  93 4.18 Plum pox virus  
Plum pox virus  (PPV) (EP ) 
Plum pox virus  (PPV) causes plum pox disease which is also commonly known as Sharka disease 
and causes obvious disease symptoms in infected stone fruit hosts (Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture 2014) . PPV is the member of the genus Potyvirus  in the Potyviridae 
family. There is wide genetic variability within PPV. Based on biology, serology, molecular 
properties and plant host ranges, eight major strains or subgroups of PPV are recognised 
(Sochor et al. 2012; Wijkamp & van der Gaag 2011) . The Dideron strain (PPV -D) is the most 
common strain and typically infects apricot, peach and plum. This strain is transmitted both by 
aphids and grafting. PPV -D was also found in peach grafted on infected rootstocks of other 
species or cultivars (such as Prun us marianna ). 
The risk posed by PPV is that infected fruits may enter Australia and result in the establishment 
of PPV in hosts in Australia.  
PPV was assessed in the existing import policy for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, 
Oregon and Washingt on) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . The assessment of PPV presented here 
builds on this existing policy.  
Differences in horticultural practices and climate conditions and the prevalence of pests 
between China and the USA make it necessary to reassess the li kelihood that PPV will be 
imported into Australia with nectarines from China.  
Fresh nectarine fruit is expected to be imported from China from May to October which is 
similar to the timing of the import of stonefruit from the USA. After importation, nectar ines will 
be distributed throughout Australia for retail sale in a similar way to stonefruit from the USA. 
Therefore, it is considered unnecessary to reassess the likelihood of distribution.  
The likelihood of establishment and spread of PPV in Australia wi ll be comparable regardless of 
the fresh fruit commodity in which PPV is imported into Australia, as these likelihoods relate 
specifically to events that occur in Australia and are independent of the importation pathway. 
The consequences of PPV are also in dependent of the importation pathway. Accordingly, there is 
no need to reassess these components of the risk.  
In addition, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
reviewed the latest literature and no new information is available that would significantly 
change the risk ratings for distribution, establishment, spread and consequences as set out for  
Plum pox virus  in the existing policy for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington) (Biosecurity Aus tralia 2010b) . Therefore, those risk ratings will be adopted for this 
assessment.  
4.18.1  Likelihood of entry  
The likelihood of entry is considered in two parts, the likelihood of importation and the 
likelihood of distribution, which consider pre -border and post -border issues, respectively.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  94 Likelihood of importation  
The likelihood that Plum pox virus  will arrive in Australia with the importation of nectarine from 
China is: Very Low.  
The following information provides supporting evidence for this assessment.  
 The major hosts of PPV are fruit -producing species of Prunus  which include nectarine 
(P. persica  var. nucipersica ) (Sochor et al. 2012) . 
 PPV -D was first reported on apricot by testing leaf samples in 2003 -2004 in Hunan province 
in China (Navratil et al. 20 05) in the south of the country away from major stonefruit 
growing provinces. However, PPV is listed as a quarantine pest for China (AQSIQ 2007a)  and 
is regulated on international border and domestically.  
 A survey, conducted during 2010 and 2011 in Hunan p rovince, where PPV -D on apricot was 
reported, and in the major stonefruit growing provinces of Shaanxi, Shandong, Hubei and 
Liaoning provinces, tested leaf samples by ELISA from apricot, plum, peach and cherry 
orchards (Li 2012; Wei et al. 2013) . PPV was n ot detected in the survey which was 
completed by testing leaf samples from 10  864 plants from 104 orchards from these 5 
provinces. The survey result was presented at the International Symposium on Plum Pox 
Virus  held in Canada in 2011. The abstract of the presentation was published in Canadian 
Journal of Plant Pathology  in 2013 (Wei et al. 2013) . 
 The survey conducted in Hunan province (Li 2012)  reported that Hunan does not have 
commercial apricot production. The survey covered the 9 villages of four countie s where a 
small number of native apricot trees are locally distributed. Leaf samples from apricot trees 
in each of these villages were taken. Leaf samples from peach and plum trees in the same 
areas were also taken. Hunan province has imported 30 apricot t rees some years ago, all 
these imported trees were located and sampled. PPV was not detected.  
 In Shaanxi province, during the survey in 2010, leaf samples from 7530 randomly selected 
plants from around 2000 ha plum, peach, apricot and cherry orchards were  tested. No PPV 
infection was detected. In 2011, 800 plants were tested during a targeted sample program 
for 31 peach, apricot, plum and cherry orchards. No PPV was detected either (Li 2012) . 
 There was a recent report of PPV on peach in China without any technical details including 
the location of the detection (Li & Lu 2013) . However, Dr Li Shifang, the primary author of 
the report, confirmed that the statement of PPV on peach in China was an editorial error. The 
same field survey reported in (Li & Lu 2013)  has been published in an international journal, 
Journal of Plant Patho logy (Yu et al. 2013)  stating that no infection of PPV has been detected 
on peach leaves from 12 provinces that included  major peach growing regions. This survey 
was completed by testing more than 500 randomly obtained leaf samples.  
 If PPV is present in these major stonefruit growing regions, the incidence rate is below the 
detection limit of the surveys conducted.  
 China st one fruit production includes IPM based on monitoring and management of pests 
and diseases so appropriate management measures can be implemented (refer to Section 
3.3.3). No symptoms of PPV were seen in orchards visited or in commercial stone fruit at 
reta il outlets during the field a verification visit in Shanxi Province in June 2015. All orchard Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  95 managers were shown a copy of PPV symptoms and all stated that they had never seen the 
obvious symptoms of PPV infection.  
 Fruit has been experimentally demonstrat ed as a potential pathway for the movement of 
PPV (Gildow et al. 2004; Wallis et al. 2005) , although it poses a lower risk than plant 
propagation materials.  
 PPV symptoms may appear on the leaves, bark, fruits, flowers or seeds (Schneider et al. 
2011; Wang et al. 2006) . Infected fruits can show chlorotic spots or yellow rings or line 
patterns, and fruit can become deformed or irregular in shape and develop brown or 
necrotic areas (CABI & EPPO 2004) . Diseased fruits have browned flesh (CABI & EPPO 
2004) . Symp tomatic fruits can easily be detected and discarded during the production 
process or at packaging for export.  
 Newly infected nectarine trees may be symptomless (Cornell University 2010)  and infected 
trees may act as an unrecognised reservoir for the pathog en. 
 The D strain of the virus has been detected in symptomless fruit (Gildow et al. 2004) . It is 
likely that asymptomatic fruit will escape detection during routine harvesting and 
packinghouse processes.  
 PPV can survive in fruit transported either by air o r sea freight to Australia, transportation 
may take a few days to weeks. PPV can survive in fruits and be transmitted at all stages of 
fruit ripening, including overripe/rotting fruits (Labonne & Quiot 2001) . 
 Cold storage treatment during transport does no t eliminate the virus. PPV can be recovered 
from fruit stored for up to a month at 4  °C (CABI & EPPO 2004; Gildow et al. 2004) . 
There was a single confirmed report of plum pox virus  in China. However, two surveys that 
included the province in which plum po x virus was initially reported did not detect PPV. The 
surveys included China’s major peach and nectarine production regions and indicates that the 
incidence rate of PPV in the major stonefruit growing regions is below the detection limit of 
these surveys.  In addition, PPV symptoms are obvious and this virus has not been detected in 
more than 11 years since the first report of PPV on apricot in Hunan province. Based on the 
historical absence, targeted surveys and general surveillance that would likely detec t the 
obvious symptoms of PPV, it is considered PPV is absent from the major nectarine production 
areas of China. Plum pox virus  may be associated with asymptomatic nectarine fruit that is 
unlikely to be detected during packinghouses processes. PPV may sur vive cold storage and 
transportation. This information supports a likelihood estimate for importation of ‘very low’.  
Likelihood of distribution  
The likelihood of distribution for Plum pox virus  assessed here would be the same as that for 
Plum pox virus  for stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010b) , that is Low.  
Overall likelihood of entry  
The overall likelihood of entry is determined by combining the likelihood of importation and of 
distribution using t he matrix of rules shown in Table 2.2.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  96 The likelihood that PPV will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarines from China and be 
distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host is: Very low.  
4.18.2  Likelihood of establishment and spread  
As indicated, the likelihood of establishment and spread for Plum pox virus  is based on the 
assessment for fresh stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . That assessment used the same methodology as described in 
Chapter 2 of this report. The ratings from the previous assessment of PPV are presented below:  
Likelihood of establishment  High  
Likelihood of spread   High  
4.18.3  Overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
The overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread is determined by combining the 
likelihoods of entry, of establishment and of spread using the matrix of rules shown in Table  2.2. 
The overall likelihood that Plum pox virus  will enter Australia as a result of trade in nectarine 
fruit from China,  be distributed in a viable state to a susceptible host, establish in Australia and 
subsequently spread within Australia is: Very low . 
4.18.4  Consequences  
The potential consequences of the establishment Plum pox virus  in Australia have been 
estimated previously f or fresh stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b) . The overall consequences have been estimated to 
be: High . 
4.18.5  Unrestricted risk estimate  
Unrestricted risk is the result of combining the likelihoods of entry, establishment and spread 
with the outcome of overall consequences. Likelihoods and consequences are combined using 
the risk estimation matrix shown in Table 2.5  
Unrestricted risk estimate for Plum pox virus  
Overall likelihood of entry, establishmen t and spread  Very low  
Consequences  High  
Unrestricted risk  Low  
As indicated, the unrestricted risk estimate for Plum pox virus  has been assessed as ‘Low’, which 
is above Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, specific risk management measures are required for this 
pest.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  97 4.19 Pest risk assessment conclusions  
Key to Table 4.2 (starting next page)  
Genus species (Acronym for s tate/territory): state/territory in which regional quarantine pests have been 
identified  
Likelihoods for entry, establishment and spread  
N negligible  
EL extremely low  
VL very low  
L low 
M moderate  
H high  
EES  overall likelihood of entry, establishment and spread  
URE  unrestricted risk estimate. This is expressed on an ascending scale from negligible to extreme.  
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                            98 Table 4.2 Summary of unrestricted risk estimates for quarantine pests associated with fresh nectarine fruit from China  
Likelihood of  Consequences  URE  
Pest name  Entry  Establishment  Spread  P[EES]  
Importation  Distribution  Overall  
Spider mites [Prostigmata: Tetranychidae]  
Amphitetranychus viennensis  M M L H M L M L 
Tetranychus turkestani   L M L H H L L VL 
Weevils [Coleoptera: Curcurlionidae]  
Rhynchites auratus  
Rhynchites confragosicollis  
Rhynchites faldermanni  
Rhynchites heros  VL M VL M M VL M VL 
Fruit flies [Diptera: Tephritidae]  
Bactrocera correcta  L H L H H L H M 
Bactrocera dorsalis H H H H H H H H 
Fruit fly [Diptera: Drosophilidae]  
Drosophila suzukii   H H H H H H H H 
Mealybugs [Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae]  
Pseudococcus comstocki  H M M H H M L  L 
Scales [Hemiptera: Diaspididae]  
Pseudaonidia duplex  
Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  L L VL H M VL L VL 
Moths [Lepidoptera: Tortricidae]  
Adoxophyes orana  
Argyrotaenia ljungiana  
Spilonota albicana  L M L H H L M L 
Cydia pomonella  (WA)  EL M EL H H EL M N Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk assessments  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                            99 Likelihood of  Consequences  URE  
Pest name  Entry  Establishment  Spread  P[EES]  
Importation  Distribution  Overall  
Grapholita molesta  (WA)  
Grapholita funebrana  M M L H H L M L 
Twig borer [Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae]  
Anarsia lineatella  M L L H H L M L 
Fruit borer [Lepidoptera: Carposinidae]  
Carposina sasakii  H H H H H H M M 
Thrips [Thysanoptera: Thripidae]  
Frankliniella intonsa  
Frankliniella occidentalis  (NT)  H M M H H M L L 
Fungi  
Monilinia fructigena  
Monilia mumecola  
Monilia polystroma  
Monilinia yunnanensis  H H H H H H M M 
Viroids and Viruses  
Apple scar skin viroid  L H L M L VL M VL 
Tobacco necrosis viruses  M M L H H L L VL 
Plum pox virus  VL L VL H H VL  H L 
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  101 5 Pest risk management  
This chapter provides information on the management of quarantine pests identified with an 
unrestricted risk exceeding Australia’s ALOP. The recommended phytosanitary measures are 
described in this chapter.  
5.1 Pest risk management measures and phytosanitary procedures  
Pest risk management evaluates and selects options for measures to reduce the risk of entry, 
establishment or spread of quarantine pests for Australia where they have been assessed to 
have  an unrestricted risk above Australia’s ALOP. In calculating the unrestricted risk, existing 
commercial production practices in China have been considered, as have post -harvest 
procedures and the packing of fruit.  
In addition to China’s existing commercial  production practices for nectarine fruit and minimum 
border procedures in Australia, specific pest risk management measures, including operational 
systems, are recommended  to achieve Australia’s ALOP.  
In this chapter, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources has 
identified risk management measures that may be applied to consignments of nectarine fruit 
sourced from China.  
5.1.1 Pest risk management for quarantine pests  
The pest risk analysis identified the quarantine pests listed i n Table  5.1 as having an 
unrestricted risk above Australia’s ALOP.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  102 Table 5.1 Phytosanitary measures recommended for quarantine pests for fresh nectarine fruit 
from China  
Pest  Common name  Measures  
Amphitetran ychus viennensis  (EP)  
Pseudococcus comstocki  (EP)  
Frankliniella intonsa (EP)  
Frankliniella occidentalis (EP, NT)  
Adoxophyes orana (EP)  
Argyrotaenia ljungiana  
Spilonota albicana (EP)  hawthorn spider mite  
comstock mealybug  
Eurasian flower thrips  
western flower thrips  
summerfruit tortrix  
grape tortrix  
white fruit moth  Visual inspection and if detected, remedial 
action b (for example methyl bromide 
fumigation)  
Bactrocera correcta  (EP)  
Bactrocera dorsalis  (EP)  guava fruit fly  
Oriental fruit fly  Area freedom a 
OR 
Cold disinfestation treatment  
OR 
Irradiation  
Drosophila suzukii  (EP) spotted wing drosophila 
(SWD)  Area freedom a 
OR 
Methyl bromide fumigation  
OR 
Irradiation  
OR 
A systems approach proposed by China and 
approved by the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources  
Anarsia lineatella (EP)  
Carposina sasakii (EP)  
Grapholita funebrana  
Grapholita molesta (EP, WA)  
 peach twig borer  
peach fruit borer  
plum fruit moth  
Oriental fruit moth  
 Area freedom a 
OR 
Areas of low pest prevalence  
OR 
Methyl bromide fumigation  
OR 
Irradiation  
OR 
Systems approach:  
Orchard surveillance and control  
Fruit cutting  
Quarantine inspection and if detected, 
remedial action b (for example methyl 
bromide fumigation)  
Monilinia fructigena (EP)  
Monilia mumecola  
Monilia polystroma  
Monilinia yunnanensis  brown rot  Area freedom a 
OR 
Areas of low pest prevalence  
OR 
Alternative equivalent measures proposed by 
China and approved by the Australian 
Government Department of Agriculture and 
Water Resources  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  103 Pest  Common name  Measures  
Plum pox virus (EP)  PPV  Area freedom a 
OR 
Systems approach proposed by China and 
approved by the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources  
a Area freedom may include pest free areas, pest free places of production sites. b Remedial action (depending on the 
location of the inspection) may include treatment of the consignment to ensure that the pest is no longer viable or 
withdrawing the consign ment from export to Australia. EP (existing policy) pests that have previously been assessed by 
Australia and policy already exist.  NT pests of quarantine concern for Northern Territory. WA pests of quarantine concern 
for Western Australia.  
This non -regula ted analysis of existing policy builds on the existing policies including the import 
of fresh stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity 
Australia 2010b)  and from New Zealand to Western Australia (Biosecurity Australia 2006b) ; and 
for apples (Biosecurity Australia 2010a)  and table grapes (Biosecurity Australia 2011)  from 
China. These policies include all of the pest groups identified in Table 5.1.  
Considerable trade in stonefruit including nectarines from the USA (Califo rnia, Idaho, Oregon 
and Washington) and from New Zealand and in apples from China to Australia has taken place.  
Equivalent management measures have been considered for the same or similar pests and 
recommended in this report. Thus, the management options recommended in this report are 
consistent with the existing policies. Where there are differences in the recommended risk 
management measures among the existing policies, those recommended for stonefruit from the 
USA and from New Zealand to Western Austral ia and for apples from China were recommended 
in this report for nectarines from China because the efficacy of those measures have been 
further supported by considerable trade.  
The recommended risk management measures for nectarines from China include:  
 visual inspection and remedial action for leaf rollers, mealybug, spider mite and thrips  
 area freedom or fruit treatment (cold disinfestation or irradiation) for fruit flies  
 area freedom or fruit treatment (methyl bromide fumigation or irradiation) or a syste ms 
approach approved by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources for spotted wing drosophila  
 area freedom or area of low pest prevalence or fruit treatments (methyl bromide fumigation 
or irradiation) or a systems approach app roved by the Australian Government Department 
of Agriculture and Water Resources for fruit borers  
 area freedom or area of low pest prevalence or alternative equivalent measures approved by 
the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resou rces for brown rots  
 area freedom or systems approach approved by the Australia n Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources for plum pox virus.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  104 Management for Frankliniella intonsa, Frankliniella occidentalis , Pseudococcus comstocki , 
Amphitetranychus viennensis, Tetranychus turkestani, Adoxophyes orana, Argyrotaenia lju ngiana  
and Spilonota albicana  
Frankliniella intonsa  (Eurasian flower thrips), Frankliniella occidentalis  (western flower thrips), 
Pseudococcus comstocki  (comstock mealybug), Amphitetranychus viennensis  (hawthorn spider 
mite), Tetranychus turkestani  (strawb erry spider mite), Adoxophyes  orana  (summerfruit tortrix) , 
Argyrotaenia  ljungiana  (grape tortrix) and Spilonota  albicana (white fruit moth) were assessed 
to have an unrestricted risk estimate that exceeds Australia’s ALOP. Measures are therefore 
required t o manage the risk.  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources recommends visual 
inspection and remedial action as a measure for these pests. The objective of the recommended 
visual inspection is to ensure that any consignments of nectarine fruit from China infested with 
these pests are identified and subjected to appropriate remedial action. This measure is to 
reduce the likelihood of entry of these pests to at least ‘very low’. The restricted risk would then 
be reduced to at le ast ‘very low’, which would achieve Australia’s ALOP.  
The recommended measures are consistent with the existing policy for fresh stonefruit from the 
USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 2010b)  and from New 
Zealand to Wester n Australia (Biosecurity Australia 2006b) . The efficacy of visual inspection and 
remedial action is supported by considerable trade of stonefruit including nectarines from the 
USA (California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington) to Australia since 2010.  
Pre-expo rt visual inspection and remedial action by AQSIQ/CIQ  
All nectarine fruit consignments for export to Australia must be inspected by AQSIQ/CIQ and 
found free of these quarantine arthropod pests. Export lots or consignments found to contain 
any of these pest s must be subject to remedial action. Remedial action may include withdrawing 
the consignment from export to Australia or, if available, approved treatment of the export 
consignment to ensure that the pest is no longer viable.  
Management for Bactrocera dor salis  and Bactrocera correcta  
Bactrocera dorsalis (Oriental fruit fly) and Bactrocera correcta (guava fruit fly)  were assessed to 
have an unrestricted risk estimate that exceeds Australia’s ALOP. Measures are therefore 
required to manage the risks.  
The rec ommended measures are consistent with the existing policies including those for apples 
(Biosecurity Australia 2010a)  and table grapes (Biosecurity Australia 2011)  from China. The 
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources recommends the 
options of area freedom or fruit treatment (cold disinfestations or irradiation) as management 
measures. The objective of each of these measures is to reduc e the survival of B. dorsalis and B. 
correcta thus reducing the likelihood of entry to at least ‘extremely low’. The restricted risk 
would then be reduced to at least ‘very low’, which would achieve Australia’s ALOP.  
Area freedom  
Area freedom is a measure that might be applied to manage the risk posed by B. dorsalis and B. 
correcta . The requirements for establishing pest free areas or pest free places of production are 
set out in ISPM 4: Establishment of pest free areas  (FAO 1995)  and ISPM 10: Requirements for the Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  105 establishment of pest free places of production and pest free production sites  (FAO 1999)  and more 
specifically in ISPM 26: Establishment of pest free areas for fruit flies (Tephritidae) (FAO 2015b) . 
Current requirements for the import of pears, ap ples and table grapes include monitoring and 
trapping of fruit flies in export orchards and packinghouses. Monitoring and trapping of fruit 
flies in the specific nectarine export orchards and packinghouses of northern China (as for 
current apple, pear and table grapes export) are required.  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources is currently 
considering China’s request for recognition of northern China for area freedom for B. dorsalis, B. 
correcta and other economically signi ficant fruit flies based on China’s National Fruit Flies 
Trapping Network. If area freedom for these fruit flies and other economically significant fruit 
flies is accepted by Australia for northern China, China’s existing National Fruit Flies Trapping 
Netw ork would be required to be maintained in all areas including production areas where 
nectarines are to be sourced for export to Australia.  
Under either of the two area freedom situations (that is monitoring and trapping of export 
orchards or based on the N ational Fruit Flies Trapping Network), AQSIQ must notify the 
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources of the detection of any 
fruit fly species (Tephritidae) of economic importance in the regions within 48 hours. The 
Australian G overnment Department of Agriculture and Water Resources will then assess the 
species and number of individual flies detected and the circumstances of the detection, before 
advising AQSIQ of the action to be taken. If fruit flies are detected at offshore pr e-shipment 
inspection or on -arrival inspection, trade would be suspended immediately, pending the 
outcome of an investigation.  
Cold disinfestation treatments  
For nectarine fruit sourced from outside the recognised fruit fly pest free areas, cold 
disinfesta tion treatments can be undertaken.  
Treatment regimens consistent with the USDA Treatment Manual (T107 -f) (USDA 2010)  for Ya 
pear are recommended for the disinfestation of B. dorsalis and B. correcta on nectarine fruit.  
Cold treatments which are effective for B. dorsalis are considered to be effective for  B. correcta  as 
B. correcta  is more sensitive to cold than B. dorsalis  (Liu & Ye 2009) . In considering additional 
cold treatments developed for B. dorsalis  across a range  of commodities  (Chen et al. 2002; Liang, 
Liang & Wu 2002; Liang et al. 1999) , the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and 
Water Resources considers T107f effectively manages B. dorsalis and B. correcta and is a suitable 
treatment option fresh nectarine fruit from China.  
It is recommended that where cold disinfestation treatment is utilised, it must be carried out 
according to the specifications below:  
 0.56°C or below for 10 days, or  
 1.11°C or below for 12 days, or  
 1.67  °C or below for 14 days  
Cold treatments can be conducted pre -export in China or in -transit.  
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  106 Irradiation  
Irradiation treatment is considered a suitable measure option for B. correcta  and B. dorsalis . The 
treatment schedule of 150 gray minimum absorbed dose is specified in  ISPM 28 Annex  7: 
Irradiation treatment for fruit flies of the family Tephritidae (generic)  (FAO 2009) . 
Alternative equivalent measures  
Measures for B. dorsalis and B. correcta could also include other equivalent measures, subject to 
the provision and acceptance of suitable efficacy data.  
Management for Drosophila suzukii  
Drosophila suzukii  (spotted wing drosophila) was assessed to have an unrestricted risk estimate 
that exceeds Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, measures are required to manage the risks.  
Options recomm ended for this pest in the Final  pest risk analysis report for Drosophila  suzukii  
(Department of Agriculture 2013)  are area freedom, systems approach, or fruit treatment 
known to be effective against all life stages of D. suzukii . The objective of each of these measures 
is to reduce the survival of D. suzukii  thus reducing the likelihood of importation to at least 
‘extremely low’. The restricted risk would then be reduced to at least ‘very low’, which would 
achieve Australia’s ALOP.  
Area freedom  
Area freedo m is a measure that might be applied to manage the risk posed by D. suzukii . The 
requirements for establishing pest free areas or pest free places of production are set out in 
ISPM  4: Requirements for the establishment of pest free areas  (FAO 1995)  and ISP M 10: 
Requirements for the establishment of pest free places of production and pest free production sites  
(FAO 1999) . 
Drosophila suzukii is considered to be widespread in China (Dai & Shi 2013; Kai, Zhang & Carson 
1993) ; therefore, a rea freedom may not be a viable option for the majority of China. However, 
the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources does recognise the 
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region  is free from D. suzukii  based on historical absence and 
monitoring.  
Methyl brom ide fumigation  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources recommends the 
following methyl bromide fumigation against D. suzukii  on nectarines. This measure is also used 
to manage D. suzukii  in nectarines from the USA:  
 48 grams per metre cubed for two hours at a pulp temperature of 13.9  °C or greater at not 
more than 38 per cent chamber load.  
Additional post -treatment security measures may be required to limit post -treatment 
contamination by flies that are attracted to ripe fruit . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  107 Irradiation  
Irradiation treatment is considered a suitable measure option for D. suzukii (Follett, Swedman & 
Price 2014) . The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources 
recommends a treatment schedule of 150 gray minimum absorbed  dose, consistent with ISPM 
28 Annex  7: Irradiation treatment for fruit flies of the family Tephritidae (generic)  (FAO 2009) . 
Although lower doses (78 gray) have been shown to induce sterility of all immature life stages 
associated with fruit, adults can s uccessfully emerge from irradiated pupae. The detection of a 
sterilised D. suzukii  adult post border would result in regulatory actions. A dose of 150 gray 
would make adult emergence from irradiated fruit an unlikely event.  
Alternative equivalent measures  
Other treatments, demonstrated to be effective against all life stages of D. suzukii  for nectarine 
fruit, will be considered by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources if proposed by AQSIQ.  
