RESTRICTED  
  
WT/TPR/S/326  
20 October 2015  
(15-5518)  Page: 1/151  
Trade Policy Review Body   
 
 TRADE POLICY REVIEW 
REPORT BY THE SECRETARIAT 
THAILAND  
This report, prepared for the seventh Trade Policy Review of Thailand, has been drawn up by the 
WTO Secretariat on its own responsibility. The Se cretariat has, as required by the Agreement 
establishing the Trade Policy Review Mech anism (Annex 3 of the Marrakesh Agreement 
Establishing the World Trade Organization), sought clarification from Thailand on its trade policies 
and practices.  Any technical questions arising from this report may be addressed to Mr Sergios Stamnas 
(tel: 022/739 5382) and Ms Katie Waters (tel: 022/739 5067). 
 Document WT/TPR/G/326 contains the policy statement submitted by Thailand. 
 
 
Note: This report is subject to restricted circulation and press embargo until the end of the first 
session of the meeting of the Trade Policy Review  Body on Thailand. This report was drafted in 
English. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  CONTENTS 
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................... . 8 
1   ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................................ 12  
1.1   Overview ................................................................................................................. 12 
1.2   Recent Econ omic Developments.................................................................................. 14 
1.2.1   Growth, inco me, and employment ............................................................................ 14 
1.2.2   Prices ................................................................................................................... 16 
1.3   Main Macroeconomic Policy Developments .................................................................... 16 
1.3.1   Monetary and exchange ra te policy .......................................................................... 16 
1.3.2   Fiscal policy ......................................................................................................... . 17 
1.4   Main Structural Policy Developments an d Challe nges ..................................................... 18 
1.4.1   Tax and fisca l processes reform ............................................................................... 18 
1.4.2   Subsid ies reform ................................................................................................... 18 
1.4.3   State-owned enterprises (SOEs) .............................................................................. 18 
1.4.4   Transparency and anti-corruption ............................................................................. 19 
1.4.5   Labour market re form ............................................................................................ 19 
1.5   Balance-of-Payments Developments ............................................................................ 19 
1.6   Developments in Merchandise Trade ............................................................................ 21 
1.7   Trends and Patterns in Foreign Direct Investment ......................................................... 23 
2   TRADE AND INVE STMENT RE GIME ............................................................................ 26  
2.1   Overview ................................................................................................................. 26 
2.2   Genera l Framework .................................................................................................. 26 
2.3   Trade Policy Form ulation and Ob jectives ...................................................................... 27 
2.4   Trade Agreements and Arrangements .......................................................................... 29 
2.4.1   WTO ................................................................................................................... . 29 
2.4.2   Regional trade agreements ...................................................................................... 31 
2.4.2.1   ASEAN ............................................................................................................... 32 
2.4.3   Preferential trade agreements .................................................................................. 33 
2.4.4   Other agreements and arrangements ........................................................................ 34 
2.4.4.1   Asia-Pacific Econ omic Cooperat ion (APEC) .............................................................. 34 
2.4.4.2   Asia-Europe Meetings (ASEM) ............................................................................... 34 
2.4.4.3   Other ............................................................................................................... . 34 
2.5   Foreign Inve stment Regime ....................................................................................... 35 
3   TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICES BY MEASURE ........................................................ 38  
3.1   Introduction ............................................................................................................. 38 
3.2   Measures Direct ly Affectin g Imports ............................................................................ 40 
3.2.1   Custom s clearance ................................................................................................. 40 
3.2.1.1   Registration  and docume ntation ............................................................................ 40 
3.2.1.2   Customs va luation procedures .............................................................................. 42 
3.2.1.3   Rule s of or igin .................................................................................................... 42 WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.2.2   Tariffs ............................................................................................................... ... 42 
3.2.2.1   Featur es ............................................................................................................  42 
3.2.2.2   Applied MFN tariffs .............................................................................................. 43 
3.2.2.3   Structure ...........................................................................................................  43 
3.2.2.4   Tariff disper sion and e scalation ............................................................................. 45 
3.2.2.5   Bo und tariffs ...................................................................................................... 45 
3.2.2.6   Tariff- rate qu otas ................................................................................................ 46 
3.2.2.7   Special duties (or import surcharges) ..................................................................... 47 
3.2.2.8   Tariff reduct ion and exemptions ............................................................................ 47 
3.2.2.9   Preferential tariffs ............................................................................................... 47 
3.2.3   Other charge s affecting imports ............................................................................... 48 
3.2.4   Import prohib itions and licensing ............................................................................. 48 
3.2.4.1   Import prohibitions ............................................................................................. 51 
3.2.4.2   Import licensing .................................................................................................. 52 
3.2.4.3   Impo rt quotas .................................................................................................... 53 
3.2.5   Continge ncy measures ........................................................................................... 53 
3.2.5.1   Anti-dumping and countervailing measures ............................................................. 53 
3.2.5.2   Safeguards ........................................................................................................ 53 
3.2.6   Standards and othe r technical requirements .............................................................. 54 
3.2.6.1   Standards, testing, and certification ....................................................................... 54 
3.2.6.1.1   Voluntary, compulsory , national, and al igned standards ......................................... 55 
3.2.6.1.2   Accreditation and quality management standards .................................................. 55 
3.2.6.1.3   Internat ional cooperation .................................................................................. 55 
3.2.6.1.4   Transparency ................................................................................................... 56 
3.2.6.2   Sanitary and phytosanitary measures .................................................................... 56 
3.2.6.2.1   Food standa rds-setting framework ...................................................................... 56 
3.2.6.2.2   Quarantine requirements ................................................................................... 57 
3.2.6.2.3   Transparency ................................................................................................... 58 
3.2.6.3   Labelling requirements ......................................................................................... 59 
3.2.7   Governme nt procurement ....................................................................................... 60 
3.2.8   Countertrade ......................................................................................................... 63 
3.3   Measures Directly Affecting Exports ............................................................................. 63 
3.3.1   Registration and documentation procedures ............................................................... 63 
3.3.2   Export taxes, charges, an d levies ............................................................................. 64 
3.3.3   Export prohibitions, restrictions and licensing ............................................................. 64 
3.3.4   Export assist ance and in centives .............................................................................. 66 
3.3.4.1   Duty drawback ................................................................................................... 67 
3.3.4.2   Tax and du ty compen sation .................................................................................. 67 
3.3.4.3   Industrial Estate Auth ority of Thailand  free zones .................................................... 67 
3.3.4.4   Cust oms free zones ............................................................................................. 68 WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.3.5   Export fina ncing and in surance ................................................................................ 68 
3.4   Other Measures Affect ing Production  and Trade ............................................................ 70 
3.4.1   Ta xation  .............................................................................................................. . 70 
3.4.1.1   Indi rect ta xes ..................................................................................................... 70 
3.4.1.1.1   Excise tax ....................................................................................................... 70 
3.4.1.1.2   Value added tax (VAT) ...................................................................................... 72 
3.4.1.2   Di rect ta xes ....................................................................................................... 72 
3.4.1.3   Pa ying taxes ...................................................................................................... 73 
3.4.2   Producti on assist ance ............................................................................................. 73 
3.4.2.1   Board of In vestment in centives ............................................................................. 74 
3.4.2.2   Regional and internat ional headquarters  incentives .................................................. 76 
3.4.2.3   Small- and me dium-sized en terprises..................................................................... 76 
3.4.2.4   Other support ..................................................................................................... 77 
3.4.3   State involvement in production  and trade ................................................................ 78 
3.4.4   Competition policy and consumer protection .............................................................. 81 
3.4.4.1   Competition policy .............................................................................................. 81 
3.4.4.1.1   Legal and in stitutional framew ork ....................................................................... 81 
3.4.4.1.2   Scope .............................................................................................................  82 
3.4.4.1.3   Prohibitions ..................................................................................................... 82 
3.4.4.1.4   Enforcem ent .................................................................................................... 82 
3.4.4.1.5   TCA reform plans ............................................................................................. 83 
3.4.4.2   Pric e contro ls ..................................................................................................... 83 
3.4.4.3   Consum er protection ........................................................................................... 86 
3.4.5   Corporat e governance ............................................................................................ 86 
3.4.6   Intellectual property rights ...................................................................................... 88 
3.4.6.1   Legislative and in stitutional developments .............................................................. 89 
3.4.6.2   Indust rial property .............................................................................................. 89 
3.4.6.2.1   Patents ...........................................................................................................  89 
3.4.6.2.2   Trademarks ..................................................................................................... 90 
3.4.6.2.3   Trade secrets ................................................................................................... 91 
3.4.6.2.4   Geographical indications .................................................................................... 91 
3.4.6.2.5   Protection  of plant varieties ............................................................................... 92 
3.4.6.3   Copyright and related rights ................................................................................. 92 
3.4.6.3.1   Copyright ........................................................................................................ 92 
3.4.6.3.2   Layout designs of integrated  circuits ................................................................... 93 
3.4.6.4   Government use and compulsory licensing .............................................................. 93 
3.4.6.5   Traditional knowledge .......................................................................................... 94 
3.4.6.6   Parallel imports ................................................................................................... 94 
3.4.6.7   Enforcement ....................................................................................................... 94 
3.4.6.7.1   Features ......................................................................................................... 94 WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.4.6.7.2   Bord er enforcement .......................................................................................... 95 
3.4.6.7.3   Domestic enforcement ...................................................................................... 95 
3.4.6.7.4   Co urt acti on .................................................................................................... 96 
4   TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR ..................................................................................... 97  
4.1   Introduction ............................................................................................................. 97 
4.2   Agriculture an d Food Proc essing ................................................................................. 98 
4.2.1   Features ............................................................................................................... 98 
4.2.2   Trade ................................................................................................................. .. 99 
4.2.3   Agricultural policies .............................................................................................. 10 1 
4.2.3.1   Legal, institutio nal, and policy framework ............................................................. 101  
4.2.3.2   Bord er measures............................................................................................... 102  
4.2.3.3   Domest ic support .............................................................................................. 104  
4.2.3.4   Recent developm ents in key sectors .................................................................... 105  
4.2.3.4.1   Rice ............................................................................................................. 105 
4.2.3.4.2   Sugar ........................................................................................................... 1 06 
4.3   Fisheries ...............................................................................................................  107 
4.4   Fo restry  ................................................................................................................  110 
4.5   Energy ..................................................................................................................  111 
4.5.1   Hydrocarbons ...................................................................................................... 113  
4.5.2   El ectricity ...........................................................................................................  115 
4.6   Manufac turing ........................................................................................................ 11 6 
4.6.1   Policy objectives and measures .............................................................................. 116  
4.6.1.1   Automo tive sect or ............................................................................................. 117  
4.6.1.2   Electrical and Electronics industry ........................................................................ 119  
4.6.1.3   Rubber ............................................................................................................ 1 19 
4.7   Services ................................................................................................................  120 
4.7.1   Intr oduction  ........................................................................................................ 1 20 
4.7.2   Financial services ................................................................................................. 121  
4.7.2.1   Banking ........................................................................................................... 1 22 
4.7.2.1.1   Mark et struct ure ............................................................................................ 122  
4.7.2.1.2   Legal and in stitutional fr amework ..................................................................... 123  
4.7.2.2   In suranc e ........................................................................................................ 12 4 
4.7.2.2.1   Mark et struct ure ............................................................................................ 124  
4.7.2.2.2   Legal framework ............................................................................................ 125  
4.7.3   Telecommunications ............................................................................................. 126  
4.7.4   Transport ........................................................................................................... 1 30 
4.7.4.1   Air transport ..................................................................................................... 131  
4.7.4.2   Mariti me transp ort ............................................................................................ 134  
4.7.4.2.1   Shipping ....................................................................................................... 13 4 
4.7.5   Tourism .............................................................................................................. 135  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  REFERENC ES ................................................................................................................ 137  
5   APPENDIX TABLES .................................................................................................. 141  
 
CHARTS 
 
Chart 1.1 Product composition of merchandise trad e, 2011 an d 2014 ...................................... 22 
Chart 1.2 Direction of merchandise trade, 2011 and 2014 ...................................................... 23 
Chart 3.1 Distribution of MFN app lied tariff rates,  2011 and 2014 ........................................... 44 
Chart 3.2 Tariff escalation by two-digit ISIC industry, 2014 .................................................... 45 
Chart 3.3 Average applied MFN and bound ta riff rates, by HS se ction, 2011 and 2014 ............... 46 
Chart 4.1 Trade in ag riculture,  2007-13 ............................................................................ 100  
Chart 4.2 Exports of selected fisheries products, 2008-14 .................................................... 107  
Chart 4.3 Electricity generation an d installed capaci ty, April 2015 ......................................... 115  
Chart 4.4 Market share fixed line and mobile, Q3 2014 ........................................................ 127  
Chart 4.5 Foreign trade by  transport mo de, 2013 ............................................................... 131  
 
TABLES 
 
Table 1.1 Selected macroeco nomic indicato rs, 2011- 14 ......................................................... 12 
Table 1.2 Basic economic  indicators , 2011- 14 ...................................................................... 15 
Table 1.3 Balance of payments, 2011-14 ............................................................................. 20 
Table 1.4 Inflows of foreign direct invest ment, 2011- 14 ........................................................ 24 
Table 1.5 Outflows of foreign direct investme nt, 2011-14 ...................................................... 25 
Table 2.1 Ministry of Commerce Strategy, main objectives ..................................................... 28 
Table 2.2 Notifications to th e WTO, 2011-20 15 (30 June) ...................................................... 30 
Table 2.3 Thailand's preferential tari ff utilization rate  under RT As, 2012- 14 .............................. 31 
Table 2.4 Thailand's utilization of preferential tariffs under GSP schemes, 2012-14 .................... 33 
Table 2.5 Business activities restricted for foreign investment under the Foreign Business 
Act  .......................................................................................................................... .. 35 
Table 3.1 Thailand's tariff  structure, 2011 and 2014.............................................................. 43 
Table 3.2 Products subject to import  licensing and pr ohibition,  2015 ....................................... 48 
Table 3.3 Export  duties , 2015  ............................................................................................ 64 
Table 3.4 Products subject to export licensing,  registration requirements or prohibitions, 
2015  ......................................................................................................................... ... 65 
Table 3.5 Central government tax re venue, by source, 2010/11-201 3/14 ................................ 70 
Table 3.6 State involvemen t in the ec onomy,  2015 ............................................................... 79 
Table 3.7 Products and services subject to monitoring, April 2015 ........................................... 85 
Table 4.1 Agricultural  land use,  2009-13  ............................................................................. 98 
Table 4.2 Production of selected agricultural products, 2008-13 .............................................. 99 
Table 4.3 Exports of selected ag ricultural prod ucts, 2008 -14 ................................................ 100  
Table 4.4 Imports of selected ag ricultural prod ucts, 2008 -14 ............................................... 100  
Table 4.5 TRQ fill rates, 2011-13 ...................................................................................... 102  
Table 4.6 Marine capture fisheries: national  landings in domest ic ports, 2009-14 .................... 107  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Table 4.7 Main aquacultur e production , 2009-14  ................................................................ 108  
Table 4.8 Strategies for fisheries mana gement ................................................................... 109  
Table 4.9 Government financial transfer s to the fisheries sector, 2009 -14 .............................. 109  
Table 4.10 Government revenue derive d from forest pr oducts, 2008-13 ................................ 111  
Table 4.11 Energy production and consumption, 2007-2013 ................................................. 112  
Table 4.12 Renewable ener gy incentiv es, 2015  .................................................................. 113  
Table 4.13 Automotive indu stry incent ives, 2014 ................................................................ 118  
Table 4.14 Number and assets of fina ncial institutions  (end 2014) ........................................ 121  
Table 4.15 Structure of the Thai banking system: number of institutions and their 
respective market share, 2011 -14 .................................................................................... 122  
Table 4.16 Selected telecommuni cations indicato rs, 2010-13  ............................................... 126  
Table 4.17 Digital ec onomy bill s, 2015 .............................................................................. 128  
Table 4.18 Licensing and FDI restrictions, 2015 .................................................................. 129  
Table 4.19 Air tran sport, 2010- 14 .................................................................................... 132  
Table 4.20 ASEAN air serv ices agreements ........................................................................ 133  
Table 4.21 Restrictions on foreign participation in tourism services, 2015 ............................... 135  
 
BOXES 
 Box 2.1 The Government's 11 point reform agenda, 2014 ...................................................... 29
 
Box 2.2 Bilateral investment treaties and double taxation agreements in force, 2015 ................. 37 
Box 4.1 Measures to implement the gu ideline for rubber development ................................... 120  
 
APPENDIX TABLES 
 
Table A1. 1 Merchandise exports, by product group, 2011-14 ............................................... 141  
Table A1. 2 Merchandise imports,  by product gr oup, 2011- 14 .............................................. 142  
Table A1. 3 Merchandise exports,  by destinatio n, 2011-14  ................................................... 143  
Table A1. 4 Merchandise impo rts, by orig in, 2011-14  .......................................................... 144  
 
 
Table A2. 1 ASEAN and Thailand's bilateral RTAs in force: main  features , 2015 ....................... 145  
 
 
Table A3. 1 Thailand's tariff summary , 2014 ...................................................................... 148  
 
 
Table A4. 1 Highest MFN applied rates on agricultural products, 2014 .................................... 149  
Table A4. 2 GDP originating from manu facturing at market  prices, 2011-13 ........................... 151  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  SUMMARY 
1. Since its previous Trade Policy Review in 2011, Thailand's strong fundamentals and 
appropriate policy mix have helped maintain macro-financial stability and ensure the resilience of its economy despite several endogenous and exog enous challenges that slowed the pace of 
recovery from the global financial crisis. After rising to 7.3% in 2012 as a result of robust domestic 
consumption, real GDP growth decreased progressively to 0.9% in 2014; monetary and fiscal stimulus measures are expected to help raise growth in 2015 and 2016. Developments in 
Thailand's position among the most competitive economies in the world reflect slight 
improvements in total factor productivity growth, but also weaknesses in several areas where reforms are either under way or under consideration. Whereas in 2014 headline inflation dropped progressively to 1.9% (half of its 2011 level), the unemployment rate has hardly changed (0.8%). 
2. During the review period limited trade and trade-related structural reforms (e.g. rice and 
energy pricing) were undertaken. Long-awaited reforms aimed at spurring productivity growth, thereby improving Thailand's international competitiveness, and enhancing growth are under 
consideration in areas such as taxation, competition policy, transport infrastructure, management 
of state enterprises, and promotion of innovation and industries in high value-added sectors. To facilitate economic recovery monetary and fiscal stimuli are being put in place. More specifically, 
since April 2013 the Bank of Thailand (BOT) has gradually cut its policy interest rate from 2.75% 
to 1.5%, and fiscal deficit has been on the rise to accommodate additional government spending 
including on infrastructure investment.  
3. The responsiveness of the managed-float exchange rate to economic developments 
contributed to maintaining macroeconomic stability and remains an effective buffer against 
balance-of-payments shocks. The nominal exchange rate has slightly depreciated (except in 2013) while the effective exchange rates appreciated owing to, inter alia , the domestic political situation, 
uncertainty in the global economic outlook, divergent monetary policy actions by some major 
central banks, economic developments in the Unit ed States and the eurozone economies, and the 
volatility of capital inflows into the region's bond and stock markets. The current account 
surplus (2011) shifted to a rising deficit (2012, 2013), due, inter alia , to net gold imports and 
repatriation of profits and dividends by foreig n businesses. In 2014 however, the current account 
returned to surplus owing mainly to a decline in imports following the economic slowdown and the fall in oil prices towards the end of the year, which more than offset the impact of declines in the 
prices of export commodities, notably rice and ru bber. Thailand's gross official reserves dropped 
primarily due to valuation changes. Gross external debt increased.  
4. The openness of the Thai economy to internatio nal trade, and its integration into the world 
economy continued to be reflected by the high, but slightly lower, ratio of its trade (exports plus 
imports) in goods and services to GDP that stood at 131.8% in 2014. International trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) trends reflect the continued importance of Asia as Thailand's main 
regional market and supplier, though China, th e United States, the European Union, and Japan 
remain its major individual trading and inward FDI partners; the intensification of its trade and investment ties with Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Viet Nam and China is noticeable. Although merchandise trade has remained largely and increasingly dependent on manufactures 
due to the decline of commodity prices and domestic rice policy measures, structural constraints 
affecting adversely Thailand's competitiveness emerged. Thailand's policy on foreign direct investment remains unchanged. FDI caps are in place in several subsectors, including: media; 
agriculture; forestry; fisheries; transportation; mining; various businesses relating to arts, 
handicraft and culture; financial services; telecommunications and tourism. In various other subsectors, official approval is required before foreign investment may proceed.  
5. Political issues have continued to dominate the national agenda since Thailand's last review. 
Following a military coup in 2014, new executive and legislative bodies have been put in place, operating under an interim constitution while a new constitution is being prepared. A new partial-scope regional trade agreement (RTA) has entered into force with Peru and an RTA has 
been signed with Chile. Various other new, and changes to existing, RTAs are under negotiation. 
There has been significant progress within ASEAN to realize the ASEAN Economic Community by 2015. Since April 2015, Thailand has provided duty-free quota-free market access for least 
developed countries (LDCs). Thailand's GSP preferences in the US, EU and Turkish markets were 
terminated, which may have a negative impact on the automotive industry in particular. Thailand WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  has not been party to any new WTO dispute settlement cases as complainant or respondent 
since 2012.  
6. The tariff remains one of Thailand's main trade policy instruments, and a relatively 
significant, albeit declining, source of tax revenue. Thailand undertook unilateral MFN tariff 
reductions on certain seafood products in 2014, an d considers proceeding with further cuts and to 
simplify its tariff structure in the course of 2015. Nevertheless, as a consequence of tariff line changes relating to the introduction of the HS 2012 tariff nomenclature (which resulted in 1,258 
more lines) and higher ad valorem  equivalent (AVE) rates, the average applied MFN tariff rate rose 
from 11.2% in 2011 to 13.4% in 2014. Non-agricultural products continue to face considerably lower tariff rates (averaging 10.1%) than agriculture items (WTO definition) (34.7%). Some 41% of applied MFN tariff rates are currently in the range zero to 5%. Peak ad valorem  rates stood at 
218% (out-of-quota rate, onion seeds) and 80% (motor vehicles). The tariff structure has become 
relatively less complex owing to the slight reduction in the number of applied MFN rates, which in 2014 stood at 100 (42 ad valorem , 13 specific rates, 45 alternate rates). An increasing number of 
tariff lines (74.6%) are subject to ad valorem  rates, which contributes to the transparency of the 
tariff. Nevertheless, the numerous non- ad valorem  rates affecting the remaining lines tend to 
conceal relatively high tariff rates, particularly on tamarind (AVE of 1,091.9%). For most activities, 
the tariff is characterized by escalation, which means that effective rates of tariff protection can be 
considerably higher than nominal rates. The fact that 73.6% of tariff lines (as of 2011) are bound imparts a degree of predictability to the tariff. However, the simple average of bound MFN rates 
could considerably exceed the average applied MFN rate (possibly by about 23 percentage points), 
providing the authorities with extensive scope for increasing applied tariffs within bindings. The 
passing to the HS2012 nomenclature involved tariff rate increases for around 600 tariff lines and reductions for 25 tariff lines; however, as Thailand's tariff Schedule of Concessions has remained 
based on the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System 2002 it is virtually 
impossible to compare its bindings' status with the currently applied HS2012 tariff schedule, thus, 
making the transposition of binding commitments to HS2012 another pressing task. Tariff rate 
quotas have remained in place for 22 agricultural items.  
7. During the review period, trade facilitation improvements included the replacement of the 
"gold card" system of importers' benefits by th e Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) Programme 
which was extended to importers. Thailand has become a signatory to the Revised Kyoto 
Convention as of June 2015 and is to complete the internal process necessary to ratify the WTO 
Agreement on Trade Facilitation by the end of 2015. No changes were made in the areas of 
customs valuation and rules of origin.  
8. Import licensing and prohibitions on various items for, inter alia , economic reasons (infant 
industry protection) have remained generally unc hanged during the review period. New import 
requirements for automotive tyre imports were imposed and notified to the WTO upon their date of 
entry into force. The share of national standard s that are identical or similar to international 
standards remains at 32.3%. The maximum residue limits for pesticides in agricultural products was revised in 2013. During the review period, certain Members raised specific trade concerns (STCs) regarding certain standards- and labelling-related measures (pertaining, for example, to 
meat, food inspection fees, alcoholic beverages,  pneumatic tyres of rubber, and ceramic tiles). 
Thailand remains a relatively infrequent user of anti-dumping measures, taken only in the form of 
duties, with most of them relating to items originating in Asia. No initiation of any investigation or 
application of any countervailing duty measures ha s occurred yet. However, recourse to safeguard 
measures intensified. Several contingency measures affected steel products. 
9. Relatively high statutory export taxes on a few commodities (sawn wood and articles 
thereof, and hides) and the possibility of re-instating others continue to assist the downstream 
processing of such commodities, thereby distorting competition and thus the allocation of resources, and imparting an element of uncertainty to Thailand's trade and investment regime. No changes were made to export prohibitions, restrictions, or the licensing regime. Thailand maintains 
unchanged several schemes aimed mainly at facilitating exports, including bonded warehouses, 
duty drawback, "tax and duty compensation" as well as tax and non-tax privileges under the Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand Act and the customs free zones scheme. The self-financed 
and profitable state-owned Export-Import Bank of Thailand (EXIM Bank), which provides financial 
services in a competitive environment with commercial banks, has launched five new credit facilities for small and medium enterprise (SME) exporters.  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  10. Support for investment in priority sectors and remote areas continued through several 
relatively complex tax and non-tax incentives, whose cost-effectiveness is questionable and not rigorously or systematically evaluated. Support for SMEs was reinforced, inter alia , through a 
promotional tax exemption package to upgrade their machinery. Concerns about allegedly 
discretionary excise tax practices and plans affecting alcoholic beverages and automobiles were 
raised by certain Members during the review pe riod. Activity-specific support with significant 
budgetary impact was provided to, inter alia , agriculture (e.g., rice-pledging programme) and 
energy where consumer subsidies and wide-ranging cross-subsidization (possibly equivalent to 
1.7% of GDP) remain in place although subject to ongoing reform. State involvement in nine broad sectors of the economy (agriculture and natural resources, energy, manufacturing, financial, telecoms, transportation, infrastructure, social and technology, and other services activities) 
persists with public enterprises making losses, privatization efforts stalled and "corporatization" 
plans under way or being considered. 
11. Thailand has continued to use government procurement as an important instrument of 
economic policy, with price prefer ences of 7% being accorded to domestic suppliers. Its e-Auction, 
part of the electronic government procuremen t (e-GP) system, was fully implemented as of 
late 2014. The Government is drawing up legislation to manage the risk of corruption in this area. 
Thailand, a non-signatory to the WTO Plurilateral  Agreement on Government Procurement, became 
an observer at the WTO Committee on Government Procurement as of June 2015. 
12. During the review period, Thailand continued to consider ways to strengthen protection of 
intellectual property rights by preparing new laws or legal amendments in several areas to, 
inter alia , align its legislative framework to the provisions of several international treaties 
(including those of the WTO on compulsory licensing) that it has not yet signed. No new compulsory licences have been issued though one extended licence for HIV/AIDS medication is to 
remain in place until 2016. Despite some legislative and institutional improvement, effective IPR 
enforcement remains a concern. The competition policy framework, which does not cover public administration, state-owned enterprises, or farmers' cooperatives, remains unchanged though 
proposed amendments to, inter alia , expand its legislative scope are under consideration; 
enforcement remains moderate. Many goods and services remain subject to varying degrees of price controls/surveillance. Thailand's relatively comprehensive corporate governance framework and high levels of compliance with international standards in a number of key areas remains 
unchanged. 
13. Thailand remains a major global producer and exporter of various agricultural products and 
processed foods and maintains a trade surplus in these areas. Thailand continued to pursue a 
costly and controversial price intervention scheme for rice up until 2014, wh en it was discontinued 
by the Interim Government. While various short-term support measures were taken over the period 2014/15, a long-term strategy for the rice se ctor has yet to be fully determined. Tariff rate 
quotas remain in place for 118 tariff lines and in a number of cases fill rates have been low. A new 
Fisheries Act entered into force in 2015, adjusting fisheries resources management measures to be more compatible with international fisheries laws and standards as well as new fisheries technologies. Thailand's commercial forestry sector is small; however, incentives are being 
provided to grow it as well as to prevent illegal logging.  
14. Despite its significant energy endowment an d energy policy being focused on becoming 
energy independent, Thailand remains a net an d growing energy importer, reflecting robust 
domestic demand. Various incentives are being offered to support renewable energy products. The 
State retains a significant presence in the sector and has a monopoly on the transmission and distribution of electricity. Reforms in the natural gas sector are under way to promote competition 
and ensure non-discriminatory treatment in the use of natural gas pipeline services. Thailand has 
developed a policy framework and guidelines on restructuring energy prices so that they reflect actual costs. As a consequence, it no longer su bsidizes the consumption of diesel and liquefied 
petroleum gas, which had been extremely costly. As at mid-2015, only ethanol blended gasolines 
E20 and E85 and compressed natural gas for vehicles (NGV) remained subsidized. 
15. Thailand's has a diverse manufacturing sector which continues to be supported by fiscal 
incentives as well as high tariff protection on certain products, including completely built-up 
motorcycles and cars. Over the review period manufacturing was hit by a major earthquake in 
Japan, which disrupted supply chain activity, and severe flooding. Challenges facing the sector include rising costs, partly as a result of the introduction of a minimum wage in 2013, the limited WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  production of  high-technology products by Th ai manufacturers and increased competition from 
other economies in the region. In 2014, the Government approved a guideline to develop the rubber sector in the face of oversupply and falling international prices. This includes various support measures, including the creation of a buffer stock to stabilize rubber prices and soft loans 
to farmers. 
16. Thailand's services sector has continued to grow. The State maintains a significant presence 
in banking, telecommunications and transportation through equity stakes in companies or the 
operation of state-owned enterprises. The bank ing sector has remained robust and stable 
throughout the review period and the Bank of Thailand's supervisory mandate has been strengthened to cover government-owned specialized financial institutions (SFIs). There has been some liberalization of banking services; and in both banking and insurance, legal flexibilities 
allowing greater foreign participation in these subsectors have been used. In telecommunications 
the launch of 3G services, following a delayed auction process, has resulted in a huge increase in the take-up of mobile and wireless broadband services. Competition between the three key players 
in the mobile segment has led to retail price decreases. Eight bills designed to transform Thailand 
into a digital economy are being drafted. In the air transport sector, key challenges are to address safety concerns highlighted in a recent ICAO report and to address capacity constraints at major 
airports. The Government is actively promoting Thailand as a centre for aircraft maintenance, 
repair and overhaul services. Key maritime laws  are under review and a cargo reservation policy 
remains in place requiring that goods imported into Thailand by government agencies or public enterprises must be transported by Thai vessels, where they are available. Tourism remains 
Thailand's main source of foreign exchange. Thailand continues to offer fiscal incentives for various 
tourism-related activities and to promote itself as the medical hub of Asia. 
17. Thailand's economic growth is expected to pick  up in 2015 and rise further in 2016. Despite 
its solid economic fundamentals, downside risks to the economic outlook are posed by, inter alia , 
possible policy slippages, weaker-than-expected domestic spending and private demand, limited 
production capability in high-technology products, and political uncertainty notwithstanding 
improvements in this area. The economy also remains vulnerable to exogenous shocks to global 
growth or risk aversion related to international trade, commodity prices, and global financial volatility. A major economic challenge confronting Thailand, with potential trade policy implications, is to formulate appropriate macroeconomic policies and undertake total factor 
productivity-enhancing structural reforms to address, inter alia , a rapidly aging population, the 
stalled reallocation of resources from agriculture to higher value-added sectors, and government expenditure-related distortions (e.g., subsidies, SOEs losses). These and related reforms would 
increase the flexibility of the Thai economy and its ability to respond to external competition, thus 
enabling it to continue meeting its economic and welfare objectives. 
 WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  1  ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT 
1.1  Overview  1.1.  Since its previous Trade Policy Review in 2011, Thailand's strong fundamentals have helped 
maintain macro-financial stability and ensure the resilience of its economy.
1 However, the global 
economic slowdown, the impact from massive floods, intermittent political conflict, structural 
weaknesses, and a succession of exogenous shoc ks have hampered policymaking and weakened 
economic performance to the extent that it lags behind other countries in the region that are 
recovering faster from the global financial crisis.2 Following a peak in 2012 (Table 1.1) resulting 
from strong private domestic demand and government stimulus measures, growth slowed down. In the context of political transition, the economy is undergoing a modest recovery after a sharp contraction in early 2014, when domestic demand was adversely affected by political unrest. 
Developments in Thailand's position among the most competitive economies in the world reflect 
slight improvements in total factor productivity growth (Table 1.1, section 1.2.1), a key long-term 
determinant of international competitiveness and domestic living standards, but also weaknesses 
in several areas where reforms are either under way or under consideration (section 1.4).
3 
Whereas headline inflation dropped progressively to half of its 2011 level (1.9% in 2014), the unemployment rate remained virtually stable at 0.7% (0.8% in 2014). As a result of efforts in 
achieving main development targets under its 11
th National Economic and Social Development Plan 
(2012-2016) (section 2.3), Thailand has slightly improved both its human development performance and income inequality index.
4 International trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) 
trends reflect the continuous importance of Asia as Thailand's main regional market and supplier, 
though China, the United States, the European Union, and Japan remain its major individual 
trading and inward FDI partners; however, Thailand, which is intensifying its integration with Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Viet Nam (CLMV)  (sections 1.6, 1.7, and 2.4.4.3) and China, 
has been experiencing a decline in its share of FDI relative to regional peers.
5  
Table 1.1 Selected macroeconomic indicators, 2011-14 
  2011  2012 2013 2014  
Real GDP (B billion, 2002 prices) 8,296.5 8,904.1 9,154.2 9,233.5 
Real GDP (US$ billion, 2002 prices) 272.1 286.5 297.9 284.3 
Current GDP (B billion) 11,300.5 12,354.7 12,910.0 13,148.6 
Current GDP (US$ billion) 370.6 397.5 420.2 404.8 
GDP per capita US$ 5,597.5 5,978.4 6,293.3 6,041.9 
National accounts     
Real GDP (at 2002 prices) (% change) 0.8 7.3 2.8 0.9 
Consumption (% change) 2.1 6.6 1.7 0.9 
Private consumption 1.8 6.3 0.8 0.6 
Government consumption 3.4 7.5 4.7 1.7 
Gross fixed capital formation (% change) 4.9 10.2 -0.8 -2.6 
Exports of goods and services (% change) 9.2 5.1 2.8 0.0 
Imports of goods and services (% change) 12.4 6.0 1.4 -5.4 
XGS/GDP (%) (at curre nt market prices) 70.3 69.3 67.7 69.2 
                                               
1 In 2015, Thailand ranked 82nd out of 130 countries in the FM Global Resilience Index . It dropped 
20 places compared to the previous year due to supply chai n factors, in particular, a poorer perception of both 
the quality of its overall infrastructure and of its local suppliers. Oxford Metrica (2015). 
2 According to the World Bank, part of the recovery delay is explained by a shift in global demand for 
products made in Thailand such as hard disk drives. Ho wever, domestic factors were  also important, including 
household de-leveraging after a rapi d expansion of household debt, slow down in government spending and 
withdrawal of global financial crisis-related stimulus measures. IMF (2015); and World Bank (2014c). 
3 In 2014 Thailand ranked 29th out of 60 countries (27th out of 59 countries in 2011) in the IMD World 
Competitiveness Yearbook ; its drop was due to political uncertainty. Furthermore, in 2014/15, Thailand ranked 
31st among 144 economies (39th out of 142 in 2011/12) in the WEF Global Competitiveness Index . According to 
the WEF, in 2014/15 the most problematic factors fo r doing business included: corruption; government 
instability/coups; inefficient government bureaucracy; policy instability; insufficient capacity to innovate; 
inadequate supply of infrastructure; and, an inadeq uately educated workforce. World Economic Forum 
(2014a); and IMD online information. Viewed at: https://www.imd.org/uupload/imd.webs ite/wcc/Overall_ranking_5_years.pdf . 
4 In 2013, Thailand ranked 89th out of 187 countries in the UNDP's human development category 
(103rd out of 187 in 2011). Its income inequality index (Gini coefficient) dropped from 40 (2000-2010) to 39.4 
(2003-2012); a value of 0 represents absolute equality , a value of 100 absolute inequality. UNDP (2013 
and 2014). 
5 IMF (2015). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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    2011  2012 2013 2014  
MGS/GDP (%) (at current market prices) 68.6 68.6 65.1 62.6 
Unemployment rate (%) 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 
Total factor productivity (2000=1.0) 1.24 1.30 1.30 .. 
Prices and interest rates     
Headline inflation (% change) 3.8 3.0 2.2 1.9 
Core inflationa (% change) 2.4 2.1 1.0 1.6 
Interbank lending rate (overnight avg., end-period 3.15 2.69 2.20 1.96 
Commercial bank minimum lending rate (end-period) 7.25-7.63 7.00-7.38 6.75-7.25 6.75-7.13 
Exchange rate     
B/US$ (annual average) 30.492 31.083 30.726 32.480 
Nominal effective exchange rate (annual average, % 
change) -1.0 -0.2 7.0 -2.6 
Real effective exchange rate (annual average, % change) -0.8 0.3 6.5 -3.3 
Central government budgetary balanceb (% of GDP)    
Revenue 17.7 18.0 18.5 17.6 
Tax revenue 15.8 15.9 16.6 15.4 
Expenditure 18.0 18.8 18.5 18.7 
Net operating balance -0.2 -0.8 -0.03 -1.0 
Government debt 27.2 29.9 29.8 30.2 
Domestic debt 26.8 29.5 29.2 29.7 
Savings and investment (% of GDP)     
Gross national savings 30.0 30.6 25.8 29.9 
Gross domestic investment 26.3 28.5 26.7 25.9 
Savings-investment gap 3.7 2.1 -0.9 4.0 
External sector (% of GDP, unless otherwise indicated)    
Current account balance 2.4 -0.4 -0.9 3.2 
Net merchandise trade 4.6 1.7 1.6 6.1 
Exports 59.1 56.8 53.6 55.5 
Imports 54.5 55.1 52.1 49.5 
Services balance -2.9 -0.8 0.9 0.5 
Capital account 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 
Financial account -2.2 3.2 -1.0 -3.6 
Direct investment -1.3 -0.3 0.5 1.2 
Balance of payments 0.3 1.3 -1.2 -0.3 
Terms of trade (2012=100) 101.0 100.0 101.7 102.6 
Merchandise goods exports (% change)c 14.3 3.0 -0.1 -0.3 
Merchandise goods imports (% change)c 24.9 8.4 -0.1 -8.5 
Service exports (% change)c 21.1 19.4 18.1 -5.7 
Service imports (% change)c 15.8 1.6 3.6 -3.1 
Gross official reserves (US$ billion, end period) 206.4 205.8 190.2 180.2 
in months of following year's imports 12.3 11.3 10.4 10.8 
External debt (US$ billion) 104.3 130.7 141.9 140.7 
Debt service ratio 3.4 4.2 4.0 4.9 
.. Not available. 
a Excluding raw food and energy items. 
b As at end-September. Fiscal GDP for the period Oc tober to September is used for the calculations. 
c Growth rates on merchandise goods and services trade are based on the US dollar. 
Note: The authorities indicated that the official GDP is currently calculated on the basis of a new 
compilation method that revised both the covera ge of economic activiti es, indicators, and the 
calculation method of the real na tional income. The calculation ch anged from using fixed base year 
of 1988 prices in the old series to the new seri es using chain volume measures (CVM). The new 
quarterly GDP series were released on 18 May 2015 and revised back to the year 1993. 
Source: Office of the National Economic and Social  Development Board online information. Viewed at: 
http://eng.nesdb.go.th/  [22/06/2015]; Bank of Thailand online information. Viewed at: 
http://bot.or.th/  [06/05/2015]; IMF International Financial Statistics; Asian Productivity 
Organization online information. Viewed at: http://www.apo-tokyo.org/  [20/05/2015]; and data 
provided by the authorities. 
1.2.  Despite Thailand's solid fundamentals, risks to the economic outlook remain.6 Domestic risks 
to the economy, inter alia , stem from possible policy slippage s, the timely implementation of a 
public infrastructure programme (sections 1.2.1 and 4.5.4), weaker-than-expected domestic 
spending due partly to higher restrictions on commercial banks' credit provision, lower-than-
expected government budget disbursement especially on public investment, weaker-than-expected 
                                               
6 IMF (2015); Bank of Thailand (2014b); and Asian Development Bank (2015). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  private demand, the impact of severe drought conditions and lower agricultural prices, the limited 
production capability of Thai manufacturers in high-technology products, and political uncertainty despite improvements in this area (section 2.2).
7 Structural challenges including rapid population 
aging, the stalled reallocation of resources from agriculture to higher value-added sectors, and low 
global demand growth for some electronics export items as well as sluggish productivity growth, 
need also to be addressed to enhance growth while maintaining economic and income allocation stability. The main external risks include a surge in global financial volatility and protracted slow 
growth in advanced and emerging economies (m ainly China, Japan, and Europe), as well as 
currency depreciation of main trading partners (especially yen and euro) against the Thai baht, and the continual plunge in global commodity prices. As of March 2015 the authorities considered risks to growth as roughly balanced, with downside risks coming mostly from the external front, 
offset by an upside from possible faster-than-expected government spending boosting confidence 
and low oil prices stimulating domestic demand, investment and exports.
8 According to the IMF, 
while monetary and fiscal stimulus would support economic recovery in the near term 
(section 1.3), a medium-term strategy is needed to tackle structural challenges and reinvigorate 
inclusive growth.9  
1.2  Recent Economic Developments 
1.2.1  Growth, income, and employment 
1.3.  Since the global financial crisis Thailand's growth rate has fallen below its pre-crisis 
performance. After rising to 7.3% in 2012 as a result of robust domestic consumption, real GDP growth decreased progressively to 0.9% in 2014 (Table 1.1). According to the IMF, the reasons for 
these developments include: Thailand's high degree of openness to trade (section 1.6); large 
negative supply shocks, in particular, devastating floods in 2011 and the impact of Japan's Tohoku earthquake/tsunami disaster on Thailand's car industry supplies (section 4.6); slow technological 
upgrading, with considerable capacity in industries with flagging global demand; the apparent 
interruption in the flow of workers from agricultur e into more productive sectors of the economy; 
and, political instability.
10 The end of large-scale street protests following the May 2014 political 
change contributed to an improvement in private sector confidence and a modest recovery which 
is supported by monetary and fiscal stimuli (section 1.3) as well as a US$95 billion infrastructure investment programme (section 4.5.4).
11 Consequently, according to the IMF, GDP growth is 
forecast to be 3.6%-3.7% in 2015 and 4.1% in 2016, when public fixed investment is to 
accelerate; according to National Economic and Social Development Board estimates the economy 
will grow by 3.0-4.0% in 2015, and 4.2% in 2016.12  
1.4.  Since 2011, changes in the overall sector al pattern of Thailand's GDP and employment 
consisted of a progressive rise in the contribution of services (including construction) accounting 
for 55.3% of economic activity, and a decline in manufacturing (hit by slack domestic demand and declining export orders), agriculture and mining (Table 1.2).
13 Between 2011 and 2013 Thailand's 
total factor productivity index has risen slightly (Table 1.1).14 Its participation in global value 
chains (GVCs) (52% in 2010) and domestic value added in exports (70% in 2010) stood quite high 
as compared to other top 25 exporting economies.15  
                                               
7 Bank of Thailand Press Release No. 15/2015, "Monetary Policy Report March 2015", 20 March 2015, 
Bangkok. Viewed at: https://www.bot.or.th/Thai/Pressan dSpeeches/Press/News2558/n1558e.pdf .  
8 IMF (2015). 
9 IMF (2015). 
10 IMF (2015).   
11 Asian Development Bank (2015); Asian Development Bank online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.adb.org/countries/thailand/economy ; and Bank of Thailand (2014b). 
12 IMF (2015); Asian Development Bank (2015); and Asian Development Bank online information. 
Viewed at: http://www.adb.org/countries/thailand/economy . 
13 Asian Development Bank (2015).  
14 Productivity performance is crucial to a country's future economic prospects, especially when facing 
aging populations. Asian Productivity Organization, online Productivity Database 2014, Version 2 (Index) 
(Updated 31 January 2015). Viewed at: http://www.apo-tokyo.org/wedo/measurement .  
15 The GVC participation rate indicates the share of a country's exports that is part of a multi-stage 
trade process. UNCTAD (2013). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Table 1.2 Basic economic indicators, 2011-14 
  2011 2012 2013 2014 
GDP by economic activity at constant 2002 prices (% change)    
Agriculture, forest ry and fisheries 6.3 3.4 0.4 0.3 
Fisheries 0.5 -2.6 -13.7 0.5 
Mining and quarrying -1.6 7.9 1.7 -2.7 
Manufacturing -4.8 7.0 1.7 -0.4 
Electricity, gas and water 1.0 9.8 -0.8 2.9 
Construction -4.3 7.5 0.1 -4.4 
Services 3.8 8.4 4.5 2.0 
Wholesale and retail trade, repair of vehicles, and household goods 0.3 5.8 1.4 0.7 
Hotels and restaurants 12.3 14.2 10.5 -2.9 
Transport, storage, and communication 3.0 9.4 5.7 3.4 
Financial intermediation 6.1 13.4 13.1 6.6 
Real estate, renting, and business activities 5.5 10.9 4.0 0.1 
Public administration and defence, compulsory social security 3.6 4.4 1.4 3.3 
Education 2.8 4.8 1.5 3.8 
Health and social work 5.1 5.8 0.8 1.9 
Other services 6.7 9.1 5.4 2.6 
Share of main sectors in current GDP (%)     
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries 11.6  11.6  11.3  10.5  
Fisheries 1.0  0.9  0.8  0.8  
Mining and quarrying 3.5  3.9  3.8  3.8  
Manufacturing 29.2  28.2  27.7  27.7  
Electricity, gas and water 2.7  2.6  2.7  2.8  
Construction 2.7  2.7  2.7  2.6  
Services 50.3  51.0  51.7  52.7  
Wholesale and retail trade, repair of vehicles, and household goods 14.4  14.4  14.0  13.9  
Hotels and restaurants 3.1  3.3  3.7  3.7  
Transport, storage, and communication 7.0  7.0  7.0  7.1  
Financial intermediation 5.7  5.9  6.5  7.0  
Real estate, renting, an d business activities 6.6  6.8  6.9  6.9  
Public administration and defence, compulsory social security 6.0  5.9  6.0  6.2  
Education 4.1  4.1  4.1  4.3  
Health and social work 1.6  1.6  1.6  1.6  
Other services 1.8  1.9  1.9  2.0  
Share of sector in total employment (%)     
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries 38.7  39.6  34.1  33.4  
Mining and quarrying 0.1  0.2  0.2  0.2  
Manufacturing 13.8  13.9  16.5  16.8  
Electricity, gas, and water 0.5  0.4  0.5  0.6  
Construction 6.2  6.4  6.2  6.0  
Service 40.7  39.4  42.3  42.9  
Wholesale and retail trade, repair of vehicles, and household goods 15.7  15.4  16.2  16.2  
Hotels and restaurants 6.6  5.9  6.6  6.7  
Transport and storage 2.4  2.4  3.0  3.1  
Information and communication 0.5  0.5  0.7  0.7  
Financial and insurance activities 1.0  1.1  1.4  1.4  
Real estate activities 0.3  0.3  0.4  0.4  
Professional, scientific, and technical activities 0.7  0.6  0.9  0.8  
Administrative and support service activities 1.0  1.0  1.3  1.3  
Public administration and defence, compulsory social security 4.2  4.4  4.2  4.2  
Education 3.3  3.1  3.0  3.0  
Health and social work 1.7  1.7  1.6  1.8  
Arts, entertainment, and recreation 0.6  0.6  0.6  0.7  
Other services 2.6  2.4  2.4  2.5  
Other 0.1  0.1  0.2  0.2  
Source: Office of the National Economic and Social  Development Board online information. Viewed at: 
http://eng.nesdb.go.th/  [22/06/2015]; and National Statistics O ffice online information. Viewed at: 
http://web.nso.go.th/  [06/05/2015]. 
1.5.  During the review period Thailand's official unemployment rate, among the lowest in the 
world, remained low and stable at 0.7% except fo r a slight increase to 0.8% in 2014 (Table 1.1); 
no major change is expected in the near future. This low rate is explained by: counting informal or 
part-time workers and underemployed or seasonal agricultural workers as employed; not covering foreign workers (possibly up to 3 million) in unemployment numbers; and, fewer Thais joining the WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  workforce (low fertility rate).16 The informal sector, comprising anyone who is not covered by 
formal work arrangements, was estimated to account for approximately 50% of GDP and more than 64% of the total workforce in 2013; according to the Ministry of Finance, only 30% of the 
workforce pays tax, and the informal sector is not comprehensively covered by the country's 
current tax system. The informal sector accounts for a large share of enterprises in all sectors, 
including agriculture, manufacturing, trade and services. A plan for integrating the informal sector into the tax system consists of information collec tion (section 1.4.1) and the possible introduction 
of a negative income tax system; the latter, which is aimed at integrating people who earn income 
under the poverty line into the tax system, is under consideration by the Ministry of Finance and a study is in progress. The authorities indicated that a more comprehensive population database for the personal income tax is to be achieved through registration of low-income people. 
1.2.2  Prices 
1.6.  Headline inflation dropped gradually to 1.9% in 2014, half of its 2011 level (Table 1.1), 
inter alia , on account of weak domestic demand, a sharp fall in domestic oil prices, lower food 
prices, and weak domestic demand while core inflation increased slightly in 2014 due to the 
pass-through of higher liquefied petrol eum gas (LPG) prices to food prices.
17 According to the IMF 
with output below potential and sharply lower fuel prices, annual CPI inflation is projected to fall to 
0.1% in 2015, undershooting the new target range,  largely driven by oil price dynamics and the 
Government's energy price policy.18 According to the Asian Development Bank (ADB), in 2016 
headline inflation is likely to grow to 2.0% as domestic demand strengthens and global prices for food and other commodities rebound.
19  
1.3  Main Macroeconomic Policy Developments 
1.3.1  Monetary and exchange rate policy 1.7.  Monetary policy remains the responsibility of  the Bank of Thailand (BOT) though the Minister 
of Finance has the power to supervise BOT activities; the BOT is able to maintain operational 
independence in the formulation of monetary policy through an independent and open decision-making process, including the Monetary  Policy Committee (MPC), and mechanisms to 
ensure accountability and transparency.
20 The main objective of Thai monetary policy is to ensure 
price stability which in turn supports sustainable economic growth and employment in the long run. In January 2015, the Cabinet approved the use of headline inflation instead of core inflation 
(excluding raw food and energy items), and set th e target for the year-average headline inflation 
at 2.5±1.5% for 2015, compared with the quarterl y average core inflation target at 0.5-3.0% 
during the period 2009-2014.
21 To ease recovery, especially given weaker-than-projected domestic 
demand, and to shore up private sector confidence, Thailand's monetary policy has been 
increasingly accommodative; since October 2011 the BOT has gradually cut its policy interest rate 
by 25 basis points each time, bringing it down from 3.5% to 1.5% per annum, the lowest level 
                                               
16 Thai employers increasingly rely on cheaper immi grant labor, as a means to better compete with 
lower-cost industries in Cambodia , Myanmar, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam.  Bertelsmann Stiftung (2014); and 
Bangkok Post /Bloomberg News Agency online information, "Why Thailand's unemployment rate is ridiculously 
low", 4 February 2015. Viewed at: http://www.bangkokpost.com/learning/work/466226/why-thailand-
unemployment-rate-is-ridiculously-low .  
17 Bank of Thailand (2014b); and IMF (2015).  
18 IMF (2015). 
19 Asian Development Bank (2015). 
20 In July 2014, Dr. Prasarn Trairatvorakul, the Governor of the Bank of Thailand, called on the new 
government to "protect" the central bank's independence, which he descri bed as "the very source" of its 
credibility, so that monetary policy can remain a cornerstone of Thailand's macroeconomic stability. The Wall 
Street Journal , "Thai Central Bank Chief Says Independence Key to its Credibility", 7 July 2014. Viewed at: 
http://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2014/07/03/thai-central-bank-chief-says-independence-key-to-its-credibility/ ; 
Central Banking online information, "Monetary Policy: Thai governor stresses value of independence", 
7 July 2014. Viewed at: http://www.centralbanking.com/tag/bank-of-thailand ; and WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008. 
21 According to the IMF, the switch to headline inflation target would facilitate communication with the 
public by focusing on the most relevant and best  understood measure. IMF (2015); InvestOpedia online 
information. Viewed at: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/headline-inflation.asp#ixzz3aqtBvf00 ; Exam 
online information. Viewed at: http://exampariksha.com/weekly-current -affairs-update-6-april-12-april-2015/ ; 
and Bullard (2011).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  since December 2010.22 However, the authorities believe that fiscal measures would be the main 
factor supporting the economic recovery in many ways, while the effectiveness of monetary policy transmission may be weakened in the current environment of low interest rates.
23 According to the 
IMF with inflation remaining low, and a noticeable slowdown in overall credit growth, further 
easing may be justified and appropriate until recovery in case fiscal stimulus is slow to materialize 
or if the private sector's response disappoints.  
1.8.  Thailand has maintained its managed-float exchange rate system which provides an 
important first line of defence against external shocks and economic imbalances. The value of the 
Thai baht is largely determined by the market, reflecting supply and demand in the foreign exchange market. However, foreign exchange interv entions could be justified in cases of excessive 
movements of the baht that substantially deviate from economic fundamentals. According to the 
IMF, the exchange rate is largely floating wi thout evidence of intervention; the authorities 
indicated that information in this area is confidential.
24 Thailand maintains an exchange system 
free of restrictions on payments and transfers for current international transactions.  
1.9.  The responsiveness of the exchange rate  to economic developments contributed to 
maintaining macroeconomic stability and remains an effective buffer against balance-of-payments shocks. During the review period, exchange rate movements were driven by both external and 
internal factors including the domestic political situation. Key external factors, inter alia , involved 
the uncertainty in the global economic outlook, di vergent monetary policy actions by some major 
central banks, signs of economic recovery in the United States, and the sovereign debt problem in the eurozone economies.
25 Against these backdrops, the sizes of capital inflows into regional and 
Thai bond and equity markets have been somewhat volatile. The nominal baht/US$ exchange rate 
has slightly depreciated (except for in 2013) (Table 1.1); during the same period, overall the effective exchange rates appreciated, inter alia , owing to the depreciation of the yen, euro and 
rouble in tandem with weak economic recovery in Japan and the eurozone as well as the economic 
slowdown in the Russian Federation. Thus far in 2015, the Thai baht weakened against the United 
States dollar mainly due to the MPC's surprise policy rate cut and the BOT's announcement of 
capital flows relaxation in April 2015. According to the IMF, the exchange rate is broadly consistent 
with medium term fundamentals.
26  
1.3.2  Fiscal policy 1.10.  During the review period, the fiscal deficit grew from 0.2% of GDP (based on net operating 
balance figures) in 2011 to 1.0% in 2014 (Table 1.1), partly due to the sluggish economy, 
recently-approved tax cuts and other measures.
27 As fiscal policy is expected to support economic 
recovery (section 1.2.1), the budget for FY2015 provides for a deficit of B 250 billion, equivalent 
to 2% of projected GDP28; in FY2016, the fiscal deficit is to widen to B 390 billion to accommodate 
additional government spending mostly in public investment projects.  
                                               
22 IMF (2015); Bank of Thailand Press Release No. 15/2015, "Monetary Policy Report March 2015", 
20 March 2015, Bangkok. Viewed at: https://www.bot.or.th/Thai/Pressand Speeches/Press/N ews2558/n1558e.pdf ; and Bank of Thailand Press 
Release No. 22/2015, "Monetary Policy Committee's Decision on 29 April 2015", 29 April 2015, Bangkok. 
Viewed at: https://www.bot.or.th/Thai/MonetaryPolicy/Documents/MPC_32015_n9621.pdf .  
23 IMF (2015).  
24 IMF (2015).  
25 Bank of Thailand (2012, 2013, and 2014b); and IMF (2015).  
26 IMF (2015). 
27 IMF (2015).  
28 A fiscal stimulus package of about 3% of GDP announced in October 2014 was to boost spending in 
the first half of the financial year, in particular on  infrastructure projects, supp lemented by carry-over of 
unspent funds from previous years. Fuel price reform an d elimination of the rice pledging scheme have freed 
up some fiscal room, which can be us ed to finance this infrastructure investment programme (sections 1.4.2 
and 3.4.2.4). In addition, in FY 2015 the Government was to implement stimulus measures such as a soft-loan 
programme through state-owned financial institutions by also drawing on funds carried over from past budgets 
to help finance public investment. IMF (2015); and Asian Development Bank (2015).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 18 - 
 
  1.4  Main Structural Policy Developments and Challenges 
1.11.  Trade and domestic reform are considered as intrinsically linked. During the review period 
limited trade and trade-related structural reforms (e.g. rice and energy pricing) were undertaken. 
The authorities plan to embark on long-awaited reforms in areas such as the tax structure, 
competition policy (section 3.4.4), transport infras tructure, management of state enterprises, and 
promotion of innovation and industries in high va lue-added sectors, aimed at spurring productivity 
growth, improving Thailand's international competitiveness and enhancing growth.29 Planned 
reforms cover three aspects, i.e. revenue, expenditure (subsidies, state enterprises), and fiscal 
processes.30  
1.4.1  Tax and fiscal processes reform 1.12.  As of 2015, tax reform plans included the in troduction of property-based taxation, such as 
land and property tax and inheritance tax; as well as a crackdown on tax evasion via the 
introduction of income tax on partnership and non-juridical associations.
31 The Revenue Code has 
been amended and has been fully effective as from 26 December 2014. Moreover, the Government 
plans to introduce measures to reduce existing loopholes in tax collection. The authorities are 
undertaking a strategic review of the tax administration, in particular the Revenue Department, to, inter alia , improve the core tax administration processes, including those for registering taxpayers, 
filing and processing tax returns and payments, and collecting tax arrears. As from March 2015 
efforts to integrate informal economy workers into the tax system have consisted of collecting income data to be utilized for policy making in this area (section 1.2.1).
32 A proposed draft of a 
new Public Finance Act is expected to establish fiscal rules, including a cap on the 
public-debt-to-GDP ratio and annual budget allocation; it may possibly include requirements on 
capital expenditure, quasi-fiscal activities, and th e state enterprises' operating and public service 
accounts.  
1.4.2  Subsidies reform 
1.13.  Ongoing energy price reform, which has already resulted in less price differentiation across 
different fuels while increasing the fiscal revenue, includes an adjustment in the rate of 
contributions from oil and gas sales to the Government's Oil Fund, and an increase in the excise 
tax rate on diesel (sections 3.4.2.4 and 4.5.1).33 These measures should ensure that energy prices 
will increasingly reflect the true costs of energy, thus promoting more efficient energy 
consumption and eliminating distortions, i.e., la rge price cross-subsidies between energy sources 
and consumers. The Government will also benefit from the reduction in subsidies and the rise in 
excise tax revenue. The rice pledging scheme that allowed farmers to sell rice at above-market prices to the Government was replaced by various short-term measures, including direct cash 
transfers to small-scale farmers only (sections 3.4.2.4 and 4.2.3.3.2).  
1.4.3  State-owned enterprises (SOEs) 1.14.  State enterprise reforms are considered vital to upgrading Thailand's growth potential.
34 
Despite the lack of privatization plans and few "corporatization" actions since the last TPR in 2011, 
as from 2014 a State Enterprises Policy Committee has been tasked with spearheading reform policies in this area (section 3.4.3).
35 Another proposal is to bring governance standards for SOEs 
into line with those for companies listed on th e stock exchange and the best practices suggested 
                                               
29 IMF (2015).  
30 Bank of Thailand (2014b).  
31 Bank of Thailand (2014b); and IMF (2015). 
32 Cabinet Resolution of 31 March 2015 accepts the principle that every single person must file the 
income report which is being consider ed by the Revenue Department in colla boration with Ministry of Interior. 
33 Bank of Thailand (2014b); and IMF (2015).  
34 SOEs are responsible for key assets  and public utilities, and support the provision of public obligation 
services at below-cost prices. IMF (2015).  
35 The policies are to be anchored on a number of pr inciples in order to ensure  the effectiveness of the 
implementation. According to the authorities the state role  in business and the object ive of SOEs must first be 
clearly defined. Second, the policies should encourage no t only clear separation of policy maker, regulator and 
operator roles, but also establish a central governing unit to oversee the performance of SOEs. Third, the 
governance system at individu al SOEs must be enhanced. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 19 - 
 
  by the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).36 Indirect subsidies 
enjoyed by SOEs, such as government guaran tees on debt and exemptions from certain 
regulations, could be reconsidered in a way to improve efficiency. An Integrity Pact and Construction Sector Transparency Initiative (CoST) programme, is to improve transparency and 
accountability in government procurement (section 3.2.7) by proactively disclosing the basic data 
held by procuring entities to the public at key points throughout the project cycle on public infrastructure projects. These reforms should cut down the cost of corruption (section 1.4.4) and 
improve the quality of service in state enterprises.  
1.4.4  Transparency and anti-corruption 1.15.  Lack of transparency, and thus lack of pub lic accountability, creates scope for administrative 
discretion and therefore corruption. Although Th ailand has the legal framework and a range of 
institutions to effectively counter corruption, all levels of Thai society are said to continue to suffer 
from corruption which is mainly found at the intersection between business, politicians and 
government bureaucracy, where conflicts of interest and illicit payments are widespread.
37 
Corruption allegedly serves, inter alia , to secure monopolies, protect against foreign competition 
and protect illegal companies. Public procurement is an area in which the risk of corruption is particularly pronounced; the National Anti-Corruption Commission (previously National Counter 
Corruption Commission) estimated that up to 30% of the government procurement budget 
vanishes due to corrupt practices.  
1.4.5  Labour market reform 1.16.  Thailand kept virtually unchanged its legal and institutional framework for workplace 
relations. Effective as of 1 January 2013, minimum daily wages have been set at B 300, the first 
time Thailand has had a single, nationwide minimum-wage rate (previously based on location).
38 
Official enforcement of minimum wages has been lax, though this is expected to improve now that 
the nationwide minimum wage has come into force. The authorities indicated that in case of 
non-observance of the minimum wage pay labour inspectors would issue an order to employers to comply with the requirement, and then would ta ke follow–up action. The labour market remains 
tight owing to demographic trends, such as slow growth in the working age population and a major 
exodus of Cambodian migrant labourers in June 2014. Labour constraints could put rising pressure on wages, especially after economic growth st arts to recover in 2015. According to the IMF, 
possible ways to address these difficulties could be to rise the mandatory retirement age for civil 
servants and regularize migration from neighbouring countries.
39  
1.5  Balance-of-Payments Developments 1.17.  Thailand's current account surplus (2011) shifted to a rising deficit (2012, 2013), due, 
inter alia , to net gold imports and repatriation of profits and dividends by foreign businesses, and 
in 2014 returned to surplus owing mainly to a decl ine in imports following the economic slowdown 
and the fall in oil prices towards the end of the year, which more than offset the impact of declines 
in the prices of Thailand's export commodities , notably rice and rubber (Tables 1.1 and 1.3).
40 
According to the IMF, the current account surplus is expected to rise somewhat in 2015 due to lower oil prices, and then decline in the medium term.  
                                               
36 SOEs are to be encouraged to disclose both financ ial and non-financial information, conforming to the 
Annual Registration Statement (form 56-1) adopted by the listed companies. This is to allow them to become 
more transparent toward all groups of stakeholders. Asian Development Bank (2015).  
37 Thailand signed the United Nations Convention ag ainst Corruption on 9 December 2003 but ratified it 
on 1 March 2011 only ( http://www.unodc.org/unodc/tre aties/CAC/signatories.html ). In 2014 Thailand ranked 
85th out of 174 countries (80th out of 182 in 2011) in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index 
(http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results  and http://www.transparency.org/cpi2011/results ). Business 
Anti-Corruption Portal online information. Viewed at: http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-
profiles/east-asia-the-pacific/thailand/snapshot.aspx  and http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-
profiles/east-asia-the-pacific/thailand/snapshot.aspx . 
38 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b).  
39 IMF (2015). 
40 IMF (2015); Bank of Thailand (2013 and 2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 20 - 
 
  Table 1.3 Balance of payments, 2011-14 
(US$ million) 
 2011 2012 2013 2014 
Current account  8,901.6 -1,498.8 -3,881.0 13,129.1 
Goods and services balance 6,419.3 3,316.6 10,391.3 26,664.0 
Goods balance 16,988.8 6,670.3 6,661.2 24,582.1 
Exports 219,118.4 225,745.0 225,409.5 224,792.2 
Imports 202,129.7 219,074.7 218,748.3 200,210.1 
Service balance -10,569.4 -3,353.7 3,730.1 2,081.9 
Receipts 41,571.3 49,646.3 58,641.0 55,284.7 
Transportation 5,830.5 5,923.5 6,144.1 5,723.3 
Travel 27,184.1 33,855.3 41,779.6 38,437.4 
Payments 52,140.8 53,000.0 54,910.9 53,202.8 
Transportation 26,719.4 28,724.3 28,398.1 26,714.7 
Travel 5,717.3 6,247.6 6,481.4 6,953.9 
Income balance -8,340.4 -17,039.7 -24,760.4 -22,364.5 
Credit 6,943.7 7,606.8 6,422.2 6,954.9 
Compensation of employees 1,738.0 1,877.5 1,865.5 1,863.6 
Investment income 5,205.7 5,729.3 4,556.7 5,091.3 
Debit 15,284.0 24,646.5 31,182.7 29,319.4 
Compensation of employees 1,408.5 1,458.1 1,647.5 1,658.5 
Income on equity 12,502.7 21,536.6 27,914.2 26,094.6 
Income on debt 1,372.9 1,651.8 1,620.9 1,566.4 
Current transfers 10,822.6 12,224.3 10,488.2 8,829.6 
Credit 12,966.9 14,632.0 13,244.2 11,526.2 
Debit 2,144.3 2,407.6 2,756.1 2,696.6 
Capital account -40.9 234.4 281.2 100.3 
Financial account  -8,269.2 12,790.0 -4,162.5 -14,563.8 
Direct investment -4,702.1 -1,361.5 2,140.0 4,868.5 
Direct investment in Thailand 2,473.7 12,899.0 14,416.0 12,728.1 
Thailand's direct investment abroad -7,175.8 -14,260.6 -12,276.1 -7,859.6 
Portfolio investment  6,163.3 3,398.3 -4,766.4 -12,072.4 
Assets 2,260.0 -6,959.7 -3,398.6 -7,380.9 
Equity securities -464.0 -736.1 -2,041.7 -4,614.4 
Debt securities 2,724.0 -6,223.6 -1,356.9 -2,766.5 
Liabilities 3,903.2 10,358.0 -1,367.8 -4,691.5 
Equity securities 22.9 84.7 -3,293.4 -5,808.3 
Debt securities 3,880.4 10,273.3 1,925.6 1,116.8 
Financial derivatives -610.2 538.8 -341.1 308.4 
Assets 10,039.2 9,393.4 6,916.7 3,706.4 
Liabilities -10,649.4 -8,854.7 -7,257.8 -3,398.0 
Other investment  -9,120.1 10,214.5 -1,195.0 -7,668.4 
Assets -9,166.4 -4,303.4 -10,950.0 -5,164.2 
Trade credits 2,856.7 2,333.5 -2,088.3 -1,091.3 
Loans -3,211.7 -2,510.5 -3,016.0 -1,989.5 
Other assets -8,811.4 -4,126.4 -5,845.6 -2,083.4 
Liabilities 46.3 14,517.8 9,754.9 -2,504.2 
Trade credits 1,583.5 -4,184.6 -4,311.3 40.7 
Loans -477.4 17,908.0 14,218.0 -3,392.1 
Other liabilities -1,059.8 794.4 -151.8 847.2 
Net errors and omissions 622.0 -6,261.0 2,713.2 124.3 
Balance of payments 1,213. 6 5,264.7 -5,049.1 -1,210.2 
Source: Bank of Thailand online information. Viewed at: 
https://www.bot.or.th/Engl ish/Statistics /EconomicAndFinancial/Pages/StatBalanceofPayments.aspx  
[15/04/2015]. 
1.18.  Thailand's gross external debt increased by 34.9% during the period 2011-14, to 
US$140.7 billion (Table 1.1); the debt service ratio rose from 3.4% to 4.9% over the same period. As a percentage of GDP, gross external debt increased from 28.1% in 2011 to 34.8%% in 2014. 
According to the IMF Thailand's external debt is projected to remain relatively low over the 
medium term, gradually declining to 33% of GDP in 2020.
41  
                                               
41 IMF (2015).   WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 21 - 
 
  1.19.  During the review period Thailand's gross official reserves dropped primarily due to 
valuation changes by an overall 12.6% (Table 1.1 ); in 2014 they were equivalent to 44.5% of GDP 
and 10.8 months of imports of goods and services . As of 8 May 2015 international reserves stood 
at US$160.8 billion. According to the IMF, reserves are more than adequate as they stood at 213% 
of its reserve adequacy metric in 2014.42  
1.6  Developments in Merchandise Trade 1.20.  The openness of the Thai economy to intern ational trade, and its integration into the world 
economy continued to be reflected by the high ratio of its trade (exports plus imports) in goods 
and services to GDP; nevertheless, this ratio dropped progressively from 138.9% in 2011 to 131.8% in 2014, partly due to export growth sl owdown on account of weaker global demand, 
government intervention in the rice market, and lower commodity prices (especially rubber) as 
well as import compression resulting from the decl ine in oil prices, but more importantly to a sharp 
domestic demand contraction (Table 1.1).
43  
1.21.   Since its previous review, Thailand's merchandise trade has remained largely and 
increasingly dependent on manufactures (Chart 1.1, Tables A1.1 and A1.2). The share of transport 
equipment, electrical machines and non-electrical machinery in total exports has risen whereas the share of agriculture dropped. Nevertheless, in contrast with sound export growth in other 
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries, Thailand's export share in global 
markets has declined slightly since early this decade reflecting emerging structural and competitiveness problems; the declining share of electronic products in its total exports was not fully offset by the increase in automotive exports.
44 According to the BOT, the Thai exports sector's 
main structural constraints consist of: a lack of investment in new production technology for years 
resulting in limited production capability to take full advantage of the increasing global demand for higher technology products; and, the relatively hi gh proportion of agricultural products in the 
export mix.
45  
1.22.  Thailand's merchandise trade with countries in the region grew stronger (Chart 1.2, 
Tables A1.3 and A1.4). Notwithstanding some fluctuation in trade shares, more than 68% of total 
merchandise trade has continued to be conducted with trading partners from the Asia-Pacific 
Economic Cooperation (APEC) and 17.2% with ASEAN members. At the same time, trade integration with CLMV countries (Cambodia, Lao PD R, Myanmar, Viet Nam) has proceeded at a fast 
pace; they accounted for 9.1% of Thailand's total exports in 2014 (6.9% in 2011) (section 3.3.5). 
China, the United States, the European Union and Japan remained Thailand's main individual 
markets in 2014; China and Japan were by far its main individual suppliers. 
 
