WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56  
 
 13 February 2015  
(15-0911)  Page: 1/27  
Committee on Trade and Development 
Aid for Trade    
 
 BACKGROUND NOTE ON AID FOR TRADE AN D INFRASTRUCTURE: FINANCING THE GAP 
COMMUNICATION FROM THE WTO SECRETARIAT1 
Table of contents 
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 3  
2   THE INFRASTRUCTURE GAP ........................................................................................ 3  
2.1   Estimating the Glob al Infrastruc ture Ga p....................................................................... 3  
2.2   Estimates of the Infras tructure Gap by  Region ............................................................... 4  
3   INFRASTRUCTURE AN D TRADE PERFORMANCE ........................................................... 5  
4   AID FOR TRADE AND INFRASTRUCTURE ...................................................................... 8  
5   ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN INFRASTRUCTURE FINANCING ........................ 13  
6   TRADE POLICY ASPECTS OF ATTRAC TING INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT ........... 16  
6.1   General Agreement on Trade in Services ...................................................................... 16 
6.2   Plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement ...................................................... 17 
7   CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................... 18  
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 2 5 
 
Tables 
 
Table 2.1: Estimates of the Global Infrastr ucture Gap by Sector in US$ trillions ......................... 4  
Table 5.1: Impediments to Attracting Priv ate Sector Financing in Infrastr ucture ........................ 13 
Table 6.1: WTO Secretariat Background Notes on GATS and Sectors in which Infrastructure 
Services are Provided ....................................................................................................... 17 
 
Figures 
 
Figure 4.1: Results of the 4th Global Review Monitoring an d Evaluation Ex ercise, 2013 ................ 9  
Figure 4.2: Disbursements of Aid for Tr ade to Infrastructure (US$ millions) .............................. 10 
Figure 4.3: Disbursements of Other Official Flows to Infr astructure (US$  millions) ..................... 10 
Figure 4.4: Disbursement of Aid-for-Trade Infrastructure by Region (US$ millions) .................... 11 
Figure 4.5: Disbursements of Other Offi cial Flows by Region  (US$ millions) .............................. 11 
Figure 4.6: Aid for Trade to Infrastructure by Donor .............................................................. 12 
Figure 4.7: Other Official Flows to Infrastructure by Donor ..................................................... 12 
 
                                               
1 This document has been prepared under the Secret ariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice 
to the positions of Members or to their rights and obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Boxes 
 