Should China wish to use a systems  approach as a measure to manage the risk posed by 
D. suzukii , AQSIQ would need to submit to Australia a proposal outlining components of the 
system and how these components will address the risks posed by this pest. The Australian 
Government Department of  Agriculture and Water Resources will consider the effectiveness of 
any system proposed by AQSIQ.  
Management for Anarsia lineatella , Carposina sasakii, Grapholita molesta and Grapholita 
funebrana  
Anarsia lineatella  (peach twig borer), Carposina  sasakii  (peach fruit borer), Grapholita  funebrana  
(Plum fruit moth) and Grapholita  molesta  (Oriental fruit moth) were assessed to have an 
unrestricted risk estimate that exceeds Australia’s ALOP. Therefore, measures are required to 
manage the risks. Grapholita  molesta  (Oriental fruit moth) is a quarantine pest only for Western 
Australia.  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources recommends the 
options of area freedom or low pest prevalence areas or fruit treatment (methyl bromide 
fumi gation or irradiation) or systems approach approved by the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources as management measures. The objective of 
each of these measures is to reduce the likelihood of importation of these pests to at l east ‘very 
low’. The restricted risk would then be reduced to at least ‘very low’, which would achieve 
Australia’s ALOP.  
The recommended measures are consistent with the existing policies including those for 
stonefruit from the USA (California, Idaho, Oreg on and Washington) (Biosecurity Australia 
2010b)  and New Zealand (Biosecurity Australia 2006b)  and for apples (Biosecurity Australia 
2010a)  and table grapes (Biosecurity Australia 2011)  from China.  
Area freedom  
Area freedom is a measure that might be appli ed to manage the risk posed by Anarsia lineatella , 
Carposina  sasakii , Grapholita  molesta  and Grapholita  funebrana . The requirements for 
establishing pest free areas or pest free places of production are set out in ISPM  4: Requirements Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  108 for the establishment  of pest free areas  (FAO 1995)  and ISPM  10: Requirements for the 
establishment of pest free places of production and pest free production sites  (FAO 1999) . 
Should China wish to use area freedom option, AQSIQ would need to demonstrate the 
establishment of a reas freedom of these pests in according to ISPM  4 (FAO 1995)  and ISPM  10 
(FAO 1999) . 
Areas of low pest prevalence  
Low pest prevalence area is a measure that might be applied to manage the risk posed by 
Anarsia lineatella , Carposina  sasakii , Grapholita  funebrana  and Grapholita  molesta . The 
requirements for establishing areas of low pest prevalence are set out in ISPM  22: Requirements 
for the establishment of areas of low pest prevalence (FAO 2005)  and ISPM  29: Recognition of pest 
free areas and areas of low  pest prevalence  (FAO 2007a) . 
Should China wish to use Areas of low pest prevalence option, AQSIQ would need to 
demonstrate the establishment of areas of low pest prevalence for these pests in according to 
ISPM  22 (FAO 2005)  and ISPM 29 (FAO 2007a) . 
Methyl  bromide fumigation  
The fumigation treatment schedules set out below are those currently applied to reduce the risk 
of importation of oriental fruit moth on stonefruit from the USA ( California, Idaho, Oregon and 
Washington)  and New Zealand. This measure is  also used to manage leaf rollers, 
Grapholita  moths and Anarsia lineatella  in stonefruit from the USA.  
It is recommended that where fumigation with methyl bromide is utilised, it must be carried out 
for duration of two hours according to the specifications  below:  
 32 grams per metre cubed  at a fruit pulp temperature of 21  °C or greater, or  
 40 grams per metre cubed at a fruit pulp temperature of 16  °C or greater, or  
 48 grams per metre cubed at a fruit pulp temperature of 11  °C or greater  
Irradiation  
Irradiati on treatment is considered a suitable measure option for Anarsia lineatella , 
Carposina  sasakii , Grapholita  molesta and Grapholita  funebrana. The Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources recommends that  400  gray as minimum 
generic dose rate for the Class Insecta (except pupae and adults of the Order Lepidoptera) 
(USDA 2015) . 
Systems approach  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources recommends the 
following systems approach b ased on orchard control and surveillance, fruit cutting, and 
inspection to reduce the risk associated with these arthropods pests to meet Australia’s ALOP.  
 Orchard control and surveillance  
Registered growers must implement an orchard control program (for e xample integrated pest 
management (IPM) programs for export nectarines). Programs would be approved by Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  109 AQSIQ/CIQ, and incorporate field sanitation and appropriate pesticide applications for the 
management of quarantine arthropod pests.  
AQSIQ/CIQ is respons ible for ensuring that export nectarine growers are aware of pests of 
quarantine concern to Australia and that the export orchards are subject to field sanitation and 
control measures. Registered growers must keep records of control measures for auditing. 
Details of the control program must be provided to the Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources by AQSIQ before trade commences if requested.  
Monitoring/detection surveys for pests that require orchard management measures must be  
conducted regularly by AQSIQ/CIQ in orchards registered for export to verify the effectiveness 
of the measures. AQSIQ/CIQ will maintain annual survey results using a standard reporting 
format. These results will be made available to the Australian Governm ent Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources if requested.  
As important elements of orchard control and surveillance, a dormant or delayed dormant spray 
targeted at these fruit borers must be applied before first bloom. A bloom spray must also be 
appl ied prior to the one -inch leaf growth stage.  
Specific traps must be used to monitor these pests in orchards. If detected, control mea sures 
must be undertaken.  
 Fruit cutting and inspection  
For each consignment, total of 300 fruit per variety lot per day must be cut and examined to 
verify fruits are free from A. lineatella , C. sasakii , G. funebrana  and G. molesta  larvae. The fruit 
may be taken from the ‘cull’ fruit.  
If any Anarsia lineatella . Carposina  sasakii , Grapholita  funebrana  and Grapholita  molesta  larvae 
are detected during the fruit cut, the consignment must not be released from quarantine until 
the remedial action has been undertaken.  
Other potential measures  
The Australian Government  Department of Agriculture and Water Resources will also consider 
any other treatment that AQSIQ may propose, providing that it provides an equivalent level of 
protection.  
However, development of additional import conditions will be depend on AQSIQ providi ng 
information supporting the efficacy of treatments against these pests that reduce the level of risk 
to achieve Australia’s ALOP.  
Management of Monilinia fructigena, Monilinia yunnanensis, Monilia mumecola and Monilia 
polystorma  
Monilinia fructigena , M. yunnanensis , Monilia mumecola  and M. polystorma  were assessed to have 
an unrestricted risk estimate that exceeds Australia’s ALOP. Measures are therefore required to 
manage these risks.  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resource s recommends the 
options of area freedom or areas of low pest prevalence or alternative equivalent measures 
proposed by China and approved by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  110 Water Resources as management measures. The objective of e ach of these measures is to reduce 
the likelihood of entry of these pests to at least ‘very low’. The restricted risk would then be 
reduced to at least ‘very low’, which would achieve Australia’s ALOP.  
The recommended measures are consistent with the exist ing policies including those for apples 
from China (Biosecurity Australia 2010a) . 
Area freedom  
Area freedom (may include pest free areas and pest free places of production) is a measure that 
might be applied to manage the risk posed by Monilinia  fructigena , M. yunnanensis , 
Monilia  mumecola  and M. polystorma . The requirements for establishing pest free areas or pest 
free places of production are set out in ISPM  4: Requirements for the establishment of pest free 
areas  (FAO 1995)  and ISPM  10: Requirements for the establishment of pest free places of 
production and pest free production sites  (FAO 1999) . 
Nectarine fruit for export to Australia must be sourced from export orchards free of these 
diseases. This measure would require systems to be put in place for th e establishment, 
maintenance and verification of orchard freedom from Monilinia  fructigena , M. yunnanensis , 
Monilia  mumecola  and M. polystorma  under the supervision of CIQ and the responsibility of 
AQSIQ. The inspection and monitoring of trees in the expor t orchard at appropriate times to 
detect evidence of these pathogens must be undertaken and supported by appropriate 
documentation. The inspection method appropriate for these diseases, including details of the 
timing and size of the sampling to be underta ken for each orchard, would be developed by 
AQSIQ and subject to approval by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and 
Water Resources. Results of the inspections would subsequently be made available to the 
Australian Government Department of  Agriculture and Water Resources for auditing purposes if 
requested.  
Areas of low pest prevalence  
Low pest prevalence area is a measure that might be applied to manage the risk posed by 
Monilinia  fructigena , M. yunnanensis , Monilia  mumecola  and M. polystor ma. The requirements for 
establishing areas of low pest prevalence are set out in ISPM  22: Requirements for the 
establishment of areas of low pest prevalence (FAO 2005)  and ISPM  29: Recognition of pest free 
areas and areas of low pest prevalence  (FAO 2007a ). 
Should China wish to use areas of low pest prevalence option, AQSIQ would need to demonstrate 
the establishment of areas of low pest prevalence for Monilinia  fructigena , M. yunnanensis , 
Monilia  mumecola  and M. polystorma  in according to ISPM  22 (FAO 200 5) and ISPM  29 (FAO 
2007a) . 
Other potential measures  
Nectarine fruit for export to Australia would need to be sourced from orchards which have 
undertaken standard commercial practices including orchard monitoring and control, and fruit 
latency testing, whi ch achieve an equivalent level of quarantine protection. If latency testing in 
the initial year indicates that fruit from the registered orchard is free of these pathogens, the 
requirement for latency testing may not be necessary for that orchard in subseq uent years.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  111 If Monilinia fructigena , M. yunnanensis , Monilia mumecola  and M. polystorma  is detected in any 
export orchard, fruit from that export orchard will not be eligible for the export program to 
Australia.  
To manage any potential contamination from t he processing of fruit destined to domestic or 
other export markets, processing equipment in packinghouses must be suitably cleaned prior to 
the commencement of processing fruit for export to Australia.  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture a nd Water Resources will consider any 
alternative equivalent measure (for example, infield control and post -harvest fungicide dipping) 
proposed by AQSIQ, providing that it achieves an equivalent level of quarantine protection. 
Evaluation of such measures or  treatments will require a technical submission from AQSIQ that 
details the proposed treatment and includes suitable information supporting the efficacy of the 
treatment.  
Management of Plum pox virus  
Plum pox virus  was assessed to have an unrestricted risk  estimate that exceeds Australia’s ALOP. 
Measures are therefore required to manage this virus.  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources recommends the 
options of area freedom or systems approach proposed by China and approved  by the Australian 
Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources as management measures. The 
objective of each of these measures is to reduce the likelihood of importation of this pest to at 
least ‘extremely low’. The restricted risk would then be reduced to at least ‘very low’, which 
would achieve Australia’s ALOP.  
Area freedom  
Area freedom is a measure that might be applied to manage the risk posed by Plum pox virus . 
The requirements for establishing pest free areas are set out in ISPM  4: Requi rements for the 
establishment of pest free areas  (FAO 1995) . 
Since the first detection of PPV on apricot in Hunan province in 2003 -04 (reported in 2005), 
there have been no further confirmed reports of this pathogen in China. This is despite two 
targeted s urveys covering major stone fruit production areas, including Hunan province, 
without any detection of PPV. China’s stone fruit production systems implement IPM including 
general surveillance to ensure adequate management of in -field pests and diseases. PP V 
symptoms are obvious and there has been no confirmed reports of this pathogen since 2003/04. 
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources considers this 
information supports the historical absence of PPV from major stone fruit production areas. 
Therefore no specific measures are required for this pathogen for nectarines from China sourced 
from these areas.  
Under the SPS Agreement, China has an obligation to notify Australia when there is a change in 
the pest status. Australia ex pects AQSIQ to notify the Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources if the status of PPV in China changes.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  112 The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources is willing to 
consider PPV country freedom for Chin a if further information on PPV in Hunan province is 
provided, consistent with IPSM 4.  
Systems approach  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources considers a 
systems approach to address the risks posed by Plum pox virus  may be feasible. The approach 
could be based on a combination of within orchard control of vectors, and orchard monitoring 
and plant sample testing to ensure that the orchards registered for export to Australia have been 
tested and found free of Plum pox virus . 
The inspection, monitoring of trees and testing of plant tissues in the registered export orchards 
at appropriate times to detect evidence of the virus must be undertaken and supported by 
appropriate documentation. The inspection and testing method appropriate for this virus, 
including details of the timing and size of the sampling to be undertaken for each orchard, would 
be developed by AQSIQ and subject to approval by the Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources. Results of the inspections would subsequently be made 
available to the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources for 
auditing purposes.  
Should China wish to use a systems approach as a measure to manage the risk posed by Plum 
pox virus , AQSIQ would need to submit to Australia a proposal outlining components of the 
system and how these components will address the risks posed by this pest. The Australian 
Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources will consider the effectiveness  of 
any system proposed by AQSIQ.  
5.1.2 Consideration of alternative equivalent measures  
Consistent with the principle of equivalence detailed in ISPM  11: Pest risk analysis for quarantine 
pests  (FAO 2013) , the Australian Government Departme nt of Agriculture and Water Resources 
will consider any alternative equivalent measure proposed by AQSIQ, providing that it achieves 
Australia’s ALOP. Evaluation of such measures or treatments will require a technical submission 
from AQSIQ that details the  proposed treatment and including data from suitable treatment 
trials to demonstrate efficacy.Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  113 5.2 Operational system for the maintenance and verification of 
phytosanitary status  
A system of operational procedures is necessary to maintain and verify the phytos anitary status 
of nectarine fruit from China. This is to ensure that the recommended risk management 
measures have been met and are maintained.  
5.2.1 A system of traceability to source orchards  
The objectives of this recommended procedure are to ensure that:  
 nectarine fruit are sourced only from orchards producing commercial quality fruit  
 orchards from which nectarine fruit are sourced can be identified so investigation and 
corrective action can be targeted rather than applying it to all contributing export orcha rds 
in the event that live pests are intercepted.  
It is recommended that AQSIQ/CIQ establishes a system to enable traceability back to orchards 
where nectarines for export to Australia are sourced. AQSIQ/CIQ would be responsible for 
ensuring that export ne ctarine growers are aware of pests of quarantine concern to Australia, 
orchard monitoring and control measures.  
5.2.2 Registration of packinghouse and treatment providers and auditing of procedures  
The objectives of this recommended procedure are to ensure that:  
 nectarines are sourced only from packinghouses and treatment providers processing 
commercial quality fruit approved by AQSIQ/CIQ  
 references to the packinghouse and the orchard source (by name or a number code) are 
clearly stated on cartons of nectarines d estined for export to Australia for trace back and 
auditing purposes.  
 Treatment providers are capable of applying a treatment that suitably manages the target 
pests.  
It is recommended that export packinghouses and relevant treatment providers (where 
applic able) are registered with AQSIQ/CIQ before the commencement of harvest each season. 
The list of registered packinghouses and treatment providers must be kept by AQSIQ/CIQ. 
AQSIQ/CIQ would be required to ensure that packinghouses and the registered provider s are 
suitably equipped to carry out the specified phytosanitary activities and treatments. Records of 
AQSIQ/CIQ audits would be made available to the Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources upon request.  
Where nectarines underg o fruit treatment prior to export, this process could only be undertaken 
by the treatment providers that have been registered with and audited by AQSIQ/CIQ for the 
purpose.  
Approval for treatment providers is subject to availability of suitable equipment a nd facilities to 
carry out the treatment.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  114 All irradiation facilities must be audited by the Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources.  
5.2.3 Packaging and labelling  
The objectives of this recommended procedure are to ensure that:  
 nectar ines proposed for export to Australia and all associated packaging is not contaminated 
by quarantine pests or regulated articles  
 regulated articles are any items other than nectarine fruit. Regulated articles may include 
plant, plant product, soil and any other organisms, object or material capable of 
harbouring or spreading pests, deemed to require phytosanitary measures, particularly 
where international transportation is involved  
 in this report, nectarines are defined as nectarine fruit with or without stalk, but not other 
plant parts (section 1.2.2)  
 unprocessed packing material —which may vector pests identified as not being on the 
pathway and pests not known to be associated with nectarine fruit —is not imported with 
the nectarine fruit  
 all wood material  used in packaging of nectarines complies with the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources conditions  
 secure packaging is used during storage and transport to Australia and must meet 
Australia’s general import conditions for fre sh fruits and vegetables, available on the 
Australian Government Department of Agriculture  and Water Resources website  
 the packaged nectarines are labelled with the identification information of orchard, 
packinghouse and treatment provider for the purposes of trace -back  
 the phytosanitary status of nectarines must be clearly identified.  
It is recommended that export packinghouses and the relevant treatment providers (where 
applicable ) ensure packaging and labelling are suitable to maintain phytosanitary status of the 
export consignments.  
AQSIQ/CIQ would be required to ensure all packinghouses and the registered treatment 
providers at the beginning of each export season are suitably eq uipped to carry out the specified 
packing and labelling requirements. Records of AQSIQ/CIQ audits would be made available to 
the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources upon request.  
5.2.4 Specific conditions for storage and movement  
The objectives of this recommended procedure are to ensure that:  
 nectarines for export to Australia that have been treated and/or inspected are kept secure 
and segregated at all times from any fruit for domestic or other markets, untreated/non pre -
inspecte d product, to prevent mixing or cross -contamination  
 the quarantine integrity of the commodity during storage and movement is maintained.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  115 5.2.5 Freedom from trash  
All nectarines for export must be free from trash (for example, stem and leaf material, seeds, soil,  
animal matter/parts or other extraneous material) and foreign matter. Freedom from trash will 
be confirmed by the inspection procedures. Export lots or consignments found to contain trash 
or foreign matter should be withdrawn from export unless approved r emedial action such as 
reconditioning is made available and applied to the export consignment and then re -inspected.  
5.2.6 Pre-export phytosanitary inspection and certification by AQSIQ/CIQ  
The objectives of this recommended procedure are to ensure that:  
 Austral ia’s import conditions have been met  
 all consignments have been inspected in accordance with official procedures for all visually 
detectable quarantine pests and other regulated articles (including soil, animal and plant 
debris) at a standard 600 unit samp ling rate per phytosanitary certificate or equivalent  
 an international phytosanitary certificate (IPC) is issued for each consignment upon 
completion of pre -export inspection and treatment to verify that the relevant measures have 
been undertaken offshore  
 each IPC includes:  
 a description of the consignment (including identification information of orchard and 
packinghouse details)  
 details of disinfestation treatments (for example, methyl bromide fumigation) which 
includes date, concentration, temperature, du ration, and/or attach fumigation certificate 
(as appropriate)  
and 
 an additional declaration that ‘ The fruit in this consignment has been produced in China in 
accordance with the conditions governing entry of fresh nectarine fruit to Australia and 
inspected  and found free of quarantine pests’ . 
5.2.7 Verification inspection by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture 
and Water Resources  
The objectives of the recommended requirement for verification are to ensure that:  
 all consignments comply with Austral ian import requirements  
 consignments are as described on the phytosanitary certificate and quarantine integrity has 
been maintained.  
On arrival in Australia, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources will undertake a documentation compliance examination to verify that the 
consignment is as described on the phytosanitary certificate, that required phytosanitary actions 
have been undertaken, and that product security has been maintained.  
To verify that phytosanitary stat us of consignments of nectarines from China meet Australia’s 
import conditions, it is recommended that the Australian Government Department of Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  116 Agriculture and Water Resources complete a verification inspection of all nectarine 
consignments. It is recommend ed that the Australian Government Department of Agriculture 
and Water Resources randomly sample 600 fruits from each consignment.  
The detection of any live quarantine pest or regulated article for Australia would require 
suitable remedial action.  
5.2.8 Remedial action(s) for non -compliance  
The objectives of remedial action(s) for non -compliance are to ensure that:  
 any quarantine risk is addressed by remedial action, as appropriate  
 non-compliance with import requirements is addressed, as appropriate.  
Any consignme nt that fails to meet Australia’s import conditions must be subject to a suitable 
remedial treatment, if one is available, re -exported from Australia, or destroyed.  
Separate to the corrective measures mentioned, there may be other breach actions necessary 
depending on the specific pest intercepted and the risk management strategy put in place 
against that pest in the protocol.  
If product repeatedly fails inspection, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and 
Water Resources reserves the right t o suspend the export program and conduct an audit of the 
risk management systems. The program will recommence only when the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources is satisfied that appropriate corrective action 
has been taken.  
5.3 Uncategorised pests  
If an organism, including contaminant pests, is detected on nectarine fruit either in China or on -
arrival in Australia that has not been categorised, it will require assessment by the Australian 
Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources to determine its quarantine status 
and whether phytosanitary action is required.  
Assessment is also required if the detected species was categorised as not likely to be on the 
import pathway. If the detected species was categorised as on t he pathway but assessed as 
having an unrestricted risk that achieves Australia’s ALOP, then it may require reassessment. 
The detection of any pests of quarantine concern not already identified in the analysis may 
result in remedial action and/or temporary suspension of trade while a review is conducted to 
ensure that existing measures continue to provide the appropriate level of protection for 
Australia.  
5.4 Review of processes  
5.4.1 Verification of protocol  
Prior to or during the first season of trade, the Australia n Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resources will verify the implementation of agreed import conditions 
and phytosanitary measures including registration, operational procedures and treatment 
providers, where applicable. This may involve repr esentatives from the Australian Government Final report for Chinese nectarines  Pest risk management  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  117 Department of Agriculture and Water Resources visiting areas in China that produce nectarine 
fruit for export to Australia.  
5.4.2 Review of policy  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources reserves the right 
to review the import policy after the first year of trade or when there is reason to believe that 
the pest or phytosanitary status in China has changed.  
AQSIQ must inform the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Reso urces 
immediately on detection in country of any new pests of nectarine fruit that are of potential 
quarantine concern to Australia.  
5.5 Meeting Australia’s food standards  
Imported food for human consumption must satisfy Australia‘s food standards. Australian law 
requires that all food, including imported fresh fruits, meets the standards set out in the 
Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code (hereafter referred to as ‘the Code’) and the 
requirements of the Imported Food Control Act 1992 . Each Australian state and te rritory also has 
its own food laws that need to be met. Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) is 
responsible for developing and maintaining the Code, including Standard 1.4.2, maximum 
residue limits (MRLs), available on the ComLaw  website. The standards apply to all food in 
Australia, irrespective of whether it is grown domestically or imported.  
If a specific chemical is used on imported foods to control pests and diseases, then any resulti ng 
residues must not exceed the specific MRLs in Standard 1.4.2 of the Code for that food.  
If there is no MRL listed in the Code for a specific food (or a composite, processed food), then 
there must be no detectable residues in that specific food.  
Where an  exporting country uses a chemical for which there is no current listed Australian MRL, 
there are mechanisms to consider establishing an Australian MRL by harmonising with an MRL 
established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) or by a regulatory a uthority in a 
recognised jurisdiction. The mechanisms include applications, submissions or consideration as 
part of a FSANZ proposal to vary the Code. The application process, including the explanation of 
establishment of MRLs in Australia, is described at  the Food Standards Australia New Zealand  
website.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Conclusion  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  118 6 Conclusion  
The findings of this Final report for a non -regulated analysis of existing policy for fresh nectarine 
fruit from China  are based on a comprehensive scientific analysis of relevant literature.  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources considers that the 
risk management measures recommended in this report will provide an appropriate level of 
protection against the pests identified as associated with the trade of nectarine fruit from China.  
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             119 Appendix A  Initiation and categorisation for pests of fresh ne ctarine fruit from China  
The steps in the initiation and categorisation processes are considered sequentially, with the assessment terminating at ‘Yes ’ for column 3 (except for 
pests that are present, but under official control and/or pests of regional con cern) or the first ‘No’ for columns 4, 5 or 6.  
In the final column of the table (column 7) the acronyms ‘EP’, ‘NT’ and ‘WA’ are used. The acronym ‘EP’ (existing policy) is used for pests that have 
previously been assessed by Australia and a policy already exists. The acronym for the state for which regional pest status is considered, such as ‘NT’ 
(Northern Territory) or ‘WA’ (Western Australia), is used to identify organisms that have been recorded in some regions of Au stralia, and due to 
interstate quarant ine regulations are considered pests of regional concern.  
This pest categorisation table only lists pests that are likely to be directly associated with the export pathway of fresh ne ctarine fruit and reference to 
pests that are not directly related to the  export pathway, such as soilborne nematodes, soilborne pathogens, wood borer pests, root pests or 
pathogens and secondary pests have not been listed or have been deleted from the table, as they are not directly related to t he export pathway of 
fresh necta rine fruit and would be addressed by Australia’s current approach to contaminating pests.  
Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
ARTHROPODS  
Acari (Prostigmata)  
Aculus fockeui  (Nalepa and 
Trouessart, 1891)  
[Eriophyidae]  
Plum rust mite, peach silver mite  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Huang et al. 
1994)  Yes. NSW, Tas., 
Vic., WA (CSIRO 
2005; Halliday 
2013; Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             120 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Amphitetranychus viennensis  
(Zacher, 1920)  
Synonym: Tetranychus viennensis  
Zacher, 1920  
[Tetranychidae]  
Hawthorn spider mite  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (Migeon & 
Dorkeld 2013) . 
Primarily feeds on the 
underside of leaves 
(Jeppson, Keifer & 
Baker 1975) . Has 
been intercepted in 
South Africa on 
imported Prunus  fruit 
from Spain (DAFF 
RSA 2014) . Yes. This species is 
polyphagous. Hosts 
include peanut, 
quince, fig, 
strawberry, cotton, 
apple, cherry, plum, 
peach, pear and 
raspberry (CABI 
2015; Migeon & 
Dorkeld 2013) . These 
hosts are widely 
available throughout 
Australia. This species 
is found in many parts 
of temperate Asia and 
Europ e (Migeon & 
Dorkeld 2013) . Many 
parts of temperate 
Australia have similar 
climatic conditions to 
regions where the 
pest is currently 
established.  Yes. This species is an 
important pest of 
apple, peach, pear, 
apricot, plum, 
hawthorn, cherry, 
sweet cherry a nd 
raspberry in Asia and 
Europe (Jeppson, 
Keifer & Baker 1975) . Yes (EP)  
Bryobia rubrioculus  (Schenten, 
1857)  
[Tetranychidae]  
Brown spider mite  Yes (Wang 1981; 
Yang, Tulake & Li 
2005)   Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(Halliday 2013; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Poole 2010)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             121 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Eotetranychus boreus  Ehara, 1969  
[Tetranychidae]  
Apricot spider mite  Yes (Ehara 1969; 
Wang, Cui & 
Zhang 1981)  No records found  No. Eotetranychus 
boreus  is mostly 
found on plum, 
apricot and pear and 
associated with 
leaves (Migeon & 
Dorkeld 2015; Wang, 
Cui & Zhang 1981) . 