                                               
42 This amount covers all of Thailand's official reserves comprising gold, foreign currency reserves, 
Special Drawing Rights, and its Reserve position in the IMF. IMF (2015). 
43 IMF (2015). 
44 IMF (2015). 
45 Bank of Thailand (2014b).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 22 - 
 
  Chart 1.1 Product composition of merchandise trade, 2011 and 2014 
2011 2014
(a)    Exports (f.o.b.)
Other semi-
manufactures
10.0%Manufactures
69.6%
Total:   US$228.8 billion Total:  US$227.6 billion
(b)    Imports (c.i.f.)
Chemicals
10.4%Transport
equipment
7.2%
Manufactures
62.4% Electrical 
machines  
16.9%
Non-electrical 
machinery  
8.6%Iron & steel
5.8%Electrical
machines
18.0%Electrical machines
21.5%
Other semi-
manufactures
6.4%Chemicals
10.3%Manufactures
65.1%
Total:   US$2 28.5 billion T otal:  US $227.9 b illionMining
6.6%Other
1.2%
Textiles & clothing
3.8%
Other consumer 
goods  7.7%Gold
7.2%Non-electrical 
machinery
6.2%Transport 
equipment
10.8%
Manufactures
74.7%
Other semi-
manufactures
10.2%Textiles & clothing
3.5%
Mining
7.0%
Other consumer 
goods  7.2%Other consumer 
goods  7.2%
Other mining
4.5%
Other semi-
manufactures
6.1%Other 
2.6%
Agriculture
7.1%Agriculture
6.7%
Transport  equipment
7.5%Chemicals
10.0%Chemicals
10.9%Agriculture
17.5%Other consumer
goods   8.3%
Fuels
21.1%Fuels
19.0%Gold
2.9%
Iron & steel
6.0%
Non-electrical 
machinery
9.5%Transport 
equipment
14.3%Agriculture
20.8%
Other mining
3.7%Non-electrical 
machinery
7.2%Electrical machines
20.5%
 
Source: UNSD, Comtrade database (SITC Rev.3). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 23 - 
 
  Chart 1.2 Direction of merchandise trade, 2011 and 2014 
2011 2014
(a)    Exports (f.o.b.)
Total:   US$228. 8 billion Total:  US$227.6 billion
(b)    Imports (c.i.f.)
EU28
7.8%
China
13.4%United States
5.9%Other
10.3%EU28
8.5%Other
8.7%
United Arab 
Emirates  6.3%United States
6.4%
Total:   US$228.5 billion Total:   US$227.9 billionAfrica
3.4%
Singapore 
3.5%Other Middle
East  7.2%Other Middle 
East  6.9%United States
9.6%United States
10.5%
Singapore
4.6%Indonesia
4.2%
Korea, Rep. of
4.0%Other Asia
16.7%EU28
10.3%
Hong Kong, China
7.2%Other
6.5%
Other Asia
18.2%China
11.0%EU28
10.6%
Australia
3.5%
Singapore  
5.0%Australia
4.1%
China
12.0%Middle East
4.6%
Japan
15.7%Other Asia
19.8%
Japan
18.5%Other Asia   
18.1%Middle East
4.2%Other
7.6%
Malaysia
5.6%Malaysia
5.4%Malaysia
5.6%
Malaysia
5.4%Africa
3.7%
United Arab
Emirates  5.6%
China
16.9%Hong Kong, China
5.5%
Korea, Rep. of
3.7%Singapore
3.4%Indonesia
4.4%
Japan
10.5%Japan
9.6%
 
Source: UNSD, Comtrade database. 
1.7  Trends and Patterns in Foreign Direct Investment  
1.23.  During the review period, foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows peaked in 2013, mainly 
driven by a rise in merger and acquisition (M &A) activity, and declined in 2014 while remaining 
more than five times larger than their 2011 level (Table 1.4).46 According to the IMF, recent trends 
                                               
46 In 2013, Thailand was the second-largest target of M&A purchases in South-East Asia, behind 
Singapore, with concluded sales worth US$6 billion. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 24 - 
 
  in portfolio flows to Thailand have been similar to those in other emerging ASEAN countries, driven 
mainly by the changing risk appetite of invest ors. In 2014 FDI inflows originated mainly from 
Japan, the EU and the United States, and were directed mainly to manufacturing activities, 
electricity/gas/steam, and transportation/storage; compared to other developing countries, 
Thailand has a relatively high level of diversity in both the sources and destinations for its FDI. 
However, Thailand's competitiveness has been deteriorating owing to a rising cost base (particularly for labour) and also as a result of uncertainty about the level of political commitment 
to liberalization, particularly in important sectors such as telecommunications and utilities; as a 
result Thailand has been experiencing a fall in its share of inward FDI relative to regional peers.
47 
Nevertheless, the authorities consider that prospects are promising as they are supported by strong fundamentals, planned public infrastructu re projects, geographical advantages, and the 
Board of Investment's (BOI) new approach to investment incentives (sections 1.2.1, 3.4.2.1, 
and 4.6.1).  
Table 1.4 Inflows of foreig n direct investment, 2011-14 
  2011  2012  2013a 2014a 
Total inflows (US$ million)  2,473.7  12,899.0  14,416.0 12,728.1  
 (% of total) 
Inflows by origin     
ASEAN 38.5 -5.8 6.6 7.6 
Indonesia -2.5 0.9 0.8 0.6  
Malaysia 0.7 3.9 2.9 0.7 
Philippines -0.7 0.1 0.3 0.4  
Singapore 41.1 -10.9  2.4 5.8 
EU28 34.1 11.7 -8.6 13.8  
Belgium 8.4 1.1 -0.2 -0.3 
Denmar k 11.0 0.1 0.9 0.4  
France 8.2 2.7 1.0 -0.8 
Germany 18.5 3.7 1.5 2.3  
Italy 0.3 0.2 0.8 -0.3 
Luxembourg -1.4  2.2 0.5 1.2  
Netherlands 10.2 6.1 -16.7 8.2 
Spain -9.9 -4.7 0.2 0.1  
Sweden 3.5 0.1 -1.0 0.7 
United Kingdom -11.0  0.1 4.2 1.8  
Australia 0.3 2.1 1.3 0.9 
British Virgin Islands 7.4  1.3 -0.8 2.0  
Cayman Islands 25.1 -6.3 0.9 -1.3 
China 0.8 4.6 6.4 8.8  
Hong Kong, China 11.0 5.5 1.8 10.0 
Japan -55.4  28.7 62.3 33.7  
Liechtenstein 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 
Mauritius 29.2 -1.2 -2.6 0.5  
Samoa 7.2 -0.3 -0.1 0.0 
Korea, Rep. of 3.9 1.0 2.7 2.8  
Switzerland 12.9 2.3 1.2 0.1 
Chinese Taipei -2.6  1.2 1.2 1.8  
United States 5.8 30.8 10.7 13.3 
Others -18.2  24.2 17.1 5.8  
Inflows by sector     
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing -0.1  0.0 0.0 0.1  
Mining and quarrying 8.8 -0.7 -1.7 1.3 
Manufacturing 158.4  12.4 20.6 25.3  
Food products 15.5 -1.0 -2.2 2.3 
Beverages -0.4 -0.3 0.6 0.9  
Textiles 10.9 0.4 0.1 1.0 
Chemicals and chemical products 8.2  1.9 1.3 -1.4  
Computer, electronic, and optical products 16.1 7.7 1.4 1.0 
Electrical equipment 1.4  3.8 0.6 0.6  
Machinery and equipment n.e.s. 17.7 4.0 1.1 1.9 
Electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning supply  27.4 0.3 2.5 8.3  
Construction 3.0 1.1 0.3 -5.3 
Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles  17.4 4.0 3.1 2.8  
Transportation and storage 18.8 -3.5 8.6 7.9 
Accommodation and food service activities 1.2  0.0 0.1 0.0  
Financial and insurance activities 18.0 -0.4 0.2 -1.9 
Real estate activities -0.7  -1.3 -0.3 0.6  
Others 10.8 -1.5 8.6 12.9 
a Provisional.  
Source: Bank of Thailand online information (as at 11.05.2015). 
                                               
47 IMF (2015); and Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 25 - 
 
  1.24.  Following a 99% rise in 2012 (compared to 2011), FDI outflows dropped gradually back to 
their 2011 level (Table 1.5). In 2014 they were largely concentrated in mining and quarrying, finance and insurance, and manufacturing activities. At the same time, they were destined for ASEAN countries (48.3% of total outflows); CLMV countries received 14.5% of Thailand's FDI 
outflows, more than double their 2012 share. Incr eased outflows of investment to CLMV countries 
were facilitated, inter ali a, by multilateral infrastructure projects, rapid growth and lower labour 
costs in these countries; both Thai and foreign companies have relocated some basic processing 
and assembly activities to special economic zones (SEZs) in these neighbouring countries.
48 The 
launching of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015 may provide new opportunities to globally competitive Thai conglomerates for investment and trade, including the reduction of tariffs for Thai goods in neighbouring CLMV countries (section 2.4.2.1).  
Table 1.5 Outflows of foreign direct investment, 2011-14 
  2011  2012  2013a 2014a 
Total outflows (US$ million)  7,175.8  14,260.6  12,276.1  7,859.6  
 (% of total) 
Outflows by destination      
ASEAN 31.2 19.0 12.9 48.3 
Singapore 13.5 4.9 -8.3 24.4  
Myanma r 4.9 2.4 6.2 5.8 
Malaysia 2.0 2.6 3.7 5.2  
Lao PD R -1.4 1.7 1.7 3.8 
Indonesia 8.1 4.2 4.7 3.2  
Viet Nam 4.9 2.0 3.2 2.8 
Cambodia -0.2 0.8 1.1 2.1  
Philippines -0.6 0.4 0.7 1.0 
EU28 8.2 14.3 5.1 0.1  
France -0.6 0.3 2.5 -0.8 
Germany 0.2 6.2 -5.4 0.0  
Netherlands 3.1 2.1 2.6 1.1 
United Kingdom 4.9  4.3 4.3 -0.6  
Australia 7.0 4.3 8.6 -0.2 
Bangladesh 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3  
British Virgin Islands 4.6 6.3 5.7 -1.6 
Canada 2.8 0.9 4.0 0.1  
Cayman Islands 24.0 11.1 11.7 19.6 
China 1.9 3.9 3.3 0.1  
Egypt -0.1 -0.8 0.0 0.3 
Hong Kong, China 3.6  12.9 1.5 12.8  
India 0.9 1.1 2.1 0.4 
Japan -0.8 6.1 4.0 4.7  
Mauritius 8.6 4.5 22.9 13.2 
Korea, Rep. of -0.5  0.6 1.0 0.0  
Switzerland -0.5 0.7 0.2 -0.4 
Chinese Taipei -0.2  0.3 0.4 0.3  
United Arab Emirates 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 
United States 6.6 8.0 6.9 -5.7  
Others 2.3 6.5 9.1 7.5 
Outflows by sector      
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 
Mining and quarrying 57.8  22.3 10.3 34.3  
Manufacturing 22.3 39.8 23.7 16.9 
Food products 1.4  12.2 12.2 -7.9  
Beverages 2.3 4.3 -0.7 9.9 
Textiles 2.7 0.2 0.6 0.4  
Chemicals and chemical products 7.4 2.9 2.9 1.6 
Computer, electronic, and optical products 2.3  11.2 0.6 -11.5  
Electrical equipment -0.4 0.4 -0.1 0.4 
Machinery and equipment n.e.s. 1.2  1.5 -0.2 1.5  
Electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning supply  0.2 0.4 0.0 0.0 
Construction 0.2 0.1 0.4 1.3  
Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles  -2.9 7.5 21.4 4.2 
Transportation and storage -0.3  0.1 -0.3 0.2  
Accommodation and food service activities -0.3 0.0 0.0 2.1 
Financial and insurance activities 19.4  7.9 7.5 18.0  
Real estate activities 1.1 0.9 0.3 1.6 
Others 2.4 21.0 36.8 21.4  
a Provisional. 
Source: Bank of Thailand online information (as at 11.05.2015).
                                               
48 IMF (2015).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  2  TRADE AND INVESTMENT REGIME 
2.1  Overview 2.1.  Political issues have continued to dominate the national agenda since Thailand's last review 
in 2011. Following a military coup in 2014, new executive and legislative bodies have been put in 
place, operating under an interim constitution while a new constitution is being prepared. A 
comprehensive reform agenda has also been propos ed by the new interim administration. Over the 
review period, a partial-scope regional trade agr eement (RTA) has entered into force with Peru and 
an RTA has been signed with Chile. Various othe r new, and changes to existing, RTAs are under 
negotiation. There has been significant progress within ASEAN towards realization of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) by the end of 2015. Si nce April 2015, Thailand has provided duty-free 
quota-free market access for least developed countries (LDCs). Thailand's GSP preferences in the 
US, EU and Turkish markets have been terminat ed, which may have a negative impact on the 
automotive industry in particular. Thailand became an observer to the WTO Committee on Government Procurement in June 2015. It has not been party to any new WTO dispute settlement 
cases as complainant or respondent over the revi ew period. While Thailand has a good record on 
fulfilling its notification obligations, some remain outstanding. Thailand's framework governing foreign investment remains unchanged. 
2.2  General Framework 
2.2.  There has been significant political upheaval in Thailand since its previous review. In 
January 2014, a state of national emergency was de clared, after a period of social unrest. There 
followed a parliamentary election in February 2014 leading to the incumbent party, the Puea Thai, 
remaining in power. However, the election wa s boycotted by supporters of the opposition 
Democrat Party and hence not all seats in the House were filled. The election was declared invalid by the Constitutional Court on 21 May 2014. A day later, a military coup took place and the 
Parliament was dissolved. The military ruled through an appointed National Council for Peace and 
Order (NCPO) until July 2014 when an interim co nstitution was put in place and power handed 
over to a new National Legislative Assembly co mprised of legislators appointed by the NCPO, 
mainly from the military but also from academia and the civil service.
1 The leader of the coup 
stepped down from his military position and was appointed Prime Minister in August 2014. 
2.3.  As set out in the Interim Constitution, a three-phased approach is being taken to restore 
national peace and order.2 The first phase was to deter the use of illegal force and lethal weapons, 
to cease public mistrust and alleviate economic, social and administrative problems. The second 
phase is to: bring into force the Interim Constitution so as to establish the National Legislative Assembly (to exercise legislative power) and th e Council of Ministers (to exercise executive 
power); establish the National Reform Council (NRC); and draft and complete a new constitution 
laying down an appropriate legal system.
3 Under the third and final phase, all of the reforms 
undertaken under the Interim Constitution are to be handed to the newly elected government 
under the new Constitution, to ensure policy continuity.  
2.4.  The drafting of a new constitution was entrusted to a government-appointed Constitution 
Drafting Committee (CDC) and a draft Constitution was released to the NRC in April 2015.4 As 
explained by the authorities, it has been cons idered by all stakeholders, including through 
public-forum hearings, symposia involving foreign experts, and NRC debates. In response to 
wishes expressed by various sectors of society, the Cabinet and NCPO agreed in May 2015 that the 
                                               
1 Constitution of the Kingdom of Thaila nd (Interim), B.E. 2557 (2014). Viewed at: 
http://library2.parliament.go.th/giventake/content_give/cons_temp2557E.pdf .  
2 The Interim Constitution replaced the 2007 Constituti on, with the exception of Chapter II, relating to 
the King. 
3 As set out in the Interim Constitution, the National Reform Council (NRC) is mandated to study and 
recommend reforms in the following specific areas: (i) politi cs; (ii) administrati on of State affairs; (iii) laws and 
judicial procedure; (iv) local administration; (v) education; (vi) economy; (vii) energy; (viii) public health and environment; (ix) mass communication;  (x) social affairs; and (xi) others . The NRC consists of no more than 
250 persons, selected by the NCPO and appointed by the King. It is also charged with providing advice to the Constitution Drafting Committee (CDC) and deli berating and approving the Draft constitution. 
4 An unofficial translation into English of the draft Constitution was viewed at: http://www.student-
weekly.com/pdf/200415-constitution-en.pdf . The Thai version of the Constitution may be viewed at: 
http://www.student-weekly.com/pdf/200415-constitution-th.pdf   WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  draft Constitution should be put to a national referendum; the Interim Constitution has been 
amended to allow this to happen. Meanwhile, the CD C is required to revise the draft Constitution 
based on recommendations received. The NRC is ex pected to vote on this new draft towards the 
latter part of 2015. Thereafter, the Constitution ca n be put to a referendum and general elections 
announced (expected in 2016).  
2.5.  Under the Interim Constitution, a bill may be introduced by the National Legislative Assembly 
(not less than 25 members), the Council of Ministers or the NRC. Money bills (including those 
relating to taxes and duties as well as use of state funds or provision of loans) may only be 
introduced by the Council of Ministers.5 The Council of Ministers retains the right to consider bills 
before they are adopted by the majority  of the National Legislative Assembly.6 The Prime Minister 
is charged with presenting bills approved by the Assembly to the King for his signature within 
20 days. Bills come into force as Acts upon their publication in the Government  Gazette ; generally 
there is a two-week period between the King's signature and publication in the Gazette . The 
Government is charged with concluding treaties with other states or international organizations. 
Treaties with wide-ranging effects on the econom ic security of the country (including regional 
trade agreements (RTAs) and customs cooperatio n area agreements) must be approved by the 
National Legislative Assembly within 60 days of the day of receipt.  
2.6.  In order to improve regulatory quality, al l government agencies are required to conduct a 
regulatory impact analysis (RIA) before submitting any draft act to the Cabinet.7 The RIA consists 
of ten questions to be clarified by government ag encies which consider the regulation's impact on 
the economy, society and environment. In December  2014, the Office of the Council of State of 
Thailand completed a research study on how to improve the quality of RIAs. According to the 
authorities, it contains three main recommendations to improve the process, content and implementation of RIAs and these proposals are currently being considered. 
2.7.  There have been no changes to the judici al system since Thailand's previous review. It 
consists of Courts of First Instance; a Court of Appeal; the Supreme Court of Justice, which 
includes a Criminal Division for Persons Holding Political Positions; an independent Constitutional 
Court; administrative courts; and specialist courts such as an Intellectual Property and 
International Trade (IPIT) Court. Under the Interim Constitution, judges are independent in the trial and adjudication of cases in the name of the King and in accordance with the Constitution and 
laws. 
2.3  Trade Policy Formulation and Objectives 
2.8.  There have been no changes to the ministri es involved in the day-to-day implementation of 
trade policy since Thailand's previous review. The Commerce and Finance ministries have the main 
responsibility for trade and investment policies, al though some authority extends to the Agriculture 
and Cooperatives, Industry, Public Health, Ener gy, Information Technology and Communications, 
and Transport ministries, and the Bank of Thailand (the central bank).  
2.9.  Within the Foreign Trade Cluster under the Ministry of Commerce, the Department of Trade 
Negotiations is responsible for bilateral and multilateral trade negotiations. The Department of Foreign Trade is charged with ensuring compliance with bilateral and multilateral agreements, acting as an issuing authority for export and import certificates and administering contingency 
measures. The Department of International Trade Promotion is responsible for expanding markets 
overseas for Thai products and services, enha ncing the value-added of exports of goods and 
services and increasing the competitiveness of Thai  entrepreneurs in regional and global markets.  
2.10.  There are two specifically trade-related strategies currently being implemented by the 
Ministry of Commerce: the Ministry of Commerce Strategy and the Trade Negotiations Strategy. The key features of the former are set out in  Table 2.1. The overall vision of the Trade 
                                               
5 As set out in the Interim Constitution, Section 14, money bills refer to bills with provisions dealing with 
the imposition, repeal, reduction, alteration, modification, remission or regulation of taxes and duties, or the allocation, receipt, custody or payment of State funds, or the transfer of expenditures estimates of the State, 
or the raising of, or guaranteeing or redemption of, lo ans or any binding of State' s properties, or currency. 
6 The requirement for a majority vote to pass legislat ion is set out in the Rules of the Meetings of the 
National Legislative Assembly B.E. 2557. 
7 This requirement was introduced in 2005. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Negotiations Strategy is to enhance the nation's competitiveness for sustainable growth and it is 
focused on five priority areas: ASEAN; emerging economies; developed economies; the multilateral trading system; and the impact and utilization of RTAs. 
Table 2.1 Ministry of Commerc e Strategy, main objectives 
Objective Strategies 
Restructure trade and investment 
through deeper integration within ASEAN and the region  Promote ASEAN sourcing for re gional value chain linkages 
 Promote trade and investment in ASEAN and counterparts 
 Facilitate international trade with new trade agreements 
Empower the competitiveness of 
small and medium enterprises 
(SMEs) and community 
enterprises  Upgrade and enhance productivity of  SMEs and micro-enterprises to 
move them up the value chain 
 Encourage a new generation of entrepreneurs 
 Promote access to financial and technical support 
 Facilitate the development of business network and cluster initiatives 
Leverage on comparative 
advantages for high value-added 
products and services  Ensure protection of inte llectual property rights 
 Foster utilization of intellectual property rights and innovation 
commercialization 
 Promote development of emergi ng, high value-added sectors 
 Support Thai arts and crafts products 
 Promote One Tambon  (meaning sub-district) One Product (OTOP) 
products in international markets 
Create conducive and fair 
business environment for trade 
and investment  Increase the price of agricultural commodities 
 Strengthen the market mechanism through the Agricultural Futures 
Exchange of Thailand 
 Reduce the cost of living and ensure consumer protection 
 Reform rules and regulations to crea te a freer and fairer competitive 
environment 
Promote trade infrastructure 
development  Develop and promote tr ade logistics systems 
 Enhance trade facilitation and dispute settlement 
 Improve knowledge management  and information systems 
Maintain and expand market and 
trade channels  Expand domestic and international markets 
 Promote the use of electronic commerce and mobile commerce 
 Cultivate national image th rough Branding Thailand 
 Develop service sector and service trade 
 Promote food industry and halal products 
Strengthen organizational 
capacity and good governance  Promote and strengthen measures to prevent and combat corruption 
 Promote and enforce ethical conduct in public service 
 Develop public sector personnel that are qualified, highly responsible 
and result-orientated 
Source:  Ministry of Commerce. 
2.11.  The Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) remains 
responsible for formulating national development strategies, providing recommendations on, and 
generally evaluating, government policies. It's Eleventh National Economic and Social 
Development Plan (ENESDP) for 2012-16 is curren tly being implemented; this is essentially a 
framework for Thai government agencies to use as a guideline in formulating their own 
development strategies. The ENESDP 2012-16, which is described in detail in Thailand's previous 
review8, attaches high priority to the development of intellectual property, creative economy and 
human resources as keys to the country's sustainable development and competitiveness. It incorporates the principles of self-sufficiency co ntained in previous plans. Examples of concrete 
measures taken to implement the Plan include: the implementation of a new investment 
promotion policy of the Office of the Board of In vestment (BOI) (section 3.4.2.1); the creation of 
six special economic zones (sections 1.7 and 3.4.2.1); and amendments to the Customs Act to 
modernize and streamline cross border procedures. The Office of the NESDB is currently preparing 
the Twelfth Economic and Social Development Pl an (2017-2021). Whereas previous plans needed 
only to be submitted to the Council of Ministers for approval, the 2017-21 Plan will also need to be 
consented to by parliament. 
2.12.  On 12 September 2014, the Prime Minister delivered a policy statement on behalf of the 
Council of Ministers to the National Legislative Assembly, outlining the Interim Government's 11 point reform agenda (Box 2.1). As noted by the IMF its component devoted to enhancing the 
country's economic agenda comprises reforms to energy prices, tax reform, transport 
                                               
8 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  infrastructure, management of state enterprises and promotion of innovation and industries with 
high value-added sectors.9  
Box 2.1 The Government's 11 point reform agenda, 2014 
1. Protecting and upholding the monarchy 2.Maintaining national security and foreign affairs 
3. Reducing social inequality and creating 
opportunities to access public services 4. Education, learning and fostering religions, arts 
and culture 
5. Improving the quality of public health services 
and public health 6. Enhancing the country's economic potential 
7. Promoting Thailand's role and exploring 
opportunities in the ASEAN Community 8. Developing and promoting the application of 
science, technology, re search and development 
and innovation 
9. Maintaining the security of the resource base and 
creating balance between conservation and 
sustainable use 10. Promoting administration of state affairs that 
upholds good governance and prevents and 
supresses corruption and malfeasance in the 
public sector 
11. Improving laws and th e judicial process  
Source:  IMF (2015), based on information provided by the Thai authorities. 
2.13.  Over the review period, new or amended trade-related legislation has entered into force in 
the areas of: food labelling (section 3.2.6.3 ); excise taxes (section 3.4.1.1.1); consumer 
protection (section 3.4.4.3); intellectual property rights (section 3.4.6); fisheries (section 4.3); 
and financial services (section 4.7.2.1). New, or amendments to existing, legislation is under 
consideration in the areas of competition policy (section 3.4.4.1.5); consumer protection 
(section 3.4.4.3); intellectual property rights (section 3.4.6); energy (section 4.5); telecommunications (section 4.7.3); and shipping (section 4.7.4.2.1).  
2.4  Trade Agreements and Arrangements 
2.4.1  WTO 2.14.  Thailand's trade policies have been reviewed six times; the last review took place on 
28 November 2011. Thailand accords at least MFN treatment to all WTO Members. While in 
practice Thailand extends MFN treatment to all non-Members too, it retains the legal flexibility not to d o s o. T hai land  b e c ame  an ob s e rve r to the WTO Committee on Government Procurement in 
June 2015 but is neither a member nor observer to the plurilateral Agreement on Trade in Civil 
Aircraft. As a party to the Ministerial Declaration on Trade in Information Technology Products (the 
Information Technology Agreement (ITA)), Thailand phased out tariffs on eligible products in 2005. It has participated in negotiations to expand product coverage of the WTO's 1996 
Information Technology Agreement (ITA) and ha s confirmed its acceptance of the product 
coverage list, finalized in July 2015.
10 With respect to implemen tation of the WTO Trade 
Facilitation Agreement (TFA) concluded at th e WTO's Ninth Ministerial Conference in 2013, 
Thailand has notified its Category A provisions (those that it will implement by the time the 
Agreement enters into force).11 Thailand expects to ratify the TFA by end-2015. There have been 
no new WTO dispute settlement cases brought by or against Thailand over the review period.12  
2.15.  Thailand has maintained a good record of notifications to the WTO. However, notifications 
are outstanding with respect to agriculture (domestic support); TRIPS (response to checklist of 
issues on enforcement); import licensing (replies to questionnaire); rules of origin; and state trading enterprises (Table 2.2). Additionally, it has not notified its partial scope RTAs with India 
and Peru (see below). 
                                               
9 IMF (2015).  
10 WTO online information. Viewed at: 
https://www.wto.org/english/ne ws_e/news15_e/ita_28jul15_e.htm .  
11 WTO document WT/PCTF/N/THA/1, 25 July 2014.  
12 Thailand has been involved directly in 16 dispute cases under the WTO, 13 as complainant and three 
as respondent. It has participated as  a third party in 71 cases. Details of each of these cases may be viewed 
at: https://www.wto.org/english/thew to_e/countries_e/thailand_e.htm .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Table 2.2 Notifications to the WTO, 2011-2015 (30 June) 
Agreement/Article Requirement Symbol and date of latest notification 
Agreement on Agriculture  
Articles 10 and 18.2  Export subsidies (ES:1, ES:2)  G/AG/N/THA/76, 14/04/2014 
Article 18.2  Domestic support (DS:1) G/AG/N/THA/75, 14/04/2014 
Article 18.2 Market access, administration of tariff and 
other quota commitments (MA:1) G/AG/N/THA/79, 19/05/2014 
Article 18.2 Market access, volume of imports under tariff 
and other quotas (MA:2) G/AG/N/THA/78, 19/05/2014 
Articles 5.7 and 18.2 Market access, special safeguard (MA:5) G/AG/N/THA/77, 14/04/2014 
Unspecified    
Paragraph 4(a) of 
Enabling Clause Enabling Clause – RTA WT/COMTD/N/35/Add.1, 31/05/2012 
General Agreement on Trade in Services  
Article III:3 Laws/regulations S/C/N/670, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/669, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/668, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/667, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/666, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/665, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/664, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/663, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/662, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/661, 22/11/2012 
S/C/N/603, 14/10/2011 
Article III:4 and/or IV:2 Enquiry/contact points S/ENQ/78/Rev.13, 04/12/2012 
Article V:7(a)  Economic integration agreements S/C/N/560/Add.1, 03/05/2011 
S/C/N/559/Add.1, 03/05/2011 
S/C/N/545/Add.1, 09/05/2012 
Agreement on the Implementation of Article VI of the GATT 1994 (anti-dumping) 
Article 16.4 Anti-dumping actions (taken within the 
preceding 6 months)  G/ADP/N/265/THA, 05/02/2015 
GATT 1994 
Article XVII:4(a) State trading activities G/STR/N/13/THA; G/STR/N/14/THA, 
11/10/2013 
Article XXIV:7(a) Agreement establishing a free trade area WT/REG284/N/2, 09/05/2012 
WT/REG277/N/2, 27/07/2011 
Article XXVIII:5 Modification of schedules (reserve the right 
to modify schedules for a three-year period) G/MA/273, 12/12/2011 
Agreement on Import Licensing  
Articles 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 Institution of import licensing procedures or 
changes thereto G/LIC/N/2/THA/4, 19/03/2013 
Article 7.3 Replies to questionnaire  G/LIC/N/3/THA/6, 12/09/2013 
Agreement on Preshipment Inspection 
Article 5  Laws/regulations by which the Agreement is 
put into force, as well as laws/regulations 
relating to preshipment inspection G/PSI/N/1/Add.17, 04/06/2012 
Decision on Notification Procedur es for Quantitative Restrictions  
G/L/59 Quantitative restrictions G/MA/QR/N/THA/1, 26/10/2012 
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures  
Article XVI:1 Subsidies G/SCM/N/220/THA; G/SCM/N/253/THA, 
11/07/2013 
Article 25.11 Countervailing duty actions (taken within the 
preceding 6 months) G/SCM/N/281/Add.1, 24/04/2015 
Agreement on Safeguards 
 Termination of a safeguard investigation with 
no safeguard measure imposed G/SG/N/9/THA/1, 12/09/2013 
Article 12.1(a)  Safeguard measures (initiating an 
investigation relating to serious injury or threat thereof and the reasons for it)  G/SG/N/6/THA/4, 03/02/2014 
Article 12.1(b) Safeguard measures (making a finding of 
serious injury or threat thereof caused by 
increased imports) G/SG/N/8/THA/3; G/SG/N/10/THA/3; 
G/SG/N/11/THA/4, 15/01/2015 
Article 12.1(c) Safeguard measures (taking a decision to 
apply or extend a safeguard measure) G/SG/N/8/THA/3; G/SG/N/10/THA/3; 
G/SG/N/11/THA/4, 15/01/2015 
Article 12.4 Safeguard measures (provisional) G/SG/N/7/THA/3/Suppl.1; 
G/SG/N/11/THA/3/Suppl.1, 25/09/2014 
Article 7.2 Extension of safeguard measures G/SG/N/14/THA/1, 08/01/2013 
Article 9.1, footnote 2 Non-application of safeguard measures 
against a product originating in a developing 
country Member G/SG/N/8/THA/3; G/SG/N/10/THA/3; 
G/SG/N/11/THA/4, 15/01/2015 
Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures  
Article 7, Annex B  Sanitary/phytosanitary regulations G/SPS/N/THA/202/Rev.4, 14/04/2015 WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Agreement/Article Requirement Symbol and date of latest notification 
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade  
Article 2.9  Technical regulations G/TBT/N/THA/460, 18/05/2015  
Article 5.6 Conformity assessment procedures G/TBT/N/THA/383/Rev.1, 09/03/2015 
Article 5.7 Conformity assessment procedures (urgent) G/TBT/N/THA/394, 21/11/2011 
Agreement on Trade Facilitation  
Article 15, Section II  Category A commitments WT/PCTF/N/THA/1, 25/07/2014 
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights  
Article 63.2 Checklist of issues IP/N/6/THA/1, 14/01/2015 
Article 69 Contact point IP/N/3/THA/1, 18/02/2014 
Source: WTO Secretariat.  
2.4.2  Regional trade agreements 
2.16.  Over the review period, one partial scope RTA has entered into force with Peru (on 
11 December 2011) and an RTA with Chile was signed (in 2013) but has not yet entered into force. In total, Thailand has RTAs in force with 16 countries, largely in the Asia-Pacific region. 
Thailand is a member of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) (see below) and a 
signatory to ASEAN's five RTAs with third countries (China; Japan; Republic of Korea; India; and Australia and New Zealand). Thailand also has bilateral RTAs with Australia; New Zealand; and Japan as well as partial scope agreements with India and Peru. The key features of these RTAs are 
set out in Table A2.1. It also provides preferential tariff treatment to a limited number of imports 
from other developing countries under the Global System of Trade Preferences (GSTP). Thailand's 
preferential tariff utilization rates for exports under  its RTAs are generally high, and in many cases 
have improved over the review period (Table 2.3).  
Table 2.3 Thailand's preferential ta riff utilization rate under RTAs, 2012-14 
(US$ million) 
Partners 2012 2013 2014 Export of 
eligible 
goods 
Export 
under RTA 
Utilization 
rate (%) 
Export of 
eligible 
goods 
Export 
under RTA 
Utilization 
rate (%) 
Export of 
eligible 
goods 
Export 
under RTA 
Utilization 
rate (%) 
ASEAN 31,235 14,794 47 31,567 18,310 58 33,048 19,858 60 
China 13,997 11,287 81 15,622 14,025 90 15,228 13,052 85 
Indiaa 4,790 2,081 43 4,111 2,242 55 4,639 2,803 60 
Australiab 8,008 5,072 63 8,395 7,612 91 7,687 7,215 94 
Japanc 9,203 6,310 69 7,645 6,138 80 8,561 6,373 74 
Korea (Rep. 
of) 3,821 2,131 56 3,449 2,329 68 2,935 2,195 75 
New Zealand 769 18 2 868 47 5 917 78 8 
Peru 65 12 19 69 11 16 86 9 10 
a  India includes Thailand-India Free Trade Agre ement (TIFTA) and ASEAN-India Free Trade Agreement 
(AIFTA). 
b  Australia includes Thailand-Austral ia Free Trade Agreement (TAFTA) and 
ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement (AANZFTA). 
c Japan includes Japan-Thailand Economic Partnership Agreement (JTEPA) and ASEAN-Japan 
Comprehensive Economic Partnership (AJCEP). 
Source:  Trade Preference Division, Department  of Foreign Trade, Ministry of Commerce  
2.17.  Negotiations have been concluded between Thailand and Peru on a comprehensive RTA 
which would include chapters on trade in goods, trade in services and intellectual property rights; 
t h i s  i s  e x p e c t e d  t o  b e  s i g n e d  i n  N o v e m b e r  2 0 1 5  d u r i n g  t h e  A P E C  s u m m i t .  A n  R T A  w i t h  t h e  
European Union has been under negotiation since 2013; although talks have recently been put on hold. RTA negotiations are continuing with: India, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal and 
Bangladesh under the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic 
Cooperation (BIMSTEC)
13; and India, on the remaining goods tariff lines and on services and 
                                               
13 The Agreement on Trade in Goods of the Framew ork Agreement on the BIMSTEC FTA was finalized 
during the 19th Meeting of the Trade Negotiating Committee (TNC) in 2011. The TNC is now compiling Tariff 
Concession Schedules of all member states to be annexed to the Agreem ent; all member states submitted WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  investment. RTA negotiations have recently been launched with Pakistan and Turkey. RTA 
negotiations with the United States and Bahrain remain suspended since 2006. In 2013, the Thai Parliament approved a Thailand-EFTA RTA negotiat ing framework in order to resume negotiations 
with EFTA; however talks are still on hold.
14 Thailand is undertaking an impact assessment on its 
possible participation in the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) RTA negotiations. 
2.18.  Various studies have been undertaken on the anticipated benefits to Thailand of possible 
RTAs. These were undertaken for Australia, New Ze aland (for which RTAs subsequently entered 
into force) and have also been undertaken for possible RTAs with EFTA, India, Pakistan and Chile. 
Additionally a feasibility study was undertaken on an East Asian Free Trade Area (EAFTA) comprising ASEAN, China, Japan and the Republic  of Korea; however these discussions have been 
superseded by the launch of Regional Comprehens ive Economic Partnership (RCEP) negotiations 
(see below).
15 As at end-June 2015, Thailand had undertaken one analysis of an RTA (between 
ASEAN and China) after its entry into force. This study, dated 1 August 2013, found that from 2008-11, Thailand's preference utilization ra tes under the RTA increased rapidly due to the 
elimination of tariffs for products under the norm al track in 2010 (more than 7,000 lines or 90% of 
the trade value between Thailand and China). In the first half of 2012 the utilization rate was 
at 81%.  
2.4.2.1  ASEAN 
2.19.  Thailand is a founding member of ASEAN, which comprises 10 economies in the region: 
Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; Indonesia; Lao PDR; Malaysia; Myanmar; the Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; and Viet Nam. The block is a major trading partner for Thailand, accounting 
for 19% of its total imports in 2014 and 26.1% of its total exports. The aim of economic 
integration has been to create an ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), a component pillar of the broader ASEAN Community, transforming ASEAN into  a single market and production base with 
the free flow of goods, services, investment, skilled labour, and freer flow of capital. The target 
date to launch the ASEAN Community is 31 December 2015. To achieve this, ASEAN has implemented most key measures under the AEC Blueprint
16; the priority task during the rest 
of 2015 will be to accomplish the yet unimplemented measures. These include: operationalization 
of transport facilitation; the implementation of the ASEAN single window and self-certification system; the development of an ASEAN Trade Repo sitory; the development of mutual recognition 
agreements (MRAs) for test reports and certification of production; and the completion of the 
10
th Package of Commitments under the ASEAN Fr amework Agreement on Services (AFAS).  
2.20.  As a consequence of trade liberalization under the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and 
thereafter the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement (ATIGA), merchandise trade within ASEAN is 
almost completely duty-free and quantitative and other non-tariff barriers are being eliminated.17 
With respect to services liberalization, nine packages of services commitments have been 
concluded under the AFAS since its signature in 1995; although the Protocol to implement the 
9th package has not yet been signed. Currently Thailand is in the process of preparing for the 
10th, and final, AFAS package. Since 2013, ASEAN members have been negotiating an ASEAN 
Trade in Services Agreement (ATISA) to replace the AFAS to enhance services liberalization among ASEAN members. The ASEAN Comprehensive Invest ment Agreement (ACIA) came into force in 
March 2012, replacing the 1998 ASEAN Investment Area (AIA) and ASEAN Investment Guarantee 
Agreements and subsequent protocols. It aims to  create an open investment environment through 
provisions on investment liberalization, protection, promotion and facilitation. As a consequence of 
the Agreement, ASEAN-based investors benefit from  non-discriminatory treatment, with a single 
negative list of reservations and provisions on further progressive liberalization.
18 The ASEAN 
                                                                                                                                               
their Schedules in 2011 except for Sri Lanka. Additionally, once Sri Lanka submits a complete schedule, there 
must be a transposition from HS 2007 to HS 2012 before the Agreement on Trade in Goods can be signed. 
14 As noted in Thailand's previous review, FTA negotiations with EFTA had been put on hold in 2006. 
15 These studies were viewed at: http://www.thaifta.com/engfta/Home/Studies/tabid/169/Default.aspx .  
16 The AEC Blueprint sets out the targets and dead lines for advancing the AEC. The Blueprint was 
viewed at: http://www.asean.org/archive/5187-10.pdf .  
17 As noted in Thailand's previous review, after the 1997 financial and economic crisis, members agreed 
in 1999 to eliminate almost all import duties among the original ASEAN-6 members (Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Th ailand) by 2015, which they did, and for the remaining 
ASEAN-4 (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Viet Nam) to do so by 2020, with some flexibilities including 
exceptions for "highly sensitive" rice  and some other sensitive products.  
18 ASEAN Secretariat (2012).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Agreement on Customs was signed, and entered into force in 2012, replacing the 1997 
agreement; and the ASEAN Agreement on the Move ment of Natural Persons was signed in 2012, 
but has not yet entered into force. 
2.21.  In November 2012, ASEAN plus its RTA partners launched negotiations on a Regional 
Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP).19 The intention is to consolidate all of ASEAN's 
existing RTAs so as to have single rules for trade in goods, trade in services, and investment. As at mid-2015 there had been 8 rounds of RCEP negotiations, with participating countries committing 
to reach completion by the end of the year. Accord ing to the authorities, negotiations on services 
and investment under the ASEAN-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership (AJCEP) are in the final stage of negotiation, with signature expected in late 2015. Negotiations on a second group of services commitments under the ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA), and on goods and 
investment under the ASEAN-Republic of Korea Free Trade Area (AKFTA) are expected to be 
concluded by end-2015. ASEAN RTA negotiations continue with India on services and investment and formal negotiations on an RTA with Hong Kong, China were launched in July 2014, with a view 
to finalization by 2016.
20 The mandated reviews of the goods and services components of ASEAN's 
RTA with Australia and New Zealand have been pu t on hold until the RCEP has been concluded. 
2.4.3  Preferential trade agreements 
2.22.  Thailand is eligible for trade prefer ences under the GSP schemes of Japan, Canada, 
Switzerland, Norway, the Russian Federation and ten other members of the Commonwealth of 
Independent States. Thailand no longer benefits from GSP treatment from the European Union and Turkey as all benefits to high- and upper-middle-income countries, a group to which Thailand 
belongs, were terminated in January 2015. Additionally, Thailand no longer benefits from 
preferential access to the US market as its GSP scheme was terminated at end-July 2013 (although the US Congress is considering legislation to renew the scheme).
21 Most of Thailand's 
GSP exports in 2014 were to the EU (64% of the total) and the US (25%) (Table 2.4); 
manufacturers of motor vehicle parts and lenses are reported to have been the main beneficiaries under the US and EU schemes.
22 
Table 2.4 Thailand's utilization of preferen tial tariffs under GS P schemes, 2012-14 
(US$ million) 
Countries 2012 2013 2014 
European Union 8,348 9,052 8,711 
United States 3,710 3,341 3,488a 
Turkey 568 685 659 
Switzerland 293 305 298 
Canada 252 270 286 
CISb 172 207 229 
Japan 45 30 25 
Norway 40 29 28 
a While the US GSP Scheme was terminated at end-July 2013, importers of eligible goods are able to 
seek refunds of duties paid retroactively once le gislation to renew the programme has been passed 
by Congress and become effective.  
b CIS includes the Russian Federation and ten ot her members of the Commonwealth of Independent 
States. 
Source:  Trade Preference Division, Department  of Foreign Trade, Ministry of Commerce.  
2.23.  Since 9 April 2015, Thailand has provided duty-free quota-free market access for imports 
from least developed countries (LDCs).  
                                               
19 This supersedes discussions on an East Asia Fr ee Trade Area (comprising ASEAN plus China, Japan 
and the Republic of Korea) which had commenced in 2002. 
20 ASEAN online information. Viewed at: http://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/2015/05/01/26th-asean-
summit-sees-progress-on-aec-and-fta-with-hong-kong.html .  
21 USTR online information. Viewed at: https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/03112014-FAQs-on-GSP-
Expiration.pdf .  
22 EIU online information. Viewed at: http://www.eiu.com .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  2.4.4  Other agreements and arrangements 
2.4.4.1  Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 2.24.  The APEC group's trade objective is "open regionalism" without necessarily creating a free 
trade area of its own.
23 APEC's trade efforts focus on its members meeting unilateral targets for 
liberalization and for better quality measures in a broad range of areas, from customs procedures 
and standards to subsidies and contingency measures. Thailand intends to meet APEC's voluntary target of free and open trade, including in serv ices and investment by 2020. Individual Action 
Plans (IAPs) are regularly updated roadmaps containing APEC members' intended actions in 
15 policy areas to achieve APEC's liberalization goals.
24 For the period 2012-2020 IAPs are being 
submitted biennially under a revised IAP and IAP peer review process, adopted in 2011. Thailand's latest IAPs were in 2012 and 2014.
25 Thailand's progress report for the 2014 IAP, inter alia , 
emphasized: tariff reductions due to a change in HS  nomenclature but continued imposition of high 
tariffs for some industrial and agricultural products; continued use of TRQs, import prohibitions and import licensing requirements for certain products; improved commercial presence conditions 
for foreign companies in the securities and derivatives market; Thailand's encouragement of 
foreign investment although some restrictions remain; efforts to align domestic with international standards; a decline in physical inspections at customs due to the implementation of risk 
management techniques and new technologies; gradual implementation of the Electronic 
Government Procurement System; implementation of a review process for all proposals concerning new legislation; and transparency in official information.  
2.4.4.2  Asia-Europe Meetings (ASEM) 
2.25.  The Asia-Europe Meetings are informal dialogues and cooperation programmes among 
48 European and Asia-Pacific partners
26; summits are held every two years with discussions on a 
range of economic, political, security and social issues. ASEM has been working on a Trade 
Facilitation Action Plan (TFAP) for some years, aiming to reduce non-tariff barriers, increase 
transparency, and promote trade opportunities wi thin the two regions. It specifies biannual 
concrete goals in the priority areas of custom s, standards and conformity assessment, public 
procurement, quarantine and SPS, intellectual property, mobility of business people, and other 
trade activities, such as market access in distribution.  
2.4.4.3  Other 2.26.  As described in its previous review, Thailand participates in other subregional cooperation or 
development groups, notably the Greater Mekong Subregional Economic Cooperation programme 
which aims to enhance economic relations in nine priority sectors
27; the Ayeyawady-Chao 
Phraya-Mekong Economic Strategy (ACMECS) which aims to promote prosperity in the subregion 
(Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar,  V i e t  N a m ,  a n d  T h a i l a n d )28; the Indonesia-Malaysia-Thailand 
Growth Triangle which seeks to accelerate economic transformation in the less developed neighbouring provinces of the three countries; and the Asia Cooperation Dialogue which seeks to 
promote strategic partnerships and cooperation in all of the Asian subregions.
29  
                                               
23 APEC's 21 member economies ar e: Australia; Brunei Darussalam; Canada; Chile; China; 
Hong Kong, China; Indonesia; Japan; Republic of Korea; Malaysia; Mexico; New Zealand; Papua New Guinea; Peru; the Philippines; Russian Federation; Singapore; Chinese Taipei; Thailand; the United States; and Viet Nam. 
24 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
25 Thailand's 2012 IAP and Bogor Goals Progress Report may be viewed at: http://www.apec.org/About-
Us/About-APEC/Achievements%20and%20Benefits/2012-Bogor-Goals.aspx . Its 2014 IAP and Bogor Goals 
Progress Report may be viewed at: http://www.apec.org/About-Us/About-
APEC/Achievements%20and%20Benefits/2014-Bogor-Goals.aspx . 
26 The partners are: the 28 EU members, the European Commission, the ASEAN 10, the ASEAN 
Secretariat, and Austra lia, China, India, Japan, Republic of Korea, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, and 
Russian Federation. 
27 The Greater Mekong Subregional Economic C ooperation programme involves Cambodia, China 
(specifically Yunnan Province and Guangxi Zhuang Auto nomous Region), Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and 
Viet Nam. The priority sectors ar e: agriculture, energy, environment, human resource development, 
investment, telecommunications, tourism, transport in frastructure, and transport and trade facilitation. 
28 Key areas of cooperation are tr ade and investment facilitation, transport linkages, agriculture, 
industry and energy, public health, to urism and human resource development. 
29 Areas of cooperation include: energy; agricultur e; biotechnology; tourism; poverty alleviation; 
information technology development; e-education; and finance. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  2.5  Foreign Investment Regime  
2.27.  There have been no major changes to the regulatory and institutional framework governing 
foreign investment in Thailand over the review  period. The main law remains the 1999 Foreign 
Business Act (B.E. 2542) which contains a list of restricted activities, stipulating foreign equity 
limits and approval requirements (Table 2.5). Initial foreign investment is subject to minimum 
capital requirements of B 2 million and, in the case of restricted businesses, 25% of the total 
three-year average expected annual expenditure, but not less than B 3 million. There are set time 
frames for licence applications to be decided (for businesses under Lists 2 & 3) and an appeal 
mechanism is also in place.30 Requests are rejected in very few cases: in 2012 there were 
336 approvals and 9 rejections; in 2013 there were 408 approvals and 10 rejections and in 2014 there were 432 approvals and 8 rejections. The au thorities indicated that the Interim Government 
is considering how to amend the act to make it more investor-friendly, to promote more 
investment and to enhance transparency; however an amendment to the Foreign Business Act is unlikely to be forthcoming in the near future.  
Table 2.5 Business activities restricted for foreign investment under the Foreign 
Business Act 
No. Business activity 
List 1 - Businesses not permitted for foreig ners to operate due to special reasons 
Maximum foreign equity participation of 50% for foreigners and foreign companies 
1. Newspapers, radio or television stations 
2. Upland or lowland farming or gardening 
3. Animal farming 
4. Forestry and wood fabrication from natural forests 
5. Fisheries - marine animals in Thai waters and within Thailand's specific economic zones 
6. Extraction of Thai medicinal herbs 
7. Trading and auctioning Thai antiques  or national historical objects 
8. Making or casting Buddha im ages and monks' alms bowls 
9. Land trading 
List 2 - Businesses related to national safety or security or affecting arts and culture, tradition, folk 
handicraft or natural resources and environment Maximum foreign equity participation of 60% (and up to 75% on a case-by-case basis). At least two-fifths of 
the board of directors must be Thai nationals. Approval required from th e Cabinet and permits granted by the 
Minister of Commerce  
1. Production, sale, repair and maintenance of (a ) firearms, ammunition, gun powder, explosives; 
(b) components of firearms ammunition and explosiv es; (c) armaments, milita ry ships, aircraft or 
vehicles; and (d) equipment or components of all war materials 
2. Domestic land, waterway, or air transp ortation, including domestic airlines 
3. Trading antiques or art objects and Thai handicraft 
4. Production of carved wood 
5. Silkworm farming, production of Thai silk yarn, we aving Thai silk or pattern printing on Thai silk 
6. Production of Thai musical instruments 
7. Production of goldware, silverware, ni elloware, bronzeware and lacquerware 
8. Production of crockery of Thai arts and culture 
9. Production of sugar from sugar cane 
10. Salt farming inclusive of making salt from salty earth 
11.  Making rock salt 
12. Mining, inclusive of stone blasting or crushing 
13. Timber conversions to make furniture and articles of wood 
List 3 - Businesses in which Thai nationals ar e not yet ready to compete with foreigners 
No foreign equity limits. Approval required from the Foreign Business Committee and permits granted by the 
Director-General of the Depart ment of Business Development  
1. Rice milling, and flour producti on from rice and farm produce 
                                               
30 Licence applications by foreigners  for List 2 and List 3 businesses must be decided within 60 days of 
being filed. Under exceptional circ umstances, Cabinet may postpone List 2 decisions for another 60 days. 
Licences must be issued within 15 days  of approval. Factors taken into acco unt in assessing licence applications 
are: national safety and security; ec onomic and social development; public  order and morality; art, culture and 
tradition; natural resource conservation; energy conservation and environment protection; consumer 
protection; enterprise size; employment; technology tran sfer; and research and deve lopment. If rejected the 
applicant must be informed along with  the reasons within 15 days (List 3) or 30 days (List 2) of the approval 
decision. Rejection of List 3 applicat ions may be appealed to the Minister of Commerce within 30 days of the 
date of receipt of the notification and a decision on the appeal must be taken within 30 days of the submission for appeal (WTO document WT/TPR/S/123, 15 October 2003). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 36 - 
 
  No. Business activity 
2. Fishery, limited to marine animal culture 
3. Forestry from reforestation 
4. Production of plywood, ven eer, chipboard or hardwood 
5. Production of lime 
6. Accounting business services 
7. Legal business services 
8. Architecture business services 
9.  Engineering business services 
10.  Construction, except for (a) construction rendering basic services, requiring special machinery, 
technology or construction expertise and having a minimum foreign capital of B 500 million; and 
(b) other categories of construction prescribed by ministerial regulations 
11. Broker or agency businesses, except  (a) for underwriting securities or  services connec ted with futures 
trading of commodities or financing instruments or securities; (b) for trading or procuring goods or 
services necessary for production or  rendering services amongst affiliat ed enterprises; (c) for trading, 
purchasing or distributing, or seeking both dome stic and foreign markets for selling domestically 
manufacturing or imported goods in the manner of international business operations having the 
foreigner's minimum capital of B 100 million; and (d) of another category as prescribed by ministerial 
regulations 
12. Auctions, except (a) in the manner of international bidding not being the auction of antiques, historical 
artefacts or art objects which are Thai  works of art, handicrafts or anti ques or having historical value, 
and (b) other categories as prescribed by ministerial regulations 
13. Internal trade connected with native products or produce not yet prohibited by law 
14. Retailing – all categories for goods giving a total minimum capital of less than B 100 million, or less than 
B 20 million per shop 
15. Wholesaling - all categories of goods having a to tal minimum capital of each shop of less than 
B 100 million 
16. Advertising 
17. Hotel businesses, except hotel management 
18. Guided touring  
19.  Selling food or beverages 
20. Plant cultivation or propagation 
21. Other categories of busi ness services except fo r those prescribed in ministerial regulationsa 
a With the issuance of the Ministerial Regulation Prescribing Service Businesses Not Subject to 
Application for Foreign Business Permission, B.E. 2556 (2013), securities businesses and other businesses under the law on securities and securities exchange, derivatives business under the law on derivatives, and serving as a trustee under the law on trust for transactions in capital markets 
are excluded from the application of List 3. 
Source:  Foreign Business Act (B.E. 2542). 
2.28.  The Foreign Business Act does not apply where an international treaty requires Thailand to 
provide national treatment to foreign investors. There is only one such case, for US investors under the 1966 Treaty of Amity and Economic Rela tions between the United States and Thailand. 
It provides preferential access by extending nation al treatment to US investors, thereby exempting 
them from most FDI restrictions. Under the Treaty, Thailand can restrict US investors only in 
communications, transport, banking, exploitation of  land or other natural resources, and domestic 
trade in agricultural products. 
2.29.  Foreign investment in certain other business activities (financial services, transportation, 
commodity exports, mining, tourism, and telecommunications) is restricted under sector-specific laws.  
2.30.  Investment incentives are offered by the Board of Investment (BOI) with a new incentives 
scheme coming into effect in January 2015 (section 3.4.2.1).
31  
2.31.  Restrictions on the ownership of land remain unchanged. These are set out in the Industrial 
Estate Authority of Thailand Act, the Land Act, the Condominium Act and the Investment 
Promotion Act, and are described in the Secretariat report for Thailand's previous review.32 
                                               
31 Announcement of the Board of Investment No. 2/2557 on Policies and Criteria for Investment 
Promotion. 
32 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 37 - 
 
  2.32.  Thailand is a member of the World Bank Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), 
and party to the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (the New York Convention). Thailand is a signatory to, but has not yet ratified, the International Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of other 
States (ICSID Convention). Several of its RTAs in force contain investment provisions 
(Table A2.1). It has 35 bilateral investment treaties  in force, two of which have entered into force 
over the review period (with Jordan and Myanma r) and 58 double taxation agreements (DTAs), 
three of which have entered into force since 2011 (with Chinese Taipei, Estonia, and Myanmar) 
(Box 2.2). Where there is no DTA in place, there are provisions (contained in Royal Decree No. 300) allowing unilateral credit relief against Thai tax for tax paid in the other country by a Thai juristic person.
33 
Box 2.2 Bilateral investment treaties and do uble taxation agreements in force, 2015 
Bilateral investment treaties 
Argentina (2002); Bahrain (2002); Bangladesh (20 03); Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (2004); 
Bulgaria (2004); Cambodia (1997); Canada (1998); China (1985); Croatia (2005); Czech Republic (1995); 
Egypt (2002); Finland (1996); Germany (2004); Hong Kong, China (2006); Hungary (1991); India (2001); 
Indonesia (1998); Israel (2003); Jordan (2012); Korea, DPR (2002); Korea, Rep. of (1989); Lao PDR (1990); 
Myanmar (2012); Netherlands (1973); Peru (1991); Philippines (1996); Poland (1993); Romania (1994); 
Slovenia (2002); Sri Lanka (1996); Sweden (2000); Switzerland (1999); Turkey (2010); 
United Kingdom (1979); and Viet Nam (1992). 
Double taxation agreements  
Armenia (2002); Australia (1989); Austria (1986); Ba hrain (1998); Bangladesh (1998); Belarus (2006); 
Belgium (1980); Bulgaria (2001); Canada (1985); Chile (2010); China (1986); Cyprus (2000); Czech Republic 
(1995); Denmark (1999); Estonia (2013); Finland (1986); France (1975); Germany (1968); Great Britain and 
Northern Ireland (1981); Hong Kong, China (2005); Hungary (1989); India (1986); Indonesia (2003); 
Israel (1996); Italy (1980); Japan (1990); Korea Rep. of (2007); Kuwait (2006); Lao PDR (1997); 
Luxembourg (1998); Malaysia (1983); Mauritius (1998 ); Myanmar (2011); Nepal (1998); Netherlands (1976); 
New Zealand (1998); Norway (2003); Oman (2004); Pakistan (1981); Philippines (1983); Poland (1983); 
Romania (1997); Russian Federation (2009); Seychelles (2006); Singapore (1976); Slovenia (2004); 
South Africa (1996); Spain (1998); Sri Lanka (1990); Sweden (1989); Switzerland (1996); 
Chinese Taipei (2012); Turkey (2005); Ukraine (2004 ); United Arab Emirates (2000); United States 
of America (1997); Uzbekistan (1999); and Viet Nam (1992). 
Source:  UNCTAD online information. Viewed at: 
http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad. org/IIA/CountryBits/207#iiaInnerMenu ; and Revenue 
Department online information. Viewed at: http://www.rd.go.th/publish/766.0.html .
                                               
33 The Revenue Department onli ne information. Viewed at: http://www.rd.go.th/publish/21973.0.html .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3  TRADE POLICIES AND PRACTICES BY MEASURE 
3.1  Introduction 3.1.  Since its previous Trade Policy Review, th e general thrust of Thailand's trade policy has 
remained virtually unchanged. While limited unilateral liberalization has been undertaken there 
have been policy developments in the areas of tariffs, trade facilitation, standards, safeguards, 
government procurement, and intellectual property rights. 
3.2.  The tariff remains one of Thailand's main trade policy instruments, and a relatively 
significant, albeit declining, source of tax revenue. As a result of tariff line changes relating to the 
introduction of the Harmonized Commodity an d Description and Coding System 2012 (HS2012) 
tariff nomenclature (1,258 more lines) and higher ad valorem  equivalent (AVE) rates, the average 
applied MFN tariff rate rose from 11.2% in 2011 to 13.4% in 2014. Non-agricultural products 
continue to face considerably lower tariff rates (10.1%) than agriculture items (WTO definition) 
(34.7%). Some 41% of applied MFN tariff rates are currently in the zero to 5% range. Peak ad valorem  rates stood at 218% (out-of-quota rate, onion seeds) and 80% (motor vehicles). The 
tariff structure has become relatively less complex by slightly reducing the number of applied MFN 
rates, which in 2014 stood at 100 (42 ad valorem , 13 specific rates, 45 alternate rates). Most 
activities are characterized by tariff escalation, which means that effective rates of tariff protection 
can be considerably higher than nominal rates. An increasing number of tariff lines (74.6%) are 
subject to ad valorem  rates, which contributes to the transparency of the tariff. Nevertheless, the 
numerous non- ad valorem  rates affecting the remaining lines tend to conceal relatively high tariff 
rates, particularly on tamarind (AVE of 1, 091.9%). Thailand undertook unilateral MFN tariff 
reductions on certain seafood products in 2014, and is considering proceeding with further cuts 
and simplifying its tariff structure in the course of 2015. The fact that 73.6% of tariff lines (as of 2011) are bound imparts a degree of  predictabilit y to the tariff. However, the simple average of 
bound MFN rates (28.1% as of 2011) could considerably exceed the average applied MFN rate, 
providing the authorities with extensive scope for increasing applied tariffs within bindings. The change to the HS2012 nomenclature involved tariff rate increases for around 600 tariff lines and 
reductions for 25 tariff lines. As Thailand's tariff Schedule of Concessions has remained based on 
the HS2002 it is virtually impossible to compare it s bindings' status with the currently applied 
HS2012 tariff schedule; therefore, the transposition of binding commitments to HS2012 is another pressing task. Tariff-rate quotas have remained in place for 22 agricultural items. Thailand 
continues to support local industry through a number of schemes involving tariff reductions or 
exemptions for imports of, inter alia , machinery, equipment, and materials.  
3.3.  During the review period, trade facilitati on improvements included the replacement of the 
"gold card" system of importers' benefits by th e Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) Programme 
which was extended to importers. Thailand is to complete the internal process necessary to ratify 
the WTO Agreement on Trade Facilitation by the end of 2015. Thailand has become a signatory to 
the Revised Kyoto Convention as of June 2015. No changes were made in the areas of customs 
valuation and rules of origin. 
3.4.  Import licensing and prohibitions on various items for, inter alia , economic reasons (infant 
industry protection) have remained generally unc hanged during the review period. New import 
requirements for automotive tyre imports were imposed and notified to the WTO upon their date of 
entry into force. The share of national standards that follow international standards remains at 32.3%. No new mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) in the area of standards, a trade 
facilitation measure, were signed during the review period. The maximum residue limits standard 
for pesticides in agricultural products was revised in 2013. During the review period, certain Members raised specific trade concerns (STCs) about certain standards- and labelling-related 
measures (e.g., meat, food inspection fees, alco holic beverages, pneumatic tyres of rubber, and 
ceramic tiles). Thailand remains a relatively infreq uent user of anti-dumping measures, taken only 
in the form of duties, with most of them relating to items originating in Asia. No initiation of subsidy investigations or application of any countervailing duty measures has occurred yet; 
however, recourse to safeguard measures intensified as compared to Thailand's last TPR. Several 
contingency measures affected steel products.  
3.5.  The persistence of relatively high statutory export taxes on a few commodities (sawn wood 
and articles thereof, and hides) and the possibility of re-instating others constitute assistance to 
the downstream processing of such commodities, thereby distorting competition and thus the WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 39 - 
 
  allocation of resources, and imparting an element of uncertainty. No changes were made to the 
export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing regime. Thailand maintains unchanged several schemes aimed mainly at facilitating exports, in cluding bonded warehouses, duty drawback, "tax 
and duty compensation" as well as tax and non-tax privileges under the Industrial Estate Authority 
of Thailand Act and the customs free zones schem e. The self-financed and profitable state-owned 
Export-Import Bank of Thailand (EXIM Bank), which provides financial services in a competitive environment with commercial banks, has launched fi ve new credit facility products for small and 
medium enterprise (SME) exporters.  
3.6.  In order to encourage investment in priority  sectors and remote areas, Thailand continues to 
use several relatively complex tax and non-tax incentives, whose cost-effectiveness is questionable and not rigorously or systematically evaluated. Support to SMEs was reinforced, 
inter alia , through a promotional tax exemption packag e to upgrade their machinery. Concerns 
over allegedly discretionary excise tax practices and plans affecting alcoholic beverages and automobiles were raised during the review peri od. Activity-specific support with significant 
budgetary impact was provided, inter alia , to agriculture (e.g., paddy-pledging programme) and 
energy where consumer subsidies and wide-ranging cross-subsidization (possibly equivalent to 1.7% of GDP) remain in place though subject to  ongoing reform. State involvement in nine broad 
sectors of the economy (agriculture and natural resources, energy, manufacturing, financial 
services, telecoms, transportation, infrastructure, social and technology, and other services activities) persists with public enterprises making losses, privatization efforts stalled and "corporatization" plans under way or consideration.  
3.7.  Government procurement remains an important instrument of economic policy, with a price 
preference margin of 7% given to domestic supp liers; reportedly, language used in procurement 
tenders may exclude foreign products from the process even though relevant regulations require 
that wording does not obstruct competition or benefit specific suppliers. The e-Auction, part of the 
electronic government procurement (e-GP) sy stem, was fully implemented as of late 2014. 
Criticism about irregularities in government procurement practices, already discussed at previous 
reviews, remains valid and the Government is drawing up legislation to prevent corruption in this 
area. Thailand, a non-signatory to the WTO Plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement, became an observer at the WTO Committee on Government Procurement as of June 2015. 
3.8.  Thailand's competition policy framework, which does not cover public administration, 
state-owned enterprises, or farmers' cooper atives, remains unchanged though proposed 
amendments to, inter alia , expand its legislative scope are under consideration; enforcement 
remains moderate for a number of reasons. Many goods and services remain subject to varying 
degrees of price controls, i.e., maximum prices, ad vance notice of price change, and price display; 
the elimination of the price controls policy was under consideration due to its limited impact on 
inflation and effects on profitability and investment. Thailand's relatively comprehensive corporate 
governance framework and high levels of compliance with international standards in a number of 
key areas remains unchanged. 
3.9.  During the review period, Thailand continued to consider ways to strengthen protection of 
intellectual property rights by preparing new laws or legal amendments in several areas to, 
inter alia , align its legislative framework with the provisions of several international treaties 
(including those of the WTO on compulsory licensing) that it has not yet signed; the Copyright Act and the Trade Secrets Act amendments were the on ly laws passed but more are expected to be 
passed in the course of 2015. No new compulsory licences have been issued though one extended 
licence for HIV/AIDS medication will remain in place until 2016. Despite some legislative and institutional efforts, effective IPR enforcement remains a concern for some of Thailand's major 
trading partners who, inter alia , consider that more needs to be done to address longstanding 
organizational challenges and to prioritize related activities. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 40 - 
 