Box 3.1: Asian Development Bank Support for Rail Connectivity in Afghanistan .......................... 5  
Box 3.2: African Development Bank Support for Air Transport Projects in Ethiopia ...................... 6  
Box 3.3: Remoteness and the Cost of  Doing Business in  the Pacific .......................................... 7  
Box 3.4: Interchange Cable Network - Connecting Vanuatu to the World ................................... 7  
Box 5.1: Examples of Blen ded Finance Approaches ............................................................... 14 
Box 5.2: Examples of Infrastructu re Project Prepar ation Gr ants .............................................. 15 
Box 5.3: G-20 Global Infr astructure In itiative ...................................................................... 16 
 WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
1.1.  This background note discusses the global in frastructure gap and its impact on the economic 
growth and trade of developing countries. It highlights a range of actions being taken by 
governments, donors and multilateral development banks to close this gap. The analysis builds on 
the conclusions emerging from the 4th Global Review of Aid for Trade: "Connecting to Value 
Chains", and is submitted as a contribution to  the Aid-for-Trade Work Programme for 2014-2015 
in preparation of the 5th Global Review of Aid for Trade. 
1.2.  Some estimate the infrastructure funding gap will grow to US$70 trillion by 2030. Moving 
towards the Sustainable Development Goals will drive this figure still higher – predictions being of US$2.5 trillion needed annually, for basic infrastructure in developing countries alone, over the 
period 2015–2030.  
1.3.  An extensive body of research points to the importance of infrastructure in the export 
performance and trade integration of developi ng countries. Inadequate infrastructure was 
identified as the single most binding constraint for firms to enter or move up value chains in the 
monitoring and evaluation exercise that underpinned the 4
th Global Review of Aid for Trade in 
2013. 
1.4.  The joint 2013 WTO-OECD publication Aid for Trade at a Glance: Connecting to Value Chains 
presented at the 4th Global Review suggests that a 10% increase in Aid infrastructure translates to 
a 2.3% increase in trade to GDP ratio and a 0.3% increase in exports. Aid infrastructure spending 
has increased substantially - by 142% in real terms, from US$9.3 billion in 2006 to US$22.6 billion 
in 2013. In addition, bilateral and multilateral dono rs alike are increasing their efforts to attract 
investment through dedicated infrastructure funds and programmes.  
1.5.  There is a broad realization that public sector financing, domestic, or in the form of 
concessional flows is insufficient to bridge the growing infrastructure gap. Harnessing the 
contribution of the private sector to infrastructure financing is central to the debate on how to finance this gap. In the last two decades, Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have been used as a 
mechanism to leverage greater private investment participation. Other activities include 
non-sovereign loans, equity for companies or funds engaged in developing country infrastructure. Tapping the funds of institutional investors is another option being explored. 
1.6.  Infrastructure investment also has a trade policy dimension.  Opening infrastructure services 
to competition can improve efficiency and help attract investment. The paper ends by examining 
this trade policy dimension through the optic of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA).   
2  THE INFRASTRUCTURE GAP 
2.1  Estimating the Global Infrastructure Gap 2.1.  Data and methodological issues prevent an accurate estimation of the size of the global 
infrastructure financing gap.
2 However, existing research suggests that the gap is wide - and that 
it may be growing. One estimate is that by 2030, US$70 trillion will be needed to build the necessary roads, ports, power and communications infrastructure.
3 Another estimate puts the 
figure at US$57.3 trillion, or 3.5% of global GDP, that will be required over the period 2013 to 
2030 just to keep pace with projected global GDP growth.  The global infrastructure gap estimate 
includes the traditional economic infrastructure investment required for transport (road, rail, ports, 
                                               
2 Uncertainties stem from the fact that data on infrastructure develo pment is limited.  The different 
sources of infrastructure development (i.e. ODA, PPPs, pr ivate investments etc.) have not been captured in a 
single dataset.  
3 G-20, " Increasing investment in infrastructure", Policy Note – Australia G-20, 2014, Available at: 
https://g20.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/In frastructure%20investment%20policy%20note.pdf   WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  and airports), power, water, and telecommunications with road and power accounting for half of 
this total (see Table 2.1 below).4   
Table 2.1: Estimates of the Global Infras tructure Gap by Sector in US$ trillions 
Sector Roads Rail Ports Airports Power Water Telecom Total 
Infrastructure 
Needs  16.6 4.5 0.7 2.0 12.2 11.7 9.5 57.3 
Source:  McKinsey Global Institute analysis based on calculations from OECD, IHS Global Insight, GWI, and 
IEA data. 
 