Associated with 
P. persica  (Ehara 
1969; Wang, Cui & 
Zhang 1981) . 
Eotetranychus  species 
feed on the under 
surfaces of leaves, 
usually alon g the 
veins forming small 
colonies where they 
generally produce 
webbing (Jeppson, 
Keifer & Baker 1975) . 
No report of an 
association with 
commercial nectarine 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  
 Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             122 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Eotetranychus pruni  (Oudemans, 
1931)  
[Tetranychidae]  
Chestnut spider mite  Yes (Wang 1981; 
Yang, Tulake & Li 
2005)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Migeon & 
Dorkeld 2013) . Adults 
and nymphs generally 
congregate on the 
under surface of 
leaves close to the 
midri b and veins, 
their feeding often 
resulting in 
premature leaf drop 
(Jeppson, Keifer & 
Baker 1975) . Females 
lay eggs covered with 
webbing along the 
veins on the under 
surface of leaves 
(David'yan 2009) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Eotetranychus sexmaculatus  (Riley, 
1890)  
[Tetranychidae]  
Six-spotted spider mite  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Wang 
1981)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
WA (CSIRO 2005; 
Fisher & 
Learmonth 2006; 
Halliday 2013) . 
Tentative record 
of six spotted 
spider mite in 
Tasmania noted 
(Andrew Bishop 
[DPIPWE, 
Tasmania] 2015, 
pers. Comm., 16 
June).  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             123 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Eotetranychus smithi  (Pritchard 
and Baker, 1955)  
[Tetranychidae]  
Smith spider mite  Yes (Wang 1981)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Migeon & 
Dorkeld 2013) . It 
feeds in colonies near 
the midrib on leaves 
(Jeppson, Keifer & 
Baker 1975) . No 
report of an 
associati on with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             124 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Eotetranychus orientalis  (Klein, 
1936)  
[Tetranychidae]  
Oriental red spider mite  Yes (Shun et al. 
1996; Zhou et al. 
2006a)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
WA (Halliday  
2000, 2013; Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . May not 
present in Tas. as 
it suited to 
warmer climates 
than Tas. (CABI & 
EPPO 1997d) . No. Citrus is the major 
host. Mites commence 
feeding on the upper 
side of the leaf along 
the midrib and then 
spread to the lat eral 
veins, causing the 
leaves to become 
chlorotic. Pale -yellow 
streaks develop along 
the midrib and veins. 
Little webbing is 
produced. In heavier 
infestations, the mites 
feed and oviposit over 
the whole upper 
surface of the leaf. 
Very heavy 
infestations o n citrus 
cause leaf fall and die -
back of branches 
which may result in 
defoliated trees. 
Lower populations in 
dry areas can produce 
the same effect (CABI 
& EPPO 1997d) . No 
report of an 
association with 
commercial nectarine 
or peach fruit was 
found.  Assessme nt not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             125 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Panonychus citri  (McGregor, 1916)  
[Tetranychidae]  
Citrus red mite  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Manson 
1987; Wang 
1981)  Yes. NSW, SA 
(CSIRO 2005; 
Halliday 2013) . 
Listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No. Citrus is the main 
host. No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment n ot 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Panonychus ulmi  (Koch, 1836)  
[Tetranychidae]  
European red mite  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006c)  Yes. NSW, SA, Tas., 
Vic., WA (Botha & 
Learmonth 2005; 
Halliday 2013; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Tetranychus cinnabarinus  
(Boisduval, 1867)  
[Tetranychidae]  
Carmine spider mite  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Wang 
1981)  Yes. All states and 
territories (CSIRO 
2005; Halliday 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             126 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Tetranychus kanzawai  Kishida, 
1927  
[Tetranychidae]  
Kanzawa spider mite  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Wang, Cui 
& Zhang 1981)  Yes. NSW, Qld 
(CSIRO 2005; 
Halliday 2013; 
Navajas et al. 
2001) . Listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) .  No. Tetranychus 
kanzawai  is often 
found on the under 
surface of the leaves; 
damaged leaves have 
yellowish spots; 
heavily infested 
leaves may become 
yellow and dry (CABI 
2015) . No records on 
nectarine was found. 
This  species is not 
regulated in WA’s 
policy for fresh 
summerfruit from the 
eastern states (Poole 
et al. 2011) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Tetranychus ludeni  Zacher, 1913  
[Tetranychidae]  
Bean spider mite, dark -red spider 
mite  Yes (Wang  1981)  Yes. All states and 
territories (CSIRO 
2005; Halliday 
2013)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Tetranychus mexicanus  (McGregor, 
1950)  
[Tetranychidae]  Yes (Cheng 
1994)  No records found  No. Reported to cause 
damage to P. persica  
(Paschoal 1968) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             127 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Tetranychus neocaledonicus  André, 
1933  
[Tetranychidae]  
Vegetable mite  Yes (Wang 1981)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
WA (Halliday 
2013; Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
May not present in 
Tas. as it probably 
restricted to 
warmer areas 
where the 
temperature 
rarely goes below 
10 °C (Seeman & 
Beard 2011) .  No. Mites prefer the 
young leav es. 
However in heavy 
infestations, mites 
may lead to plant 
death (Zhang 2008) . 
No report of T. 
neocaledonicus  on 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Tetranychus piercei  McGregor, 
1950  
[Tetranychidae]  
Banana leaf mite  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Wang 
1981)  No records found  No. This mite is 
mainly a pest of 
banana, pawpaw and 
sweet potato (CABI 
2015) . It mainly 
attacks the leaves and 
stems (Zhang & Fu 
2004) . There is only a 
single record of peach 
as a host in Taiwan 
(Lo 1968) . No report 
of an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             128 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Tetranychus turkestani  Ugarov & 
Nikol'skii, 1937  
Synonym: Eotetranychus turkestani  
Ugarov &  Nikol'skii, 1937  
[Tetranychidae]  
Strawberry spider mite  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Chen et al. 2007)  No records found  Yes. P. persica  is a 
host (Migeon & 
Dorkeld 2013) . This 
mite feeds in colonies 
mainly on the lower 
surface of the leaf but 
the injury shows on 
the u pper surface 
(Jeppson, Keifer & 
Baker 1975) . While 
fruit infestation 
appears to be 
uncommon, if 
population densities 
are high then mites 
may be associated 
with fruit. 
Tetranychus 
turkestani  has been 
intercepted in South 
Africa on imported 
Prunus  fruit from  
Spain (DAFF RSA 
2014) . Yes. This species has a 
wide host range 
including willow, 
cucumber, melons, 
pumpkin, lucerne, 
cherry, peach, quince, 
grape and maize 
(Migeon & Dorkeld 
2013) . These host 
plants are widely 
distributed 
throughout Australia. 
This specie s is 
distributed 
throughout Europe, 
Africa, Asia, North 
America and New 
Zealand (Migeon & 
Dorkeld 2013) . Many 
regions of Australia 
have similar climatic 
conditions to these 
areas suitable for its 
establishment.  Yes. A serious pest of 
many crops, with high 
populations able to 
cause leaf drop and 
plant death (Jeppson, 
Keifer & Baker 1975) . Yes (EP)  
Tetranychus urticae  Koch, 1836  
Synonym: Tetranychus bimaculatus  
Harvey, 1892  
[Tetranychidae]  
Two -spotted spider mite  
 
 
 
 
 
 Yes (CIQSA 
2001c)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Tas., Vic., WA 
(CSIRO 2005; 
Halliday 2013; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             129 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Coleoptera  
Adoretus sinicus  Burmeister, 1855  
Synonym: Adoretus tenuimaculatus  
Waterhouse, 1875  
[Scarabaeidae]  
Chinese rose beetle  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Adults feed on 
leaves of P. persica 
trees and larvae feed 
on roots (Hill 2008) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectar ine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Anomala corpulenta  Motschulsky, 
1853  
[Scarabaeidae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Adults feed on the 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  trees 
(AQSIQ 2006b) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Anomala cuprea  (Hope, 1839)  
[Scarabaeidae]  
Cupreous chafer  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Adults feed on the 
leaves of Prunus  spp. 
(Tayutivutikul & 
Kusigemati 1992) . 
Larvae feed on roots 
and live in the soil 
(Hiromori & Nishigaki 
1998) . No reports of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Asse ssment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             130 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Anthonomus pomorum  (Linnaeus, 
1758)  
[Curculionidae]  
Apple blossom weevil  Yes (Arakawa 
1931)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Arakawa 
1931) . Females 
deposit eggs in the 
tips of buds and 
larvae feed on the 
anthers, style and 
stigma (Schreiner 
1914) . Newly 
emerged adults feed 
on leaves (Arakawa 
1931) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Anthonomus  sp. 
[Curculionidae]  
Peach blossom weevil  Yes (Wu et al. 
1995)  No records found 
of this genus  No. Females deposit 
eggs singly on flower 
buds. The larvae feed 
on the flowers which 
fall to the ground, 
while adults feed on 
leaves (Wu et al. 
1995) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Asses sment not 
required  No 
Gametis jucunda  (Faldermann, 
1835)  
[Scarabaeidae]  
Citrus flower chafer  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Feeds on leaves 
and stems of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was  found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             131 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Holotrichia diomphalia  (Bates, 
1888)  
[Scarabaeidae]  
Northeast larger black chafer  Yes (CAAS 1992; 
Tian & Hu 1992)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CAAS 
1992) . Adults feed on 
the leaves, and larvae 
feed on roots (Chuno, 
Chyi & Wai 1960) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Lamprodila limbata  (Gebler, 1832)  
[Buprestidae]  
Golden jewel beetle  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves, stems and 
flowers of P. persica  
(AQSIQ 2006b; CABI 
2015) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Maladera orientalis  (Motschulsky, 
1857)  
[Scarabaeidae]  
Smaller velvety chafer  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . Generally, 
scarab beetle larvae 
feed on roots and 
adults feed on flowers 
and leaves (CABI 
2015) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             132 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Popillia japonica  (Newman, 1841)  
[Scarabaeidae]  
Japanese beetle  Yes. Popillia 
japonica  is 
reported as 
present in China 
(CAAS 1992; 
GAAS 2010) . 
However, MOA 
(2007)  lists 
P. japonica  as a 
quarantine pest 
for China. Some 
records may be a 
misidentification 
of 
P. quadriguttata  
(An 1990) . Based 
on the available 
evidence, the 
Australian 
Government 
Department of 
Agriculture and 
Water Resources 
considers 
P. japonica  to be 
present in China.  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Fleming 
1972) . Larvae feed on 
plant roots, an d eggs 
are preferentially laid 
in pasture and field 
crops (Fleming 1972) . 
Adults can attack the 
fruit of early ripening 
varieties of peaches, 
but otherwise feed on 
leaves, flowers and 
externally on fruit 
(Fleming 1972) . 
Adults are 8 –10 
millimetres long and  
brightly coloured 
(Fleming 1972) . 
Likely to be disturbed 
during picking and 
would easily be 
detected during the 
packing processes.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Proagopertha lucidula  
(Faldermann, 1835)  
[Scarabaeidae]  
Lucidula chafer  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Feeds on leaves 
and stems of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . Generally, 
larvae feed on roots 
and adults feed on 
flowers and leaves 
(CABI 2015) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             133 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Proagopertha pubicollis  
(Waterhouse, 1875)  
[Scarabaeidae]  
Apple hairy chafer  Yes (CIQSA 
2001c)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CIQSA 
2001c) . Generally, 
larval scarabs feed on 
roots and adults feed 
on flowers and leaves 
(CABI 2015) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Protaetia brevitarsis  Lewis, 1879  
[Scarabaeidae]  
White -spotted flower chafer  Yes (CIQSA 
2001c)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CIQSA 
2001c) . Generally, 
larval scarabs feed on 
roots and adults feed 
on flowers and leaves 
(CABI 2015) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature n ectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             134 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Rhynchites auratus  (Scopoli, 1763)  
[Rhynchitidae]  
Cherry weevil  Yes (CAAS 1992; 
Wang et al. 
1998)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (Dezianian 
2005) . Females 
oviposit deep into the 
fruit pulp where the 
larvae develop 
(Booth, Cox & Madge 
1990) .  Yes. Hosts of this 
species include apple 
and stonefruit (Booth, 
Cox & Madge 1990; 
Dezianian 2005) . 
These hosts are 
distributed 
throughout Australia 
in domestic , 
commercial and wild 
environments where 
the weevils could 
establish. Rhynchites 
auratus  is currently 
distributed from 
Europe to Siberia 
(Booth, Cox & Madge 
1990) . These regions 
span a range of 
climate types, many 
of which are similar 
to temperate areas 
throughout much of 
Australia.  Yes. Serious pest in 
Europe and Asia 
(Booth, Cox & Madge 
1990; Wang et al. 
1998) . A major pest of 
cherry and minor pest 
of apricot, peach, 
plum and almond in 
Iran (Dezianian 
2005) . Yes (EP)  
Rhynchites confragosicollis  Voss, 
1933  
[Rhynchitidae]  
Peach curculio  Yes (CIQSA 
2001a, c; Li, 
Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
Other weevils in this 
genus oviposit in the 
fruit where the larvae 
develop (Booth, Cox  & 
Madge 1990; Hanson 
1963; Katsumata 
1934) . Yes. Pest of P. persica  
trees in China (Li, 
Wang & Waterhouse 
1997) . These hosts 
are distributed 
throughout Australia. 
The climate in areas 
where 
R. confragosicollis  
occurs is similar to 
temperate areas in 
Austr alia.  Yes. Limited 
information is 
available on this 
species. However, 
other species within 
this genus have the 
potential for 
economic 
consequences.  Yes Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             135 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Rhynchites faldermanni  
Schoenherr, 1839  
[Rhynchitidae]  
Peach weevil  Yes (CAAS 1992; 
China Plant Pests 
2007)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (China Plant 
Pests 2007) . Other 
weevils in this genus 
oviposit in the fruit 
where the larvae 
develop (Booth, Cox & 
Madge 1990; Hanson 
1963; Katsumata 
1934) . Yes. Pest of P. persica  
in China (China Plan t 
Pests 2007) . These 
hosts are distributed 
throughout Australia. 
Climatic conditions in 
the Russian Far East, 
China and Korea 
where R. faldermanni  
currently occurs are 
similar to some 
temperate areas of 
Australia.  Yes. This species 
causes significant 
fruit  drop (China 
Plant Pests 2007) . Yes 
Rhynchites heros  Roelofs, 1874  
[Rhynchitidae]  
Pear leaf weevil  Yes (CAAS 1992; 
CIQSA 2001b; Li, 
Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
Females deposit eggs 
in young fruit 
(Hanson 1963; 
Katsumata 1934) .  Yes. Hosts of R. heros  
are fruit trees such as 
apple, pear, 
stonefruit, fig, quince 
and loquat (USDA 
1958) . Suitable hosts 
are distributed 
throughout Australia. 
Rhynchites heros  is 
distr ibuted in China, 
Japan and Korea 
(USDA 1958) . These 
regions have similar 
climates to temperate 
regions of Australia.  Yes. Considered one 
of the most serious 
pests of fruit in China 
(Hanson 1963) . Yes (EP)  
Urophorus humeralis  (Fabricius, 
1798)  
Synonym: Carpophilus humeralis  
(Fabricius, 1798)  
[Nitidulidae]  
Pineapple sap beetle  
 Yes (CABI 2015)  Yes. All states and 
territories (James, 
Faulder & Bartelt 
1995; James et al. 
2000; Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             136 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Diptera  
Bactrocera correcta  (Bezzi, 1916)  
[Tephritidae]  
Guava fruit fly  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997) . No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (CABI 2015; 
Steck 2002) . Lays 
eggs on the skin of the 
fruit and the larvae 
bore into the fruit 
(CABI 2015) . 
Bactrocera correcta  is 
a quarantine pest of 
China. Limited 
distribution in south 
and southwest China 
(Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . Yes. Hosts of this pest 
include pawpaw, 
mango, cherry and 
peach and it is found 
across Asia (CABI 
2015) . Its hosts, and 
geographic, range 
suggest that it could 
establish and spread 
in Australia.  Yes. This pest has 
caused up to 80 per 
cent damage in guava 
crops (CABI 2015) . Yes (EP)  
Bactrocera cucurbitae  Coquillett, 
1899  
Synonym: Dacus cucurbitae 
Coquillett, 1899  
[Tephritidae]  
Melon fly  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Dhillon et al. 
2005; Huang 
2006; Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Although B. 
cucurbitae  was 
recorded on the 
dropped peach fruit 
on ground (Huang 
2006) , no records of 
B. cucurbitae  on 
harvested commercial 
peach or nectarine 
fruit was found.  
Limited distribution 
in south and 
southwest China 
(CABI 2015; Li, Wang 
& Waterhouse 1997) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             137 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Bactrocera dorsalis  (Hendel, 1912)  
Synonym: Dacus dorsalis Hendel, 
1912  
[Tephritidae]  
Oriental fruit fly  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Huang 2006; Li, 
Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica . Oviposits 
into the fruit of hosts. 
Eggs hatch  inside the 
fruit and the larvae 
consume the fruit 
pulp (CABI 2015) . Yes. Found 
throughout Asia, with 
restricted distribution 
elsewhere. It has a 
wide host range, 
including capsicum, 
citrus, melon, apple, 
cherry and peach 
(CABI 2015) . Its hosts 
and geographic range 
suggest that it could 
establish and spread 
in Australia.  Yes. The species is a 
very serious pest of a 
wide variety of fruit 
and vegetables, and 
damage levels can be 
anything up to 100 
per cent of 
unprotected fruit 
(CABI 20 15).  Yes (EP)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             138 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Drosophila suzukii  (Matsumura, 
1931)  
[Drosophilidae]  
Spotted wing drosophila  Yes (Damus 
2009; Kai, Zhang 
& Carson 1993; 
Kaneshiro 1983; 
Toda 1991)  No records found  Yes. This species 
infests a range of 
fresh fruit including 
P. persica  (Brewe r et 
al. 2012; Kanzawa 
1939) . Larvae and 
pupae develop 
internally in fruit 
(Dreves, Walton & 
Fisher 2009; Lee et al. 
2011) . Yes. Attacks a broad 
range of ornamentals 
(Dreves, Walton & 
Fisher 2009; NAPPO 
2010)  and 
commercially grown 
fruit, including apple, 
pear, grape, 
blueberry, raspberry, 
blackberry, cherry 
and stonefruit (CABI 
2015) . These hosts 
are widely available 
throughout Australia 
(AVH 2014) . This 
species is considered 
native to Asia and has 
establishe d and 
spread outside its 
native range to 
Europe, Canada, USA 
and South America 
(Hauser, Gaimari & 
Damus 2009) . These 
regions have 
environments and 
climates similar to 
those found in various 
parts of Australia.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yes. This species can 
cause significant  
economic damage to a 
range of commercial 
fruit crops (Bolda, 
Goodhue & Zalom 
2010; CABI 2015) . It 
causes significant 
damage to 
commercial peaches, 
plums and apricots 
(Escudero Colomar et 
al. 2011; Weydert 
2011) . Yes (EP)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             139 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Hemiptera  
Amrasca flavescens  (Fabricius, 
1794)  
[Cicadellidae]  
Green tea leafhopper  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
Little information is 
available on the 
biology of this pest. 
Members of this 
family (Cicad ellidae) 
usually feed on leaves 
and stems, and 
secrete honeydew 
(Harvard Entomology 
2006) . Leafhoppers 
are highly mobile and 
would not remain on 
the fruit when 
disturbed during 
harvesting.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Aonidiella aurantii  (Maskell, 1879)  
Synonym: Aspidiotus aurantii 
Maskell, 1879  
[Diaspididae]  
Red scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Aonidiella citrina  (Coquillett, 1891)  
[Diaspididae]  
Yellow scale  Yes. (CAAS 1992; 
CABI 2015)  Yes. NSW, Vic., SA, 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Poole 2010)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             140 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Aphis craccivora  Koch, 1854  
[Aphididae]  
Cowpea aphid  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Cao et al. 2004)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Because A. 
craccivora  is a 
known vector of 
plum pox virus 
(which is absent 
from Australia) 
(CABI & EPPO 
2007; Gil dow 
2004; Kaya et al. 
2014) , the 
potential to be on 
the pathway 
needs to be 
assessed.  No. Young colonies 
concentrate on 
growing points of 
plants in spring. 
Feeds on young 
leaves, shoots and 
flowers (CABI 2015) . 
No report of 
association with 
mature nectarin e or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Aphis gossypii  Glover, 1877  
[Aphididae]  
Cotton aphid, Melon aphid  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Poole 2010) . 
Because A. 
gossypii  is a 
known vector of 
plum pox virus 
(which is absent 
from Australia) 
(CABI & EPPO 
2007; Gildow 
2004; Kaya et al. 
2014) , the 
potential to be on 
the pathway 
needs to be 
assessed.  No. Prefers to feed on 
the undersides of 
young leave s causing 
infested leaves to curl 
downwards and 
appear wrinkled or 
reddened (CABI 
2015) . No report of 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             141 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Aphis spiraecola  Patch, 1914  
[Aphididae]  
Apple aphid  Yes (AQSIQ 
2005)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Tas., Vic., 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Poole 2010) . 
Because A. 
spiraecola  is a 
known vector of 
plum pox virus 
(which is absent 
from Australia) 
(CABI & EPPO 
2007; Gildow 
2004; Kaya et al. 
2014) , the  
potential to be on 
the pathway 
needs to be 
assessed.  No. Eggs are laid on 
smooth twigs and 
watersprouts. Adults 
prefer to feed on 
undersides of leaves, 
on growing shoot tips 
or the shoot stem 
although high 
populations can result 
in direct feeding on 
devel oping fruits 
(Beers, Hoyt & Willett 
1993) . No report of 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Apolygus lucorum  (Meyer -Dür, 
1843)  
Synonym: Lygocoris lucorum  
(Meyer -Dür, 1843)  
[Miridae]  
Green plant bug  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; Feng & 
Wang 2004)  No records found  No. Feeds on fruit of 
P. persica (AQSIQ 
2006b) . Eggs laid in 
dead parts of tree 
branches (Pan et al. 
2014) . Adults and 
nymphs will be 
disturbed during 
harvest and are not 
likely  to remain with 
the fruit.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Aspidiotus destructor  Signoret, 
1869  
[Diaspididae]  
Coconut scale  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Watson 2005)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             142 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Aspidiotus nerii  Bouché, 1833  
[Diaspididae]  
Oleander scale  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Bothrogonia ferruginea  (Fabricius, 
1787)  
[Cicadellidae]  
Black -tipped leafhopper  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
Little information is 
available on the 
biology of this pest. 
Members of this 
family (Cicadellidae) 
feed on various 
vascular plants, 
usually on the leaves 
and stems, and 
secrete honeydew 
(Harvard Entomology 
2006) . Leafhoppers 
are highly mobile and 
would n ot remain on 
the fruit when 
disturbed during 
harvesting.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             143 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Brachycaudus helichrysi  
(Kaltenbach, 1843)  
Synonym: Anuraphis helichrysi 
(Kaltenbach, 1843)  
[Aphididae]  
Leafcurl plum aphid  Yes (CAAS 1992; 
Feng &  Wang 
2004; Yang, 
Tulake & Li 
2005)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Tas., Vic., 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Because B. 
helichrysi is a 
known vector of 
plum pox virus 
(which is absent 
from Australia) 
(CABI & EPPO 
2007; Gildow 
2004; Kaya et al. 
2014) , the 
pote ntial to be on 
the pathway 
needs to be 
assessed.  No. Sucks sap from 
leaves, flower buds 
and newly formed 
fruit. Consequently 
the fruit either does 
not set or falls 
prematurely (CABI 
2015) .  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Ceroplastes ceriferus  Fabricius, 
1798  
[Coccidae]  
Indian wax scale  Yes (CABI 2015)  Yes. NSW, Qld, WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Ceroplastes floridensis  Comstock, 
1881  
[Coccidae]  
Florida wax  scale  Yes (CAAS 1992)  Yes. NSW, Qld 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No. Primarily occurs 
on stems, leaves and 
branches (Miller et al. 
2007b) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             144 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Ceroplastes japonicus  Green, 1921  
[Coccidae]  
Japanese wax scale  Yes (CAAS 1992)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CAAS 
1992; Sullivan & 
Molet 2011) . 
Infestations occur on 
the foliage, stems and 
branches (Sullivan & 
Molet 2011) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Ceroplastes rubens  Maskell, 1893  
[Coccidae]  
Pink wax scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
NT, Qld, SA, Vic., 
WA (CSIRO 2005; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Chrysomphalus aonidum  (Linnaeus, 
1758)  
[Diaspididae]  
Circular scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
Tas., WA (CABI 
2015; Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Poole 2010) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             145 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Chrysomphalus dictyospermi  
(Morgan, 1889)  
[Diaspididae]  
Dictyospermum scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . It 
is listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia  
2014) . It has been 
incorrectly 
synonymised with 
C. pinnulifer  (Ben -
Dov et al. 2015) . No. Chrysomphalus 
dictyospermi  has not 
been recorded on 
peach, nectarine or 
apricot (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2015; MAF Plant 
Health & 
Environment 
Laboratory 2011) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Cicadella viridis  (Linnaeus, 1758)  
Synonym: Tettigella viridis  
Linnaeus, 1758  
[Cicadellidae]  
Green leafhopper  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Coccus hesperidum  Linnaeus, 1758  
[Coccidae]  
Brown soft scale  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             146 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Cryptotympana atrata  (Fabricius, 
1775)  
Synonym: Cryptotympana 
pustulata  (Fabricius, 1787)  
[Cicadidae]  
Oriental cicada  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . Adults feed 
on young branches 
and nymphs live in 
the soil and feed on 
roots (Feng & Wang 
2004) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             147 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Diaspidiotus ostreaeformis  (Curtis, 
1843)  
Synonym: Quadraspidiotus 
ostreaeformis  (Curtis, 1843)  
[Diaspididae]  
Oystershell scale  Yes (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014; CABI 
2015)  Yes. NSW, SA, Tas., 
Vic. (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
This species is 
listed as a 
quarantine pest 
for WA (Poole et 
al. 2011)  and is 
listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . 