  3.2  Measures Directly Affecting Imports 
3.2.1  Customs clearance 3.2.1.1  Registration and documentation 3.10.  All importers and government agencies continue to be required to register. Until 2013 
special treatment was given to companies eligible for a "gold card" system.
1 Their benefits 
included: processing import procedures via the "green line"; a manifest written off after the 
clearance of goods; and, goods exempt from regula r inspection unless it is a random examination. 
Government agencies, state enterprises and compan ies granted duty exemptions by the Board of 
Investment were also eligible. As from 2013, the beneficiaries of the Gold Card Scheme are being shifted to the authorized economic operator (AEO) system (see below).
2  
3.11.   Improving customs procedures and trade facilitation in general remain important objectives 
of the Thai Government and a major concern for the private sector (section 3.2.1.2). The main 
policy objectives are transparency, simplicity , honesty, and quick and secure electronic 
processing.3 Measures are being taken to address persisting corruption allegations.4 Thailand is to 
complete the internal process necessary to ratify the WTO Agreement on Trade Facilitation by end 
of 2015 and at the same time establish a National  Committee on Trad e Facilitation und er the WTO.  
3.12.  Under the entirely paperless Thai Customs Electronic System (renamed as of 
February 2012), fully operational since 2008, there is no need to submit paper documents as all 
data is transmitted electronically from an impo rter computer system to the e-Customs system; 
according to the authorities the system now covers all shipments entering Thailand.5 In case of red 
line (i.e., high risk) shipments, the minimum set of documents required consists of: import 
declaration; bill of lading or air waybill; invoice; packing list; import licence (if applicable, 
section 3.2.4.3); certificates of origin (if applicable); and, other relevant documents such as catalogue, product ingredients, etc. 
3.13.  In line with United Nations, World Cu stoms Organization and ASEAN Agreement for the 
ASEAN Single Window provisions, a national single window (NSW) has been operational as from October 2011. The NSW enables electronic data and information sharing and integration between 
government-to-government partnerships (G2G), government-to-business partnerships (G2B) and 
business-to-business partnerships (B2B) for imports, exports, and logistics.
6 It also facilitates 
international cross-border data and information sharing between government and business sectors in Thailand and other countries. The registration system for electronic document sharing, single 
window entry, tracking and security service is  accessed by 36 government agencies and about 
125,000 Thai companies. The NSW aims to reduce time-consuming import and export processes and procedures, and minimize the cost of doing business in Thailand (logistics system) by at least 
US$3.2 billion annually.
7  
                                               
1 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012;  and Customs Department online information. 
Viewed at: http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/traders+and+business/customs+incentive+schemes/gold
+card+scheme/gold+card+scheme . 
2 If gold card importers or exporters did not apply for AEO status, their gold card status expired on 
1 October 2013. Those who applied for the status prior to 1 October 2013 still have the rights under the Gold Card Scheme until the Customs Department approv es them as an AEO im porter or exporter. 
3 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
4 According to both Thai and foreign companies, corru ption has remained a serious problem in this area. 
Preventive measures taken to deal with allegations of  corruption are the launch of a customs hotline, the 
operation of a joint committee with the private sector to develop customs services and better fringe benefits 
for customs officers. Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b); and USTR (2014). 
5 The e-Customs system comprises e-Import, e-Export, e-Manifest, e-Payment, and e-Warehouse 
facilities. WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012; and Customs Department online information. Viewed at: http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/e-customs/e-customs . 
6 Customs Department online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/nationsinglewindow/nationsinglewindow .  
7 Thailand National Single Window online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.thainsw.net/INSW/index.jsp?nswLang=E# . WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 41 - 
 
  3.14.  An Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) Programme was introduced covering exporters (as 
from 2011), and importers and customs brokers (as from February 2013).8 The AEO Programme is 
aimed at facilitating international trade to be sp eedy, cost-saving and time-saving. It is globally 
recognized by trading partners of Thailand in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. As of 28 May 2015, 
there were 128 companies authorized as AEO operators under the category of "importer and 
exporter", and 125 companies under the category of "customs broker". So far, Customs Administrations in Asia have shown interest in signing mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) with 
the Thai Customs Administration as one way to facilitate international trade for Thai 
entrepreneurs. The Customs Department signed an MRA with Hong Kong, China's Customs and Excise Department on 11 June 2015, and is in the process of negotiations with Korea (Rep. of) in line with an Action Plan signed on 24 Novemb er 2014. The development of a roadmap for MRA 
discussions with Singaporean Customs is under way.  According to the authorities the content of 
these MRAs is confidential.  
3.15.  Thailand, a signatory to the original International Convention on the Simplification and 
Harmonization of Customs Procedures (Kyoto Convention), became the 100
th contracting party to 
the Revised Kyoto Convention, a trade facilitation tool, on 12 June 2015.9  
3.16.  So far, Customs has conducted time release studies (TRS) four times (i.e., 2003, 2005, 
2006/2007, and 2012); whereas prior to 2012 the measured time covered only the clearance 
process, WCO's guidelines were followed thereafter in line with an ASEAN members' proposal.10 
The 2014 TRS, which will not be available prior to  October 2015, will replicate the 2012 TRS in 
order to produce comparable measurements and id entify opportunities for improvement. In 2012, 
the average time (green, red line) from arrival to release of goods/removal from port control was 
approximately 19 hours at seaports and about 29 minutes at border crossings. 
3.17.  According to World Bank Doing Business data, in 2014 Thailand was ranked in 36th place 
(33rd in 2013) out of 189 economies in the ease of trading across borders; at the same time it 
ranked 57th out of 138 countries in the World Economic Forum's Enabling Trade Index in 2014, and 
56th in its efficiency and transparency of border administration sub-index.11 Importing a standard 
container of goods required 5 documents, took 13 days, and cost US$760; exporting the same 
container required 5 documents, took 14 days, and cost US$595. According to the OECD trade facilitation indicators, as of 2013 Thailand perf ormed better than the average of Asian and upper-
middle-income countries in the areas of inform ation availability, involvement of the trade 
community, appeal procedures, harmonization and simplification of documents, automation, 
streamlining of procedures, external border  agency co-operation and governance and 
impartiality.
12 Its weakest performance was in the area of fees and charges, and considerable 
benefits in terms of trade volumes and trade cost s could be drawn from improvements in the area 
of fees and charges as well as in the area of advance rulings. 
                                               
8 An AEO is defined by the Worl d Customs Organization's (WCO) SAF E Framework of Standards as a 
party involved in the international movement of goods, in  whatever function, that has been approved by, or on 
behalf of, a national customs administration as comp lying with WCO or equivalent supply chain security 
standards. AEOs include, inter alia , manufacturers, importers,  exporters, brokers, carriers, consolidators, 
intermediaries, ports, airports, terminal operators, in tegrated operators, warehous es and distributors. UNECE 
online information. Viewed at: http://tfig.unece.org/contents/authorized-economic-operators.htm ; and 
Customs Department online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/Traders+And+Business/Customs+Incentive+Schemes/Au
thorized+Economic+Operator+(AEO)/A uthorized+Economic+Operator+(AEO) . 
9 The revised Kyoto Convention, which entered into force on 3 February 2006, promotes trade 
facilitation and effective controls through its legal provisions that detail the application of simple yet efficient procedures. The revised Convention also contains new and obligatory rules for its application which all Contracting Parties must accept  without reservation. WCO onli ne information. Viewed at: 
http://www.wcoomd.org/en/media/newsroom/2015/june/the-revised-kyoto-convention-now-has-101-
contracting-parties.aspx  and http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/facilitation/instrument-and-
tools/conventions/pf_revised_kyoto_conv.aspx ; and WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
10 PowerPoint presentation prepared by Pavaran Pa nmesin (Thai Customs Department), "Experience of 
Thailand for TRS", undated. Viewed at: http://unnext.unescap.org/ttf-sasec-pavaran.pdf . 
11 World Bank (2014a); Doing Business online data. Viewed at: 
http://www.doingbusiness.org/d ata/exploreeconomies/thailand/ ; and World Economic Forum (2014b). 
12 OECD online information (viewed at: http://www.oecd.org/tad/facilitation/Thailand_OECD-Trade-
Facilitation-Indicators.pdf ) based on OECD (2013). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 42 - 
 
  3.2.1.2  Customs valuation procedures 
3.18.  During the review period, customs valuation procedures remained unchanged.13 Under 
current procedures, valuation takes into account information on invoices and other documents, such as country of origin, quantity, composition of value, and description of goods. Valuation is 
based on the c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and freight)  price of imports. Customs officials accept the 
declared value shown on the invoice as the transactio n value, i.e. the export price actually paid or 
payable for the goods when sold to Thailand, adjusted and meeting prescribed conditions. If the 
transaction value cannot be applied, other methods are used in the following sequence: the 
transaction value of identical goods and similar goods; the deductive value; computed value; and a fall-back estimated value. Importers may appeal valuations within 30 days. The decision of the 
Appeal Committee is final except if the importer raises concerns in a tax court. The "advance 
ruling" policy for customs valuation available as an electronic advance ruling on valuation system 
was suspended in March 2015 due to doubts abou t the authenticity of documents submitted 
electronically. Data on under-invoicing cases is only available when officially requested by a 
market operator.   
3.19.  According to a major trading partner, there seems to be concern about the lack of 
transparency in Thailand's customs regime and th e significant discretionary authority exercised by 
Customs Department officials.
14 The Customs Department indicated that it has issued regulations 
and guidelines on customs valuation which are clear, fair, and consistent with the WTO Customs Valuation Agreement. During the review period the WTO dispute settlement case raised by the Philippines against Thailand's customs valuation pr actices, excise tax, health tax, TV tax, VAT 
regime, retail licensing requirements, and import guarantees imposed upon cigarette importers 
was seemingly concluded; in June 2014, both countries disagreed on the extent of implementation of the Dispute Settlement Body's recommendations and rulings.
15  
3.2.1.3  Rules of origin 
3.20.  Thailand does not have legislation on non-pr eferential rules of origin and the rules applying 
to preferential rules of origin are taken from the relevant agreement. For goods to be eligible for 
preferential tariff treatment, they must meet one of the following ROO criteria: wholly obtained in 
the country or unmanufactured raw materials of the country; or, substantial transformation.16 
Substantial transformation is defined as: chan ge of tariff classification; value-added above 
threshold; and, manufacturing processing (minimum transformation). Imports from ASEAN 
countries are subject to the rules of origin contained in the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement 
(ATIGA). Preferential rules of origin differ among RTAs.  
3.2.2  Tariffs  
3.2.2.1  Features  
3.21.  Since 2012, Thailand has applied the ASEAN Harmonized Tariff Nomenclature (AHTN) 
consisting of 9,558 tariff lines (8,300 in 2011) at the HS 8-digit level (Tables 3.1 and A3.1). The 
customs tariff and notifications of the Ministry of Finance and Customs are available in English 
                                               
13 Customs Department online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/traders+and+business/customs+valuation/gatt+valuatio
n/gatt .  
14 More specifically, these concerns of the United St ates refer to: the authorit y and discretion of the 
Customs Department's Director General  to increase the customs value of imports; the allegedly inconsistent application of Thailand's transaction valuation methodol ogy and reports of repeated use of arbitrary values; 
overly punitive penalties and the threat of criminal prosecution over minor or technical issues in import documentation; the publication/notification of proposed  changes to customs laws/regulations, and insufficient 
time for comments; and, the failure to publish cust oms rulings and the lengthy appeals process for these 
rulings. USTR (2014 and 2015a). 
15 More information on this case is available online. Viewed at: 
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds371_e.htm . 
16 Customs Department online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/traders+and+business/rules+of+origin+%28roo%29/pre
ferential+roo/preferentialroo  and 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/traders+and+business/rules+of+origin+%28roo%29/rule
soforigin%28roo%29 . WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 43 - 
 
  online ( http://igtf.customs.go.th/igtf/en/main_frame.jsp ). Thailand continues to submit its 
customs tariff and trade data regularly to the WTO Integrated Database; the latest notified 
customs tariff dated back to 2014.17 
3.22.   During the review period, there was no fundamental change in Thailand's tariff legislation. 
Whereas changes to statutory rates require legislative approval18, applied rates (or 
temporary/adjusted rates) may be modified by the Minister of Finance without Parliament's approval, subject to Cabinet consent. The Minister , with the approval of the Cabinet, may also 
charge a "special duty" for any goods at a rate not exceeding 50% of the relevant statutory rate in 
the Tariff Schedule (section 3.2.2.7). The Customs Department indicated that currently it does not apply this provision.  
3.2.2.2  Applied MFN tariffs  
3.23.   Thailand's average applied MFN tariff rate rose from 11.2% (2011) to 13.4% (2014) 
(Table 3.1) as a result of tariff line changes relating to the introduction of the HS2012 nomenclature and higher ad valorem equivalent (AVEs) rates (section 3.2.2.3). The movement to 
the HS2012 nomenclature involved tariff rate incr eases for around 600 tariff lines in 28 different 
HS chapters (e.g. coffee and tea, rice, certai n vegetable oils, tobacco, plastics and products 
thereof, iron and steel, certain engines and parts thereof, certain electrical machinery and parts 
thereof, tractors, parts of motorcycles and bicycles), and reductions for 25 tariff lines (e.g. cocoa, 
women's blouses of silk, crane lorries, gear boxes and parts thereof). Nearly all tariff rate increases are explained as follows: in 2011 a tariff line was subject to two rates (e.g. zero and 30%) but in 2014 only the higher rate (30%) was kept.  Furthermore,  Thailand undertook 
unilateral MFN tariff reductions on certain seafood  products whose rates were reduced from 5% to 
zero and became effective on 30 December 2014.
19 In response to structural changes in the 
production pattern and in order to reduce production costs and raise the competitiveness of 
domestic industries, it is also considering proceeding with further unilateral cuts and a 
simplification of its tariff structure in the course of 2015. MFN applied tariff rates on 54 items contained in the September 2012 APEC List of Environmental Goods that directly and positively 
contribute to green growth and sustainable developm ent objectives remain subject to tariffs of 5% 
or less.
20 In 2013/14, 5% of total tax receipts were from customs tariffs (Table 3.5, section 3.4.1).   
3.2.2.3  Structure 3.24.  During the review period, the structure of the customs tariff was changed by, inter alia , 
reducing the number of different ad valorem  tariff rates and dutiable lines. In 2014, around 74.6% 
(72.3% in 2011) of the tariff lines were subject to 42 ad valorem rates (excluding zero rate, 27 
in 2011). Some 17.6% (18.5% in 2011) of tariff lines now carry a zero rate (Table 3.1, 
Chart 3.1), 23.4% are subject to a rate of  5%, and 20.1% at a rate of 10%. Peak ad valorem  
rates stood at 218% (out-of-quota rate, onion seeds) and 80% (motor vehicles). The main features of the tariff, with respect to MFN duty rates and the full implementation of the Uruguay 
Round (and the ITA) commitments, are captured by the summary indicators for 2011 and 2014 in 
Table 3.1.  
Table 3.1 Thailand's tariff structure, 2011 and 2014 
(%, unless otherwise indicated) 
  MFN applied Final 
bounda 2011 2014 
Bound tariff lines (% of all tariff lines) 73.6 .. 73.6 
Simple average rate 11.3 
(11.2) 13.0  
(13.4) 28.1 
WTO agricultural products 26.7 
(26.6) 31.6 
(34.7) 37.1 
                                               
17 WTO document G/MA/IDB/2/Rev.41, 20 May 2015.  
18 There has been no change to statutory ra tes since the previous review of Thailand.   
19 Ministry of Finance Notification published in the Royal Gazette  on 29 December 2014 providing further 
duty reduction schedules under Section 12 of the Customs Tariff Decree B.E. 2530 ("Section 12") for imported seafood products cited at United States Department  of Agriculture online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.fas.usda.gov/data/thailand-us-exporters-benefit-import-tariff-reductions-seafood .  
20 APEC online information. Viewed at: http://www.apec.org/Mee ting-Papers/Leaders-
Declarations/2012/2012_aelm/2012_aelm_annexC.aspx . WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 44 - 
 
    MFN applied Final 
bounda 2011 2014 
WTO non-agricultural products 9.0 10.1 26.1 
Duty-free tariff lines (% of all tariff lines) 18.5 17.6 2.0 
Tariff quotas (% of all tariff lines) 1.2 1.2 1.7 
Non-ad valorem  tariffs (% of all ta riff lines) 9.2 7.8 9.6 
Domestic tariff "peaks" (% of all tariff lines)b 5.5 6.7 
(4.1) 0.8 
International tariff "peaks" (% of all tariff lines)c 24.2 27.4 87.7 
Overall standard deviation of tariff rates 14.1 17.5 
(23.7) 14.9 
Nuisance applied rates (% of all tariff lines)d 10.0 
(10.3) 9.1 
(9.3) 0.1 
Total number of tariff lines 8,300  9,558  6,107  
Duty-free rates 1,537  1,683  124  
Ad valorem  rates 6,000  7,129  5,397  
Specific rates 38  39  7  
Alternate rates 725  707  579  
.. Not available. 
a Based on 2011 tariff schedule. Calculations only based on 6,107 bound tariff lines. 
b Domestic tariff peaks are defined as those exceed ing three times the overall simple average applied 
rate. 
c International tariff peaks are defined as those exceeding 15%. d Nuisance rates are those greater than zero, but less than or equal to 2%. 
Note: 2011 tariff is based on HS07 nomenclature; 2014 is  based on HS12 nomenclature. Data in brackets 
refer to figures including AVEs for non- ad valorem  rates. For 2011, 36 AVEs, provided by the 
authorities, are included; for 2014, 427 AVEs, calculated by the WTO Secretariat, based on 2013 import figures, are included. For figures excluding AVEs, the ad valorem  part of alternate rates 
(only those stipulating "whichever is the higher") are taken into account. Excluding in-quota rates. 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on  data provided by the Thai authorities. 
Chart 3.1 Distribution of MFN applied tariff rates, 2011 and 2014 
(17.6) (34.0) 
(20.6)
(0.2)(6.0) 
(0.0)   (14.2) 
(0.1)(3.0)(3.6) 
( 0.5 )(18.5)(36.0)
(19.3)
(0.6)(5.8)
(0.1)(12.8)
(0.1)(2.7) (2.7)
05001,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,500
Duty free >0-5 >5-10 >10-15 >15-20 >20-25 >25-30 >30-35 >35-40 >40-100 >100Number of tariff lines
Tariff rates (%)MFN 2011
MFN 2014
 
Note: Figures in parentheses denote the share of total lines. 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities. 
3.25.  Some (7.8% (2014), 9.2% (2011)) tariff lines remain subject to non- ad valorem  (specific 
and alternative) duties,21 which tend to conceal relatively high tariff rates (Table 3.1). These 
involve 13 specific rates and 45 alternate rates compared to 15 and 69 in 2011, respectively. They 
                                               
21 An alternative duty involves the choice between an ad valorem  and a specific rate; the rate that yields 
the higher amount of duty of the two is applied provided the WTO tariff binding commitments are met 
(section 3.2.2.5).   WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 45 - 
 
  apply mainly to agricultural and food products, textiles, mineral products, and articles of stone. 
In 2014, ad valorem equivalents (AVEs) ranged from zero to 13.2% (table tennis tables) (23.1% 
(gambling tables) in 2011) for specific rates, and up to 1,091.9% (tamarind) for alternative rates.
22 These AVEs are the highest applied tariff rates in place. It should be noted that every 
method of calculating AVEs is subject to bias and that AVEs can vary widely depending on the 
import price of the product involved; this tends to be partly determined by exchange rate changes. 
3.2.2.4  Tariff dispersion and escalation 
3.26.  Tariff peaks in some sectors remain a potent ial distortion and thus a source of inefficiency. 
In particular, non-agricultural products continue to face considerably lower tariff rates (10.1%) than agriculture items (WTO definition) (34.7%); notably beverages, spirits, and tobacco, coffee and tea, and dairy (Table A3.1) remain significantly higher, thus reflecting sensitivities in these 
sectors. The highest average tariff outside of agri culture remains in transport equipment (36.5%). 
Domestic "tariff peaks" continue to affect 6.7% of tariff lines (4.1% excluding AVEs) (Table 3.1). 
3.27.  Overall, the average MFN applied tariff de-escalates for unprocessed and semi-processed 
goods, and escalates for fully-processed products (Table A3.1 and Chart 3.2). While partial 
de-escalation (i.e., first and second stage of processing) occurs in textiles and leather, and chemicals, the remaining activities are subject to positive tariff escalation, a potential impediment 
to the efficient allocation of resources.  
Chart 3.2 Tariff escalation by two-digit ISIC industry, 2014 
n.a.n.a.
0%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Total
manuf.Average applied rate in manufacturing
(12.6%)First stage of processing Semi-processed Fully processed
31   Food, beverages and tobacco      
32   Textiles and leather  
33   Wood and furniture      37   Basic metals
38   Fabricated metal products and machinery
39   Other manufacturing34   Paper, printing and publishing
35   Chemicals
36   Non-metallic mineral products  
n.a. Not applicable. 
Note: Calculations include AVEs for non- ad valorem rates, as available. 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities. 
3.2.2.5  Bound tariffs 
3.28.  Thailand's tariff Schedule of Concessions has remained based on the Harmonized 
Commodity Description and Coding System 2002 (see below); as a result it is virtually impossible 
to compare Thailand's bindings' status with the currently applied HS2012 tariff schedule. According 
to calculations made during the previous TPR of Thailand, based on the then applied 
HS07 nomenclature, as of 2011 it was estimated that 73.6% of tariff lines were bound (Table 3.1). Bindings covered 100% of agricultural tariff li nes and 68% of non-agricultural products (WTO 
                                               
22 These ad valorem  equivalents (AVEs) were computed on the basis of unit values for imports of the 
items concerned over the year 2013. The authorities indicated that according to an income-approach 
calculation (i.e., custom revenues/commodities values  x 100) in 2013 the AVEs for tamarind stood at 0.010% 
(HS 08.10.90.60) and 0.482% (HS 08.13.40.20).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 46 - 
 
  definitions) in the form of ad valorem , specific or alternative duties depending on the item.23 
Bound rates range from zero to 226% (raw silk) for agriculture, and from zero to 80% (motor 
vehicles). In 2011, Thailand's average bound rates exceeded average applied MFN rates by nearly 17 percentage points (Chart 3.3); maximum gaps of up to 70 or 82 percentage points could 
possibly affect ambulances of a certain cy linder capacity (HS8703.23.10) and shallots 
(HS0703.10). Differences between bound and applied rates provide scope for Thailand to raise applied tariffs up to the bound level, especially in sensitive sectors, but due to the 
non-comparability of nomenclatures mentioned abov e the use of this flexibility during the review 
period cannot be confirmed. Moreover, where the applied MFN rate is a specific rate and the bound rate an ad valorem  rate, observance of the binding commitments depends on the implementation 
of the "whichever is lower" principle; neverthe less, as of 2014, the new customs tariff contained 
only two tariff lines in this case (HS0703.10 (shallots), HS1005.10 (maize seed)), a major 
improvement compared to the past. No complaints on breaches of binding commitments have been made so far.  
Chart 3.3 Average applied MFN and bound tariff rates, by HS section, 2011 and 2014 
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2101   Live animals & products        
02   Vegetable products
03   Fats & oils      
04   Prepared food, etc.
05   Mineral products
06   Chemicals & products07   Plastic & rubber
08   Hides & skins
09   Wood & articles
10   Pulp, paper, etc.
11   Textiles & articles
12   Footwear, headgear13   Articles of stones
14   Precious stones, etc.
15   Base metals and products
16   Machinery
17   Transport equipment
18   Precision instruments19   Arms & ammunition
20   Miscellaneous manuf.
21   Works of art, etc.MFN 2011
MFN 2014 
Bound
Average applied rate
2011 (11.2%)
2014 (13.4%)Average bound rate
(28.1%)
 
Note: Calculations include AVEs for non- ad valorem  rates, as available. No HS sections are fully bound. 
Calculations of bound rates averages are based on the 2011 tariff schedule. 
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities. 
3.29.  During the review period and as of May 2014 Thailand has remained covered by waivers 
from Article II of the GATT 1994 to implement domestically the HS2007 (since December 2006) 
and HS2012 (since November 2011) changes, pending incorporation of such changes into its Schedule of Concessions (LXXIX).
24 Its HS2002 changes were certified on 21 September 2011 
(WT/Let/828).  
3.2.2.6  Tariff-rate quotas  
3.30.  In 2014, tariff-rate quotas covered 1.2% of all tariff lines (at HS eight-digit level), all of 
which related to 22 agricultural product groups (section 4.2.3.2). For tariff-rate quota (TRQ) 
products the WTO bound rates are the only applicable rates, and the rates used are only 
ad valorem  (i.e. the MFN applied/adjusted rates do not apply).25 Unlimited allocations for some 
items are restricted to certain producer groups whereas for the rest of the items allocation takes 
                                               
23 The unbound tariff lines include, salt, mineral fuels,  chemicals, fertilizers, pulp of wood, transport 
equipment, rubber products , and iron and steel.  
24 WTO documents WT/L/874, 14 December 2012; WT/L/875, 14 December 2012; WT/L/902, 
27 November 2013; and G/MA/W/23/Rev.10, 13 May 2014. 
25 WTO document WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 47 - 
 
  place on a demand basis to any importer. Certific ates (sections 3.2.4.3 and 4.2.3.2) are required 
in order to use tariff quotas. Fill rates vary  considerably from one quota to another.  
3.2.2.7  Special duties (or import surcharges) 3.31.  Thailand continues to impose product-specific surcharges.
26 Currently, they are levied on 
two items, i.e. fishmeal with a protein content of  less than 60% and maize (Table 3.2). At the time 
of past TPRs import surcharges were levied in the form of a specific duty on out-of-quota imports of: maize for feedstuff; soybean meal; and, flour/meal/pellets of fish or of crustaceans, molluscs 
or other aquatic invertebrates (HS 2301.20). The valuation basis for an ad valorem  surcharge is 
the rate of special duty times the rate of th e import duty divided by 100. According to the 
authorities these surcharges do not affect Thailand's tariff binding commitments and are solely imposed on out-of-quota imports of maize for feed. Furthermore, as Thailand allows sufficient 
quotas of maize for feed to cover importers' demands the surcharge has never been levied since 
the TRQ policy was implemented.  
3.32.  Under the Investment Promotion Act, the Board of Investment (BOI) can impose special 
fees on imports of goods similar to those produced  by a commercial entity promoted by the BOI at 
rates that it considers appropriate but not exceeding 50% of the price of the imported products concerned. It may request the Ministry of Commerce to ban such imports in the case that the 
special fees provide inadequate assistance to the relevant industry (section 3.2.4.1). No recourse 
to this measure has taken place since 2004. 
3.2.2.8  Tariff reduction and exemptions  3.33.  Thailand continues to support local industry through a number of schemes involving tariff 
reductions or exemptions for imports of, inter alia , machinery, equipment, and materials. This 
assistance, largely focused on export-related activities, continued to be delivered mainly through the tax and duty compensation, bonded warehouses  (below), free zone, and Board of Investment 
(BOI) schemes (sections 3.3.4 and 3.4.2.1).  
3.34.  Goods may be imported into a bonded warehouse without payment of import duties if they 
are to be used as inputs in products for export or are themselves re-exported; these imports must 
be stored and used in a production process for export within two years from the date of import 
(manufacturing-type bonded warehouse).
27 No information is available on exports benefiting from 
this measure or forgone customs duty revenue resulting from it.  
3.2.2.9  Preferential tariffs 
3.35.  Thailand maintains numerous unilateral preferential and regional trade agreements 
(section 2.4). Since its previous TPR, it has expanded its preferential trading commitments, both at regional and bilateral levels (section 2.4). Tariff- and TRQ-free access is provided to goods 
originating in ASEAN partners. As a member of ASEAN, Thailand applies the preferential trade 
agreements signed with China; Japan; India; Kore a (Rep. of); Australia; and New Zealand. It also 
maintains bilateral trade agreements with Australia; Japan; New Zealand; India; and Peru. 
Preferences are also granted to participants in  the Global System of Trade Preferences among 
Developing Countries (GSTP). Since 2015, Thailand has provided duty-free quota-free market access for imports from LDCs (section 2.4.3).  
                                               
26 WTO documents: WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008; and WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 
8 February 2012. 
27 In a bonded warehouse for vessel repair and cons truction, materials, parts, and accessories may be 
stored for a three-year period after import; in a bond ed warehouse for oil storage,  petroleum may be stored 
for a period not exceeding six months ; in the duty-free shop and storag e of duty-free goods type bonded 
warehouse, goods may be stored for a two-year period fro m the date of importation, which may be extended if 
necessary; and, in the general-type  bonded warehouse, goods may be stored for two years from the date of 
importation, extendable for up to one year if necessary  (e.g. in the case of "force majeure" or when the 
importer faces economic problems that  cause delays). For the criteria and conditions for the bonded warehouse 
schemes, see Customs online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/traders+and+business/customs+incentive+schemes/bon
ded+warehouses/bondedwarehouses . WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.2.3  Other charges affecting imports 
3.36.  In addition to fees for cargo handling, customs clearance, and post-clearance compliance 
activities, imported as well as domestic goods are subject to internal indirect taxes (section 3.4.1.1). Customs fees and charges remain  imposed on a cost-recovery basis rather than 
on import values, and similar for both imports and exports.  
3.2.4  Import prohibitions and licensing  3.37.  Thailand's system of import restrictions involving licensing and prohibitions has remained 
generally unchanged since its previous review. A number of import restrictions are in force for 
economic purposes, including on several additional  products made subject to import licensing or 
prohibition. Infant industry protection has been the main objective behind import restrictions since the 1970s but this has progressively changed.  
3.38.  Legislative authority for regulating impo rts is provided by the Export and Import Act 
B.E. 2522 (1979). The Act empowers the Minister of Commerce, with the approval of the Cabinet, to restrict imports for reasons of economic stability, public interest, public health, national 
security, peace and order, morals, or for any other reason in the national interest. Imports may be 
"absolutely" or "conditionally" prohibited; in the latter case (e.g. those requiring non-automatic licensing), they are allowed if specified conditions are satisfied. Various other laws stipulate import 
restrictions involving licensing requirements.
28 Under the Investment Promotion Act, the Board of 
Investment may request the Ministry of Commerce to ban imports of goods competing with those produced by a domestic industry, if the Board is of the view that other forms of protection (e.g., special fees, section 3.2.2.7) are not sufficient to assist the industry.  
Table 3.2 Products subject to import licensing and prohibition, 2015 
Commodity HS code Rationale Measures and 
condition 
Albuterol or salbutamol 2922.50.90 Public health Non-automatic licensing: 
import permitted with approval of the Food and Drug Administration 
Arms, military vehicles, 
hardware, and spare parts 
from or originated in the 
Great Socialist People's 
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya  UN Resolution  Absolutely prohibited  
Baraku/Shisha and electronic 
cigarette 9614.00.90, 2403.11.00, 
8543.70.90 National security, public 
health and public morals Import prohibited 
Caffeine and its salts 2939.30, 3003.40 Public health, social 
security Non-automatic licensing, 
allowed only with 
permission from the 
Department of Internal 
Trade, FDA, or other 
authority concerned 
Cane or beet sugar  1701.13.00, 1701.14.00, 
1701.12.00, 1701.91.00, 1701.99.11, 1701.99.19, 1701.99.90 Comply with market 
access commitment under the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
CFC refrigerators   Public health and 
environmental protection Import prohibited 
Clenbuterol  2922.19.90 Public health Non-automatic licensing: 
import is permitted with approval of the Food and Drug Administration 
Coconut 0801.11.00, 0801.12.00, 
0801.19.00 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Coconut oil 1513.11.00, 1513.19.10, 
1513.19.90 Comply with market 
access commitment under the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota  
                                               
28 WTO document G/LIC/N/1/THA/1, 28 September 2007. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Commodity HS code Rationale Measures and 
condition 
Coffee 0901.11.10, 0901.11.90, 
0901.12.10, 0901.12.90, 
0901.21.10, 0901.21.20, 
0901.22.10, 0901.22.20, 
0901.90.10, 0901.90.20 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Copra 1203.00.00 Comply with market 
access commitment under the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Counterfeit products  To prevent import of 
imitation and counterfeit 
products Absolutely prohibited  
Drug and pharmaceutical 
chemicals in 16 itemsa, in 
154 product categories  Economic security, public 
health, to accommodate domestic production Automatic licensing, with 
import certificate from authorities concerned 
Dry longan 0813.40.10 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Electrically and mechanically operated games 9504.30.10, 9504.30.20, 
9504.30.90, 9504.90.31, 9504.90.39, 9504.90.92, 9504.90.93 To protect public morals 
and national security Import prohibited 
Fishmeal with protein content 
of less than 60% 2301.20.10 Stabilize price of raw 
material used for animal 
food Non-automatic licensing: 
import not generally 
allowed 
Fishmeal with protein content 
of more than 60% 2301.20.20 Stabilize price of raw 
material used for animal 
food Import surcharge 
Garlic 0703.20.10, 0703.20.90, 
0712.90.10 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Glazed ceramic wares 6911.10.00, 6912.00.00 Public health Import prohibited: 
ceramic wares containing leads or cadmium in excess of a specific amount. Health certificate is required to certify that lead or cadmium is not in excess of a specification 
Gold 71.08 Economic security and 
stability Automatic licensing: 
Department of Foreign 
Trade authorizes the 
Department of Finance to 
grant licences 
Goods duplicating registered products  To prevent imports that 
violate registered product rights Absolutely prohibited  
Instant coffee and other 
extracts, essence and 
concentrates of coffee, and 
preparations with a basis of 
these extracts, essence or 
concentrates or with a basis 
of coffee 2101.11.10, 2101.11.90, 
2101.12.10, 2101.12.90 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Intaglio printing machinery 
and colour photo-copying apparatus 8443.19.00, 8443.32.90, 
8443.39.11, 8443.39.20, 8443.39.30, 8443.39.90 To prevent making of 
counterfeit money Automatic licensing 
Logs and sawn woods which 
are made of teak trees, or 
forbidden trees from the 
border of Tak and 
Kanchanaburi provinces 44.03, 44.07 To prevent the illegal 
logging along the border 
between Thailand and 
Myanmar and conserve 
natural resources Import prohibited 
Machinery and parts thereof 
which can be used to violate 
copyrights of cassette tape, video tape, and compact disc  To prevent the violation of 
intellectual property Non-automatic licensing 
Maize (corn) 1005.90.90 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota, import 
surcharge for non-WTO 
Members 
Marble (except marble block 
of 50x50x50 cm) 2515 (ex. 2515.12.10) To be consistent with the 
need for production and domestic use Non-automatic licensing: 
import not generally allowed WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Commodity HS code Rationale Measures and 
condition 
Medals, coins  To prevent making of 
counterfeit medals and 
coins Non-automatic licensing: 
import is allowed only by 
the Minister of Finance 
and other authorized 
entity  
Milk and cream 0401.10.10, 0401.10.90, 
0401.20.10, 0401.20.90, 0401.40.10, 0401.40.20, 0401.40.90, 0401.50.10, 0401.50.90, 2202.90.10, 2202.90.20, 2202.90.30, 2202.90.90 Comply with market 
access commitment under the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Milk and cream in powder 0402.10.41, 0402.10.49, 
0402.10.91, 0402.10.99 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Oil cake residues, from the 
extraction of soya bean oil 2304.00.90 Stabilize price of raw 
material used as animal food Tariff quota, import 
surcharge for non-WTO Members 
Onion 0703.10.11, 0703.10.19, 
0712.20.00 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Onion seeds 1209.91.10 Comply with market 
access commitment under the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Original sculptures and 
statuary, in any materials 97.03, 97.06  To prevent smuggling of 
historical objects or 
antiques Non-automatic licensing: 
Department of Foreign 
Trade authorizes the 
Department of Fine Art to 
grant licences 
Palm oil and its fractions 1511.10.00, 1511.90.11, 
1511.90.19, 1511.90.91, 1511.90.92, 1511.90.99, 1513.21.10, 1513.21.90, 1513.29.11, 1513.29.12, 1513.29.13, 1513.29.14, 1513.29.91, 1513.29.94, 1513.29.95, 1513.29.92, 1513.29.96,  1513.29.97
 Comply with market 
access commitment under the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Pepper 0904.11.10, 0904.11.20, 
0904.11.90, 0904.12.10, 
0904.12.20, 0904.12.90  Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Potassium permanganate 2841.61 Public morals, drug 
suppression  Automatic licensing, only 
for registered importers 
Potatoes  0701.10.00, 0701.90.00 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Raw silk 5002.00.00 Comply with market 
access commitment under the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Re-treaded or used pneumatic 
tyres of rubber for buses or 
trucks 4012.12.10, 4012.12.90, 
4012.20.21, 4012.20.29 Public health and 
environmental protection Import licensing 
Re-treaded or used pneumatic 
tyres of rubber for cars, motorcycles and bicycles, and waste, parings and scrap of rubber of cars, buses/trucks, motorcycles and bicycles 4012.11.00, 4012.20.10, 
4012.19.10, 4012.20.40, 4012.19.20, 4012.20.50, 4004.00.00 Public health and 
environmental protection Import prohibited 
Rice 1006.10.10, 1006.10.90, 
1006.20.10, 1006.20.90, 
1006.30.40, 1006.30.99, 
1006.30.20, 1006.30.91, 
1006.30.30, 1006.40.10, 
1006.40.90 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Silk yarn 5004.00.00 Accommodate current 
situation, industry protection Automatic licensing, with 
conditions set by Department of Foreign Trade 
Soya bean oil and its fractions 1507.10.00, 1507.90.10, 
1507.90.90 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Commodity HS code Rationale Measures and 
condition 
Soya beans 1201.10.00, 1201.90.00 Comply with market 
access commitment under the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Tea  0902.10.10, 0902.10.90, 
0902.20.10, 0902.20.90, 
0902.30.10, 0902.30.90, 
0902.40.10, 0902.40.90 Comply with market 
access commitment under 
the Agriculture Agreement Tariff quota 
Used car bodies and 
motorcycle frames 87.07, 8714.10.20, 
8714.10.90, 8714.91 Economic security and 
public safety Import prohibited 
Used diesel engines with 
displacement of 331-1,110 cc. 8408.90 Public health and safety Non-automatic licensing: 
import not generally 
allowed 
Used motor vehicles 8703.21, 8703.229, 
8703.239, 8703.249, 
8703.319, 8703.329, 
8703.339 Public health and 
environmental protection Absolutely prohibited 
Used motor vehicles for the 
transport of 30 or more 
persons (see below) 8702.90 Public health and 
environmental protection Non-automatic licensing: 
import not generally 
allowed, except as 
prototype for assembly or 
production 
Used motorcycle engines and 
accessories 8407.31, 8714.19, 72.04, 
76.02 Public health and safety  Absolutely prohibited  
Used motorcycles  87.11 Public health Non-automatic licensing: 
import not generally 
allowed 
Volatile alkyl nitrite 
substances 2920.90.90 Public health, social and 
national security  Non-automatic licensing: 
volatile alkyl nitrite substances require import permit: (1) Amyl nitrite; (2) Cyclohexyl nitrite; (3) Ethyl nitrite; (4) Isobutyl nitrite; (5) Isopropyl nitrite; and (6) n-Butyl nitrite 
Waste and scrap of plastics 39.15 Environmental and public 
health Non-automatic licensing: 
with approval of the 
Department of Industrial 
Works 
Worked monumental or building stone 68.02 To be consistent with the 
need for production and domestic use Non-automatic licensing: 
import not generally allowed 
Yellowfin tuna 0302.32 Environmental protection Import certificate 
required from the 
Department of Fishery 
a Aristolochia spp., chloramphenicol, chloroform, chlorpromazine, colchicin, dapsone, nitrofurans, 
diethylstilbestrol, sulfonamides, fluoroquinolones, glycopeptides, dimetridazole, metronidazole, ronidazole, ipronidazole , and nitroimidazoles. 
Source: WTO documents WT/TPR/S255/Rev.1, 8 Febr uary 2012; G/LIC/N/3/THA/5, 14 September 2012; and 
G/LIC/N/3/THA/6k, 12 September 2013; and information provided by the authorities.  
3.2.4.1  Import prohibitions  
3.39.   In general, import prohibitions are used only to protect public morals, national security, 
human, animal, or plant life, health, and intellectual property rights (IPRs), in accordance with Article XX on General Exceptions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947 
(GATT 1947). Products that are absolutely prohibited include counterfeit goods, baraku/shisha and 
electronic baraku/shisha or electronic cigarette, CFC refrigerators, electrically and mechanically operated game machines, certain glazed ceramics wares, goods duplicating registered products, 
re-treaded or used pneumatic tyres of rubber for cars, motorcycles and bicycles and waste, paring 
and scrap of rubber of cars, buses/trucks, motorcycles and bicycles, used car bodies and motorcycle frames, used motor vehicles for the transport of 30 or more persons, and, used motorcycle engines and accessories (Table 3.2). Imports of all endangered species, including fish, 
molluscs, amphibians, and corals etc., under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade 
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) are authorized only in exceptional circumstances.  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.40.  To prevent illegal logging, imports of logs and sawn wood made of teak trees or forbidden 
trees from the border of Tak and Kanchanaburi provinces remain prohibited. Bans (based on UN Resolutions) on imports of diamonds, logs, and w ooden products from Liberia were lifted in 2007, 
and on diamonds from Sierra Leone in 2007 and 2 003. Thailand accepts the Kimberly Certification 
Process. For SPS and TBT measures affecting imports see section 3.2.6.  
3.2.4.2  Import licensing 3.41.  Products subject to non-automatic licensing currently include the 22 agricultural items under 
tariff quota (section 3.2.2.6 and 4.2.3.2) and processed goods (including abuterol or salbutamol, 
caffeine and its salts, clenbuterol, fishmeal with a protein content of less than 60%, machinery and parts thereof which can be used to violate copyrights of cassette tape, video tape, and compact disc, marble (except marble block of 50x50x50 cm), medals and coins, original sculptures and 
statuary in any materials, certain re-treaded or used pneumatic tyres of rubber for buses or 
trucks, used diesel engines with displacement of 331-1,100 cc, used motor vehicles for the transport of 30 or more persons, used motorcycles,  certain volatile alkyl nitrite substances, waste 
and scrap of plastics, worked monumental or building stone (Table 3.2).  An automatic import 
licen
sing system currently applies to certain drug and pharmaceutical chemicals in 16 items, gold, 
intaglio printing machinery and colour photoc opying apparatus, and potassium permanganate. 
Product coverage can be changed through Ministry of Commerce notifications. Since 2008, an 
e-licensing system, part of the system connectin g to the 2005 national single window, has been 
operated under an MOU on Electronic Data Linkage for storing data on the licences/permits relating to customs clearance with 36 government agencies.
29  
3.42.  New import requirements for automotive tyres entered into force on 13 March 2013 after 
their publication in the Government  Gazette  on 12 January 2013 to ensure public safety by 
reducing the risks associated with the importation of substandard or non-standard products; they 
were notified to the WTO in March 2013, i.e., their date of entry into force, and the authorities 
consider that the transitional period enabled seamless compliance with the measure.30 Besides 
importer registration, the regulation requires importers to avail themselves of, in addition to 
required documentation under the existing import Custom Procedure Code, a Certificate of 
Competent Authority (COCA) issued by the govern ment of the exporting country, or by certified 
entities or institutions guaranteed by the govern ment, or certified entities empowered to issue the 
certification of the producing country; it seems that standards required by such regulation remain 
ambiguous. The new regulation also obliges im porters to keep new pneumatic tyres of rubber 
separately from other types of products and report  import and export activities, possession, sales, 
distribution and stock inventory of tyres to the Department of Foreign Trade (DFT) on a monthly 
basis. Different storage requirements apply to foreign and domestically produced tyres to facilitate 
the verification by the authority as the latter are controlled by the Thai Industrial Standards Institute (TISI) (section 3.2.6.1). As of June 2015 Thailand was in the process of drafting a 
mandatory industrial standard for new pneumatic tyres of rubber; the authorities indicated that 
when this mandatory industrial standard becomes effective, the necessity and suitability of the measure on imported tyres may be reviewed.  
3.43.  Despite criticism that conditions attached to import licensing on various items tend to be 
complex and opaque, and in some cases appear equivalent to quantitative restrictions, the 
authorities indicated that they publish all the document requirements and procedures in each 
import licensing notification. The documents required are relevant and necessary for import 
administration, and the entire procedure is conducted in a uniform, impartial, and reasonable 
manner. 
                                               
29 Customs Department online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/nationsinglewindow/nationsinglewindow .  
30 WTO document G/TBT/N/THA/413, 15 March 2013; Eu ropean Commission Directorate-General for 
Trade (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 53 - 
 
  3.44.  Thailand indicated that its replies to the WTO Import Licensing Questionnaire submitted to 
the Committee on Import Licensing in September 2010 remained valid for the years of 2011, 2012, and 2013; its next submission is expected in the course of 2015.
31 
3.2.4.3  Import quotas 
3.45.  According to the authorities, Thailand maintains no import quotas apart from those relating 
to its TRQ commitments under the Agreement on Agriculture (sections 3.2.2.6 and 4.2.3.2).  
3.2.5  Contingency measures32  
3.2.5.1  Anti-dumping and countervailing measures 
3.46.  The legislative basis for anti-dumping and countervailing measures, the Anti-dumping and 
Subsidized Import Act, B.E. 2542 (1999), remains unchanged since the last TPR. The Ministry of Commerce is the government agency responsible for policy on contingency measures, including 
safeguards (section 3.2.5.2). Its Department of Foreign Trade conducts investigations while the 
Committee on Dumping and Subsidies is responsible for making preliminary and final determinations. An investigation may be started on the initiative of the Committee or in response 
to a petition from the Department of Foreign Trade or from the domestic industry. The start of an 
investigation is announced through its publication in the Royal Gazette  and local newspapers (in 
Thai and English). In addition, the Department of Foreign Trade is required to inform petitioners, 
plus known exporters and importers of the product, or  their representatives, of the initiation of an 
investigation. 
3.47.  With 61 cases (56 in 2011) initiated between 1995 and end-June 2014, Thailand remains a 
relatively infrequent user of anti-dumping ranking 19
th out of 48 Members having initiated 
investigations, and at about a third below the average number of investigations launched by WTO 
Members.33 Thailand did not initiate any new investigations in the period 2013-2014. As of 
31 December 2014, 36 anti-dumping measures in the form of duties were in force on 13 products, 
mainly several types of steel or steel alloys (9 items) as well as sodium tripolyphosphate, inner 
tubes of rubber for motorcycles, and certain ceramics (e.g., tiles, and cubes).34 Nineteen of these 
measures were extensions of existing measures be yond their sunset period. Action affected mostly 
products originating in Asia (27, mainly China (12), Chinese Taipei (5), and Korea (Rep. of) (4)), 
but also the Commonwealth of Independent States (3), Africa (2), the EU (2), and South America (2). Thailand has never had recourse to, nor has notified the WTO Committee on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures of the initiation of any investigation or application of any 
countervailing duty measures.  
3.48.  The Anti-dumping and Subsidized Import Act allows appeals to the Intellectual Property and 
International Trade Court. Since 2011, Committee determinations have been challenged three 
times and these appeals are still with the Court. 
3.2.5.2  Safeguards 3.49.  Thailand's safeguards legislation, th e Safeguard Measures on Increased Imports Act 
B.E. 2550 (2007), remains unchanged.
35 A safeguard investigation may be initiated following a 
petition to the Department of Foreign Trade (Ministry of Commerce) by a domestic producer of a like or directly competitive product that, after being checked, is passed to the Committee on Safeguard Measures for a determination. The Department of Foreign Trade, which has 
investigative authority, may also submit a petition to the Committee on its own initiative, based on 
                                               
31 Article 7.3 of the Agreement on Import Licensin g Procedures requires all Members to answer the 
Questionnaire on Import Licensing Procedures by 30 September each year. WTO do cuments G/LIC/N/3/THA/3, 
30 September 2010 and G/LIC/N/3/THA/6, 12 September 2013. 
32 More information on Thailand's contingency me asures framework is avai lable in WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
33 WTO online information. Viewed at: 
https://www.wto.org/engl ish/tratop_e/adp_e/AD_InitiationsByRepMem.pdf .  
34 WTO document G/ADP/N/265/THA, 5 February 2015. 
35 More information on Thailand's safeguards  framework is available in WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 54 - 
 
  evidence of increased imports and injury to domestic industry. Similarly to anti-dumping and 
countervailing procedures, the Department of Foreign Trade notifies the initiation of an investigation by publishing it in the Royal Gazette  and in the national press in English and Thai, as 
well as directly informing petitioners and other known interested parties. The Committee's final 
determination may impose a safeguard measure in th e form of an additional duty, a quantitative 
restriction, or another measure to reduce the volume of imported goods so that the domestic producer(s) of the like or directly competitiv e product can implement an adjustment plan. The 
maximum period for the safeguard measure is four years, extendable, if necessary, to a total of 
ten years.  
3.50.  Recourse to safeguard measures intensified as compared to the situation at the last TPR due 
to the fact that all rules and regulations relating to the 2007 safeguards legislation were fully 
announced in 2010. During the review period, Thailand notified the WTO's Committee on 
Safeguards that definitive safeguards in the form of duties were imposed on: glass block (HS 7016.9000) from 18 August 2011 to 14 Janua ry 2014 and extended from 15 January 2014 to 
14 January 2017; hot rolled steel flat products with certain amounts of alloying elements such as 
boron, chromium, etc., in coils and not in coils at ad valorem  rates of 44.20%, 43.57%, 
and 42.95% of c.i.f. price, respectively, fr om 15 September 2013 to 26 February 2016; and, 
non-alloy hot rolled steel flat products in coils and not in coils, of a thickness of 0.9–50.0 mm and 
a width of 600.0–3,048.0 mm for a period of three years starting from 24 December 2014 to 6 June 2017 (preceded by preliminary duties as from 7 June 2014).
36 An investigation into 
increased imports of woven fabrics was opened in February 2012 but was terminated in 
August 2013 without the imposition of measures.37 
3.51.  Concerning sector-specific safeguards, during  the review period Thailand did not invoke the 
special safeguard (SSG) provisions under Article 5 of the WTO Agreement on Agriculture 
(section 4.2.3.2).38 Thailand reserved its right to take SSG action on 55 HS02 eight-digit items 
including milk, potatoes, onions, garlic, coconuts, coffee, tea, pepper, maize, rice, copra, soya-bean oil, crude palm/coconut oil, sugar, non-alcoholic beverages, tobacco, and raw silk.  
3.2.6  Standards and other technical requirements
39 
3.2.6.1  Standards, testing, and certification 3.52.  During the review period Thailand's Strategic Plan (2011-2015)
40 was aimed at developing 
standards that meet sectoral needs and intern ational standards, developing a conformity 
assessment system in line with international guidelines, and increasing standards awareness for all 
stakeholders. As of June 2015, the Strategic Plan was under review and a new plan (2016-2020) was under consideration. The institutional framework for standards and conformity assessment 
remains unchanged. Several bodies are responsible for different aspects of technical regulations 
and standards: the Thai Industrial Standards Inst itute (TISI), under the Ministry of Industry; the 
National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards (ACFS), under the Ministry of 
Agriculture and Cooperatives; the Ministry of Commerce (policy and legislation on metrology); 
and, the National Institute of Metrology (Thailand ), under the Ministry of Science and Technology; 
the Office of the National Standardization Council of Thailand, the Department of Medical Service, the Department of Science Service, and the ACFS are responsible for accreditation of organizations 
for conformity assessment.  
                                               
36 WTO documents G/SG/N/8/THA/1/Suppl.3 - G/SG/N/10/THA/1/Suppl.1 - G/SG/N/11/THA/1/Suppl.3, 
2 September 2011; G/SG/N/6/THA/3, 17 December 2012; G/SG/N/10/THA/2/Suppl.1 - G/SG/N/11/THA/2/Suppl.3, 6 November 2014; and, G/ SG/N/8/THA/3-G/SG/N/10/THA/3-G/SG/N/11/THA/4, 
15 January 2015. 
37 WTO document G/SG/N/9/THA/1, 12 September 2013. 
38 WTO document G/AG/N/THA/77, 14 April 2014. 
39 More information on Thailand's standards framew ork and procedures is available in WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012; and TISI, AC FS, and MOST online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.tisi.go .th/eng/index.php , http://www.acfs.go.th/eng/index.php , and 
http://www.most.go.th/eng/index.php/agencies-under-most/detail-nimt . 
40 Thai Industrial Standa rds Institute online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.tisi.go.th/ eng/index.ph p/item/124 .   WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.2.6.1.1  Voluntary, compulsory,  national, and aligned standards 
3.53.  Voluntary standards are often made compulsory (or regulatory) by reference to technical 
regulations. In developing standards and tec hnical regulations, the TISI works with other 
government agencies and private-sector organizations; the network of agencies and organizations 
involved depends on the standard. Between 2011 and 2015, the TISI established 3,175 Thai 
industrial standards (TISs) (2,979 in 2011); as of 30 April 2015, 3,075 TISs (2,718 in 2011) were voluntary, and 100 TISs (99 in 2011) were compulsory. As of May 2015, out of the 
100 compulsory standards 32 related to electrical/electronic engineering, 26 to civil and 
construction material, 21 to mechanical engineering and vehicles, and 21 to consumer products. As of March 2015, 161 TISs had been withdraw n and replaced. As of 30 April 2015, 1,025 TISs 
had adopted international standards (993 in 2011).  
3.54.  On 25 January 2014 a mandatory conformity assessment procedure was imposed on 
ceramic tiles, which requires a seemingly burdensome and costly certification process (e.g. on-site certification, the disclosure of manufacturers' confidential information and certification per line of 
production).
41 Concerns were raised about the practicalities of the new standard, in particular the 
discrepancies between Thai and international standards ISO 13006:2012 requiring the TISI mark 
to be attached to each and every tile and differences in the water absorption levels.  
3.2.6.1.2  Accreditation and quality management standards 
3.55.  Manufacturers that have been awarded ISO 9000 certification are exempt from assessment 
of their quality control systems; a quality management system certificate for a product or product group is generally accepted provided it is issued by either the ISO 9000 certification body 
accredited by the Office of the National Standa rdization Council of Thailand, or by the ISO 9000 
certification body approved by the Industrial Product Standards Council. As at 7 May 2015, there were 247 TISI-accredited testing laboratories and at 11 March 2015, 152 calibration laboratories. 
As at 7 May 2015, there were 16 accredited inspection bodies. As at 7 May 2015, there were 
9 accredited quality management system cert ification bodies, 9 accredited environment 
management system certification bodies, 1 accredited product certification body and 1 accredited 
energy management system certification body authorized to issue certificates in line with 
international and national standards, such as the ISO 9000, ISO 14000, ISO 22000 and ISO 27001, and HACCP (Hazard Assessment Critical Co ntrol Point) food safety standards. There 
were 373 companies with ISO 9000 certification, 895 with ISO 14000 certification, and 
320 companies certified to other standards.
42  
3.2.6.1.3  International cooperation  3.56.  Since its last review, Thailand has not signed any new mutual recognition 
agreements (MRAs). Thailand maintains standards-related agreements, including: a bilateral MRA 
on automotive products; and various APEC MRAs.
43 It has also signed: the Pacific Accreditation 
Cooperation Multilateral Recognition Arrangement and IAF Multilateral Recognition Arrangement, 
the Asia Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation Multilateral Recognition Arrangement, the 
International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation Multilateral Recognition Arrangement, and the Asia Pacific Legal Metrology Forum Memorandum of Understanding. Thailand is a member of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Electrotechnical 
Commission (IEC), and the International Telecommunications Union. It is also active in regional 
standards organizations such as the Pacific Area Standards Congress, and the ASEAN Consultative Committee for Standards and Quality.  
                                               
41 European Commission Director ate-General for Trade (2014).   
42 TISI online list. Viewed at: http://app.tisi.go.th/lab/testing/tlas_e.html ; and TISI online information. 
Viewed at: http://www.tisi.go.th/eng/certification/item/61-system-certifications-in-thailand-iso-9000-iso-
14000-ohs-etc.html . 
43 Including the APEC Mutual Recognition Arrangemen t on Conformity Assessme nt of Electrical and 
Electronic Equipment (APEC Electrical MRA - Part I) (since 1999); the APEC MRA on Conformity Assessment of 
Foods and Food products (APEC Food MRA); the APEC MR A on Conformity Assessment of Telecommunications 
Equipment (APEC Tel MRA); and the APEC Arrangement for the Exchange of Information on Toy Safety. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.2.6.1.4  Transparency  
3.57.  Between 2011 and 2014, Thailand made 83 notifications under the WTO Agreement on 
Technical Barriers to Trade; the majority being under Article 2.9 of the Agreement (more than 67).
44 In more than half of these cases (more than 50) the submission allowed for a comment 
period of 60 days or more. Over the same period specific trade concerns (STCs) were raised by 
certain Members on Thailand's rules, procedure and condition for labels of alcoholic beverages (sections 3.2.6.3 and 3.4.6.2.2), the TIS for ceramic tiles, the certificate requirement and 
administrative measure relating to importation of new pneumatic tyres of rubber, and health 
warnings for alcoholic beverages. The WTO enquiry point for technical regulations relating to industrial products is the TISI, and for food and agricultural products it is the National Bureau of Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards (ACFS). Thailand has accepted the Code of Good 
Practice for the Preparation, Adoption and A pplication of Standards in Annex 3 of the TBT 
Agreement.
45 In line with the Code, the TISI's work programme, listing draft TISs and their stage 
of development, is published biannually and available online 
(http://www.tisi.go.th/work_prg/stage0e.html and http://www.tisi.go.th/eng/tisi-work-
programme.html ) together with TISs in force.  
3.2.6.2  Sanitary and phytosanitary measures 
3.58.  Thailand, a leading world exporter of agricu ltural and fisheries products primarily due to its 
well-developed food processing sector, has continue d its efforts to maintain an efficient sanitary 
and phytosanitary (SPS) regime. In several respects, the Thai SPS system is more similar to that of developed countries than that of its neighbouring  countries as it needs to serve a modern export 
industry, as well as traditional production and distribution systems in rural areas and on its land 
borders.
46 Responsibility for sanitary and phytosanitary measures remains shared between: the 
ACFS (policy formulation and implementation, se ction 3.2.6.1); the Departments of Agriculture 
(plant health), Livestock Development and Fisheries (animal health) of the Ministry of Agriculture 
and Cooperatives (MOAC); and, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the Ministry of Public 
Health. The trend towards primary responsibility being given to the private sector and more 
coordination by the Government is being continued. Border release processes are backed up by 
substantive controls focused on hazard prevention. Food safety control measures include hazard prevention, inspections and surveillance on import s and domestic production apparently based on 
the risk analysis principle and scientific evidence.   
3.2.6.2.1  Food standards-setting framework 
3.59.  During the review period there have been no major changes to Thailand's legislative 
framework for SPS measures. Regulatory changes have affected: the methodologies for sampling 
of consignments for phytosanitary inspection (TAS 9036-2012, 19 September 2012); diagnosis of 
foot-and-mouth disease (TAS 10400-2012, 16 November 2012); diagnosis of swine influenza (TAS 10050-2013, 25 June 2013); maximum residue limits (MRLs) (TAS 9002-2013, 
13 February 2014); and, tr aceability in agricultural commoditi es and food chains (TAS 9028-2014, 
6 October 2014).
47 T h a i l a n d ,  a  m e m b e r  o f  t h e  W o r l d  O r g a n i s a t i o n  f o r  A n i m a l  H e a l t h  ( O I E ) ,  a  
contracting party to the International Plant Prot ection Convention (IPPC), and a member of the 
Codex Alimentarius, generally follows standards set by them where they exist. New regulations are 
based on an analysis of the risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication. Draft 
regulations are subject to a public hearing an d are notified to the SPS Committee in the WTO 
(section 3.2.6.2.3) before being approved by the Food Committee of the FDA, which includes 
consumer and industry representatives.   
3.60.  Under the Food Act B.E. 2522 (1979), food products are classified into four groups, in 
descending order of risk, with different requiremen ts for registration, labelling (section 3.2.6.3), 
and obligatory standards: specifically controlled foods subject to registration before 
production/import, and FDA specifications, packagin g and labelling requirements (7 food products, 
mainly infant and children formula products); prescribed food to have quality or standard subject 
                                               
44 WTO documents G/TBT/31,  2 March 2012; G/TBT/33, 27 February 2013; G/TBT/34, 7 March 2014; 
G/TBT/36, 23 February 2015; and, WT/TPR/OV/17, 24 November 2014. 
45 WTO document G/TBT/CS/N/21, 22 November 1995. 
46 van der Meer (2014). 
47 ACFS online information. Viewed at: http://www.acfs.go.th/eng/gen eral_standard.php?pageid=2 .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  to specific quality of requirements (30 food products including coffee, honey, butter and fish 
sauce); prescribed food to have Label subject to specific labelling requirements (11 food products 
including bread, meat, chewing gum and candy); and,  lowest risk category subject to other food 
requirements. Registration for production or imports for all food must meet, and are monitored for, 
specific hygiene, safety, labelling, and marketing/advertisement requirements.   
3.2.6.2.2  Quarantine requirements 3.61.  All importers and manufacturers of food products must obtain a licence from the Bureau of 
Food of the FDA, which must be renewed every three years. Certain food products, whether 
imported or domestically produced, must comply with the Code of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) (since July 2003) set out in Ministerial No tification No. 193, BE 2543 (2000) Re: Production 
Processes, Production Equipment, and Foods Storag es. The 57 products on the list include infant 
food, several dairy products, edible oils, tea, coff ee, and food products of animal origin. Importers 
are required to show a certificate, from the resp onsible government agency or another institution 
recognized by an international accreditation agency, indicating that production standards are 
equivalent to Thailand's GMP Regulations, such as good practice based on guidelines from Codex 
Alimentarius or ISO 9000, HACCP or ISO 22000.   
3 . 6 2 .   I m p o r t s  o f  c h i l l e d  o r  f r o z e n  m e a t  m u s t  h a v e  a n  i m p o r t  p e r m i t  f r o m  t h e  D e p a r t m e n t  o f  
Livestock Development (under the Ministry of Ag riculture and Cooperatives (MOAC)) and a health 
certificate from the country of origin. Upon arrival, each consignment of chilled and frozen meat must be inspected by the Animal Quarantine Station at the port of entry.  
3.63.  Plants and plant products are divided into  three categories: prohibited; restricted; and not 
prohibited with different import procedures applying to each.
48 All imports of plants and plant 
products must be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate from the competent authorities in the exporting country. An import permit is also re quired for prohibited articles and the plant 
quarantine officer must be notified when the consignment arrives at the port of entry. Imports of 
prohibited or restricted articles must be made through the plant quarantine station for inspection by the plant quarantine official; and a pest risk an alysis is also required for imports of prohibited 
articles.   
3.64.  Thailand prohibits imports of several food products on health grounds. The list includes 
foods containing several additives, such as some sweeteners, puffer fish, and some food 
containing elements derived from genetically modi fied maize that have a Cry9C DNA sequence in 
accordance with Notification of the Ministry of  Public Health No. 345 B.E. 2555. The 2013 Thai 
Agricultural Standard on Pesticide Residues: Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) replaced the 2008 Standard.
49 The 2013 MRL, a voluntary standard covering 48 pesticides in agricultural commodities 
used as food and feed, serves as reference for th e production, trade, and control and inspection of 
agricultural commodities produced, imported , and exported. Although Thailand has not 
deregulated any genetically engineered (GE) plants for cultivation, it allows the importation of 
GE soybeans, and corn grain for processed foods, feed, and industrial use.50 Under the 2008 
Cabinet's Resolution, applications for open field trials and commercial cultivation of GM products must be submitted to the MOAC for the evaluati on of the application, public hearing, and 
preparation to the Minister's Officer for government approval; since then, a single application has 
been received for an open field trial. All agricultural biotechnology regulations remain the same. A 
GE corn seeds NK603 application for a greenhouse trial was completed in 2011; a request to conduct an open field trial was submitted, went through a public hearing, and is currently under 
evaluation by the Department of Agriculture. It is estimated that 95% of total soybean imports 
were biotech soybeans while 60-70% of total cotton imports were also biotech in 2012. 
                                               
48 Plant Quarantine Act BE 2507 (1964), as amended by Act 2542 (1999) and Act 2551 (2008), and the 
Notification of Department of Agriculture Re: Criter ia, Procedures and Conditions for the Importation or 
Bringing in Transit of Prohibited, Restricted and Unprohibited Articles, BE 2551 (2008). 
49 Pesticide Residues: Maximum Residue Limits, TAS 9002-2013, Volume 131, Special Section 32 (Ngo), 
13 February 2014. Viewed at: http://www.acfs.go.th/standard/downlo ad/eng/MAXIMUM_RESIDUE_LIMITS.pdf .  
50 Four main government agencies are involved in  the approval of agricultural biotechnology: the 
Department of Agriculture (MOAC); the National Center  for Genetic Engineering an d Biotechnology (BIOTEC) 
(Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST); the Mini stry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE); 
and, the FDA. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2014b). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.65.  Some concerns about SPS-related import bans and food safety inspection fees for meat 
remain. Thailand has not yet lifted its long-standing ban on feed or feed ingredients from the United States that contain, or are derived from, ruminant animals despite the World Animal Health Organisation (OIE) having recognized the United States as a negligible bovine spongiform 
encephalopathy (BSE) risk country in 2013.
51 It also requires inspection and approval of 
US manufacturing facilities that produce certain animal-derived products as a condition of import.
52 The authorities indicated that while the Codex Alimentarius Commission established MRLs 
for ractopamine in cattle and pig tissues in 2012 the Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Public 
Health had banned the use of beta-agonist compounds in feed and food, including ractopamine both in domestic production as well as import since 2003. Risk analysis by Codex considers the safety of consuming four kinds of tissue only while consumers in Thailand consume many internal 
organs. Thailand maintains a monitoring and surveillance programme for illegal use of 
beta-agonists, such as collection of samples of  animal feed and animal urine to determine the 
residues at farms, animal quarantine checkpoints and slaughterhouses. Domestic food safety 
inspection fees for uncooked meat are significantly lower than those affecting imports in the form 
of import permit fees; a new Animal Epidemics Act, effective since 2014, whose implementing regulations were still pending as of end-June 2015, could result  in a fivefold increase in inspection 
fees, from the current ceiling rates of B 20/kg (US$667/MT) to B 100/kg (US$3,330/MT).
53 The 
authorities indicated that these two types of fees  differ in terms of both their perspectives and 
purposes.54  
3.66.  Some additional SPS issues of concern cons ist of remaining gaps in the food control system 
for domestic products and those of neighbouring countries.55 Furthermore, concerning imports of 
fruit, vegetables and fisheries products it appears that limited consideration is given to the safety of the source and the reputation of traders.
56 The authorities indicated that in general the SPS 
system functions effectively as a tool for market access, and is moderately effective as a tool for 
ensuring domestic food safety; the performance of the SPS food safety control system against 
health hazards is moderately efficient.   
3.2.6.2.3  Transparency  
3.67.  Between 1 January 2011 to 12 June 2015, Th ailand made 27 regular notifications to the 
WTO Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (including revisions), and 9 emergency notifications along with 22 addenda and corrigenda.
57 Most of the emergency notifications referred 
to announcements of disease outbreaks or (radionuclide) contaminated food in other countries. 
The WTO enquiry point and the notification authority remains the ACFS. Most government agencies in charge of SPS policy measures (e.g ., ACFS, FDA, and Department of Agriculture) 
                                               