2.2.  Transitioning to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) currently under discussion adds a 
further dimension to the infrastructure gap.  Annual investment needs in key SDG sectors have 
been estimated at US$3.9 trillion annually for the period 2015-2030. Total investment in economic 
infrastructure in developing countries is estima ted to be currently under US$1 trillion per year. 
This will need to rise to almost US$2.5 trillion annually over the period 2015-2030.5 
2.2  Estimates of the Infrastructure Gap by Region 
2.3.  Sub-Saharan Africa's current annual infrastructure financing shortfall is estimated at some 
US$45 billion.6 An African Development Bank (AfDB) report states that if regional integration is 
pursued effectively and if all countries and lead ers embrace the shared responsibility of the 
Programme for Infrastructure Development (PIDA), by 2040 Africa’s share of world trade will be 
much higher; at least twice today’s share of 2%.7 Africa’s largest deficits are found in power  and 
road sectors .8  Power emerges as a particular limiting infrastructure factor, being cited by more 
than half of firms surveyed by the World Bank in  enterprise surveys as a major business obstacle.9 
2.4.  Asian Development Bank (AsDB) research sugge sts that the Asia and Pacific region also faces 
a major capital shortfall in the next ten years. To maintain current growth, the AsDB estimates 
that at least US$8 trillion needs to be spent on infrastructure.10 This shortfall is particularly 
pronounced in South Asia where infrastructure access issues are pressing - totaling some US$2.5 trillion to ensure basic service delivery.
11 The AsDB estimates that one third of this total 
will have to be spent on transport , one third on electricity, and the remainder on water supply and 
sanitation, solid waste management, telecommunications, and irrigation. An AsDB report suggests 
that women, the poor, and marginalized social groups are particularly negatively impacted by the effects of infrastructure shortages, indicating a hug e inequality of access to infrastructure services 
across physical, poverty and income spaces.
12   
2.5.  In the Latin American and Caribbean region, the infrastructure investment shortfall is 
estimated in the order of US$170 billion per year until 2020.13 The UN Economic Commission for 
                                               
4 Boston Consulting Group, "Bridging the Gap – Meeting the Infrastructure Challenge with PPPs", 2013, 
p. 6. 
5 UNCTAD, "World Investment Report - Investin g in the SDGs: An Action Plan", 2014, p. 140. 
6 Taylor, Nicholas., "Bridging the Global Infrastructure Gap", Australian Institute of International Affairs, 
2013. Available at: http://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/b ridging-the-global-i nfrastructure-gap/   
7 African Development Bank, "Closing the Infrastructu re Gap Vital for Africa’s Transformation", PIDA, 
2014. Available at: http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/up loads/afdb/Documents/Generic-
Documents/PIDA%20brief%20closing%20gap.pdf   
8 Banks, Bill., "Addressing Afri ca’s Infrastructure Deficit" Er nst Young, 2014. Available at:  
http://www.ey.com/GL/en/Industries/Government---Public-Sector/Dynamics---collaborating-for-
growth_Addressing-Africas -infrastructure-deficit   
9 African Development Bank, "Financing PI DA Projects", PIDA, 2014. Available at: 
http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/PIDA%20brief%20financing.pdf   
10 Nakao, Takehiko, "Bridging Asia’s Infrastructur e Gap", G20 – The Australia  Summit: Brisbane, 2014, 
p. 82.  
11 Biller D. et al , "Sharing Prosperity by Closin g South Asia’s Infrastructur e Gap", Economic Premise, 
Number 149, 2014, p. 1. 
 12 Crouch, G., "South Asia's $2.5 Trillion Infrastruc ture Gap", The World Bank Group, 2014. Available 
at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/04/02/south-asia-trillion-infrastructure-gap   
13 Perrotti, D.E., Sánchez, R.J., "La brecha de infraestructu ra en América Latina y el Caribe", Serie: 
Recursos naturales e infraestructura, UN-CEPAL, 2011, p. 7.   WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), for instance, warns that ports in South America will 
reach their capacity by 2020 unless investments are made in infrastructure.  
3  INFRASTRUCTURE AND TRADE PERFORMANCE 3.1.  An extensive body of research has evolved pointing to the importance of infrastructure in 
export performance and the trade integration of developing countries.
14 The Aid-for-Trade 
Initiative has further sharpened focus on this linkage, drawing the attention of the trade and development community to the relationship between infrastructure and trade integration - a 
relationship that enjoys a strong basis, both in economic research and the results reported from 
Aid-for-Trade projects.
15  
3.2.  Roads are obviously critical to trade. Buys, Deichmann, and Wheeler (2010), in a study for 
the African Development Bank (AfDB), undertook an analysis of road networks in Africa. 
Estimating city-level gravity model averages of trade that could occur, given distance and 
incomes, and using actual cost and engineering data for road construction, they simulated the 
effect of creating a feasible continent network transport through upgrading. Their baseline 
estimates indicate that an investment of some US$20 billion, together with US$1 billion in annual 
maintenance, would generate about US$250 billion in  overland trade over 15 years. Similarly, Ben 
Shepherd and John Wilson (2008) used gravity model simulations for Europe and Central Asia to 
reach the conclusion that an "ambitious but feasible" road upgrade could increase trade by 50%. 
Box 3.1 describes the impact of Asian Development Bank (AsDB) investment in rail connectivity in Afghanistan.
16  
Box 3.1: Asian Development Bank Support for Rail Connectivity in Afghanistan 
 