 Yes. Associated with 
P. persica . Mostly 
infests the bark on 
stems and branches 
of trees, but 
sometimes can be 
found on the fruit 
where it causes red 
spots (Beardsley & 
Gonzalez 1975; CABI 
2015) .  Yes. This species has a 
wide host range, 
being reported from 
41 genera in 18 
fami lies, mainly 
deciduous trees. 
Many of these host 
plants are widespread 
in Western Australia. 
It is widely 
distributed in 
Palaearctic and 
Nearctic regions and 
has been introduced 
into Australia, 
Argentina, Canada 
and New Zealand 
(CABI 2015) . This 
species is  already 
established in parts of 
Australia (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  suggesting that 
there are regions 
within Western 
Australia suitable for 
the establishment and 
spread of this pest.  Assess not required. 
The potential 
economic 
consequences would 
only apply to WA 
should this species 
enter, establish and 
spread. WA has 
assessed these 
consequences as ‘very 
low’ using similar 
methodology to the 
Australian 
Government 
Department of 
Agriculture and 
Water 
Resources (Poole et al. 
2011)  which meets 
their ALOP.  No 
Diaspidiotus perniciosus  
(Comstock, 1881)  
Synonym: Quadraspidiotus 
perniciosus  (Comstock, 1881)  
[Diaspididae]  
California scale, San Jose Scale  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Yang, Tulake & Li 
2005)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             148 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Didesmococcus koreanus  
Borchsenius, 1955  
[Coccidae]  
Korean scale  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Drosicha corpulenta  (Kuwana, 
1902)  
[Monophlebidae]  
Giant mealybug  Yes (CIQSA 
2001c; Feng & 
Wang 2004; Xu 
et al. 1999)  No records found  No. Eggs overwinter 
in the soil, nymphs 
feed on young buds 
and pupate in cracks 
in the bark of the host 
(Xu et al. 1999) . Adult 
females and nymphs 
feed on stems and 
branches (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fru it was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Empoasca flavescens  (Fabricius, 
1794)  
Synonym: Empoasca mali 
(LeBaron, 1853)  
[Cicadellidae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; CIQSA 
2001c)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b; CABI 2015) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Eriosoma lanigerum  (Hausmann, 
1802)  
[Aphididae]  
Woolly aphid  Yes (CABI 2015; 
CIQSA 2001b)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(CABI 2015; Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             149 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Erthesina fullo  (Thunberg, 1783)  
[Pentatomidae]  
Yellow spot stink bug  Yes (Feng & 
Wang 2004)  No records found  No. Pest of P. persica  
(Feng & Wang 2004) . 
Eggs deposited in 
small masses on 
leaves (Hoffmann 
1930) . Adults and 
nymphs damage 
branches and fruit 
(Feng & Wang 2004) . 
Adults and nymphs 
are highly mobile and 
would be likely to fall 
from the fruit during  
harvesting.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Erythroneura sudra  (Distant, 1908)  
[Cicadellidae]  
Peach one spotted leafhopper  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b; CAAS 1992) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Eulecanium excrescens  (Ferris, 
1920)  
Synonym: Lecanium excrescens  
Ferris, 1920  
[Coccidae]  
Excrescent scale  Yes (Malumphy 
2005)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica , but only 
occurs on the bark or 
underside of leaves 
(Malumphy 2005) . 
Females that 
overwinter on stems 
deposit their eggs 
underneath their 
protective scales 
(Malumphy 2005) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             150 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Eulecanium giganteum  (Shinji, 
1935)  
[Coccidae]  Yes (Ben -Dov 
2014a; Yang et 
al. 2008)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica , but only 
feeds on twigs, 
branches and leaves 
(Yang et al. 2008) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Eulecanium kunoense  (Kuwana, 
1907)  
[Coccidae]  
Globular peach scale  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; CIQSA 
2001c; Feng & 
Wang 2004)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . Nymphs and 
adult females feed on 
branches and leaves 
(Feng & Wang 2004) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Geisha distinctissima  (Walker, 
1858)  
[Flatidae]  
Green broad -winged planthopper  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
On citrus, this 
planthopper feeds on 
young leaves (Clausen 
1927)  and it would be 
expected to behave 
similarly on nectarine 
trees. No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             151 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Halyomorpha halys  Stål, 1855  
[Pentatomidae]  
Yellow -brown stink bug  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . Eggs are 
attached, side -by-
side, to the underside 
of leaves in masses of 
20 to 30 (Jacobs 
2014) . Adults and 
nymphs feed on fruit, 
damaging the surface 
(Feng & Wang 2004)  
and the nymphs feed 
on leaves and stems 
(Hoebeke 2002) . 
Adults and nymphs 
are highly mobile and 
would be likely to fall 
from the fruit during 
harvesting.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Hemiberlesia lataniae  (Signoret, 
1869)  
[Diaspididae]  
Latania scale  Yes (CABI 2015)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001; Poole 2010; 
Watson 2005)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             152 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Homalogonia obtusa  (Walker, 
1868)  
[Pentatomidae]  
Four spotted stink bug  Yes (CAAS 1992; 
GAAS 2008b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CAAS 
1992; GAAS 2008b; 
Tayutivutikul & 
Kusigemati 1992) . 
Eggs laid in batches 
on leaves; nymphs 
feed on shoots, leaves 
and fruit (Funayama 
2002) . Adults and 
nymphs are highly 
mobile and would be 
likely to fall from the 
fruit during 
harvesting.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Hyalopterus amy gdali  Blanchard, 
1840  
[Aphididae]  
Mealy peach aphid  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; Feng & 
Wang 2004)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . Adults and 
nymphs feed on the 
underside of leaves 
(Feng & Wang 2004) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             153 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Hyalopterus pruni  (Geoffroy, 1762)  
Synonym: Hyalopterus arundinis 
(Takahashi, 1924)  
[Aphididae]  
Mealy plum aphid  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; CAAS 
1992; CIQSA 
2001c)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Tas., Vic. 
(CSIRO 2005; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Because H. pruni  
is a known vector 
of plum pox virus 
(which is absent 
from Australia) 
(CABI & EPPO 
2007; Gildow 
2004; Kaya et al. 
2014)  the 
potential to be on 
the pathway 
needs to  be 
assessed.  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . Eggs are laid 
on the axils of lateral 
buds or into cracks in 
the bark. Adults and 
nymphs feed on 
flower buds, flowers 
and leaves (Smith 
1936) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Icerya purchasi  Maskell, 1878  
[Monophlebidae]  
Cottony cushion scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. All states and 
territories (CSIRO 
2005; Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Icerya seychellarum  (Westwood, 
1855)  
[Monophlebidae]  
Seychelles mealybug  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Poole 2010) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             154 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Lepidosaphes conchiformis  (Gmelin, 
1790)  
[Diaspididae]  
Pear oystershell scale  Yes (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014) . Feeds on 
leaves and branches 
(Ben -Dov et al. 2014; 
Kumral, Gencer & 
Coskuncu 2004; 
Watson 2005) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Lepidosaphes gloverii  (Packar d, 
1869)  
Synonym: Aspidiotus gloverii 
Packard, 1869  
[Diaspididae]  
Glover scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld 
and Vic. (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . This 
species is listed as 
a permitted 
organism (section 
11) under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No  
Lepidosaphes pinnaeformis  
(Bouché, 1851)  
[Diaspididae]  
Purple scale  Yes (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014)  Yes. NSW, Qld, 
Tas., Vic., (Hudson 
1967; Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
This species is an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No. Lepidosaphes 
pinnaeformis  affects 
leaves and sometime 
stems (Watson 2005) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             155 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Lepidosaphes tubulorum  (Ferris, 
1921)  
[Diaspididae]  
Dark oystershell scale  Yes (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014) . Feeds on 
stems (USDA -APHIS 
2002) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Lepidosaphes ulmi  (Linneaus, 
1758)  
[Diaspididae]  
Oystershell scale  Yes (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014; CABI 
2015)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(CSIRO 2005; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Megacopta cribraria  (Fabricius, 
1798)  
[Plataspididae]  
Globular stink bug  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
On other hosts, 
females lay eggs on 
the underside of 
leaves (Ren 1984)  
and adults and 
nymph s feed on 
stems, leaves or 
legume pods (Wu, Wu 
& Hua 2006) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             156 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Myzus momonis  (Matsumura, 
1917)  
[Aphididae]  
Peach aphid  Yes (CIQSA 
2001c)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
Attacks the lower 
surfaces of leaves; 
infested leaves 
become rolled 
(Takahashi 1923) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessmen t not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Myzus mumecola  (Matsumura, 
1917)  
[Aphididae]  
Plum aphid  Yes (CAAS 1992; 
GAAS 2012; 
Zhang 2009)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CAAS 
1992; MAFF 1989) . 
Attacks the lower 
surfaces of leaves; 
infested leaves 
become rolled 
(Takahashi 1923) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             157 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Myzus persicae  (Sulzer, 1776)  
Synonym: Aphis persicae Sulzer, 
1776  
[Aphididae]  
Green peach aphid  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b) . Yes. All states and 
territories (CSIRO 
2005; Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Because M. 
persicae  is a 
known vector of 
plum pox virus 
(which is absent 
from Australia) 
(CABI & EPPO 
2007; Gildow 
2004; Kaya et al. 
2014)  the 
potential to be on 
the pathway 
needs to be 
assessed.  No. On summerfruit 
hosts, M. persicae  
feeds along the leaf 
veins of older leaves 
(CABI 2015; Feng & 
Wang 2004) . 
Reproductive females 
usually lay their eggs, 
in crev ices around 
and in axillary buds. 
Newly hatched 
nymphs feed on 
opened buds, flowers 
and soft shoots of 
peach trees (CABI 
2015) . No report of 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Naratettix zonatus  (Matsumura, 
1915)  
[Cicadellidae]  
Banded leafhopper  Yes (Yang 1965)  No records found  No. Leafhoppers 
usually feed on leaves 
(Yang 1965) . Nymphs 
and adults are highly 
mobile and would be 
disturbed during 
harvest and are not 
likely to remai n with 
the fruit.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             158 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Nezara antennata  Scott, 1874  
[Pentatomidae]  
Green stink bug  Yes (JNGPC 
2008; Li et al. 
2001)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li et al. 
2001) . Feeds on 
leaves and fruit.  
Nymphs and adults 
are highly mobile and 
would be disturbed 
during harvest and 
are not likely to 
remain with the fruit.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Nezara viridula  (Linnaeus, 1758)  
[Pentatomidae]  
Green vegetable bug  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Nipaecoccus viridis  (Newstead, 
1894)  
[Pseudococcidae]  
Spherical mealybug  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NT, Qld, WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Oncotympana maculaticollis  
(Motschulsky, 1866)  
[Cicadidae]  
Mingming cicada  Yes (CHNZX -
Farming 2008b; 
Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica . Adults suck 
sap from and lay eggs 
in branches, and 
nymphs feed on sap 
of roots (CHNZX -
Farming 2008b) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach was found.  Assessment not 
required  Asses sment not 
required  No 
Parasaissetia nigra  (Nietner,1861)  
Synonym: Lecanium nigrum  
Nietner, 1861  
[Coccidae]  
Pomegranate scale  Yes (Ben -Dov 
2014a; CABI 
2015)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             159 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Parabemisia myricae  (Kuwana, 
1927)  
[Aleyrodidae]  
Bayberry whitefly  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. Qld (CSIRO 
2005) . Listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No. Prunus  are minor 
hosts of Parabemisia 
myricae . Eggs are laid 
on edges or upper 
surfaces of young 
leaves where the y 
become sessile (CABI 
2015) .  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Parlatoreopsis chinensis  (Marlatt, 
1908)  
Synonym: Parlatoria chinensis 
Sasscer, 1919  
[Diaspididae]  
Chinese obscure scale  Yes (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014; Miller & 
Davidson 2005)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Baker et al. 
1943; Denning 1942) . 
It attacks stems, twigs 
and leaves (Baker et 
al. 1943) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Parlatoria oleae  (Clovée, 1880)  
[Diaspidae]  
Olive parlatoria scale, Olive scale  Yes (Chen 2003; 
Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Yang et al. 
2008)  Yes. NSW, Qld, WA 
(CSIRO 2005; 
Taylor & Burt 
2007) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Parlatoria pergandii  Comstock, 
1881  
Synonym: Parlatoria camelliae 
Comstock, 1883  
[Diaspididae]  
Black parlatoria scale, Chaff scale  Yes (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014; Li, 
Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, Qld 
(CSIRO 2005) . 
Listed as 
prohi bited 
organism under 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. Prunus are minor 
hosts. It has only been 
recorded on  Prunus 
laurocerasus  (Ben -
Dov 2014b) .  
This species was not 
regulated in WA’s 
policy for fresh 
stonefruit from the 
eastern states (Poole 
et al. 2011) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             160 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Parlatoria proteus  (Curtis, 1843)  
[Diaspididae]  
Common parlatoria scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Wate rhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Parthenolecanium corni  (Beuché, 
1844)  
[Coccidae]  
Plum scale, European fruit 
lecanium  Yes (Feng & 
Wang 2004; 
Yang et al. 2008)  Yes. NSW, Vic., 
Tas. (CSIRO 2005) . 
Listed as 
prohibited 
organism under 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) .  No. Immature P. corni  
female scales 
overwinter on the 
twigs. The young 
scales tend to settle 
on the leaves before 
moving to the stems 
(Landcare Research 
2015) . Eggs are laid 
under the body of the 
female on arboreal 
parts of plant (Miller 
et al. 2007a) . No 
records of P. corni  on 
commercial nectarine 
fruit was found.  
This species was not 
regulated by WA’s 
policy for fresh 
stonefruit from the 
eastern states (Poole 
et al. 2011) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Parthenolecanium orientalis  
Borchsenius, 1957  
[Coc cidae]  
Oriental scale  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             161 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Parthenolecanium persicae  
(Fabricius, 1776)  
[Coccidae]  
European peach scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Tas., Vic., 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Pinnaspis strachani  (Cooley, 1898)  
[Diaspididae]  
Hibiscus snow scale  Yes (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014; CABI 
2015)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Planococcus citri  (Risso, 1813)  
[Pseudococcidae]  
Citrus mealybug  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Plautia stali  Scott, 1874  
[Pentatomidae]  
Brown winged green stinkbug  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Liu & Zheng 
1994; Schaefer & 
Panazzi 2000)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Schaefer & 
Panazzi 2000) . 
Nymphs and adults 
are highly mobile and 
would be disturbed 
during harvest and 
are not likely to 
remain with the fruit.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Pseudaonidia duplex  (Cockerell, 
1899)  
[Diaspididae]  
Camphor scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Watson 
2005)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (Hodges 
2005) . Mainly feeds 
on the bark of stems 
and branches (Shiao 
1977) , but it also 
attacks leaves and 
fruit (Watson 2005) . Yes. This species has 
hosts in 57 genera in 
10 plant families 
(Davidson & Miller 
1990)  including 
Prunus , Pyrus  and 
Citrus  species 
(Watson 2005) , which 
are widely cultivated 
in Australia. Climatic 
conditions in many 
parts of Australia will 
be suitable for i ts 
establishment and 
spread.  Yes. A serious pest of 
tea in Taiwan. Male 
[nymphs] attack 
leaves while the 
females attack 
branches, eventually 
leading to plant death 
(Shiao 1977) . Yes Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             162 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Pseudaulacaspis pentagona  
(Targioni -Tozzetti, 1886)  
[Diaspididae]  
White p each scale  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b) ; Yes. NSW, Qld 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
This species is 
listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . Yes. This pest is 
mainly associated 
with leaves, branches 
and stems of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b; Feng & Wang 
2004; Yang, Tulake & 
Li 2005) , but can 
infest fruit (Watson 
2005) . Yes. Has been 
recorded on hosts 
from 108 genera in 55 
plant families (Ben -
Dov et al. 2014) . 
Many of these hosts 
are present in 
Australia. This species 
is found across Asia 
and Europe as well as 
eastern Australia 
(CABI 2015) . Its 
geographic 
distribution indicates 
that this species has 
the potential to 
establish and spread 
in Western Aus tralia.  Assessment not 
required.  
Pseudaulacaspis 
pentagona  is a 
regional pest for 
Western Australia. 
The potential 
economic 
consequences would 
only be applicable to 
WA should this 
species enter, 
establish and spread. 
WA has assessed 
these consequences 
as ‘very low’ using 
similar methodology 
to the Australian 
Government 
Department of 
Agriculture and 
Water Resources 
which meets their 
ALOP (Poole et al. 
2011) .  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             163 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Pseudaulacaspis prunicola  
(Maskell, 1895)  
[Diaspididae]  
Armoured scale  Yes (Ben -Dov et 
al. 2014; 
Davidson & 
Miller 1990)  No records found  Yes. A pest of 
P. persica  (Miller & 
Davidson 1990) . It 
feeds on the bark, 
fruit and occasionally 
on leaves (Davidson & 
Miller 1990) . Yes. Crawlers are the 
primary dispersal 
stage and are 
dispersed by wind or 
animal contact 
(Davidson & Miller 
1990) . This species is 
recorded on host 
plants belonging to 21 
genera in 16 families 
(Davidson & Miller 
1990) . Climatic 
conditions in many 
parts of Australia will 
be suitable for its 
establishment and 
spread.  Yes. In the USA and 
Japan this scale is a 
serious pest of Prunus  
spp. (Davidson & 
Miller 1990; MAFF 
2008) . Despite 
control measures this 
pest sometimes kills 
its host plants 
(Davidson & Miller 
1990) . Yes (EP)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             164 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Pseudococcus calceolariae  (Maskell, 
1879)  
Syno nym: Pseudococcus gahani  
Green, 1915  
[Pseudococcidae]  
Citrophilus mealybug  Yes (Ben -Dov 
2014c; Li, Wang 
& Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic. (CABI 
2015; Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Smith, Beattie & 
Broadley 1997) . 
This species is 
listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . 
 Yes. This pest occurs 
on a wide variety of 
plants including 
Prunus  spp. (Ben -Dov 
2014c) . Nymphs and 
adults seek shelter 
under the fruit calyx, 
between touching 
fruit and on leaves. 
Adult females may 
reproduce in these 
protected sites 
(Smith, Beattie & 
Broadley 1997) . Yes. A highly 
polyphagous species 
that has been 
recorded on plants in 
40 families, inclu ding 
many commercial and 
nursery plants such 
as apple, pear, grape, 
stonefruit, potato, 
hibiscus and rose 
(Ben -Dov 2014c; 
Smith, Beattie & 
Broadley 1997) . 
These hosts are 
widespread in 
Western Australia. 
This species is 
considered to be 
native to eastern 
Australia and now 
also occurs in the 
USA, South America, 
New Zealand, South 
Africa and Europe as 
well as China. 
Conditions in Western 
Australia will be 
suitable for its 
establishment and 
spread.  Assessment not 
required.  
Pseudococcus 
calceolariae  is a 
region al pest for 
Western Australia. 
Reported as the main 
pest of stonefruit, 
citrus and grape 
(CABI 2015; Smith, 
Beattie & Broadley 
1997) . The potential 
economic 
consequences would 
only be applicable to 
WA should this 
species enter, 
establish and spread. 
WA has  assessed 
these consequences 
as ‘very low’ using 
similar methodology 
to the Australian 
Government 
Department of 
Agriculture and 
Water Resources 
which meets their 
ALOP (Poole et al. 
2011) . No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             165 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Pseudococcus comstocki  (Kuwana, 
1902)  
Synonym: Dactylopius comstocki 
Kuwana, 1902  
[Pseudococcidae]  
Comstock mealybug  Yes (Ben -Dov 
2014c; CABI 
2015)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (Ben -Dov 
2014c) . Females and 
third instar nymphs 
infest fruits localising 
in the stem end of 
nectarines an d 
peaches (Pellizzari et 
al. 2012) . Yes. This species 
feeds on many host 
plants and is known 
to damage several 
horticultural crops 
such as banana, 
peach, pear, lemon, 
apricot, cherry and 
mulberry (Ben -Dov 
2014c) . These hosts 
are widespread 
throughout Austr alia. 
This species is 
believed to be of 
Asian origin, possibly 
indigenous to Japan, 
(Kuwana 1902)  and 
has been recorded 
from numerous 
countries throughout 
the world (CABI 
2015) . This indicates 
that this species has 
the ability to adapt to 
new environments 
and would be able to 
establish and spread 
in Australia.  Yes. Occasionally a 
serious pest in apple, 
pear and peach 
orchards in eastern 
USA (Bartlett et al. 
1978) . A common 
pest on mulberry, 
apple and pear in 
Japan (Murakami, 
Morimoto & Kajita 
1967) . It dama ges 
several agricultural 
crops including 
banana, pear, lemon, 
apricot, cherry peach, 
and mulberry as well 
as several ornamental 
and shade trees (CABI 
2015) . Weires (1984)  
recorded extensive 
losses from this 
mealybug in apple 
orchards.  Yes (EP)  
Pseudococcus longispinus  (Targioni 
Tozzetti, 1867)  
[Pseudococcidae]  
Longtail mealybug  Yes (CABI 2015)  Yes. All states and 
territories (CSIRO 
2005; Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             166 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Pulvinaria vitis  (Linnaeus, 1758)  
Synonym: Coccus betulae  Linnaeus, 
1758  
[Coccidae]  
Cottony grape scale  Yes (Ben -Dov 
2014a; Yang et 
al. 2008; Zhang 
& Wu 2007)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Phillips 
1963) . Found on the 
stems and underside  
of leaves; immature 
females overwinter 
on twigs of host 
(Landcare Research 
2014) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Rhodococcus turanicus  
(Archangelskaya, 1937)  
Synonym: Lecanium coryli 
turanicum  Archangelskaya, 1937  
[Coccidae]  Yes (Yang  et al. 
2008)  No records found  No. Yang (2008)  
reported that this 
pest only attacks the 
twigs, branches and 
leaves of P. persica . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Rhopalosiphum padi  (Linnaeus 
1758)  
[Aphididae]  
Oat aphid  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Saissetia coffeae  (Walker, 1852)  
[Coccidae]  
Hemispherical scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Saissetia oleae  (Bernard, 1782)  
[Coccidae]  
Olive scale  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             167 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Sphaerolecanium prunastri  (Boyer 
de Fonscolombe, 1834)  
[Coccidae]  
Plum scale  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Yang, Tulake & Li 
2005)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica . It 
completes its whole 
lifecycle on the trunk, 
branches or twigs of 
its host plant (CABI 
2015) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine  or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Stephanitis nashi  Esaki & Takeya, 
1931  
[Tingidae]  
Pear lace bug  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b) . No records found  No. Causes damage to 
many fruit trees 
including P. persica  
(Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997; 
Shanghai Insects 
Online 2014) . Eggs 
are laid on the 
underside of leaves. 
Nymphs feed in 
groups on the 
underside of leaves 
on both sides of main 
veins. Adults 
overwinter on the 
ground in fallen 
leaves and branches, 
crevices, grasses and 
gaps in soil (Shanghai 
Insects Online 2014) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             168 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Takahashia japonica  (Cockerell, 
1896)  
[Coccidae]  
String cottony scale  Yes (Ben -Dov 
2014a; Li, Wang 
& Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. This species only 
attacks the leaves and 
stems of P. persica  
(MAFF 1989, 1990) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
requi red No 
Toxoptera citricidus  (Kirkaldy, 
1907)  
[Aphididae]  
Brown citrus aphid  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Vic. and 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Tuberocephalus momonis  
(Matsumura, 1917)  
Synonym: Myzus spinulosa 
Matsumura, 1917  
[Aphididae]  
Peach aphid  Yes (CAAS 1992; 
CIQSA 2001c; 
Feng & Wang 
2004)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
Adults and nymphs 
feed on  buds and 
leaves (CAAS 1992; 
Feng & Wang 2004) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Urochela luteovaria  Distant, 1881  
[Urostylidae]  
Pear stink bug  Yes (Feng & 
Wang 2004)  No records found  No. Adults and 
nymphs feed on 
branches and fruit of 
P. persica  (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . 
However, adults and 
nymphs are highly 
mobile and will not 
stay on the fruit 
during harvesting 
when they are 
disturbed.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             169 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Hymenoptera  
Pristiphora sinensis  Wong, 1977  
[Tenthredinidae]  Yes (Wu et al. 
2006)  No records found  No. Causes damage to 
the leaves of 
P. persica  (Wu et al. 
2006) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit  was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Lepidoptera  
Acleris fimbriana  (Thunberg, 1791)  
[Tortricidae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; Han & 
Ma 1996; Liu & 
Meng 2003)  No records found  No. Feeds on leaves 
and stems of 
P. persica  in China 
(AQSIQ 2006b) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Acrobasis pirivorella  (Matsumura, 
1900)  
[Pyralidae]  
Pear pyralid  Yes (Gao, Zhou & 
Xie 2004; Li, 
Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. A pest of 
P. persica in China (Li, 
Wang & Waterhouse 
1997) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             170 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Acronicta intermedia  Warren, 1909  
Synonym: Acronycta incretata  
Hampson, 1909  
[Noctuidae]  
Apple dagger moth  Yes (Sun & Wang 
1999)  No records found  No. A pest of 
P. persica  (Sun & 
Wang 1999) . Eggs laid 
on leaves and larvae 
feed on leaves (Bailey 
& Caon 1986; CABI 
2015) . Larvae also 
chew on fruit skin  
causing scarring 
(Feng & Wang 2004) ; 
such fruit would be 
removed during 
packing shed 
operations. It 
overwinters as pupae 
in the soil (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Acronicta rumicis  (Linnaeus, 1758)  
[Noctuidae]  
Knotgrass moth  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Fu, Fu & Yan 
2009)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . Eggs laid 
on bark and the 
underside of leaves 
(Feng & Wang 2004) . 