51 The authorities indicated that regarding the international equivalency system, in addition to 
documentation being reviewed, on-site vi sit for verification is also requir ed to ensure consumer protection. 
However, some measures are revised based on risk.  
52 USTR (2015a). 
53 It seems that in 2014 the fees for imported meat were US$160 per ton for red meat (beef, buffalo, 
goat, lamb, and pork) and offals, and US$320 per ton for poultry meat. Equivalent fees for domestic meat inspections in the form of slaughteri ng or slaughterhouse fees, however, were significantly lower at US$5 per 
ton for beef, US$21 per ton for poultry, US$16 per ton for pork, and zero for offals. USTR (2015a). 
54 Fees for domestically produced meat are collected under the Animal  Slaughter Control and Meat Sale 
Act B.E. 2535 (1992). The fees cover, among others, the slaughter fee, the fee for using a slaughter house, and the lairage fee or fee for using animal handling faci lities before slaughtering. These fees are collected by 
the local administrative authority unde r the Ministry of Interior. This Act was enacted for the safety benefit for 
local consumption and to support free trade in the country.  Inspection fees for imported meat are collected in 
order to ensure safety of meat pr oduct imports. The fees are charged under a regulation implementing the 
Animal Epidemic Act, and they cover testing animal and animal products, including the inspection process, collecting the sample, and laboratory diagnosis. 
55 As is generally the case with food safety sy stems in developing countries, the Thai system 
implements relatively demanding controls for formal im ports and formal urban markets, and weak controls for 
informal local markets (dual system). van der Meer (2014).  
56 Under the SPS Agreement's equivalence principle, Thailand should accept safety assurances from 
reputable suppliers in countries where control capacity is generally equal to or better than in Thailand, if they objectively demonstrate that they meet Thailand's a ppropriate level of protecti on (ALOP). With further 
application of risk-based management, there should be further differentiation in inspection and most likely 
lower costs. van der Meer (2014). 
57 WTO online SPS Information Manageme nt System information. Viewed at: 
http://spsims.wto.org/web/pages/search/notification/Results.aspx .   WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  maintain well-documented online information on all agricultural standards, procedures, and 
requirements in Thai and a good but less detailed English version.  
3.2.6.3  Labelling requirements  3.68.  All food products for public consumption must carry a label in Thai providing basic 
information on the product; for Specifically Contro lled Foods (section 3.2.6.2.2), the label must be 
approved by the FDA before it is used. A new Thai Food Labelling law became effective on 3 December 2014 and provides for a two-year transi tion period from this date allowing companies 
to make the necessary changes to their processes and labelling designs. A new MOPH Notification 
(No. 367 Re: Food Labelling for Pre-Packed Foods), notified to the WTO in August 2013 (G/SPS/N/THA/219), amends existing legislation on  food labelling by: changing definitions of 
pre-packed food, expiry date (use by date), best  before, repacking, and allergens; highlighting 
allergens (e.g. peanuts, tree nuts, grains, milk) in the list of ingredients; minimizing font size 
requirements; requiring the display of food additives' functional class in the ingredient list; requiring the format and conditions for the declaration of best before date; and including warning 
messages. Some importers' concerns about the new food labelling legislation relate to the 
minimum font size of 2 mm and the method of displaying food additives on labels together with their functional class that may confuse or frighten consumers who have limited knowledge of food 
additives.
58  
3.69.  As of 22 April 2015 Thailand implemented a re gulation titled Notification of the Alcoholic 
Beverages Control, Regarding Rules, Procedure and Condition for Labels of Alcoholic Beverages first notified in March 2014 and discussed at the WTO Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade 
meetings on 5 and 6 November 2014 and on 18 and 19 March 2015.
59 Several Members consider 
this measure as more trade restrictive than necessary; concerns, inter alia , referred to the 
measure's apparent administrative complexity in th e label approval process, and the lack of clarity 
on its scope.60 The authorities consider that the compliance period for this measure is not 
unreasonable and the process is not complex.61 Furthermore, Thai officials expressed their 
intention to revive a requirement for graphic labels and warning statements on all alcoholic 
beverages sold in Thailand, initially proposed in 2010. During subsequent TBT Committee 
meetings, several Members encouraged Thailand to  notify the revised measure, which was already 
published on the website of the Ministry of Public Health, and seek input from affected 
stakeholders.62 As of June 2015 the authorities indicated that the selection of a suitable picture 
was under consideration and the process of notification and implementation of this measure had 
started; a sub-committee was drafting a notification to be presented to the Alcoholic Beverage Control Committee, and if approved it would be submitted to National Alcoholic Beverage Policy 
Committee. Upon its approval, the chairman of the Alcoholic Beverage Control Committee will 
endorse it in order for it to be published in the Royal Gazette ; the implementation of the measure 
would follow. In addition as of 2014 the Ministry of Public Health was considering a plain packaging 
law on tobacco products (section 3.4.6.2.2); the authorities indicated that as of June 2015 
measures regarding rules, methods, and conditions on packaging of tobacco products required only the pictorial and written warnings on the package.  
3.70.  As for processed food containing GE plant materials, labelling requirements apply to 22 food 
products containing more than 5% for ingredients derived from genetically modified (GM) or 
                                               
58 USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2014a).  
59 WTO documents G/TBT/N/THA/437, 28 March 2014; G/TBT/N/THA/437/Add.1, 27 April 2015; 
G/SPS/N/THA/221/Add.1, 15 April 2015; and G/TBT/ M/64, 10 February 2015; European Commission 
Directorate-General for Trade (2014); and USTR (2015a). 
60 European Commission Director ate-General for Trade (2014). 
61 The authorities indicated that the Notification was published in the Royal Gazette  on 22 January 2015 
and implemented 90 days later (22 April 2015). Labe ls which were printed or imported before the 
implementation of this measure will be allowed up to not over 180 days (until 18 October 2015) which is 270 days after the Notification was published. In case of an alcoholic beverage container which is not sold or still in its selling place, the manufacturers must change only the label to the new one, stick a new label to cover the old, or take an opaque paper or sticker to cover the messa ge which would contravene the new 
requirements. In addition, this Notification has not required any label verifica tion or approval process 
increasing procedural difficulties for alcoholic beve rage manufacturers and importers. Manufacturers and 
importers can consult the Office of Alcohol Control Committee at the Depa rtment of Disease Control of the 
Ministry of Public Heal th on these matters. 
62 USTR (2015a). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  GE products.63 The labelling requirements are: food containing only one main ingredient should 
include a statement of "genetically modified" in conjunction with, or in close proximity to, the 
name of foods such as "genetically modified corn", or "tofu produced from genetically modified soybean", etc.; and, for multi-ingredient foods, labels should include a statement of "genetically 
modified" in conjunction with, or in close proximity to, or under the names of the top three main 
ingredients of the food product such as "genetically  modified corn starch", etc. These requirements 
do not apply to small producers who produce and se ll directly to consumers. Labelling such as 
GM free or non-GM food is prohibited. 
3.2.7  Government procurement 3.71.  Thailand remains a non-signatory to the WTO Plurilateral Agreement on Government 
Procurement but as from 3 June 2015 it has become an observer to the WTO Committee on 
Government Procurement. At the time of its pr evious review, Thailand was considering this 
possibility as a possible first step towards full membership. Three of Thailand's RTAs (Thailand-Australia Free Trade Agreement, Thailand-New Zealand Closer Economic Partnership 
Agreement and Japan–Thailand Economic Partnership Agreement) contain government 
procurement provisions promoting cooperatio n and government procurement information 
exchange among the parties.  
3.72.  The value of Thailand's government procurement market for goods and services is 
estimated to be at least B 521.5 billion or 4% of GDP (fiscal year 2013, data from Table 1.1), or 
75% bigger than in 2011; these figures do not cover procurement by state enterprises and local governments as no such data are available from the authorities.
64 On the other hand, according to 
the Bureau of the Budget, the budget allocated for procuring ("use of") goods and services in fiscal 
year 2014 accounted for B 376.2 billion (B 475.4 billion in fiscal year 2013), representing 14.9% of the overall budget expe nses (B 2.5 trillion).
65 In fiscal year 2014, six Ministries (Interior, 
Transport, Education, Defence, Public Health, an d Agriculture and Cooperatives) were responsible 
for 81.6% (85.8% in 2011) of the total public procurement amount. 
3.73.  According to the authorities, the core principles for government procurement remain 
openness, transparency, fairness, efficiency, a ccountability, value for money, private sector 
participation, and local industry development. Procurement regulations are to, inter alia , prevent 
corruption, and respond to the Government's social and economic policies; competitive bidding in the form of open tendering is regarded as the best way to achieve these objectives and must be 
used for higher value contracts.   
3.74.  During the review period, the legislative basis for central government procurement 
remained virtually unchanged. The Office of th e Prime Minister Regulations on Procurement 
B.E. 2535 (1992), which have been amended seven times, most recently in 2009, are the core 
body of law for procurement by central governme nt and provincial administrative bodies. Local 
administration and state enterprises are subject to other regulations such as Ministry of the 
Interior Regulations Regarding Procurement for Local Administrative Organisations 
B.E. 2538 (1995); the legislative acts establishing large state enterprises and other public entities contain their own procurement regulations. Several other pieces of legislation include provisions 
(e.g., on good governance or anti-corruption) th at could have a bearing on public procurement.
66  
3.75.  No changes were made to Thailand's si x principal procurement methods which depend on 
several factors, including the value of the contract, the procuring entity, and the urgency of procurement. They consist of: a price agreement,  or negotiation for procurements of less than 
B 100,000; a price inquiry, or price search for contracts of between B 100,000 and B 2 million; 
open bidding for contracts from B 2 million and above; electronic bidding (e-Auction, see below), also for contracts from B 2 million and above; special-case methods, which are used by 
government agencies specified in Regulations for Local Administrative Organisations 
B.E. 2538 (1995); and special methods for procurement contracts worth more than B 100,000 where other methods are not suitable, such as in case of repeat procurements or where a delay 
                                               
63 USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2014b).   
64 Public procurement data su pplied by the authorities. 
65 Bureau of the Budget (2014).  
66 More information on Thailand's  government procuremen t practices is available at WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012.  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  may cause problems for the procuring agency. In addition to the requirements applying to 
procurement methods, contracts require authorizatio n; the level of authorization (i.e., Permanent 
Secretary, Minister, Prime Minister or the Cabinet, mayor of a municipality, or governor) depends on the value of the contract and the method of procurement used.  
3.76.  The use of different procurement methods has slightly changed over the period under 
review with electronic bidding remaining the more common method. In fiscal year 2014, electronic bidding represented 45.4% (68.5% in fiscal year 2012) of total procurement value while special 
methods and negotiation accounted for 19.5% and 15.4% (18.3% and 3.8% in fiscal year 2012), 
respectively. Among the top six agencies (see above), the use of e-Auction varied from 24% (Ministry of Defence) to 81% (Ministry of Transp ort) of total procurement value of each entity, 
while special methods varied from 7.4% (Ministry of Transport) to 36.8% (Ministry of Defence).  
3.77.  Despite its stated core principles, Thailand continued to use government procurement as a 
policy instrument to help domestic suppliers of goods and services, particularly small- and medium-sized enterprises, consultants/advisors and contractors to raise their participation in 
government procurement contracts.
67 Since 1992, preferential treatment has been provided to 
domestic suppliers, including subsidiaries of foreign firms registered as Thai companies, through an automatic 7% price advantage over foreign bidde rs in evaluations in the initial bid round; the 
authorities indicated that no other preferential margin applies.
68 However, according to the Foreign 
Business Act (section 2.5), domestic and foreign contractors with capital of more than B 500 million are considered on an equal basis in bidding for highly technological infrastructure 
projects. 
3.78.  Public procurement in Thailand remains decentralized and involves a range of government 
bodies. For central government, the Committee in Charge of Procurement (made up of 
representatives from various government agencies ) is responsible for interpreting and making 
recommendations pertaining to the enforcement of the Procurement Regulations, considering 
complaints and setting up guidelines in line with Procurement Regulations, etc. The Comptroller General's Department (Ministry of Finance) is responsible for implementation and regulation and 
budget disbursement of the central government. Ot her agencies responsible for the administration 
of government procurement include: the Bureau  of the Budget (responsible for the budget 
planning, allocation, and evaluation); the Department of Special Investigation (inspection of the procurement process); the Thai Industrial Standard s Institute (registration of products subject to 
industrial standards requirements in order to be el igible for preference margins); the Office of the 
Auditor General (procurement audit); the Office of the National Anti-Corruption Commission (inspection of the procurement process); the Administrative Court (the jurisdiction of 
administrative cases involving such matters as a dispute in relation to unilateral administrative 
acts); and the Office of Ombudsman (an alternative for complaint and bid protest). The Department of Local Administration in the Ministry of the Interior is responsible for overseeing 
procurement by local government organizations and the State Enterprises Policy Office in the 
Ministry of Finance is responsible for overseeing procurement by state-owned enterprises.  
3.79.  Transparency and competition, along with fair prequalification procedures constitute the 
main tools against corruption in this area. Thailand's laws, regulations, and policy guidelines on 
public procurement continue to be published in the Royal Gazette  as well as being posted on 
several official websites. The actual procurements contracts from central government agencies must also be posted on the Thai Government Proc urement website (in Thai only), which also gives 
access to the e-Auction (or e-bidding) system and provides information on selection criteria (such 
as price and bidders' qualifications), the results of the auction, and details for the decision. The 
e-Auction forms part of the electronic government procurement (e-GP) system which was 
developed and implemented in three phases from April 2010 to November 2014.
69 At its last phase 
                                               
67 As described in previous TPR Se cretariat Reports, determination of  the local preference margin is 
based on the level of industrial st andards met by the product concerned.  Where no product meets industrial 
standards, the suppliers are asked to indicate the origin  of the product. If the price proposed for domestic 
products is no more than 5% high er than that of foreign products, the Government will negotiate with 
domestic suppliers, but may purchase th e domestic products only if the pric e is no more than 3% higher than 
that of foreign products. WTO documents WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008, and WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012.  
68 USTR (2014 and 2015a). 
69 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012; and Shared Services Link online information. 
Viewed at: http://www.sharedserviceslink.com/news/thai- government-to-launch-e-procurement-system# . WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  in February 2015 it was complemented with an e-market tool which allows suppliers to submit 
offers. The e-market is a method for procuring commercial products and services through the e-GP system; e-bidding is a method for procuring complicated and technical requirement products and services such as construction projects, pharmaceutical products and information technology 
systems, etc. Out of the 12 users of the e-GP service, 3 are government-run hospitals, while the 
remaining 9 agencies fall under the Ministry of Finance. At present, the pilot project has been 
expanded to cover 148 agencies under all ministries and will cover all agencies in the future. The 
third phase of the e-GP will lead Thailand to full utilization of the electronic government 
procurement system which should increase the effi ciency and effectiveness of procuring, openness 
to competition, and transparency while reducing  corruption. Additionally, in 2014 Thailand has 
introduced an Integrity Pact and Construction Sector Transparency Initiative (CoST) programme to 
improve information disclosure and transparency in government procurement.
70 As of 
20 January 2015 a pilot project was to utilize the CoST integrity pact as a tool for preventing corruption in public contracting for the procuremen t projects of the Mass Rapid Transit Authority of 
Thailand and Bangkok Mass Transit Authority; the CoST is to cover more projects and government 
agencies.  
3.80.  Criticism over irregularities in Thailand's government procurement practices, already 
discussed at previous reviews, remains valid.
71 It is claimed that state enterprises and ministries 
typically apply additional procurement policies and practices that are inconsistent with the non-discriminatory requirements of the core regulations in this area. The authorities indicated that central government entities must abide by the Regu lations of the Office of the Prime Minister on 
Procurement B.E. 2535 (1992) and any additional practices are inconsistent with the regulation. If 
corruption is suspected, a procuring government agency or state enterprise may accept or reject any or all bids at any time and, in "special circumstances", may also modify the technical 
requirements during the bidding process; this alle gedly allows considerable leeway for government 
agencies and state-owned enterprises to manage procurements, while denying bidders recourse to 
challenge procedures.
72 The modification of procurement requirements, sometimes to favour 
well-connected companies over others, has led to the formation of cartels, as well as collusion 
between potential bidders. Arbitration clauses included in concessions and government contracts require cabinet approval and are considered on a case-by-case basis.  
3.81.  Although Thai officials are required to abide by codes of conduct, both specifically 
concerning public tendering and more generally, corruption (section 1.4.4) and related costs 
remain a concern.
73 According to a 2011 Oxford Business Group report, state-funded infrastructure 
and procurement projects were plagued by massive  kickbacks from suppliers and contractors. The 
report states that the average bribe had risen from 3% to 10-30% of a project's cost.74 Inspection 
of fulfilment of procurement contracts, by the Materials Inspection and Acceptance Committee, 
and auditing of accounts by the Office of the Auditor General are intended to reduce the probability 
of corruption. Complaints may be taken to the National Anti-Corruption Commission, the Public 
Procurement Management Committee or the Auditor General. Several offences are punishable by a fine and imprisonment of five years to life. Similar sanctions apply against corrupt bidders. If a complaint is proven before a contract is completed, the bidding is reopened. Otherwise, the bidder 
will be liable for the economic damage suffered by the procuring entity. The procuring agency 
                                               
70 Bank of Thailand (2014b); and Press Release, 8 June 2015. Viewed at: 
http://www.thaiembassy.se/minmapp/PD F/Ceremony%20of%20Anti-Corruption.pdf . 
71 WTO documents WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008, and WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 
8 February 2012; USTR (2014 and 2015a); and Business Anti-Corruption Portal online information. Viewed at: http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/east-asia-the-pacific/thailand/corruption-
levels/public-procuremen t-and-contracting.aspx .  
72 In the past the authorities indicated that "spe cial circumstances" involve wrongdoing during the 
bidding process. The procuring agency  can reject a bid/bidder that has benefited from links with interested 
parties that may obstruct fa ir and free competition; appeals may be in itiated by the rejected bidder. If the 
winning bid exceeds the set budget, the procuring agen cy will offer the winning bidder the opportunity to 
accept the set budget; or it has the right to negotiate with all bidders or adjust the scope of works. If the bidding specifications are fo und to discriminate towards a specific bi dder or interested pa rty, the procuring 
agency may revoke or amend the specifications.  
73 For example, the Anti-Money Laundering Act B.E. 2542 (1999), the Organic Act on Counter Corruption 
B.E. 2542 (1999), the Royal Decree on Good Governance  in State Administration B.E. 2546 (2003), the Civil 
Service Act B.E. 2535 (1992), and the Civil Service Ethic Standards. 
74 Business Anti-Corruption Portal online information. Viewed at: http://www.business-anti-
corruption.com/country-profiles/east-asia-the-pacific/thailand/corruption-levels/public-procurement-and-
contracting.aspx .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  must keep a register of all bids for each procur ement operation, and a record of the decisions for 
at least ten years.  
3.82.  Following a 2014 UN Development Programme's "integrity risk assessment" of the country's 
public purchasing system, the Government is drawing up legislation to manage the risk of 
corruption in public procurement.75 The assessment indicates that the regulatory base for public 
procurement is weak, fragmented and does not reflect international legislative practice; the regulatory framework is not specifically modelled on any of the international legal models, but 
rather on international "good" practice stemming from the early 1990s. It also found evidence of 
"weak integrity in public contracts" and a concentration of improvements in public services in Bangkok and the central region, leaving "significant deficiencies" in other parts of the country. Risks to integrity in Thailand's non-regulated public procurement process are "rife" because of the 
large amounts of money at stake and the interf ace between the government and private sector, 
which is characterised by a high volume of transactions. Recommendations involve implementing a 20-point action plan that includes, modernizing th e public procurement system based on a revised 
set of priorities, which would include economic, integrity, environmental, and social goals. Other 
activities involve adopting a coherent, sound and modern public procurement law with a full set of secondary legislation, including guidance and model documentation. As of June 2015, Thailand was 
preparing a first draft of a new government procurement act for the Cabinet's consideration; the 
new act, which would be based on the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) model laws and the WTO Government Pr ocurement Agreement, is to be put in place 
by the end of 2015. It would apply to all govern ment agencies, local authorities and state-owned 
enterprises, and would improve transparency, integr ity, and public involvement in the government 
procurement process.  
3.2.8  Countertrade 
3.83.  Countertrade and barter are no longer used for procurement, and the relevant policy 
regulations were repealed in early 2007. However, it has been reported that countertrades are used occasionally on a case-by-case basis by an administrative decision, for example with 
countries that have difficulties obtaining the accept ance of letters of credit by commercial banks. 
Furthermore, in line with past practice, in 2014 Thailand was considering trading its farm products for weaponry needs through mutually beneficial countertrade arrangements with the Russian Federation.
76  
3.3  Measures Directly Affecting Exports 
3.3.1  Registration and documentation procedures 
3.84.  During the review period, export procedures remained unchanged. As a general rule, there 
are no registration requirements for exporters.  However, exports of a few products (mainly 
agricultural products, such as fresh longan, durian, apple juice, and orchids) require registration with the Department of Agriculture for quality, price monitoring, and food security/safety 
purposes; in most instances registration is required to meet the importing country's requirements.  
3.85.  Under the Customs Act B.E. 2469 (1926), all goods being exported or re-exported from 
Thailand are subject to customs control and approval. Most export declarations are submitted via the e-Export system. In addition to export de claration data, the following documents must be 
submitted in case of red line (high risk) shipment: invoice, packing list, export licences (if 
applicable), certificates of origin (if applicable), and other relevant documents such as catalogues, 
                                               
75 The assessment was conducted as part of the "Mit igating Risks to Integrity in Public Procurement 
project", established by UNDP Thailand  with key stakeholders in the Thai Government, includin g the Offices of 
Public Sector Development Commis sion and Public Procurement Mana gement Department and the State 
Enterprise Policy Office. UN DP Press Release, "UNDP helps Thailand to wards a corrupt –free public procurement 
system", 7 January 2015. Viewed at http://www.th.undp.org/content/thailand/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2015/01/07/undp-helps-
thailand-towards-a-corrupt-free-public-procurement-system.html ; and Supply Management online information, 
"Thailand drafts public procurement law following UNDP review", 12 January 2015. Viewed at: 
http://www.supplymanagement.com/news/2015/thailand -drafts-public-procurement-law-following-undp-
review#sthash.0XmDZ8Nj.dpuf . 
76 Thai-Russian Chamber of Commerce  online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.trcc.or.th/main/index.php?pim=cevents .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  descriptions of products, ingredients, etc. Once th e export declaration has been transmitted to the 
customs computer system, it is subject to automatic processing, including data validation, data matching, and release status, as appropriate. Where applicable, export duties and taxes may be paid either through the e-Payment system or at banks. In the case of the green line, the 
declaration is cleared within a few minutes; after the cargo is exported, a shipping company/agent 
is required to submit the manifest information to the e-Customs system.
77 The system then 
automatically loads the goods declaration and transmits the response message back to the 
exporter/broker. In the case of red line (high risk) shipment, the cargo is removed for physical 
inspection.  
3.3.2  Export taxes, charges, and levies 3.86.  There has been no change in Thailand's ex port duties since 2011 (Table 3.3). Export taxes 
consist of statutory rates and applied rates; applied rates involve specific (hides of bovine animals) 
and ad valorem  (sawn wood and articles thereof, from zero to 40%) duties. In practice they only 
affect certain sawn wood and hides. The contribution of export taxes to government revenue 
remains negligible (section 3.4.1, Table 3.5). The persistence of relatively high statutory export 
taxes, nevertheless, leaves an element of uncertainty in Thailand's trade regime, as export taxes on important products, such as rice or rubber, could in principle be reintroduced up to the level of 
the statutory rates without legislative approval. In the past the authorities had indicated that 
export taxes are primarily for the purpose of conserving the environment, are applied in a non-discriminatory manner and are not intended to be protection for domestic industries nor trade barriers.
78 Whether it is the Government's intention or not, the imposition of export taxes could 
constitute a form of assistance to domestic down stream industries and, if they were applied to 
products Thailand is a major supplier of, could exacerbate world price fluctuations.  
Table 3.3 Export duties, 2015 
(B and %) 
Commodity Applied rate Statutory rate 
Hides of bovine animals   
Raw hides Exempt B 5/kg 
Other   
Parings, waste, and dust for us e in the production of leather B 0.4/kg B 4/kg 
Tanned hides Exempt B 4/kg 
Other B 4/kg B 4/kg 
Wood, sawn wood, and articles made of wood   
Wood and sawn wood Exempt 40% 
Phai ruak (bamboo) and coconut wood 5% 40% 
Veneer 10% 40% 
Other (except rubber wood, euca lyptus, wattle, etc.) 40% 40% 
Articles of wood   
Unsuitable for other conversion  Exempt 10% 
Other Exempt 20% 
Rice Exempt 10% 
Metal scraps Exempt 50% 
Rubber Exempt 40% 
Raw silk and silk yarn Exempt B 100/kg 
Fish, pulverized or only baked, unf it for human consumption Exempt 75% 
Source: WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
3.3.3  Export prohibitions, restrictions and licensing 
3.87.  No changes were made to Thailand's export prohibitions, restrictions, and licensing regime. 
The Minister of Commerce, with the approval of th e Cabinet, has the authority to specify classes of 
goods that are subject to export (and import) controls in order to safeguard economic stability, 
public health, national security, public order and morals, or "other benefits to the State". The 
Minister is also empowered to control exports, ma inly food staples, in order to prevent domestic 
shortages. Controls may involve export licensing,  export surcharges, export quotas or outright 
prohibitions (Table 3.4).  
                                               
77 Customs Department online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/importexport/exporter/exporter .  
78 WTO documents WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008 and WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Table 3.4 Products subject to export licensing , registration requirem ents or prohibitions, 
2015 
Commodity HS Rationale Measures and condition 
Agriculture products 
Canned pineapple 2008.20 Regulate the export system Exporter must be in the list of Thai 
Industrial Standards Institute  
Cassava starches 1108.14 Regulate the export system 
and comply with the agreement between Thailand and the EU Automatic licensing, with certificate from 
Department of Foreign Trade 
Coffee 0901, 2101.10 Compliance with 
International Coffee 
Agreement Automatic licensing 
Crustaceans 
(shrimp and 
octopus) frozen or chilled 0306, 0307, 1605, 
1902 Requirement of importing 
nation (only exports to the 
United States and the EU) Exporter must be member of Thai Frozen 
Food Association 
Durian 0810.60 Regulate the export system Exporters must be registered with 
Department of Agriculture 
Elephants 0106 Animal preservation Non-automatic licensing, with approval 
from Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation   
Fresh orchids for 
export to the EU 0603.13.00 According to bilateral 
agreement Exporter must be registered with 
Department of Agriculture; and 
phytosanitary certificate required 
Live black tiger 
shrimp 0306 Prevent domestic shortages Automatic licensing, with certificate from 
Department of Fisheries 
Longans  0810.90 Regulate the export system Exporter must be registered with 
Department of Agriculture, Ministry of 
Agriculture 
Oil cake and other 
solid residue, resulting from extraction of groundnut oil 2304, 2305 Prevent domestic shortages Export is generally not allowed 
Oil cake and other 
solid residue, 
resulting from 
extraction of 
soybean oil 2304.00.0008 Prevent domestic shortages Export is generally not allowed 
Ornamental fish 
(in 317 lists) 0301.10 Animal preservation Non-automatic licensing, with approval 
from Department of Fisheries 
Pearl shell and its 
products 0307, 0508.00.20 Encourage local farming 
industries Non-automatic licensing, with export 
certificate from Department of Fisheries 
Rice 1006.10, 1006.20 
1006.30, 1006.40 Prevention of domestic 
shortages, export control  Automatic licensing, with certificate from 
Department of Foreign Trade 
Rice exported to 
the EU under tariff 
quota 1006.20, 1006.30, 
1006.40 Comply with the agreement 
between Thailand and the 
EU Automatic licensing, export quota (EU) 
Sugar 1701 Monitor exports Automatic licensing, exporters must be 
registered with Ministry of Industry 
Tuna in airtight 
containers 1604.14 Regulate the export system Exporter must be member of Thai Food 
Processors Association or Thai Tuna 
Industries Association 
Non-agriculture products    
Caffeine and its 
salt 2939.30, 3003.40 Public health Automatic licensing: only with approval 
from FDA or Department of Industrial 
Works 
Coal except 
briquette from Hongai anthracite coal 27.01, 27.02 Conserve exhaustible 
natural resources Non-automatic licensing, allowed only for 
re-export, or coal imported to produce for exports; export certificate from the Department of Alternative Energy 
Development and Efficiency, Ministry of 
Energy 
Gold 71.08 Economy security and 
stability Automatic licensing, with conditions set  
by Ministry of Finance 
Natural sand 2505.10.00, 
2525.90.00 Conserve exhaustible 
national resources Export prohibited 
Potassium 
permanganate 2841.61  Public moral, prevention of 
narcotics Automatic licensing: only with approval 
from Office of the Narcotic Control Board WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Commodity HS Rationale Measures and condition 
Rough diamonds 7102.10, 7102.21, 
7102.31 Comply with the UN 
resolution (subject to the export certification issued by the DFT under the Kimberly 
Process Scheme) Automatic licensing, with export 
certificate from the Department of Foreign Trade 
Rubber woods 4403, 4404, 4406, 
4407 Forest conservation and 
prevention of domestic 
shortages Automatic licensing 
Wood charcoal 4402 Forest conservation Non-automatic licensing: with approval 
from Royal Forest Department 
Wood, sawn or 
chipped 4401, 4403, 4404, 
4406, 4407 Forest conservation and 
prevention of domestic 
shortages Non-automatic licensing: export is 
generally not allowed, except pines and 
eucalyptus with approval from Director-
General of Royal Forest Department 
Non-categorized HS numbers    
All types of arms, 
military vehicles, 
hardware and 
spare parts to 
Sierra Leone, 
Ethiopia, Eritrea, 
Liberia, Somalia, 
and Congo   Comply with the UN 
Resolution Export prohibited 
Antique idols, 
graven images  Protect national treasures of 
artistic, historic or archaeological value Automatic licensing, with export 
certificate from Department of Fine Arts 
Buddha images  To protect national treasures 
of artistic, historic, and 
archaeological value  Automatic licensing, with export 
certificate from Department of Fine Arts 
Counterfeit products  Prevent production of 
counterfeit products Prohibited 
Goods duplicated 
from copyright 
products  Prevent exports of imitation 
products Export prohibited 
Silica sand or 
quartz sand  Conserve exhaustible 
national resources Non-automatic licensing: Department of 
Foreign Trade authorizes the Department of Mineral Resources to grant licences 
Textiles   Export items to the EU as 
from 2005  Bilateral agreement provisions 
Source:  WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012; and information provided by the authorities. 
3.88.  In general, export prohibitions and export quotas continue to be imposed to comply with 
Thailand's international obligations for environmental, public health and intellectual property reasons, or to comply with bilateral agreement provisions (Table 3.4). Export licensing remains 
mostly automatic (13 cases) and to a lesser extent non-automatic (7 cases). It is used to 
administer quotas, conditional prohibitions, and absolute prohibitions. Membership in the relevant trade association may be required to obtain an export licence for certain agricultural goods. 
Exports of certain goods destined to the EU, such as textiles and clothing and some agricultural 
products require export licences or certificates. In accordance with the Kimberly Process Scheme, exports of rough diamonds require an export ce rtificate from the Department of Foreign Trade 
before exportation from Thailand.  
3.89.  Under Thailand's foreign exchange regulations, export proceeds equivalent to an amount of 
US$50,000 or above must be received in Thailand immediately upon payment and within 360 days from the date of exportation. The proceeds must be  converted into Thai currency or deposited in a 
foreign currency account with an authorized bank in Thailand within 360 days of receipt.  
3.3.4  Export assistance and incentives 3.90.  Thailand maintains several schemes mainly to facilitate exports, including bonded 
warehouses (section 3.2.2.8), duty drawback, an d other provisions allowing for duty and tax 
refunds, as well as tax and non-tax privileges under the Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand Act (No. 4) B.E. 2550 (2007) and the customs free zones scheme.  
3.91.  In line with the Ministerial Decision of 7 December 2013 (WT/MIN (13)/40, WT/L/915, 
11 December 2013) Thailand replied to the two WTO Export Competition questionnaires that were circulated on 10 February 2014 and on 26 November 2014, and discussed at the Committee on WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 67 - 
 
  Agriculture on 5 June 2014 and 4 June 2015, respectively. In its replies, it indicated the absence of 
export subsidies as well as the state trading enterprises and export financing mechanisms for agricultural products. Thailand supplied 500 tonnes of  rice as international food aid in emergency 
situations in 2012 (Philippines)  and again in 2014 (Malaysia).
79 Replies to the questionnaire and 
information coming from the notifications can be found in the meeting documents.  
3.3.4.1  Duty drawback 3.92.  The duty drawback scheme under Section 19 bis of the Customs Act (No. 9) 
B.E. 2482 (1939) remains unchanged.
80 Exporters may obtain a refund of import duties paid on 
imported raw materials that are used in the production, mixing, assembling or packing of goods which are exported within one year. Different formulas apply for calculating these refunds depending on the type of product concerned. Claims for drawback must be made within six months 
from the date of export. Machinery, tools, moulds , and fuels for manufacturing are not eligible for 
duty drawback. No information on the total amo unts disbursed, total export values, and main 
beneficiaries under this regime was available from the authorities. 
3.3.4.2  Tax and duty compensation  
3.93.  Under the Tax and Duty Compensation of Exported Goods Produced in the Kingdom Act 
B.E. 2524 (1981), exported goods manufactured in Thailand continue to be eligible for tax 
coupons, which may be used to pay taxes and duties.
81 The scheme also covers goods not granted 
duty drawback or exemption under other laws. Tax and duty compensation for exports is set as a 
fixed percentage of the f.o.b. value and is calculated on both the proportion of raw 
materials/inputs used for production (according to the National Economic and Social Development 
Board input/output table), and their average tariff. In order to minimize the risk of over- or 
under-compensation, the compensation rate is regularly adjusted to reflect changes in the input/output ratio and the tariff rates on inputs. Items that are not eligible for tax coupons include 
minerals, goods subject to export duties or fees, goods exported as samples, and other goods 
declared as not eligible by the Committee for Tax and Duty Compensation of Exported Goods Produced in the Kingdom. According to the authorities, this programme aims to facilitate tax 
compensation, and the compensation provided must comply with the criteria and conditions 
prescribed in the 1981 Act. Since 2012 the compensation rates have ranged from 0.01% to 2.38% (3.86% in 2009) of the f.o.b. value. No informat ion on the total amounts disbursed, total export 
values, and main beneficiaries under this regime was available from the authorities.  
3.3.4.3  Industrial Estate Au thority of Thailand free zones 
3.94.  Under the Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand (I-EA-T) Act (No. 4) B.E. 2550 (2007), 
investors in an I-EA-T free zone are entitled  to a number of tax and non-tax privileges.
82 Tax 
privileges include exemptions from import duty, value added tax (VAT), and excise tax on factory 
construction materials, machinery, equipment, components, and raw materials necessary for the production of goods or for commercial purposes, as well as exemption from export duties and 
taxes. No export requirements are imposed as a condition to obtain these benefits. Non-tax 
privileges for I-EA-T free zone investors include the right to own land for their business operations, bring in foreign technicians and experts and their dependants, permission to remit foreign currencies, and the eligibility to bring supplies or raw materials for production into an I-EA-T free 
zone, without being subject to import permits, standard and quality controls, or any other control 
except for those under the Customs Act. The 2007 I-EA-T Act provides tax burden relief for goods from the I-EA-T free zones sold to the local market; the raw materials and components are 
entitled to tax and duty exemptions if they are produced locally.   
                                               
79 WTO document G/AG/W/125/Rev.2, 19 May 2015, and its 4 addenda. 
80 Customs Department online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/traders+and+business/customs+incentive+schemes/duty
+drawback+under+section+19+bis/dutydrawbackunder .  
81 Customs Department online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customs.go.th/wps/wcm/connect/custen/traders+and+business/customs+incentive+schemes/tax
+compensation/taxcompensation .  
82 WTO documents G/SCM/N/220/THA - G/SCM/N/253/THA, 11 July 2013 and WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 
8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 68 - 
 
  3.95.  Operations at I-EA-T free zones have declined during the review period due to the slowdown 
of the economy. In 2013 there were 60 (166 in 2011) companies operating in all I-EA-T free zones which employed 20,616 persons (11,112 in 2011); their exports represented 8.6% (18.9% in 2011) of total exports, and 6.9% (13.9% in 2011) of total imports.
83 Between 2011 and 2013, 
exports of companies in the I-EA-T free zones have exceeded their imports by 29.2% (2011), 
25% (2012), and 13% (2013). Currently, the main industries that requested to use the land in I-EA-T free zones in 2012, 2013, and the first quarter of 2014 produced electronics, automotive 
and transportation products or items, jewellery,  plastic and rubber, engines and parts, steel and 
metal products, leather and clothing, textiles, f ood and beverages, and musical instruments, and 
sports equipment.  
3.3.4.4  Customs free zones  
3.96.  The 2000 Customs Department free zones (FZ) programme to promote investment in and 
exports from these zones, remains unchanged. Goods imported and moved into an FZ for industrial or commercial operations are eligible for exemption from import duties, VAT, and excise 
tax (section 3.4.1.1.1) as well as from export duty on re-exports, duty on waste and scrap, and 
yield loss, and standard and quality control requ irements; they may also qualify for export tax 
refund/exemption schemes.
84 At present, there are 84 (62 in 2011) FZs consisting of 
327 commercial and industrial units (packaging, electronics, machines, tools and jewellery); 
in 2013 and 2014 they accounted for 7.2% and 9.3% of total exports respectively. No information on the total amounts disbursed under this regime was available from the authorities.  
3.3.5  Export financing and insurance 
3.97.  The state-owned Export-Import Bank of Th ailand (EXIM Bank) under the supervision of the 
Ministry of Finance provides a comprehensive range of credit and insurance facilities to promote exports of goods and services as well as domest ic and overseas investment aimed at expanding 
Thailand's commercial base. Its facilities include working capital loans
85, term loans, financing for 
overseas projects, export credit insurance, bu yers/bank risk assessment, buyer's credit, and 
export insurance.86 According to the authorities, at the ti me of the previous TPR the EXIM Bank 
held approximately 1%  of the export financing market and op erated in a competitive environment 
with commercial banks. Since the EXIM Bank must ge nerate its own funds, it offers its credit and 
insurance facilities at market prices based on risk, so as to ensure that it can make a profit. In 2013 and 2014, the Bank recorded a net profit of  B 1.3 billion and B 1.5 billion, with remittance 
to the Ministry of Finance of B 386 million and B 747.5 billion, respectively.
87  
3.98.  The EXIM Bank provides short-, medium-, and long-term credits, in Thailand and overseas, 
and in local or foreign currency. Export credit is offered pre- or post-shipment. The term of 
financing is determined by product type: for pre-shipment financing, it does not normally exceed 
120 days, while term loans are available from 2 to 7 years. EXIM Bank applied interest rates are available online ( http://www.exim.go.th/en/inte restrates/interest.aspx ). Under the EXIM Bank of 
Thailand Act B.E. 2536 (1993), any severe loss incurred by the Bank from export credit-insurance 
or business operations carried out in compliance with government policies or cabinet resolutions are to be compensated by the Ministry of Fina nce through the allocation of funds from the 
Government's annual budget. According to the authorities that compensation would cover only 
severe losses from specific operations approved by the Government, and that this has never 
happened.  
3.99.  The EXIM Bank offers several types of export-credit insurance covering commercial and 
political risks (not exchange rate fluctuations). It is the only financial institution providing 
short-term insurance. Its Exim Flexi export-credi t insurance offers reduced premiums and faster 
approval, and covers up to 90% of loss realized . At present its EXIM 4 SMEs scheme provides 
                                               
83 I-EA-T (2013).  
84 For additional information on th e FZ regime, see Customs Department  online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.customsclinic.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=155&Itemid=202&lang=en .  
85 Working capital financing includes a broad range of facilities such as pre-sh ipment financing, express 
export credit, pre-shipment financing for small- and medium-sized enterpri ses, export supplier's credit, and 
packing credit, plus expo rt-credit insurance.  
86 For terms and eligibility for these programmes, see EXIM Bank online in formation. Viewed at: 
http://www.exim.go.th/en/services/services.aspx?Type_=Financial .  
87 Export-Import Bank of Thailand (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  export-credit insurance with discounted premium rates for small and medium-sized enterprises 
(SMEs)88 with export sales not exceeding B 200 million a year. The EXIM Bank participates in a 
Portfolio Guarantee Scheme with the Small Business Credit Guarantee Corporation (SBCG) that provides guarantees against non-performing loans (NPLs). Under this scheme, the EXIM Bank is 
able to expand its credits to SME exporters, with a required collateralized amount not exceeding 
30% of the credit line. In 2013 and 2014, the Bank approved export credit insurance facilities 
covering foreign buyers in 79 and 78 countries with an insured export turnover of B 129.4 billion 
and B 84.7 billion respectively; petroleum, natural gas and related products occupied the largest 
share of insurance turnover, followed by canne d and processed seafood, and chilled and frozen 
seafood.
89  
3.100.   EXIM Bank's financing facilities consist of trade financing (20%) and medium- to 
long-term loans for investment projects (80%), while its insurance business is composed of export 
credit insurance (88%) and investment insurance (12%).90 In 2014 it posted a net profit of 
B 1.5 billion, up B 200 million from 2013, generating trade and investment worth B 149.9 billion. Giving priority to SME exporter promotion, EXIM  Bank expanded its SME customer base to 83.6% 
of its overall customer portfolio in 2014; its new SME loan approval during the year amounted to 
B 10.8 billion, with an aggregate SME loan amount of B 56.3 billion, and loan outstanding worth B 22.9 billion out of the Bank's total loan outsta nding of B 73.2 billion. In 2014, the EXIM Bank's 
aggregate amount of international project financing facilities stood at B 59 billion, 89% of which 
was dedicated to investment projects in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Viet Nam. As at end-2014, the Bank's non-performing loans (NPLs) accounted for B 4.1 billion or 5.6% of the Bank's total loan outstanding; allowance for doubtful accounts amounted to B 4.7 billion. As at 
end-December, 2014, EXIM Bank approved B 4.2 billion in new merchant marine loans, a facility 
aimed at promoting the development and utilization of the Thai shipping fleet, with an aggregate 
maritime loan approval amount of B 13.2 billion and loans outstanding worth B 11.8 billion, up 24.9% from B 9.4 billion in 2013.
91  
3.101.  In 2015, EXIM Bank is launching five new products: the SMEs Export Delight (38 cases, 
B 403 million, as of June 2015), a 180-day working capital loan plus short-term export credit insurance to protect exporters from non-payment risk by foreign buyers, with attractive interest 
rates and a credit line up to six fold the collateral value targeting non-EXIM customer SMEs
92; the 
SMEs Border Trade (3 cases, B 22 million), a one- to two-year term loan of up to B 10 million per business engaging in cross border trade with  Lao PDR, Myanmar, Cambodia, Malaysia and 
Viet Nam; the SMEs Relocation & Expansion (1 case, B 30 million), a long-term loan featuring a 
credit line up to B 30 million or baht equivalent with a maximum repayment period of 7 years 
catering for legal entities registered in Thailand  or abroad, having business experience of 3 years 
and over aiming to relocate or expand their business in foreign countries; the Financing Facility for 
Special Economic Development Zones (no cases), a long-term loan with a repayment period of up 
to 15 years to finance investment projects in special economic development zones declared by the Committee on Special Economic Development Zone Policy, industrial estates and border provinces; 
and, the Buyer's PLUS Supplier's Credit (no cases) – a financial package arranged for Thai 
exporters to offer to their ASEAN Economic Community counterparts interested in purchasing Thai goods and services.
93  
                                               
88 SMEs refer to any Thai companies with fixed assets of less than B 200 million and number of 
employees not exceeding 200 people.  
89 Export-Import Bank of Thailand (2014). 
90 EXIM Bank Press Release, "EXIM Thailand Announces 2014 Operating Results and 2015 Business 
Policy Launching Five New Products to Promote SM E Exporters, Border Trade and Business Expansion", 
12 February 2015. Viewed at: http://www.exim.go.th/doc/adn/5800005109_0.pdf . 
91 This facility is for loans repayable in up to 7 year s covering up to 75% of the value of a ship (new or 
not over 20 years old) purchased by a Thai registered company, with majority shares owned by local Thai 
citizens. The ship must be registered in Thailand and carry the Thai flag, and engage mainly in international cargo shipping. EXIM Bank online information. Viewed at: http://www.exim.go.th/en/services/projectFinance.aspx?type=hls2_1 ; and EXIM Bank Press Release, "EXIM 
Thailand Announces 2014 Operating Results and 2015 Business  Policy Launching Five New Products to Promote 
SME Exporters, Border Trade and Business Expansion", 12 February 2015. Viewed at: http://www.exim.go.th/doc/adn/5800005109_0.pdf . 
92 The authorities indicated that the interest rates are lower than the banks’ prime rate, but not lower 
than the market rate or the financial cost; therefore, th ey are not considered a subsidy. EXIM Bank uses funds 
from its money and capital markets. 
93 EXIM Bank Press Release, "EXIM Thailand Announces 2014 Operating Results and 2015 Business 
Policy Launching Five New Products to Promote SM E Exporters, Border Trade and Business Expansion", 
12 February 2015. Viewed at: http://www.exim.go.th/doc/adn/5800005109_0.pdf .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.4  Other Measures Affecting Production and Trade 
3.4.1  Taxation 3.102.  Tax revenues in Thailand were estimated at B 2 trillion in FY2013/14 (B 1.8 trillion in 
FY2010/11), which was about 15.4% of GDP (15.8% in FY2010/11) (Table 1.1); in FY2013/14, 
corporate income tax, value added tax (VAT), and excise tax accounted for 74.6% of the tax 
revenues, while customs duties (import and export) accounted for 5.2%, virtually all collected on imports (down from 6.2% in FY2011/12, a peak year) (Table 3.5). 
Table 3.5 Central government tax revenue, by source, 2010/11-2013/14 
(Year ending 30 September) 
 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 
Total tax revenue (B billion) 1, 798.0  1,868.8  2, 132.8  2,013.4  
 (% of total tax revenue)  
Taxes on income, profits, and capital 47.4  46.2  44.6  44.1  
Payable by individuals 11.9  12.9  12.6  12.1  
Payable by corporations and other enterprises 35.5  33.3  32.0  32.0  
Taxes on goods and services 46.3  46.9  49.5  49.9  
Value added taxes 21.8  24.1  22.3  23.8  
Excise tax 22.0  20.1  20.1  18.8  
Profits of fiscal monopolies 0.3  0.3  0.3  0.6  
Taxes on specific services 2.0  2.2  2.3  2.6  
Taxes on use of goods, permission to use goods 0.2  0.2  4.6  4.1  
Taxes on international trade and transactions 5.5  6.2  5.2  5.2  
Import duties 5.5  6.2  5.1  5.2  
Export duties 0.0  0.0  0.0  0.0  
Other taxes 0.7  0.7  0.7  0.7  
Source: Ministry of Finance online information. 
3.4.1.1  Indirect taxes 
3.103.  During the review period Thailand's reliance on indirect taxes has slightly risen with the 
VAT and excise tax remaining the second and third most important sources of tax revenue (Table 3.5). In addition to the customs tariff and import surcharge, two indirect taxes continue to 
be levied on imports: the excise tax, and VAT. Th ey are all collected on imports at the same rates 
as on domestic production but the imposition of all indirect taxes may increase considerably the domestic price of an imported item compared to its c.i.f. value.
94 A longstanding WTO dispute 
settlement case against Thailand's, inter alia , excise tax, and VAT regime imposed upon cigarette 
importers was seemingly concluded (section 3.2.1.2).  
3.4.1.1.1  Excise tax 3.104.  Excise taxes are maintained on 15 product groups (including yachts and boats, in practice 
exempt) and 6 groups of services (including certai n telephone services in practice zero rated or 
exempt), although over 90% (FY2010/11-2013/14 ) of revenue is derived from four product 
groups: petroleum products (16.6% in FY2013/14), liquors/alcohol/beer (36.9%), 
tobacco (15.9%), and motor vehicles (24.4%).
95 Excise taxes involve ad valorem , specific, or 
alternative rates (an ad valorem  or specific rate; the higher of the two is applied). Since 
1 October 2013, applied ad valorem  rates have been as high as 87% (for cigarettes); rates of 40% 
and 50% are charged on automobiles with cylinder capacity exceeding 2,500 cc and 3,250 cc, 
respectively, thus disproportionately and implicitly affecting foreign luxury vehicles and favouring 
domestic low engine capacity production subject to rates of up to 35%. The same occurs for motorcycles with rates of 10% and 20% for cylinder capacity exceeding 500 cc and 1,000 cc 
respectively, as compared to 3% and 5% for lower capacities. On 24 April 2013 a new excise tax 
                                               
94 WTO document WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008. 
95 More specifically these product groups compri se petroleum and petroleum products, beverages, 
liquor, tobacco and cigarettes, electrical appliances (inclu ding air-conditioners for cars), lead crystal and other 
type of crystal, automobiles, motorcycles, boats, pe rfumes and cosmetics, carpet  and other floor covering 
materials, marble and granite (in practice exempt), batteries, ozon e depleting haloge nated hydrocarbon 
acrylic, entertainment or recreational activities, playin g cards, gambling, and, business with an environmental 
impact (i.e., golf courses). Excise Department/Ministry of Finance (2013).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  structure was approved and expected to enter into force in 2016; the excise tax level is 
determined by engine size, carbon emission and types of fuel used.96 The level of the excise tax 
rate charged per litre of pure alcohol differs depending on the beverage and alcoholic content; rates range from zero (ethanol spirit) to B 1,000 per litre of pure alcohol (wine from grapes), 
compared to white spirits at B 145 per litre of pure alcohol and B 155 per litre of pure alcohol on 
beer. As of December 2014, the authorities change d the basis for determining excise tax rates on 
beer, now based on alcohol content; they indicate d that as a result of a 60% MFN import duty 
most foreign brands face a higher rate.
97  
3.105.  Concerns over allegedly discretionary excise tax practices affecting alcoholic beverages and 
automobiles were raised during the review peri od. In September 2013, an amendment of the Thai 
Liquor Act imposed new applied and ceiling excise tax rates on alcohol which trigger a 
discrimination between 'white liquor' (most often locally produced) and 'vodka', the latter 
attracting a higher tax; ceiling rates range from zero to 60% ( ad valorem ) and B 2,000 
(specific).98 Despite reducing rather than eliminatin g longstanding unequal treatment between 
imported and local spirits in 2012, under the 2013  amendments the specific ceiling value of the 
excise tax rate for wine (which is mainly imported) was sharply increased and the applied (and ceiling) rates now comprise a specific rate duty and ad valorem  components (calculated as a 
percentage of the last wholesale price excluding VAT ("LWP").
99 Discrimination between "white 
liquor" and "vodka" as well as sales licensing fees has been maintained. The lack of a definition for 
wine as well as weak product labelling regulations have created a loophole for domestic bottling operators allowing imports of wine in bulk to be mixed with a minor content of fruit to produce 
fruit wines sold as local "wines" with lower excise tax rates.
100 Additionally, under the 
2013 amendments, the ceiling rate of excise tax varies according to the type of alcoholic 
beverage.101 The authorities indicated that Thailand maintains the licence application process for 
all seven categories of liquors/alcoholic beverages; the same excise tax rate is also maintained for 
both domestically produced and imported wine and other alcoholic beverages containing fruit contents. 
3.106.  Concerns about automobiles relate to the various vehicle characteristics, such as engine 
size, weight, and wheelbase used in the excise tax calculation that is considered as complex and favouring domestically manufactured vehicles.
102 Furthermore, the 2016 excise tax structure (see 
above) may not be technologically neutral, e.g. a hybrid car emitting CO 2 higher than 100 g/km 
will be subject to a higher excise tax (20%- 50% excise tax) than an eco-car emitting CO 2 higher 
than 100 g/km (17% excise tax).103 The authorities indicated that for excise taxes on a hybrid car 
and an eco-car, in principle, three elements are taken into account: the CO 2 emission, the size of 
engine, and the type of fuel, to determine the le vel of environmental friendliness, which the tax 
structure encourages. 
3.107.  All export goods are exempt from excise tax. The valuation basis for domestic production 
is the manufacturer's selling price (i.e. the ex-f actory price, except for liquor and alcoholic 
beverages, which use the last wholesale price as the basis according to the Liquor Act amended 
                                               
96 Ministerial regulations under the Excise Tariff Act, B.E. 2527 (1984); European Commission 
Directorate-General for Trade (2014). 
97 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b).  
98 European Commission Director ate-General for Trade (2014). 
99 On 28 August 2012, the authorities increased the excise tax applied to 'white liquor' from B 120 per 
litre to B 150 per litre and the tax on 'brown liquor' (local whiskey) from B 300 per litre to B 350 per litre, bringing it closer to the levels imposed on imported spirits, and levelled-up retail sales licence fees on domestic spirits moderately. Under the Thai Liquor Act, other im ported spirits such as whiskey, brandy and vodka are 
subject to a higher tax rate of B 400 per litre. European Commission Directorate-General for Trade (2014). 
100 The 2013 amendment also retains a clear differentiati on between local "fruit wines" (i.e. wines with 
some addition of fruit juices) and imported "wines" as well as between local "white spirits" and imported "white spirits" (imported white spirits such as vodka are classifi ed as "other distilled spirits" subject to a higher tax 
than local white spirits). For spirits, a partially simp lified tax structure has been introduced by combining 
different types of distilled spirits into two main categori es, namely "white liquor" (Lao Kao) and "other distilled 
spirits", thereby maintaining the existing differentiation in favour of white liquor. European Commission Directorate-General for Trade (2014). 
101 For fermented produc ts (such as wine), the maximum tax of ad valorem  tax is maintained at 60% 
but the specific rate of duty is increased sharply from B 100 to B 2,000 per litre of 100% alcohol or B 300 per 
litre, whichever is higher. European Commi ssion Directorate-General for Trade (2014). 
102 USTR (2015a). 
103 European Commission Director ate-General for Trade (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  in 2013) and in the case of services the total gross receipts. The valuation basis for imports 
comprises the c.i.f. price plus import duty and any other taxes and fees (if any).  
3.108.  As from 27 March 2015 a 2% sports tax on the amount of the excise tax has been levied 
on alcoholic beverages and tobacco products. Revenue from the sports tax is to be deposited in a 
Sports Fund.104  
3.4.1.1.2  Value added tax (VAT) 3.109.  The standard rate of VAT remains at 7% and the authorities indicated that they do not 
intend to increase it to 10% by October 2015, a rise scheduled but never implemented in the past; 
it applies to all goods and services, with exemptions only for books, education, hospitals, unprocessed agricultural products, fertilizers, anim al feeds, pesticides, and certain other social 
goods and services.
105 Also exempt are small businesses with a turnover of less than B 1.8 million, 
goods exempt from import duties, and imports intended for re-export. VAT on imports is charged 
on the c.i.f. price plus import duty plus excise ta x plus other taxes and fees (if any). A zero rate of 
VAT is charged on exports of goods and services, air and sea vessels engaged in international 
transport, and the supply of goods and services between bonded warehouses or enterprises 
located in free zones (sections 3.2.2.8 and 3.3.4.4). 
3.4.1.2  Direct taxes 
3.110.  Corporate income tax is levied on Thai companies on their worldwide net profits and on 
foreign companies, with some exceptions, on net profits from business in Thailand. For the fiscal years 2013, 2014, and 2015 tax rates varied from 15% (small company) to 20% (10% to 30% in 2011) depending on the size of the company, whet her it is listed on the stock exchange or the 
Market for Alternative Investment; certain types of income paid to companies are subject to 
withholding tax at source.
106 Foreign companies engaged in international transport or receiving 
income from Thailand while not engaged in business in the country pay an income tax at 3% on 
gross receipts while foreign companies disposing of profit out of Thailand and banks deriving 
profits from International Banking Facilities (IBFs)107 pay tax at 10% on the amount disposed. A 
number of exceptional allowances are applied in calculating taxable profit, including a 200% tax 
deduction of expenses on R&D, job training, and special measures/equipment for disabled 
persons; as of end-June 2015 the rise of the 200% tax deduction to 300% was to be submitted for Cabinet's approval. In addition, initial capital allowances of 40% are applied to machinery and computers for SMEs (defined in section 3.3.5). Th e Government also continues to allow businesses 
to choose the "double declining balance" method of accelerated depreciation, by which assets can 
be depreciated at twice the rate of the straight line method.
108 This measure is intended to 
increase the after-tax cash flow of businesses and encourage them to reinvest their profits in new 
assets.  
                                               
104 Bangkok Post , "Cigarette, beer prices hiked by 2%", 28 March 2015. Viewed at: 
http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/general/510904/cigarette-beer-prices-hiked-by-2 ; The Phuket news , 
"Phuket: Booze, smokes prices set for 2% rise", 24 February 2015. Viewed at: 
http://www.thephuketnews.com/phuket-booze-smokes-prices-set-for-2-rise-51144.php#sthash.el215krY.dpuf . 
105 Thailand's ruling National Council for Peace an d Order has extended the 7% VAT rate until 30 
September 2015. The VAT rate in Thailand is set by the Revenue Code at 10%. Similarly to past attempts, in 
2012, the rate was scheduled to increase to 10% but the 7% rate was extended until 2014. Revenue Department online information. Viewed at: http://www.rd.go.th/publish/6043.0.html ; Board of Investment 
online information. Viewed at: http://www.boi.go.th/index.php?page=vat_tax_rates ; and Thompson Reuters 
online information. Viewed at: https://tax.thomsonreuters.com/blog/onesource/indirect-tax/thailand-
maintains-vat-7-vat-rate-october-2015/ . 
106 Revenue Department online  information. Viewed at: http://www.rd.go.th/publish/6044.0.html .   
107 At Thailand's 2008 TPR it was indicated that the low tax rate to International Banking Facilities (IBFs) 
was in an attempt to develop Thailand's financial sector by implicitly subsidizing foreign exchange borrowing by Thai enterprises. This incentive applies to "out-out ba nking facilities" and it mean s: accepting deposits or 
borrowing in foreign currencies from so urces outside Thailand for the purpos e of lending in foreign currencies 
outside the country; and accepting deposi ts or borrowing in Thai baht from foreign banks or overseas branches 
of commercial banks for the purpose of lending in Th ai baht to foreign banks or overseas branches of 
commercial banks. WTO document WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008. 
108 The double declining balance is a depreciation  method acceptable by accounting standards. 
Consequently, the authorities consider that it  should not be regarded as an incentive. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.111.  A Petroleum Income Tax (PT) at rates of 23.08%, 35% or 50% depending on the 
taxpayer's status continues to be levied annually on net profits from petroleum exploration and production; at the same time, a withholding tax is due at rates of 15%, 23.08%, 35%, or 50%.
109 
A Specific Business Tax (SBT) continues to apply to certain types of activities that are exempt from 
VAT, such as banking, life insurance, real estate, pawn brokering, and repurchasing 
agreements.110 The tax continues to be applied to total income from these activities at 2.5% or 
3% depending on the activity; a 10% local/municipality tax is imposed on top of SBT.   
3.112.  Personal income tax in Thailand is levied on individuals, ordinary partnerships, or 
undivided estates and is charged on regular income, including dividends, interest on deposits in banks in Thailand, shares of profit, gains from transferring shares, rents, contracts, etc.
111 A wide 
range of deductions and allowances is permitted, and the tax rate for the years 2013, 2014, 
and 2015 for income of more than B 150,000 (tax exempt threshold) continued to be applied 
progressively at a range of 5% to 35% (37% in  2011) on annual incomes (net of deductions and 
allowances) over B 4 million. Income from dividends and interest payments from government 
bonds or financial institutions that are specified by law for lending to promote agriculture, 
commerce or industry, may be excluded from the calculation of income tax, provided a withholding tax is paid at source. 
3.4.1.3  Paying taxes 
3.113.  In addition to income tax, excise tax, and VAT, companies and individuals are also 
potentially liable for stamp duties and local taxes. Although in many cases the rates of tax are not necessarily high the structures of different taxes, particularly excise tax, are complex and 
completing forms and estimating tax liabilities is time-consuming. According to World Bank 
business data, Thailand stands 62
nd in the ranking of 189 economies (91st out of 183 in 2010) on 
the ease of paying taxes, an above average posi tion within the East Asia/Pacific region; on 
average, firms make 22 tax payments a year, spend 264 hours a year filing (same as in 2010), 
preparing and paying taxes and pay total taxes amounting to 26.9% of profit.112  
3.4.2  Production assistance 
3.114.  Domestic support continues to be largely based on tax incentives such as 
exemption/reduction of corporate income tax, exemption/reduction of import duties on machinery, reduction of import duties on raw materials, and special (e.g., double) deduction of certain expenditures. During most of the review period Thailand's production assistance legislation 
remained relatively unchanged until the announcement of the 2014 policies and incentives which 
were not yet notified to the WTO (section 3.4.2.1). Other changes involved BOI support for flood-affected investment in 2012 and investment promotion for sustainable development 
in 2013.
113  
3.115.  Since its last TPR, Thailand has made a single notification pursuant to Article XVI:1 of the 
GATT 1994 and Article 25 of the WTO Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures; the 
notification briefly covers some of the BOI investment promotion incentives (section 3.4.2.1) and 
the benefits provided by the Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand (section 3.3.4.3) for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2012.
114 According to this notification there is no specific 
budget earmarked for investment promotion incentives, therefore, neither information on the 
subsidy per unit nor statistics on corporate inco me tax exemption and reduction are available.115 
Consequently, the tax authorities continue to not publish information on revenue forgone as a consequence of these measures. Nor do they rigorously and systematically evaluate their impact 
                                               
109 Revenue Department online  information. Viewed at: http://www.rd.go.th/publish/38686.0.html . 
110 Revenue Department online  information. Viewed at: http://www.rd.go.th/publish/6042.0.html .  
111 Revenue Department online  information. Viewed at: http://www.rd.go.th/publish/6045.0.html . 
112 World Bank (2014a); Doing Business online data. Viewed at: 
http://www.doingbusiness.org/d ata/exploreeconomies/thailand/ .  
113 BOI No. 1/2555, Tax Measures to Rehabilitate Flood-Affected Investment, 23 February 2013; Order 
of Board of Investment 1/2555, Establishment of Sub-Committee on Projects under Measures to Rehabilitate Flood-Affected Investment, 23 February 2013; and BOI No. 1/2556, Investment Promotion for Sustainable 
Development, 28 February 2013. Viewed at: http://www.boi.go.th/index.ph p?page=boi_announcements . 
114 WTO document G/SCM/N/220/THA - G/SCM/N/253/THA, 11 July 2013. 
115 WTO document G/SCM/N/220/THA - G/SCM/N/253/THA, 11 July 2013. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  and effectiveness. Experience in other countries suggests that tax incentives are seldom 
cost-effective.116  
3.4.2.1  Board of Investment incentives 3.116.  To improve Thailand's regional competitiveness in attracting investment, the Board of 
Investment's
117 (section 2.5) promotion policies were revised for a seven year period (2014-2021) 
and its new incentives scheme became effective as of 1 January 2015.118 According to the 
authorities, changes under the new scheme consist of a shift from a zone-based incentive scheme 
to an activity and merit-based incentive scheme. Generally, the objective for investment 
promotion is to be more focused and as a result tax incentives are considerably less compared to those of the old scheme. BOI's current policy is to promote valuable domestic and overseas investment that: enhances competitiveness by encouraging R&D, innovation, value creation in the 
agricultural, industrial, and services sectors, SMEs, fair competition and inclusive growth; is 
environment-friendly, saves energy or uses altern ative energy to drive balanced and sustainable 
growth; creates investment concentration in line with regional potential and strengthens value 
chains; helps develop the local economy at border provinces in Southern Thailand in support to 
efforts for security enhancement; supports special economic development zones, especially in border areas, both inside and outside industrial estates, to create economic connectivity with 
neighbouring countries and to prepare for entry into the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC); and, 
enhances Thai overseas investment and Thailand's role in the global economy.
119 According to the 
authorities, currently there are neither incentives in place nor any plans for new incentives for Thai companies investing abroad. The BOI only provides consultation services domestically as well as 
training programs aimed to prepare companies in their ventures abroad.  
3.117.  The recently amended rules, which remain similar to those that they replaced and are 
equally complex, provide for activity- and merit-based (i.e., competitiveness enhancement, 
decentralization, industrial area development) incentives as well as production efficiency 
improvement incentives. The amended scheme still covers over 200 business activities, most of 
which also were covered under the previous set of incentives.
120 Depending on the type of activity 
concerned they consist of: total or partial corporate income tax exemptions over different periods 
of time (from 3 to 8 years); double deduction for transportation, electricity and water costs for 10 years; deduction from net profit of 25% of the project's infrastructure installation or construction costs in addition to normal depreciation; import duty exemptions on machinery and 
raw or essential materials (for 1 year with possible extension) used in manufacturing export 
products; and, other non-tax incentives (e.g., permit  to own land). Investment in certain activities 
of special importance and benefit to the country are granted unlimited corporate income tax 
exemption (i.e., without an exemption cap).
121  
                                               