The Asian Development Bank (AsDB) has helped open up Afghanistan to increased trade and 
commerce through the construction of a new rail system. The Project represents a first phase of a 
larger rail network planned across the north and other parts of the country, including links to 
Herat, Tajikistan, and Pakistan. It expands the existing transport network in Afghanistan and 
improves substantially internal and international connectivity. The Project is part of the Transport 
Strategy and Action Plan agreed under the Cent ral Asia Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC) 
Program.  
 
The first phase of the Project involves the construction of a new 75 kilometre railway line between 
Hairatan at the border with Uzbekistan and Mazar-e-Sharif in Afghanistan. Hairatan is 
Afghanistan's most important dry and river port, acting as the gateway for almost half of the 
country’s total imports. It adds capacity to two transport corridors under CAREC and is opening 
up alternative routes of supply for national and international trade, as well as for humanitarian 
relief to Afghanistan.  
 
AsDB research suggests that more than 7 million people have benefited from the new railway 
through jobs and increased trade. This has includ ed freight operators, traders, businesses, and 
local communities served by the railway. Employme nt in the Project area has grown by more than 
10% per year since 2010. About 1,200 people are currently employed in logistics and unloading 
operations, while more jobs are expected to emerge in logistics services at railroad stations. The 
benefits are spreading throughout Afghanistan as the railway promotes economic growth, as well 
as regional trade and cooperation. The lower tran sport costs have reduced the price of goods and 
have resulted in higher quality goods coming into the country.  
 
By 2012, freight transported by train had reached about 6,500 tons per day, and the volume of 
vehicle traffic on the old, overburdened road had decreased. The freight travel time from Hairatan 
to Mazar-e-Sharif had been cut from two hours by road to one hour by rail, while carbon dioxide 
emissions from heavy vehicles had dropped from 2.3 million tons to 1.7 million tons per year. As 
goods move efficiently back and forth across th e border, businesses are enjoying the benefits. 
Local companies registered growth from abou t 15% to 65% between 2009 and 2012 in the Balkh 
                                               
14 See for example the World Bank World Development Report 1994 "Infrastructure for Development". 
15 Analysis in this section draws extensively on WTO-OECD, "Aid for Trade at a Glance 2011: Showing 
Results", Chapter 3. 
16 WTO-OECD, "Aid for Trade at a Glance 2013: Co nnecting to Value Chains",  Chapter 4, p. 147. WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Province. The value of trade between Afghanista n and Uzbekistan reached US$732 million in 2011 
and 2012, up from US$170 million in 2008. The value of Afghanistan's total trade was $6.8 billion 
in 2011 and 2012, an increase from US$3.5 billion in 2008. 
 