Larvae feed on young 
leaves in colonies and 
overwinter in the soil 
as pu pae (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             171 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Acronicta strigosa  (Denis & 
Schiffermüller, 1775)  
[Noctuidae]  
Cherry dagger moth  Yes (Cao & Wang 
1986)  No records found  No. A pest of 
P. persica  and other 
fruit trees (Cao & 
Wang 1986) . Larvae 
feed on leaves (Bailey 
& Caon 1986; Cao & 
Wang 1986) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Actias selene ningpoana  Felder & 
Felder, 1862  
[Saturniidae]  
Chinese moon moth  Yes (He 1991)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . Larvae 
feed on leaves (Feng 
& Wang 2004) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not  
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             172 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Adoxophyes orana  (Fischer von 
Roeslerstamm, 1834)  
Synonym: Adoxophyes fasciata  
Walsingham, 1900  
[Tortricidae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; CIQSA 
2001c)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (Milonas & 
Savopoulou -Soultani 
2000) . The larvae 
feed on leaves, shoots 
and fruit. Eggs are 
also sometimes 
deposited on fruit 
(Davis, French & 
Venette 2005) . Yes. Feeds on a wide 
range of plant families 
(Davis, French & 
Venette 2005; Zhou & 
Deng 2005) . Fruit 
trees and other hosts 
occur commo nly 
throughout Australia. 
This species has 
established and 
spread outside its 
native range in areas 
where it has been 
introduced, for 
example, Greece 
(Savopoulou -Soultani 
et al. 1985) . Its host 
range and 
demonstrated ability 
to establish and 
spread in new 
environments 
suggests that it could 
establish and spread 
in Australia.  Yes. A major pest of 
fruit tree crops in 
China and elsewhere 
in the world and has 
been reported to 
cause up to 50 per 
cent crop loss (Davis, 
French & Venette 
2005) . The 
polyphagous natu re 
of A. orana  indicates 
the potential for 
consequences across 
a wide range of fruit 
growing industries, as 
well as for wild 
plants.  Yes (EP)  
Agrotis ipsilon  (Hufnagel, 1766)  
[Noctuidae]  
Black cutworm  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
NT, Qld, SA, Tas., 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             173 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Amphipyra pyramidea  Linnaeus, 
1758  
[Noctuidae]  
Copper underwing  Yes (CHNZX -
Farming 2008a; 
Zhang 2005)  No records  found  No. Larvae have been 
found on P. persica  
trees (Chapman & 
Lienk 1974) . Larvae 
feed on leaves and 
occasionally chew on 
the skin of fruit 
(CHNZX -Farming 
2008a) . Larvae feed 
externally on fruit 
and would be 
dislodged during 
harvesting and 
packinghouse 
operations.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Anarsia lineatella  Zeller, 1839  
Synonym: Anarsia pruniella  
(Clerck, 1759)  
[Gelechiidae]  
Peach twig borer  Yes (Yang, 
Tulake & Li 
2005)  No records found  Yes. Associated with 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . Larvae feed on 
shoots and bore into 
fruit. Females lay eggs 
on shoots, the 
underside of the 
leaves and on 
developing fruit 
(Reding & Alston 
2003) . Yes. Feeds on Prunus  
spp. (CABI 2015) . 
Prunus species are 
common as 
residential and 
amenity plantings and 
are also commercially 
grown in many areas 
of Australia. It is 
widespread in North 
America, Europe, Asia 
and North Africa 
(CABI 2015) , which 
have regions with 
similar climates to 
parts of Australia. The 
pest’s host range and 
current distribution 
suggest that it could 
establish and spread 
in Australia.  Yes. Feeds on fruit 
reducing 
marketability; a major 
pest of stonefruit 
across North America, 
Europe, Asia and 
North Africa (CABI 
2015) . In Ca lifornia, it 
has previously been 
reported to cause 
damage to 71 per cent 
of almond kernels in 
susceptible cultivars 
and may still cause 
extensive losses in the 
absence of adequate 
control measures 
(Rice, Garnett & 
Steenwyk 1996) . Yes (EP)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             174 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Anomis mesogona  (Walker, 1858)  
[Noctuidae]  
Anomis fruit moth  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . Anomis 
mesogona  is a 
nocturnal fruit 
piercing moth whose 
adults pierce and suck 
the juice from fleshy 
fruit. This la rge, wary 
moth shelters in 
foliage away from 
fruit during daylight 
hours (USDA 2002)  
therefore it would not 
be present on fruit 
during harvesting.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Aporia crataegi adherbal  
Fruhstorfer, 1910  
[Pieridae]  
Blackveined white butterfly  Yes (Grichanov & 
Ovsyannikova 
2009)  No records found  No. Larvae damage 
leaves and buds of 
P. persica (Grichanov 
& Ovsyannikova 
2009) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             175 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Archips breviplicanus  Walsingham, 
1900  
[Tortricidae]  
Asiatic leafroller  Yes (Byun, Yan & 
Li 2003)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Meijerman 
& Ulenberg 2000b) . 
Larvae feed on leaves 
(Jung et al. 2001)  and 
buds (Meijerman & 
Ulenberg 2000b) . 
Eggs are laid in 
batches on the 
underside of fully 
expanded leaves 
(Meijerman & 
Ulenberg 2000b) . The 
older larvae attack 
young fruit and make 
shallow feeding scars 
on fruit that are in 
contact with leaves 
(Meijerman & 
Ulenberg 2000b) . 
Surface feeding of the 
fruit will result in 
blemishes. These fruit 
will be removed 
during harvesting and 
packinghouse 
procedures.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             176 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Archips xylosteana  (Linnaeus, 
1758)  
[Tortricidae]  
Apple  leafroller, Variegated golden 
tortrix  Yes (Byun, Yan & 
Li 2003; CABI 
2015; Hwang 
1974)  No records found  No. Present on 
P. persica  (Byun, Yan 
& Li 2003; CABI 
2015) . Eggs are laid in 
batches on trunks or 
branches (Meijerman 
& Ulenberg 2000b) . 
Larvae feed on  buds, 
fully expanded leaves 
and sometimes on 
fruitlets resulting in 
corky blemishes on 
the fruits (Alford 
2007; Hoebeke, 
Wheeler & Brown 
2008) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             177 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Argyrotaenia ljungiana  (Thunberg, 
1797)  
Synonym: Argyrotaenia 
pulchellana  (Haworth, 1811)  
[Tortricidae]  
Grape tortrix, Grey -barred twist  Yes (Afonin et al. 
2008; Byun, Yan 
& Li 2003)  No records found  Yes. Larvae attack 
fruit of P. persica  
(Briolini & Giunchi 
1966; Castellari 1988; 
Kharizanov 1976) . 
Larvae feed on both 
foliage and fruit 
(Carter 1984; 
Kharizanov 1976) . Yes. Attacks a large 
number of 
ornamental and 
cultivated host plants 
as well as forest trees 
(Afonin et al. 2008; 
Baggiolini 1961; 
Briolini & Giunchi 
1966; Carter 1984; 
INRA 1997; 
Meijerman & 
Ulenberg 2000b; 
Pollini 2008; 
Tremblay 1966) . The 
species has a broad 
host range and its 
current distribution 
in China suggests that 
it could establish and 
spread in many parts 
of Australia . Yes. This species is 
one of the most 
important insect 
pests of apricot, peach 
and plum in Europe 
(Afonin et al. 2008; 
Baggiolini 1961; 
Briolini & Giunchi 
1966; Castellari 1988; 
Kharizanov 1976) . It 
is a significant pest of 
fruit production, 
industrial, 
ornamental, and field 
cultures in the 
southern regions of 
Russia (Afonin et al. 
2008) . Yes 
Artena dotata  (Fabricius, 1794)  
[Noctuidae]  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Fruit -piercer of 
P. persica  (Bänziger 
1982) . Both larvae 
and adult moths are 
inactive during the 
day and hide amongst 
foliage or leaf litter. 
During the night, 
adults usually feed on 
overripe or 
fermenting fruit 
(Common 1990)  and 
will fly away when 
disturbed.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             178 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Bhima undulosa  Walker, 1855  
[Lasiocampidae]  Yes (Wu & 
Huang 1986)  No records found  No. Found on 
P. persica  (Wu & 
Huang 1986) . Larvae 
feed on leaves and 
overwinter on bark 
close to the ground. 
Eggs are laid in the 
fork of branches (Wu 
& Huang 1986) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Biston panterinaria  (Bremer & 
Grey, 1853)  
Synonym: Culcula panterinaria  
(Bremer & Grey, 1853)  
[Geometridae]  
Chinese pistacia looper  Yes (Ding et al. 
2006; FSLY 
2010; Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Zhu, Guo & 
Zhang 1985)  No records found  No. P. persica  is a host 
tree (Yu 2001) . 
Larvae feed on leaves 
(Ding et al. 2006; 
FSLY 2010) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nect arine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Calyptra gruesa  (Draudt, 1950)  
Synonym: Calpe gruesa  (Draudt, 
1950)  
[Noctuidae]  Yes (Savela 
2009; ZDCBIC 
2005)  No records found  No. Attacks P. persica  
(Hattori 1969) . Both 
larvae and adult 
moths are inactive 
during the day and 
hide amongst the 
foliage or leaf litter. 
At night adults 
usually feed on 
overripe or 
fermenting fruit 
(Common 1990)  and 
will fly away when 
disturbed.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
requi red No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             179 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Calyptra lata  (Butler, 1881)  
Synonyms: Calpe lata  (Butler, 
1881)  
[Noctuidae]  Yes (Savela 
2009)  No record found  No. Attacks P. persica  
(Hattori 1969) . Both 
larvae and adult 
noctuid moths are 
inactive during the 
day and hide amongst 
the foliage or leaf 
litter. At night adults 
suck sap of fruit 
(GAAS 2008a)  and 
will fly away when 
disturbed.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Calyptra thalictri  (Borkhausen, 
1790)  
[Noctuidae]  
Fruit -piercing moth  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Savela 
2009)  No records found  No. This pest attacks 
P. persica  (Hattori 
1969) . Both larvae 
and adults of fruit -
piercing moths are 
inactive during the 
day and hide  in 
foliage or leaf litter 
(Common 1990) . 
Larvae feed on leaves 
at night and usually 
fall to the ground 
when disturbed 
(Hattori 1969) . Adults 
usually feed on 
overripe or 
fermenting fruit 
(Common 1990)  and 
will fly away when 
disturbed.  Assessment not 
requi red Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             180 Carposina sasakii  Matsumura, 1900  
Synonym: Carposina niponensis  
Walsingham, 1900  
[Carposinidae]  
Peach fruit borer  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006c)  No records found  Yes. Feeds on fruit of 
P. persica  (AQSIQ 
2006b; Zhang et al. 
1995) . Females lay 
eggs on the fruit near 
the calyx. Larvae may 
tunnel into fruit and 
feed on the flesh and 
seed (CABI 2015) . Yes. This species 
feeds on a wide range 
of cultivated fruit 
trees, such as apple, 
pear and stonefruit, 
especially the 
Rosaceae but also  
other families. This 
pest is capable of 
spreading 
independently as the 
adult moths can fly 
long distances (CABI 
2015) . Carposina 
sasakii  is known to 
have established and 
spread outside its 
native range in areas 
where it has been 
introduced. In Russia, 
internal quarantine 
measures are 
employed in an 
attempt to control the 
spread of C. sasakii  
(CABI 2015) . C. 
sasakii  is found 
throughout many 
areas of China as well 
as Japan, Korea and 
Russia (CABI 2015) . 
The pest’s host range, 
current distribution 
and demonst rated 
ability to spread into 
new areas suggest 
that it could establish 
and spread in 
Australia.  Yes. Carposina sasakii  
is a very serious pest 
of fruit crops, causing 
up to 100 per cent 
crop loss in apple and 
pear orchards (CABI 
2015; Gibanov & 
Sanin 1971; Sytenko 
1960) . It causes 
significant economic 
consequences in its 
current range and 
would potentially do 
so in Australia. 
Consequences would 
include crop losses as 
well as quarantine 
restrictions on trade, 
both within Australia 
and internationally to 
areas  where C. sasakii  
is not present.  Yes (EP)  
Choreutis pariana  (Clerck, 1759)  
[Choreutidae]  Yes (Yin et al. 
1987)  No records found  No. Larvae feed on 
leaves of P. persica Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             181 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Apple -and-thorn skeletonizer  (Yin et al. 1987) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  
Choristoneura longicellana  
(Walsingham, 1900)  
[Tortricidae]  
Common apple leafroller  Yes (Feng & 
Wang 2004)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Robinson 
et al. 2010) . Larvae 
mainly damage leaves 
and branches and the 
females lay eggs on 
the surface of the 
leaves (Byun, Yan & Li 
2003; Feng & Wang 
2004) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
requi red Assessment not 
required  No 
Clania variegata  (Snellen, 1879)  
[Psychidae]  
Cotton bag worm  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006c)  Yes. NT, WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Conogethes punctiferalis  (Guenée 
1854)  
[Pyralidae]  
Yellow peach moth  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001; Poole 
2010) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             182 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Cydia pomonella  Linnaeus, 1758  
Synonym: Laspeyresia pomonella  
(Linnaeus, 1758)  
[Tortricidae]  
Codling moth  Yes (Men et al. 
2013; Yang, 
Tulake & Li 
2005)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
NT, Qld, SA, Tas., 
Vic. (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Eradicated from 
WA (CABI 2015; 
Poole 2010) . This 
species is listed as 
a declared 
organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Austra lia 
2014) . 
 Yes. Pest of P.  persica  
(Alford 2007; Men et 
al. 2013; Yang, Tulake 
& Li 2005) . There is a 
marked tendency for 
young fruit of peach 
and nectarine to 
exude gum at the site 
of attempted entry 
resulting in larval 
mortality (Smith 
1929) . Codling mo th 
infestations 
associated with 
secondary hosts are 
usually in close 
proximity to apple 
orchards (Barnes 
1991) . Yes. Main hosts are 
apple and pear. 
Larvae are known to 
be polyphagous 
feeding on apple, 
pear, peach, 
nectarine, Japanese 
plum, prune, quince, 
walnut and maize 
(Alford 2007; CABI 
2015) . These hosts 
are widespread in 
Western Australia. 
Cydia pomonella  has 
been reported from 
all Australian states 
and territories except 
Western Australia. 
However, several 
outbreaks have 
occurred in Western 
Australia and have 
been successfully 
eradicated, indicating 
that climatic 
conditions are 
suitable for its 
establishment in  
Western Australia.  Yes. Codling moth is a 
serious pest of apples 
and pears (Alford 
2007; CABI 2015) . In 
the Czech Republic, 
codling moth has 
been reported to 
cause 80 per cent 
damage to apples in 
untreated plots and 
up to 30 per cent 
damage in chemically 
treated plots (Stará & 
Kocourek 2007) . The 
potential economic 
consequences would 
only apply to WA 
should this species 
enter, establish and 
spread.  Yes (EP, WA)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             183 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Cystidia couaggaria  (Guenee, 
1858)  
[Geometridae]  
Canker worm  Yes (Zhang et al. 
1995)  No records  found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Robinson 
et al. 2010) . Larvae 
feed on flower buds, 
young leaves and 
shoots (AQSIQ 
2006c) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Endoclyta excrescens  (Butler, 1877)  
Synonym: Phassus excrescens 
(Butler, 1877)  
[Hepialidae]  
Japanese swift moth  Yes (Zhang 
2005)  No records found  No. A pest of 
P. persica (MAFF 
1989) . Larvae of this 
species feed 
internally on the 
woody parts (trunk, 
branches, stems, 
roots) of their host 
plants (Grehan 1989; 
Zhang 2005) .  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Eudocima fullonia  (Clerck, 1764)  
Synonym: Othreis fullonia  (Cle rck, 
1764)  
[Noctuidae]  Yes (ZDCBIC 
2005)  NSW, NT, Qld, WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             184 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Eudocima tyrannus  (Guenée, 1852)  
[Noctuidae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006a)  No records found  No. P. persica  is a host 
of this species 
(Robinson et al. 2010)  
which is a primary 
fruit -piercer of peach 
(Bänziger 1982) . Both 
larvae and adult 
noctuid moths are 
inactive during the 
day and hide amongst 
foliage or leaf litter. 
During the night, 
adults usually  feed on 
overripe or 
fermenting fruit 
(Common 1990)  and 
will fly away when 
disturbed.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Gastropacha quercifolia  (Linneaus, 
1758)  
[Lasiocampidae]  
Lappet moth  Yes (Sun & Wang 
1999)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Panait & 
Ciortan 1972) . Larvae 
feed on flower buds 
and leaves (Panait & 
Ciortan 1972) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             185 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Grapholita funebrana  [Treitschke, 
1835]  
Synonym: Cydia funebrana  
(Treitschke, 1835)  
[Tortricidae]  
Plum fruit moth  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; Kang et 
al. 1989)  No records found  Yes. Damages 
P. persica  fruit (AQSIQ 
2006b; CABI 2015) . 
Females lay eggs on 
fruitlets. Newly 
hatched larvae bore 
into the fruitlets. 
Larval feeding 
continues for several 
weeks until they 
reach the fifth instar 
(Meijerman & 
Ulenberg 2000b) . 
Second generation 
females lay eggs near 
the base of 
developing fruit 
(Gilligan & Epstein 
2012) . Yes. Main hosts are 
species of the genus 
Prunus  (including 
plum, apricot, cherry, 
peach) and also apple 
(Meijerman & 
Ulenberg 2000b) . 
Other hosts include 
chestnut and almond 
(CABI 2015) . Present 
in north east China 
and across cent ral 
Asia to Turkey, also 
present in Algeria and 
throughout Europe 
(CABI 2015) . Host 
plants of this pest are 
grown across 
Australia. Australia 
also has similar 
climatic conditions to 
areas where the pest 
currently occurs. It is 
likely that this pest 
could e stablish and 
spread in Australia.  Yes. This species is 
one of the most 
important 
lepidopteran pests of 
fruit in Europe. 
Larvae can cause 
significant damage to 
apricot, cherry, peach, 
plum and other 
Prunus  species (CABI 
2015; Gilligan & 
Epstein 2012) . In 
plum orchards, first 
generation larvae are 
reported to cause 8 –
12 per cent damage, 
but second and third 
generation larvae 
caused up to 33 per 
cent damage 
(Andreev & 
Kutinkova 2010) . Yes Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             186 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Grapholita molesta  (Busck, 1916)  
Synonym: Cydia molesta  (Busck, 
1916)  
[Tortricidae]  
Oriental fruit moth  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; CIQSA 
2001b, c)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Tas., Vic. 
(CABI 2015; Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . This 
species is listed as 
a declared 
organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . 
 Yes. A pest of 
P. persica  in China 
(AQSIQ 2006b; CIQSA 
2001c; Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
Early ins tar larvae 
may penetrate fruit 
through the side of 
the stem. Such fruit 
has no obvious signs 
of the presence of the 
larva inside the fruit. 
The larvae remain 
inside the fruit, 
feeding until ready to 
pupate (Howitt 
1993) . Yes. The principal 
economic hosts a re 
peach, apricot, 
nectarine, almond, 
apple, quince, pear, 
plum and cherry 
(Howitt 1993) . Many 
woody ornamental 
plants are also hosts 
(Howitt 1993) . Late 
ripening peach 
cultivars are 
particularly 
vulnerable to this 
pest. Some of these 
host species are 
wide spread in 
Western Australia. 
Grapholita molesta  is 
already reported from 
all other Australian 
states and territories 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  
except the Northern 
Territory (Poole et al. 
2011) . The previously 
eradicated incursion 
of G. molesta  in 
Weste rn Australia 
indicates that areas 
with a suitable 
environment for the 
establishment of G. 
molesta  occur in 
Western Australia.  Yes. A major pest of 
stonefruit throughout 
the world and a 
principal economic 
pest of apple, pear 
and quince (CABI 
2015; Gilligan & 
Epstein 2012; 
Rothschild & Vickers 
1991) . In severe 
attacks, young trees 
can suffer distortion 
of growing shoots and 
stems leading to 
economic losses 
(CABI 2015) . The 
potential economic 
consequences would 
only be applicable to 
WA should this 
species ente r, 
establish and spread.  Yes (EP, WA)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             187 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Helicoverpa armigera  (Hubner, 
1805)  
[Noctuidae]  
Cotton bollworm  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Homona magnanima  Diakonoff, 
1948  
[Tortricidae]  
Oriental tea tortrix  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Feeds on 
P. persica  (Meijerman 
& Ulenberg 2000b) . 
Eggs are laid on the 
upper surface of 
leaves. Larvae web 
mature leaves 
together to form a 
nest from which to 
feed on leaves and 
young shoots 
(Meijerman & 
Ulenberg 2000b) . 
Fruits are not affected 
(CABI 2015) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectar ine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Hyphantria cunea  (Drury, 1773)  
[Arctiidae]  
Fall webworm  Yes (Feng & 
Wang 2004)  No records found  No. Larvae feed on 
leaves of P. persica 
(Feng & Wang 2004; 
Robinson et al. 2010) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             188 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Latoia consocia  (Walker, 1863)  
[Limacodidae]  
Green urticating caterpillar  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  in China 
(AQSIQ 2006b) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Leucoptera malifoliella  (Costa, 
1836)  
Synonym: Leucop tera scitella  
(Zeller, 1839)  
[Lyonetiidae]  
Pear leaf -miner  Yes (CABI 2015; 
CIQSA 2001c)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Robinson 
et al. 2010) . It is 
generally a leaf eating 
pest, but overwinters 
on twigs, branches, 
trunks and on the soil 
surface (Maciesiak 
1999) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Lyman tria dispar  (Linnaeus, 1759)  
[Lymantriidae]  
Asian gypsy moth  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  in China 
(AQSIQ 2006b) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Lyonetia clerkella  (Linneaus, 1758)  
[Lyonetiidae]  
Peach leaf -miner  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006c)  No records found  No. Common leaf and 
stem feeder on 
P. persica  in China 
(AQSIQ 2006b) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             189 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Malacosoma neustria  testacea  
Motschulsky, 1861  
[Lasiocampidae]  
Tent caterpillar  Yes (Feng & 
Wang 2004)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  in China 
(Feng & Wang 2004) . 
Eggs are laid on twigs 
and are the 
overwintering stage. 
Larvae feed on leaves 
in spring (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Malacosoma parallela  (Staudinger, 
1887)  
[Lasiocampidae]  
Mountain ring silk moth  Yes (Yang, 
Tulake & Li 
2005)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . Larvae feed on 
leaves (Yang, Tulake 
& Li 2005) . No report 
of an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             190 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Mamestra brassicae  (Linnaeus, 
1758)  
[Noctuidae]  
Cabbage army worm  Yes (CABI 2015; 
CABI & EPPO 
1984)  No records found  No. Larvae are 
primarily associated 
with Brassica  crops 
(CABI 2015) , but also 
feed on P. persica  
(Molinari et al. 1995) . 
Eggs are laid on the 
underside of leaves; 
larvae feed on leaves 
(CABI 2015) . This 
pest only has an 
incidental association 
with peach an d 
nectarine in orchards 
where understorey 
grass is high and 
other preferred host 
plants are present. 
Damage is only to the 
outside of ripening 
fruit (Molinari et al. 
1995)  Larvae feed 
externally on fruit 
and would be 
dislodged during 
harvesting and 
packing house 
operations.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Marumba goschkewitshi  (Bremer & 
Grey, 1852)  
[Sphingidae]  
Peach horn worm  Yes (CIQSA 
2001c; Feng & 
Wang 2004; Sun 
& Wang 1999)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  in China 
(AQSIQ 2006b; Feng 
& Wang 2004) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             191 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Monema flavescens  (Walker, 1855)  
[Limacodidae]  
Oriental moth  Yes (CIQSA 
2001c; Lammers 
& Stigter 2004)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  in China 
(AQSIQ 2006b) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Oraes ia emarginata  (Fabricius, 
1794)  
[Noctuidae]  Yes (Liu & Kuang 
2001)  Yes. Qld (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . This 
species is listed as 
a declared 
organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No. A pest of 
P. persica  (Liu & 
Kuang 2001) . Both 
larvae and adult 
noctuid moths are 
inactive during the 
day and hide amongst 
foliage or leaf litter. 
During the night, 
adults usually feed on 
overripe or 
fermenting fruit 
(Common 1990) . 
Adults fly off from the 
fruit, once disturbed.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             192 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Oraesia excavata  (Butler, 1878)  
[Noctuidae]  Yes (Liu 2002)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Robinson 
et al. 2010) . Both 
larval and adult 
noctuid moths are 
inactive during the 
day and hide amongst 
foliage or leaf litter. 
During the night, 
adults usually feed on 
overripe or 
fermenting fruit 
(Common 1990) . 
Adults fly off fruit, 
once disturbed.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Pandemis cerasana  (Hübner, 1786)  
Synonym: Pandemis ribeana 
Hübner, 1797  
[Tortricidae]  
Common twist moth  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Hwang 1974)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . Egg masses are 
laid on leaves. Larvae 
feed on leaves and 
can also nibble at the 
skin of fruit near 
foliage (INRA 1997) . 
Larvae overwinter as 
young larvae 
protected in a silken 
shelter under a dry 
leaf fixed by a silken 
thread to the 
branches (CABI 
2015) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             193 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Pandemis heparana  Denis & 
Schiffermüller, 1775  
[Tortricidae]  
Apple brown tortrix  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b, c)  No records found  No. Feeds on 
P. persica  (Gilligan & 
Epstein 2012; Ma 
2006) . Eggs laid in 
masses on upper 
surface of leaves. 