116 Most econometric studies show that forgone tax re venues exceed the increase in desired investment. 
Tax holidays are regarded as a partic ularly ineffective type of tax incentive compared with tax credits. WTO 
document WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008.  
117 The Board of Investment is under the Prime Minister's Office and is the principal government agency 
for encouraging investment. 
118 Thailand has had difficulties in competing on the basis of low labour costs with Indonesia, India and 
Viet Nam; at the same time, it has not been successful in attracting high-tech indust ries, in part because other 
regional rivals such as Malaysia and Singapore offer more attractive incentives. Economist Intelligence Unit 
(2014b).  
119 Announcement of the Board of Investment No. 2/2557, "Policies and Criteria for Investment 
Promotion", 3 December 2014. Viewed at: http://www.boi.go.th/upload/content/newpolicy-
announcement%20as%20of%2020_12_57_33650.pdf ; Announcement of the Board of Investment No. 1/2557, 
Measure to Promote Improvement of Production Efficiency, 16 September 2014; Announcement of the Board of 
Investment No. 3/2557, Investment Promotion for Industri al Development in the Southern Border Provinces, 
18 December 2014; and, Announcement of the Board of Investment No. 4/2557, "Investment Promotion in Special Economic Development Zones", 18 December 2014. Viewed at: http://www.boi.go.th/index.p hp?page=boi_announcements . 
120 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b). 
121 These activities relate to: economic forest plantations (except for eucalyptus); creative product 
design and development centres; ma nufacture of airframes, airframe part s and major aircraft appliances 
(e.g. engines, aircraft parts, propel lers and avionics); electronic design; software developmen t; production of 
electricity or steam power from waste or refuse-deriv ed fuel; Energy Service Company (ESCO); industrial 
zones or technology industrial zones; cloud services; research and development; biotechnology, engineering 
design; scientific laboratories; calibration services; and, vocational training centres. Exemption cap means the limit of corporate income tax exemption which is subjec t to capital investment excluding cost of land and WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.118.  Under the new rules project approval depends on the fulfilment of conditions almost 
identical to the old rules including: development of competitiveness in the agricultural, industrial and services sectors (including value-added thresholds, modern production processes, new machinery); environmental protection; and, minimum capital investment (generally B 1 million 
excluding cost of land and working capital) and project feasibility. Foreign shareholding in projects 
depends on the type of activity and is as follows: Thai nationals must hold shares not less than 51% of the registered capital (activities in List One annexed to the Foreign Business Act, 
B.E. 2542); or no equity restrictions for foreign investors except as otherwise specified in other 
laws (activities in List Two and List Three of sa me Act); or the BOI setting foreign shareholding 
limits as deemed appropriate (section 2.5). Investment promotion zones are set as follows: twenty provinces with low per capita income
122; special economic development zones (SEZs, 
section 1.7)123; and, Science and Technology Parks promoted or approved by the BOI. 
3.119.  During the period 2011-2015, most of BOI's incentives were tax-related.124 The non-tax 
incentives included permits to own land and to transfer money out of Thailand. A number of 
restrictions on foreign shareholdings, namely, projects in agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, 
mineral exploration, and mining, as well as certain services, including some telecommunications and financial services and those related to land trading, media, and trading in antiques were 
applied involving a requirement that at least 51% of registered capital is in Thai hands. In order to 
qualify for tax incentives by the BOI, a project has to meet value-added, debt to equity ratio, machinery, environmental protection, and investment capital criteria. The incentives granted to investment projects depended on the region of  the country and the location of the project, 
i.e., Zone 1 (the more developed areas (Bangkok and the bordering provinces)) with least 
incentives, Zone 2 (the provinces around Zone 1 plus Phuket in the south), and the least-developed Zone 3 (the rest of the country) with maximum incentives. In all cases, approved 
projects qualified for a five-year exemption (with possible one-year extension) from import tariffs 
on raw material and essential goods used in manufacturing exported products. In addition partial or full exemption of the corporate income tax (from 2 to 8 years with possible 5-year extension of 
tax reduction) and in import tariffs on machinery was in place. In order to further encourage 
decentralization, the Board of Investment also provided incentives for the relocation of existing factories to other regions. Incentives were also available under the Skill, Technology and Innovation (STI) Scheme and to promote research and development cooperation between the 
industrial sector and educational institutions. Th e aforementioned schemes have either expired or 
were replaced with the new seve n-year BOI investment policy.  
3.120.  Between 2012 and 2014, approved projects dropped progressively from 2,260 to 
1,662 due to the decline of applications in year  2013 compared to 2012, and the massive influx of 
applications right after the announcement of the seven-year BOI investment promotion policy in December 2014 alone (60% of all applications in the year 2014).
125 In 2014, 35.4% (39.2% 
in 2012) of BOI-approved projects were 100% foreign-owned investments and 22.4% (24.8% 
in 2012) were joint ventures; 26.9% (31.8% in 2012) of these projects were export-oriented. 
                                                                                                                                               
working capital. Therefore “without exemption cap” means that an investment project enjoys unlimited 
corporate income tax exemption during  the exemption period which varies from 3 to 8 years depending on the 
activities concerned. Announcement of the Board of Investment No. 2 /2557, "Policies and Criteria for Investment Promotion", 3 December 2014. Viewed at: http://www.boi.go.th/upload/content/newpolicy-
announcement%20as%20of%2020_12_57_33650.pdf . 
122 These provinces are Kalasin, Chaiyaphum, Nakhon Phanom, Nan, Bueng Kan, Buri Ram, Phrae, 
Maha Sarakham, Mukdahan, Mae Hong Son, Yasothon, Roi Et, Si Sa Ket, Sakhon Nakhon, Sa Kaew, Sukhothai, 
Surin, Nong Bua Lamphu, Ubon Ratchatani and Amnatcharoen. 
123 There are currently 5 special economic zones (SEZ) which have somewhat different target activities; 
1. Tak SEZ - Agro-industry, fishery industry, cerami c products, textiles and ga rments, leathe r products, 
furniture, gems, jewellery, engine and vehicle parts, machinery, equipment, electronics and electrical appliances, logistics, industrial zones/estates, tourism services; 2. Mukdahan SEZ - Agro-industry, fishery industry, electronics and electrical appliances, logistics, industrial zones/estates, tourism services; 3. Sa Kaeo SEZ - Agro-industry, fishery industry, textiles and ga rments, leather products, fu rniture, gems, jewellery, 
engine and vehicle parts, machinery, equipment, electronics and electrical appliances, logistics, industrial zones/estates, tourism services; 4. Trat SEZ - Agro -industry, fishery industry , logistics, industrial 
zones/estates, tourism services; 5. Songkhla SEZ - Ag ro-industry, fisher y industry, textiles and garments, 
leather products, furniture, logistic s, industrial zones/esta tes, tourism services. Data on the number of 
companies in each SEZ is not available. 
124 More information about this BOI incentives scheme is available at WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
125 BOI online statistics. Viewed at: http://www.boi.go.th/upload/content/1412_app_en_42544.pdf . WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  They were mostly involved in manufacturing (5 1.6%) of metals and electronics and electrical 
appliances, the supply of services and infrastructure  (34.2%), and production of agricultural items 
(14.1%).  
3.121.  The BOI has never invoked Section 49 or 50 of the Investment Promotion Act, which 
authorize it to protect investments from foreign competition by charging additional import fees up 
to 50% of the c.i.f. value of product for up to a year or, if this is not sufficient, banning imports of similar products.  
3.4.2.2  Regional and internatio nal headquarters incentives  
3.122.  Regional operating headquarters (ROHs) based in Thailand continued to be eligible for 
significant tax breaks until December 2014 when their regime was replaced by policies to promote International Headquarters (IHQs) introducing new conditions and additional fiscal incentives.
126 
To promote Thailand's position vis-à-vis  Singapore; Malaysia; and Hong Kong, China as a location 
for regional operations, the Government enhanced ROH's incentives in May 2010.127 The new IHQ 
incentives effective as from May 2015 consist of: a 15-year exemption from corporate income tax 
on service income, royalties, dividend income and revenue on capital gains received from 
associated enterprises outside Thailand and reve nue received from the purchase and sales of 
goods overseas without importing into Thailand; 10% rate of corporate income tax on service 
income and royalties received from associated companies in Thailand; exemption from specific 
business tax on the revenue from lending to associated enterprises and exemption from withholding tax on dividends and interest paid from the ROH in Thailand; and, a 15% flat rate of tax on salaries paid to expatriate employees. To  date, only just over 120 companies operate as a 
ROH in Thailand, lagging behind Singapore (1,600 in 2013); Malaysia; and Hong Kong, China 
(1,379 in 2013).  
3.4.2.3  Small- and medium-sized enterprises  
3.123.  Support to SMEs was reinforced (definition at section 3.3.5). The third Thailand SME 
Development Plan 2012-2016 has been focused in four major areas to: business environment 
enabler; capacity building to enhance competitiveness; sustainable development by region; and, 
capacity building for internationalization.
128 The Office of Small and Medium Enterprises Promotion 
(OSMEP) continues to, inter alia , formulate master and action plans. SMEs continued to source 
low-interest funds from the state-owned development banks, including the Small and Medium Enterprise Bank (SME Bank) as well as some participating commercial banks.
129 A total of 
B 120 billion is available under a programme, whic h is part of a 2007 SME-development plan that 
aims to encourage small businesses to reduce thei r costs, increase production efficiency, upgrade 
product quality, raise productivity and expand product lines to ensure their competitiveness. In 
November 2013, the BOI added to its promotiona l package available to SMEs an incentive to 
upgrade their machinery; qualified firms could re ceive an eight-year corporate tax exemption and 
import duty exemption on new machinery, though  many restrictions apply. Furthermore, they 
qualify for additional write-offs in the first year of an asset's acquisition: 40% for computer 
equipment and machinery (some machinery acquired before 31 December 2013 may qualify for a rate of 100%), 25% for factory buildings and 100% for other fixed assets.  
3.124.  As of 31 December 2013, SME bank loans were granted as follows: commercial sector 
(30%), production sector (29%), hotel and rest aurant sector (14%), logistics sector (8%), 
property for rent and business service sector (4%), agricultural, hunting and forestry sector (4%), community service, social and other service sector (4%), construction sector (3%), educational 
                                               
126 EY online information. Viewed at: http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Services/Tax/International-Tax/Alert--
Thailand-approves-tax-incentives-for-internationa l-headquarters-and-international-trading-centers . 
127 DFDL online information, "Is Thailand's Regional  Operating Headquarters Regime Comparable to its 
Counterparts in Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong?". Viewed at: http://www.dfdl.com/r esources/news/879-
is-thailands-regional-operating-headquarters-regime-comparable-to-its-counterparts-in-singapore-malaysia-
and-hong-kong ; and Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b). 
128 MSME News Network online information, "Thail and is supporting its SMEs", 27 November 2012. 
Viewed at: http://www.msmenewsnetwork.com/index.php/asia-pacific/news/item/903-thailand-is-supporting-
smes. 
129 The SME Bank's minimum interest rates range fro m 3.875% (Minimum Hire-Purchase Rate) to 9.5% 
(Minimum Retail Rate). SME Bank online information. Viewed at: http://www.smebank.co.th/en/interest-rate-
detail.php?cid=1 ; and Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  sector (2%) and other sectors (2%).130 SMEs have very limited participation in export industries; 
those involved tend to operate with low skills and technology. By 2013, SMEs comprised 97.2% of businesses (about 2,763,997 SMEs), about 81% of jobs, and 28.4% (2010) of them were involved in export activities; their contribution to GDP st ood at 37.4%, and 34.8% of their contribution was 
in the services sector, 29.6% in manufacturing (food and beverages, furniture, chemicals), and 
27.7% in trade and repair.
131 In 2013, SME exports accounted for 25.5% of the total export value, 
a substantial decrease of 14.7% from 2012; as re gards imports, they accounted for 30.9% of the 
total import value, a fall of 8.47% from 2012. In 2013, the external trade balance of SMEs showed 
a deficit accounting for B 607 billion. 
3.4.2.4  Other support  3.125.  During the review period the agriculture sector continued to benefit from product-specific 
and general support programmes, which included a rice pledging scheme, soft loans, and price 
interventions (section 3.4.4.1.3, 4.2.3, 4.2.3.3.2, and 4.2.3.3.3).  
3.126.  Following significant energy subsidy reforms, subsidies remain in place for natural gas for 
vehicles (NGV) and ethanol-blended gasolines (section 4.5). Electricity remains subsidized through 
the supply of free or half-price electricity to (an estimated 4.9 million) low-consuming poor households and cross-subsidized in different ways . The authorities indicated that the electricity 
tariff, in general, already reflects the actual long-term marginal cost of production. In 2015 the 
retail electricity tariff structure distinguished among the following power consumer categories: residential; small general services; medium general services, large general services, and specific business services; non-profit organizations; agricultural pumping service (involving subsidization 
from all other power consumers); and, temporary power customers (highest rate). Electricity 
tariffs to other consumers may also be below the costs incurred by the state-owned EGAT, the sole distributor of electricity in Thailand. EGAT may be asked to carry losses when retail prices are not 
sufficient to cover the cost of inputs such as fuel and electricity purchased from other providers. 
The main inputs to Thailand's electricity generation—natural gas and lignite—may also be provided at below-market rates. Adjustment of the fuel tariff is not automatically aligned with changes in 
fuel and purchased electricity prices. EGAT applie s to the Energy Regulatory Commission (ERC) for 
a change in the fuel tariff that reflects its costs. The ERC then uses its discretion to grant an increase or decrease, taking into account EGAT's costs as well as other economic factors. The ERC estimated that EGAT needed to absorb B 9 billion in costs for 2012 due to the fuel tariff being 
lower than the actual costs of fuel and purchased electricity. Power generators may also benefit 
from purchasing inputs such as natural gas and lignite at below market prices. EGAT owns and 
operates the Mae Moh lignite mine, one of Thailand's largest lignite mines, which provides coal to 
its dedicated power station located at the mine si te. According to the International Energy Agency, 
Thailand's electricity subsidies were estimated at B 173 billion (US$5.67 billion) in 2011 and down to B 158 billion in 2014 based on ERC data.  
3.127.  Thailand launched the Second Phase of its Eco-car scheme in September 2013; it provides 
numerous tax incentives (corporate tax, import duty and other tax benefits) (section 4.6.1.1).
132 
Eligibility to the scheme is conditioned, inter alia , on the achievement of substantive investments 
and production (both in terms of manufacturing lines and volume), with a threshold for 
manufacturing capacity of 100,000 cars/year (from the 4th year onwards). There is concern that 
such a high volume of production aimed at achieving economies of scale is not likely to be absorbed by the domestic market, therefore, as part of the output would have to be exported 
these tax incentives could constitute cross-subsidies to export activities. The authorities indicated 
that the Eco-car scheme is similar to that of many automobile producing countries, in particular developed countries. 
                                               
130 Small and Medium Enterprise Development Bank of Thailand (2013). 
131 Executive Summary White Paper on Small and Medi um Enterprises of Thailand in 2014; MSME News 
Network online information, "Thailand is supporting its SMEs", 27 November 2012. Viewed at: 
http://www.msmenewsnetwork.com/index.php/asia-pacific/news/item/903-thailand-is-supporting-smes ; Asian 
Development Bank (2013). 
132 European Commission Director ate-General for Trade (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.4.3  State involvement in production and trade 
3.128.  State involvement in the economy persists. The current 56 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) 
can be grouped into nine broad sectors: agriculture, natural resources, public utilities, energy, telecommunications, transportation, social and technology, industrial and commerce, and, 
specialized financial institutions (SFI) (Table 3.6). With total assets of B 12.3 trillion and more than 
210,000 staff employed, the SOEs generated total revenue and net profit of B 4.1 trillion and 
B 230 billion in 2014, respectively; the net profit accounted for about 1.9% of their assets.
133 The 
SOEs total expenditure stood at B 3.7 trillion or 42% of the GDP. Consequently, their performance 
and efficiency are very low and they spend more annually on investment than the Government does.
134 Thailand's listed public companies and their subsidiaries account for a fifth of the local 
stock-market capitalization, and their revenues are a source of financing for government projects. 
There are currently 5 out of 56 SOEs that are liste d in the Stock Exchange of Thailand which are 
PTT Public Company Limited, Krung Thai Bank Public Company Limited,  MCOT Public Company 
Limited, Airports of Thailand Public Company Limited, and Thai Airways International Public 
Company Limited. In FY2014 the operations of some of these SOEs resulted in losses estimated 
at B 33.8 billion or 0.3% of GDP.135 According to the 2014 Budget, in FY 2014 Central Government 
income from SOEs accounted for B 116 billion or 4.6% (6.2% in FY 2012) of the estimated total 
receipts or 66.6% of total non-tax receipts of the Central Government; these receipts consist of 
government-owned businesses operational profits (B 101.2 billion), and B 14.8 billion from the 
Government Lottery Bureau. On the other hand, in  the same fiscal year these SOEs accounted for 
B 149.8 million (of which B 31.7 billion of subsidies) or 6% of the estimated total central 
government expenditure; the Bank for Agriculture and Agriculture Co-operatives, the State 
Railway of Thailand, and the Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand accounted for 55.2%, 11.1%, and 6.6% of total expenditure respectively. As of January 2015, government guaranteed 
loans of SOEs (B 1 trillion) accounted for 17.8% (1 8.5% in June 2013) of the principal outstanding 
debt of Thailand (B 5.6 trillion).
136  
3.129.  During the review period, privatization, a longstanding contentious issue, continued to be a 
concern of labour unions and parts of civil society and plans in this area have been at a standstill; 
by November 2013 authorities had essentially abandoned any plans for a new privatization programme.
137 The focus has been on reforming and restructuring SOEs through various 
initiatives.138 The "corporatization" (i.e., changing the management structure so it resembles a 
private company's structure, without changing the shareholdings) of the Thailand Tobacco 
Monopoly, Liquor Distillery Organisation and Playing Card Factory was still on track in November 2013, though progressing slowly. A plan  to reduce the Government's stake in flag 
                                               
133 These SOEs are defined as companies where the St ate has 50% or more of ownership, but it has 
minority stakes in dozens of others. According to the World Bank, in the past they had over 
250,000 employees, assets of B 6 trillion, and revenue of B 2.7 trillion. World Bank (2013). 
134 The Wall Street Journal , "In Thailand, a Struggle for Control of State Firms", 17 June 2014. Viewed 
at: http://www.wsj.com/articles/in-thailand-a-struggle-for-control-of-state-firms-1402930180 . 
135 Only the following state enterprises are considered  for these calculations: Bank for Agriculture and 
Agriculture Co-operatives, Export-Import Bank of Th ailand, The Small and Medium Enterprise Development 
Bank, Small Business Credit Guarantee Corporation, Government Savings Ba nk, Islamic Bank of Thailand, The 
Tourism Authority of Thailand, Sports Authority of Thailand, National Housing Authority, The Marketing Organization for Farmers, Rubber Estate Organization, O ffice of the Rubber Replanting Aid Fund Board, Fish 
Marketing Organization, Expressway an d Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand, Bangkok Mass Transit Authority, 
Civil Aviation Training Center, the State Railway of Th ailand, Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand, the 
Forestry Industry Organization, Botanical Garden Or ganization, Waste Water Management Authority, the 
Zoological Park Organization, Public Warehouse Organization, Provincial Electricity Authority, the Provincial 
Water Works Authority, Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research, National Science Museum, and the Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand (section 3.3.4.3). Bureau of the Budget (2014). 
136 Prior to FY 2013 SOEs were financed from fore ign capital markets, and the shift to domestic 
borrowing based on domestic and export credit sources is aimed at redu cing foreign exchange risk and costs of 
borrowing as well as at promoting the development of  domestic debt instrument s. Bureau of the Budget 
(2014). 
137 Economist Intelligence Unit (2013 and 2014b). 
138 There are various laws and regulations aimed at enhancing implementation of the privatization 
programmes, including the Trade Competition Act ( 1999), the Foreign Business Act (1999), Taxation Laws 
(amended in 2002), and the Corporatization Act (enacted in 1999). The Cabinet's 7 April 2004 resolution increased the importance of effective regulatory over sight and prevention of abuse of monopoly power of 
corporatized entities. Under the Corporatization Act 1999, SOEs set up by law are being corporatized 
(i.e. transformed into companies). More information on the legal framework in this area is available at WTO document WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  carrier Thai Airways International to 49.99% from  51.03% was rejected by the airline's board in 
June 2011, though such a move would still leave the Government in effective control of the SET-listed carrier. The authorities were also considering selling the Government's stake in Airports of Thailand (the SET-listed airports operator) from 70% to an unspecified percentage, while 
retaining full control of the entity, though no specific timetable had been announced by 
November 2013.  
3.130.  Recognizing the importance of state enterprises, since 2014 a State Enterprises Policy 
Committee has been tasked to spearhead reform policies and monitoring standards, in order to 
help state enterprises fulfil their missions more efficiently.
139 The Committee would also resolve 
financial troubles in enterprises facing losses or liquidity problems before they become a fiscal burden. Currently, the Government is likely to focus on the corporatization of 13 SOEs (6 listed 
SOEs, 7 corporatized SOEs) by placing these entities under independent supervision (holding 
company).
140 The holding company will act as an ownership entity responsible for managing and 
monitoring the performance of these SOEs and shield them from direct political intervention.141 
The Act for establishing such holding company is being drafted under the supervision of the State 
Enterprise Policy Committee and it is expected to  be completed by the end of 2015. The remaining 
43 "non-commercial" SOEs would remain under the authority of the State Enterprise Policy 
Office.142 Both the holding company and the State Ente rprise Policy Office would be placed under 
an SOEs "Super Board".  
3.131.   Thailand's latest notification to the WTO Working Party on State Trading Enterprises was 
submitted in 2013 and the next notification will be submitted in the course of 2015. The 2013 
notification covered the Public Warehouse Organization (PWO), the Liquor Distillery Organization 
(LDO), and, the Thailand Tobacco Monopoly (TTM); its trade data covered the period 2008-2013.
143 In addition, a number of other publicly owned companies are directly or indirectly 
involved in trade of goods or services (Table 3.6). No statistics on annual imports, exports, 
procurement or domestic sales of these corporations were available from the authorities. 
Table 3.6 State involvement in the economy, 2015 
 Function 
Financial institutions  
Krung Thai Bank Public 
Company Limited Provide all kinds of financial services in competition with private banks 
Government Saving Bank Provide all kinds of financial servic es, guaranteed by the Government  
Government Housing Bank Provide housing finance for domestic consumers, especially low and medium 
income borrowers 
Bank for Agriculture and 
Agricultural Cooperation Provide financial assistance to help farmers and farmer institutions. Increase 
productivity and incomes/offers deposi t services to farmers throughout the 
country   
                                               
139 Bank of Thailand (2014b).  
140 These SOEs are: Thai Airways International Public  Company Limited; Airports of Thailand Public 
Company Limited; the Transport Co mpany Limited; TOT Public Compan y Limited; CAT Telecom Public 
Company Limited; Thailand Post Co mpany Limited; MCOT Public Comp any Limited; PTT Public Company 
Limited; the Bangkok Dock (1957) Company Limited; Dhanarak Asset Development Company Limited; the Syndicate of Thai Hotels and Tourists Enterprises Limi ted; Krung Thai Bank Publ ic Company Limited; and, 
Aeronautical Radio of Thailand Company Limited. 
141 Asian Development Bank (2015). 
142 They cover: Expressway Authority of Thailand; State Railway of Thailand; Mass Rapid Transit 
Authority of Thailand; Bangkok Mass Transit Authority; Civil Aviation Training Centre; Port Authority of 
Thailand; Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand; Metropolitan Electricity Authority; Provincial Electricity Authority of Thailand; Metropolitan Waterworks Authority; Provincial Waterworks Authority; Wastewater 
Management Authority; National Housing Authority; Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand; Thailand Tobacco Monopoly; Playing Cards Factor y; Liquor Distillery Organization; the Go vernment Lottery Offi ce; Police Printing 
Bureau; Marketing Organization; Dairy Farming Promotion Organization of Thailand; Marketing of Farmers Organization; the Fish Mark eting Organization; Office of the Rubb er Replanting Aid Fund; Rubber Estate 
Organization; Public Warehouse Organization; the Forest  Industry Organization; Botanic Garden Organization; 
the Zoological Park Organization; Thai Institute of Scientific and Technological Research; National Science Museum; Tourism Authority of Thailand; Sports Auth ority of Thailand; the Government Pharmaceutical 
Organization; Government Saving Bank; Government Ho using Bank; Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural 
Cooperatives; Export-Import Bank of Thailand; Small and Medium Enterprise Development Bank of Thailand; 
Secondary Mortgage Corporation; Small Business Credit Guarantee Corporatio n; Islamic Bank of Thailand; and, 
Public Pawnshop Office. 
143 WTO document G/STR/N/13/THA - G/STR/N/14/THA, 11 October 2013. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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   Function 
Export-Import Bank of Thailand Provide financial support to Thai businesses, particularly SMEs, involved in 
international trade to improve their ac cess to financial resources. Provide 
financial support to enhance Thai investors competitiveness 
Small and Medium Enterprise 
Development Bank of Thailand Support government policy for helping and promoting SMEs by financial and 
other services responses to Thai SM Es needs as well as encourage and 
develop Thai SMEs for capacity enhancement 
Secondary Mortgage 
Corporation Develop the secondary market for housing mortgage loan under the 
principle of asset securitization for fund raising activities for the adequate 
and stable expansion of housing mortgage financing 
Small Industry Credit 
Guarantee Corporation Assist SMEs to access greater finance from financial institutions and 
strengthen the confidence of financial institutions in providing credit to SMEs  
Islamic Bank of Thailand Provide financial services according to Shariah banking system  
Public Pawnshop Office Help customers to get easy access to fi nancial resources with relatively low 
interest rate  
Energy   
Electricity Generating Authority 
of Thailand  Sole rights for distribution and trad e in electricity; owns and operates 
several types and sizes of reliable power plant 
Metropolitan Electricity 
Authority Conduct business in pursuit of sustainabl e growth with qualified, reliable and 
safe power distribution system in Bangkok, Nonthaburi and Samutprakarn 
Provincial Electricity Authority Conduct business in pursuit of sustainabl e growth with qualified, reliable and 
safe power distribution sy stem in provincial areas, not including Bangkok, 
Nonthaburi and Samutprakarn 
PTT Public Company Ltd. Conduct integrated energy and petroc hemical business as the nation's 
energy company 
Telecommunications  
MCOT Public Company Ltd. Mass communication businesses including TV, radio broadcasting, news 
service and other joint operation with private parties  
TOT Public Company Ltd. Provide quality telecommunication services and ensure public access to 
information and communication services  
CAT Telecom Public Company 
Ltd. Provide quality telecommunication services and ensure public access to 
information and communication services  
Thailand Post Co. Ltd. Provide delivery of goods and messages nationwide through easily 
accessible services (exclusive rights fo r public postal serv ices (letters and 
postcards)) 
Transport   
Airports of Thailand Public 
Company Ltd. Provide facilities (airports) and rela ted services to airline operators  
Port Authority of Thailand Manage and supervise both ce ntral and regional ports  
State Railway of Thailand Manage and operate all railway functions throughout Thailand  
Bangkok Mass Transit Authority Bus service operator in Bangkok and metropolitan areas  
Aeronautical Radio of Thailand 
Limited Provide air traffic control and aeronautic al communication services to airline 
operators 
Thai Airways International 
Public Company Limited Air carrier and related service  
Transport Co., Ltd. Domestic bus service operator  
Civil Aviation Training Center Responsible for domestic and internat ional training, and operates related 
aviation services  
Mass Rapid Transit Authority of 
Thailand Operate mass rapid transit systems within greater Bangkok and 
metropolitan area 
Expressway Authority of 
Thailand Provide expressway development ac cording to standard and safety 
Social and technology   
Tourism Authority of Thailand Promote tourism and tourist industry  
Sports Authority of Thailand Supervise and promote sport in Thailand ; and act as the ce ntre for sports 
coordination domestically and internationally  
Thailand Institute of Scientific 
and Technological Research Conduct research for th e development of  science and technology in 
accordance with national policy and plan; promote knowledge in science and 
technology to the public 
National Science Museum Provide museum for promoting knowledg e in science and technology to the 
public 
Government Pharmaceutical 
Organization Procurement of drugs and drug manufacturer 
Industry and commerce  
Government Lottery Office State Lottery operator, responsible for managing, marketing and conducting 
lotteries in Thailand  
Marketing Organization Distribution centre for ag ricultural products with  fair prices; promotes 
marketing network amongs t producers and buyers WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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   Function 
Thailand Tobacco Monopoly Supply and produce cigarettes (domesti cally monopoly); import of tobacco  
Playing Cards Manufacturing 
Factory Monopoly supply and produce playing cards; exclusive import rights  
Liquor Distillery Organization Produce and supply alcohol, and produc e liquor; exclusive rights for 95% 
ethyl alcohol production  
Police Printing Responsible for security printing for the benefit of Police department  
Bangkok Dock Co. Ltd. Responsible for building and repairing of ships especially for the Thai navy  
Syndicate of Thai Hotels and 
Tourists Enterprises Ltd.  Cooperate the hotel management with  private sector (Erawan group)  
Agriculture   
Thai Dairy Farming Promotion 
Organization of Thailand Promote dairy farming including sales of domestic output to meet domestic - 
content requirements 
Rubber Estate Organization Produce, purchase, and distribution of rubber and rubber by-products  
Marketing Organization for 
Farmers Marketing of agricultural produc ts and supply of services  
Fish Marketing Organization Fish marketing facilities  
Office of the Rubber Replanting 
Aid Fund Promote good quality rubber plants to  farmers by using new technology and 
develops fair market mechanism fo r farmers selling their products  
Public Warehouse Organization Provide warehouse space equipment and storage facilities services/storage 
of rice and agricultural products as buffer stock 
Natural resources   
Forest Industry Organization Plantation management, reforestation and forest industries / generate 
income from forest industry  and related activities  
Botanical Garden Organization Responsible for the establishment and administration of botanical, country 
and regional plant collection ce ntres, and botanical museums  
Zoological Park Organization Cater for endangered species and participate in animal breeding 
programmes; facilitate visitors and community education and wildlife 
conservation  
Public utility   
National Housing Authority Provide housing for people in low to medium income groups. Engage in 
urban development, urban renewal and slum problem solving, in order to 
bring about better qualit y of life and society 
Metropolitan Waterworks 
Authority Provide good quality supply of water to  residence, business, and industries 
in Bangkok, Nonthaburi and Samutprakarn  
Provincial Waterworks Authority Provide good quality supply of water to people residing in provincial areas, 
not including Bangkok, Nonthaburi and Samutprakarn  
Waste Water Management 
Authority Manage wastewater management system  
Dhanarak Asset Development 
Co. Ltd. Develop government project (Government agency center)  
Industrial Estate Authority of 
Thailand Provide service for the facility and ut ility systems necessary for industrial 
and business operations; develop suitab le locations for industrial estates  
Source: Information provided by the authorities. 
3.4.4  Competition policy and consumer protection 
3.4.4.1  Competition policy  
3.4.4.1.1  Legal and institutional framework 
3.132.  Thailand's competition policy framework remains unchanged since its previous Trade Policy 
Review. The Trade Competition Act B.E. 2542 (1999) (TCA) remains the main law defining 
Thailand's competition policy framework. In addition, several other Acts may affect competition by 
seeking to protect the consumer and by affecting how businesses behave and interact, such as the Unfair Contract Terms Act B.E. 2540 (1997), the Prices of Goods and Services Act 
B.E. 2542 (1999), the Direct Sales and Direct Marketing Act B.E. 2545 (2002), and the Liability for 
Damages Arising from Unsafe Products Act B.E. 2551 (2008) (sections 3.4.4.2 and 3.4.4.3).
144 
3.133.  The TCA is implemented by the Office of Trade Competition Commission (OTCC) in the 
Department of Internal Trade (DIT) under the Ministry of Commerce. The Trade Competition 
Commission (TCC), which is chaired by the Minister  of Commerce and includes representatives of 
                                               
144 More information about these Acts is also available in WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 
8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  the Ministries of Commerce and Finance along with other members appointed by the Council of 
Ministers, remains the main enforcement body. The TCC has issued guidelines concerning cartels, abuse of a dominant position, and anti-monopoly or a reduction of competition although there are very few reported cases.
145  
3.4.4.1.2  Scope 
3.134.   The TCA regulates virtually all trade practices of business operators over a broad 
spectrum of commercial activity including agri cultural businesses, manufacturing, commerce, 
financial services, insurance and other service industries.146 The only groups exempt from the TCA 
are the central, provincial or local government administrations, state-owned enterprises regulated under the law on budgetary procedures
147, groups of farmers, cooperatives or cooperatives 
recognised by law whose business objectives are for the benefit of the farming industry and 
business prescribed by ministerial regulations, which may be fully or partially exempt from the 
application of the law. No such ministerial regula tions have been issued so far. Industry-specific 
regimes including in the energy and telecommuni cations industry (section 4.3 and 4.5.3), and 
certain guidelines on conduct between retailers, wholesalers, manufacturers and suppliers were 
issued under the TCA.148 Industry-specific legislation governs anticompetitive conduct, mergers or 
monopolies and only applies to the industry that it governs. The TCC and sectoral regulatory 
authorities may have concurrent and overlapping powers, and it is not always clear as to which 
authority will be the enforcing authority in the case of an overlap. 
3.4.4.1.3  Prohibitions 3.135.  The TCA prohibits anticompetitive practi ces as follows: where a business operator has 
abused its dominant market position (fixing buying or selling prices, applying conditions or 
restrictions to sales or purchases, or restricting supply of goods or services)
149; where one 
business operator colludes with another business operator to reduce or restrict competition in the 
relevant goods or services market; where any merger may result in a monopoly or unfair 
competition; and, in relation to some other forms of restrictive unfair trade practices.150 Two 
business operators may obtain permission from the TCC to enter into certain anticompetitive 
agreements where they can show a business necessity  that is beneficial for the promotion of the 
business operation, will not create severe damage to the economy and will not affect significant benefits that consumers would receive as a whole. In granting permission, the TCC may set a period of time for compliance with any conditions by the business operator; the authorities 
indicated that no such permission has been delivered during the review period. Concerning 
anticompetitive mergers, no business operators can merge if the merger results in a monopoly or unfair competition according to the TCC's thresholds, except where permission is obtained from 
the TCC.
151 However, the thresholds prescribed by the TCC have not yet been issued, so the 
merger control provision has never become effective though still under consideration.  
3.4.4.1.4  Enforcement  
3.136.  TCA enforcement remained moderate duri ng the review period for a number of reasons 
including poor transparency in administration an d enforcement of the law, the broad discretionary 
authority of the TCC, political influence and sh ortfall of independence of the TCC, and the 
ineffective structure and composition of the TCC.152 Since 2014, the Ministry of Commerce has 
                                               
145 Clifford Chance (2014). 
146 Clifford Chance (2014). 
147 For example, the Government Phar maceutical Organization, a state- owned entity, is not subject to 
Thailand's Food and Drug Administration licensing requ irements on the production , sale, and importation of 
pharmaceutical products and is exempt from rule s against anticompetitive practices. USTR (2014). 
148 Clifford Chance (2014).  
149 A dominant position is defined as being a market  share of more than 50% over a 12-month period, 
3 companies having a combined market share of more than 75% with each player having at least 10%. WTO 
document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012.  
150 Clifford Chance (2014).  
151 In principle, merger approval may be obtained where any business operator can show a business 
necessity, or it is benefici al for the promotion of the business operation, or will not create severe damage to 
the economy and will not affect significant benefits whic h consumers would receive as a whole. Clifford Chance 
(2014). 
152 WTO documents WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008 and WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  been encouraged to expedite amendments to th e TCA (section 3.4.4.1.5), whilst, Thailand's 
National Reform Council (NRC) has proposed the TC A overhaul to enhance the effectiveness of its 
administration and enforcement. 
3.137.  Penalties for TCA violations remain unchanged since 1999. Failure to abide by its 
provisions may result in a term of imprisonment of up to three years and/or a fine of up to 
B 6 million (a double penalty applies in the case of a repeat offence) and a daily fine not exceeding B 50,000 during the period in which the violation is ongoing. 
3.138.  Since the TCA came into force in 1999, and as at January 2015, 95 claims covering unfair 
trade practices (53), restrictive agreements (24), and abuse of dominant position (25) have been made to the TCC which made decisions in 84 cases; the OTCC received just three complaints in 2013 and 2 in 2014, compared with 11 complaints received in 2012.
153 However, no case has so 
far reached trial, nor has any criminal prosecution occurred through the TCC. In late 2012, it 
appeared that the TCC was about to make its first enforcement finding, in a case stalled over nearly 10 years against motorcycle distributor AP Honda's policy of prohibiting its motorcycle 
dealers from selling other brands; the Commission found substantial evidence of a breach of the 
TCA and referred the case to the public prosecutor. However, the case has not been brought before the court.
154 
3.4.4.1.5  TCA reform plans 
3.139.  Efforts were made to amend the 16-year-old TCA, a major national reform issue 
since 2014. In 2012, a bill before parliament sought to expand the powers, independence and transparency of the TCC as well as increase the statute of limitations (prescription period).
155 On 
28 October 2014, the OTCC announced proposed amendments to the TCA, a signal that Thailand 
intends to make the TCA an effective regulatory regime.156 As of December 2014 the OTCC was 
considering alternative definitions for dominant players in various sectors, reducing the minimum 
turnover for companies to be held accountable, and setting different market-share figures 
(section 3.4.4.1.2).157 However, it had not yet issued specific drafts. The amendments would 
expand the scope of the law to cover state enterprises that run businesses in competition with the 
private sector, an upgrade of the OTCC to an independent body, and enhanced penalties and 
powers in filing lawsuits against violators.158 No timetable for implementation of these 
amendments had yet been announced, nor had the Interim Government indicated its stance on this issue. The authorities seem committed to amending the TCA to ensure the changes are 
enforced within the current government's tenure. 
3.4.4.2  Price controls 3.140.  The legal and institutional framework in this area remains unchanged. Under the Price of 
Goods and Services Act B.E. 2542 (1999) Thailand continues to ensure the fair price of goods and 
services and adequate supply of goods to meet domestic demand.
159 Its Central Commission on 
Prices of Goods and Services (CCP) in the DIT has the authority to set out: the goods and services 
subject to price controls; controls for their sale or purchase prices; and, procedures and conditions 
                                               
153 Clifford Chance (2014); Economis t Intelligence Unit (2014b); and Bangkok Post , "Monopoly rules set 
to be tightened", 5 March 2015. Viewed at: http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/news/489481/monopoly-
rules-set-to-be-tightened . 
154 Bertelsmann Stiftung (2014); and Bangkok Post , "AP Honda faces unfair trad e suit", 11 January 2013 
and "Monopoly rules set to be tightened", 5 March 2015. Viewed at: http://www.bangkokpost.com/lite/breakingnews/330345/favicon.ico  and 
http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/news/489481/monopoly-rules-set-to-be-tightened . 
155 Bertelsmann Stiftung (2014).  
156 DFDL online information, "Recent proposals to amend the Trade Competition Act", 5 December 2014. 
Viewed at: http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=2d4373db-43ba-4bb7-ad89-79ae864f968d . 
157 It was proposed that a business entity would be regarded as domi nating the market if it held a 
market share of more than 30% and had sales of  more than B 500 million in the preceding year. Bangkok Post , 
"Monopoly rules set to be tightened", 5 March 2015. Viewed at: http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/news/489481/monopoly-rules-set-to-be-tightened ; and Economist 
Intelligence Unit (2014b).  
158 Bangkok Post , "Monopoly rules set to be tightened", 5 March 2015. Viewed at: 
http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/news/489481/monopoly-rules-set-to-be-tightened .  
159 More information on the legal and institutional framework governing price controls is available at 
WTO documents WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008 and WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012.  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  relating to the display of prices. In addition to the CCP, provincial commissions regulate prices 
locally. 
3.141.  The CCP continues to maintain three list s of items subject to varying degrees of price 
control: the Controlled List of 38 goods and 3 services (39 and 2 in 2012 respectively) for which 
manufacturers must have approval from the CCP before raising prices or give advance notice of a 
change in prices160; the Administered/Monitoring List of  205 goods and 20 services under TCC 
surveillance (Table 3.7); and, the Price Display List of 315 (previously 232 goods and 47 services) 
for which retailers must display the price of goods and services.161 The CCP Monitoring List 
remains divided into three categories (Table 3.7): the Sensitive goods and services whose prices are monitored daily because they are expected to increase in the near future; the Priority Watch 
goods and services that are monitored twice a we ek; and the Watch goods and services that are 
monitored twice a month. Products in the Administered/Monitoring List may be reclassified onto 
the Controlled List when necessary and based on the circumstances of a particular case.  
3.142.  The Ministry of Commerce may also ask manufacturers and retailers to freeze or cap prices 
voluntarily. Its latest request was in June 2014, when retailers were urged to freeze retail prices 
until end-2014.
162 Under its Blue Flag programme the Ministry also operates a number of "blue 
flag" food stalls and restaurants which provide low cost meals. Between October 2012 and 
September 2013, it spent B 606.4 million to hold 2,003 low-price fairs.163 It was claimed that the 
programme was able to reduce the cost of living for 6 million people. Similarly between October 2014 and June 2015, it held 2,217 low prices fairs, and was able to reduce the cost of living of 6.3 million people equivalent to approximately B 660 million. 
3.143.  The DIT may take legal or administrative actions against those who do not comply, and if 
despite these actions they still do not comply, their products will be reclassified into the Controlled List and subject to more stringent requirements. No legal or administrative action against any 
business entity was taken during the review period. Hoarding controlled goods and refusing to sell, 
controlling goods or providing controlled service, fixing unreasonably low or high prices, or causing fluctuations in the price of goods or services leads to imprisonment for up to seven years, or a fine 
of up to B 140,000, or both.
164 Failure to display the retail price of goods or services results in a 
fine of up to B 10,000; failure to comply with th e maximum price of goods or services set forth by 
the CCP results in imprisonment for up to five  years or a fine of up to B 100,000, or both. 
                                               
160 As of end-June 2015, sugar was the only commodity subject to price control. Other products under 
the controlled goods and services list were not subject to any price control. The content of the list is subject to change or modification depending upon the necessity an d appropriateness of the circumstances of each year 
for each commodity. PVC pipes were added to the list in 2015 because PVC pipes are widely used as construction and agricultural materials. As of June 2014 products on the controlled list included: garlic; paddy, 
rice; corn; cassava and its products; egg; pig, pork; sugar; oil and fat from vegetables or animals; sweet 
condensed imitation cream, condensed milk, reconstituted milk, modified fat milk powdered milk, fresh milk; wheat flour; food in sealed off container; palm oil seed; detergent; sanitary napkins; toilet paper, tissue paper; 
fertilizer; pesticides for plants an d plant diseases; intensive feeds and animal feeds; water pumper; paddy 
tractor; rice harvest trac tor; rice moisture hygrometer; rice qu ality inspecting device; measurement of 
percentage of flour in raw ca ssava; cement; structural stee l, iron plate, steel rod; electric wire; crepe paper, 
parchment; writing and typing papers; pulp paper; ca r battery; tires of motorcycle and tires of car; 
motorcycle, car, truck; category of pe troleum products; liquid petroleum gas; fuel oil; plastic pellets; medicine; 
school uniform; right to broadcasting copyright on song for commercials; se rvice on goods deposit or rent out 
a warehouse; service on agricultural eq uipment; and, lottery tick ets. List of controlled  goods and services, as 
of September 2013. Viewed at: http://www.dit.go.th/en/backoffice/uploadfile/255610011120316495749.pdf ; 
and Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b). 
161 The Nation online information, "Next govt shou ld review price controls as living costs rise 
regardless", 7 January 2014. Viewed at: http://www.nationmultimedia.com/bu siness/Next-govt-should-review-
price-controls-as-living-c-30223629.html .  
162 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b).  
163 The Nation online information, "Next govt shou ld review price controls as living costs rise 
regardless", 7 January 2014. Viewed at: http://www.nationmultimedia.com/bu siness/Next-govt-should-review-
price-controls-as-living-c-30223629.html . 
164 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Table 3.7 Products and services subject to monitoring, April 2015 
List Products 
 Goods  
Sensitive 1. Packed Rice, 2. Gasoline, 3. Diesel, 4. Natural Gas for Vehicles NGV, 5. Vegetable oil, 6. Finished 
meal, 7. Pork, 8. LPG  
Priority 
Watch 1. Steel rod, 2. Electric wire, 3. Cement, 4. Pesticides, 5. Egg, 6. Battery, 7. Sugar, 8. Animal feed, 
9. LPG for car, 10. Chemical fertilizer, 11. Fish sauce, 12. Lemon 
Watch 1. Hen, 2. Chicken, 3. Fresh chicken, 4. Duck egg, 5. Beef, 6. Giant Tiger prawn, white shrimp, 
7. Mackerel, 8. Walking catfish, 9. Mango fish, 10. Mackerel streaming, 11. Morning glory, 12. Chinese 
vegetable, 13. Coriander, 14. Spring onion (l eek), 15. Chili, 16. Noodle, 17. Chinese cabbage, 
18. Cabbage, 19. Flowering cabbage, 20. Cockles,  mussel, 21. Powdered milk, 22. Fresh milk, 
23. Yogurt, 24. Condensed imitation cream, 25. Inst ant coffee, 26. Imitation cream, 27. Soybean oil, 
28. Sweetened condensed milk, 29. Ice, 30. Carbonat ed water, 31. Drinking water with hermetically 
sealed container, 32. Juice, 33. Instant tea with hermetically sealed container, 34. Instant coffee with 
hermetically sealed container, 35. Fruits with hermetically sealed container 36. Vegetables with 
hermetically sealed container, 37. Finished chocolate flavour drinking on liquid and powder, 38. Salt, 
39. Soy sauce, 40. Vinegar, 41. Soybean sauce, 42. Oyster sauce, 43. Tomato sauce, 44. Chili sauce, 
45. Chicken sauce, 46. Monosodium glutamate, 47. Wheat flour 48. Cassava flour, 49. Dyer rice noodle, 
50. Vermicelli, 51. Convenience food with hermetically sealed container, 52. Finished seasoning and 
condiment, 53. Food with hermetically sealed contai ner, 54. Cayenne pepper with hermetically sealed 
container, 63. Dye hair gel, 64. Talcum powder, 65. Deodorant products, 66. Detergent, 67. Washing 
liquid, 68. Clothes stain eradicate products, 69. Clothes bleach products, 70. Fabric conditioner, 
71. Ironing conditioner, 72. Dishwashing liquid, 73. Bathroom cleaning products, 74. Floor cleaning 
products, 75. Furniture cleaning products, 76. Leather shoes care, 77. Tooth plate, 78. Tooth brush, 
79. Sanitary pad, 80. Diaper, 81. Dry battery , 82. Absorbent cotton, 83. Razor blade, 84. 
Mosquito-repellent and pesticide, 85. Paper pulp , 86. Parchment, 87. Corrugated paper, 88. Paper 
sheet, 89. Newsprint, 90. Facial tissue and paper towels, 91. Student notebook, 92. Electric bulb, 
93. Electric hair dryer, 94. Fan, 95. Electric rice cooker, 96. Refrigerator, 97. Television, 98. Electric 
vacuum bottle, 99. Food processing equipment, 100. Iron, 101. Air condition, 102. Washing machine, 
103. Vacuum cleaner, 104. Water heater, 105. Air Cleaner, 106. Radio and cassette, compact disk 
player, 107. Microwave, 108. Water pumper, 109. Car, 110. Pickup truck, 111. Motorcycle, 112. Bicycle, 
113. Oil filter, 114. Air filter, 115. Brake pad, 116. Car tire, 117. Motorcycle tire, 118. Bicycle tire, 
119. Light filter, 120. Helmet, 121. Floor tile, wall tile, 122. Roof tile, 123. Gypsum sheet, 
124. Insulation, 125. Floor cement sheet, 126. Mirror, 127. Cement pipe, 128. PVC Pipe, 
129. Aluminium pipe, 130. Galvanized iron, 131. Aluminium rod, 132. Plywood, 133. Nail, 134. Stone, 
135. Sand, 136. Red brick, 137. White brick, 138. Cement block, 139. Ready-mixed concrete, 140. 
Ready-mixed concrete floor, 141. Tin plate, 142. Chrome-plate, 143. Hot-rolled sheet and stainless, 
144. Steel structure, 145. Paint house, 146. Tank, 147. Grease trap, 148. Lubricant, 149. Bunker oil, 
150. Gasohol, 151. Plastic pellets, 152 Plastic bags, 153. Plastic bags, 154. Rubbish plastic bags, 155. 
Flexing temperature, 156. Painkiller medicine, 157. Analgesic-antipyretic, 158. Muscle painkiller 
medicine, 159. Antiseptic, 160. Plaster, 161. Cotton wool, 162. Face mask, 163. Hands washing gel, 
164. Pushcart, 165. Tractor, 166. Lawn mower, 167. Rice harvest tractor, 168. Water pumper, 
169. Plastic mesh, 170. Hoe, 171. Spade, 172. Agricultural chemical sprayer, 173. Grass shears, 
174. Fishmeal, 175. Polystyrene paper, 176. School bag, 177. School socks, 178. School uniform, 
179. School shoes, 180. Water filter, 181. Magnetic  sound and picture-recording tape, 182. Mobile 
telephone, 183. Mobile telephone battery, 184. Call  time refill card, 185. Ornament and bar gold 
 Services  
Sensitive 1. Delivery services (goods, document, package, and fax) 
Priority 
Watch 1. Repair service, 2. Installation of electrical devi ces, plumbing or telephones, 3. Changing or replacing 
engine oil services, 4. Auto repairing services 
Watch 1. Ticket service, 2. Flower arrangement, 3. Laundry services, 4. Hairdressing or barber services, 
5. Sewing services, 6. Photo services, 7. Photocopy services, 8. Locksmith services, 9. Car park 
services, 10. Veterinary services, 11 Sport/leisure facilities services, 12. Beauty salons, 
13. Video/compact disk rental services, 14. Rental/short-term/hotel accommodation services, 
15. Library services 
Source:  Department of Internal Trade online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.dit.go.th/en/backoffice/uploadfile/255610011351485115749.pdf  and 
http://www.dit.go.th/en/backoffice/uploadfile/255610011147057425749.pdf .  
3.144.  The long-standing price controls policy wa s to be discontinued by the end of 2013, but this 
has not been the case so far in order to help people cope with high living cost, depending on 
necessity and changing external and internal circumstances. As indicated at the 2008 TPR, 
according to a 2006 World Bank study, the two lists cover slightly less than half of the Thai manufacturing sector's value-added, and account for less than 20% of the CPI basket; at present 
the administered/monitoring list accounts for a pproximately 47% of the CPI basket. These price 
controls allegedly depress profitability and private investment while having a relatively small impact on inflation.
165 In light of increasing production costs it seems that in recent years many 
                                               
165 WTO documents WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008 and WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012.  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  producers have shifted to making other goods166 and downsizing content of existing items to avoid 
increasing prices. According to Thailand's Minister of Energy since 2014, in early 2013 conglomerates with a dominant position have been the principal cause of rising prices for several consumer goods, while the Government's creation of outlets for cheap goods has failed to address 
the problem's root causes.
167 
3.4.4.3  Consumer protection 3.145.  During the review period, Thailand's policy, legislative and institutional framework 
governing consumer protection remained unchanged. Its policy consists of raising awareness, 
promoting and supporting the role of public an d private organizations working on consumer 
protection, and using legal mechanisms to protec t consumers from being taken advantage of by 
such means as excessive advertising, misleading  advertisements, or use of media for personal 
interests.
168 In addition to the relevant Constitutional provisions, the Consumer Protection 
Act 1979 (last amended in 2013) is intended to protect consumers against false labelling, misleading advertising and unfair contracts. Moreover, it provides protection against unsafe 
products and services mainly by strengthening th e powers of the Consumer Protection Board. The 
third amendment of the Consumer Protection Act mandated the Consumer Protection Boards (CPB) 
to ban, withdraw and recall unsafe products, in cluding general products, kitchen equipment, 
foodstuffs, health supplements, cosmetic products, toys and electronic equipment. However, there 
are many other laws in the consumer protection area, such as the Direct Selling and Direct Marketing Act 2002, the Product Liability Act 2008 , the Consumer Case Procedure Act 2008, the 
Computer-Related Crimes Act 2007, the Cosmetics Act 1992, the Commercial Bank Act 1962, and 
the Food Act 1979. Amendments to the Computer-Related Crimes Act 2007 were to be passed by 
the legislature in the second quarter of 2015, along with a Cybersecurity Bill.
169 These bills, along 
with planned amendments to the Electronic Transactions Act may allow more effective prosecution 
of internet sites selling counterfeit goods. The Consumer Protection Act indirectly covers 
e-commerce transactions, and it also lets dissatisfied buyers seek redress through a mechanism under the Sub-Committee on Mediation. As of December 2014, the Electronic Transactions 
Development Agency was drafting regulations governing certification authorities. The Consumer 
Protection Board (CPB) remains the main government al body implementing the policy in the area 
assisted by the Office of the CPB (OCP B) under the Prime Minister's Office.  
3.4.5  Corporate governance
170  
3.146.  Thailand is a regional leader in corporate governance with a relatively comprehensive 
framework and high levels of compliance with international standards in a number of key areas.171 
Corporate governance reforms have enhanced investor trust and protected investors' rights, 
especially non-majority shareholders, increased board professionalism and promoted high levels of 
                                               
166 The Government has no authority to order manufact urers to freeze their prices if they add value or 
innovations to their goods. Therefore, more new products  were to appear in the marketplace, while traditional 
goods that are under the DIT controls would gradually disappear. The Nation online  information, "Next govt 
should review price controls as living costs rise regardless", 7 January 2014. Viewed at: http://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/Next-govt-should-review-price-controls-as-living-c-
30223629.html . 
167 Bertelsmann Stiftung (2014).   
168 Office of the Consumer Protection Board Po werPoint presentation (undated). Viewed at: 
http://www.aseanconsumer.org/misc/downloads/usftc-s8-kt.pdf . 
169 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b).  
170 Improving corporate governance can serve a numbe r of important public policy objectives. Good 
corporate governance reduces emerging market vulnerability to financ ial crises, reinforces  property rights, 
reduces transaction costs and the cost of capital, and leads to capital market development. Weak corporate 
governance frameworks reduce investor confidence, and can discourage outside investment. This section is based on World Bank (2013).  
171 According to the 2013 World Bank Detailed Country Assessment of the OECD Principles of Corporate 
Governance, which looks at both legal requirements and actual practice, Thailand obtained a score of 
82.83 points from a possible total of 100, receiving the highest score in the disclosure and transparency areas. According to the World Bank information disclosures in the annual reports of listed companies are primarily in 
line with international standards. There are also a va riety of channels for distributing listed companies' 
information to investors in an appropriate and timely ma nner. In addition to legal and regulatory reforms to 
facilitate corporate governance im provement, the Thai capital market also shows other key areas of 
improvement, such as, determination of basic shareh older rights and board duti es and responsibilities. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  corporate transparency.172 According to the ASEAN Corporate Governance Scorecard 2013 overall, 
the 2013 findings suggest a continued improvement in the corporate governance practices of Thai Publicly Listed Companies (PLCs).
173 The average score in 2013 was 75 points, 8 points higher 
than in 2012. Companies do well in the Rights  of Shareholders and Equitable Treatment of 
Shareholders categories. The finance sector obtained the highest average score, followed by 
technology and telecommunications, and energy  and utilities. The consumer goods sector 
exhibited the narrowest range of scores, suggesti ng the least variation in corporate governance 
practices among peer companies. In contrast, the range between the minimum and maximum 
scores in the energy and utilities sector suggested a high variation of governance practices among peers.  
3.147.  During the review period, Thailand's legal and institutional framework remained 
unchanged. Corporate governance is mainly regulated by the Public Limited Companies Act 1992 
(PLCA), the Securities and Exchange Act 1992 (S EA), and the Principles of Good Corporate 
Governance for Listed Companies 2012. The 2013 World Bank Report on the Observance of 
Standards and Codes (ROSC) indicates that while the underlying legislation is generally clear, it 
has been supplemented by a range of regulati ons and guidelines, many of which are still 
considered relevant or in force from several years before, even when more recent statements may 
cover the same ground. There are also potentiall y confusing differences and overlap between the 
SEA and PLCA. In spite of widespread training an d awareness raising, the market participants may 
not always fully understand relevant parts of the corporate governance framework. 
3.148.  According to the ROSC the Securities  and Exchange Commission (SEC) and Bank of 
Thailand (BoT) are well resourced and active in enforcing the various rules and requirements under 
their jurisdiction. The SEC screens directors of list ed companies, and can disqualify them under the 
SEA. Listed companies have audit committees of  independent members, and many also have 
nomination and remuneration committees. In response to the growing importance of diversified 
financial companies to the Thai economy, although the SEC and BoT have not conducted joint inspections yet, they have shared information on a regular basis and planned to start joint 
inspections by 2015. Between 2011 and the first quarter of 2015 the SEC received 321 complaints, 
94% of which were processed. Listed companies that accomplish a high level of information disclosure are awarded with Top Corporate Govern ance Report Awards arranged by the Stock 
Exchange of Thailand (SET); there are 10 top companies from the SET and 2 companies with 
highest score from MAI (Market for Alternative Investment) awarded annually. The State 
Enterprise Policy Office (SEPO) has continued its efforts to improve the governance of state-owned 
enterprises (SOEs), which include some of the largest listed companies (section 3.4.3).  
3.149.  Foreign shareholders face limits on their participation in certain companies, and custodians 
do not have explicit requirements to act on their behalf. As indicated by the ROSC, accounting standards still have some significant differences from international standards, particularly with 
respect to financial instruments. Independence requirements for auditors still allow for the 
provision of a range of non-audit services to clients, and, until recently, there was little oversight of audit quality or independence. Other reputational agents also have limited requirements in terms of disclosing or managing conflicts of interest. SOEs are audited by the Office of Auditor 
General (OAG), a state auditor with limited capabili ties to audit statements prepared in accordance 
with current accounting standards. Consequently the ROSC suggests that Thailand's corporate governance framework could be further strengthened by: improving SOEs governance and making 
the state a more effective owner; protecting th e independence and effectiveness of the SEC and 
BoT; making rules and regulations clearer for mark et participants; improving shareholder redress, 
including through SEC enforcement; finalizing convergence to International Financial Reporting 
Standards (IFRSs) and enhancing beneficial ownership disclosure and other non-financial 
disclosure; strengthening auditor independence and effectiveness of market intermediaries; and, continuing to increase board independence and effectiveness.  
3.150.  In response to ROSC's comments, as from 2013 the SEC has introduced many measures to 
improve corporate governance of listed companies. It, inter alia , announced a sustainability 
development roadmap for listed companies in 2013, which included the implementation of CG practices, corporate social responsibility (CSR ), and anti-corruption. The SEC is now widely 
                                               
172 More information about Thailand's corporate govern ance regime is also available at WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008. 
173 Asian Development Bank (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  recognized as a trustworthy and effective independ ent audit regulator for the Thai capital market, 
as evidenced by its acceptance as a member of  the International Forum of Independent Audit 
Regulators (IFIAR), an organization established to promote collaboration between independent regulators that oversee auditors, and a memb er of ASEAN Audit Regulators Group (AARG). 
Moreover, in June 2013, the European Commission (EC) acknowledged the SEC's audit oversight 
system as being equivalent to that of the European Union (EU) member states. Moreover, 
regarding IFRSs, the SEC has cooperated with the Federation of Accounting Professions to support 
IFRS implementation in Thailand within the globally acceptable timeframe. The SEC has also 
proposed further legal amendments to the Securities and Exchange Act of 1992 with regard to various issues; for instance, unfair securities trading practices, legal enforcement and capital market linkages. Amendments would permit class actions, as one way of initiating a lawsuit on 
behalf of a large number of injured parties. Civil penalties would be introduced as an alternative 
measure of legal enforcement in addition to enforcement through criminal sanctions. 
3.4.6  Intellectual property rights 
3.151.  Intellectual property is regarded as a key factor for creating added value for goods and 
services and strengthening the country's competition potential as reflected in Thailand's National IP Strategy 2013-2016.
174 During the review period, Thailand's limited international commitments 
on the protection of IPRs remained unchanged. It has been a member of the World Intellectual 
Property Organization (WIPO) since 1989 and a party to three of its 26 administered treaties, namely the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (since 1931), the 
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial  Property (since 2008) and the Patent Cooperation 
Treaty (since 2009). Thailand is not a contracting party to the WIPO Internet treaties (i.e., the 
Copyright Treaty and the Performances and Phonog rams Treaty), the Singapore Treaty on the Law 
of Trademarks, or the Patent Law Treaty, and it has not signed any post- Trade-Related Aspects of 
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) FTA that includes substantial provisions on IP rights.
175 
Nevertheless, forthcoming RTAs are still considered as opportunities for improving Thailand's IPRs protection regime.
176 At its previous TPR Thailand planned to accede to the Protocol relating to the 
Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Re gistration of Marks by the end of 2012; as of 
2014, it planned to join it in 2015.177 The authorities had also indicated that although it was not a 
signatory to the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations most of its principles were already incorporated into current copyright 
legislation, in accordance with Article 2 of the WTO Agreement on TRIPS.  
3.152.  Thailand's participation in the WTO's TRIPS Council's work was limited during the review 
period, compared to past involvement which, inter alia , was related to biopiracy and inappropriate 
patenting, as well as protection for geographical indications and traditional knowledge.
178 As a 
developing country, Thailand has been implementing the WTO TRIPS Agreement since 2000. Thailand has implemented the 2003 WTO General Council waiver on compulsory licensing, set up 
under Paragraph 6 of the Doha Declaration on th e TRIPS Agreement and Public Health to allow 
compulsory licensing for exports to countries lacking their own production capacity (the Paragraph 6 system); it initiated the patent protection of pharmaceutical products in 2005. It has not yet accepted/ratified the 2005 decision to  convert the waiver into a TRIPS Agreement 
amendment.
179 At the time of its previous TPR, it was preparing to amend the Patent Act, and the 
procedure for implementing the Paragraph 6 system was to be discussed and then included in the draft amendment. As of end-June 2015 the accept ance of the Protocol amending the WTO TRIPS 
                                               
174 Department of Intellectual Property (2014). 
175 US Chamber of Commerce's Global In tellectual Property Center (2015).  
176 According to the EU, which on 6 March 2013, launched negotiations for a Free Trade Agreement with 
Thailand (section 2.4.2), an FTA with Thailand woul d provide provisions on a ddressing and improving its 
deficiencies in the registration, protection and enfo rcement of IPRs. European Commission Market Access 
online Database. Viewed at: http://madb.europa.eu/madb/barriers_details.htm?barrier_id=095301&version=3 . 
177 ASEAN members had agreed to do this by end-2015 under the ASEAN Economic Community 
Blueprint; though as of December 2014 only Singapore and Viet Nam had joined. In October 2012 the National 
Legislative assembly allowed the author ities to apply to join the Madrid Protocol, though the new government 
as of December 2014 had not announced a timetable regarding accession to this treaty. Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b). 
178 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
179 See WTO online information. Viewed at: www.wto.org/tripshealth ; and WTO document IP/C/57, 
10 December 2010 on the "Paragraph 6" review. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Agreement was in the process of Parliamentary approval as provided under the Interim 
Constitution B.E.2557 (2014) (section 2.2).  
3.4.6.1  Legislative and in stitutional developments 
3.153.  Since Thailand's last Review in 2012, several legislative developments relating to 
amendments to existing laws as well as new pieces of legislation, which had been blocked for 
several years, were either passed or enforced in 2015.180 Thailand considered several amendments 
to its IP regime, including the Copyright Act, Tr ademark Act, Trade Secrets Act, Customs Act, and 
the Computer Crime Act. The amendments, inter alia , seek to address Internet Service Providers' 
(ISP) liability, protection of technical protection measures (TPMs) and rights management information (RMI), enforcement of TPMs, unauthorized camcording in movie theatres, copyright exceptions for temporary copying, copyright except ions to facilitate access to copyright works for 
disabled persons, and customs action against tran shipments of infringing goods. A number of bills 
have been discussed by the National Legislative Assembly and marked for expedited passage and enactment; those relating to the amendments of the Copyright Act and the Trade Secrets Act were 
passed in November 2014. The Copyright Act (No.2) B.E. 2558, the Copyright Act (No. 3) 
B.E. 2558 and the Trade Secrets Act were enacted and published in the Government Gazette  in 
February 2015. The Copyright Act (No. 3) B.E. 2558 and the Copyright Act (No. 2) B.E. 2558 have 
come into force on 4 April 2015 and 6 August 2015 respectively, while the amendments to the 
Trade Secret Act entered into force on 6 February 2015. The amendments are directed toward closing outstanding gaps in Thailand's IP framework.
181  
3.154.  The IPRs institutional framework remains unchanged. Under the Ministry of Commerce, the 
Department of Intellectual Property (DIP) remains responsible for implementing laws and initiating 
reforms on intellectual property protection covering copyrights, trademarks, patents, integrated circuit topographies, geographical indications, trade secrets, optical disc production, traditional 
knowledge, and other subjects, including registration  and approvals. The DIP supports the Office of 
Higher Education Commission, in order to set up Technology Licensing Offices (TLO) at various universities to liaise with start-up companies and new entrepreneurs searching for market 
opportunities, as well as to set guidelines for using IP at commercial level. Moreover, the DIP and 
universities signed agreements to promote and commercialize IP; the DIP planned to extend its cooperation to 14 universities by co-signing Agreements in July 2015. The Ministry of Science and Technology has an Intellectual Property Management unit in its National Innovation Agency that 
promotes partnerships between private companies and local researchers, and a consultant on 
registration of patents and IP rights and a provider of various services.  
3.4.6.2  Industrial property 
3.4.6.2.1  Patents  
3.155.  There has been virtually no change to Thailand's patent legislation since its previous 
review. The Patent Act B.E. 2522 (1979), as amended in 1992 and 1999, grants national 
treatment to nationals of other countries that are party to any international convention that 
Thailand has signed. The next amendment of the Act is under consideration. The importation of patented products by the patentee is considered as "working the patent". The Patent Act covers inventions and designs, and products and processes. It includes full patents for inventions that are 
new, industrially applicable, and represent an inventive step; and petty patents, which do not 
require an inventive step. Terms of protection, applied from the date of filing, are 20 years for inventions, 10 years for designs, and 6 years for petty patents.
182 Under the Patent Act, an 
invention is defined as any innovation or invention that creates a new product or process, or any 
improvement on a known product or process.183 A product design is defined as any form or 
                                               
180 English translations of Thailand's intellectual property laws and related legislation, regulations, and 
treaties are available in the World Intellectual Prop erty Organization's database, WIPO Lex. Viewed at: 
http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/profile.jsp?code=TH . 
181 US Chamber of Commerce's Global In tellectual Property Center (2015).  
182 These terms of protection can be extended twice for periods of two years. 
183 Under the Act (Section 9), the following are unp atentable: naturally occu rring microorganisms and 
their components, animals, plants or extracts from animals or plants; scientific or mathematical rules or 
theories; computer programs; methods of diagnosis, treatment or cure of human and animal diseases; and 
inventions contrary to public orde r, morality, health or welfare.  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  composition of lines or colours that gives a special appearance to a product and can serve as a 
pattern for an industrial or a handicraft product.  
3.156.  Annual patent applications to the DI P for inventions rose from 3,906 (2011) to 
7,930 (2014), while for designs they were relatively steady at around 3,787.184 During the same 
period, all patent approvals increased gradually from 2,153 to 4,007 and slightly decreased to 
3,763 in 2014; in 2014, foreign patents represented 59% of all approvals. There were more foreign applications and approvals than Thai ones for inventions, but the reverse for designs. In 
late 2013, patent examination guidelines, which appe ar to limit patentability of medical use claims 
and of new uses for known substances, were released to streamline the patent examination process and to help reduce severe patent back logs as well as evergreening of drug patents.
185 
However, so far the guidelines have seemingly resulted in further delays and requests for 
additional information from patent applicants, particularly for applications related to second 
medical use. The reduction of backlog has been DIP's priority. Efforts were made to increase the number of examiners, outsource some administrative functions to research entities, public 
universities, and government institutions and enha nce IP registration efficiency to improve IT 
systems. In addition, the DIP tries to reduce duplication on search and examination work by accepting search and examination results of other IP offices as follows: participation in the ASEAN 
Patent Examination Cooperation (ASPEC) to share search results between the participating offices 
allowing applicants to obtain corresponding patents faster and more efficiently; and the signature of a MOU on pilot Patent Prosecution Highway programme (PPH) on work sharing with the Japan Patent Office (JPO) on 24 September 2013, in force since 2014. As of December 2014, the backlog 
of pending applications, a longstanding concern, had reached over 20,000.
186 According to the DIP 
as of late 2014 the average time required to obtain a patent stood at over seven years.187  
3.4.6.2.2  Trademarks  
3.157.  The Trademarks Act B.E. 2534 (1991), last amended in 2000, remains unchanged and 
includes national treatment and extended covera ge to coloured and three-dimensional marks. 
Owners of registered trademarks are granted protection for ten years; registration may be 
renewed every ten years. Trademarks that are iden tical or similar to well-known marks may not be 
registered and those already registered may be revoked. Criteria from the Joint Recommendation Concerning Provisions on the Protection of Well-Known marks of WIPO are considered by the Registrant as well as the Trademark Board to determine whether a mark is well known; the 
relevant decision may be subject to appeal at cour t. Also protected are service marks, certification 
marks, and collective marks.  
3.158.  As of end-2014 the Cabinet was reviewing two important amendment proposals to the 
existing Trademarks Act that were merged and alre ady considered by the Council of the State; as 
of end-June 2015 the amendment was to be consid ered by the National Parliament and could 
come into effect in 2015.
188 The proposed amendment is to take into account new developments in 
the field of trademarks and bring the legislation in line with the principles of the Madrid Protocol to 
which Thailand is to become a party, one among the key objectives of the ASEAN Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Action Plan (2011-2015).
189 The draft amendment will extend the scope of 
                                               