Source: Asian Development Bank, WTO/OECD case story submission, 2015 
 
3.3.  Likewise, efficient ports are essential to trade. Wilson, Mann, and Otsuki (2003) in their study 
of trade facilitation in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) used a measure of port efficiency (an amalgamation of port efficiency, port facilities and air transport efficiency) in a 
gravity model and from those conducted some simulations; they found that bringing 
below-average countries on the index up to the APEC average would produce US$117 billion in additional trade within APEC (2003).  
3.4.  Similar conclusions were reported in a Commonwealth Secretariat study in Indonesia that 
suggests a 1% increase in road investments could be associated with a 0.3% decrease in incidence of poverty.
17 Improved roads and the ability to transport goods provided opportunities for those 
with skills and/or savings to invest in small businesses and small stores in the village, or 
sometimes to become intermediaries, selling the v illage's products to nearby market centres. A 
study by Cook et al (2005: Assessing the Impact  of Transport and Energy Infrastructure on 
Poverty Reduction) examined the impact of tr ansport and energy infrastructure on poverty 
reduction in the case of China, India and Tha iland. The study found that there were enormous 
gains from infrastructure improvement due to th e business opportunities provided to the local 
people.  Box 3.2 below shows similar results also for projects to support air transport connectivity. 
Box 3.2: African Development Bank Support for Air Transport Projects in Ethiopia 
 
Developing transport infrastructure and air transport services is a core partnership area for the 
Government of Ethiopia and the African Develo pment Bank (AfDB) to strengthen Ethiopia’s 
competitiveness in regional and world markets, and regional integration. AfDB support has helped 
enhance Ethiopian Airlines’ capacity to: (1) assemble and test aircraft engines; (2) operate an 
aviation academy to meet its own as well as third-party training needs (pilot training as well as 
training in aircraft maintenance and repair  services); (3) meet the growing demands for 
passengers and freight transport on existing routes; (4) expand its domestic and international 
destinations with regional hubs in East, West and South Africa. The growth in the operation of the 
Ethiopian Airlines is due in part to the development of the Addis Ababa Bole International airport. 
Through AfDB support, the airside infrastructure and the communication systems of the Bole 
International airport have been expanded and upgraded with new facilities (runway with 
taxiways, the air traffic control tower with associated communications, navigation aid and power 
supply systems) and land services (new international passenger terminal). These facilities, which 
meet the International Civil Aviation Authority standards, have attracted foreign airlines and 
associated traffic. 
 
Source: African Development Bank, OECD/WTO case story submission, 2015 
 
3.5.  Similar conclusions are found in studies that measure the effects of multiple types of 
infrastructure together to examine the collective impact on trade. For example, Nordas and Piermartini (2004) look at the quality of ports, th e density of airports with paved runways, and the 
density of internet users and of mobile phone sub scribers. They showed that port infrastructure 
matters for all sectors, while timeliness and access to telecommunications matters most in the clothing and automotive sector. Limao and Venables (2001) studied the relationship between 
roads and telecommunications and shipping costs, and then the relations between shipping costs 
and trade volumes. They found that an improvement in transport and communication infrastructure from the median score on surveys to the highest 25
th percentile is associated with a 
decrease in transport costs by 12% - and this in turn is associated with an increase in trade 
volumes of 28%. Moreover, they show that landlocked countries face higher transport cost since 
                                               
17 Te Velde, D. and Razzaque, M., "A ssessing Aid for Trade: Effectiven ess, Current Issues and Future 
Directions", Commonwealth Secretariat, Overseas Development Institute, 2013, p. 281.  WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  their ability to trade depends also on the infrastructure of the neighbouring transit countries. For 
example, in East Africa, goods bound for landlocked countries faced the time equivalent of at least three clearance processes of coastal countries. "Poor infrastructure accounts for 40% of predicted transport costs for coastal countries and up to 60% for landlocked countries".  
3.6.  Other studies cite similar conclusions on the role of infrastructure in landlocked countries.  
For example, landlocked countries face higher tr ansport costs since their ability to trade depends 
also on the infrastructure of the neighbouring transit countries. The World Bank has estimated that 
the cost of farm inputs in landlocked Africa can be up to ten times higher than other African 
countries. Transportation costs from the farm-to-gate account for approximately 80% of the producer price of exports from Rwanda.
18 Another World Bank report suggests that "a 50% 
reduction in transport costs in Mozambique would increase agricultural GDP in Malawi by three per 
cent."19 As Box 3.3 below highlights, geographical remoteness can also add significantly to the cost 
of doing business.   
Box 3.3: Remoteness and the Cost of Doing Business in the Pacific 
 