Larvae feed on leaves 
and construct a 
hibernaculum under 
bark in the second or 
third instar in which 
to overwinter 
(Gilligan & Epstein 
2012; INRA 19 97). 
Larvae only feed 
superficially on fruit 
(Ma 2006)  and it is 
rarely reported from 
summerfruit (CABI 
2015) . If present, this 
pest would be 
removed during 
harvest and post -
harvest packing 
procedures (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             194 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Peridroma saucia  (Hübner, 1808)  
[Noctuidae]  
Pearly underwing moth  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Kuang 1985)  No records found  No. Present on 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . Adult females 
oviposit on the 
ground or on the 
leaves of weeds. Upon 
hatching, larvae feed 
on the leaves of hosts 
and fully grown 
larvae overwinter in 
the soil (Kuang 1985) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Asse ssment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Phalera flavescens  (Bremer & Grey, 
1852)  
[Noctuidae]  
Cherry caterpillar  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  in China 
(AQSIQ 2006b; CIQSA 
2001c) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Phyllonorycter ringoniella  
(Matsumura, 1931)  
[Gracillariidae]  
Apple leafminer  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  in China 
(AQSIQ 2006b; CIQSA 
2001c) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             195 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Recurvaria syrictis  Meyrick, 1925  
[Gelec hiidae]  Yes (Cao & Guo 
1987)  No records found  No. A pest of 
P. persica . Larvae feed 
on mesophyll tissue 
in leaves (Cao & Guo 
1987) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Serrodes campana  Guenée, 1852  
[Noctuidae]  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, Qld 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . 
This species is 
listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Weste rn Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No. Adults pierce 
P. persica  fruit and the 
larvae feed on leaves 
(Hattori 1969) . Both 
larvae and adult 
noctuid moths are 
inactive during the 
day and hide amongst 
foliage or leaf litter. 
During the night, 
adults usually feed on 
overripe or 
fermenting fruit 
(Common 1990) . 
Adults fly off from the 
fruit, once disturbed.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Setora postornata  (Hampson, 
1900)  
[Limacodidae]  
Brown cochild  Yes (Fang et al. 
2001)  No records found  No. P. persica  listed as 
a host; larvae feed on 
the leaves (Ruiting et 
al. 2014) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             196 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Spilonota albicana  (Motschulsky, 
1866)  
Synonym: Spilonota prognathana  
(Sneller, 1883)  
[Tortricidae]  
White fruit moth  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006c)  No records found  Yes. Feeds on 
P. persica  (Kondo & 
Miyahara 1930; 
Zhang & Qi 2013) . 
Eggs are usually laid 
on underside of 
leaves but can be laid 
directly into plum 
fruit (Zhang & Qi 
2013) . The larvae 
bore directly into the 
fruit (Kondo & 
Miyahara 1930) , most 
often at the c alyx 
(Afonin et al. 2008) . Yes. This species has a 
wide range of hosts 
including apple, pear, 
apricot, peach, and 
plum (Kondo & 
Miyahara 1930; 
Zhang & Li 2005) . It is 
widespread across 
China, and is also 
present in Japan, 
Korea and Russia 
(Afonin et al. 20 08; 
Ma 2006) . Its host 
range and current 
distribution suggest 
that it could establish 
and spread in 
Australia.  Yes. A pest of apple, 
pear, hawthorn, 
peach, plum, apricot 
and cherry (Afonin et 
al. 2008) . Up to 85 per 
cent of an apple crop 
can be damaged by 
this pest (Afonin et al. 
2008) . Yes (EP)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             197 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Spilosoma subcarnea  (Walker, 
1855)  
[Arctiidae]  Yes (Feng & 
Wang 2004)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . Larvae 
feed on leaves, in 
some cases only 
leaving the stem and 
veins of the leaf. Later 
instar larvae feed on 
the surface of fruit in 
addition to feeding on 
leaves (Feng & Wang 
2004) . Later instar 
larvae are easily 
detectable because 
they are large 
(appr oximately 46 –
55 millimetres), 
colourful and hairy, 
and would be 
removed during 
harvest or post -
harvest packing 
procedures (Feng & 
Wang 2004) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Stathmopoda auriferella  (Walker, 
1864)  
Synonym: Stathmopoda 
crocophanes  Meyrick, 1897  
[Oecophoridae]  
Apple heliodinid  Yes (Shanghai 
Insects Online 
2014)  Yes. SA, Tas., Vic., 
WA (CSIRO 2005; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  
(as Stathmopoda 
crocophanes ). Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             198 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Synanthedon hector  (Butler, 1878)  
Synonym: Conopia hector Butler, 
1878  
[Sesiidae]  
Cherry tree borer, Apple borer  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006c)  No records found  No. Serious pest of 
P. persica  
(Matsumoto, 
Nakamuta & 
Nakashima 2007) . 
Larval sesiids are 
stem borers of fruit 
trees and shrubs and 
do not feed on the 
fruit (CABI 2015) . The 
larvae of this species 
bore into the lower 
trunk of trees and 
feed on the cambium 
layer (Naka et al. 
2008) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nec tarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required   Assessment not 
required  No 
Telphusa chloroderces  Meyrick, 
1929  
[Gelechiidae]  
Black star -spotted gelechid moth  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  (CIQSA 
2001c) . No report of 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Thosea sinensis  (Walker, 1855)  
[Limacodidae]  
Coconut cup moth  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves and stems of 
P. persica  (CIQSA 
2001c) . No report of 
an association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             199 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Thyas juno  (Dalman, 1823)  
[Noctuidae]  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Li, Wang  & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . Both larvae 
and adult noctuid 
moths are inactive 
during the day and 
hide amongst foliage 
or leaf litter. During 
the night, adults 
usually feed on 
overripe or 
fermenting fruit 
(Common 1990) . 
Adults fly off fruit, 
once disturbed.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Trifurcula sinica  (Yang, 1989)  
[Nepticulidae]  Yes (Wang et al. 
2007; Yang 
1989)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Wang et al. 
2007; Yang  1989) . 
Larvae form galls on 
young branch tips of 
apricot (Wang et al. 
2007) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             200 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Xestia c -nigrum  (Linnaeus, 1758)  
[Noctuidae]  
Spott ed cutworm  Yes (CABI 2015)  No records found  No. This insect is a 
pest of P. persica  
(CABI 2015) . The 
larvae prefer to feed 
on foliage. Any 
damage by larval 
feeding on fruit 
results in deep 
external erosions 
(Molinari et al. 1995) . 
Larvae feed at night, 
and then descend to 
the ground to hide 
during the day (CABI 
2015)  and would not 
be present at harvest.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Orthoptera  
Gryllus bimaculatus  DeGeer, 1773  
[Gryllidae]  
Field cricket  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
Usually feeds on 
seeds, seedlings, 
leaves and also 
sometimes on 
grasshoppers and 
caterpillars (Saeed, 
Saeed & Yousuf 
2000) . No report of an 
associati on with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             201 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Holochlora japonica  Brunner von 
Wattenwyl, 1878  
[Tettigoniidae]  
Japanese broad winged katydid  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
May feed on the 
surface of fruit but 
would jump away 
when disturbed 
during harvesting.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Tarbinskiellus portentosus  
(Lichtenstein, 1796)  
[Gryllidae]  
Rice field cricket  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 1997) . 
Adults and nymphs 
live in the soil and 
emerge at night. 
Feeds on seedlings 
and tender shoots of 
agricultural crops  and 
nursery stock (Li, 
Wang & Waterhouse 
1997) . No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             202 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Thysanoptera  
Frankliniella intonsa  (Trybom, 
1895)  
[Thripidae]  
Eurasian flower thrips  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  No records found  Yes. Principally a pest 
of flowers and 
strawberries, but is 
reported to cause 
damage to developing 
P. persica  fruit (CABI 
2015) . It feeds and 
lays eggs in fruit 
(CABI 2015) . Yes. Wide host range 
including cotton, 
peanuts, leafy 
vegetables, rice, 
sugarcane, sweet 
potato, capsicum, 
asparagus, 
strawberry, bean, pea, 
rose and tomato 
(CABI 2015; Li, Wang 
& Waterhouse 1997) . 
Distributed over a 
range of 
environments across 
Asia inc luding China, 
the Middle East, 
North America, 
Europe and New 
Zealand. Its host 
range and geographic 
range suggests 
potential for 
establishment and 
spread.  Yes. Feeds on fruit 
and lays eggs in fruit 
reducing 
marketability. Can be 
a vector of 
economically 
important 
tospoviruses such as 
Tomato spotted wilt 
tospovirus (TSWV) 
(CABI 2015; Jones 
2005; Wijkamp et al. 
1995) . Yes (EP)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             203 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Frankliniella occidentalis  
(Pergande, 1895)  
[Thripidae]  
Western flower thrips  Yes (Lu et al. 
2007)  Yes. All states and 
ACT (Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  
but is absent from 
NT. Regulated for 
the NT (Northern 
Territory 
Government 
2011) . Yes. Pest of P. persica  
(CABI 2015) . Affects 
the fruiting stages of 
its hosts feeding on, 
and laying eggs in the 
fruit (CABI 2015) . It 
has been collect ed on 
nectarine fruit during 
harvest (Tommasini 
& Ceredi 2007) . Yes. Wide host range 
and distributed 
worldwide. It has a 
limited distribution in 
Australia, indicating 
that suitable 
environments exist in 
Australia for this 
thrips to establish 
(CABI 2015; 
Davidson, Butler & 
Teulon 2006; Jones 
2005) . The high 
fecundity, short 
generation time, and 
capacity to reproduce 
by parthenogenesis 
suggests that minimal 
numbers are required 
for establishment of 
founding populations 
(Morse & Hoddle 
2006) . Under optimal 
conditions, thrips 
populations could 
potentially establish 
from a single female 
(Morse & Hoddle 
2006) . Yes. Direct damage 
through feeding and 
oviposition may scar 
leaf, flower, or fruit 
surfaces and/or 
deform plant growth 
(Dreistadt & Phillips 
2007b) . Leaves may 
become mottled, 
dwarfed and 
distorted with 
browned or wilted 
margins and may 
drop prematurely 
(Dreistadt & Phillips 
2007b; Smith & Van 
Driesche 2003) . This 
species is one of the 
most important 
greenhouse pests in 
the world and is also 
a major pest of some 
outdoor crops in 
warmer climates 
(CABI 2015) . It is also 
an important vector 
of plant diseases 
(CABI 2015) . Yes (EP, NT)  
Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis  
(Bouché, 1833)  
[Thripidae]  
Greenhouse thrips  Yes (Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             204 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Scirtothrips dorsalis  Hood, 1919  
[Thripidae]  
Yellow tea thrips, Chilli thrips, 
Strawberry thrips  Yes (CABI & 
EPPO 2010)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  
and WA (Poole 
2010) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Thrips flavus  Schrank, 1776  
[Thripidae]  
Eurasian yellow flower thrips, 
Honeysuckle thrips  Yes (CABI 2015; 
Li, Wang & 
Waterhouse 
1997; Liang et al. 
2007)  Yes. NSW (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  No. Pest of P. persica  
(Veer 1985) . This 
thrips feeds on the 
lower surface of 
leaves and on floral 
parts and lays eggs in 
petals, the walls of the 
ovary in yo ung fruit 
or on the lower 
surface of the leaves 
(Veer 1985) . No 
report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Thrips tabaci  Lindeman, 1888  
[Thripidae]  
Onion thrips  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006a; Li, Wang 
& Waterhouse 
1997)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001; Poole 
2010) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
BACTERIA  
Pseudomonas syringae  pv. syringae  
van Hall 1902  
Synonym: Pseudomonas  syringae  
f.sp. prunicola  (Wormald) Dowson 
1949  
[Pseudomonadales: 
Pseudomonadaceae]  
Bacterial canker  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. All states and 
territories 
(Bradbury 1986; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             205 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
CHROMALVEOLATA  
Phytophthora cactorum  (Lebert & 
Cohn) Schröt.  
[Peronosporales: 
Peronosporaceae]  Yes (CIQSA 
2001b)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Tas., Vic., 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001)   Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Phytophthora cambivora  (Petri) 
Buisman  
[Peronosporales: 
Peronosporaceae]  Yes (Bounous & 
Liu 1996)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
FUNGI  
Alternaria alternata  (Fr.) Keissl.  
[Pleosporales: Pleosporaceae]  
Alternaria leaf blight  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Alternaria tenuissima  (Kunze) 
Wiltshire  
[Pleosporales:Pleosporaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. All states 
(DAWA 2006; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Armillaria tabescens  (Scop.) Emel  
[Agaricales: Physalacriaceae]  
Armillaria root rot  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Infects roots 
(Drake 1990) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Ascochyta pruni  Kabát & Bubák  
[Pleosporales: Incertae sedis]  Yes (Bai 2003)  No records found  No. Affects leaves (Bai 
2003) . No report of 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             206 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Ascochyta prunicola  P.K. Chi  
[Pleosporales: Incertae sedis]  Yes (Bai 2003)  No records found  No. Affects leaves (Bai 
2003) . No report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Aspergillus awamori  Nakaz.  
[Eurotiales: Trichocomaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  No records found  Yes. Most Aspergillus  
spp. are saprotrophs, 
but can also affect 
stored fruit, acting as 
opportunistic 
pathogens that grow 
on living tissues 
(CABI 2015; Huber 
1930) . Yes. Aspergillus  spp. 
are rapidly growing 
filamentous fungi or 
moulds that are 
ubiquitous in the 
environment and  are 
found worldwide. 
Aspergillus  disperse 
easily and grow 
almost anywhere 
when food and water 
are available (Bennett 
2010) . They 
commonly grow in 
soil and moist 
locations and are 
among the most 
common moulds 
encountered on 
spoiled food and 
decaying vegeta tion, 
in compost piles and 
in stored hay and 
grain. Many other 
species of this genus 
are present in 
Australia (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . No. Aspergillus  spp. 
are secondary 
invaders of fruits that 
have been damaged 
by insects, pathogens, 
environmental f actors 
such as rain and wind 
(Somma, Perrone & 
Logrieco 2012) . Many 
other species of this 
genus are present in 
Australia (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Introduction of 
this species is 
unlikely to have 
significant economic 
effects.  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             207 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Aspergillus japonicus  Saito  
[Eurotiales: Trichocomaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. NSW 
(Burrows 1976) , 
Qld (Upsher & 
Upsher 1995) . Not 
a regulated pest 
for Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) .  No. Aspergillus 
japonicus  is generally 
a postharvest 
pathogen and not 
known to occur in 
fruits of nectarine (Al-
Hindi, Al -Najada & 
Mohamed 2011; 
Kozakiewicz 2003; 
Varga et al. 2004) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Aspergillus niger  Tiegh. 
[Eurotiales: Trichocomaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
NT, Qld, SA, Vic., 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Aspergillus versicolor  (Vuill.) Tirab.  
[Eurotiales: Trichocomaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Global 
Biodiversity 
Information 
Facility 2013)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Botryosphaeria dothidea  (Moug.) 
Ces. & De Not.  
Synonym: Fusicoccum aesculi  
Corda Grossenb. & Duggar  
[Botyosphaeriales: 
Botryosphaeriaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. NSW, Qld, 
Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             208 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Botryosphaeria ribis  Grossenb. & 
Duggar  
Synonym: Neofusicoccum ribis  
(Slippers, Crous & M. J. Wingf.) 
Crous, Slippers & A. J. L. Phillips  
[Botryosphaeriales: 
Botryosphaeriaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, Vic, WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Botryosphaeria obtusa  (Schwein.) 
Shoemaker  
Synonym: Physalospora obtusa  
(Schwein.) Cooke  
[Botyosphaeriales: 
Botryosphaeriaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. All states and 
territories 
(Cunnington et al. 
2007; Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Sampson & 
Walker 1982) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Botrytis cinerea  Pers.  
Synonym: Botryotinia fuckeliana  
(de Bary) Whetzel  
[Heliotiales: Sclerotiniaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Camarosporium persicae  Maubl.  
[Botryosphaeriales: Incertae sedis]  
Camarosporium canker  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  No records found  No. Attacks trunks, 
branches and young 
shoots of P. persica  
(Homma 1927) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             209 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Caryospora putaminum  (Schwein.) 
De Not.  
[Pleosporales: Zopfiaceae]  Yes (Jeffers 
1940)  No records found  No. Grows on dead 
woody tissues and is 
found on P. persica  
stones that are left on 
the ground after the 
fruit has decomposed 
(Jeffers 1940) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
require d No 
Ceratocystis fimbriata  Ellis & Halst.  
[Microascales: Ceratocystidaceae]  
Mallet wound fungus  Yes (Huang et al. 
2007)  No. There are 
several apparently 
host -specialised 
strains that are 
sometimes called 
‘types’, ‘races’, or 
‘forms’ (Baker et 
al. 2003; 
Harrington 2000; 
Vogelzang & Scott 
1990) . 
Ceratocystis 
fimbriata  records 
reported in 
Australia are all 
from Syngonium  
and is not 
pathogenic to 
Prunus  spp. 
(Vogelzang & 
Scott 1990) . No. Unlikely to be on 
the pathway as C. 
fimbriata  does not 
infect the fruit (CABI 
2015) .  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             210 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Cercospora rubrotincta  Ellis & 
Everh.  
[Capnodiales: Mycosphaerellaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  No records found  No. Causes leaf spots 
on P. persica  (Farr & 
Rossman 2014) . No 
report of an 
association  with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Chondrostereum purpureum  (Pers.) 
Pouzar  
[Russulales: Stereaceae]  
Silver leaf  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. NSW, SA, Tas., 
Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Cladosporium cladosporioides  
(Fresen.) G.A. De Vries  
[Capnodiales: Davidiellaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. All states and 
territories (DAWA 
2006; Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Colletotrichum acutatum  J.H. 
Simmonds  
[Incertae sedis: Glomerellaceae]  
Anthracnose  Yes (Farr & 
Rossman 2014)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld., SA, Tas., Vic., 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides  
(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc.  
Synonym: Glomerella cingulata  
(Stoneman) Spauld. & H. Schrenk  
[Incertae sedis: Glomerellaceae]  
Anthracnose, bitter rot  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No  
Coniothyrium nakatae  Hara  
[Pleosporales: Leptosphaeriaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  No records found  No. Coniothyrium  spp. 
are common wood 
and soil inhabiting 
fungi (Damm et al. 
2008) . No report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             211 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Coryneum foliicola  Fuckel  
[Diaporthales: Pseudovalsaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  No records found  No. On branches, 
twigs and leaves (Farr 
et al. 1995) . No report 
of an association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Davidiella tassiana  (De Not.) Crous 
& U. Braun  
Synonym: Cladosporium herbarum  
(Pers.) Link.  
[Capnodiales: Mycosphaerellaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Dermea cerasi  (Pers.) Fr.  
Synonym: Foveostroma 
drupacearum  (Lév.) DiCosmo  
[Helotiales: Dermateaceae]  Yes (Teng 1996) . Yes. NSW, Vic. 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . 
An unlisted 
organism under 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No 
Dermea cerasi  
recorded on stem or 
bark (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . No 
record on harvested 
commercial nectarine 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             212 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Diaporthe amygdali  (Delacr.) 
Udayanga, Crous & K.D. Hyde  
Synonyms: Phomopsis amygdali  
(Del.) Tuset & Portilla  
[Botryosphaeriales: 
Botryosphaeriaceae]  
Fusicoccum canker, Constriction 
canker  Yes (Tai 1979)  No records found  No. Affects P. persica  
shoots and fruit 
causing withering of 
infected fruit (MAFF 
2008) . Leaves and 
twigs are the most 
affected tissues and 
fruit infections are 
rare (Zehr 1995a) . 
Young peach fruit can 
become infected via 
the shoots that 
eventually w ilt and 
drop off (Lalancette & 
Robison 2002; MAFF 
2008) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Diaporthe eres  Nitschke  
Synonym: Phomopsis oblonga  
(Desm.) Traverso  
[Diaporthales: Diaporthaceae]  
Constriction canker  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. NSW (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) .  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Fomes fasciatus  (Sw.) Cooke  
[Polyporales: Polyporaceae]  Yes (Reinking 
1919)  No records found  No. Parasitic on 
woody parts of trees 
(Reinking 1919; Zhao 
& Zhang 1992) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             213 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Fomes fomentarius  (L.) J.J. Kickx  
[Polyporales: Polyporaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. Vic. (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . An 
unwanted 
quarantine pest 
for Tas. (revoked 
list A pest) 
(DPIPWE 2013) . 
Listed as a 
regulated pest in 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act  
2007  
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No. Saprophytic or 
parasitic on dead, 
rotten or living wood 
of trees (Zhuang 
2005) . No report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was f ound.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Fomes fulvus  (Scop.) Gillet  
[Polyporales: Polyporaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. Qld (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . A 
quarantine pest 
for Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. Associated with 
branches of P. persica  
(Farr & Rossman 
2014) . No report on 
harvested commercial 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not  
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             214 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Fomitopsis pinicola  (Sw.) P. Karst.  
[Polyporales: Fomitopsidaceae]  
Brown cubical rot  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. Vic. (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and listed 
as a regulated pest 
in the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No. Wood decay 
pathogen that affects 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . No report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Fusarium avenaceum  (Fr.) Sacc.  
Synonym: Gibberella avenacea  R.J. 
Cook  
[Hypocreales: Nectriaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Fusarium lateritium  Nees  
Synonym: Gibberella baccata  
(Wallr.) Sacc.  
[Hypocreales: Nectriaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             215 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Fusarium oxysporum  Schltdl.  
[Hypocreales: Nectriaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . An unlisted 
organism under 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . 
There are known 
formae speciales 
of this species and 
more than 200 
records of F. 
oxysporum  formae 
specials in WA 
were found.   Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
requ ired  No 
Geotrichum candidum  Link  
[Saccharomycetales: 
Dipodascaceae]  
Citrus sour rot  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Gloeodes pomigena  (Schwein.) 
Colby  
[Phyllachorales: Phyllachoraceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. NSW, Qld, 
Tas., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001; Sampson & 
Walker 1982; 
Shivas 1989; 
Simmonds 1966)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Inonotus hispidus  (Bull.) P. Karst.  
[Hymenochaetales: 
Hymenochaetaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  No records found  No. Parasitic on wood 
(CABI 2015; Grand & 
Vernia 2005) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             216 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Irpex lacteus  (Fr.) Fr.  
[Polyporales: Meruliaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. NSW (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) . No. Wood rot -
diseases (Uyemoto, 
Ogawa & Jaffee 2001) . 
Irpex lacteus  is 
common on dead 
branches of 
hardwood trees 
(Ostry, Anderson & 
O'Brien 2013) .  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Laetiporus sulph ureus  (Bull.) 
Murrill  
[Polyporales: Fomitopsidaceae]  
Sulphur fungus  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. NSW, Qld 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013)  
and an unlisted 
organism under 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. It is associated 
with a brown rot of 
wood, occurring in 
the roots, butt, or 
heartwood of living 
trees, but also 
decaying logs or 
trunks of trees that 
have died (Burdsall & 
Banik 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Lasiodiplodia theobromae  (Pat.) 
Griffon & Maubl.  
Synonym: Botryosphaeria rhodina  
(Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Arx (1970)  
[Botryosphaeriales: 
Botryosphaeriaceae]  
Blister canker, Peach gummosis  Yes (Farr & 
Rossman 2014)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             217 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Leptosphaeria yulan  Sacc.  
[Pleosporales: Leptosphaeriaceae]  Yes (Yu 1940)  No records found  No. Leaf spot disease 
affecting P. persica  
(NIAS 2009)  and not 
associated with fruit 
(MAFF 2010) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Leptoxyphium fumago  (Woron.) 
R.C. Srivast.  
Synonym: Caldariomyces fumago  
Woron.; Fumago vagans Pers.  
[Capnodiales: Capnodiaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
(Phillips 1994; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013)  
and an unlisted 
organism under 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. Leptoxyphium 
fumago  is a foliar 
pathogen and not 
associated with fruit 
(Tomoshevich & 
Banaev 2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Leucotelium pruni -persicae  (Hori) 
Tranzschel.  
[Pucciniales: Uropyxidaceae]  
White rust of peach  Yes (Teng 1996)  No records found  No. Disease only 
occurs on leaves and 
is heteroecious with 
Semiaquilegia 
adoxoides  plants 
being the alternate 
host (Kitajima & 
Sawamura 1995) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not  
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             218 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Monilia mumecola  Y. Harada, Y. 
Sasaki & Sano  
[Helotiales; Sclerotiniaceae]  
Brown rot  Yes (Hu et al. 
2011)  No records found  Yes. This fungus 
causes brown rot of 
P. persica  in China 
(Hu et al. 2011; Yin et 
al. 2013) . Yes. Monilia 
mumecola  causes 
brown rot of apricot, 
peach and nectarine 
(Hu et al. 2011; Yin et 
al. 2013) . These hosts 
are widespread in 
Australia. It has been 
reported from Hubei 
in southern China and 
Japan. The climatic 
conditions in many 
parts of Austral ia are 
similar to these 
countries.  Yes. Monilia 
mumecola  causes 
brown rot of apricot, 
peach and nectarine 
which is an 
economically 
important disease 
(Hu et al. 2011; Yin et 
al. 2013) . Yes Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             219 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Monilia polystroma  G. Leeuwen  
[Heliotales: Sclerotiniaceae]  
Brown rot Yes (Zhu, Chen & 
Guo 2011)  No records found  Yes. This fungus 
causes brown rot of 
fruit (Farr & Rossman 
2014) . Yes. Affects, amongst 
other hosts, Prunus  
spp. (Farr & Rossman 
2014) . Monilia 
polystroma  produces 
specialised structures 
during infection 
which protect the 
infected fruit against 
degradation and 
decomposition. This 
inhibition in 
degradation of 
infected fruit may 
enhance survival and 
subsequently increase 
the amount of 
primary inoculum 
(van Leeuwen et al. 