184 Department of Intellectual Property (2014). 
185 The Nation online information, "Price of me dicines may soar if evergreen patents granted", 
27 February 2013. Viewed at: http://www.nationmultimedia .com/national/Price-of-m edicines-may-soar-if-
evergreen-patents-g-30200825.html ; The Rouse online information, "New Patent Examination Guidelines in 
Thailand", 13 September 2013. Viewed at: http://www.rouse.com/magazine/articles/ip-komodo-blog/new-
patent-examination-guidelines-in-thailand?tag=chemical ; and US Chamber of Commer ce's Global Intellectual 
Property Center (2015). 
186 USTR (2015b).   
187 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b). 
188 Interlegal Newsletter, "Thailand Legal Updates December 2014". Viewed at: 
http://www.interlegal.net/es/news/interlegal-newsletter-thailand-legal-updates-december-2014 ; Economist 
Intelligence Unit (2014b). 
189 Once all ASEAN countries become members to the Madrid Protocol it will be possible to designate 
these countries under the international trademark system , saving costs for trademark applicants and greatly 
simplifying the requirements to protect and manage tr ademark applications and tr ademark portfolios in the 
region. Currently, except for a few coun tries (Singapore, Viet Nam, and the Philippines), it is not possible to 
designate ASEAN countries through the Madrid System (viewed at: http://www.wipo.int/madrid/en/general/ ). 
Interlegal Newsletter, "Thailand Legal Updates December 2014". Viewed at: WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  trademark protection to include an unconventional mark, namely sound mark, and to make it clear 
that illegal re-filling is an infringing activity. The draft amendment also aims to simplify the process of registration and to reduce registration time as  well as to provide a grace period for renewal after 
the trademark has expired. The criminalization of illegal re-filling is also to be included. These 
changes seem in line with Thailand's obligati ons under the TRIPS Agreement by acceding to 
international conventions on cross-border registration; applicants could claim a priority right within WTO Member countries based on a registration application made in Thailand if application is made 
w i t h i n  s i x  m o n t h s  o f  t h e  f i r s t  f i l i n g  d a t e  a b r o a d .  A s  o f  2 0 1 4  t h e  M i n i s t r y  o f  P u b l i c  H e a l t h  w a s  
considering a plain packaging law, the Tobacco Consumption Control Act, which includes language prohibiting the display of product names, marks,  and importer or manufacturer names on tobacco 
products, and similar regulation could also be extended to alcoholic products (section 3.2.6.1.5).
190 
The new regulation could require warning labels on all cigarette packages to cover 85% of a 
package (up from 55%), thus restricting the existing  size of trademarks on tobacco product labels; 
the authorities indicated that the relevant registered trademarks are still protected under the 
Trademark Act.   
3.159.  To qualify, a trademark must be distinct ive, different from other registered trademarks, 
and not violate public order or morality. Goods and services are classified according to the Nice 
Agreement Concerning the International Classificati on of Goods and Services for the Purposes of 
the Registration of Marks. Between 2011 and 2014  the number of trademark applications to DIP 
slightly fluctuated, with a slight increase from 44,963 in 2012 to 46,097 in 2013 and slightly decreased to 45,661 in 2014. However, the number of registrations dropped -1.3% in 2013 when 
compared with the previous year and picked up again in 2014 at 5.4%, 20,617 marks being 
registered in total. Thai applications and registrations continue to exceed those of foreign applicants, and in 2014 they stood at 60.3% and about 55.7% of the total respectively.
191 
According to the DIP as of beginning of 2015 the average time required to register a trademark 
stood at 8-12 months as a result of the prioritiza tion policy of the DIP and Ministry of Commerce to 
clear all backlogs before joining the Madrid Protocol and to bring the country's performance in line 
with the internationally accepted practice.192  
3.4.6.2.3  Trade secrets 3.160.  Under the Trade Secrets Act B.E. 2545 (2002), last amended in  2015 (section 3.4.6.1), 
undisclosed information remains protected only when not generally known or readily accessible 
within the business, its secrecy makes it valuable, and it is in the control of the information owners 
who have taken steps to keep it secret. Genera lly, the Government has to keep secret any 
confidential information it receives subject to limited exceptions. The protection lasts as long as 
the information remains confidential. Test data for pharmaceutical and agricultural chemicals 
products qualify, but Thai law does not give data "exclusivity"; it neither prevents the data from being used for the approval of generic versions. The latest amendments to the Act are minor and 
relate to procedural issues such as the composition of the Trade Secrets Board and nominations to 
the Board.
193 It seems that in practice few trade secret applications are being filed with applicants 
fearing that disclosure of their trade secret to the authorities is not worth the benefit of trade secret protection under the Trade Secrets Act. The number of industrial and commercial trade 
secrets notified to the DIP rose from 247 (2011) to 273 (2012).  
3.4.6.2.4  Geographical indications 3.161.  Under the Geographical Indications Act B.E. 2546 (2003) protection is provided to 
domestic and foreign geographical indications in Thailand and includes terms associated with 
places as well as the place names themselves, allowing protection, for example, for fragrant rice such as Khao Hom Mali Thung Kula Rong-Hai (Jasmine rice). Once a term is registered, similar or 
                                                                                                                                               
http://www.interlegal.net/es/news/interlegal-newsletter-thailand-legal-updates-december-2014 ; Economist 
Intelligence Unit (2014b). 
190 In addition to Australia, which already enforced  such requirements, several economies, including 
France, New Zealand, South Africa, Thailand, and the United Kingdom, are considering introducing plain packaging legislation. US Chambe r of Commerce's Global Intellectual Property Center (2015).  
191 Department of Intellectual Property (2014).  
192 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b).  
193 Interlegal Newsletter, "Thailand Legal Updates December 2014". Viewed at: 
http://www.interlegal.net/es/news/interlegal-newsletter-thailand-legal-updates-december-2014 ; Economist 
Intelligence Unit (2014b); and EU (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  identical terms must not be used if that could cause confusion or be misleading about the 
product's geographical origin, quality, reputation or characteristics. Thailand applies "GI extension" to a limited number of products under Chapter V of the Act; Ministerial Regulation of Geographical Indications B.E. 2547 (2003) identifies rice and silk as well as wines and spirits as products 
benefiting from a higher level of protection, wh ich protects their names against goods from other 
geographical areas using the same or similar terms even when their true origin and qualities are clearly identified so there is no risk that anyone will be misled or confused. Nevertheless, concerns 
have been raised regarding the non-prohibition of misleading expressions such as "kind", "type", 
"style" or "imitation" or the like (e.g., "Scotch-type Whisky").
194 According to the authorities GI 
protection is provided in line with the relevant pr ovisions of the TRIPS Agreement. No protection is 
available if a term is generic or if it violates public order, morals or policy.  
3.162.  Registration is valid until it is cancelled. As of June 2015 Thailand had a total of 
118 applications for GI products which could be divided into Thai GI products for 104 applications and foreign GI products for 14 applications. There are 70 products protected consisting of 59 Thai 
and 11 foreign GIs. The examples of latest Thai GI applications are Rongrien Nasarn Rambutan 
from Surat Thani province, Pugo Yarang Pomelo from Pattani Province, Lamphun Golden Dried Langan, Kham Hom Phrae Rice, Wiang Kalong Pottery from Chiang Rai Province, and Mae Chai 
Phayao Lychee. Among the foreign terms regist ered are: Champagne and Cognac (France); 
Brunello di Montalcino, Barbaresco and Barolo, and Prosciutto di Parma (Italy); Scotch Whisky (UK); Pisco (Peru); Napa Valley (United States); Tequila (Mexico); and Boun Ma Thuot Coffee (Viet Nam). Registered Thai geographical indications include fruits, coffee, wine, rice, agricultural 
products, food stuffs, and handicrafts. Between 2011 and 2013, 35 new GIs were registered of 
which 5 were foreign.
195  
3.4.6.2.5  Protection of plant varieties 
3.163.  Protection under the sui generis  Plant Varieties Protection Act B.E. 2542 (1999), is for up 
to 27 years. It defines plant varieties eligible for protection and stipulates that genetically modified varieties may only be registered after they are o fficially appraised as safe for the environment, 
health, and public welfare. Farmers may replant th e protected varieties they have grown for their 
own use, if the Government has announced it is promoting the variety, and up to a limit of three times the original quantity that the farmer obtained. The Act is administered by the Agriculture Ministry. Thailand remains a non-member of the International Union for the Protection of New 
Varieties of Plants (UPOV), and a non-signatory to its Convention.  
3.4.6.3  Copyright and related rights 3.4.6.3.1  Copyright 
3.164.  Thailand's copyright legislation was amended  in 2015 to bring it up to date with 
technological changes in general and the spread of the internet in particular as well as to align the Copyright Act with the so-called WIPO Internet Treaties (section 3.4.6.1). The Copyright Act 
B.E. 2537 (1994) provides protection for the life of the creator, plus 50 years
196, except for works 
of applied art, which are protected for 25 years from the date of creation.197 Copyright applies 
from the time a work is created. Registration is  not required, but the DIP issues certificates for 
notified copyrighted works. Protected works are literary works (including computer programs), 
dramatic works, artistic works, musical works, audio-visual materials, cinematographic works, 
sound recordings, sound/video broadcasts, and all other work in the literary, scientific or artistic fields irrespective of the means or form of expre ssion. Authors' moral rights and performers' rights 
are also protected. Computer software is exempt  if the copying or modification thereof is for 
research, study or other personal use, and if it is not for profit. 
                                               
194 These concerns by EU companies relate to provisions under TRIPS Articles 22 and 23. EU (2014).  
195 Department of Intellectual Property (2014). 
196 For joint authorship, copyright lasts for the life of  the authors plus 50 years after the death of the 
last surviving author. If the author is a legal person , copyright lasts for 50 years from the date the work was 
created; if the work is published during the period, copyright lasts fo r 50 years from its first publication. 
197 If the work of applied art is published within 25 years of its creation, copyright lasts for 50 years 
from its first publication. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  3.165.  In case of infringement, copyright holders have the right to seek injunctions, compensation 
for damages, and to recover investigation costs and legal expenses. Under the 2015 amendments to the Copyright Act (see below), in case of an appearance of clear evidence that an infringement of a copyright is a wilful and intentional act which causes a copyright work to be widely accessed 
by public, the court shall give an order to the infringer to pay more damages, but not exceeding 
twice as much for the damages specified in normal cases. Competent authorities under the Copyright Act have the right to seize pirated goods upon the request of the copyright holder and to 
enter any premises where they suspect such goods are being held. Penalties for direct 
infringement for commercial purposes range from B 100,000 to B 800,000, with prison terms of six months to four years.  
3.166.  On 27 November 2014, two separate amen dments to the Copyright Act were passed by 
the National Legislative Assembly and on 5 February 2015 they were published in the Government 
Gazette . The first amendment, effective as of 4 August 2015 (the Copyright Act (No. 2) B.E. 2528) 
comprises mainly provisions to protect copyright in the digital environment, i.e. the protection of 
right management information (RMI) and technological measures (TPM), the exception for 
temporary copying of a copyright work necessary for the process of utilization of the computer system, and the limitation on ISP liability.
198 The amendment carries a penalty of up to 2 years of 
imprisonment or a fine of B 400,000, or both for the offence of RMI and TPM. The second 
amendment, in force as of 6 August 2015, provid es exceptions to facilitate access to copyright 
works for disabled persons and for the offence of unauthorized camcording in movie theatres. Concerns over the 2015 amendment of the Copyrigh t Act were expressed as it seems that they 
add difficulties with respect to addressing Internet piracy. The proposed protections against the 
circumvention of technological protection measures (TPMs) (key protections that would enable Thailand to accede to and ratify the WIPO Co pyright Treaty (WCT) and the WIPO Performances 
and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT)) fail to adequately address trafficking in circumvention 
technologies and introduce over-broad exceptions ; it also seems that they omit a much-needed 
landlord liability provision and fall short of addressing the concern of including deterrent penalties 
in the Copyright Act.
199  
3.167.  In February 2013, IPRs infringement was included as a predicate offence under the Money 
Laundering Prevention and Suppression Act (2013) an d the Cabinet approved the principles of the 
draft Computer Crime Act, including IPR infringement as a predicate offence, in order to submit it 
for the consideration of the National Legislative Assembly.  
3.168.  Copyright notifications remained relatively  stable with an annual average of 16,697 over 
the period 2011-2014.200 The largest numbers remain in musical, artistic, and literary notifications, 
equivalent to 44.3%, 29%, and 20.6% of the total of notifications respectively.  
3.4.6.3.2  Layout designs of integrated circuits  
3.169.  Under The Protection of Layout Designs of Integrated Circuits Act B.E. 2543 (2000) a 
layout design must be the designer's own work and must not be commonplace. It must be 
registered with the DIP. Protection enters into force upon registration and a certificate is issued. The certificate is valid for ten years from the date of filing or the date of the first commercial exploitation, within or outside Thailand, whichever occurs first, but no longer than 15 years from 
when the layout design's creation was completed. 
3.4.6.4  Government use and compulsory licensing 3.170.  There has been no change to Thai legislat ion on government use and compulsory licensing. 
Regarding copyright, any interested person may apply for compulsory licensing to translate a work 
                                               
198 Articles 11 and 12 of the WIPO Copyright Trea ty, and Article 18 and Article 19 of the WIPO 
Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT) regarding Obligations concerning Technological Measures and 
Obligations concerning Right Management Information,  were used as models for making the TPM and RMI 
drafts. 
199 A landlord liability provision targets a person whos e action "facilitates" infri nging activities such as 
allowing a tenant to sell counterfeit goods liable for secondary or contributory infringement. International 
Intellectual Property Alliance (2015); USTR (2015b); Interl egal Newsletter online information, "Thailand Legal 
Updates December 2014". Viewed at: http://www.interlegal.net/es/news/interlegal-newsletter-thailand-legal-
updates-december-2014 .  
200 Department of Intellectual Property (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  into Thai or to reproduce a translation published in Thai, under special circumstances, for example 
for study, teaching or research without a profit-seeking purpose. Under the Section 46 (Annex III) of the Patent Act any person may apply for a licence three years after the grant of a patent or four years from the date of application, whichever is earlier. In addition, Section 51 provides for the 
grant of licences for government use purposes, inter alia , to carry out any service for public 
consumption or to prevent or relieve a severe shor tage of food, drugs or other consumption items.  
3.171.  Since 2009 no new compulsory licences have been issued though one extended licence for 
HIV/AIDS medication will remain in place until 2016.
201 Seven compulsory licences for medicines 
for heart disease (1), HIV/AIDS (2), and cancer (4) were issued during 2006-08, under Section 51 of the Patent Act and Article 31 of the TRIPS Agreement, for non-commercial use under the Government's policy of providing affordable universal healthcare.
202 In return for the compulsory 
licences, the Government Pharmaceutical Organization (sections 3.2.7 and 3.4.4.1) was granted 
the rights relating to these medicines and offered to pay royalties of 0.5–5.0% of total sales value to the rights holders. It appears unlikely that more  such compulsory licences will be issued as the 
authorities prefer to come to negotiated settlemen ts with pharmaceutical companies either to offer 
medicine at reduced rates or to allow the Government Pharmaceutical Organization to manufacture generic versions for domestic use only.
203  
3.4.6.5  Traditional knowledge 
3.172.  Thailand continues without a sui generis  law on traditional knowledge but there are laws 
dealing with specific types of traditional knowledge such as traditional Thai medicinal intelligence, cultural arts, etc. Traditional knowledge in medicine remains the sole expression protected under 
the Protection and Promotion of Traditional Thai Medicinal Intelligence Act, B.E. 2542 (1999), 
administered by the Public Health Ministry. The DIP registers traditional knowledge through 
notifications; the number of notifications has dropped from 808 in 2009 to an annual average of 
about 68 (2010-2013) following DIP's cancelation of  the DIP Notification on traditional knowledge 
on 16 March 2015 as traditional knowledge is protected under laws implemented by other relevant agencies.
204 Thailand is a signatory to the 2007 Bandung Declaration on the Protection of 
Traditional Cultural Expressions, Traditional Knowl edge and Genetic Resources, an outcome of the 
Asian-African Forum on Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expressions, Traditional Knowledge and Genetic Resources.  
3.4.6.6  Parallel imports  
3.173.  Parallel imports are allowed for goods pr otected by copyrights or by registered or 
unregistered trademarks. By contrast, under the Patent Act, the patentee has an exclusive right to import patented products or products produced by the patented process. However, after a 
patented product has been produced or sold by a third party with the authorization or consent of 
the patentee, the patentee's rights over these products are deemed exhausted, including the right to prevent parallel imports. Right holders under th e Protection of Layout Designs of Integrated 
Circuits Act also have an exclusive right to import the protected layout design.  
3.4.6.7  Enforcement 3.4.6.7.1  Features  3.174.  Despite efforts to tackle piracy and counterfeiting, it is claimed that Thailand remains a 
major market for pirated goods, especially audio an d film products and computer software (in both 
the public and private sectors), as well as a transit/transhipment/smuggling point for infringing goods from neighbouring countries.
205 Due, inter alia , to increasing online and mobile piracy, along 
                                               
201 More information on this matter is avai lable in WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 
8 February 2012. 
202 Among these licences one conditional compulsory licence issued for imatinib, a cancer medicine, 
cannot be implemented until Novartis (Thailand) Co., Ltd., can sufficiently provide the drug under the company’s access initiative called GIPAP for all needy patients under a universal coverage. 
203 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b). 
204 Department of Intellectual Property (2014). 
205 WTO document WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008. International Intellectual Property 
Alliance (2015). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  with physical piracy (mostly in malls and tourist areas), unauthorized camcording (mostly focused 
on audio feeds), the market for creative content in Thailand remains difficult. In 2014, Thailand ranked last out of 30 countries (nearly 80% of world GDP) after Indonesia, Viet Nam and India in the 2015 Global Intellectual Property Center (GIPC) International's IP Index, which is based on 
effectiveness and administrative performance.
206 According to the Business Software Alliance, the 
percentage of software that is pirated in Thailand remains high, but declined from 75% in 2009 to 72% in 2011 and 71% of installed software, compared with a 62% average for the Asia Pacific 
region in 2013.
207 The estimated US$869 million (US$852 million in 2011) commercial value of the 
pirated software of installed software placed Thailand 17th in the world in 2013, after the three 
major North American countries, five large EU countries, China, the Russian Federation, Brazil, India, Japan, and Indonesia, although the develo ped countries' piracy rates are estimated to range 
from 18% (United States) to 47% (Italy) of installed software.  
3.175.  Effective IPR enforcement remains a concern for some of Thailand's major trading partners 
who, inter alia , consider that more needs to be done to address longstanding organizational 
challenges and to prioritize related activities.
208 Longstanding and multi-faceted enforcement 
concerns include: the use of provisional measures  (preventive injunctions rarely granted); customs 
procedures (available only against trademarks and copyright infringement, lack of transparency 
and burdensome nature of evidence to be submi tted, etc.); lack of sufficient resources (both 
financial and human) and proper training of the enforcement agencies; leaks from police sources 
and corruption compromising raids; civil IPR proc eedings (lengthy and expensive) and low civil 
damages; and criminal procedures (search warrants difficult to obtain, criminal sanctions not 
deterrent enough, judges reluctant to impose harsh penalties).209  
3.4.6.7.2  Border enforcement 3.176.  The border enforcement framework remained virtually unchanged during the review 
period. Upon request of the rights holders or suspicion and in collaboration with the DIP, customs 
officers are allowed to seize, at the border, trademark- or copyright- infringing goods that are being imported or exported. Customs' jurisdiction is not confined to border points. In case of 
suspected smuggling of IPR-infringing products, Cu stoms may invite the IPR owners to inspect the 
goods, and joint inspections take place regularly at Klong Toey Port. In 2014, the efforts to improve border enforcement consisted of installing additional checkpoints at key border crossings. An amendment to the Customs Act, which was published in the Royal Gazette  on 
4 December 2014 and became effective 90 days later, expanded the Royal Thai Customs' ex officio  
powers to inspect, suspend, and seize illegal goods in transit and transhipment. No efforts to broaden the scope of border enforcement to cover all intellectual property rights, another project 
cited in previous TPRs, were undertaken during the review period. Similarly to domestic 
enforcement (section 3.4.6.7.3) between 2011 and 2014 the number of arrests for IPRs violations 
under the Customs Act increased by 38.7% to 809, and materials seized by 8.4% to 
about 341,907.  
3.4.6.7.3  Domestic enforcement  3.177.  During the review period action was taken to intensify enforcement actions and reduce 
IPRs violations. A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the DIP and the Royal Thai 
Police establishing special IPR Suppression Centres in major cities in Thailand was signed in 
April 2012, and a National IPR Centre of Enforcemen t (NICE) consisting of 25 agencies, was set up 
by the National Committee on Intellectual Property Policy (see below) in March 2013 to support 
the coordination between IP enforcement agencies, the private sector and the DIP, which acts as 
                                               
206 The Index is based on indicators of robust IP Rs protection system. US  Chamber of Commerce's 
Global Intellectual Property Center (2015). 
207 Business Software Alliance (2014).  
208 In 2007 Thailand was moved from the USTR's Special 301 to the Priority Watch List where it still 
remains in 2015. The United States considers that IPR enforcement does not seem to be a top priority and poor coordination among government entities and prosecution has seen limited improvement whereas the EU 
notes that enforcement efforts have been inco nsistent and insufficien t and serious violations of IPRs continue. 
USTR (2015b); European Commission online Market Access Database. Viewed at: http://madb.europa.eu/madb/barriers_details.htm?barrier_id=095301&version=3 ; and Economist Intelligence 
Unit (2014b).  
209 USTR (2015b); European Commission online Market Access Database. Viewed at: 
http://madb.europa.eu/madb/barriers_details.htm?barrier_id=095301&version =; and EU (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  the focal point. NICE's Action Plan for 2014 was to focus on trademark infringements related to 
medicines, cosmetics, wines and spirits and emphasis was to be put on software, music, films, and computer games.
210 It was to target large-scale infringers and dangerous goods particularly in IPR 
"Red Zones", or priority areas, such as MBK and Panthip Plaza in Bangkok, Patong, Kata, and 
Karon beaches in Phuket, Walking Street in Pattaya, etc. Furthermore, a joint IP database would 
soon be established by the DIP and other IPRs enforcement agencies to keep track of and increase information flows on the status of infringement cases, court decisions and repeat offences.
211 
The 2009 National Intellectual Property Comm ittee was institutionalized (previously an ad hoc  
body) by the Prime Minister's Office Anno uncement of 27 August 2012 effective as of 
2 September 2012; it is chaired by the Prime Minister.212 It appears that this institutional setting 
has only coordinated a small number of trademark infringement raids.213 The DIP maintains 
9 plurilateral MOUs signed between 2002 and 2010 between relevant government agencies, 
private entities, and the private sector, in order to enhance cooperation on the suppression of IPR 
violation such as the MOU related to cooperation on border enforcement, the MOU related to 
prevention and suppression of sales of infringing goods, etc.  
3.178.  The Royal Thai police have stepped up their campaigns at the retail and production levels 
in recent years.214 However, although cases of government operations exist, such as the 
destruction of about 80,000 goods seized by DIP, in 2014, police and judicial action against IP 
rights violations was sluggish compared with previous years.215 Between 2011 and 2014 the 
number of arrests for IPR violations rose by 0.8%  to 9,924, and materials seized decreased by 
76.3% to about 1 million. The authorities indicated that this drop was due to continued 
suppression efforts targeting large-scale infringers.  
3.4.6.7.4  Court action  3.179.  During the review period, court action was seemingly reduced, possibly reflecting similar 
trends at border and domestic enforcement ac tions. Since 1997, the Intellectual Property and 
International Trade (IPIT) Court, a separate and specialized court of original jurisdiction covering other trade issues, such as anti-dumping and countervailing measures, as well as intellectual 
property has enhanced IPR enforcement.
216 Civil litigation seems rarely used in Thailand; in 2010, 
138 civil litigation cases were brought to the IPIT Court, while in 2011 and 2012 this number decreased to 119 and 120 respectively.
217 By comparison, 5,148 and 4,766 criminal cases were 
respectively brought to Court in 2010 and 2011 (4,463 cases between January to October 2012). 
In 2014 the 5,072 criminal cases filed with the IPIT Court were about 30% less than in 2013.218 
Most involved trade mark violations (4,127) an d copyright infringements (602). Only 9 involved 
patents.  Generally a fine is imposed and the infringing goods are destroyed. 
                                               
210 EU (2014). 
211 ASEAN Briefing online information, "Thailand' s Intellectual Property Regime", 21 August 2014. 
Viewed at: http://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/2014/08/21/thailands-intellectual-property-
regime.html#stha sh.m2spAAZI.dpuf . 
212 More information about this Committee is available at WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 
8 February 2012. 
213 International Intellectual Property Alliance (2015). 
214 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014b). 
215 US Chamber of Commerce's Global In tellectual Property Center (2015). 
216 More information about IPIT is available at WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
217 EU (2014). 
218 US Chamber of Commerce's Global In tellectual Property Center (2015). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4  TRADE POLICIES BY SECTOR 
4.1  Introduction 4.1.  Agriculture, forestry and fisheries remain an  important pillar of the Thai economy, accounting 
for around one-tenth of GDP and one-third of employment. Thailand is a major global producer 
and exporter of various agricultur al products and processed foods, and it maintains a trade surplus 
in these areas. As mentioned in previous reviews, Thailand's key challenge in the agricultural sector is to raise productivity. Thailand continued to pursue a costly and controversial price 
intervention scheme for rice up until 2014, when it was discontinued by the new Interim 
Government. While various short-term support measures were taken over the period 2014/15, a long-term strategy for the rice sector has yet to be fully determined. No notifications have been 
made by Thailand to the WTO on domestic suppor t provided since 2008, although the authorities 
indicated that this data will be forthcoming shortly. Thailand's simple average applied MFN tariff on 
agricultural products (WTO definition) remains high at 34.7% in 2014. Tariff quotas remain in place for 118 tariff lines; in a number of cases fill rates remain low. Restrictions on foreign 
investment in various farming activities remain in place. The fisheries sector is dominated by 
aquaculture production. Frozen and preserved shrimps and prawns continue to be the country's main fisheries export. A new Fisheries Act entered into force in 2015, adjusting fisheries resources 
management measures to be more compatible with international fisheries law and standards as 
well as new fisheries technologies. Foreigners are prohibited from commercial fishing in Thai fishery waters and within its exclusive economic zone. Just less than 4% of Thailand's total area is devoted to productive plantation forestry. New incentives are being given to increase commercial 
forestry and efforts are being made to prevent illegal logging.  
4.2.  Despite its significant energy endowmen t and energy policy being focused on becoming 
energy independent, Thailand remains a net an d growing energy importer reflecting robust 
domestic demand. It has been well ranked in international indices for access to electricity and for 
the strength of its energy architecture. Various incentives are being offered to support renewable 
energy products. The State retains a significant pr esence in the sector and has a monopoly on the 
transmission and distribution of electricity. Reforms in the natural gas sector are underway to 
promote competition and ensure non-discriminator y treatment in the use of natural gas pipeline 
services. Thailand has developed a policy framework and guidelines on restructuring energy prices 
so that they reflect actual costs. As a consequence it no longer subsidises the consumption of 
diesel and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), which had been extremely costly. As at mid-2015, only 
ethanol blended gasolines E20 and E85 and compressed natural gas for vehicles (NGV) remained subsidized.  
4.3.  Thailand has a diverse manufacturing sector producing, inter alia , automotive and automotive 
parts, electronic and electrical goods, steel and iron products and textiles. While the manufacturing sector's contribution to GDP has decreased over the review period (to nearly 28% of GDP in 2013), 
employment in the sector has witnessed an increase (to nearly 17% in 2014). The sector 
continues to be supported by various fiscal incentives as well as high tariff protection on certain products, including completely built-up motorcycles and cars. Over the review period, manufacturing was hit by a major earthquake in Japan in March 2011, which disrupted supply 
chain activity particularly in the automotive sector, and severe flooding in 2011. Challenges facing 
the sector include rising costs, partly as a result of the introduction of a minimum wage in 2013, the limited production capability of Thai manufac turers in high-technology products, and increased 
competition from other economies in the region. In 2014, the Government approved a guideline to 
develop the rubber sector in the face of oversupply and falling international prices. This includes various support measures including the creation of a buffer stock to stabilize rubber prices and soft 
loans to rubber farmers. 
4.4.  Thailand's services sector has continued to grow. Its GDP share was 46.3% in 2014 and in 
the same year its share in total employment was 42.9%. The State continues to have a significant presence in banking, telecommunications and transportation through ownership/equity stakes in 
companies or the operation of state-owned enterp rises. The banking sector has remained robust 
and stable throughout the review period and the Bank of Thailand's supervisory mandate has been 
strengthened to cover government-owned Specialized Financial Institutions. Following the 
enactment of legislation on anti-money laundering and anti-terrorism, Thailand has been upgraded 
from the G7 Financial Action Task Force's black list of countries failing to meet international standards to combat money laundering to "grey" status. There has been some liberalization of WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  banking services, and in both banking and insurance, legal flexibilities allowing greater foreign 
participation in these sub-sectors have been used. In telecommunications the launch of 3G services, following a delayed auction process, has resulted in a huge increase in the take-up of mobile and wireless broadband services. Competition between the three key players in the mobile 
segment has led to retail price decreases. Eight bi lls designed to transform Thailand as a digital 
economy are being drafted. In the air transport sector, key challenges are to address safety 
concerns highlighted in a recent ICAO report and to address capacity constraints at major airports. 
The Government is actively promoting Thailand as a centre for airline maintenance, repair, and 
overhaul services. With respect to maritime transport, key laws are currently under review. Maritime transport remains the principal mode of transport for the import and export of goods, 
both in volume and value terms. A cargo reservation policy remains in place requiring that goods 
directly or indirectly imported into Thailand by government agencies or public enterprises must be 
transported by Thai vessels, where they are avai lable. Cabotage is restricted to Thai-flagged 
vessels, with a minimum of 70% domestic equity . Tourism remains Thailand's main source of 
foreign exchange. Thailand continues to offer fiscal incentives for various tourism-related activities 
and promote itself as the medical hub of Asia. 
4.2  Agriculture and Food Processing 
4.2.1  Features 
4.5.  In 2014, agriculture (excluding food processi ng), forestry and fisheries contributed 10.5% to 
GDP (compared to 11.6% in 2011) and accounted for 33.4% of employment in 2014 (down from 38.7% in 2011 (Table 1.2).  
4.6.  Of a total land area of 51.3 million hectares, about 46% is used for agriculture (2012 data, 
up from 41% as reported in Thailand's previous review). Of this, nearly half is in rice paddies (Table 4.1). Preliminary data from the 2013 agricult ural census indicate that there are 5.9 million 
farm holdings in Thailand (up from 5.79 million in the previous (2003) census), with an average 
farm size of 3.1 hectares.
1 
Table 4.1 Agricultural land use, 2009-13 
('000 hectares) 
 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Paddy land 11,376.1 11,500.9 11,197.7 11,194.9 11,194.4 
Orchard and perennial crop 5,535.4 5,313.1 5,585.2 5,586.3 5,586.4 
Upland field crop 5,598.8 5,130.2 4,983.9 4,984.8 4,984.6 
Vegetable and ornamental plant 242.8 242.3 223.2 223.6 223.7 
Other 1,900.1 1,882.6 1,889.5 1,888.9 1,888.6 
Note: Data in the Statistical Yearbook of Thailand  is in rai, this has been  converted into hectares 
(6.25 rai = 1 hectare) 
Source:  Statistical Yearbook of Thailand 2014, 2013, 2012 (Chapter 10).  
4.7.  Thailand is the world's biggest producer of natural rubber and cassava (in 2013), and a major 
producer of: mangos (the 2nd biggest producer worldwide); palm oil (3rd biggest); sugar cane and 
pineapples (4th biggest); paddy rice (6th biggest); and coconuts (9th biggest).2 Agricultural 
production was severely impacted by the 2011 floods which destroyed up to 7 million tonnes of 
rice, representing nearly half of the anticipated harvest in the fourth quarter.3 More recently, the 
agriculture sector has been negatively affected by a drought at end 2013/beginning 2014 and 
further flooding in September 2014. Notable trends since 2008 have been a steady increase in 
chicken meat, mango, rice, and, in particular, sugar cane production, while coconut production has shown a steadily decreasing trend (Table 4.2). According to the authorities, Thailand is self-sufficient in the following agricultural products: rice; cassava; tropical fruits; sugar cane; 
chicken meat; shrimp; and processed food.  
                                               
1 Presentation by the Ministry of Agriculture and C ooperatives on the Agricultural Census in Thailand. 
Viewed at: 
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ess/d ocuments/apcas25/APCAS_14_5.7_Thailand_census.pdf .  
2 FAO STAT online information. Viewed at: http://faostat3.fao.org .  
3 IMF (2012).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Table 4.2 Production of selected  agricultural products, 2008-13 
('000 tonnes) 
 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Crops       
Paddy rice 31,651 32,116 34,409 36,128 37,469 36,063 
Maize 4,249 4,616 4,861 4,973 4,948 5,063 
Cassava 25,156 30,088 22,006 21,912 29,848 30,228 
Sugar cane 73,502 66,816 68,808 95,950 98,400 100,096 
Soybeans 187 176 177 176 180 190 
Coconuts 1,484 1,381 1,298 1,055 1,057 1,010 
Palm oil 1,544 1,388 1,288 1,650 1,780 1,970 
Shallots 199 202 181 195 220 129 
Onions 46 45 46 50 54 40 
Garlic 86 71 68 76 85 78 
Mangos, mangosteen, and guava 2,374 2,470 2,551 2,794 2,986 3,142 
Pineapples 2,278 1,895 1,966 2,593 2,400 2,209 
Chillies and peppers, dry 163 165 159 152 156 156 
Natural rubber 3,167 3,090 3,052 3,349 3,625 3,863 
Livestock       
Cattle meat 173 177 177 170 165 160 
Pig meat 895 871 895 880 949 967 
Chicken meat 1,158 1,154 1,220 1,243 1,319 1,379 
Source: FAO STAT. Viewed at: http://faostat3.fao.org .  
4.8.  According to the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), Thailand has the most advanced food 
processing industries in South East Asia; it is highly export-orientated and a major source of 
employment.4 This is partly as a result of the Government's "kitchen of the world" initiative 
developed in the 1980s, which encouraged cooperation between farmers, contract companies, 
financial sector institutions and agri-industrial firms to produce processed food. Concerns have 
been expressed that domestic production of spir its is supported by a discriminatory excise tax 
structure.5  
4.9.  The Board of Investment (BOI) offers tax incentives for various agricultural activities 
(e.g. plant and animal breeding, and livestock propagation and husbandry); agriculture-related 
services (e.g. crop drying and silo facilities; slaughtering; grading, packaging and storage of plants, vegetables, fruits or flowers; cold storage and transportation; and trading centres for 
agricultural goods); and for the production of a wide variety of goods derived from agriculture 
(e.g. fertilizers, oils, rubber and leather products , fuels, food and beverages). These incentives 
comprise corporate income tax holidays and import duty exemptions (sections 3.4.2.1).  
4.2.2  Trade 
4.10.  Thailand continues to maintain a trade surplus in agricultural goods (Chart 4.1).  4.11.  In value terms, Thailand's key exports are rice, cane/beet sugar and preserved and 
prepared meat (Table 4.3). The main export destinations for these products are Nigeria, Benin, 
and the United States for rice; Indonesia, Japan,  and China for sugar; and, Japan, the EU, and 
Singapore for prepared/preserved  meat. Export taxes are levied on hides of bovine animals 
(section 3.3.2). 
4.12.  In value terms, major imports are soya bean  oil cakes, soya beans, food preparations and 
cotton (Table 4.4). The main sources of soya bean oil cakes and soya beans are Brazil, Argentina and the United States; of food preparations, the United States, Singapore and China; and of 
cotton, the United States, Australia, Brazil, and Mali. Import licensing requirements apply for SPS 
reasons (section 3.2.6.2). Complaints from Thailand's trading partners have included that it maintains excessively burdensome import requirements for feed products containing dairy 
ingredients.
6 
                                               
4 UDSA online information, "Thailand: F ood Processing Ingredients". Viewed at: 
www.fas.usda.gov/data/thailand -food-processing-ingredients .  
5 USTR (2014).  
6 USTR (2015).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Chart 4.1 Trade in agriculture, 2007-13 
0%2%4%6%8%10%12%
0510152025302007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Exports of agricultural  products (US$ billion) Imports of agricultural  products (US$ billion)
Exports of agricultural  products as a % of total exports Imports of agricultural  products as a % of total importsUS$ billion and %
 
Source: UNSD Comtrade database.  
Table 4.3 Exports of selected agricultural products, 2008-14 
HS code   2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 
1006 - Rice US$ million 6,107.6  5,046.5  5,341.1  6,507.5  4,632.3  4,420.4  5,438.8 
'000 tonnes 10,216.0  8,619.9  8,939.6  10,706.2  6,734.4  6,612.6  10,969.4 
1701 - Cane or beet 
sugar in solid form US$ million 1,431.7  1,803.4  2,152.4  3,635.1  3,952.6  2,859.9  2,738.1 
'000 tonnes 5,011.8  5,052.6  4,500.7  6,520.7  6,853.1  5,994.4  6,293.6 
1602 - Other 
prepared/preserved 
meat US$ million 1,788.5  1,641.4  1,831.8  2,138.1  2,215.3  2,237.0  2,151.6 
'000 tonnes 407.9  397.9  438.6  454.0  477.1  451.3  440.2 
0714 - Manioc, 
arrowroot, etc. US$ million 480.3  607.2  816.8  982.3  1,098.6  1,321.3  1,527.4 
'000 tonnes 2,888.0  4,363.6  4,279.0  3,741.9  4,702.6  5,822.1  6,806.5 
1108 - Starches, 
inulin US$ million 449.1  487.7  771.8   946.9  1,003.8  1,156.8  1,288.2 
'000 tonnes 1,234.5  1,759.5  1,711.3  1,882.9  2,225.0  2,443.1  3,014.0 
2309 - Animal feed 
preparations US$ million 707.8  702.3  802.4  933.6  1,085.5  1,152.6  1,228.9 
'000 tonnes 455.9  460.8  491.1  552.1  626.9  608.7  671.6 
2106 - Food 
preparations, n.e.s. US$ million 530.2  580.3  658.9  897.1  875.7  991.2  1,115.7 
'000 tonnes 395.7  398.6  421.5  461.2  475.3  505.9  555.9 
2008 - Fruit/nuts 
prepared/preserved US$ million 964.4  805.3  891.9  1,102.9  912.1  902.4  928.2 
'000 tonnes 904.5  780.0  767.4  886.3  824.1  808.1  714.6 
2202 - Waters incl. 
added sugar/other 
non-alcoholic 
beverages US$ million 210.2  262.1  375.7  524.8  647.9  786.8  909.6 
'000 tonnes 382.2  337.9  365.3  501.0  610.1  857.1  1,246.0 
3505 - Dextrins, 
other modified 
starches US$ million 458.3  391.5  510.4  649.6  630.8  676.2  719.1 
'000 tonnes 726.5  712.0  705.6  806.5  862.9  909.2  957.7 
Note: WTO definition of agriculture used. 
Source:  UNSD Comtrade database. 
Table 4.4 Imports of selected agricultural products, 2008-14 
HS code   2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 
2304 - Soya bean oil 
cakes US$ million 1,027.7  879.0  1,053.7  1,095.7  1,352.1  1,554.9  1,675.3 
'000 tonnes 2,193.2  2,076.6  2,615.6  2,398.6  2,815.4  2,821.2  2,889.2 
1201 - Soya beans US$ million 968.4  692.0  810.3  1,125.8  1,282.0  1,018.4  1,076.7 
'000 tonnes 1,723.3  1,534.6  1,818.7  1,994.4  2,119.9  1,678.7  1,898.3 
5201 - Cotton, not 
carded/combed US$ million 715.3  484.6  729.6  1,120.0  748.9  734.2  676.3 
'000 tonnes 435.9  349.7  383.7  319.2  305.8  344.9  322.3 WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  HS code   2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 
2106 - Food 
preparations n.e.s US$ million 246.6  236.8  271.6  383.2  487.2  766.9  521.3 
'000 tonnes 36.9  33.4  39.1  56.8  69.0  83.6  90.8 
0402 - Milk and cream, 
concentrated/sweetened US$ million 341.5  169.3  292.2  350.1  365.0  385.6  479.4 
'000 tonnes 87.0 75.2 91.2 102.7 130.7 94.1 107.3 
1001 - Wheat and 
meslin US$ million 331.5  312.7  443.1  503.7  825.3  600.2  474.8 
'000 tonnes 695.6  1,104.9  1,699.6  1,426.2  2,582.0  1,758.9  1,557.5 
1901 - Malt extracts, 
flour/dairy preparations, 
etc. US$ million 270.0  237.5  277.1  331.0  419.3  410.5  409.6 
'000 tonnes 78.8  67.5  77.8  88.4  124.3  84.6  71.1 
2309 - Animal feed 
preparations US$ million 221.4  207.3  243.8  275.4  308.1  296.4  322.7 
'000 tonnes 216.8  212.1  245.5  246.3  251.1  254.7  252.2 
2208 - Alcohol of 
strength less than 
80% vol. US$ million 187.4  149.9  188.8  223.5  243.5  273.8  289.0 
'000 tonnes 42.7  32.0  37.1  37.1  60.5  35.6  33.0 
0808 - Apples, pears 
and quinces, fresh US$ million 119.1  127.3  151.4  166.5  189.8  223.8  201.7 
'000 tonnes 147.9  164.3  168.2  156.6  167.1  182.5  154.7 
Note: WTO definition of agriculture used. 
Source:  UNSD Comtrade database. 
4.2.3  Agricultural policies 
4.2.3.1  Legal, institutional, and policy framework 4.13.  In spite of reforms to encourage movement towards higher value crops and increased 
mechanization, there is a shortage of farmers and productivity remains low.
7 The latter has been 
attributed to a number of factors, including: lack of irrigation; widely scattered ownership of land, preventing small farmers benefitting from economies of scale; limited use of technology; and, 
inadequate research into, and development of, be tter farming methods. The OECD has encouraged 
Thailand to pursue productivity gains throug h increased mechanization and the use of new 
technologies in farming methods, rather than to continue costly price intervention policies (see 
below). 
4.14.  The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC) remains the principal authority 
responsible for formulating and implementing Thailand's agricultural policies. Over the period 2012-15 it has followed a three-pronged approach to assist the sector, which remains 
largely unchanged since Thailand's previous review. Firstly, the Farmers Development Strategy 
has focused on stabilizing farm incomes through crop insurance programmes, supporting the National Farmers Council in the area of policy formulation and also encouraging young farmers to 
work in the sector. Secondly, the Production Development Strategy has concentrated on improving 
agricultural productivity, quality, standards, product management and food security through cost-reductions, research and development, tech nology transfer, marketing and certification. 
Thirdly, the Agricultural Resources Development and Management Strategy has been focused on 
expanding irrigated areas, improving soil and developing land.  
4.15.  To help ensure the success of these stra tegies, the MOAC formulated a roadmap in 2015, 
comprising six schemes: 
a. The Farmer Market Scheme aims to help farmers sell, and consumers buy, high-quality 
agricultural products directly (i.e. without middlemen) at the local price. These markets 
are established in 77 provinces of Thailand; 
b. The Drought Relief Scheme seeks to help drought-affected farmers by restoring 
infrastructure, career training an d improving production efficiency; 
c. The Water Sources Development Scheme focuses on expanding irrigation and 
constructing small irrigation systems (so far 16,510 small irrigation systems have been 
built); 
d. The prevention and suppression of illegal activities;  
                                               
7 OECD (2014).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  e. The Legislation and Legislative Amendment Scheme focuses on modifying laws to reflect 
current realities (so far 6 legislative amendments have been undertaken); and 
f. The Large Fields Scheme helps to group together small farms to achieve greater 
economies of scale. 
4.16.  The MOAC is also working to encourage private sector participation in the areas of product 
inspection and certification and is taking various actions to promote administrative and commercial efficiencies.  
4.17.  Various agricultural and food products are su bject to retail price controls under the Prices of 
Goods and Services Act, B.E.2542 (1999)(section 3.4.4.2). 
4.18.  There have been few changes to the restrictions on foreign investment in agriculture since 
Thailand's previous review. The Land Code B.E: 2497 (1954) continues to prohibit the purchase 
and ownership of land by foreign persons or fore ign-owned enterprises based in Thailand, although 
they may lease land and buildings for periods up to 30 years.
8 The Foreign Business Act B.E. 2542 
(1999) prohibits foreigners from: rice farming; horticulture and the farming of animals. Approval is 
required from the Ministry of Commerce for foreigners to engage in sugar cane farming; rice 
milling and production of flour from rice and economic plants; cultivation, propagation or 
development of plant species; and, internal trade related to traditional agricultural products or 
produce not yet prohibited by law (see Section 2) . In 2013, an amendment to the latter activity 
granted an exception for agricultural futures trading on the Agricultural Futures Exchange of Thailand, without delivery or taking delivery of agricultural commodities within the country.
9  
4.2.3.2  Border measures 
4.19.  In 2014, the simple average applied MFN tariff rate on agricultural products (WTO 
definition) was 34.7% (including ad valorem  equivalents). Particularly high tariffs, ranging from 
50% to 1,092% (the latter being an ad valorem  equivalent) applied to 206 tariff lines and were 
levied on various fruits and vegetables; milk powder, raw silk, various oils, sugar; maize (for 
feedstuff); rice; coffee; tea, soya beans and alco holic beverages (Table A4.1). Imports of almost 
all of the main products produced in Thailand are subject to the highest tariff rates (Table 4.2 and 
Table A4.1). 
4.20.  Thailand maintains 22 tariff quotas covering 118 tariff lines (at the eight digit level) 
(section 3.2.2). Tariff quotas have been expanded for: non-fat dry milk/cream; potatoes; unmanufactured tobacco (tobacco leaves); soya beans and soya bean cake. Quota fill rates vary 
significantly according to the product and year. Ho wever, consistently low fill rates are observed 
for garlic, coconut, copra, maize, rice palm oil, coconut oil, raw silk and dried longans (Table 4.5). Over the review period, various Members have raised questions in the WTO Committee on 
Agriculture about the reasons for low fill rates for certain products (maize, coffee, rice, and soya 
bean oil). Thailand has responded that imports of maize and coffee have taken place under preferential trade agreements and there was no need to import rice given sufficient domestic 
production.
10 No explanation was given for low fill-rates for soya bean oil and garlic.11  
Table 4.5 TRQ fill rates, 2011-13 
Product Number 
tariff 
lines 
(2013) Tariff quota 
quantity as 
scheduled 
(tonnes) Eligible importers Fill rates (%) 
2011 2012 2013 
Milk and cream 
(not concentrated and/or sweetened) 9 
4 2,372.74 
27.26 No restrictions 47 
27 23 
27 47 
100 
                                               
8 The Land Code was viewed at: http://www.thailawforum.com/database1/Thailand-Land-Code.html .  
9 Royal Decree Amending Categories of Businesses in the List Annexed to the Foreign Business Act, 
B.E. 2542 (1999), B.E. 2556 (2013).  
10 Response by Thailand to a question posed by Australia at the WTO COA of 13 November 2014 
(AG-IMS ID 75012) and Switzerland at the WT O COA of 13 June 2013 (AG-IMS ID 70077). 
11 Questions by Canada and the US at WTO COA of 26 March 2013 (AG-IMS ID 69043 and AG-IMS ID 
69034).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Product Number 
tariff 
lines 
(2013) Tariff quota 
quantity as 
scheduled 
(tonnes) Eligible importers Fill rates (%) 
2011 2012 2013 
Non-fat dry 
milk/cream 4 55,000.00a  Any manufacturing 
company (for use as input 
to production) 104 95 98 
Potatoes 2 302.00b No restrictions 11,582 13,039 14,225 
Onions 3 365.00 Marketing Organization for 
Farmers  100 100 97 
Garlic 3 65.00 Public Warehouse 
Corporation 0 0 0 
Coconut 3 2,427.00 Any manufacturing 
company (for use as input 
to production) 4 4 3 
Coffee 10 5.25 No restrictions 40 32 66 
Tea 8 625.00 Historical import 
performance requirement 80 81 70 
Pepper (dried) 6 45.00 No restrictions 44 9 13 
Maize, for feedstuff 1 54,700.00 Public Warehouse 
Corporation 0 0 0 
Rice 10 249,757.00 No restrictions  0.3 0.3 0.8 
Soya beans 2 10,922.00c listed domestic 
companies/associations 18,287 17,918 15,370 
Copra 1 1,157.00 Any manufacturing 
company (for use as input to production) 0 0 0 
Onion seeds 1 3.15 Thailand's Cooperative of 
Onion farmers) 100 100 100 
Soya bean oil 3 2,281.00 Thai Food Processors' 
Association 27 0.6 35 
Palm oil 18 4,860.00 Public Warehouse 
Corporation 0 0 0 
Coconut oil 3 401.00 Any manufacturing 
company (for use as input to production) 0 0 0.07 
Sugar and sucrose 7 13,760.00 Any manufacturing 
company (for use as input 
to production). Historical 
import performance 
requirement 87 0.9 0.8 
Instant coffee and 
coffee extracts 4 134.00 Partial historical import 
performance requirement 51 56 55 
Soya bean cake 1 230,559.00c Listed domestic 
associations 1,044 1,116 649 
Longans, dried 1 8.00 No restrictions 0 0 0 
Raw silk 1 483.00 Ministry of Agriculture and 
Cooperatives 2 0.5 0.2 
Unmanufactured 
tobacco; tobacco leaves 13 6,435.00
c Any manufacturing 
company (for use as input to production) 54.8 60.5 47.6 
a Expanded to: 61,514.66 tonnes in 2011; 61,840.36 in 2012 and 58,226.70 tonnes in 2013. 
b Expanded to: 36,000 tonnes for potatoes and unlimited quantities for potato seed in 2011, 2012, 
and 2013. 
c  Expanded to unlimited qu antities in 2011, 2012, and 2013. 
Source:  WTO document G/AG/N/THA/78, 19 May 2014. 
4.21.  As at the time of Thailand's previous re view, all tariff quotas are open to all supplying 
countries. Import certificates, generally valid for 30 days, are required from the Department of Foreign Trade in the Ministry of Commerce for all products, except sugar.
12 The authorities 
indicated that there is no regulation imposing domestic purchase requirements as a condition for 
obtaining import certificates. However in practice there is cooperation from the private sector to undertake domestic purchases.
13 Allocation of tariff quotas to importers tends to be complex; 
                                               
12 For sugar, import certificates are issued by The O ffice of Cane and Sugar Boar d, Ministry of Industry. 
13 Thailand's response to a question raised by the United States in the WTO COA on 13 November 2014 
(AG-IMS ID 75038) as well as information provided by the Thai authorities. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  quotas are partially allocated on a first-come-first-served basis, while some quotas are allocated to 
manufacturers of imports of raw materials and to historical importers. In most cases there are 
restrictions on eligible importers. Since Thailand's previous review, in-quota imports of coconut are no longer subject to specific time periods for importation and the validity of import certificates for 
rice has been reduced from 30 days to 15 days; as indicated by the authorities this time reduction 
was in order to prevent the same certificate from being used repeatedly.
14 Complaints from trading 
partners about Thailand's tariff quota administration include that non-transparent quotas apply to 
non-fat dry milk and corn (i.e. maize) and that ther e is a limited import wind ow for tariff quotas on 
corn.15 The authorities commented that for milk, if demand is higher than the quota, then they 
expand the quota (with allocations partly on a historical basis). With respect to imports of corn, they noted that the quota is in place to allow imports during the non-crop season in Thailand. 
Thailand reserved the right to use the special agricultural safeguard (SSG) on 55 tariff lines 
(HS2002); many of the products involved are th ose for which tariff quotas are in place (see 
below). As at June 2015, Thailand had never invoke d the SSG (its most recent notification covers 
the years 2009-2013).
16  
4.22.  In its most recent notification to the WT O, Thailand has reported that over the period 
2009-13 it did not provide any export subsidies to products subject to reduction commitments.17  
4.2.3.3  Domestic support 
4.23.  In spite of pressure from various WTO Members, up-to-date information has yet to be 
submitted to the WTO on Thailand's domestic support measures; its last notification in this area covers the 2008 calendar year.
18 The lack of transparency with respect to domestic support for the 
rice sector has been of particular concern, with several Members posing questions in the WTO's 
Committee on Agriculture (COA) about the implementa tion and costs of its Paddy Pledging Scheme 
(now terminated, see below).19 In the context of this review, the authorities indicated that they 
intend to submit a notification on domest ic support measures by the end of 2015. 
4.24.  According to notifications by Thailand, in 2008, Green Box support amounted to just over 
B 64 billion (up from B 35 billion the previous year); 67% of this was spent on infrastructural 
services, 18% on national extension and advisory services, 6% on the Agricultural Research and 
Development Plan, 4% on pest and disease control, 3% on the marketing and promotion of farmers' organization programme, 2% on inspec tion services, and under 1% on agricultural 
training services.
20 The Thai authorities explained that the big increase in spending in 2008 
compared to 2007 related to an increase in the nu mber of beneficiaries of national extension and 
advisory services and greater priority being given to water management.21 The authorities 
reported that the value of Green Box support since 2009 has been: B 69.62 million (2009); 
B 55.86 million (2010); B 73.97 million (2011); B 76.54 million (2012); and 
B 72.55 million (2013).  
4.25.  In 2008, according to Thailand's notifications, Amber Box support to rice, garlic, manioc and 
longan amounted to just over B 30 billion. Wi th the exception of garlic, all support was de minimis . 
Support to garlic amounted to B 169.21 million (current total AMS). With respect to rice domestic support has taken place through the Paddy Pledging Scheme (as described below). Domestic support for longan, garlic and manioc has taken the form of government purchases without any 
buy-back condition.
22 
                                               
14 WTO documents G/AG/N/THA/70, 12 February 2010 and G/AG/N/THA/79, 19 May 2014. 
15 USTR (2013). 
16 WTO document G/AG/N/THA/77, 14 April 2014. 
17 WTO document G/AG/N/THA/76, 14 April 2014. 
18 WTO document G/AG/N/THA/75, 14 April 2014. 
19 Since 2011, questions about the Paddy Pledging Scheme have been posed by: the United States; 
Canada; Pakistan; India; Australia; and the Eu ropean Union (current as at March 2013).  
20 WTO document G/AG/N/THA/75, 14 April 2014. Percen tages add up to more than just over 100% due 
to rounding. 
21 Thailand's response to a question from Canada at COA meeting of 05/06/2014. 
22 Thailand's response to a question from the Euro pean Union at the WTO COA meeting of 5 June 2014 
(AG-IMS ID 74035). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.2.3.4  Recent developments in key sectors 
4.2.3.4.1  Rice 4.26.  Price support to the rice sector has conti nued to be subject to frequent policy changes, and 
has been a key source of recent political tensions and allegations of corruption.
23 In October 2011, 
Thailand re-introduced a price intervention schem e to support farmers' incomes, the so-called 
paddy-pledging scheme.24 As of mid-2013 there were nearly 3 million participating farmers. During 
the period under which the paddy-pledging schem e was in operation, guaranteed intervention 
prices were well above world prices for rice (as much as 50% above at some points) and an 
anticipated rise in world prices failed to materialize. As a consequence, it has been estimated that the Government spent B 425 billion purchasing 17.8 million metric tonnes of grain rice that it was unable to sell (official data on the quantities procured and the cost of the scheme have not yet 
been released).
25  
4.27.  Concerns were expressed about the scheme from various external parties, including with 
respect to its considerable negative fiscal impact, administrative complexities and its potential to 
mis-target beneficiaries (i.e. large-scale producers and middlemen rather than poor farmers).26 
Additionally, concern has been expressed that the large stockpiles produced might, or are, being released onto global markets, depressing world prices.
27 It has also been suggested that the policy 
led to smuggling of rice from neighbouring countries, so that it could be passed off as 
locally-grown and sold to the government at high prices.28  
4.28.  The paddy-pledging scheme was terminated in February 2014. According to the authorities 
there are five release channels for rice stocks: (a) government-to-government transactions, based 
on the world market price; (b) public auctions to domestic producers, based on the domestic 
market price; (c) sales to agencies or entities, domestic and international, for public use purposes; (d) trade on the agricultural products futures market, under the normal market mechanism; and 
(e) donations to persons affected by natural disast ers. The authorities indicated that none of the 
release channels will affect the world market price of rice. The Rice Policy and Management Committee started the government rice auction in August 2014 and by end 2014, the Committee 
had approved four rice tenders amounting to 622,131 metric tonnes. Between beginning to 
mid-2015, the Committee had approved three tenders amounting to 2,112,372 metric tonnes.  
4.29.  Following termination of the paddy pledging scheme, various measures have been put in 
place to assist farmers and a database is being developed containing Thai farmers' incomes and 
other information in order to facilitate the Government's assistance programmes.
29  
  In June 2014, the National Council for Peace and Order approved B 4.7 billion in financial 
aid for low-income rice farmers for the 2014/15 crop under the Rice Farmer Assistance 
Program; this was effective from November 2014 to January 2015.30 Under the 
                                               
23 The Thai National Anti-Corruption Commission (NACC) launched a probe into the policy in 
January 2014. 
24 This scheme was similar to that in operation from 2001 to 2009/10. WTO document 
WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
25 Reuters online information. Viewed at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/12/us-imf-thailand-
idUSBRE9AB02F20131112 .  
26 IMF (2012).  
27 USTR (2014). In a question posed by the US in  the WTO Committee on Agriculture on 04/03/2015 
(AG-IMS ID 76058), the US noted that the administered price under the Paddy Pledging Scheme was B 14,400 
per tonne for the main crop in 2013/14 and that since the programme was discontinued market prices in 
Thailand had fallen to around B 7,000 per tonne. Noting the conduct of tenders in October and December 2014 it asked Thailand to provide information on whether an y tenders were exported and the sales price of these 
tenders. A response from Thailand on th ese issues has not yet been provided. 
28 The Telegraph  online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/thailand/10618134/Burmese-smugglers-get-rich-on-
Yingluck-Shinawatras-13-billion-Thai-rice-subsidies.html .  
29 Bangkok Post  online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/news/464229/thailand-to-slash-rice-crop-sell-stockpilesto-cut-glut. 
According to this article, over the next two years the Government also intends to switch around 700,000 rai 
from rice to sugar cane and 1.1 million rai to mixed farm ing as well as to eliminate planting during the dry 
season across 400,000 rai (subject to the approval by a rice policy committee).  
30 WTO document: WT/TPR/OV/17, 24 November 2014. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  programme, the Government provided eligible farmers a fixed amount of B 1,000 per rai 
(0.4 of an acre) not exceeding 15 rai's per household, capped at B 15,000 per household per year. The fund was paid as a one-off measure for the 2014/15 marketing year without any production requirement; its aim was to relieve the expense burden, including 
agricultural input costs, incurred by low-income rice farmers.
31  
  The Government has sought the cooperation of the private sector to reduce the costs of 
inputs and services to farmers, such as fertil izers, pesticides and seeds to reduce the cost 
of production to B 432/rai (6.25 rai is equivalent to 1 hectare); this was an emergency 
programme which has now been terminated.  
  Loan interest rates for farmers were lowered during the period July to December 2014.  
  Over the period 1 October 2014 to 30 Sept ember 2015 soft loans are being provided to 
rice farmers to increase the value-added of rice.  
  Various measures have been put in place to help rice marketing, including: assistance to 
private stockholders to buy and keep the produce (July 2014 to September 2015); loans to 
farmers to keep their produce in stock rather than release it to the market 
(November 2014 to September 2015); and arrangements for farmers markets for rice and other field crops to give famers alternative options to directly sell their produce.  
  An insurance programme for seasonal rice was introduced to insure against natural 
disasters and other unexpected negative impacts to the produce (June-December 2014).  
  The MOAC is encouraging large-scale farming to reduce costs and enhance productivity 
(see Large Fields Scheme, above). 
4.2.3.4.2  Sugar 
4.30.  The sugar industry in Thailand is overseen by the Cane and Sugar Board, which is 
comprised of representatives from sugar cane farmers and sugar producers (i.e. the milling 
industry), facilitated by representatives from the Ministry of Industry. The Board's aim is to 
monitor, promote, conduct research and developmen t, and regulate the sugar industry. Each year 
the Board agrees on quotas for allocating sugar production: (a) to the domestic market; (b) for 
export by the Thai Cane and Sugar Corporation Limited; and, (c) for export freely by private 
companies. Quota allocations are decided based on various factors, including; domestic and global production of sugar cane; domestic consumption; and, the world sugar trade situation (including world market prices and fluctuations in exchange rates).  
4.31.  The ceiling prices for sugar sold on the domestic market under quota "a" are set by the 
Ministry of Commerce; the objectives of this policy are to ensure adequate availability of sugar in the domestic market and to prevent smuggling of  sugar out of the country. The actual domestic 
prices are set by the market as long as they do not exceed the ceiling. The Thai Cane and Sugar 
Corporation (which is privately owned by the sugar cane farmers and sugar producers) sets a reference price for sugar exports under quota 'b' and is solely responsible for exporting the raw 
sugar; the purpose of this process to enable the calculation of revenue sharing between cane 
farmers and sugar producers at the end of the production year.  
4.32.  The National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO) approved a loan to increase sugar cane 
prices for the production year 2013/14, to B160 per tonne. This was paid directly to farmers who 
had sent their sugar cane to the sugar factories.  According to the authorities, the measure was 
temporary with the main purpose of supporting farmers' incomes which had been diminished during a period of unusually low sugar cane prices. Soft loans are provided to sugar cane farmers 
to allow them to rent harvesting tractors; according to the authorities, this scheme has been in 
place for more than five years.  
                                               
31 Thailand's response to a question from Cana da at the WTO Committee on Agriculture on 
13 November 2014. Agriculture Information Management System online information. Viewed at: https://agims-qna.wto.org . WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.3  Fisheries 
4.33.  The fisheries industry in Thailand co ntributed 0.8% to GDP (2013), 2.9% to total 
exports (2014), and 2% to total employment (2014)  for both fishing and fish processing. Nearly 
half of all exports of fish products are frozen or  preserved shrimps, mainly from aquaculture rather 
than capture fisheries. Exports peaked in 2011 and there has been a downward trend since 
(Chart 4.2). The main destination market is the United States, followed by Japan and the EU. 
Chart 4.2 Exports of selected fisheries products, 2008-14 
01,0002,0003,0004,0005,0006,0007,0008,0009,000
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014US$ million
Shrimps & prawnsTuna, skipjack & bonito, 
prepared/preserved
Other fish or fish products
 
Note: Shrimps and prawns = HS 0306.13, 0306.23, and 1605.20 (up to 2011); HS 0306.16, 0306.17, 
0306.26, 0306.27, 1605.21, and 1605.29 (as of 2012); Tunas, skipjack, and bonito prepared/preserved = HS 1604.14. 
Source: UNSD, Comtrade database. 
4.34.  Thailand's licensed fishing fleet totalled 16,548 vessels in 2013 (down from 17,203 in 2011 
but up from 12,920 in 2008), representing a gross tonnage of 391,972 (up from 378,598 in 2011 and 359,038 in 2008). Most vessels are between 6 and 30 metres long.
32 As explained by the 
authorities, the increase in fishing licences granted over the period 2008-12 was due to the 
government's ongoing project to build artificial reef s, particularly in coastal areas. This led to an 
increase in aquatic animals, in turn causing fishermen to apply for more fishing licences. 
4.35.  In value terms, the aquaculture subsector is worth around double that of marine capture 
fisheries (Tables 4.6 and 4.7). Costal aquaculture remains dominated by shrimp and prawns, and freshwater aquaculture by catfish and tilapia. Since 2012, shrimp and prawn production has dramatically declined (Table 4.7) due to early mortality syndrome (EMS).  
Table 4.6 Marine capture fisheries: nation al landings in domestic ports, 2009-14 
  2009 2010  2011  2012  2013b 2014b 
Volume (tonnes)             
Fish 857,472 905,769 917,861 916,562 910,025 908,755 
Crustaceans 86,313 86,241 84,617 86,036 84,549 87,413 
Shellfish and 
molluscs 133,012 152,993 146,636 134,158 144,145 143,937 
Other marine 
animals 118,242 37,327 105,491 41,712 126,132 131,733 
Fish for reductiona 468,807 418,990 355,813 321,732 365,196 347,556 
Total 1,663,846 1,601,320  1,610,418  1,500,200  1,630,047 1,619,394  
                                               
32 Fishery Information Technology Center. Thai fishing vessels statistics 2013. Department of Fisheries, 
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives No. 2/2015.  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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    2009 2010  2011  2012  2013b 2014b 
Value (B million)          
Fish 22,600 24,482 27,156 30,090 26,302 26,869 
Crustaceans 9,606 8,593 9,056 10,345 9,634 9,910 
Shellfish and 
molluscs 7,776 9,620 10,812 11,860 10,238 10,525 
Other marine 
animals 73 66 123 114 241 241 
Fish for reductiona 2,704 2,745 2,484 2,502 2,519 2,437 
Total 42,758 45,506  49,631  54,911  48,934 49,982  
a Refers to low value fish of various species. 
b  Estimate. 
Source:  OECD (2015), Thailand: Country Statistics 2014, Review of Fisheries Country Statistics 2014 . 
Viewed at: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/agriculture-and-food/oecd-review-of-fisheries-country-
statistics-2014/thailand_rev_fish_stat_en-2014-38-en ; and information provided by the authorities.  
Table 4.7 Main aquaculture production, 2009-14 
(Tonnes) 
  2009 2010  2011  2012  2013a 2014a 
Fish 539,694 516 804  403 236  476,409  510,182 509,058  
Sea bass 14,818 17,415 16,157 19,318 17,313 18,631 
Catfish 160,264 167,790 121,607 150,334 163,023 160,953 
Carp 50,617 44,820 32,888 35,353 42,968 43,164 
Tilapia 221,042 204,680 155,544 203,030 212,724 204,787 
Eel 3  ..  .. .. .. .. 
Other fish 92,950 82,099 77,040 68,374 74,154 81,523 
Shellfish 876,887 735,259  797,924  795,413  546,502 479,338  
Oyster, edible 26,204 10,757 8,378 16,130 20,412 20,257 
Mussel 193,626 123,879 126,618 103,203 127,823 143,674 
Clam 81,959 40,979 51,734 66,528 69,232 62,441 
Shrimp and prawn 575,098 559,644 611,194 609,552 329,035 252,966 
Total 1,416,581 1,252,063  1,201,160  1,271,822  1,056,684 988,396  
Total value (B million) 89,861 88,165  102,461  108,313  97,145 86,372  
.. Not available. 
a Estimate. Source:  OECD (2015), Thailand: Country Statistics 2014, Review of Fisheries Country Statistics 2014 . 
Viewed at: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/agriculture-and-food/oecd-review-of-fisheries-country-
statistics-2014/thailand_rev_fish_stat_en-2014-38-en ; and information provided by the authorities. 
4.36.  The Fisheries Act 2015 is the main law governing the sector.33 The main government body 
in charge of managing and developing fisheries and aquaculture is the Department of Fisheries 
within the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.  
4.37.  The new Fisheries Act aims to adjust fisheries resources management measures in the 
country to be more compatible with international fisheries law and standards (International Plan of 
Action on Illegal, Unreported, Unregulated Fishin g; Law of the Sea; UN Fish Stocks Agreement; 
Port State Measure Agreement) and EC Regulation 1005/2008; new advanced fisheries technologies; and present social surroundings. Legislative reform was due to obsolete provisions under the 1947 Act. Its provisions focused in particular on inland fisheries management and 
mentioned very little about marine fisheries development measures. There was also no regulating 
provision on aquaculture practices. Under the new Act, inland, coastal and marine fisheries zones are designated in order to regulate the fishing ca pacity of fishermen and the types of fishing gear 
that may be used. The Act also improves fisheries monitoring, surveillance and control as well as 
aquaculture and sanitary standards. 
4.38.   The Department of Fisheries has set out five strategies for fisheries management over the 
period 2013-16 (Table 4.8) 
4.39.  Under the Foreign Business Act B.E. 2542 (1999) and the Act Governing the Right to Fish in 
Thai Fishery Waters B.E. 2482 (1939), foreigners are prohibited from commercial fishing in Thai 
                                               