The Pacific region is perhaps the most inaccessible region in the world with very limited trade 
routes. The islands are spread out across the Pacific Ocean and are separated from each other in 
several instances by thousands of kilometres. The geographical isolation makes the cost of 
transportation prohibitive, thereby affecting the competitiveness of Pacific exports in major 
markets. Data from the World Bank confirms that the cost of doing business in the Pacific Island 
Countries is among the highest in the world contributing to low levels of foreign direct investment 
and limited participation in international trade, even though they are beneficiaries of a number of 
trade agreements and initiatives, including SPAR TECA, which is a non-reciprocal trade agreement 
between the Pacific Island Countries (PICs), Australia and New Zealand, and the Everything But 
Arms initiative of the European Union. 
 
Source: Office of the Chief Trade Ad viser for Pacific Island Countries, WTO/OECD case story submission, 2015. 
 
3.7.  Information and Communication Technology (ICT) also plays a crucial role in facilitating the 
fragmentation of production and the rise of global  value chains (GVCs) by reducing services trade 
costs and by allowing more and more tasks to be traded online. A World Bank study claims that a 10% increase in broadband penetration provides an additional 1.38% boost to GDP growth. The 
same increase in internet penetration, mobile penetration and fixed line penetration provides a 
1.12%, 0.81% and 0.73% boost in GDP growth respectively.
20 Another study concludes that 
telecommunications infrastructure is a significant determinant of bilateral trade levels.21  Box 3.4 
demonstrates the importance of ICT connectivity on the trade in goods and services in Vanuatu. 
Box 3.4: Interchange Cable Network - Connecting Vanuatu to the World 
The Interchange Cable Network is a multi-million  submarine cable project that connects Vanuatu 
via Fiji to the world. The 1259kilometre cable projec t is the first underwater cable to Vanuatu. The 
project is a private-public partnership investment between Interchange Vanuatu Limited, a local 
telecommunication company, and the Government  of the Republic of Vanuatu plus other 
stakeholders. The total costs of installation and connection of the submarine cable was  
$US30 million, in which the Government committed through a pre-purchase agreement to the 
cable in support of the project.  
 
Since the arrival of the cable on 14 January 2014, all four major internet service providers were 
connected by April 2014, and users are now enjoying high speed internet like anywhere else in the 
developed world. In November 2014, the Telecommunications and Radio Communications 
                                               
18 Diop, N., Brenton, P. and Asarkay, Y., "Trade Co sts, Export Development and Poverty in Rwanda", 
World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3784, 2005.  
19 World Bank, "Africa can Help Feed Africa: Removi ng barriers to regional trade in food staples", 
Poverty Reduction and Economic Management, Africa Region, 2012, p. xii. 
20 Broadband Commission for Digital Development, "Broadband: Platform for Progress", International 
Telecommunications Union and UNESCO, 2011, p.6.   
21 WTO-OECD, "Aid for Trade at a Glan ce 2011: Showing Results", p.124.  WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Regulator reported that price of broadband intern et had significantly dropped, by at least 70%, 
and is likely to drop further as demand for internet increases. The Government’s Universal Access 
Policy aims to connect 98% of just over 270,000 of  Vanuatu’s population, spread over 83 islands, 
to telecommunications services by 1 January 2018.  The arrival of the cable is a contributing 
element to reaching this objective.  
 
Telecommunication services contribute to approxim ately 5% of Vanuatu’s GDP, and the arrival of 
the submarine cable will boost dependent services such as Agriculture, Trade, Tourism, Finance, 
and others. Interchange Vanuatu Limited plans to install three more redundant cables, one to New 
Caledonia, one to Solomon Islands and one to Papua New Guinea. The proposed new cable project 
will be ready for service by June 2016. Vanuatu will continue to be the competitive 
ICT/Telecommunications hub of the South Pacific region. 
 
Source:  Office of the Government Ch ief Information Officer, Prime Minist er's Office Vanuatu, OECD/WTO case 
story submission, 2015. 
 