2002) . This fungus 
disperses easily over  
long distances by 
wind or attached to 
vectors. Suitable 
climatic conditions 
for spore germination 
occur in many parts 
of Australia, 
specifically in 
southern temperate 
Australia (Farr & 
Rossman 2014) . Yes. Causes 
significant yield 
losses and loss of 
vigour  of apple, pear 
and Prunus  species 
(van Leeuwen et al. 
2002) . Yes 
Monilinia fructicola  (G. Winter) 
Honey  
[Helotiales: Sclerotiniaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             220 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Monilinia fructigena  Honey  
[Helotiales; Sclerotiniaceae]  
Brown rot  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b, 2007b)  No records found  Yes. Causes brown rot 
of pome and 
stonefruits (Farr & 
Rossman 2014; 
Ogawa, Zehr & Biggs 
1995) . Yes. Monilinia  
fructigena  can infect 
many fruit crops 
including apple, pear, 
plum, quince, peach, 
apricot, nectarine and 
hazel (Byrde & 
Willets 1977) . These 
host plants are widely 
available in Australia. 
The spores of this 
fungus can be spread 
from one orchard to 
anothe r through air 
(Byrde & Willets 
1977; Jones 1990) . Yes. Monilinia 
fructigena  causes 
significant yield 
losses both before 
and after harvest. In 
Europe, losses of 7 –
36 per cent were 
reported in individual 
orchards (Jones 
1990) . Yes (EP)  
Monilinia laxa  (Aderh . & Ruhland) 
Honey  
[Helotiales: Sclerotiniaceae]  
Blossom and twig rot, Gummosis, 
Brown rot, Fruit rot  Yes (Feng & 
Wang 2004)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             221 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Monilinia yunnanensis  M. J. Hu & C. 
X. Luo  
[Helotiales; Sclerotiniaceae]  
Brown rot  Yes (Hu et al. 
2011)  No records found  Yes. Causes brown rot 
of peach fruit and 
survives in 
mummified fruit (Hu 
et al. 2011) . Yes. Monilinia 
yunnanensis  has 
recently been 
reported from 
Yunnan and Liaoning 
in China (Hu et al. 
2011) . Suitable 
climatic conditions 
for spore germination 
would occur in many 
parts of Australia.  Yes. Monilinia 
yunnanensis  which 
causes brown rot of 
Prunus persica  in 
China, is most  closely 
related to M. 
fructigena,  a species 
widely prevalent in 
Europe (Hu et al. 
2011) . Monilinia 
fructigena  causes 
significant yield 
losses both before 
and after harvest with 
losses of 7 –36 per 
cent being reported 
(Jones 1990) . It is 
considered that M. 
yunnanensis  will 
produce similar 
economic 
consequences.  Yes 
Mucor circinelloides  Tiegh.  
[Mucorales: Mucoraceae]  
Mucor fruit rot  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. Qld, Vic. 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013)  
and listed as a 
permitted 
organism (section 
11) in the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             222 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Mucor racemosus  Fresen.  
[Mucorales: Mucoraceae]  
Spongy  storage rot  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Vic. (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013)  
and listed as a 
permitted 
organism (section 
11) in the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Mycosphaerella cerasella  Aderh.  
Synonyms: Cercospora cerasella  
Sacc.; Cercospora circumscissa  Sacc.  
[Capnodiales: Mycosphaerellaceae]  
Shot hole  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Vic. (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Listed as a 
regulated pest in 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) .. No. Causes necrotic 
spots on leaves of 
P. persi ca that 
coalesce and drop out 
leaving shot -hole 
symptoms 
(Sztejnberg 1995) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Mycosphaerella pruni -persicae  
Deighton  
Synonym: Mycosphaere lla persicae  
B.B. Higgins & F.A. Wolf  
[Capnodiales: Mycosphaerellaceae]  
Frosty mildew of peach  Yes (Tai 1979)  No records found  No. Affects leaves of 
P. persica  (Zehr 
1995b) . No report of 
an association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             223 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Nectria cinnabarina  (Tode) Fr.  
Synonym: Tubercularia vulgaris  
Tode  
[Hypocreales: Nectriaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. NSW, Qld, 
Tas., Vic. (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Listed as a 
regulated pest 
(prohibited 
(section 12)) in 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. Occurs as a 
saprophyte on dead 
wood but can be a 
weak opportunistic 
wound parasite on 
various hosts 
including Prunus  spp. 
(Hirooka, Kobayashi 
& Natsuaki 2005; 
MBG Integrated Pest 
Management 2011) . 
No report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Neocosmospora solani  (Mart.) L. 
Lombard & Crous  
Synonym: Fusarium solani  (Mart.) 
Sacc.  
 [Hypocreales: Nectriaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006a)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Oxyporus populinus  (Schumach.) 
Donk  
[Incertae sedis: Incertae sedis]  Yes (Farr & 
Rossman 2014; 
Teng 1996)  Yes. Qld (May et 
al. 2003; Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) .  No. Oxyporus 
Populinus  is a wood 
decaying pathogen 
(Uyemoto, Ogawa & 
Jaffee 2001) .  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             224 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Penicillium corylophilum  Dierckx  
[Eurotiales: Trichocomaceae]  Yes (Farr & 
Rossman 2014; 
Tai 1979)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Cook 
& Dubé 1989; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Sampson & 
Walker 1982)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Penicillium expansum  Link  
[Eurotiales: Trichocomaceae]  
Blue mould  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. NSW, Qld, 
Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Phellinus baumii  Pilát  
[Hymenochaetales: 
Hymenochaetaceae]  Yes (Dai & Xu 
1998)  No records found  No. Found on wood of 
broadleaf trees 
(Zhuang 2005) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Phellinus conchatus  (Pers.) Quél.  
[Hymenochaetales: 
Hymenochaetaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. NSW, WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             225 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Phellinus pomaceus  (Pers.) Maire  
Synonym: Phellinus tuberculosus  
Niemelä  
[Hymenochaetales: 
Hymenochaetaceae]  Yes (Teng 1996)  Yes. Vic. (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. Phellinus 
pomaceus  causes 
wood decay and rots 
(Uyemoto, Ogawa & 
Jaffee 2001) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Phoma persicae  Schulzer & Sacc.  
[Pleosporales, Incertae sedis]  Yes (Farr & 
Rossman 2014; 
Tai 1979)  Yes. Qld (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) .  No. Phoma persicae  
causes shoot dieback 
in the peach ( Prunus 
persica (L.) Batsch).  
Disease was observed 
as chlorotic, wilted, or 
necrotic leaves on 
shoots girdled by the 
Phomopsis anamorph 
of Diaporthe 
pemiciosa  Marchal 
(syn. Phoma persicae  
Schulzer & Sacc.) 
(Latham, Morgan -
Jones & Campbell 
1992) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Phoma pomorum  Thüm.  
Synonyms: Phyllosticta persicae  
Sacc.; Phyllosticta prunicola  Opiz ex 
Sacc.  
[Pleosporales:Incertae sedis]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b; Tai 
1979)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             226 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Phyllactinia guttata  (Wallr.) Lév.  
Synonym: Ovulariopsis moricola  
Delarc.  
[Erisyphales: Erysiphaceae]  
Powdery mildew  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  No records found  No. Affects leaves and 
stems of P. persica  
(Farr & Rossman 
2014) . No report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Podosphaera leucotricha  (Ellis & 
Everh.) E.S. Salmon  
Synonym: Oidium  mespili  Cooke  
[Erysiphales: Erysiphaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Podosphaera pannosa  (Wallr.) de 
Bary  
Synonym: Oidium leucoconium  
Desm.  
[Erysiphales: Erysiphaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             227 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Podosphaera tridactyla  (Wallr.) de 
Bary  
[Erysiphales: Erysiphaceae]  
Plum powdery mildew  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Tas., Vic. 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Listed as a 
regulated pest 
(prohibited 
(section 12)) in 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . 
 Yes. Fruit and leaves 
of P. persica  can both 
be infected (Grove 
1995) . Yes. Hosts include 
almond, cherry, peach 
and plum (Farr et al. 
1989) . These plants 
are widely distributed 
in Western Australia. 
Powdery mildews 
generally grow and 
spread well in 
warmer climates. The 
fungus overwinters as 
cleistothecia on the 
surface of shoots, on 
dead leaves on the 
ground in orchards 
and on bark. 
Ascospores are 
produced from these 
structures during 
spring rains and 
infect the developing 
foliage (Grove 1995) . 
Climatic con ditions in 
Western Australia are 
favourable for the 
establishment of P. 
tridactyla , given that 
other closely related 
powdery mildews are 
already established in 
Western Australia.  Assessment not 
required.  
It was assessed as 
unlikely to have 
potential for 
economic 
consequences in the 
IRA for summerfruit 
from eastern 
Australia into WA 
(Poole et al. 2011)  as 
the requirement for 
management 
measures to control 
the more severe 
powdery mildew 
pathogens 
(Sphaerotheca 
pannosa  and 
Podosphaera 
clandestine ) present 
in W A.  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             228 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Polystigma deformans  Syd.  
[Phyllachorales: Phyllachoraceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
leaves of Prunus  
(Cannon 1996) , 
including apricot and 
peach (Tai 1979) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was  found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Polystigma rubrum  subsp. rubrum  
(Pers.) DC.  
[Phyllachorales: Phyllachoraceae]  
Apricot red spot  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  No records found  No. Associated with 
living leaves of Prunus  
species (Cannon 
1996) . No report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Rhizopus stolonifer  (Ehrenb. Fr.) 
Vuill  
[Mucorales: Incertae sedis]  
Rhizopus rot, Plum black mould  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Cook 
& Dubé 1989; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Sampson & 
Walker 1982)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Rosellinia necatrix  Berl. ex Prill.  
Synonym: Dematophora necatrix  R. 
Hartig  
[Xylariales: Xylariaceae]  
Dematophora root rot  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. NSW, Qld, WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Shivas 1989; 
Washington & 
Nancarrow 1983) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             229 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Schizophyllum commune  Fr. 
[Agaricales: Schizophyllaceae]  Yes (Dai 2005)  Yes. NSW, NT, Qld, 
SA, Vic., WA (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Schizothyrium pomi  (Mont. & Fr.) 
Arx 
Synonym: Leptothyrium pomi  
(Mont. & Fr.) Sacc.  
[Capnodiales: Schizothyriaceae]  
Fly speck  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. NSW, Qld, WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001; 
Simmonds 1966) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum  (Lib.) de 
Bary  
[Helotiales: Sclerotiniaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health  Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Sclerotium rolfsii  Sacc.  
[Atheliales: Atheliaceae]  
Sclerotium stem rot  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Septobasidium bogoriense  Pat. 
[Septobasidiales: 
Septobasidiaceae]  
Velvet blight  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. NT, Qld (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. Generally it is a 
felt fungus and 
associated with 
branch (Cao & Wang 
1989) . Commonly 
found in mango and 
tea (Pernezny & 
Simone 2000) . Assessment n ot 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             230 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Septobasidium tanakae  Miyabe, 
Boedijn & B.A. Steinm.  
[Septobasidiales: 
Septobasidiaceae]  
Felty fungus  Yes (Tai 1979)  No records found  No. Septobasidium  
spp. are epiphytic on 
trees, usually on 
stems and branches, 
and associated with 
scale insects which 
they parasitise (Lepp 
2006; McRitchie 
1991) . No report of 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
requi red No 
Skeletocutis nivea  (Jungh.) Jean 
Keller  
[Polyporales: Polyporaceae]  Yes (Farr & 
Rossman 2014)  No records found  No. On dead 
hardwoods causing 
white rots (Farr & 
Rossman 2014) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Stigmina carpophila  (Lév.) M.B. 
Ellis  
[Capnodiales: Mycosphaerellaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Taphrina deformans  (Berk.) Tul.  
[Taphrinales: Taphrinaceae]  
Peach leaf curl  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Tas., Vic., 
WA (Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Thanatephorus cucumeris  (A. B. 
Frank) Donk  
Synonym: Rhizoctonia  solani  J. G. 
Kühn  
[Cantharellales: 
Ceratobasidiaceae]  
Thread blight  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             231 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Trametes gallica  var. trogii  Berk 
Pilát  
[Polyporales: Polyporaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  No records found  No. On deciduous 
trees, especially 
stumps of Salix  and 
Populus  (Zhao & 
Zhang 1992) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Trametes hirsuta  (Wulfen) Lloyd  
[Polyporales: Polyporaceae]  Yes (Teng 1996)  Yes. NSW, Qld, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(ALA 2014; Plant 
Health Australia 
2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Trametes versicolor  (L.) Lloyd  
[Polyporales: Polyporaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Tas., Vic., 
WA (ALA 2014; 
Plant Health 
Australia 2001)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             232 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Tranzschelia discolor  Fuckel 
Tranzschel & Litv.  
[Pucciniales: Uropyxidaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. All states and 
territories (Plant 
Health Australia 
2001) . There are 
known formae 
speciales of this 
species. An 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . It 
was not regulated 
in WA’s policy for 
Summerfruit from 
eastern states 
(Poole et al. 
2011) .  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Tranzschelia pruni -spinosae  (Pers.) 
Dietel (1922)  
Synonym: Puccinia  pruni -spinosae  
Pers.: Pers.  
[Pucciniales: Uropyxidaceae]  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. SA, Tas., Vic. 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) , 
(Sampson & 
Walker 1982) . 
Listed as a 
permitted 
organism (section 
11) under the  
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             233 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Trichothecium roseum  (Pers.) Link  
[Hyphocreales: Incertae sedis]  
Pink mould rot  Yes (Tai 1979)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Vic., WA 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Valsa ambiens  (Pers.) Fr.  
Synonym: Cytospora leucosperma  
(Pers.) Fr.  
[Diaporthales: Valsaceae]  
Valsa canker  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. NSW, SA, Tas., 
Vic. (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
An unlisted 
organism under 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. Valsa ambiens  is a 
wood decomposing 
fungus (Kovacs 
2001) .  
 Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Valsa ceratosperma  (Tode) Maire  
Synonym: Cytospora sacculus  
(Schwein. : Fr.) Gvrit  
[Diaporthales: Valsaceae]  Yes (Zhuang 
2005)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Tas. (Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . No. Causes cankers on 
trunk, branches and 
twigs (EPPO 2004; 
Zhuang 2005) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             234 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Valsa persoonii  Nitschke 1870  
Synonyms: Cytospora leucostoma  
(Pers.) Sacc.; Leucostoma persoonii  
(Nitschke) Höhn.  
[Diaporthales: Valsaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. NSW, SA, Vic. 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. Associated with 
branches of P. persica  
(AQSIQ 2006b) . No 
report of an 
association with 
nectarine or peach 
fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Venturia carpophila  E.E.Fisher  
Synonyms: Fusicladium 
carpophilum (Thüm.) Oudem.; 
Cladosporium carpophilum  Thüm  
[Pleosporales: Venturiaceae]  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006b)  Yes. ACT, NSW, 
Qld, SA, Tas., Vic. 
(Plant Health 
Australia 2001) . 
Listed as a 
permitted 
organism (section 
11) under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
VIRUSES  
Apple chlorotic leaf spot trichovirus  
[Flexiviridae: Trichovirus]  
ACLSV  Yes (Brunt et al. 
1996; Zhou et al. 
1996) . Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(Constable, Joyce 
& Rodoni 2007; 
Letham 1995; 
Washington & 
Nancarrow 1983) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             235 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Apple mosaic ilarvirus  
Synonyms: Dutch plum line pattern 
virus ; European plum line pattern 
virus , Hop A virus  
[Bromoviridae: Ilarvirus]  
Apple mosaic (ApMV)  Yes (Diekmann & 
Putter 1996; 
Zhou et al. 1996)  Yes. Qld, SA, Vic., 
WA (Constable, 
Joyce & Rodoni 
2007) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Apple stem pitting virus  
[Flexiviridae: Foveavirus]  
ASPV  Yes (Brunt et al. 
1996) . Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(Constable, Joyce 
& Rodoni 2007) . 
Listed as a 
declared organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) .. 
However, it was 
not regulated in 
WA’s policy for 
Summerfruit from 
eastern states 
(Poole et al. 
2011) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             236 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Apricot  pseudo -chlorotic leaf spot 
virus  
[Betaflexiviridae: Trichovirus]  
APCLSV  Yes (Niu et al. 
2012)  Yes. Vic. (Liberti et 
al. 2005) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013)  and an 
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of West ern 
Australia 2014) .  No. APCLSV has been 
isolated from leaf 
sample of several 
prunus species 
(Liberti et al. 2005; 
Safarova et al. 2012) . 
The transmission and 
vector of the virus are 
not elucidated 
elsewhere (EPPO 
2006) . Assessment not 
required  Assessmen t not 
required  No 
Cherry green ring mottle virus  
[Flexiviridae: Foveavirus]  
CGRMV  Yes (Zhou et al. 
2011)  Yes (Diekmann 
and Putter 1996). 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013)  
and an unlisted 
organism under 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . No. Transmitted by 
budding and grafting, 
or by the bud mite 
Eriophyes inaequalis , 
which does not feed 
on fruit (Adaskaveg & 
Caprile 2014)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             237 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Cherry leaf roll virus  
[Comoviridae: Nepovirus]  
CLRV  Yes (Brunt et al. 
1996) . No records found  No. The virus is 
transmitted through 
the seed of most 
natural hosts 
including Prunus  spp. 
(Lister & Murant 
1967; Schimanski, 
Schmelzer & Albrecht 
1976)  and has been 
associated with pea ch 
(Delbos et al. 1982) . 
Strains of the virus 
are distinct and 
defined by host 
(Rebenstorf et al. 
2006) . However, no 
records on P. persica  
or other summerfruit 
in China was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Cherry mottle leaf virus  
[Betaflexiviridae: Trichovirus]  Yes (Ma et al. 
2014)  No records found  No. Transmitted by 
budding and grafting, 
or by the bud mite 
Eriophyes inaequalis , 
which does not feed 
on fruit (Adaskaveg & 
Caprile 2014) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
require d No 
Cherry necrotic rusty mottle virus  
[Betaflexiviridae: Not assigned]  
CNRM  Yes (Zhou et al. 
2013)  No records found  No. Affects P. persica  
(Zhou et al. 2013) . 
Spread by grafting 
and budding (Rott & 
Jelkmann 2011) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             238 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Cherry rasp leaf virus  
[Comoviridae: Nepovirus]  
CRLV  Yes (ICTVdB 
Management 
2014)  No. It was listed as 
present in 
Australia (ICTVdB 
Management 
2002) . However 
these specimens 
are believed to be 
based on 
symptoms that 
may have been 
caused by other 
viruses (Büchen -
Osmond et al. 
1988) . There is 
doubt that this 
virus is correctly 
reported from 
Australia and the 
Australian 
Government 
Department of 
Agricultu re and 
Water Resources 
considers it 
absent.  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . While it can be 
isolated from the sap 
of trees, there is no 
report that it has been 
isolated from fruit. 
Transmitted only by 
its nematode vector 
or by mechanical 
inocul ation (CABI & 
EPPO 1997c) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Cherry virus A  
[Flexiviridae: Capillovirus]  
CVA  Yes (Rao, Zhang 
& Li 2009)  No records found  No. Affects P. persica  
(Barone & Alioto 
2006; Svanella -
Dumas et al. 2005)  
and is graft -
transmissible (Brunt 
et al. 1996; Svanella -
Dumas et al. 2005) . 
No report of an 
association with 
mature nectarine or 
peach fruit was found.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             239 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Cucumber mosaic virus  
[Bromoviridae: Fabavirus]  Yes (CABI & 
EPPO 2002; Tan, 
Li & Du 2010)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(CABI & EPPO 
2002)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Little cherry virus  
[Closteroviridae: Closterovirus]  
LChV1, LChV2  Yes (AQSIQ 
2006d, c) No.  
Little cherry virus 
2 is present in 
NSW, Tas., Vic. 
(IPPC 2015) . 
However, little 
cherry virus 1  has 
not been reported 
in Australia.  No. Associated with 
P. persica  (CABI 
2015) . Little cherry 
virus  is transmitted 
by budding and 
grafting (CABI 2015; 
Diekmann & Putter 
1996)  and is also 
spread from tree to 
tree by the apple 
mealy bug 
Phenacoccus aceris  
(MAL 2006; Raine, 
McMullen & Forbes 
1986) . There are no 
reports that little 
cherry viruses  have 
been isolated from 
nectarine or peach 
fruit.  Assessment no t 
required  Assessment not 
required  No 
Plum bark necrosis stem pitting -
associated virus  
[Closteroviridae: Ampelovirus]  
PBNSP  Yes (Cui et al. 
2011)  No records found  No. PBNSP causes 
trunk gummosis 
and/or stem pitting in 
P. persica  (Cui et al. 
2011) . It is not known 
to be transmitted by 
seeds. Infected 
propagated material 
is considered the 
primary source of 
infection (Boscia, 
Myrta & Uyemoto 
2011) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             240 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Plum pox virus  
[Potyviridae: Virus]  
PPV  Yes (Navratil et 
al. 2005)  No records found  Yes. Infects P. persica  
(Adams 1995) . PPV 
can be isolated from 
fruit and seed. There 
have been reports of 
aphids being able to 
transmit the virus 
from infected fruit 
(Gildow et al. 2004) . 
Important method of 
spread i s via diseased 
plant material 
(Adams 1995) .  Yes. Considerable 
spread can occur 
from new disease foci 
before infections are 
recognised (Adams 
1995) . Plum pox virus  
is extremely difficult 
to eradicate once 
established. Affects all 
Prunus  spp. in a 
variety o f 
environments similar 
to Australia. The virus 
is transmitted by 
grafting. It is also 
transmitted non -
persistently by two 
main aphid vectors 
Aphis spiraecola  and 
Myzus persicae . Other 
aphids able to 
transmit the virus 
are: Aphis craccivora , 
A. fabae , 
Brach ycaudus cardui , 
B. helychrysi , 
B. persicae , 
Hyalopterus prun i, 
Myzus varians , 
Phorodon humuli  
(CABI & EPPO 2007; 
Gildow et al. 2004) , 
A. gossypi i, 
Rhopalosiphum padi  
and A. hederae  
(Labonne et al. 1995) .  Yes. Plum pox arrival 
in Australia would see 
the lo ss of overseas 
and potentially new 
markets. PPV reduces 
the value and 
marketability of many 
apricot and some 
other Prunus  spp. 
cultivars that have 
been naturally 
infected. Some are 
latently infected and 
act as a reservoir for 
continued infection 
cycles. Th ere is a high 
cost in living with 
PPV through testing, 
eradication, and 
breeding resistant 
cultivars such as in 
Europe and USA.  Yes (EP)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             241 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Prune dwarf virus  
Synonyms: Prune dwarf ilarvirus , 
cherry chlorotic ringspot virus , 
peach stunt virus , sour cherry 
yellows virus  
[Bromoviridae: Ilarvirus]  
Prune dwarf  Yes (Zhou et al. 
1996)  Yes. NSW, SA, Tas., 
Vic., WA (ICTVdB 
Management 
2002; Johnstone 
et al. 1995; 
McLean & Price 
1984; Smith, 
Stubbs & Challen 
1977)  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Asses sment not 
required  No 
Prunus necrotic ringspot virus  
Synonyms: European plum line  
pattern virus , Hop B virus , Hop C 
virus , Peach ringspot virus , Plum 
line pattern virus , Prunus ringspot 
virus  
[Bromoviridae: Ilarvirus]  
PNRSV  Yes (Kulshrestha 
et al. 2005; Zhou 
et al. 1996)  Yes. NSW, Qld, SA, 
Tas., Vic., WA 
(CABI 2015; Cook 
& Dubé 1989; 
McLean & Price 
1984; Munro 
1987; Smith, 
Stubbs & Challen 
1977) . There are 
recognised strains 
of this virus 
(Brunt et al. 
1996) . An unlisted 
organism (section 
14) under the 
Western 
Australian BAM 
Act 2007 
(Government of 
Western Australia 
2014) .  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             242 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Tobacco necrosis viruses (Tobacco 
necrosis virus A , Tobacco necrosis 
virus D ) 
[Tombusviridae: Necrovirus]  
TNV  Yes (Huang et al. 
1984; Xi et al. 
2008)  Yes. Vic., Qld 
(Finlay & Teakle 
1969; Teakle 
1988) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Tobacco 
necrosis virus A 
listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited 
(section 12)) and 
Tobacco necrosis 
virus D is an  
unlisted organism 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . 
However, Tobacco 
necrosis viruses  
were not 
regulated in WA’s 
policy for 
summerfruit from 
eastern Australian 
states to WA 
(Poole et al. 
2011) .  Yes. Rarely associated 
with peach and 
symptomless in fruit 
trees (NCPN -FT 
2014) . Virus particles 
released from plant 
debris and acquired 
in soil by zoospores of 
chytrid fungi 
(Olpidium  spp.) may 
be transmitted to 
suitable hosts (CABI 
2015; Spence 2001; 
Uye moto 1981) . 
Necroviruses may 
also be transmitted in 
soil water without a 
vector (Lommel et al. 
2005) . Yes. Tobacco necrosis 
virus strains are 
established in 
Australia (Teakle 
1988) . TNVs infect 
common vegetable 
crop plants, 
ornamental plants 
and tree speci es 
(Brunt et al. 1996; 
CABI 2015; Zitikaite & 
Staniulis 2009) . TNVs 
are transmitted by 
Olpidium  spp. 
(Rochon et al. 2004; 
Sasaya & Koganezawa 
2006)  and these 
vectors occur in 
Australia (Maccarone 
et al. 2008; McDougall 
2006) . Yes. Tobacco necrosis 
viruses cause rusty 
root disease of carrot, 
Augusta disease of 
tulip, stipple streak 
disease of common 
bean, necrosis 
diseases of cabbage, 
cucumber, soybean 
and zucchini and ABC 
disease of potato 
(Smith et al. 1988; 
Uyemoto 1981; Xi et 
al. 2008; Zitikaite & 
Staniu lis 2009) . Yes (EP)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             243 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Tobacco ringspot virus  
[Comoviridae: Nepovirus]  
TRSV  Yes (CABI 2015)  Yes. Qld, SA 
(Brunt et al. 1996; 
McLean & Price 
1984; Randles & 
Francki 1965; 
Reynolds & Teakle 
1976) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Not 
considered to be 
present in WA 
(DAFWA 2013). 