33 This replaces the 1947 Fisheries Act. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 109 - 
 
  fishery waters and within its exclusive economic zone. However, the latter Act permits foreigners 
to work in the crew of a fishing vessel provided they are registered under the Working of Aliens Act B.E. 2551 (2008).
34 
Table 4.8 Strategies for fisheries management 
Strategy Components 
1. Increase fish production  Enhance fish production capability of fish farmers. 
 Promote and transfer fish production technology. 
2. Develop fish production 
and fishery products  Improve aquaculture system in compliance with international standards. 
 Promote sustainable and responsible aquaculture and fishing. 
 Promote quality and safety of fish and fishery products throughout the 
production chain. 
 Expand the scope of the aquaculture certification scheme and enhance 
the certification body for accreditation against ISO/IC Guide 65. 
3. Manage aquatic resources 
to ensure sustainability and 
biodiversity  Rehabilitate and conserve fisheries resources. 
 Promote community-based aquatic resources management. 
 Explore new fishing grounds. 
4. Fishery technology 
research and development  Conduct research according to the Fisheries Research Master Plan 
2012-2016 of the Department of Fisheries. 
 Increase innovative research. 
 Transfer research technology to the private sector. 
5. Organization and human 
resource development   Develop human resources according to knowledge, skills and competency 
required by their job. 
 Promote learning organization. 
 Develop information technology systems. 
 Establish cooperation between go vernment and private sectors. 
 Prepare personnel to be  ready for changes. 
 Improve organizational management. 
 Promote organization integration. 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities. 
4.40.  Government assistance to the fisheries sector comprises disaster relief payments and 
management, research and enforcement services ; in 2014 these amounted to over B 881 million 
(Table 4.9). The authorities indicated that a big in crease in disaster relief payments in 2011 for the 
marine capture and in 2011/12 for the aquaculture sector was due to the more frequent incidence 
of storms and floods in the country.  
Table 4.9 Government financial transf ers to the fisheries sector, 2009-14 
(B '000) 
 2009  2010  2011  2012  2013 2014  
Marine capture fisheries 158,369  142,002  209,431  216,344  226,897 221,853  
Direct payments 3,365  3,112  31,560  3,102  6,739 5,095  
Disaster relief payments 3,365 3,112 31,560 3,102 6,739 5,095 
Cost-reducing transfers 0 0 0 0 0 0 
General services 155,004  138,890  177,871  213,242  220,158 216,758  
Management services 23,600 19,929 56,808 96,206 96,206 91,628 
Research services 17,476 19,876 15,199 17,918 24,551 12,250 
Enforcement services 113,928 99,085 105,864 99,118 99,401 112,880 
Cost recovery charges 0 0 0 0 0 0 
Aquaculture 773,116  489,675  1,305,667  1,980,000  512,651 659,448  
Direct payments 414,843  162,897  965,153  1,683,301  202,293 384,664  
Disaster relief payments 414,843 162,897 965,153 1,683,301 202,293 384,664 
Cost-reducing transfers 0  0 0 0 0 0  
General services 358,273  326,778  340,514  296,699  310,358 274,784  
Management, research and 
enforcement services 358,273 326,778 340,514 296,699 310,358 274,784 
Cost recovery charges 0 0 0 0 0 0 
Marketing and processing 0 0 0 0 0 0 
TOTAL 931,485  631,677  1,516,500  2,196,344  739,548 881,300  
Source:  OECD (2015), Thailand: Country Statistics 2014, Review of Fisheries Country Statistics 2014 . 
Viewed at: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/agriculture-and-food/oecd-review-of-fisheries-country-
statistics-2014/thailand_rev_fish_stat_en-2014-38-en ; and information provided by the authorities.  
                                               
34 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.41.  The Board of Investment offers incentives for certain fisheries activities. Businesses 
undertaking aquatic animal propagation and aquacu lture (except shrimp) may receive a three-year 
corporate income tax exemption, an import duty exemption for machinery (generally available for 30 months after issuance of a promotion certificate, but a one year extension is permitted upon 
request) as well as import duty exemptions for raw or essential materials used in manufacturing 
export products (for 1 year, extendable). Certain conditions apply such as the requirement to use 
modern technology and have traceability systems in place. Similar incentives are also offered to 
deep sea fisheries (but in this case the corporate tax exemption is for 5 years). Additional years of 
tax holidays can be granted (but not exceeding 8 years in total) to a project that has investments or expenditure on one of the following: (a) resear ch and development; (b) donations to technology 
or human resource funds; (c) intellectual proper ty acquisition or licensing fees; (d) advanced 
technology training; (e) the development of loca l suppliers; and (f) product and packaging design 
given that the qualified expenditures or investments reach the determined threshold. Conditions relate to the size of fishing vessels and the equipment used.
35  
4.4  Forestry 
4.42.  Of Thailand's total area of just over 51 million hectares, 31% (16.3 million hectares) 
comprised forest in 2013 (down from over 50% in the 1960s). The vast majority of the total 
forested area is natural forest, owned by the State; commercial logging has been banned in all 
natural forests since 1989 in an attempt to curb rapid deforestation. The State also owns 74,560 hectares of protected plantation forest, with a view to rejuvenating forestry within the country. Licences may be granted by the Royal Forest Department on a case-by-case basis to the 
Forest Industry Organization to undertake logging in these areas. The commercial forested area, 
owned by the private sector, occupied 320,000 hectares in 2012.  
4.43.  Under the National Forestry Policy of th e Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 
Thailand aims to achieve a total forest area of 40% (20.4 million hectares). 25% of Thailand's total 
area (12.75 million hectares) should be protected forest in order to preserve the environment, soil, water resources, and wild fauna and flora; prevent natural disasters; conduct research and 
development; and provide for recreational activi ties. 15% (7.65 million hectares) of Thailand's 
total area should be devoted to commercial purposes. To encourage a significant increase in commercial forestry, various incentives are provided. Commercial forestry was listed as one of the Board of Investment's activities of special importance and benefits to the country in 2014. 
Uncapped corporate income tax exemptions for eight years and other fiscal incentives are available 
to approved economic forest plantation projects , which must be at least 300 rai (48 hectares) and 
involve research and development activity. Addi tionally, the Royal Forest Department offers 
research and development services to promote fa ster tree growth and prevent pests. It also 
donates young trees for planting.  
4.44.  Thailand is a net importer of wood. In 2014, total imports of wood in the rough or roughly 
squared (HS 4403) were valued at US$70.4 million, with 77% of these imports coming from 
Myanmar. In the same year the value of exports was US$543.000. However, when considering exports of all wood and wood products containe d in HS 44 (including, for example, manufactured 
articles such as crates, windows, doors and furn iture), Thailand maintains a trade surplus. The 
value of exports of wood and articles of wood  was US$2.3 million in 2014, while the value of 
imports was US$641 million.
36 
4.45.  Efforts are being made by a newly established National Land Committee (NLC) to deal with 
the problem of trespassers on state land, by allowing poor persons who have settled on forest land 
to remain there and take care of the forest while at the same time preventing trespassers from undertaking illegal logging. In this regard, meas ures are being taken to more clearly demarcate 
forest boundaries as well as to improve coordination between the relevant government bodies and 
officials (the Justice Ministry, the Anti-Money Laun dering Office, Police, Army  and forestry and park 
officials).  
                                               
35 Announcement of the Board of Investment No. 2/2557 on Policies and Criteria for Investment 
Promotion (2014). Viewed at http://www.boi.go.th/upload/content/newpolicy-
announcement%20as%20of%2020_12_57_33650.pdf . 
36 COMTRADE database. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.46.  Government revenue from forest products has shown a gradual increase since 2008 (with 
the exception of 2009). It is largely derived from licence fees (Table 4.10). Export taxes of between 5% and 40% are levied on wood, sawn wood and articles made of wood.
37  
Table 4.10 Government revenue derived from forest products, 2008-13 
(B '000) 
 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Royalties 810 913 260 537 1,422 1,886 
Fees 19,443 11,625 12,290 11,836 11,874 5,228 
Sales of timber 2,181 709 709 758 1,171 4,368 
Licence fee  20,227 25,926 30,457 36,054 36,050 41,000 
Other 4,125 1,843 8,144 3,816 3,808 2,800 
Total 46,786 41,016 51,860 53,001 54,325 61,794 
Source: Statistical Yearbook of Thailand , 2014; and information provided by the authorities.  
4.5  Energy 
4.47.  The Government's energy policy is focused on becoming energy independent while 
maintaining stable and fair prices, supporting the production of renewable and alternative energy 
and promoting energy conservation.38 Energy security has become increasingly important as 
Thailand's energy consumption over the last 25 ye ars has grown at 6.2% per year, while its oil and 
gas reserves have been declining.39 In addition to implementing strategies to increase and 
diversify domestic energy production, Thai companies are increasingly investing in infrastructure in 
neighbouring countries, to secure energy imports.40 
4.48.  Thailand's Power Development Plan (PDP) is the master plan for the long-term development 
of the power system; it aims to fulfil the country's demand for electricity and promote economic 
growth. In December 2014, the National Energy  Policy Council approved the framework of the 
PDP2015, which will cover the period up to 2036. It has (mid-2015) been submitted for Cabinet approval. Its focus is in three areas: (a) to enha nce the energy security of Thailand through fuel 
diversification (reducing the use of natural ga s as the major energy source); (b) to produce 
electricity at a reasonable cost for both residential and business sectors to support Thailand's long-term development and promote energy effici ency; and (c) to alleviate environmental and 
social impacts (especially CO
2 emission reductions). As set out in the plan, fuel share targets 
in 2036 are: imported hydropower (15-20%); bitumi nous and lignite (20-25%); renewable energy 
(15-20%); natural gas (30-40%) and nuclear (0-5%). Two other plans have been revised to also cover the period 2015-2036, so to coincide with the PDP2015. These are the Alternative Energy 
Development Plan and the Energy  Efficiency Development Plan.
41 Moreover the Ministry of Energy 
is developing an Oil Plan and a Gas Plan, in order to have the country's first Integrated Energy Blueprint. 
4.49.  There have been no changes to the institut ions responsible for the energy sector over the 
review period. The Ministry of Energy remains responsible for government policy for the exploration and extraction of hydrocarbons as well as for the production, transmission and sale of 
electricity. Within the Ministry, the Energy Poli cy and Planning Office (EPPO) develops energy 
policies, including plans for managing energy sh ortages and improving conservation as well as 
coordinating, monitoring, and overseeing implem entation of government policy. The National 
Energy Policy Council, which is chaired by the Pr ime Minister and includes several government 
ministers and the Director-General of the EPPO, is responsible for submitting policy plans to the 
                                               
37 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
38 Ministry of Energy (2012). Not available online in English.  
39 World Economic Forum (2012). 
40 As noted by the Oxford Business Group, for ex ample, PTT Public Company Limited (PTT) and its 
subsidiary PTT Exploration and Production (PTTEP) has been active in investing in energy companies with interests in Indonesia, Mozambique and Canada. Likewise, EGAT has, inter alia , been investing in electricity 
generating infrastructure in Viet Nam and Myanmar. 
41 The Alternative Energy Development Plan (2015-2036) aims to promote the use of renewable energy 
for power generation by  2036. The projected breakdown would be: biomass (5,570 MW); biogas (600 MW); 
solar (6,000 MW); wind (3,002 MW); hydro (3,282.4 MW); municipal solid waste (MSW) (500 MW); and 
energy crop (680 MW). The Energy Efficiency Development Plan (2015-2036) has a target of reducing energy 
intensity (i.e. the ratio of energy consumption to GDP) by 30% in 2036, compared to 2010 through energy saving and efficiency programs.  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Council of Ministers, establishing the rules for setting prices, and monitoring private and public 
entities involved in energy to ensure that thei r operations comply with national energy policy. 
Regulation of the electricity and natural gas sectors rests with the Energy Regulatory Commission (ERC), operational since 2008.  
4.50.  Likewise, there have been no changes to the main laws governing the energy sector: the 
Petroleum Act (1971); the Petroleum Income Tax Act (1971); the Fuel Trade Act (2000); the Energy Conservation and Promotion Act (1992, amended in 2007); and, the Energy Industry 
Act (2007).
42 According to the authorities, the National  Legislative Assembly is studying issues 
related to the enforcement of the Petroleum Ac t and the Petroleum Income Tax Act to decide 
whether to amend both laws. 
4.51.  Thailand's energy endowment includes cr ude oil (215 million barrels of proven reserves 
in 2012), natural gas (10 trillion cubic feet of prov en reserves), and coal (2,075 million tons of 
proven reserves).43 It has no nuclear power plants (although one is scheduled to be constructed 
and commence operations in 2035 according to the PDP2015) and is the third largest producer of 
biofuels in Asia (behind China and Indonesia) through its 22 ethanol plants (using molasses and cassava) and 11 biodiesel plants (largely using palm oil) (Table 4.11).
44 Thailand ranks 12th out of 
189 economies under the category of getting electricity in the World Bank's 2015 doing business 
report.45 Likewise, it ranks in 55th place out of 124 countries, in the World Economic Forum's 
Energy Architecture Performance Index. The latter index assesses whether countries' energy 
architecture supports economic growth and develo pment in an environmentally sustainable way, 
while providing energy access and security.46 Thailand has been commended, in particular, for its 
efforts to reform gasoline prices by removing distorting subsidies and introducing taxation that promotes efficient energy use (see below).
47 The State continues to maintain a significant 
presence in the energy sector, with the most recent liberalization and privatization initiatives 
taking place in the 1990s and early 2000s.48 
Table 4.11 Energy production  and consumption, 2007-2013 
 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 
Crude oil  (barrel (bbl)/day) 
Total production  134,563 143,935 154,041 153,174 139,991 148,977 149,481 
Total consumption  915,582 916,594 929,657 954,645 927,378 971,422 1,073,202 
Natural gas  (million cubic feet  per day (MMSCFD)) 
Total production  2,515 2,778 2,990 3,506 3,577 3,996 4,044 
Total consumption  3,288 3,444 3,564 4,039 4,143 4,534 4,568 
Coal  ('000 tonnes oil equivalent) 
Production  4,912 4,793 4,715 4,950 5,992 4,753 4,682 
Consumption  13,943 15,051 15,121 15,478 15,807 16,407 15,846 
Hydroelectricity ('000 tonnes oil equivalent) 
Production  1,764 1,540 1,543 1,185 1,758 1,868 1,199 
Consumption  2,178 1,780 1,755 1,805 2,679 2,767 2,273 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities. 
4.52.  Thailand remains a net, and growing, im porter of energy, reflecting robust domestic 
demand. In 2012, energy imports amounted to B 1,447 billion, while in the same year the value of 
energy exports was B 401 billion.49  
                                               
42 The Energy Industry Act was viewed at: http://www.thailawforum.com/database1/energy-industry-
law.html ; the Petroleum Act was viewed at: http://thailaws.com/law/t_laws/tlaw0430.pdf ; and the Petroleum 
Income Tax Act was viewed at: http://thailaws.com/law/t_laws/tlaw0431.pdf . 
43 Ministry of Energy (2012). Not available online in English. 
44 US Energy Information Administrati on online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=TH . 
45 World Bank (2014b).  
46 World Economic Forum (2013).  
47 World Economic Forum (2012). 
48 As noted by the Oxford Business  Group, legislative am endments allowed the Electricity Generating 
Authority of Thailand EGAT to cooperate with in dependent power producers and small power producers 
in 1992. A very small power producer programme followed in 2001. The PTT Public Company Limited was 
partially privatized in November 2001. 
49 Ministry of Energy (2012). Not available online in English. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.53.  Thailand started providing support for rene wable energy projects in 2006. These incentives 
are still offered, and include: import duty exem ptions for energy efficiency/renewable energy 
equipment; 8-year corporate income tax exempt ions for renewable energy manufacturers and 
energy services companies; and, corporate income tax reductions for companies that improve 
their energy efficiency or deve lop renewable energy projects.50 The Board of Investment has 
included "Renewable Energy and Environmental Services" as a target industry in its Investment Promotion Policy (2015-2021). Incentives offered under this strategy are corporate income tax 
exemptions, and import duty exemptions for machinery. Various other incentive programmes are 
in operation (Table 4.12) 
Table 4.12 Renewable energy incentives, 2015 
Programme Description 
Fit for RE 
programme  Very Small (VSPP) suppliers of renewable energy provided with per-KWh payments 
("feed-in tariffs") above those paid to standard wholesale producers by the state-owned utilities companies (the Metropolitan Electricit y Authority (MEA), the Provincial Electricity 
Authority (PEA), and the Electric Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT)). Rates vary according to technology used: solar (B 5.66-6.85 per KWh); biomass (B 5.34 per KWh); wind (B 6.06 per KWh); and hydro (B 4.90 per KWh). The programme was introduced in 2006 and has been revised several times.  
Solar rooftop 
programme and 
solar 
ground-mouth 
programme  In 2014, the Government issued a request for 200 MW of power through solar rooftop 
installations (with total capacity to be split 50/50 between commercial and residential 
structures). The feed-in tari ff ranges from B 6.01 per KWh to  B 6.85 per KWh. Under the 
solar ground-mouth programme, which is fo r government agencies  and agricultural 
cooperatives only, each location can establis h 5 MW of output and receive a feed-in tariff 
of B 5.66 per KWh. The contract length is for 25 years, with sy stems having to be 
installed by end 2015. 
Solar water heater 
subsidy programme Commenced in 2008 and runs until 2021. 25% subsidy of investment costs through 
2017 and 15% thereafter. Programme is available only for commercial hybrid systems, combining a minimum of 40m
2 collector area per project with the use of waste heat from 
air conditioners / boilers etc. The subsidy is  provided by the Depa rtment of Alternative 
Energy Development and Efficiency, through the Energy Conservation Promotion Fund.  
Energy 
Conservation 
Promotion Fund 
(ENCON Fund) Commenced in 1992 under the ENCON Act (B.E. 2535). Fund is used as a revolving 
fund, aid or subsidy for projec ts, research, demonstrations, public relations, investment 
and human resources development related to energy efficiency, renewable energy and 
energy conservation. The fund is managed by the ENCON Fund Committee. To be eligible 
for subsidies or grant funding foreign and dome stic companies' business must be directly 
related to energy conservation or enviro nmental protection and the correction of 
environmental problems arising from energy co nservation, and may not have political or 
profit-orientated objectives. Money in the ENCON fund is collected from fuel users 
(B 0.25/litre). The National Energy Policy Council (NEPC) approved B 7 billion/year to be 
used as ENCON fund's expense framework for the budget years 2012-16. The balance of 
the ENCON fund (end May 2015) was B 40.8 billion, of which just over B 20 billion has 
been allocated, leaving the remaining half available for use. 
Source:  Oxford Business Group (2015), The Report: Thailand 2014 . Viewed at: 
http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/thailand-2014-0 ; Global Solar Thermal Energy Council online 
information. Viewed at: http://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/government-subsidy-
programme-2013 ; and information provided by the authorities. 
4.5.1  Hydrocarbons  
4.54.  With its excess refining capacity, Thailand is a net exporter of refined petroleum products 
using imports of crude as the raw material; its six operating refineries had an output of 
1,242 billion bbl/day in 2014.51  
4.55.  While specific licencing requirements are in place for foreign investors52, the hydrocarbons 
sector is fully open to foreign investment at the exploration and production levels. Oil and gas 
exploration and production rights are granted by th e Ministry of Energy with the approval of the 
Cabinet. Royalty rates range from 5% to 15% and the compulsory exploration period is six years. 
                                               
50 Industrial Efficiency Policy Databa se online information. Viewed at: 
http://iepd.iipnetwork.org/policy/tax-incentives . 
51 Information provided by the Energy Policy and Planning Office. 
52 Under the provisions of the Foreign Business Act B.E. 2542 (1999) and the Petroleum Act 
B.E. 2514 (1971), a foreign business licence, issued by the Ministry of Commerce, is required for: foreign 
participation in petroleum exploration; production/dis tribution of petroleum products; and companies with 
foreign shareholding of 50% or more.  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  The concession is for 20 years, and the total exploration area of any single concessionaire may not 
exceed five blocks of 20,000 square kilometres. Concessionaires are allowed to sell or otherwise dispose of the petroleum produced insofar as they meet their royalty and tax obligations.
53  
4.56.  The oil sector is fully deregulated. PTT Public Company Limited (PTT) which is 
majority-owned (51%) by the State remains a key player, with 37% of market share of the oil 
sector. Other major fuel traders are ESSO (11%), Bangchak (10%), Shell (9%), and Chevron Thailand (7%). PTT has exploration and production interests and has substantial shares in 
four (out of six) refineries in Thailand.
54 This has reportedly generated some domestic criticism 
about it having a monopoly in this area.55 Chevron Texaco and PTT Exploration and Production 
Public Co. Ltd. are the top natural gas and crude oil producers in Thailand. PTT is the main operator involved in the transmission and distribu tion of natural gas and the import of liquefied 
natural gas (LNG), with tariffs controlled by the Energy Regulatory Committee. However, reforms 
in the natural gas sector are underway to promote competition and ensure non-discriminatory treatment in the use of natural gas pipeline services.  
4.57.  Major energy subsidy reforms have been undertaken over the review period to address the 
significant costs of these subsidies to the national economy. In 2012, Thailand's fuel and electricity subsidies were estimated to cost at least B 194.9 billion (equivalent to 1.7% of GDP) consisting of 
a diesel excise tax exemption borne by the National Budget (55.5%), liquefied petroleum gas 
(LPG) sales losses borne by the Oil Fund and oil companies (29.4%), losses from compressed natural gas for vehicles (NGV) sales borne by PTT (6.6%), a regulated electricity base tariff borne by EGAT (4,6%), and cross-subsidization to free or half-price electricity to low-consuming 
households (3.8%); several other support measures could be quantified. Under instructions from 
the Cabinet
56, the National Energy Policy Council (NEPC) approved a policy framework and 
guidelines to restructure energy prices on 15 December 2014. This comprises the following 
elements: (a) energy prices must reflect actual costs; (b) excise taxes applied to each fuel in the 
transportation sector should be similar; (c) the Oil Fund should be used to stabilize energy prices and encourage the use of renewable energy; (d) energy cross subsidies should be reduced; 
(e) marketing margins should be at an appropriate level; (f) low-income people should be assisted 
and, (g) the amount of money collected from each fuel into the Oil Fund should be similar and according to their calorific values. As at mid- 2015, only ethanol blended gasolines E20 and E85, 
NGV, and LPG for low-income households remained subsidised. 
4.58.  Ethanol blended gasolines with a concentration of 20% ethanol (E20) and 85% 
ethanol (E85) (largely used by certain automotives) are subsidized in order to promote the use of renewable energy, particularly biofuel. Subsidies are provided through the Oil Fund mechanism; 
the more ethanol is blended, the higher the su bsidy from the Oil Fund. These ethanol blended 
gasolines are also subject to lower taxation. 
4.59.  NGV retail prices are set below the cost of production. NGV is produced and distributed 
solely by PTT which is not reimbursed for losses incurred by selling below cost. However, prices 
were increased on 31 December 2014 to reduce the cost of the subsidy: for private cars it was increased from B 12.50/kg to B 13/kg; and for public busses and taxis from B 9.50/kg to B 10.00/kg.  
4.60.  Subsidies to diesel, which were financed through temporary excise tax reductions so to keep 
retail prices below B 30/litre, have largely been removed. This policy change was facilitated by the recent fall in oil prices. The pre-reduction tax rate was B 5.31/litre, this was lowered to 
B 0.005/litre in April 2011, and has now been raised back to B 4.25/litre. Diesel is largely used in 
agriculture and manufacturing. Biodiesel blending is compulsory for all diesel sold in Thailand, providing a subsidy mandatory consumption; biodiesel is subject to an excise tax exemption.
57 
                                               
53 WTO document WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008. 
54 PTT has a 49.10% share in TOP, 48.89% in PTTGC,  38.51% in IRPC and 36% in SPRC (May 2015). 
55 Reuters online information. Viewed at: http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/02/03/bangchak-ptt-stake-
sale-idUKL4N0VD5FF20150203?feedType=RSS&feedName=rbssFinancialServicesAndRealEstateNews .  
56 In its policy statement delivered to the National As sembly, the Cabinet stated in its policy on energy 
price reform that fuel prices  must be in line with costs, there shou ld be an appropriate tax burden between 
different fuels and different users in order to increase the country's efficient use of energy and that people 
should be careful not to use energy wastefully. 
57 International Institute for Sustainable Development (2013). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.61.  LPG used to be subsidised by the Oil Fund such that in 2012 Thailand's LPG retail prices 
were the second lowest (after Malaysia) in Southeast Asia. An ex-refinery price was set below the cost of production or acquisition on the world market; the Government than paid the difference to the LPG refiner or importer.
58 Additionally, LPG rates used to be variably applied to users in 
different segments, which raised concerns about costs and fairness (rates were fixed at B 19/kg 
for cooking (32% of consumption); B 21/kg for automobiles (24% of consumption) and B 30/kg for industrial consumers (44% of consumption).
59 The price disparity also provided an incentive for 
fuel smuggling to neighbouring countries and misappropriation, e.g. LPG for cooking to be used 
illegally by the industrial sector. In January 2015, a new formula for calculating retail prices was adopted, which is based on the weighted average of LPG costs from three major sources: imported LPG, local gas separation and oil refineries. At present, LPG prices for all segments are at the same 
level.  
4.5.2  Electricity 4.62.  In January 2015, Thailand had an installe d generating capacity of 34,690 MW; 99% of the 
population had access to electricity (in 2012).
60 Major capacity was from the state-owned 
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT), accounting for 44.4% (Chart 4.3). Over the review period, the EGAT's relative share of gene rating capacity has dropped slightly (from 47% 
in 2010) while that of small power producers has increased (from 7%). Natural gas remains the 
main fuel source for electricity generation (Chart 4.3)  
Chart 4.3 Electricity generation and installed capacity, April 2015 
Imported coal/lignite
18.5%
Import  6.2%Electricity generation by type of fuel, April 2015
Independent 
power producers
37.8%EGAT
44.4%Installed generating capacity, April 2015
Oil  0.6%Small power
producers
10.9%Import or exchange
6.9%
Hydropower  2.1%
Natural gas
69.9%Renewable energy  
2.6%
 
Source: Data provided by the authorities. 
4.63.  Thailand's electricity imports (some 7% of electricity consumed) come largely from Laos and 
a minimal amount is imported from Malaysia; these are the only two countries with which Thailand 
has direct connections. A number of future connections with other countries are being planned; of these, Myanmar is foreseen as having the greatest potential. All natural gas imports are from 
Myanmar (imports/joint developments are being discussed with Cambodia).
61 Thailand started 
importing liquefied natural gas (LNG) in 2011 under spot and short-term contracts. In 2014, Thailand imported 1.34 million tons of LNG. The first imports of LNG under long-term contracts, from Qatar, started in January 2015.  
4.64.  As well as being a major power producer, the EGAT has the exclusive right to purchase 
electricity from private power producers under power purchase agreements and has a monopoly on power transmission. The Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA) and the Provincial Electricity 
Authority (PEA), both state-owned enterprises, have  exclusive rights to undertake distribution and 
                                               
58 International Institute for Sustainable Development (2013).  
59 Bangkok Post  online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/news/455156/new-lpg-formula-will-use-median-to-flatten-out-prices . 
60 ERC presentation October 2012. Viewed at: 
http://www.eria.org/events/Power%20Tariff%20Structure%20in%20Thailand.pdf .  
61 Oxford Business Group (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  retailing activities within their respective geographical areas of jurisdiction.62 There are no plans to 
privatize these entities. 
4.65.  The ERC regulates the operation of the electricity and natural gas industry as well as related 
interconnection networks. Among its responsibilities are to regulate electricity tariffs in such a way 
that they reflect the actual costs of efficient indust ry operation. In this regard, the ERC sets criteria 
for tariff setting by licensees based on government policy. Licensees must propose tariffs to the ERC, which reviews them, with the input of stakeh olders, before these are approved and publically 
announced. The electricity structure varies according to different consumer categories 
(section 3.4.2.4).
63 The ERC issues licences to privately-owned power and natural gas operations; 
settles disputes between consumers and operators and makes disbursements under the Power Development Fund. The Fund is, inter alia , used to: expand electrification in rural areas; subsidise 
services for underprivileged energy users (those using less than 50 units/month); develop and 
rehabilitate communities surrounding power plants ; promote the use of renewable energy and low 
impact technology in electricity generation. The Fund's revenue mainly comes from levies on 
industry licensees. Contributions to the Fund during plant construction are levied at a rate of 
B 50,000 MW/year. Thereafter they are classed at di fferent rates depending on the fuel type used 
for power generation, and range from 1-2 satangs/KW-hour (100 satang = B  1).
64 
4.6  Manufacturing 
4.66.  In 2014, manufacturing (including food processing) accounted for 27.7% of GDP (down 
from 29.2% in 2011) (Table 1.2). The sector's sh are in total employment increased from 13.8% 
in 2011 to 16.8% in 2014. The manufacturing sector (particularly the automobile and electronics 
sub-sectors) was badly hit by a series of natural disasters. A major earthquake in Japan 
temporarily disrupted supply chains and slowed production as Japan is a major source of intermediate and capital goods (see section 4.6.1.1, below). This was followed by severe flooding 
in Thailand from end July 2011.
65  
4.67.  Key manufacturing sub-sectors (in terms of GDP originating from these activities at current 
market prices) include: food products and beverages; motor vehicles; chemicals and chemical 
products, rubber and rubber products; and refined petroleum products (Table A4.2). In value 
terms; exports are dominated by office machines and telecommunications equipment (15.7% in 2014), automotive products (11.5%), and chemicals (10.9%).  
4.6.1  Policy objectives and measures 
4.68.  As noted by the authorities, government policy is focused on enhancing and supporting the 
industrial sector for two main purposes: firstly, to  prepare it for the entry into force of the ASEAN 
Economic Community through training/seminar acti vities and the development of special economic 
zones (SEZs) (sections 1.7 and 3.4.2.1); and secondly, to develop the food and the non-food 
industries in areas where it is envisaged that Thailand has the greatest potential.  
4.69.  Current challenges facing the sector include rising costs (partly as a result of the 
implementation of a minimum wage law introduced in January 2013), the limited production 
capability of Thai manufacturers in high-technology products (section 1), competition from emerging regional players, and integration with in the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC). It has 
been suggested that Thailand now needs to transform itself from a low-cost exporter to creating 
and selling products of a higher value.
66 As noted by the authorities, Thailand is, inter alia , looking 
to address some of these challenges through its SEZ scheme which involves moving production to the borders with neighbouring countries so as to benefit from lower costs of labour and resources.  
                                               
62 The MEA's service areas are Bangkok, Nonthaburi an d Samut Prakarn. The PEA covers the rest of the 
country. 
63 Electricity tariff information was viewed at: 
http://www.mea.or.th/profile/index.php?l=en&tid=3&mid=112&pid=109 ; and 
http://www.mea.or.th/profile/index.php?l=en&tid=3&mid=2991&pid=2989 . 
64 ERC online information, "Power Development Fund". Viewed at: 
http://www.erc.or.th/ERCWeb2/EN/Default.aspx .  
65 IMF (2012). 
66 Oxford Business Group (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.70.  The simple average MFN tariff rate for non-agricultural products (WTO definition) 
was 10.1% in 2014, up from 9.0% in 2011.67 For manufactured products (ISIC definition) average 
applied tariff protection was 12.6% in 2014, up from 10.8% in 2011. The increased tariff protection over the review period is due both to a change in HS nomenclature as well as tariff rate 
increases (see section 3.2.2). Highest tariffs apply to motor vehicles (80%).  
4.71.  A large number of manufacturing activities  are eligible for corporate income tax holidays 
and customs duty exemptions under the BOI's seven year Investment Promotion Policy 
(2015-2021). Eligible activities include the manufacturing of certain products from agricultural 
goods (for example fertilizers, oils, rubber and leather products, fuels, food and beverages); 
products manufactured from metals and minerals; light industry products (such as textiles, clothing, toys, jewellery and medical device s); metal products, machinery and transport 
equipment; electronics and electrical appliances; and chemicals, paper and plastics (sections 2 
and 3.4.2.1). In order to support Thailand's grow ing aircraft maintenance and overhaul services 
industries, the manufacture of aircraft frames, parts and appliances was designated by the BOI 
in 2014 as an activity of special importance, to which corporate income tax exemption caps do not 
apply.
68  
4.6.1.1  Automotive sector 
4.72.  Thailand is a major automotive producer an d exporter as well as a big regional producer of 
motorcycle and automotive parts. In 2014, Thailand was the world's twelfth-largest producer of passenger and commercial vehicles producing around 2% of the world's vehicles and is the biggest vehicle manufacturer in Southeast Asia.
69 It has a particular strength in the one-tonne pick-up 
truck segment. Vehicle production has fluctuated in recent years, as a result of the global financial 
crisis and incentives granted in the wake of the 2011 floods. 
4.73.  Thailand does not have its own nationally-branded car. Its automotive sector consists of 
large-scale assembly businesses (predominantly Japanese and to a lesser extent US and 
European, Indian, and Chinese multinational companies). There are also numerous parts manufacturers and small-scale local suppliers. Taken together these businesses are estimated to 
employ around 500,000 workers.
70 8 5 %  o f  t h e  p a r t s  u s e d  i n  p i c k u p  t r u c k  a s s e m b l y  a r e  
manufactured locally, around 70% of passenger car parts, and nearly 100% motorcycle parts.71 
The strategic aim of the sector over the period up to 2021 is to consolidate Thailand's position as a global green automotive production base with st rong domestic supply chains which create high 
value-added for the country.  
4.74.  Thailand is one of the world's biggest car exporters; more than 50% of production is 
exported, mainly to other Asia-Pacific economies. In the context of the ASEAN, work is ongoing to 
harmonize standardization and certification measures as well as to eliminate non-tariff barriers to 
trade in motor vehicles.
72 The value of exports of auto parts amounted to over US$17 billion 
in 2014, with major export items including internal combustion engines and parts thereof and 
vehicle tyres.73 As noted by Thai AutoBook, auto parts exported to ASEAN nations are duty free 
                                               
67 WTO non-agricultural products, inter alia , includes fish and fishery prod ucts; minerals and metals and 
petroleum (which, for the purposes of this report, are considered in other sections). 
68 Board of Investment online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.boi.go.th/index.p hp?page=pdf_page&menu_id=96 .  
69 According to the Thai Automotive Institute, Thai land produced around 2% of the world's vehicles 
in 2014. The world's biggest producers, in order of volume are: China, the United States, Japan, Germany, the Republic of Korea, India, Mexico, Brazil, Spain,  Canada, Russian Federation, Thailand, France, the 
United Kingdom, and Indonesia. 
70 Board of Investment online  information. Viewed at: https://www.boi.go.th/ index.php?page=pdf-
pages&menu-id=89 .  
71 Thai Autobook 2015. Viewed at: http://www.slideshare.net/fullscreen/ulikaiser/thai-autobook-2015-
preview/11 . 
72 Within ASEAN a mutual recognition arrangem ent framework on motor vehicle standards and 
certification has been agreed. Work to harmonize standa rds and certification measur es and to eliminate NTBs 
has been taking place through the ASEAN Consultati ve Committee for Standard s and Quality's (ACCSQ) 
Automotive Product Working Group (APWG). 
73 In 2014, exports of internal combustion engines and parts thereof were valued at US$3.4 billion; 
output shafts and crankshafts (US$329 million); electric generating sets and parts thereof (US$400 million); 
wiring harnesses for motor vehicles  (US$436 million); batteries and parts thereof (US$916 million); vehicle WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  (as of 2015). There is significant domestic demand for motorcycles. Most motorcycles produced 
domestically are sold domestically; a 60% import duty is levied on completely built-up (CBU) motorcycles. 
4.75.  With respect to the domestic market, an estimated 7% of the Thai population owned a car 
in 2014 and car ownership is projected to steadi ly rise to nearly 10% by 2018. 95% of the 
domestic market is served by domestic production, given high import duties (80%) applied to completely built units (CBUs).
74 The excise tax structure provides incentives for the purchase of 
small-engine cars (i.e. those with a capacity of 2000cc or below), to help promote the production 
of fuel-efficient and environmentally-friendly cars . Concerns have been expressed that Thailand's 
excise tax structure favours domestically-manufactured vehicles; for example, while excise taxes on passenger vehicles range from 30% to 50%, pickup trucks, mostly produced in Thailand are 
taxed at a rate of 3%.
75 The authorities indicated that these excise taxes, which are mainly on 
luxury goods, are applied equally to imported and domestically-manufactured goods. They also noted that the lower excise tax rate as applied to pick-up trucks is due to the fact that Thailand's 
agriculture sector is large, therefore 1 ton pick-u p trucks are considered necessary and supportive 
vehicles for the agricultural society. A change in  excise tax policy is expected in 2016, with a 
movement away from being based on engine size  and towards one based on carbon emissions.  
4.76.  Quantitative import restrictions in the form of non-automatic licensing remain in place on 
certain used diesel engines (331-1,100cc). Imports of used motorcycles engines (except for those of 50cc) as well as used passenger cars are prohibited (Table 3.2). 
4.77.  Government support to the sector takes the form of a variety of fiscal incentives, including 
corporate income tax holidays and customs duties exemptions. To support the sector in the wake 
of the 2011 floods and to encourage low-income pe ople to buy new, more environmental-friendly 
cars, the Government paid first-time and 2011-flood-victim car buyers an amount equivalent to 
the excise tax imposed on the particular automo bile (up to a maximum of B 100,000). It would 
appear that this scheme was successful, as car re gistrations surged by over 80% in 2012. There 
followed a contraction in the second half of 2013 once all the vehicles purchased under the scheme 
had been delivered.
76 Temporary fuel excise tax reductions have been extended several times, 
also stimulating demand (section 4.5). More recently,  Government policy has expanded from 
promoting the pick-up truck as a product champion to promotion of the Eco-car, and this is also 
reflected in new incentive schemes offered (Table 4.13).  
Table 4.13 Automotive industry incentives, 2014 
Administering 
body Date introduced / 
terminated Summary description 
.. September 2011 / 
end 2012 First-time buyer rebate scheme:  temporary scheme applied to 
domestically-produced cars and pickup trucks and involved 
payment to the buyer of the amount equivalent to the excise tax but not exceeding B 100,000. Eligible vehicles were: cars with an engine smaller than 1500 cc and a retail price below B 1 million, and pickup trucks of any engine size.  
Board of 
Investment 
(BOI) August 2000 / 
end 2014 Automotive Incentive Scheme:  Corporate tax holidays of 
between 5 and 6 years to encourage manufacture of passenger cars 
and new automobile models in Thailand. Minimum investment of B 
10 billion.  
Ministry of 
Energy Introduced in 2006 Natural Gas Vehicle Initiative:  NGV subsidies of B 2-3/kg offered 
through the PTT Public company for new natural-gas-powered cars. These vehicles are also exempt from import duties (see section 4.5).  
Ministry of 
Finance (MOF) Introduced in January 
2011 Scheme to promote the use of E85 ethanol:  three-year 
exemption from import duties on fo reign auto parts used to make 
vehicles E85-ready. Additionally, the excise tax on cars using E85 
has been reduced to 22%, 27%, and 32%, depending on the 
engine size. 
                                                                                                                                               
tyres (US$3.7 billion); safety glass and car class (US $188 million); parts and other equipment (US$7.2 billion); 
and spare parts for motorcycles (US$599 million). 
74 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014a).  
75 USTR (2015). 
76 Economist Intelligence Unit (2014a). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Administering 
body Date introduced / 
terminated Summary description 
BOI and MOF Phase I 2007/2007 
Phase II 2013/2014 Eco-Car Programme:   
BOI offers a 6-8 year corporate income tax holiday and duty-free 
importation of machinery for Eco-Car projects with a minimum investment value of B 5 billion. Vehi cles must have fuel economy of 
at least 20km/litre and meet specified emission and safety standards. Certain parts must be  produced locally, although 
imported raw material is permitted.  MOF offers a reduced excise tax of 17% on cars with petrol-
powered engines smaller than 1,300 cc and diesel-powered engines below 1,400 cc (equivalent to a US$1,000 reduction in the retail price).  The requirements for fuel cons umption, emission, and safety 
standards are stricter under the Phase II program and the corporate income tax exemption is for 6 years. 
BOI  2014 BOI seven year investment promotion scheme (2015-2021):  
various manufacturing activities related to the production of metal 
products, machinery and equipment for the automotive sector are 
eligible for corporate income tax holidays of between 3-8 years as 
well as import duty exemptions  for machinery and raw/essential 
materials used in manufacturing  export products (see also 
section 3.4.2.1). 
.. Not available. 
Source:  Thai Autobook 2015. Viewed at: http://www.slideshare.net/fullscreen/ulikaiser/thai-autobook-2015-
preview/11 ; and BOI Announcement No. 2/2557 on Policies and Criteria for Investment Promotion. 
Viewed at: http://www.boi.go.th/upload/content/newpolicy-
announcement%20as%20of%2020_12_57_33650.pdf .  
4.6.1.2  Electrical and Electronics industry 
4.78.  A diverse range of electrical appliances are produced, including air conditioners, 
refrigerators, digital cameras, and video camera recorders. Main electronics goods produced were 
hard disc drives, integrated circuits and automotive electronics.77 No foreign direct investment 
restrictions are in place, with 100% foreign shareholding permitted. Various incentives are 
available including corporate income tax exemptions, import duty exemptions on machinery and import duty exemptions on raw or essential materials used in manufacturing export products.
78 
Under the BOI's seven year investment promotion policy, microelectronics design and embedded 
design are exempt from corporate income tax for 8 years.  
4.6.1.3  Rubber  4.79.  In 2014 the Government approved a guid eline to develop the whole supply chain of the 
rubber sector, from upstream, middle-stream to downstream, with an emphasis on rubber 
processing. Specifically, it aims to: (a) manage the public stock of rubber to address oversupply; (b) improve liquidity for agricultural institutions and other market operators and improve rubber 
quality; (c) encourage increased value-added in th e subsector by supporting the establishment or 
renovation of rubber processing plants and increa sing liquidity for rubber processing industries; 
(d) help manufacturers to expand production to increase the value-added of domestic rubber 
products and the domestic utilization of rubber; and (e) increase sustainability of the rubber 
industry by controlling the areas for rubber planta tions, improving their efficiency and maintaining 
a balance between production and utilization. To implement the guideline, sixteen measures were 
approved in August and October 2014 (Box 4.1).  
4.80.  According to external sources, the measures approved in October 2014 amounted to a 
subsidy plan of B 58 billion to support rubber prices. Under this plan, the Government reportedly held two successive rounds of government purchases of rubber from the market for resale 
(in December 2014 and February 2015). In each case, the value of purchases amounted to 
B 6 billion, and were undertaken by the state-run Rubber Estate Organization through the 
                                               
77 BOI online information. Viewed at: http://www.boi.go.t h/index.php?page=pdf_page&menu_id=90 .  
78 These incentives are set out in the Announcement of the Board of Investment No. 2/2557 on Policies 
and Criteria for Investment Prom otion (section 5). Viewed at: http://www.boi.go.th/upload/content/newpolicy-
announcement%20as%20of%2020_12_57_33650.pdf .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  B 20 billion buffer fund.79 B 420 million has reportedly been provided by the Government and 
seven private companies to shore up the prices of rubber futures on the Agricultural Futures 
Exchange of Thailand. 
Box 4.1 Measures to implement the guideline for rubber development 
A. Measures approved by the National Council for Peace and Order on 26 August 2014 
Emergency measures 
1. Credit (soft loans) to support revolving funds for agricultural institutions, including community 
cooperatives to purchase rubber from farmers to distribu te to the market. 
2. Credit (soft loans) to assist agricultural institut ions in expanding and improving efficiency of basic 
manufacturing processing. 
3. Credit (soft loans) to assist rubber manufacture rs in adjusting machinery used for manufacturing 
processing. 
Continuous measures 
4. Management of the public stock of rubber. 
5. Development of the rubber market in accordance with the structural adju stment of the market. 
6. Seek new overseas rubber markets. 
7. Investment promotio n for rubber manufacturing processing. 
8. Consultations to integrate rubb er research and development. 
9. Control of rubber production including enco uraging farmers to grow other plants/crops. 
10. Education for rubber farmers to efficiently and effect ively utilize resources and inputs, including how to 
reduce production costs. 
11. Technology transfer. 
12. Encouragement of less density of rubber trees in  plantations, including mixed plantations. 
B. Measures approved by the Cabinet on 21 October 2014  
13. Creation of a buffer stock to stabil ize rubber prices by taking a loan from the Bank for Agriculture and 
Agricultural Cooperatives to purchase rubber smoked sheet and block rubber from agricultural institutions 
and central rubber market to avoid fluctuations in rubber prices (t o be implemented for an 18-month 
period from November 2014 to April 2016). 
14. Income compensation to eligible rubber farmers who plant rubber trees with a concession from the 
government. Eligible farmers received a fixed amo unt of B 1,000 per rai not exceeding 15 rai's per 
household. The fund was paid as a one-off measure. 
15. Credit (soft loans) to support small-scale rubber farmers to engage in additional occupations. 
16. Credit (soft loans) to support revo lving funds for rubber manufacturers.  
Source: Information provided by the authorities. 
4.81.  The BOI extends an 8-year corporate income tax exemption for the manufacture of natural 
rubber products, import duty exemptions also apply to machinery and raw or essential materials used in manufacturing export products. 
4.7  Services  
4.7.1  Introduction 
4.82.  Services account for a significant part of the Thai economy. Their share in GDP has 
increased from 50.3% in 2011 to 52.7% in 2014, an d their share in total employment has risen 
from 40.7% in 2011 to 42.9% in 2014. The main services subsectors in 2014 were wholesale and 
retail trade, repair of vehicles and household goods (13.9%); transport, storage, and communication (7.1%); and financial intermediation (7%) (Table 1.2).  
4.83.  Thailand's Schedule of Specific Commitments covers 75 of the 160-odd service sectors 
under the GATS.
80 Thailand accepted the GATS Fourth Protocol on basic telecommunications and 
                                               
79 Reuters online information, "Thailand starts second round of rubber buying via $180 million fund", 
18 February 2015. Viewed at: http://wardsauto.com/thailand-starts-second-round-rubber-buying-180-mln-
fund; and Reuters online information, "Thai govt to spend over $180 mln in rubber market to support prices", 
12 December 2014. Viewed at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/12/12/thailand-rubber-
idUSL3N0TW2R920141212 .  
80 WTO document GATS/SC/85, 15 April 1994. For a summary of Thailand's GATS commitments, see 
WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Fifth Protocol on financial services.81 In the framework of the DDA negotiations on services, 
Thailand submitted initial and revised offers in August 2003 and October 2005, respectively. 
4.84.  At the regional level, Thailand has adopted services liberalization commitments under the 
ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services (AFAS)  and the ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint 
(signed in 2007); the latter includes a commitment to substantially reduce all restrictions on trade 
in services by 2015. Services commitments are contained in ASEAN's RTAs with: Australia and New Zealand, China, and the Republic of Korea. Se rvices commitments also form part of Thailand's 
bilateral RTAs with Japan, Australia, and New Zealand (section 2). 
4.7.2  Financial services 4.85.  The financial sector grew over the review period with financial intermediation services 
contributing 7% to GDP in 2014 up from 5.7% in 2011. In 2014, the sector accounted for 1.4% of 
employment (up from 1% in 2011) (Table 1.2).  
4.86.  As set out in the national accounts, Thailand 's financial landscape is comprised of 3 types of 
financial institutions: the Bank of Thailand; depository corporations; and non-depository 
corporations.
82 At end 2014, the financial institutions' assets were valued at B 43 trillion, some 
3.3 times the value of GDP. Commercial banks accounted for 40% of the total financial institutions' assets (Table 4.14)  
Table 4.14 Number and assets of financial institutions (end 2014) 
 Number % of total assets 
Bank of Thailand 1 13.8 
Depository corporations 2,025 58.6 
Commercial banks 30 40.3 
Specialized financial institutions 6 12.6 
Saving cooperatives and credit unions 1,943 5.1 
Money market mutual funds 41 0.6 
Finance companies 2 0.0 
Credit foncier companies 3 0.0  
Non-depository corporations 7,042 27.5 
Mutual funds 1,495 8.3 
Insurance companies 86 6.4 
Financial institutions development fund 1 3.0 
Credit card and personal  loan companies 29 2.3 
Provident funds 418 2.0 
Government pension fund 1 1.7 
Securities companies 47 0.7 
Leasing companies 661 2.6 
Agricultural cooperatives 3,748 0.4 
Pawn shops 556 0.2 
Source: Bank of Thailand online information. Viewed at: 
https://www.bot.or.th/English/ FinancialInstitutions/FISt ructure/Pages/default.aspx .  
4.87.  Over the review period, Thailand completed implementing the second phase of its Financial 
Sector Master Plan (FSMP II (2010-2014)). The FSMP aims to create a more efficient, inclusive and internationally competitive financial sector. Under FSMP II, a greater degree of competition and foreign participation is being encouraged through ta x incentives to encourage existing foreign bank 
branches to upgrade to become subsidiaries (s ee below). A third phase of the FSMP is being 
prepared and is expected to be finalised in 2015 (FSMP III); it is likely to include measures to promote financial inclusion and further liberalization. According to the authorities, voluntary 
mergers are being encouraged so that financial institutions may reap the benefits of economies of 
scale and scope.  
                                               
81 WTO document GATS/SC/85/Suppl.2 11 April 1997 and GATS/SC/85/Suppl.3, 26 February 1998. 
82 Bank of Thailand online information. Viewed at: 
https://www.bot.or.th/Englis h/FinancialInstitutions/FI Structure/Documents/Thai %20Financial %20System%20
Structure.pdf .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.7.2.1  Banking 
4.7.2.1.1  Market structure 4.88.  Thailand's banking sector remains dominate d by Thai banks; nonetheless foreign presence 
has increased significantly in recent years as a result of the Japanese company Mitsubishi UFJ 
Financial Group's acquisition in 2013 of a 72% stake in the Bank of Ayudha (BAY) (Thailand's fifth 
biggest bank in terms of assets). Following the BAY acquisition, the share of Thai commercial banks with more than 49% foreign ownership, together with foreign bank branches and 
subsidiaries, thus increased to 25% of total commercial banking assets in 2014, from 19% 
in 2012.  
4.89.  Thailand has 30 commercial banks, including 15 locally-incorporated commercial banks, 
13 foreign bank branches, and two foreign bank subsidiaries (Table 4.15).  
Table 4.15 Structure of the Thai banking system: number of institutions and their 
respective market share, 2011-14 
 2011 2012 2013 2014 
No. Sharea No. Sharea No. Sharea No. Sharea 
Thai commercial banks 15 86 15 87 15 88 15 88 
Locally-incorporated and controlled 
by Thai nationals 11 80 11 81 11 81 10 75 
Locally-incorporated, with more than 
49% foreign ownership 4 6 4 6 4 7 5 13 
Foreign bank subsidiaries 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 
Foreign bank branches  15 14 15 13 14 12 13 12 
Total 31 100 31 100 30 100 30 100 
a Market share in terms of assets. 
Source: Information provided by the Thai authorities. 
4.90.  The State continues to have a significant presence in the banking sector: the Ministry of 
Finance, through the Financial Institutions Development Fund (FIDF)83, owns 55.3% of the Krung 
Thai Bank (KTB), Thailand's second largest bank. The Crown Property Bureau and the Finance 
Ministry (through its Vayupak Mutual Fund) are shareholders (with stakes of 23.69% and 23.12%, 
respectively) in the Siam Commercial Bank, Thailand's third largest bank.84  
4.91.  The State also owns eight Specialized Financial Institutions (SFIs), four of which take 
deposits from the public: the Government Savings Bank (assets of B 2,255,189 million); the Bank 
for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (B 1,431,040 million); the Government Housing Bank (B 853,185 million); and the Islamic Bank of Thailand (B 104,253 million).
85 Their mandates were 
to provide financing to those without access to commercial bank services. However, following the 
global economic crisis in 2009, the Government expanded their role, using them to give loans to tackle problems of informal debt, debt restruct uring and debt moratorium for small farmers and 
the poor. According to the authorities, as the Thai  economy began to recover, SFI credits returned 
to their normal trend. 
4.92.  Following the same trends reported in Th ailand's previous review, the banking system has 
remained robust and stable since early 2012. Commercial banks' balance sheets have 
strengthened (nonperforming ratios dropped between 2011 and 2013, rising slightly thereafter
86); 
capital adequacy has improved with a high level of loan loss provision; and solid profitability has been posted. 
4.93.  Possible vulnerabilities identified by the IMF relate to an increasing degree of 
interconnectedness in the financial system; the rapid pace of credit growth (particularly compared 
                                               
83 The FIDF is funded by the Bank of Thailand and was established in order to deal with bad assets 
resulting from the 1997-98 Asian Financial Crisis. 
84 Oxford Business Group (2014). 
85 The other four SFIs are the Export-Import Bank of  Thailand (EXIM), the SME Bank, the Thai Credit 
Guarantee Corporation and the Se condary Mortgage Corporation. 
86 As noted by the IMF while nonperforming loans ar e rising, they remain low and commercial banks 
appear well able to deal with them. IMF (2015). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  with other economies in the region); and rising levels of household debt (85.9% of GDP in 2014 up 
from 63% in 2010).87 However, the BOT considers that the impact of household debt on financial 
stability is limited, since growth in household debt has slowed, financial institutions have tightened credit standards, and most borrowings are for asset acquisitions and business undertakings.  
4.94.  As noted by an external source, the Government has taken steps to encourage lending to 
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), including through loan guarantees by the Thai Credit Guarantee Corporation. Due to the lack of proper documentation provided by SMEs, the BOT has 
developed a SMEs loan database to help banks to approve loans. A national strategy on financial 
inclusion is also being drafted to assist the poor and small firms.
88 Additionally, as aforementioned, 
the FSMP III is expected to include measures to promote financial inclusion. 
4.7.2.1.2  Legal and institutional framework 
4.95.  The main law governing the activities of commercial banks is the Financial Institutions 
Business Act (FIBA), 2008.89 In 2013, an Anti-Money Laundering Act was passed together with an 
Anti-Terrorism Act; as a consequence, Thailand has been upgraded from the G7 Financial Action 
Task Force's "black" list of countries failing to meet international standards to combat money 
laundering and the financing of terrorism to "grey" status.90 
4.96.  As reported in Thailand's previous revi ew the foreign ownership of commercial banks (and 
other financial institutions) is capped at 25% and the limit on foreign directors is one quarter of 
the total. However, the Bank of Thailand (BOT ) can, on a case-by-case basis, raise foreign 
ownership to 49% and the limit of foreign directors to one-half. The BOT has not done so over the review period.  
4.97.  The Minister of Finance, on the advice of the BOT, may allow foreign investors to hold more 
than 49% of a commercial bank's shares, where this is deemed necessary to improve financial performance or strengthen the stability of any financial institution, or the financial system as a 
whole. Over the review period, such authorization has been granted in only one case (relating to 
the above-mentioned acquisition by a Japanese bank of a majority interest in BAY). Prior to that, four such authorizations had been granted, which were asset sales by the FIDF.
91  
4.98.  The BOT is responsible for supervising co mmercial banks. It has undertaken stress-testing 
activities to assess banks' resilience to potentially challenging situations, such as the tapering of quantitative easing measures in 2013, political situations, and the domestic economic slowdown in 2014. In December 2014, a Cabinet resolution approved a SFIs supervisory reform that assigns 
the BOT to regulate and supervise SFIs and in Ap ril 2015, the Minister of Finance issued the order 
to the BOT to supervise the eight SFIs. The BOT's role relating to SFIs includes issuing regulations, reviewing the fit and proper criteria for direct ors and senior management, supervision through 
on-site examination and off-site monitoring and mandating resolution. Ownership functions and 
government policy oversight remains under the Minist ry of Finance's purview. As noted by the IMF 
this is a very positive development, as having a separate regulatory regime for SFIs and granting 
them special privileges raised level-playing-field concerns as well as the possibility of distorting 
competition. The IMF has emphasised the importance of continuing efforts in this area, including strengthened supervision of non-bank financial institutions such as credit cooperatives.
92 While no 
concrete steps have been taken to extend BOT su pervision to credit cooperatives, which remain 
supervised by the Ministry of Agriculture, the BOT has encouraged them to become members of 
the National Credit Bureau (NCB). In addition, the BOT, in collaboration with the Cooperation 
                                               
87 IMF (2013 and 2015). As noted by the BOT, the increase in household debt is due to several factors: 
(a) the Government's stimulus policies such as the fi rst-car tax rebate scheme; (b) accommodative monetary 
conditions which were conducive to household debt ac cumulation as reflected by  low interest rates; and 
(c) competition among financial institutions in retail lending. Bank of Thailand (2014a). 
88 Economist Intelligence Unit (2015). 
89 There have been no amendments to this Act over the review period. 
90 Economist Intelligence Unit (2015). 
91 As noted by the Oxford Business  Group, these were: "the UK-based  Standard Chartered's acquisition 
of 75% of Nakornthon Bank in 1999, raised to a 99.87%  stake in 2005; Singapore's United Overseas Bank's 
purchase of a 99.66% stake in Bank of Asia in 2004 an d its integration with UOB Radanasin Bank in 2005; 
Malaysia's CIMB Group's acquisition of 93% in Bank Th ai in 2009; and the Industrial and Commercial Bank of 
China's acquisition of 97.24% of ACL Bank in 2010. 
92 IMF (2009 and 2015); and WTO document: WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Promotion Department, the Cooperative Auditing Department, and the Thai Bankers' Association 
are helping to build the capacity of credit c ooperatives in terms of governance and risk 
management, as well as strengthening the supervision skills of their examiners. Basel III capital requirements have been implemented and the Base l III liquidity requirement will be implemented 
from 2016 onwards. 
4.99.  Foreign bank branches and subsidiaries may provide the same services as local banks. 
However, Thailand limits the number of branches permitted. Representative offices are permitted 
to undertake research services, but may not provide commercial banking services.
93 Since 2010, 
foreign bank branches have been able to open  a second branch. New reforms introduced under 
FSMP II allow existing foreign bank branches to apply to become subsidiaries. As subsidiaries, they may establish up to 20 branches and 20 off-premise ATMs.
94 The policy started to be implemented 
in mid-2013 and by May 2015, 2 new foreign commercial bank subsidiary licences had been 
granted. It has been suggested that the reason why few branches have applied for licences is that although 20 branches represents a tenfold increase in foreign banks' reach, this remains too 
limited to roll-out a convincing retail or SME strategy in the face of competition from leading 
domestic retail lenders which operate over 1,000 branches.
95 To ensure that new banks are strong, 
they are required to have a capital adequacy ratio of no less than 12%, a non performing loan 
ratio below 3.5% and B 10 billion in capital. Once upgraded to subsidiaries, those new foreign 
commercial banks are subject to the same ongoing supervision standards as domestic commercial banks.  
4.100.  As part of the AEC integration process (s ection 2), work is ongoing to allow "qualified 
ASEAN banks" (QAB) to expand regionally and there should be full ASEAN-wide liberalization of the 
banking sector by 2020.
96 QABs should be granted market access and operational flexibility by the 
host country, subject to reciprocity through bilateral arrangements and negotiations. As noted by 
the authorities, this would heighten competition and diversity in the Thai banking sector and 
promote further financial integration in the ASEAN region. 
4.7.2.2  Insurance 
4.7.2.2.1  Market structure 
4.101.  Following a similar trend evident during Th ailand's previous review, the insurance industry 
has continued to grow, albeit from a relatively small base. As of 2014, insurance penetration was 5.8% compared with 5.4% in 2013. Between 2010  and 2014, the average annual growth rate of 
total direct premiums was 14%. In 2014, they totalled B 704,000 million. Life insurance premiums 
increased by 13% to B 498,752 million and non-life insurance premiums by 1.05% to B 205,247 million.  
4.102.  The domestic insurance industry was not badly impacted by major flooding in 2011, as 
related insurance claims (amounting to US$12 billion) were largely picked up by foreign, particularly Japanese, reinsurance companies. In response to the floods, the government set up a 
National Catastrophe Insurance Fund (NCIF), to reinsure against losses from floods, earthquakes 
and storms. It provided initial capital of B 50 billion to the Fund and sets premium rates for insurance providers; these range from 0.5% of the insured sum for individuals, 1% for SMEs and 1.25% for industry.
97  
4.103.  Insurance companies include life insurance companies and non-life insurance companies; a 
licensed life insurance company may not engage in non-life insurance business and vice versa. Shareholders may hold shares in both types of company at the same time. Non-life insurance in 
                                               
93 USTR (2015).  
94 Bank of Thailand online information. Viewed at: 
http://www2.bot.or.th/fipcs/Documents/FPG/2556/engPDF/25560155.pdf .  
95 Oxford Business Group (2014). 
96 A QAB means a candidate which, along with meetin g the host country's prudential requirements has 
the following characteristics: (a) is strong, well-man aged and effectively supervised by the home country; 
(b) is recognised by the home country as an indigenous ASEAN bank, and supported by the home country as a 
QAB candidate. An indigenous ASEAN bank means a ba nk headquartered in ASEAN, constituted or otherwise 
organized under the laws of an ASEAN Member State, an d is majority owned or controlled by ASEAN persons. 
97 Economist Intelligence Unit (2015). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Thailand is sub-divided into four broad categories: fire insurance; auto insurance; marine 
insurance; and miscellaneous insurance.  
4.104.  As at mid-2015, there were 80 locally-incorporated insurance companies (Thai insurance 
companies), comprising 22 life insurance firms, 52 non-life insurance companies, 4 health insurers 
and 2 reinsurers. There are 6 licensed branches of foreign insurance companies (1 life insurance 
company and 5 non-life insurance companies). Of these, 17 Thai life insurers and 45 Thai non-life insurers have foreign participation. As at end 2014, Thai insurance companies accounted for 82% 
of the market in premium terms; branches of foreign insurance companies had an 18% market 
share. 
4.105.  The life insurance sector remains concentrated, with the top three companies holding 
about 50% of the market (by premium) while the non- life sector is still fragmented with only three 
companies holding a market share of more than 7% (2014). Two non-life insurance companies 
merged in 2012 and two life insurance companies merged in 2014. Further industry consolidation is expected as the OIC has started to enforce a risk-based capital framework
98, tax disincentives to 
merger activity have been removed and legal barriers are being reviewed.99  
4.7.2.2.2  Legal framework 4.106.  The Office of the Insurance Commission, an independent state agency under the Ministry 
of Finance, remains responsible for regulating  the industry, including for approving premium 
rates.
100 The OIC is conducting a study on the possibility of liberalizing its tariff-setting role for 
certain non-life classes like motor, fire and marine. 
4.107.  Over the review period, its operations have been guided by the Second Insurance 
Development Plan (2010-2014) whose key objectives are to: build confidence in and access to the 
insurance system in every sector and strengthen the stability and competitiveness of the insurance 
system. The OIC is currently working on the third Insurance Development Plan. Key regulatory 
developments over the review period have, inter alia , included the issuance of advertising 
standards; development of a stress test framework and stress testing of insurance companies to determine their stability and flexibility to meet the risk of losses
101; audit activities; the issuance of 
revised regulations on insurance companies' investments in other businesses; the creation of a 
National Catastrophe Fund (see above); the development of a composite risk assessment and composite risk rating framework; and developing a main season rice insurance project with the Cabinet and the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives to provide assistance and 
access to insurance for farmers.
102  
                                               
98 Enforcing the risk-based capital framework has requ ired all insurance companies in Thailand to hold 
solvency capital at a level not lower than prescribed. This minimum Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) as of January 2013 is 140%. As noted by the authorities this will be a factor that encourages small insurance companies with less CAR to merge together. 
99 As noted by the authorities, in the past wh en two insurance companies merged, their premium 
reserves (usually recorded as liabilities) would be comb ined and converted into incomes, thus, they would be 
faced with a large amount of taxable income. However, this problem no longer exists due to the passing of the 
Royal Decree regarding prescription of items not considered as expenses in calculating net income (No. 574) B.E. 2556 (2013) issued on 8 December 2013. According to this legislation, the premium reserves would not be calculated as income when the companies merge. Another legal restri ction is that the law requires the 
merging companies to obtain a written consent from all policyholders to be insured under the new company. This law is currently being reviewed. 
100 The insurer has to submit a request for the OIC to  approve the premium rate of every policy before 
they can sell it. After the OIC receives the request, it  will calculate the premium rate according to actuarial 
standards, using past statistics on claims and damages re lated to the policy type. According to the authorities 
it takes normally a few weeks to approve the premium ra te. However, if there are complications, it may take 
months. The insurer then picks up the approved policy at the OIC. 
101 The OIC's first quantitative impact study of th e stress test indicated that 85% of life insurance 
companies passed the test in all situations by being able to maintain their capital higher than the legal 
requirement. 
102 OIC (2013). Not available online in English. Other developments are: the development of an e-claims 
system for motor vehicle accident victims compensa tion; provision of a guidance paper on corporate 
governance and internal control to insurance companies; improvements to the system to issue and renew 
insurance agent and insurance broker licences; and the cr eation of insurance awareness to the public through 
various activities. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.108.  Laws governing the subsector, remain the Life Insurance Act, B.E. 2553 (as amended) and 
the non-life Insurance Act, B.E. 2535 (as amended).103 These acts were amended in 
February 2015 by the Life and Non-Life Insurance Act (No. 3) which introduces amended sections relating to shareholder participation and the Life and Non-life Insurance Funds. The latter allows 
for more rapid pay-outs to insured persons in the event of insurance company bankruptcies. 
Licensing conditions and FDI restrictions have not changed.
104  
4.109.  As reported in Thailand's previous review, in order to engage in life or non-life insurance in 
Thailand, a company must be either a locally-incorporated public limited company, or a foreign 
branch with separate capital (no additional branches are permitted). There is a 25% cap on foreign ownership in insurance companies and the limit on foreign directors is one-fourth of the total. If the OIC deems it appropriate, it may raise the foreign equity limit up to 49% and permit the 
number of foreign directors to exceed one-fourth (but no more than one-half) of all directors; so 
far this has been allowed in seven cases (2 life insurers and 5 non-life insurers). Factors the OIC takes into account when deeming a higher FDI limit appropriate, relate to: compliance with capital 
adequacy ratios and improvements to manage ment, stability and performance capacity of 
insurance companies. The Minister of Finance, up on recommendation of the OIC, may further relax 
these limits if an insurance company faces financial trouble that might cause damage to the 
insured or to the public at large (so far, this has happened in six cases (2 life insurers and 
4 non-life insurers)). As noted by the authorities, there is currently no time-frame for full market liberalization.  
4.110.  Foreign reinsurers abroad may accept risk transferred from Thai insurers/reinsurers. The 
OIC hired a consulting team to develop reinsurance supervision; in their guideline they proposed 
that foreign reinsurers should be registered or au thorized so they can be regulated. However this 
recommendation has not been adopted.  
4.7.3  Telecommunications 
4.111.  In 2014, the Information and Communications Technology (ICT) sector contributed 5.7% 
to GDP. Within the ICT sector the communication s market held the biggest share (72% of the 
total).
105 Thailand is ranked in 81st place out of 166 economies in the ITU's 2013 ICT Development 
Index, compared to 91st place the previous year.106 This positive leap in rankings is attributed to a 
large increase in mobile and wireless broadband subscriptions.  
4.112.  Over the review period, fixed line penetration has decreased slightly, while there has been 
particularly strong growth in mobile subscriptions (mainly for pre-paid services107), with 
penetration rates reaching over 140% by 2013. Fixed wired broadband subscriptions have gradually increased, albeit from a relatively low base (Table 4.16). As reported by the ITU, 
penetration rates for wireless broadband are now among the highest in the Asia and Pacific region. 
They reached 52% by end 2013 with some 28 m illion new subscribers being added over the 
period 2012-13. This followed the long-awaited au ction of 3G licences in December 2012 (see 
below). The rapid uptake of mobile broadband services in Thailand was apparently prompted by 
strong competition between operators offering subsidized smartphones and promotions on mobile data plans.
108 
Table 4.16 Selected telecommunications indicators, 2010-13 
 2010  2011  2012 2013  
Fixed (number) 6,835,146 6,661,000 6,377,000 6,056,000 
Fixed (per 100 inhabitants) 10.29 10.01 9.55 9.04 
Mobile (number) 71,726,300 77,449,000 85,012,000 93,849,000 
                                               