3.8.  Econometric analysis of Aid-for-Trade fina ncing dedicated to infrastructure development has 
highlighted the positive impact on trade performance.  Research by Mariana Vijil and           Laurent Wagner suggests that infrastructure is  a highly significant determinant of export 
performance.
22 Their research concludes that a 10% increase in aid for infrastructure 
commitments per capita in developing countries leads to an average 2.34% increase in the exports 
over GDP ratio - equivalent to a 2.71% reduction in tariff and non-tariff barriers. These results highlight the high potential impact of Aid-for-Trade on developing countries’ export performance 
throughout the infrastructure channel.  A 2010 World Bank Policy Research Paper by Emmanuel 
Pinto Moreira also highlighted how Aid for Trade programmes can help to magnify the growth benefits that developing countries can reap from trade reform and global integration, with a 
special emphasis on the Caribbean region.
23  
3.9.  The joint WTO-OECD publication Aid for Tr ade at a Glance 2013: Connecting to Value Chains 
presented at the 4th Global Review confirmed that a 10% increase in aid for infrastructure 
translates to a 2.3% increase to trade to GDP ratio and a 0.3% increase in exports.24 
4  AID FOR TRADE AND INFRASTRUCTURE 
4.1.  Developing countries and their development partners have consistently identified inadequate 
infrastructure as one of the most binding constraint in Aid-for-Trade monitoring.   Inadequate 
infrastructure was identified as the single most binding constraint for firms to enter or move up 
value chains in the joint monitoring and evaluation exercise that underpinned the 4th Global 
Review of Aid for Trade in 2013. Figure 4.1 summarizes the results of the monitoring and 
evaluation exercise. 
                                               
22 Vijil, M. and Wagner, L., "Does Aid for Trad e Enhance Export Perform ance? Investigating the 
Infrastructure Channel", World Economy, 35, 2012, pp. 838–868. 
23 Moreira, E. Pinto., "Aid for Trad e, Infrastructure, and the Growth Ef fects of Trade Reform; Issues and 
Implications for Caribbean Countries", World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 5265, June 2010. 
24 WTO-OECD "Aid for Trade at a Glance 2013: Connecting to Value Chains", p.158. WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Figure 4.1: Results of the 4th Global Review Monitoring and Evaluation Exercise, 2013 
 
 
Source: Aid for Trade at a Glance 2013: Connecting to Value Chains 
4.2.  Building upon the definitions used in the Joint WTO/OECD Database, the Aid-for-Trade Task 
force identified "Trade-related infrastructure, including: Physical infrastructure" as a category within the scope of Aid for Trade. The OECD uses the following three categories to track development assistance for economic infrastructure: 
 Transport and Storage : Transport policy and administrative management, road transport, 
rail transport, water transport, air transport,  storage, education and training in transport 
and storage. 
 
 Communications : Communication policy and administrative management, 
telecommunications, Radio/television/print media, information and communication 
technology (ICT). 
 
 Energy :   Energy policy and administrative management, power generation (renewable and 
non-renewable sources), electrical transmission/distribution, gas distribution, power plants 
(oil, gas, coal, nuclear, hydro-electric), geothermal energy, solar energy, wind power, 
ocean power, biomass, energy education/training and energy research.  
4.3.  Figure 4.2 below shows Aid-for-Trade infrastructure disbursements over the period 
2006-2013. Aid-for-Trade infrastructure increase d by approximately 142% from US$9.3 billion in WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  2006 to US$22.6 billion in 2013.25 The figure also provides breakdowns of infrastructure spending 
by purpose area (transport and storage, energy  and communications). A large share of spending 
went to transport and storage. In 2013 for exampl e, 58% of total disbursements to infrastructure 
went to transport and storage followed by 38% to energy and 4% to communications.  
Figure 4.2: Disbursements of Aid for Tr ade to Infrastructure (US$ millions)  
 