An unlisted 
organisms 
(section 14) under 
the Western 
Australia BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) .  Yes. This virus is 
associated with 
embryonic tissue of 
the seed of its host 
plants. Some seed 
transmission 
probably occurs in 
most hosts (Stace -
Smith 1985) . Assessment not 
required.  
This virus was not 
assessed, as it may be 
seedborne in 
capsicum seed (Stac e-
Smith 1985)  for 
planting that is 
permitted entry into 
Western Australia.  Assessment not 
required  No 
Tomato ringspot virus  
Synonyms: Peach yellow bud 
mosaic virus , Prune brown line , 
Prunus stem  pitting  
[Comoviridae: Nepovirus]  
ToRSV  Yes (Zhang & 
Huang 1990)  No. Eradicated 
(CABI 2015; IPPC 
2013)  No. This virus is seed -
borne in several weed 
hosts (Gonsalves 
1995) . However, no 
report of seed 
transmission in 
Prunus  spp. or 
evidence of infection 
of P. persica or other 
summerfruit in China 
can be found. 
There fore, it is not 
considered to be 
associated with the 
summerfruit pathway 
from China.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             244 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
VIROIDS  
Apple scar skin viroid  
[Pospiviroidae: Apscaviroid]  
ASSVd  Yes (Han et al. 
2003; Kaponi et 
al. 2010; Zhao & 
Niu 2008a) . No records found  Yes. Recorded from 
P. persica  trees in 
China (Kaponi et al. 
2010; Zhao & Niu 
2008a; Zhao & Niu 
2008b) . A recent 
study suggested Apple 
scar skin viroid  can be 
transmitted from 
infected apple seeds 
to the seedlings 
germinated fro m 
these seeds, with a 7.7 
percent transmission 
rate (Kim et al. 2006) . 
No seed transmission 
of ASSVd on 
stonefruit was 
reported.  Yes. Apple scar skin 
viroid  has spread in a 
number of Asian 
countries, Europe and 
North America. This 
viroid can be found in 
the fruit pulp of 
apples and pears 
including apple seeds 
(Hadidi et al. 1991; 
Han et al. 2003; Hurtt 
& Podleckis 1995; 
Koganezawa et al. 
2003) . Transmission 
of Apple scar skin 
viroid  is by grafting 
and contaminated 
pruning equipment 
(Grove et al. 2003; 
Kim e t al. 2006) .  Yes. Apple scar skin 
disease has been a 
very destructive 
disease in Korea (Kim 
et al. 2006) . In China, 
in the 1950’s, some 
counties of Shanxi, 
Hebei and Shanxi 
provinces, more than 
50 per cent of the 
apple trees were 
affected with this 
viroid  (Han et al. 
2003) .  Yes (EP)  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             245 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Hop stunt viroid  
Synonym: Peach dapple viroid  
[Pospiviroidae: Hostuviroid]  
HSVd  Yes (Guo et al. 
2008; Yang et al. 
2006; Zhou et al. 
2006b; Zhou et 
al. 2006c) . Yes. SA, Vic. 
(Koltunow, Krake 
& Rezaian 1988) . 
Not a regulated 
pest for Tas. 
(DPIPWE 2013) . 
Listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Australia 2014) . It 
was not regulated 
in WA’s policy for 
summerfruit from 
eastern Australian 
states to WA 
(Poole et al. 
2011) . No. HSVd has been 
demonstrated to be 
seed transmitted in 
grapevines (Wan 
Chow Wah and 
Symons 1999), but 
not in any other 
species.  Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix A  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources                                                                                                                                                                             246 Pest  Present in 
China  Present within 
Australia  Potential to be on 
pathway  Potential for 
establishment and 
spread  Potential for 
economic 
consequences  Pest risk 
assessm ent 
required  
Peach latent mosaic viroid  
[Avsunviroidae: Pelamoviroid]  
PLMVd  Yes (Hadidi et al. 
1997; Turturo et 
al. 1998)  Yes. SA (di Serio et 
al. 1999) . Not a 
regulated pest for 
Tas. (DPIPWE 
2013) . Listed as a 
declared organism 
(Prohibited) 
under the 
Western Australia 
BAM Act 
2007 (Government 
of Western 
Austral ia 2014) . 
However, it was 
not regulated in 
WA’s policy for 
summerfruit from 
eastern Australian 
states to WA 
(Poole et al. 
2011) . No. Viroid particles 
have been detected in 
fruit. However, there 
are no records of 
disease transmission 
from fruit including 
seed (Poole, Woods & 
Tuten 2009) . It was 
assessed as unlikely 
to be on pathway in 
WA’s policy for 
summerfruit from 
eastern Australian 
states to WA (Poole et 
al. 2011) . Assessment not 
required  Assessment not 
required  No Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix B  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  247 Appendix B  Biosecurity framework  
Australia’s biosecurity policies  
The objective of Australia’s biosecurity policies and risk management measures is the 
prevention or control of the entry, establishment or s pread of pests and diseases that could 
cause significant harm to people, animals, plants and other aspects of the environment.  
Australia has diverse native flora and fauna and a large agricultural sector, and is relatively free 
from the more significant pe sts and diseases present in other countries. Therefore, successive 
Australian Governments have maintained a conservative, but not a zero -risk, approach to the 
management of biosecurity risks. This approach is consistent with the World Trade 
Organization’s (WTO’s) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures 
(SPS Agreement).  
The SPS Agreement defines the concept of an ‘appropriate level of protection’ (ALOP) as the 
level of protection deemed appropriate by a WTO Member establishing a sanitary or 
phytosanitary measure to protect human, animal or plant life or health within its territory. 
Among a number of obligations, a WTO Member should take into account the objective of 
minimising negative trade effects in setting its ALOP.  
Like many other countries, Australia expresses its ALOP in qualitative terms. Australia’s ALOP, 
which reflects community expectations through Australian Government policy, is currently 
expressed as providing a high level of sanitary and phytosanitary protection, aim ed at reducing 
risk to a very low level, but not to zero.  
Consistent with the SPS Agreement, in conducting risk analyses Australia takes into account as 
relevant economic factors:  
 the potential damage in terms of loss of production or sales in the event of  the entry, 
establishment or spread of a pest or disease in the territory of Australia  
 the costs of control or eradication of a pest or disease  
 and the relative cost -effectiveness of alternative approaches to limiting risks.  
Roles and responsibilities with in Australia’s quarantine system  
Australia protects its human, animal and plant life or health through a comprehensive 
quarantine system that covers the quarantine continuum, from pre -border to border and post -
border activities. The Australian Government D epartment of Health is responsible for human 
health aspects of quarantine. The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources is responsible for animal and plant life or health.  
Pre-border, Australia participates in international stand ard-setting bodies, undertakes risk 
analyses, develops offshore quarantine arrangements where appropriate, and engages with our 
neighbours to counter the spread of exotic pests and diseases.  
At the border, Australia screens vessels (including aircraft), pe ople and goods entering the 
country to detect potential threats to Australian human, animal and plant health.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix B  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  248 The Australian Government also undertakes targeted measures at the immediate post -border 
level within Australia. This includes national co -ordinat ion of emergency responses to pest and 
disease incursions. The movement of goods of quarantine concern within Australia’s border is 
the responsibility of relevant state and territory authorities, which undertake inter – and intra –
state quarantine operations  that reflect regional differences in pest and disease status, as a part 
of their wider plant and animal health responsibilities.  
Roles and responsibilities within the Australian Government Department of Agriculture 
and Water Resources  
The Australian Gover nment Department of Agriculture and Water Resources is responsible for 
the Australian Government’s animal and plant biosecurity policy development and the 
establishment of risk management measures. The Secretary of the Australian Government 
Department of A griculture and Water Resources is appointed as the Director of Animal and Plant 
Quarantine under the Quarantine Act 1908  (the Act).  
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources takes the lead in 
biosecurity and quarantine policy development and the establishment and implementation of 
risk management measures across the biosecurity continuum, and:  
 Pre-border  conducts risk analyses, including IRAs, and develops recommendations for 
biosecurity policy as well as providing quarantine p olicy advice to the Director of Animal 
and Plant Quarantine  
 At the border  develops operational procedures, makes a range of quarantine decisions 
under the Act (including import permit decisions under delegation from the Director of 
Animal and Plant Quarant ine) and delivers quarantine services  
 Post -border  coordinates pest and disease preparedness, emergency responses and liaison 
on inter – and intra –state quarantine arrangements for the Australian Government, in 
conjunction with Australia’s state and territory governments.  
Roles and responsibilities of othe r government agencies  
State and territory governments play a vital role in the quarantine continuum. The Australian 
Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources works in partnership with state 
and territory governments to address regional diffe rences in pest and disease status and risk 
within Australia, and develops appropriate sanitary and phytosanitary measures to account for 
those differences. Australia’s partnership approach to quarantine is supported by a formal 
Memorandum of Understanding that provides for consultation between the Australian 
Government and the state and territory governments.  
Depending on the nature of the good being imported or proposed for importation, the Australian 
Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resource s may consult other Australian 
Government authorities or agencies in developing its recommendations and providing advice.  
As well as a Director of Animal and Plant Quarantine, the Act provides for a Director of Human 
Quarantine. The Australian Government D epartment of Health is responsible for human health 
aspects of quarantine and Australia’s Chief Medical Officer within that Department holds the 
position of Director of Human Quarantine. The Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture and Water Resourc es may, where appropriate, consult with that Australian Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix B  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  249 Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources on relevant matters that may have 
implications for human health.  
The Act also requires the Director of Animal and Plant Quarantine, before maki ng certain 
decisions, to request advice from the Environment Minister and to take the advice into account 
when making those decisions. The Australian Government Department of the Environment is 
responsible under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999  for 
assessing the environmental impact associated with proposals to import live species. Anyone 
proposing to import such material should contact the Department of the Environment directly 
for further information.  
When undertaking risk  analyses, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and 
Water Resources consults with the Department of the Environment about environmental issues 
and may use or refer to the Department of the Environment’s assessment.  
Australian quarantine legi slation  
The Australian quarantine system is supported by Commonwealth, state and territory 
quarantine laws. Under the Australian Constitution, the Commonwealth Government does not 
have exclusive power to make laws in relation to quarantine, and as a result , Commonwealth 
and state quarantine laws can co -exist.  
Commonwealth quarantine laws are contained in the Quarantine Act 1908  and subordinate 
legislation including the Quarantine Regulations 2000, the Quarantine Proclamation 1998, the 
Quarantine (Cocos Isla nds) Proclamation 2004 and the Quarantine (Christmas Island) 
Proclamation 2004.  
The quarantine proclamations identify goods, which cannot be imported, into Australia, the 
Cocos Islands and or Christmas Island unless the Director of Animal and Plant Quarant ine or 
delegate grants an import permit or unless they comply with other conditions specified in the 
proclamations. Section 70 of the Quarantine Proclamation 1998, section 34 of the Quarantine 
(Cocos Islands) Proclamation 2004 and section 34 of the Quarant ine (Christmas Island) 
Proclamation 2004 specify the things a Director of Animal and Plant Quarantine must take into 
account when deciding whether to grant a permit.  
In particular, a Director of Animal and Plant Quarantine (or delegate):  
 must consider the level of quarantine risk if the permit were granted, and  
 must consider whether, if the permit were granted, the imposition of conditions would be 
necessary to limit the level of quarantine risk to one that is acceptably low, and  
 for a permit to import a seed of a plant that was produced by genetic manipulation —must 
take into account any risk assessment prepared, and any decision made, in relation to the 
seed under the Gene Technology Act , and  
 may take into account anything else th at he or she knows is relevant.  
The level of quarantine risk is defined in section 5D of the Quarantine Act 1908 . The definition is 
as follows:  
reference in this Act to a level of quarantine risk  is a reference to:  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix B  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  250 a) the likelihood of:  
i) a disease or pest bein g introduced, established or spread in Australia, the Cocos Islands or 
Christmas Island; and  
ii) the disease or pest causing harm to human beings, animals, plants, other aspects of the 
environment, or economic activities; and  
b) the probable extent of the harm.  
The Quarantine Regulations 2000 were amended in 2007 to regulate keys steps of the import 
risk analysis process. The Regulations:  
 define both a standard and an expanded IRA;  
 identify certain steps, which must be included in each type of IRA;  
 specify time li mits for certain steps and overall timeframes for the completion of IRAs (up to 
24 months for a standard IRA and up to 30 months for an expanded IRA);  
 specify publication requirements;  
 make provision for termination of an IRA; and  
 allow for a partially com pleted risk analysis to be completed as an IRA under the 
Regulations.  
The Regulations are available on the ComLaw  website.  
International agreements and standards  
The process set out in the Import  Risk Analysis Handbook 2011  is consistent with Australia’s 
international obligations under the SPS Agreement. It also takes into account relevant 
international standards on risk assessment developed under the International Plant Protection 
Convention (IPP C) and by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE).  
Australia bases its national risk management measures on international standards where they 
exist and when they achieve Australia’s ALOP. Otherwise, Australia exercises its right under the 
SPS Agree ment to apply science -based sanitary and phytosanitary measures that are not more 
trade restrictive than required to achieve Australia’s ALOP.  
Notification obligations  
Under the transparency provisions of the SPS Agreement, WTO Members are required, among 
other things, to notify other members of recommended sanitary or phytosanitary regulations, or 
changes to existing regulations, that are not substantially the same as the content of an 
international standard and that may have a significant effect on trade of other WTO Members.  
Risk analysis  
Within Australia’s quarantine framework, the Australian Government uses risk analyses to assist 
it in considering the level of quarantine risk that may be associated with the importation or 
proposed importation of animal s, plants or other goods.  Final report for Chinese nectarines  Appendix B  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  251 In conducting a risk analysis, the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water 
Resources:  
 identifies the pests and diseases of quarantine concern that may be carried by the good  
 assesses the likelihood that an identified pest or disease would enter, establish or spread  
 assesses the probable extent of the harm that would result.  
If the assessed level of quarantine risk exceeds Australia’s ALOP, the Australian Government 
Department of Agriculture and Water Resourc es will consider whether there are any risk 
management measures that will reduce quarantine risk to achieve the ALOP. If there are no risk 
management measures that reduce the risk to that level, trade will not be allowed.  
Risk analyses may be carried out b y the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and 
Water Resources’ specialists, but may also involve relevant experts from state and territory 
agencies, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), 
universities and indu stry to access the technical expertise needed for a particular analysis.  
Risk analyses are conducted across a spectrum of scientific complexity and available scientific 
information. An IRA is a type of risk analysis with key steps regulated under the Quara ntine 
Regulations 2000. The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources’ 
assessment of risk may also take the form of a non -regulated analysis of existing policy or 
technical advice. Further information on the types of risk analysis  is provided in the Import Risk 
Analysis Handbook 2011.  
 Final report for Chinese nectarines  Glossary  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  252 Glossary  
Term or abbreviation  Definition  
Additional declaration  A statement that is required by an importing country to be entered on a 
phytosanitary certificate and which provides specific additional information on 
a consignment in relation to regulated pests (FAO 2015a) . 
Anamorph  An asexual stage in the life cycle of a fungus, also known as the imperfect state 
of a fungus.  
Appropriate level of protection 
(ALOP)  The level of protection deemed appropriate by the Member establishing a 
sanitary or phytosanitary measure to protect human, animal or plant life or 
health within its territory (WTO 1995) . 
Area  An officially defined country, part of a country or all or parts of several 
countries (FAO 2015a) . 
Area of low pest prevalence  An area, whether all of a country, part of a country, or a ll parts of several 
countries, as identified by the competent authorities, in which a specific pest 
occurs at low levels and which is subject to effective surveillance, control or 
eradication measures (FAO 2015a) . 
Arthropod  The largest phylum of animals, including the insects, arachnids and 
crustaceans.  
Asexual reproduction  The development of new individual from a single cell or group of cells in the 
absence of meiosis.  
Biosecurity Australia  The previous name for the unit, within the Australian Government Department 
of Agriculture and Water Resources, responsible for recommendations for the 
development of Australia’s biosecurity policy. These functions are undertaken 
within the Plant Division of the Australian Government Department of 
Agriculture  and Water Resources.  
Certificate  An official document which attests to the phytosanitary status of any 
consignment affected by phytosanitary regulations (FAO 2015a) .  
Consignment  A quantity of plants, plant products and/or other articles being moved fro m 
one country to another and covered, when required, by a single phytosanitary 
certificate (a consignment may be composed of one or more commodities or 
lots) (FAO 2015a) . 
Control (of a pest)  Suppression, containment or eradication of a pest population (FAO 2015a) . 
Diapause  Period of suspended development/growth occurring in some insects, in which 
metabolism is decreased.  
Disease  A condition of part or all of an organism that may result from various causes 
such as infection, genetic defect or environmental stress.  
Endangered area  An area where ecological factors favour the establishment of a pest whose 
presence in the area will result in economically important loss (FAO 2015a) . 
Endemic  Belonging to, native to, or prevalent in a particular geo graphy, area or 
environment.  
Entry (of a pest)  Movement of a pest into an area where it is not yet present, or present but not 
widely distributed and being officially controlled (FAO 2015a) . 
Establishment  Perpetuation, for the foreseeable future, of a pe st within an area after entry 
(FAO 2015a) . 
Fecundity  The fertility of an organism.  
Fresh  Living; not dried, deep -frozen or otherwise conserved (FAO 2015a) . 
Fumigation  A method of pest control that completely fills an area with gaseous pesticides to 
suffocate or poison the pests within.  
Genus  A taxonomic category ranking below a family and above a species and generally 
consisting of a group of species exhibiting similar characteristics. In taxonomic Final report for Chinese nectarines  Glossary  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  253 Term or abbreviation  Definition  
nomenclature the genus name is used, either alone o r followed by a Latin 
adjective or epithet, to form the name of a species.  
Host  An organism that harbours a parasite, mutual partner, or commensal partner, 
typically providing nourishment and shelter.  
Host range  Species capable, under natural conditions,  of sustaining a specific pest or other 
organism (FAO 2015a) . 
Import permit  Official document authorising importation of a commodity in accordance with 
specified phytosanitary import requirements (FAO 2015a) . 
Import risk analysis  An administrative process through which quarantine policy is developed or 
reviewed, incorporating risk assessment, risk management and risk 
communication.  
Infection  The internal ‘endophytic’ colonisation of a plant, or plant organ, and is 
generally associated with the deve lopment of disease symptoms as the 
integrity of cells and/or biological processes are disrupted.  
Infestation (of a commodity)  Presence in a commodity of a living pest of the plant or plant product 
concerned. Infestation includes infection (FAO 2015a) . 
Inspection  Official visual examination of plants, plant products or other regulated articles 
to determine if pests are present and/or to determine compliance with 
phytosanitary regulations (FAO 2015a) . 
Intended use  Declared purpose for which plants, plant p roducts, or other regulated articles 
are imported, produced, or used (FAO 2015a) . 
Interception (of a pest)  The detection of a pest during inspection or testing of an imported consignment 
(FAO 2015a) . 
International Standard for 
Phytosanitary Measures (ISP M) An international standard adopted by the Conference of the Food and 
Agriculture Organization, the Interim Commission on phytosanitary measures 
or the Commission on phytosanitary measures, established under the IPCC 
(FAO 2015a) . 
Introduction (of a pest)  The entry of a pest resulting in its establishment (FAO 2015a) . 
Lot A number of units of a single commodity, identifiable by its homogeneity of 
composition, origin, forming part of a consignment (FAO 2015a) . Within this 
report a ‘lot’ refers to a quantit y of fruit of a single variety, harvested from a 
single production site during a single pick and packed at one time.  
Mature fruit  Commercial maturity is the start of the ripening process. The ripening process 
will then continue for climacteric fruit and p rovide a product that is 
consumer -acceptable. Maturity assessments include colour, starch, index, 
soluble solids content, flesh firmness, acidity, and ethylene production rate.  
Mortality  The total number of organisms killed by a particular disease.  
Natio nal Plant Protection 
Organization (NPPO)  Official service established by a government to discharge the functions 
specified by the IPPC (FAO 2015a) . 
Official control  The active enforcement of mandatory phytosanitary regulations and the 
application of mandatory phytosanitary procedures with the objective of 
eradication or containment of quarantine pests or for the management of 
regulated non -quarantine pests (FAO 2015a) . 
Orchard  A contiguous area of nectarine trees operated as a single entity. Within t his 
report a single orchard is covered under one registration and is issued a unique 
identifying number.  
Parthenogenesis  Production of an embryo from unfertilised egg.  
Pathogen  A biological agent that can cause disease to its host.  
Pathway  Any means tha t allows the entry or spread of a pest (FAO 2015a) . 
Pest  Any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to 
plants or plant products (FAO 2015a) . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Glossary  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  254 Term or abbreviation  Definition  
Pest categorisation  The process for determining whether a pest has or has not  the characteristics 
of a quarantine pest or those of a regulated non -quarantine pest (FAO 2015a) . 
Pest free area (PFA)  An area in which a specific pest does not occur as demonstrated by scientific 
evidence and in which, where appropriate, this condition is being officially 
maintained (FAO 2015a) . 
Pest free place of production  Place of production in which a specific pest does not occur as demonstrated by 
scientific evidence and in which, where appropriate, this condition is being 
officially maintained for  a defined period (FAO 2015a) . 
Pest free production site  A defined portion of a place of production in which a specific pest does not 
occur as demonstrated by scientific evidence and in which, where appropriate, 
this condition is being officially maintain ed for a defined period and that is 
managed as a separate unit in the same way as a pest free place of production 
(FAO 2015a) . 
Pest risk analysis (PRA)  The process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence 
to determine whether an organism is a pest, whether it should be regulated, 
and the strength of any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it (FAO 
2015a) . 
Pest risk assessment (for 
quarantine pests)  Evaluation of the likelihood of the introduction and spread of a pest and of  the 
associated potential economic consequences (FAO 2015a) . 
Pest risk management (for 
quarantine pests)  Evaluation and selection of options to reduce the risk of introduction and 
spread of a pest (FAO 2015a) . 
Pest status (in an area)  Presence or absence, at the present time, of a pest in an area, including where 
appropriate its distribution, as officially determined using expert judgement on 
the basis of current and historical pest records and other information (FAO 
2015a) . 
Phytosanit ary certificate  An official paper document or its official electronic equivalent, consistent with 
the model of certificates of the IPPC, attesting that a consignment meets 
phytosanitary import requirements (FAO 2015a) . 
Phytosanitary certification  Use of p hytosanitary procedures leading to the issue of a phytosanitary 
certificate (FAO 2015a) . 
Phytosanitary measure  Any legislation, regulation or official procedure having the purpose to prevent 
the introduction and/or spread of quarantine pests, or to limit the economic 
impact of regulated non -quarantine pests (FAO 2015a) . 
Phytosanitary procedure  An official method for implementing phytosanitary measures including the 
performance of inspections, tests, surveillance or treatments in connection 
with regulated pests (FAO 2015a) . 
Phytosanitary regulation  Official rule to prevent the introduction and/or spread of quarantine pests, or 
to limit the economic impact of regulated non -quarantine pests, including 
establishment of procedures for phytosanitary certification (FAO 2015a) . 
Polyphagous  Feeding on a rel atively large number of hosts from different plant family 
and/or genera.  
PRA area  Area in relation to which a pest risk analysis is conducted (FAO 2015a) . 
Practically free  Of a consignment, field or place of production, without pests (or a specific pest)  
in numbers or quantities in excess of those that can be expected to result from, 
and be consistent with good cultural and handling practices employed in the 
production and marketing of the commodity (FAO 2015a) .  
Production site  In this report, a product ion site is a continuous planting of nectarine trees 
treated as a single unit for pest management purposes. If an orchard is 
subdivided into one or more units for pest management purposes, then each 
unit is a production site. If the orchard is not subdivid ed, then the orchard is 
also the production site.  
Quarantine  Official confinement of regulated articles for observation and research or for 
further inspection, testing or treatment (FAO 2015a) . Final report for Chinese nectarines  Glossary  
Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources  255 Term or abbreviation  Definition  
Quarantine pest  A pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and 
not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially 
controlled (FAO 2015a) . 
Regulated article  Any plant, plant product, storage place, packing, convey ance, container, soil and 
any other organism, object or material capable of harbouring or spreading 
pests, deemed to require phytosanitary measures, particularly where 
international transportation is involved (FAO 2015a) . 
Regulated pest  A quarantine pest or a regulated non -quarantine pest (FAO 2015a) . 
Restricted risk  Risk estimate with phytosanitary measure(s) applied.  
Saprophyte  An organism deriving its nourishment from dead organic matter.  
Spread (of a pest)  Expansion of the geographical distribution of a pest within an area (FAO 
2015a) . 
SPS Agreement  WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures.  
Stakeholders  Government agencies, individuals, community or industry groups or 
organizations, whether in Australia or overseas, including the 
proponent/applicant for a specific proposal, who have an interest in the policy 
issues.  
Stonefruit  Fleshy indehiscent fruit with a single seed: for example, apricot, peach, 
nectarine, plum.  
Systems approach(es)  The integration of different risk management measures, at least two of which 
act independently, and which cumulatively achieve the appropriate level of 
protection against regulated pests.  
Teleomorph  The sexual stage of the life cycle of a fungus. Also called the perfect stage.  
Tras h Soil, splinters, twigs, leaves, and other plant material, other than fruit stalks.  
Treatment  Official procedure for the killing, inactivation or removal of pests, or for 
rendering pests infertile or for devitalisation (FAO 2015a) . 
Unrestricted risk  Unrestricted risk estimates apply in the absence of risk mitigation measures.  
Vector  An organism that does not cause disease itself, but which causes infection by 
conveying pathogens from one host to another.  
Viable  Alive, able to germinate or capable of  growth.  
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