103 Life Insurance Act viewed at: http://www.oic.or.th/upload/lifeinsurrance/download/883-4137.pdf ; 
and Non-Life Insurance Act viewed at: http://www.oic.or.th/upload/nonlifeinsurrance/download/884-9305.pdf .  
104 For minimum capital and security deposit requirements, see Chapter IV(4)(ii)(b) of the Secretariat 
Report for Thailand's previous review. WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, paragraphs 95 and 96, 8 February 2012. 
105 The rest of the ICT sector was divided among the computer hardware and computer services 
markets. 
106 ITU (2014).  
107 According to the Economist Intelligence Unit at the end of the first quarter of 2014 the installed user 
base was 88% pre-paid. Economist Intelligence Unit (2014c).  
108 ITU (2014). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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   2010  2011  2012 2013  
Mobile (per 100 inhabitants) 108.02 116.33 127.29 140.05 
Fixed (wired) broadband subscriptions (number) 3,251,851 3,822,000 4,352,000 4,926,000 
Fixed (wired) broadband subscriptions (per 100 inhabitants) 4.90 5.74 6.52 7.36 
Source:  ITU Time Series by Country  online information. Viewed at: http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-
D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx . 
4.113.  As reported in Thailand's previous revi ew, reform of the telecommunications sector has 
been complicated by the legacy of build-transfer-operate (BTO) revenue-sharing "concession" 
agreements between the state-owned former mono poly providers of telecommunications services 
(TOT Public Company Limited (TOT) and CAT Tele com Public Company Limited (CAT Telecom)) and 
private sector operators.109 While the statutory state monopolies were terminated in 2001, the 
terms of existing concession agreements were upheld; this means that while new licence holders 
in the telecommunications market must pay a licence fee to the regulatory body (NBTC – see 
below) and comply with its rules, existing operators continue to operate under the provisions of concession agreements, until their expiration; the last concession agreement in the sector will 
expire in 2018.
110  
4.114.  Two communications priorities have been set by the Interim Government. The first is to 
revolutionize the country's broadband infrastructure in order to reduce operators' costs and thus 
retail tariffs as well as expand broadband networks to rural and hard-to-reach areas. The second is 
to put in place a spectrum management scheme that maximises public interest. The authorities indicated that the Government is considering various options regarding restructuring of the state-owned enterprises operating in the sector.  
4.115.  There are three main providers of fixed line telecommunications services: TOT which 
provides service throughout the country; True Corporation which offers services in Bangkok and the vicinity; and TT&T Public Co. Ltd. which provides services in the regions. There are two 
additional smaller providers which have been operational since 2008, but have limited numbers of 
allotted to them: Triple T Broadband Public Co. Ltd. (131,000 allotted numbers) and True Universal Convergence Co. Ltd (25,000 allotted numb ers). Among the main providers of fixed line 
services, TOT is the biggest player with more than 60% share in 2014 (Chart 4.4).  
Chart 4.4 Market share fixed line and mobile, Q3 2014 
TOT
61.2%
TOT  0.5%Fixed line
DTAC Group
28.2%
TRUE Group
23.4%Mobile
TT&T
9.9%AIS Group
47.5%
CAT  0.4%
TRUE
28.8%  
Source: NBTC, Telecommunications  Market Report for Q3 2014. 
                                               
109 TOT had a monopoly on the prov ision of domestic fixed-line tele phone services, public payphone 
services, mobile services, wireless communication services, international telephone services, data services, multimedia and broadband services, ne twork access and other value-added services, such as card phones. CAT 
was responsible for providing international telephone/fax services, leased ci rcuits, microwave radio networks in 
rural areas, and mobile phones and international internet gateway. 
110 The remaining concession agreements still in fo rce are: (a) between TOT and AIS (900 MHz mobile 
services); a 20 year agreement expiring in 2015; (b) between TOT and CP Telecom (True Corp) (fixed line 
services for 2.6 million lines in the metropolitan area); a 25 year agreement expiring in 2017; (c) between TOT 
and TT&T (fixed lined services for 1.5 million lines in the regional area); a 25 year agreement expiring in 2018; and, (d) between CAT and TAC (800, 1800 MHz mobile services); a 27 year agreement expiring in 2018. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  4.116.  Thailand's mobile market is comprised of five mobile network providers, namely AIS 
Group; DTAC Group; True Group; TOT and CAT. In  this market, the private operators (AIS Group; 
DTAC Group; True Group) are large players, wh ile the state-owned operators hold a very small 
market share (Chart 4.4). 
4.117.  Competition between the three key players in the mobile segment has led to retail price 
decreases (from average retail price of B 0.66 in Q1 2012, to B 0.44 in Q3 2014) and better service quality (through several different packages provided). Competition was also stimulated by 
the introduction of number portability in 2010 and 3G services in 2012. 
4.118.  Regulation of the telecommunications an d broadcasting sectors is undertaken by the 
National Broadcasting and Telecommunications Commission (NBTC), operational since October 2011. 
4.119.  There have been no changes to the main laws governing the telecommunications sector 
since 2012. These are: the Telecommunications Business Act (TBA) B.E. 2544 (2001, amended in 2006 by law B.E. 2549) and the Act on Organization to Assign Radio Frequency and Regulate 
Broadcasting and Telecommunications Services B.E. 2553 (2010).
111  
4.120.  As at mid-2015 eight bills (originally prepar ed by the Ministry of ICT) designed to develop 
and transform Thailand as a digital economy were going through various stages of the legislative 
process.112 The key proposed features of these bills are set out in Table 4.17; however as 
legislation has yet to be passed, these may be subject to change. 
Table 4.17 Digital economy bills, 2015 
Digital economy bills Key proposed features 
Ministry of Digital for 
Economy and Society Bill  Rename Ministry of Information and Co mmunication Technology as Ministry 
of Digital Economy and Society (exact  name being debated) to reflect 
change of mission focus. 
 Restructure of ministry and assignatio n of powers and duties to agencies 
under the Ministry. 
Digital Economy and Society 
Bill  Set up a national digital committee for the economy and society. 
 Create a national digital policy/plan for economy and society (covering hard 
infrastructure, digital economy promot ion and digital society promotion). 
 Establish a digital economy promotion agency to support and promote 
digital industries. 
 Set up a Digital Economy and Society Development Fund (separate from the 
NBTC's Broadcasting and Telecommuni cations Research and Development 
Fund for the Public Interest (BTFP)). 
Electronic Transaction Bill 
(Amendment)  Update law to reflect technological ch anges, including legal recognition of 
electronic signature and transactions. 
Computer-related Crime Bill 
(Amendment)  Update law to reflect technological changes (including related to IPR). 
Cyber Security Bill  Set up a national cyber security committee. 
 Create a national cyber security po licy and strategies to quickly and 
efficiently respond to new cyber threats and attacks. 
Personal Data Protection Bill  Set up criteria, mechanisms, measures to protect personal data 
Bill on Organization to Assign 
Radio Frequency and to Regulate the Broadcasting and Telecommunication Services  Review law to ensure NBTC's telecommunications master plan and 
frequency allocation plan are in a ccordance with the national digital 
policy/plan for economy and society. 
 Assign duties and powers to NBTC. 
 Include principles of frequency allocation. 
Electronic Transaction 
Development Agency Bill 
(Amendment)  Assign power and duties of the Electr onic Transaction Development Agency 
(ETDA) to drive the country's elec tronic commerce and electronic 
transactions policy/plan. 
Source:  Information provided by the authorities. 
4.121.  In 2012, the NBTC adopted a Telecommuni cations Master Plan to guide its work and 
priorities over the period 2012-16. It contains six strategies: (i) promoting free and fair 
                                               
111 These laws may be viewed in English at: http://thailaws.com .  
112 As at mid-2015 The Ministry of Digital for Econom y and Society bill had gone the furthest, and was 
being reviewed by the National Legislative Assembly. Th e Digital Economy and Society bill had been revised by 
the Council of State and approved by the Cabinet; it was awaiting introduction to the National Legislative 
Assembly for consideration. The six other bill s were being revised by  the Council of State. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  competition; (ii) awarding of the radio spectrum an d granting of licences; (iii) efficiency in the use 
of telecommunications resources; (iv) provision of universal services; (v) consumer protection; and (vi) preparation for the entry into force of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) and the promotion of international cooperation. As at end-2012, various actions had been taken to 
implement these strategies, including, importantly, a long-awaited 3G spectrum auction.
113 
15-year licences were awarded to three Thai oper ators (Advance Wireless Network Co., Ltd.; Real 
Futures Co. Ltd. And DTAC Network Co., Ltd) allowing them to provide high-speed mobile 
connectivity to users.114 As highlighted in both Thailand's 2008 and 2012 Trade Policy Reviews, 
delays to the 3G auction had been considered a major impediment to the telecommunication sector's growth.
115 Spectrum auctions for mobile broadband services are scheduled to take place in 
November 2015 (for the 1,800 MHz spectrum) and December 2015 (for the 900 MHz spectrum).  
4.122.  Other actions NBTC has taken to implement the Master Plan have included: (a) efforts to 
ensure that FDI thresholds are not being circumvented116; (b) the issuance of new accounting 
separation requirements for dominant players to implement a higher level of scrutiny over their 
costs and charges; (c) regulations to ensure the efficient use of numbers and sufficient numbers 
for use with future technologies117; (d) the issuance of a five year Universal Service Obligation 
Plan which contains various access and quality targets118; (e) developing new rules for 
mediation/alternative dispute resolution in the telecoms sector and establishing a dispute 
resolution centre119; (f) specifying a maximum rate (B0.99 per minute) for 2G mobile operators 
identified as having significant market power120; and (g) setting cost-based reference voice 
interconnection rates for both mobile and fixed line services.121 Additionally, in 2014, the NBTC 
launched a development plan to prepare itself for the launch of the AEC. 
4.123.  The NBTC has issued a notification regarding standards for calculation of interconnection 
charges, which sets out detailed methodologies an d guidelines to be followed in calculating 
cost-based interconnection charges. The NBTC has the authority to review and approve 
interconnection rates.  
4.124.  Licensing requirements are set out in the TBA and remain unchanged over the review 
period. Likewise there have been no changes to FDI caps since 2012 (Table 4.18). 
Table 4.18 Licensing and FDI restrictions, 2015 
Licence Eligibility FDI restrictions 
Type 1 Service providers who do not own their own network None 
Type 2 Operators, whether or not owning th eir own network, providing limited 
services with no significant impact on market competition, public interest or 
consumers Less than 50% 
                                               
113 As reported in Thailand's previous review, a 3G licence auction was to be held in September 2010, 
but the process was suspended by the Supreme Administ rative Court after CAT alleged that the National 
Telecommunications Commission (the regulatory agency in operation prio r to the NBTC) had no authority to 
allocate the 2.1 GHz frequency spectrum. 
114 Licences were awarded until 6 December 2027. 
115 WTO document WT/TPR/S/191/Rev.1, 6 February 2008. 
116 NBTC Notification on the prescription of prohib ited acts which are deem ed as foreign dominance 
B.E. 2555 (2012). 
117 The Notification of the National Telecommunications Commission regarding Criteria for Numbering 
Plan (B.E. 2557, 2014) and Notification of the National Telecommunications Commission regarding Criteria for 
Allocation and Administration of Tele communications Numbers (B.E. 2557, 2014). 
118 NBTC Notification on Plan to Provide Universal Basic Telecommunications Services and Social Service 
B.E. 2555-2559 (2012-2017) and the draft of Action Plan  to Provide Universal Basic Telecommunications 
Services and Social Service for 2012-2017. 
119 NBTC Regulation on Mediation Process between Telecommunications Operators and End Users 
(B.E. 2555, 2012). 
120 NBTC Notification on the Maximum Rate of Te lecommunications Services for Domestic Mobile 
Services on Voice B.E. 2555 (2012).  
121 The NBTC Notification regarding Reference Interc onnection Rates (B.E. 2557, 2014) sets costs-based 
reference interconnection rates based on the methodologies contai ned in NBTC Notification regarding 
Standards for the Calculation of Inte rconnection Charges. The reference rates are to be used: (a) as interim 
rates in the reference interconnectio n offer (RIO) when the rate calculat ion has not been completed by the 
operator or the rate has not been approved by the NBTC ; (b) as reference rates in the case of interconnection 
rate disputes; and (c) as rates in th e RIO, in order for the operator to be exempt from subm itting the rate 
calculation when filing the RIO. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Licence Eligibility FDI restrictions 
Type 3 Operators using own networks to prov ide services to provide services for the 
general public, services havi ng a significant impact on competition, the public 
interest of requiring consumer protection Less than 50% 
Source: WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
4.125.  As noted in Thailand's previous review, all licensees and concessionaires are subject to 
general competition legislation, cross-equity holding among telecommunications businesses is 
restricted and cross-subsidization is prohibited, except for the provision of universal service.122 
Dominant service providers are those with a market share greater than 25% or those that the 
NBTC declares dominant according to specified criteria.123 Providers with more than a 40% market 
share are deemed to have significant market power and are subject to more rigorous controls. 
4.126.  Under the current universal service provision, the NBTC has issued a Universal Service 
Obligation Plan for 2012-16, and its implementation (expanding more broadband internet networks 
to rural and insufficient areas and broadband internet for social targets) requires a subsidy of 
B 20 billion from NBTC's Broadcasting and Tele communications Research and Development Fund 
for the Public Interest (BTFP). The source of fund used for universal services is from the 
contributions of all types of telecommunications bu siness licensees at the rate of 3.75% of their 
net annual revenues to BTFP. The NBTC will use a bidding process to find the optimal telecommunications licensees to implement USO projects nationwide. 
4.7.4  Transport 
4.127.  In 2013 (latest available figures) Thailand's transport infrastructure consisted of 
231,620 km of roads (81% of which were paved); 4,043 km of railway; 249 maritime ports (of which 122 had a capacity of over 500 tonnes); 172 river ports; and 38 airports (of which 6 were 
international).
124 
4.128.  Maritime transport remains the principal mode of transport for the import and export of 
goods, both in volume and value terms. Air transport is significant for high value imports and 
exports, while land transport is significant in terms of volume of merchandise exported and 
imported (Chart 4.5).  
4.129.  The Interim Government approved an infrastructure program that includes US$95 billion in 
investments over 8 years in railways, roads, ports, airports, and special economic zones (SEZ) 
(section 3.3.5). In 2015, public investment will be confined to relatively small projects, with larger-scale construction to start from next year. The government plans to offer contracts for mass rapid transit rail lines in Bangkok and for double-tracking rail lines across the country.  
4.130.  The Ministry of Transport (MOT) remain s responsible for formulating policies for the 
transport sector. State enterprises operating in the transport sector are: the State Railway of Thailand, the Port Authority of Thailand, the Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand, the 
Expressway and Rapid Transit Auth ority of Thailand, Bangkok Mass Transit Authority, Civil Aviation 
Training Center, Thai Airways International Public Company Limited, the Transport Company L i m i t e d ,  A i r p o r t s  o f  T h a i l a n d  P u b l i c  C o m p a n y  L i m i t e d ,  A e r o n a u t i c a l  R a d i o  o f  T h a i l a n d  L i m i t e d ,  
Suvarnabhumi Airport Hotel Company Limited, and THAI-AMADEUS Southeast Asia Company 
Limited. Currently the Ministry of Transport is in  the process of establishing the Department of 
Railway Transport to regulate and supervise the op eration of rail transport, while the State Railway 
of Thailand would become the railway operator.  
4.131.  The Board of Investment offers various fiscal and non-fiscal incentives for rail, maritime 
and air transportation services. These comprise corporate income tax exemptions (of 8 years for rail and maritime and 5 years for air) as well as import duty exemptions on machinery and raw or 
essential materials used in manufacturing export products. Companies providing pipeline 
                                               
122 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012.  
123 The criteria used for determining dominant servic e providers are: overall business size; control of 
necessary infrastructure; technological advantages or su periority; buyer's bargaining power; constraints on 
market expansion; product and service diversification; ease of access to so urces of funds; economies of scope; 
economies of scale; ease of market entry of new entrants ; competitiveness; and degree  of vertical integration. 
124 Ministry of Transport (2013).   WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 131 - 
 
  transportation (except water) are eligible for the same import duty exemptions but not for the 
corporate tax breaks. With respect to air transportation, planes must be no more than 14 years old from their manufacturing date to BOI submission date in order to be eligible for these incentives.  
Chart 4.5 Foreign trade by transport mode, 2013 
Air
1,869,734Air 282 + Rail 7 + 
Mail & other 1Import in B million
Sea
87,391Land
12,723Import in '000 tonnes
Sea
5,311,629
Land
467,166Rail 612 + 
Mail & other 2,996
 
Air
1,388,372Air 397 +
Rail 90Export in B million
Sea
98,696Land
13,419Export in '000 tonnes
Sea
4,893,995
Land
599,953Rail 3,821 + 
Mail & other 1,501
 
Source: Ministry of Transport (2013), Transport Statistics 2013 . 
4.7.4.1  Air transport 
4.132.  As noted in Thailand's previous review, the Thai aviation industry started to recover 
in 2010 having suffered from various challenging situations.125 This growth continued until 2013, 
but for passenger movements on international flights, declined again in 2014, due to political unrest (Table 4.19). Challenges facing the sector include capacity constraints at major airports, 
particularly the two international airports in Bangkok
126 and the need to implement measures to 
address safety concerns highlighted in a recent ICAO report. The latter has led to some banning requests for future flight plans and charter flights from Thai-registered airlines by countries 
including Japan and the Republic of Korea (the existing routes would continue as normal). The 
authorities indicated that Thailand is actively working to remedy the situation.  
4.133.  In terms of passenger movements on schedul ed flights, Thailand's domestic sub-sector is 
as significant as its international subsector. Thailand is a hub for the region, with around 
1 million passengers transiting through its airports in 2014 (Table 4.19).  
                                               
125 These included: the global financial crisis, oil price and exchange rate fluctuations, and domestic 
political unrest. WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
126 As noted by the Oxford Business Group, the notional handling at the Bangkok Suvarnabhumi 
International is for 45 million passengers but the actual number is 53 million. Likewise, the 10.5 million-capacity Don Mueang International airport is handling  16 million travellers per year. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Table 4.19 Air transport, 2010-14 
 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 
International scheduled flights  
Aircraft movements 210,198 234,674 256,994 307,025 312,303 
Passengers 34,073,154 38,004,764 43,884,584 50,551,222 48,604,383 
Transit 1,534,684 1,563,107 1,331,445 1,160,805 947,165 
Freight (Kg) 985,333,275 958,456,737 980,712,807 946,492,176 953,548,574 
Transfer  25,230,095 21,922,811 20,575,312 25,254,712 26,850,218 
Mail (Kg) 1,192,374 1,662,339 1,674,587 1,239,578 1,076,931 
Domestic scheduled flights  
Aircraft movements 223,248 256,444 284,383 334,111 394,172 
Passengers 26,652,736 30,716,585 35,619,093 41,909,038 49,656,558 
Transit 20,736 26,152 18,096 21,391 16,243 
Freight (Kg) 121,117,294 130,504,947 130,361,103 119,689,513 113,055,675 
Transfer 22,032 712,492 251,407 202,473 5,280 
Mail (Kg) 4,665 55 0 205,374 1,970,598 
Source: Information provided by the authorities. 
4.134.  At present (mid-2015) there are 56 Th ai airline companies providing scheduled and 
non-scheduled air transport services. For scheduled air transport services, 8 of them provide both 
domestic and international scheduled air transport services, 7 of them provide international 
scheduled air transport services only and 1 air line provides domestic scheduled air transport 
services only. The rest (40 companies) operate non-scheduled air transport services. The 
Government holds a 53.16% share in Thai Airway s International Public Company Limited. Thai 
Airways International continues to benefit from regu lations that require civil servants and officers 
from governmental agencies to use its services if  Thai Airways operates on these routes, provided 
that the ticket price does not exceed the ticket price of other airlines by more than 25%.  
4.135.  The Department of Civil Aviation within the Ministry of Transport remains the aviation 
industry's regulator and there have been no chan ges to the main legal instruments governing the 
sector (the Air Navigation Act B.E. 2487 (1954); the Foreign Business Act B.E. 2542 (1999); and 
the Declaration of the Revolutionary Council No. 58 B.E. 2515 (1972)). 
4.136.  Restrictions on FDI remain unchanged. These restrictions are maximum foreign equity 
participation of 60% on domestic air transportation, including domestic airlines under the Foreign 
Business Act (FBA) (Section 2). The FBA's provisio ns are superseded by the Declaration of the 
Revolutionary Council No. 58 B.E. 2515 (1972) along with Regulation of the Department of Civil Aviation: Qualifications and Rules for Consideration of Application to Air Operator Licence 
(2 July 2008, B.E. 2551) which require Thai-registered and licenced airlines to have 51% of their 
shares owned by Thai nationals and the majority  of their boards of directors to have Thai 
nationality.
127  
4.137.  Thailand maintains 100 bilateral air services agreements (ASAs) with other contracting 
parties.128 ASEAN members have agreed to open their aviation markets for unlimited air cargo 
services and unlimited air passenger services to all cities with international airports within the region (Table 4.20). These agreements are a significant step towards open skies among ASEAN 
members under the forthcoming ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) (see section 2). Additionally, 
an ASEAN-China Air Transport Agreement has entered into force. 
4.138.  There are 38 airports and aerodromes in Thailand. Government involvement in airport 
operations remains significant. The Department of Civil Aviation (DCA) manages 28 public airports, 
mainly serving domestic routes. The Government also has a 70% equity stake in Airports of Thailand (AOT), a public company which manages the six main international airports. There are three private airports owned and operated by Ba ngkok Airways, including the Samui International 
                                               
127 Section 13 of the Foreign Business Act stipulates that "In the case where there exist other laws which 
govern shareholding, partnership or in vestment of foreigners, permission or prohibition of the operation of 
certain businesses vis‐à‐vis foreigners or which prescribe rules in conn ection with the operation of businesses of 
foreigners, such laws shall prevail and the provisions of this Act shall not apply to matters insofar as they are 
specifically provided by other laws." The Regulation of the Department of Civil Aviation: Qualifications and 
Rules for Consideration of Application to Air Operator Licence (2 July 2008, B.E. 2551) is such law. Hence, it 
supersedes the provision under the FBA. 
128 A full list of these ASAs may be viewed at http://www.aviation.go.th/en/content/266/921.html .  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 133 - 
 
  Airport.129 There is also one airport owned and operated by the Royal Thai Navy (U-tapao 
International Airport). 
Table 4.20 ASEAN air services agreements 
Agreement Entry into force Description 
ASEAN Multilateral 
Agreement on Air Services (MAAS) 13 October 2009 Designation of carriers based on either substantial 
ownership and effective control (SOEC) or principal place of business and effective control (PPOBEC). Multiple designation applies. Covers  unlimited capacities and 
exercise of 3
rd, 4th and 5th freedom traffic rights for air 
passenger services among ASEAN capital cities. 
ASEAN Multilateral 
Agreement on the Full 
Liberalization of Passenger 
Air services (MAFLPAS) 2 September 2011  Builds on the MAAS to allow designated carriers of 
ASEAN members to provide ai r passenger services from 
international airports in one territory to cities with 
international airports in an other territory within the 
ASEAN region, with full 3rd, 4th and 5th freedom traffic 
rights. 
ASEAN Multilateral 
Agreement on the Full Liberalization of Air Freight Services (MAFLAFS) 13 October 2009 Similar to the MAAS and the MAFLPAS except that 
MAFLAFS covers the 3
rd, 4th and 5th freedom traffic rights 
for air freight services among ASEAN cities with 
international airports. 
ASEAN-China Air Transport 
Agreement (AC-ATA) 13 September 2011 Allows designated carriers of ASEAN members to provide 
air services from any city with an international airport in 
its territory to any city with an international airport in the 
territory of China and vice versa with 3rd and 4th freedom 
traffic rights. Discussions are ongoing to expand the 
Agreement to include 5th freedom traffic rights. 
Source: WTO document WT/TPR/S/267/Rev.1, 18 October 2012. 
4.139.  As reported by the authorities, the Department of Civil Aviation (DCA) has plans to expand 
and renovate airports under its jurisdiction, for example the Mae-Sod Airport will be equipped with 
a new terminal building as well as other infrastructure for the budget year 2016. Similarly, the 
Airports of Thailand has plans to develop three of its six airports (Don Muang, Suvarnabhumi and 
Phuket).130 
4.140.  Ground-handling services may be provided by the private sector as long as all legal and 
regulatory requirements are met.131 Foreign companies wanting to provide ground-handling 
services need to meet the additional legal requirements specified in the Foreign Business Act 
B.E. 2542 (see section 2) and the Private Investment in State Undertakings Act B.E. 2556 (2013).  
4.141.  Government is actively promoting Thailand as a centre for maintenance, repair and 
overhaul services (MRO). Under the BOI's seven-year Investment Promotion Policy (2015-2021) the manufacture of aircraft frames, parts and app liances has been designated as an activity of 
special importance by the BOI, with uncapped co rporate income tax and customs duty exemptions 
being available to eligible companies.
132 There are no regulations requiring national airlines to have 
their planes repaired and maintained in domestic facilities. As set out in the Air Navigation Act, 
applicants for a Repair Station Certificate (Type I (maintenance of aircraft) must have not less 
than 51% of total capital owned by Thai nation als and their business management power must be 
controlled by Thai nationals. No such foreign equity caps apply to Repair Station Type II 
                                               
129 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
130 Airports of Thailand (2015), pages 119-124. 
131 These requirements are contained in the Air Navigation Act B.E. 2497, Chapter 6 on Ramp Services 
and Aircraft Technical Services; Transport Ministerial Regulation No. 22 (B.E. 2522) on Aircraft Technical Services; Ministerial Regulation No. 23 (B.E. 2522) on Cr iteria and Conditions Regarding Issuance, Validity, 
Suspension, and Withdrawal of Licenc es for Service Providers in Aprons or for Aircraft Technical Services; 
Ministerial Regulation No. 27 (B.E. 2525) on Validity Duration for Service Providers in Aprons or for Aircraft Technical Services, Supplemental to Ministerial Regulation No. 23; Civil Aviation Committee's Regulation No. 23 on Service Fees in Aprons; and Civil Aviation Committee's Regulation No. 64 on Qualifications and Criteria of Service Providers in Aprons or fo r Aircraft Technical Services.  
132 Board of Investment online  information. Viewed at: 
http://www.boi.go.th/index.p hp?page=pdf_page&menu_id=96 . "Uncapped" means that the corporate income 
tax exemptions are granted without being subject to a project's capital investment, excluding the cost of land 
and working capital. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 134 - 
 
  Certificates (maintenance of major aircraft appliances) and Type III certificates (maintenance of 
technical standard order (TSO) Articles and Aircraft parts).  
4.7.4.2  Maritime transport 4.7.4.2.1  Shipping 
4.142.  In 2014 Thailand's commercial shipping fleet comprised 474 vessels (with a capacity of 
over 500 gross tonnes), with a total carrying capacity of just over 5.2 million deadweight tonnes (DWT). Thailand was ranked in 33
rd place (up from 35th place in 2010) in the world for the size of 
its registered fleet (in DWT), representing some 0.3% of the world total.133 According to the 
authorities, around 10-12% of Thailand's merchandise trade is transported on national flag vessels. The Government used to own a shipping company called TMN line, however its operations were terminated in 2011. The Government continues to maintain a 30% equity stake in Thai 
Maritime Navigation Company (TMN Co.) Ltd ., a joint venture between TMN line and 23 other 
private maritime companies; it runs two ocean-going vessels. 
4.143.  The Marine Department, under the Ministry of Transport, is responsible for the promotion 
and development of maritime transport. It is also in charge of law enforcement, navigation safety, 
ship registration and inspection, maintenance of navigation channels, providing pilot services for seagoing vessels and minimizing the environmental impact caused by navigation and port activity. 
While there have been no legislative changes affe cting the maritime transport sector since 2012, 
the Interim Government is currently reviewing three of the main maritime acts: Thai Vessels Act B.E. 2481 (as amended by the Act B.E. 2540), the Navigation in Thai Waters Act B.E. 2456 (as amended by the Act B.E. 2540), and the Merchant Marine Promotion Act B.E. 2521 (as amended 
in 2005).
134 A cargo reservation policy remains in place requiring that goods directly or indirectly 
imported into Thailand by government agencies or public enterprises must be transported by Thai-flagged vessels on designated shipping routes  where such vessels are available. The following 
FDI restrictions continue to apply: (a) in order to be registered to provide international shipping 
services under the Thai flag, operators must be at least 51% Thai-owned; and (b) in order to be registered to provide domestic shipping servic es, a 70% Thai equity requirement is in place.
135 
Moreover, minimum national crew requirements are still in place in order to provide work 
opportunities for Thai nationals.136 
4.144.  Thai-flagged international shipping vessels  may engage in domestic shipping if 70% of 
their shares are in Thai hands. Likewise Thai-flagged domestic shipping vessels may undertake 
international shipping as long as they meet the relevant safety and international standards. On a 
case-by-case basis and subject to the authorization of the Minister of Transport, foreign vessels may be permitted to provide specific services (i.e. the laying down of pipes) for one year if 
domestic vessels are not available. However, foreign vessels are not permitted to provide domestic 
transport services.  
4.145.  Thailand has 122 maritime ports (terminal operators) with a capacity of over 500 tonnes. 
Most of these are small and medium-sized privat ely-owned and operated ports. Thailand's main 
government-owned ports are Laem Chabang Port, Bangkok Port; Map Taput Port, Songkla Port, Ranong Port and Chiang Saen Commercial Port. Laem  Chabang Port is owned by the Port Authority 
of Thailand (PAT), a state enterprise under the su pervision of the Ministry of Transport. While PAT 
continues to regulate this port, it is managed by the private sector under a 30-year concession 
agreement. Bangkok Port, Chiang Saen Commercial Port and Ranong Port are both owned and managed by PAT. Map Taput Port, used by the petr ochemical industry, is owned by the Industrial 
Estate Authority of Thailand and managed by the private-sector operators. Songkla Port is 
managed by private port operators. 
4.146.  As pointed out in Thailand's previous review , ships of all nationalities calling at Thailand's 
ports receive MFN treatment and port access on a first-come-first-served basis. A 0% VAT rate 
                                               
133 UNCTAD (2014). 
134 The other main law governing the maritime transport subsector is the Multimodal Transport Act 
B.E. 2548 (2005). All these laws were viewed at: http://thailaws.com . 
135 These limits are contained in the Thai Vessels Act. 
136 For Thai vessels engaged in international shipping , 50% of the crew must be Thai nationals. For 
vessels engaged in domestic shipping all crew must be Thai nationals. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 135 - 
 
  applies to domestic and foreign shipping companies providing maritime services to and from 
Thailand. Generally, port fees on export cargo are collected at lower rates than on imported cargo due to the fact that export cargo generally involves less use of port facilities and services.
 137 
4.147.  As noted in Thailand's previous review, government policy has been to promote private 
domestic and foreign participation in port services, either by operating the existing or new facilities 
or by investing in additional port facilities. As set out in the Foreign Business Act, a port operator must be either a Thai national or company with at least 51% Thai equity and must comply with the 
Port Authority of Thailand Act B.E. 2494 (A.D. 1951).
138  
4.148.  To implement the government's policy on shifting modes of transport from road to rail and 
waterway, and to strengthen the role of primary seaports in Thailand, PAT is working to develop the Single Rail Transfer Operator and Coastal Term inal at Laem Chabang Port and also the Coastal 
Terminal Berth at Bangkok Port. This is intended to decrease logistics costs for exporters, 
importers and logistics providers.  
4.7.5  Tourism 
4.149.  Tourism plays an important role in Thailand's economy. Hotels and restaurants alone 
accounted for 3.7% of GDP and 6.7% of employme nt in 2014 (Table 1.2). Tourism is the country's 
main foreign exchange earner. International tourist arrivals totalled 24.8 million in 2014 
(compared to 15.9 million in 2010, but down nearly 7% compared to 2013 as a consequence of 
social and political tensions). By origin, 58% of tourists were from East Asia (particularly China, accounting for 18.7% of total international tourist arrivals and Malaysia 10.7%), followed by Europe 24.8% (particularly the Russian Federation 6.5%), South Asia (5%), the Americas (4.5%), 
Oceania (3.8%), the Middle East (2.4%), and Africa (0.7%).
139  
4.150.  There have been no changes to the govern ment and private-sector bodies responsible for 
tourism since Thailand's previous review.140 Likewise there have been no changes to the laws 
governing the sector.141 
4.151.  In order to implement the Government's objectives as set out in the National Economic 
and Social Development Plan (NESDP) (see section 2) of increasing tourism income by at least 5% 
in five years, five strategies have been set out in the National Tourism Development Plan 2012-16. 
These are (i) to develop tourism infrastructure and facilities; (ii) to provide for the rehabilitation and sustainable development of tourism sites; (iii ) to develop new tourism products and services; 
(iv) to improve Thailand's image as a tourist destination; and (v) to encourage participation of the 
public sector, civil society, and local organizations in tourism management.  
4.152.  Various restrictions on foreign participation in tourism services remain in place 
(Table 4.21).  
Table 4.21 Restrictions on foreign pa rticipation in tourism services, 2015 
Legislation Restriction  
Foreign Business Act Foreign investment limit of  49% in hotels unless approval is received 
Tourism Business and Tour 
Guides Act In order to provide travel agency and tour operator services, companies must 
be licensed, incorporated under Thai Law and have no less than 51% Thai 
capital. Half of the board of di rectors must be Thai nationals 
                                               
137 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
138 WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
139 Department of Tourism online information. Viewed at: 
http://www.tourism.go.th/home/details/11/221/23044 .  
140 Government bodies are: the Committee for Nati onal Tourism Policy; the Department of Tourism 
within the Ministry of Tourism and Sports and the Touris m Authority of Thailand. The main industry body is the 
Tourism Council of Thailand. For more detail on the role s and responsibilities of each of these bodies, see the 
Secretariat Report for Thailand's previous review.  
141 These laws are: the Tourism Authority of Thai land Act B. E. 2522 (1979); the Tourism Industry 
Council of Thailand Act B.E. 2544 the Foreign Business Act B.E. 2542 (1999); the National Tourism Policy Act 
B.E. 2551 (2008); the Tourism Business and Tour Gu ides Act B.E. 2551 (2008); the Films and Videos 
Act (2008); the Hotel Act B.E. 2547 (2004) and other la ws and regulations regarding the operation of 
restaurants, hotels and othe r tourism-related services. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 136 - 
 
  Legislation Restriction  
Tourism Business and Tour 
Guides Act Provision of tourist guide services is reserved for Thai nationals 
Source:  WTO document WT/TPR/S/255/Rev.1, 8 February 2012. 
4.153.  Thailand continues to promote itself as the medical hub of Asia, and is focusing 
development on three main areas: medical services, health care (i.e. spas and traditional 
massages) and herbal products. It considers that its competitive edge in this area is to offer high quality services at comparatively low cost. Thailand has 1,000 public hospitals and 400 private 
ones. In 2015, there were 2.81 million medical tourism visits (80% of which were from abroad, 
and 20% from the expatriate community residing in Thailand), up from 2.55 million in 2014 and 2.65 million in 2013. The most frequent treatments are: general check-ups; laser eye surgery; cosmetic surgery; and dental care. The four main sources of medical tourism arrivals are: Japan; 
the United States; the Middle East; and Myanmar.  
4.154.  With the entry into force of the AEC (section 2), a greater number of tourists is anticipated 
along with increased tourism connectivity in the region. Efforts are being made to develop ASEAN 
standards for tourism services and the ASEAN Mutual Recognition Agreement on Tourism 
Professionals is expected to be implemented at the end of 2015. The latter is designed to 
harmonize the skills and qualifications of working tourism professionals from different ASEAN 
countries. 
4.155.  Incentives offered by the BOI include co rporate income tax and customs duty exemptions 
for various tourism promotion services under certain conditions (ferry services, tour boat services, tour boat renting, tour boat port services, amusement parks, cultural centres or arts and crafts 
centres, open zoos, aquariums, race tracks, and cable cars) as well as various activities to support 
tourism (hotels of at least 100 rooms in 20 lowest income per capita provinces or those with a minimum investment of not less than B 500 million (excluding cost of land and working capital); 
convention halls of 4,000 m
2 and over, international exhibition centres of an internal area of 
minimum 25,000m2; and health rehabilitation centres).142  
4.156.  Over B 11 billion was allocated under the 2014 Budget towards increasing income from 
tourism and service income through activities to  promote: the country's image; health and spa 
tourism; cultural and community tourism; tourism connecting ASEAN countries; the production of foreign movies in Thailand; and the organization of meetings, incentives, conferences, and exhibitions (MICE). Support is also to be targeted  at the development of merchandise and services 
as well as improvements to infrastructure and communications networks and safety measures. 
Under the same budget, an additional B 4.7 billion was allocated to developing, restoring, and rehabilitating existing tourist attractions and promoting new ones.
143 The allocation to develop 
tourism and services under the 2013 budget was B 4.2 billion and under the 2012 budget it was 
B 4 billion, with an additional B 6.3 billion budgeted to increase tourism income during the year of His Majesty's 7
th Cycle Birthday Anniversary and the Amazing Thailand Year campaign. 
                                               
142 Announcement of the Board of Investment No. 2/2557 on Policies and Criteria for Investment 
Promotion. 
143 Bureau of the Budget (2014).  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 137 - 
 
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wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2014/09/22/000470435_20140
922134002/Rendered/PDF/908230ROSC0Box0ailand0201300PUBLIC0.pdf . 
World Bank (2014a), Doing Business 2015: Going Beyond Efficiency- Economy profile 2015 
Thailand , 1 October. Viewed at: http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2014/11/07/000477144_20141
107113055/Rendered/PDF/921440WP0Box380580Thailand00Public0.pdf . 
World Bank (2014b), Doing Business  2015: Going Beyond Efficiency . Viewed at: 
http://www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/GIAW B/Doing%20Business/Documents/Annual-
Reports/English/DB15-Full-Report.pdf .  
World Bank (2014c), Thailand Economic Monitor , 11 February. Viewed at: 
http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank /document/EAP/Thailand/thailand_economic_m
onitor_february_11_2014_english.pdf . 
World Economic Forum (2012),  New Energy Architecture: Thailand , October. Viewed at 
http://www.weforum.org/reports/new-energy-architecture-thailand . 
World Economic Forum (2013), The Global Energy Architecture Performance Index Report 2014 , 
December. Viewed at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/ WEF_EN_NEA_Report_2014.pdf .  
World Economic Forum (2014a), The Global Competitiveness Report 2014–2015 . Viewed at: 
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Glob alCompetitivenessReport_2014-15.pdf .  
World Economic Forum (2014b), The Global Enabling Trade Report 2014 – Insight Report , Geneva. 
Viewed at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Gl obalEnablingTrade_Report_2014.pdf . 
 WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 141 - 
 
  5  APPENDIX TABLES 
Table A1. 1 Merchandise exports,  by product group, 2011-14 
  2011  2012 2013 2014  
Total exports (US$ billion) 228.8  229.5  228.5  227.6  
 (% of total) 
Total primary products 27.8  26.1  25.2  24.0  
Agriculture 20.8  18.3  17.7  17.5  
Food 13.8  13.4  12.9  13.6  
0423 Rice, milled, semi-milled 2.8  1.9  1.9  2.3  
0371 Fish, prepared, preserved, n.e.s. 1.3  1.5  1.5  1.3  
0174 Poultry meat (excl. liver) of 001.4, prepared/preserved, n.e.s. 0.9  0.9  0.9  0.9  
Agricultural raw material 7.1  4.9  4.8  3.9  
2312 Natural rubber excluding latex 4.6  2.9  2.8  2.0  
Mining 7.0  7.8  7.6  6.6  
Ores and other minerals 0.6  0.6  0.5  0.6  
Non-ferrous metals 0.8  0.7  0.8  0.7  
Fuels 5.6  6.5  6.3  5.3  
Manufactures 69.6  70.9  73.3  74.7  
Iron and steel 0.9  1.4  1.1  0.8  
Chemicals 10.0  10.1  10.7  10.9  
5711 Polyethylene 1.2  1.3  1.4  1.6  
5112 Cyclic hydrocarbons 0.8  0.8  1.1  0.9  
Other semi-manufactures 9.1  8.9  9.3   9.4  
6251 Tyres, pneumatic, new, for cars 0.8  0.8  0.8  0.8  
Machinery and transport equipment 37.5  40.5  41.7  43.0  
Power generating machines 0.8  0.7  0.8  0.9  
Other non-electrical machinery 5.4  5.5  5.9  6.3  
7415 Air conditioning machines, and parts 1.7  1.8  2.0  2.0  
Agricultural machinery and tractors 0.1  0.1  0.2  0.2  
Office machines & telecommunication equipment 15.2  15.8  15.4  15.7  
7527 Storage units for data processing 4.6  5.7  5.2  5.2  
7764 Electronic integrated circuits and micro assemblies 3.1  2.7  2.8  3.0  
7599 Parts and accessories of 751.1, 751.2, 751.9 and 752 1.7  1.5  1.7  1.6  
7513 Photo copying apparatus with optical system, thermo-copying 0.5  0.6  0.7  1.0  
7649 Parts and accessories for apparatus of division 76 1.1  1.1  1.0  0.9  
7638 Sound/video recording/reproducing apparatus 0.9  1.0  1.0  0.9  
Other electrical machines 5.3  5.1  5.4  5.8  
Automotive products 8.0  10.6  11.4  11.5  
7821 Goods vehicles 2.3  4.6  4.6  4.5  
7843 Other motor vehicle parts and accessories of 722, 781 to 783 2.0  2.6  2.8  3.0  
7812 Motor vehicles for the transport of persons, n.e.s. 2.7  2.5  2.9  2.9  
Other transport equipment 2.8  2.8  2.9  2.8  
Textiles 1.8  1.5  1.7  1.7  
Clothing 2.0  1.9  1.8  1.8  
Other consumer goods 8.3  6.7  6.9  7.2  
8973 Jewellery of gold, silver or platinum metals (except watches) 1.6  1.7  1.6  1.7  
Other 2.6  2.9  1.5  1.2  
Gold, non-monetary (excl. gold  ores and concentrates) 2.6  2.9  1.5  1.2  
Source: UNSD, Comtrade database (SITC Rev.3). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 142 - 
 
  Table A1. 2 Merchandise imports, by product group, 2011-14 
  2011  2012 2013  2014  
Total imports (US$ billion) 228.5  247.6  250.7  227.9  
 (% of total) 
Total primary products 30.2  29.8  30.9  31.9  
Agriculture 6.7  6.8  6.6  7.1  
Food 4.7  5.1  5.1  5.5  
0813 Oil-cake, oilseed residues 0.5  0.6  0.7  0.8  
0342 Fish, frozen (excluding fillets and minced fish) 0.9  1.0  0.9  0.8  
Agricultural raw material 1.9  1.7  1.5  1.6  
Mining 23.6  23.0  24.3  24.8  
Ores and other minerals 0.8  0.6  0.5  0.6  
Non-ferrous metals 3.7  3.0  3.0  3.1  
6821 Copper anodes; alloys; unwrought 1.0  0.8  0.8  0.8  
Fuels 19.0  19.3  20.8  21.1  
3330 Crude oils of petroleum and bituminous minerals 14.4  14.5  15.5  14.6  
3432 Natural gas, in the gaseous state 1.3  1.4  1.5  1.6  
Manufactures 62.4  65.8  63.0  65.1  
Iron and steel 6.0  6.1  6.0  5.8  
Chemicals 10.4  9.7  9.4  10.3  
Other semi-manufactures 6.1  6.0  6.0  6.4  
6996 Articles iron or steel, n.e.s. 1.0  1.1  1.0  1.1  
Machinery and transport equipment 32.7  36.7  34.5  35.0  
Power generating machines 1.2  1.8  1.3  1.7  
Other non-electrical machinery 7.4  8.8  7.5  7.9  
7284 Machinery and appliances for particular industries, n.e.s. 0.8  1.1  0.7  0.7  
Agricultural machinery and tractors 0.2  0.2  0.2  0.2  
Office machines & telecommunication equipment 11.7  11.6  11.1  12.4  
7764 Electronic integrated circuits and micro assemblies 2.8  2.5  2.4  2.8  
7643 Radio or television transmission apparatus 0.8  1.1  1.3  1.7  
7768 Piezo-electric crystals, mounted, and parts, n.e.s., of 776 1.8  1.3  1.3  1.5  
7599 Parts and accessories of 751.1, 751.2, 751.9 and 752 1.6  1.5  1.3  1.3  
7649 Parts and accessories for apparatus of division 76 1.1  1.2  1.0  1.1  
Other electrical machines 5.2  5.6  5.2  5.6  
7725 Switches, relays, fuses etc. for a voltage not exceeding 1,000 V 0.8  0.8  0.8  0.8  
7731 Insulated wire, cable etc.; optical fibre cables 0.6  0.6  0.6  0.7  
Automotive products 4.1  5.4  5.0  3.9  
7843 Other motor vehicle parts and accessories of 722, 781 to 783 2.4  3.4  3.1  2.3  
Other transport equipment 3.1  3.4  4.3  3.5  
7924 Aeroplanes, etc. (excl. helicopters), >15,000 kg unladen 0.4  0.8  1.5  1.2  
7139 Parts, n.e.s., for piston engines of 713.2, 713.3,713.8 0.8  0.9  0.8  0.7  
Textiles 1.3  1.3  1.2  1.3  
Clothing 0.3  0.3  0.3  0.4  
Other consumer goods 5.7  5.8  5.6  6.0  
8939 Plastic articles, n.e.s. 0.6  0.7  0.6  0.7  
Other 7.4  4.5  6.1  3.0  
Gold, non-monetary (excl. gold  ores and concentrates) 7.2  4.3  6.0  2.9  
Source:  UNSD, Comtrade database (SITC Rev.3). WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 143 - 
 
  Table A1. 3 Merchandise export s, by destination, 2011-14  
  2011 2012 2013 2014 
Total exports (US$ billion) 228.8  229.5  228.5  227.6  
 (% of total) 
America 13.4  14.1  14.3  14.6  
United States 9.6  9.9  10.1  10.5  
Other America 3.8  4.1  4.2  4.0  
Mexico 0.6  0.7  0.8  0.9  
Europe 13.4  12.5  11.1  11.8  
EU(28) 10.6  9.6  9.8  10.3  
Netherlands 2.0  1.8  1.9  2.0  
Germany 1.6  1.6  1.8  2.0  
United Kingdom 1.7  1.7  1.7  1.8  
EFTA 2.2  2.5  0.8  1.0  
Other Europe 0.6  0.5  0.5  0.5  
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 0.7  0.6  0.6  0.6  
Africa 3.4  3.6  3.5  3.7  
South Africa 1.0  1.2  1.1  1.0  
Middle East 4.2  4.5  4.5  4.6  
United Arab Emirates 1.2  1.3  1.3  1.4  
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  1.0  1.2  1.3  1.4  
Asia 64.7  64.3  65.5  64.4  
China 12.0  11.7  11.9  11.0  
Japan 10.5  10.2  9.7  9.6  
Six East Asian traders 21.3  19.4  19.9  19.5  
Malaysia 5.4  5.4  5.7  5.6  
Hong Kong, China 7.2  5.7  5.8  5.5  
Singapore 5.0  4.7  4.9  4.6  
Korea, Rep. of 2.0  2.1  2.0  2.0  
Chinese Taipei 1.7  1.5  1.5  1.8  
Other Asia 20.9  23.0  24.0  24.3  
Indonesia 4.4  4.9  4.8  4.2  
Australia 3.5  4.3  4.5  4.1  
Viet Nam 3.1  2.9  3.1  3.5  
Philippines 2.0  2.1  2.2  2.6  
India 2.3  2.4  2.3  2.5  
Cambodia 1.3  1.6  1.9  2.0  
Myanmar 1.2  1.4  1.7  1.9  
Lao PDR 1.2  1.6  1.6  1.8  
Other 0.3  0.3  0.3  0.3  
Memorandum:     
APEC 69.1  68.5  69.3  68.2  
ASEAN 23.7  24.7  26.0  26.1  
Source:  UNSD, Comtrade database. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 144 - 
 
  Table A1. 4 Merchandise impo rts, by origin, 2011-14 
  2011 2012 2013 2014 
Total imports (US$ billion) 228.5  247.6  250.7  227.9  
 (% of total) 
America 8.4  7.7  8.2  8.9  
United States 5.9  5.3  5.9  6.4  
Other America 2.5  2.5  2.3  2.4  
Europe 12.0  11.3  13.1  10.7  
EU(28) 7.8  8.1  9.1  8.5  
Germany 2.4  2.4  2.4  2.6  
United Kingdom 0.9  1.1  1.3  1.2  
France 1.0  1.3  1.7  1.1  
Italy 0.9  0.9  1.0  1.0  
EFTA 4.1  3.1  3.8  2.0  
Switzerland 3.9  3.0  3.7  1.8  
Other Europe 0.1  0.1  0.1  0.1  
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 2.5  2.3  2.4  2.3  
Russian Federation 2.0  1.6  1.4  1.6  
Africa 1.1  1.7  1.7  1.9  
Middle East 13.2  12.9  14.1  12.7  
United Arab Emirates 6.3  6.3  6.9  5.6  
Saudi Arabia, Kingdom of  3.2  3.3  3.4  3.4  
Qatar 1.1  1.1  1.6  1.7  
Asia 62.7  64.1  60.5  63.5  
China 13.4  14.9  15.0  16.9  
Japan 18.5  20.0  16.4  15.7  
Six East Asian traders 18.1  17.0  16.8  17.6  
Malaysia 5.4  5.3  5.3  5.6  
Korea, Rep. of 4.0  3.6  3.6  3.7  
Singapore 3.4  3.2  3.3  3.5  
Chinese Taipei 3.3  3.3  3.0  3.3  
Thailand 1.0  0.9  0.9  1.0  
Other Asia 12.7  12.1  12.3  13.4  
Indonesia 3.2  3.3  3.2  3.2  
Australia 3.5  2.2  2.2  2.4  
Viet Nam 0.9  1.2  1.3  1.7  
Myanmar 1.4  1.5  1.6  1.7  
India 1.3  1.3  1.4  1.3  
Philippines 1.2  1.1  1.0  1.1  
Other 0.0  0.0  0.0  0.0  
Memorandum:     
APEC 68.0  68.0  64.6  68.2  
ASEAN 17.2  17.2  17.6  19.0  
Source: UNSD, Comtrade database. 
  
  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand  
 
- 145 - Table A2. 1 ASEAN and Thailand's bilateral RTAs in force: main features, 2015 
ASEAN - China Free Trade Area (ACFTA) 
Parties ASEAN and China 
Date of signature / entry into force  Goods: 29.11.2004/06.01.2005 
Services: 14.01.2007/01.07.2007 
Investment: 15.08.2009/15.02.2010 
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalization) 2018.  At the end of the transition period 90.06% of tariff lines w ill be duty free and 9.94%  will remain dutiable 
Coverage (selec ted features) Services; investment 
Thailand's merchandise trade with China (2014) 16.9% of total imports; 11.0% of total exports 
WTO consideration status Goods: Factual abstract distributed June 2008 
Services: Factual presentation distributed April 2015. Date of consideration in CRTA: 22 June 2015 
WTO document series WT/COMTD/N/20, 21 December 2004; WT/COM TD/N/20/Add.1, 26 September 2005; S/C/N/463, 2 July 2008 
 
Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Partnership Among Japan and Member States of ASEAN 
Parties ASEAN and Japan 
Date of signature / entry into force  11.04.2008/01.12.2008 
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalization) 2018.  At the end of the transition period 86.17% of tariff lines w ill be duty free and 13.83% will remain dutiable  
Coverage (selec ted features) Agreement applies to goods only. Provisions on servic es and investment subject to future negotiations 
Thailand's merchandise trade with Japan (2014) 15.7% of total imports; 9.6% of total exports 
WTO consideration status Factual presentation not distributed 
WTO document series WT/REG277/N1, 14 December 2009; and WT/REG277/N2, 27 July 2011 
 
ASEAN - Republic of Korea Free Trade Area (AKFTA) 
Parties ASEAN and Republic of Korea (ROK) 
Date of signature / entry into force  Accession protocol to agreements on trade in good s and services: 27.02.2009/01.10.2009 (TIG), 01.06.2009 
(TIS) 
Agreement on investment: 02.06.2009/31.10.2009 
Entry into force of AKFTA: 01.01.2010 
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalization) 2017.  At the end of the transition period 90% of tariff lines will  be duty free and 10%  will remain dutiable 
Coverage (selec ted features) Services (positive list approach to scheduling); investment 
Thailand's merchandise trade with the Republic of Korea (2014) 3.7% of total imports; 2.0% of total exports 
WTO consideration status Factual presentation not distributed 
WTO document series WT/REG287/N/1, 8 July 2010; WT/COMTD/N/33, 8 July 2010; S/C/N/559, 8 July 2010; S/C/N/560, 
8 July 2010; S/C/N/559/Add.1, 3 March 2011; S/C/N/560/Add.1, 3 May 2011 
 
Agreement on Trade in Goods (under the Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation between ASEAN and the Republic  of India, 2003, as 
amended in 2009) 
Parties ASEAN and India 
Date of signature / entry into force  13.8.2009/01.01.2010 
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalization) 2016.  At the end of the transition period 79% of tariff lines will  be duty free and 21% will remain dutiable 
Coverage (selec ted features) Agreement applies to goods only 
Thailand's merchandise trade with India (2014) 1.3% of total imports; 2.5% of total exports 
WTO consideration status Factual presentation not distributed 
WTO document series WT/COMTD/N/35, 23 August 2010  
  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand  
 
- 146 - Agreement Establishing the ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Area (AANZFTA) 
Parties ASEAN, Australia and New Zealand 
Date of signature / entry into force  27.02.2009/12.03.2010 
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalization) 2020.  At the end of the transition period 98.8% of tariff lines wi ll be duty free and 1.2% will remain dutiable 
Coverage (selec ted features) Services (positive list approach to scheduling), investment, intellectual property, electronic commerce 
Thailand's merchandise trade wi th Australia and New Zealand 
(2014) Australia: 2.4% of total impo rts; 4.1% of total exports 
New Zealand: 0.3% of total imports; 0.5% of total exports 
WTO consideration status Factual presentation distributed fo r goods and services. Consideratio n in CRTA on 22 September 2014 
WTO document series WT/REG284/N/1 and S/C/N/545, 9 April 2010 
 
Thailand- Australia 
Parties Thailand, Australia 
Date of signature / entry into force  05.07.2004/01.01.2005 
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalization) 2025.  At the end of the transition period 100% of tariff lines wil l be duty free for imports from Australia 
Coverage (selec ted features) Services; competition; government procurement and intellectual property rights 
Thailand's merchandise trade with Australia (2014) 2.4% of total imports; 4.1% of total exports 
WTO consideration status Factual presentation distributed (goods and services). Consideration in CRTA on 14 May 2007 
WTO document series WT/REG185/N/1 and S/C/N/311, 5 January 2005 
 
Thailand-New Zealand 
Parties Thailand, New Zealand 
Date of signature / entry into force  19.04.2005/01.07.2005 
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalization) 2025.  At the end of the transition period 100% of tariff lines wil l be duty free for imports from New Zealand 
Coverage (selec ted features) Services, competition, government procur ement, intellectual property rights 
Thailand's merchandise trade with New Zealand (2014) 0.3% of total imports; 0.5% of total exports 
WTO consideration status Factual presentation distributed for goods with co nsideration in the CRTA on 14 May 2007. Factual 
presentation on hold for services 
WTO document series WT/REG207/N/1 and S/C/N/361, 2 December 2005 
 
Thailand-Japan 
Parties Thailand-Japan 
Date of signature / entry into force  03.04.2007/01.11.2007 
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalization) 2017.  At the end of the transition period 97.3% of tariff lines wi ll be duty free for imports from Japan. 2.7% of 
tariff lines will remain dutiable 
Coverage (selec ted features) Services, competition, government procurement,  intellectual property rights, investment 
Thailand's merchandise trade with Japan (2014) 15.7% of total imports; 9.6% of total exports 
WTO consideration status Factual presentations on goods an d services distri buted. Consideration in CRTA on 28 June 2011 
WTO document series WT/REG235/N/1 and S/C/N/419, 29 October 2007 
 
Thailand-India 
Parties Thailand-India (Early Harvest Scheme) 
Date of signature / entry into force  30.08.2004/01.09.2004  
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalizatio n) 2006. Duty-free treatment for imports under 83 tariff lines 
Coverage (selec ted features) Agreement applies to goods only 
Thailand's merchandise trade with India (2014) 1.3% of total imports; 2.5% of total exports  
  WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand  
 
- 147 - Thailand-India 
WTO consideration status Not notified to WTO 
WTO document series Not applicable 
 
Thailand-Peru 
Parties Thailand-Peru (Early Harvest Scheme) 
Date of entry into force  19.11.2005/31.12.2011 
End of transition period for Thailand (goods liberalization) 2016.  At the end of the transition period 70% of tariff lines will  be duty free for imports from Peru. 30% of tariff 
lines will remain dutiable 
Coverage (selec ted features) Agreement applies to goods only 
Thailand's merchandise trade with Peru (2014) 0.05% of total imports; 0.2% of total exports 
WTO consideration status Not notified to WTO 
WTO document series Not applicable 
Source: WTO Secretariat. 
 WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
- 148 - 
 
  Table A3. 1 Thailand's tariff summary, 2014 
  Number 
of lines Average 
(%) Range 
(%) Standard 
deviation  Duty 
free (%) 
Total 9,558 13.4 0-1,091.9  23.7 17.6 
HS 01-24 1,594 30.7 0-1,091.9 45.4 2.6 
HS 25-97 7,964 10.0 0-216.3 13.7 20.6 
By WTO category      
WTO agricultural products 1,298 34.7 0-1,091.9 49.6 4.2 
Animals and products thereof 150 28.6 0-50 13.1 11.3 
Dairy products 38 48.7 5-216 58.2 0.0 
Fruit, vegetables, and plants 348 44.6 0-1,091.9 80.4 2.3 
Coffee and tea 42 49.7 5-90 36.8 0.0 
Cereals and preparations 185 23.8 0-60 15.4 5.9 
Oils seeds, fats, oil, and their products 198 36.6 1-146 39.1 0.0 
Sugars and confectionary 32 38.1 1-94 30.6 0.0 
Beverages, spirits, and tobacco 106 50.8 0-84 20.1 1.9 
Cotton 5 0.0 0-0 0.0 100.0 
Other agricultural products, n.e.s. 194 15.1 0-218 24.6 5.7 
WTO non-agricultural products  8,260 10.1 0-216.3 13.5 19.7 
Fish and fishery products 377 12.0 1-86.7 11.2 0.0 
Minerals and metals 1,386 6.8 0-58 7.8 28.8 
Chemicals and photographic supplies 1,327 4.3 0-30 6.5 42.9 
Wood, pulp, paper, and furniture 459 6.5 0-30 6.6 23.7 
Textiles 802 10.2 1-216.3 13.6 0.0 
Clothing 300 28.6 10-60 5.5 0.0 
Leather, rubber, footwear, and travel goods 319 11.9 0-30 10.0 13.5 
Non-electric machinery 1,291 4.9 0-30 5.6 19.6 
Electric machinery 695 8.2 0-30 6.1 16.4 
Transport equipment 551 36.5 0-80 26.3 5.1 
Non-agricultural products, n.e.s. 717 11.1 0-30 9.5 15.2 
Petroleum 36 5.6 0-10 5.0 13.9 
By ISIC sector      
ISIC 1 - Agriculture, hunting, and fishing 625 27.9 0-1,091.9 63.2 10.1 
ISIC 2 - Mining 117 1.9 0-30 4.8 46.2 
ISIC 3 - Manufacturing 8,815 12.6 0-216.3 17.5 17.8 
Manufacturing, excluding food processing 7,781 10.2 0-216.3 13.8 20.0 
ISIC 4 - Electrical energy 1 0.0 0-0 0 100.0 
By stage of processing      
First stage of processing 1,061 20.5 0-1,091.9 51.2 19.5 
Semi-processed products 2,503 4.5 0-94 7.6 30.7 
Fully processe d products 5,994 15.9 0-216.3 18.9 11.8 
By HS section      
01 Live animals and products 521 17.7 0-216 22.2 4.4 
02 Vegetable products 474 40.3 0-1,091.9 70.7 3.2 
03 Fats and oils 156 39.6 1-146 41.9 0.0 
04 Prepared food, beverages, and  tobacco 443 32.7 0-171.2 23.6 0.7 
05 Mineral products 204 2.5 0-30 4.7 38.2 
06 Chemicals and products thereof 1,157 3.7 0-30 5.9 48.2 
07 Plastics, rubber, and articles thereof 480 7.7 0-30 6.7 12.5 
08 Raw hides and skins, leather, and its 
 products 100 15.0 0-30 12.5 7.0 
09 Wood and articles of wood 157 8.7 0-30 9.6 2.5 
10 Pulp of wood, paper, and 
 paperboard 269 4.5 0-10 4.1 39.0 
11 Textiles and textile articles 1,079 15.1 0-216.3 15.8 0.5 
12 Footwear, headgear, etc. 74 23.6 5-30 9.5 0.0 
13 Articles of stone,  plaster, cement 215 11.3 0-58 10.6 15.8 
14 Precious stones and metals, pearls 81 7.9 0-20 9.8 58.0 
15 Base metals and articles thereof 909 6.9 0-30 6.9 26.5 
16 Machinery, electrical equipment, etc. 2,067 6.2 0-30 6.4 19.3 
17 Transport equipment 565 35.8 0-80 26.4 5.3 
18 Precision equipment 329 5.3 0-20 4.8 21.3 
19 Arms and ammunition 27 26.7 0-30 9.4 11.1 
20 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 239 16.1 5-30 5.7 0.0 
21 Works of art, etc. 12 18.3 0-20 5.5 8.3 
Note:  Calculations include AVEs for non- ad valorem  rates, as available.   
Source: WTO Secretariat calculations, based on data provided by the authorities. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Table A4. 1 Highest MFN applied rates on agricultural products, 2014 
Description HS Code(s) Tariff rate (%) 
Tamarinds, fresh 0810.90.60 1,091.9a 
Mangoes, fresh/dried 0804.50.20 886.7a 
Bananas, excluding 
plantains, fresh/dried 0803.90.00 468.9a 
Onion seeds 1209.91.10 218b 
Low fat milk 
powder/granules 0402.10.41; 0402.10.49; 0402.10.91; 0402.10.99 216b 
Raw silk 5002.00.00 216b 
Other fresh tropical fruit 0810.90.99 188.9a 
Dragon fruit, fresh 0810.90.92 164.9a 
Soya bean oil 1507.10.00; 1507.90.10;1507.90.90 146b 
Persimmons, fresh 0810.70.00 144.7a 
Melons, excluding 
watermelons, fresh 0807.19.00 144.6a 
Palm oil and palm kernel 
or babassu oil 1511.10.00; 1511.90.11; 1511.90.19; 1511.90.91; 
1511.90.92; 1511.90.99; 1513.21.10; 1513.21.90; 
1513.29.11; 1513.29.12; 1513.29.13; 1513.29.14; 
1513.29.91; 1513.29.92; 1513.29.94; 1513.29.97; 
1513.29.95; 1513.29.96  143b 
Onions, incl. dried 0703.10.11; 0703.10.19; 0712.20.00 142b 
Mandarins, clementines 
dried/fresh 0805.20.00 126.6a 
Potato fresh/chilled 0701.10.00; ex0701.90.00 125b 
Watermelons 0807.11.00 122.7a 
Oil-cake soya bean 2304.00.90 119b 
Grapefruit, fresh/dried 0805.40.00 106.6a 
Oranges, fresh 0805.10.10 103.9a 
Lemons and limes, 
fresh/dried 0805.50.00 103.7a 
Sugar 1701.12.00; 1701.13.00; 1701.14.00; 1701.91.00; 
1701.99.11; 1701.99.19; 1701.99.90 94b 
Coffee 0901.11.10; 0901.11.90; 0901.12.10; 0901.12.90; 
0901.21.10; 0901.21.20; 0901.22.10; 0901.22.20; 
0901.90.10; 0901.90.20 90b 
Tea 0902.10.10; 0902.10.90; 0902.20.10; 0902.20.90; 
0902.30.10; 0902.30.90; 0902.40.10; 0902.40.90 90b 
Mixture fruit/nuts of which 
dates predominate, dried 0813.50.30 86.65a 
Flavoured UHT milk 
drinks; beverages containing milk 2202.90.10; ex2202.90.30 84
b 
Soya beans 1201.10.00; 1201.90.00 80b 
Strawberries, preserved 0812.90.10 76.2a 
Maize (for feedstuff) Ex1005.90.90 73b 
Tobacco and tobacco 
products 2401.10.10; 2401.10.20; 2401.10.40; 2401.10.50; 
2401.10.90; 2401.20.10; 2401.20.20; 2401.20.30; 2401.20.40; 2401.20.50; 2401.20.90; 2401.30.10; 2401.30.90; 2402.10.00; 2402.20.10; 2402.20.20; 2402.20.90; 2402.90.10; 2402.90.20; 2403.11.00; 2403.19.11; 2403.19.19; 2403.19.20; 2403.19.90; 2403.91.10; 2403.91.90; 2403.99.10; 2403.99.30; 2403.99.40; 2403.99.50; 2403.99.90 60 or 72
b 
Grapes, fresh 8061.00.00 60.6a 
Shallots  0703.10.21; 0703.10.29 60 or B 6.25/kg, 
whichever is the higher 
Food preparation for the 
manufacture of alcoholic 
beverages 2106.90.61; 2106.90.62; 2106.90.64; 2106.90.65; 
2106.90.66; 2106.90.67 60 
Vinegar and substitutes for vinegar obtained from acetic acid 2209.00.00 60 
Soya milk drinks Ex2202.90.20 60 WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Description HS Code(s) Tariff rate (%) 
Alcoholic beverages 2203.00.10; 2203.00.90; 2204.10.00; 2204.21.11; 
2204.21.13; 2204.21.14; 2204.21.21; 2204.21.22; 2204.29.11; 2204.29.13; 2204.29.14; 2204.29.21; 2204.29.22; 2204.30.10; 2204.30.20; 2205.10.10; 2205.10.20; 2205.90.10; 2205.90.20; 2206.00.10; 2206.00.20; 2206.00.30; 2206.00.40; 2206.00.91; 2206.00.99; 2208.20.50; 2208.20.90; 2208.30.00; 2208.40.00; 2208.50.00; 2208.60.00; 2208.70.00; 2208.90.10; 2208.90.20; 2208.90.30; 2208.90.40; 2208.90.50; 2208.90.60; 2208.90.70; 2208.90.80; 2208.90.90 54 or 60 
Garlic 0703.20.90; 0703.20.90; 0712.90.10 57b 
Cut flowers and flower 
buds 0603.11.00; 0603.12.00; 0603.14.00; 0603.15.00; 
0603.19.00; 0603.90.00 54 
Edible coconuts 0801.11.00; 0801.12.00; 0801.19.00 54b 
Longans, dried 0813.40.10 53b 
Rice 1006.10.10; 1006.10.90; 1006.20.10; 1006.20.90; 
1006.30.30; 1006.30.40; 1006.30.91; 1006.30.99; 
1006.40.10; 1006.40.90 52b 
Coconut oil 1513.11.00; 1513.19.10; 1513.19.90 52b 
Plums 0809.40.10 51.4a 
Pepper 0904.11.10; 0904.11.20; 0904.11.90; 0904.12.10; 
0904.12.20; 0904.12.90 51b 
Preparations of 
vegetables, fruits, and 
nuts 2001.10.00; 2002.10.10; 2002.90.10; 2002.90.90; 
2004.10.00; 2005.51.00; 2005.60.00; 2006.00.00; 
2008.30.10; 2008.40.10; 2008.97.10; 2008.99.10 Ranges from 52.1a-171.2a 
a Indicates ad valorem  equivalent. 
b  Indicates out-of-quota rate where tariff quota exists. 
Note:  WTO definition of agriculture used.  Source:  WTO Secretariat. WT/TPR/S/326 • Thailand 
 
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  Table A4. 2 GDP originating from manuf acturing at market prices, 2011-13 
(B million) 
  2011  2012  2013  
Food products and beverages 751,878 756,174 776,948 
Tobacco products 60,641 59,786 61,587 
Textiles 123,769 119,318 120,047 
Wearing apparel 86,237 79,448 76,576 
Leather products and footwear 39,697 33,001 39,720 
Wood and wood products 35,581 37,152 38,685 
Paper and paper products 51,589 52,857 51,272 
Printing and publishing 25,079 26,663 27,216 
Refined petroleum products 187,741 204,275 238,212 
Chemicals and chemical products 276,316 292,521 306,423 
Rubber and plastic products 238,101 249,869 251,436 
Other non-metallic mineral products 132,648 142,765 152,309 
Basic metals 63,439 63,706 64,456 
Fabricated metal products 96,596 102,063 101,366 
Machinery and equipment 183,337 193,063 207,844 
Office, accounting, and computing machinery 236,557 207,473 198,660 
Electrical machinery and apparatus 94,941 103,385 106,487 
Radio, television, and communication 
equipment and apparatus 105,054 113,560 120,432 
Medical, precision and optical instruments, 
watches and clocks 42,257 40,894 43,628 
Motor vehicles 201,936 322,987 326,045 
Other transport equipment 88,695 95,724 88,684 
Furniture, manufacturing n.e.s. 169,949 179,319 177,390 
Recycling 2,294 2,559 3,002 
Total value added 3,294,332 3,478,562 3,578,425 
% in GDP 29.2% 28.2% 27.7% 
Source: Information provided by the authorities. 
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