Source: OECD (2015)  
4.4.  Figure 4.3 below provides a breakdown of Other Official Flows (OOFs) dedicated to 
infrastructure financing.  Other Official Flows are loans that are not concessional enough to qualify 
as aid, but that are provided at a discount to market rates. OOFs spending on infrastructure 
jumped over 330% from US$3.8 billion in 2006 to US$16.5 billion in 2013. While transport and storage was the sector that typically received the largest share of OOFs, the energy sector 
experienced a sharp rise in disbursements in 2009, surpassing spending to transport and storage. 
This surge in OOFs in 2009 can be explained by a major World Bank loan of US$1.5 billion to Mexico. 
Figure 4.3: Disbursements of  Other Official Flows to In frastructure (US$ millions)  
 
Source: OECD (2015) 
4.5.  Figure 4.4 gives the regional breakdown of Aid-for-Trade infrastructure. Asia was the largest 
recipient of Aid-for-Trade infrastructure over the period 2006-2013 closely followed by Africa. Both 
regions experienced increases in spending overtime accounting for 48% and 38% of total 
Aid-for-Trade infrastructure in 2013 respectively.    
                                               
25 Aid-for-Trade figures may be under estimated due to the lack of reporting to the OECD Development 
Assistance Committee (DAC) by  non-DAC Members particularly South-south providers. WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Figure 4.4: Disbursement of Aid-for-Trad e Infrastructure by Region (US$ millions) 
 
Source: OECD (2015) 
4.6.  OOFs spending in infrastructure has mainly benefited Asia (except for the 2009 surge in the 
Americas) followed by the Americas, Africa and Europe. Figure 4.5 shows that OOFs spending on 
infrastructure has been relatively volatile over the years in all regions.   
Figure 4.5: Disbursements of Other Official Flows by Region (US$ millions) 
 
Source: OECD (2015) 
4.7.  Figure 4.6 provides a pie chart of Aid-for- Trade infrastructure by donors over the period 
2011-2013. The largest donors for this period were Japan, the United States, the World Bank 
(International Development Association), EU institutions, and Germany. These donors accounted for 68% of total Aid-for-Trade disbursements to infrastructure – a decline of 10% as compared to 
the period 2006-2008.  WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Figure 4.6: Aid for Trade to Infrastructure by Donor   
2011-2013 
 
Source: OECD (2015) 
4.8.  Figure 4.6 illustrates that OOFs to infrastructure were mainly provided by multilateral 
development banks.  For 2011-2013, the World Bank (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) accounted for 31% of the total spent, followed by the Asian Development Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the Republic of Korea and the African Development Bank. This 
period also saw an increase in OOF spending by other donors as compared to 2006-2008.  
Figure 4.7: Other Official Flows to Infrastructure by Donor 
2011-2013 
 
Source: OECD (2015) 
4.9.  Annex 1 provides an overview of infrastr ucture development programmes run by multilateral 
and bilateral donors.   
4.10.  In addition to infrastructure development support reported by donors and multilateral 
development banks, South-South partners are growin g their activities in this area.  For example, 
China is offering grants, interest-free loans and concessional loans to help recipient countries with 
much needed infrastructure construction. Between 2010-2012, China helped build 156 economic 
infrastructure projects - including the construction of over 70 transport projects.26 In 
October 2014, China signed a Memorandum of Understanding on establishing an Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank together with 20 other nations.
27 China has contributed US$40 
billion to the Silk Road Fund.28  China is also one of five partner countries establishing the New 
                                               
26 Information Office of the State Council, "China 's Foreign Aid (2014)", July 2014.  Available at:  
http://www.scio.gov.cn/zxbd/wz/Document/1374915/1374915.htm    
27 MOFCOM, "21 Asian Countries Sign MOU on Establ ishing Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank". 
Available at: http://sydney2.mofcom.gov.cn/article/chinanews/201410/20141000772951.shtml   
28 MOFCOM, "China pledges 40 bln USD for Silk Road Fund". Available at: 
http://lb2.mofcom.gov.cn/article/news/201411/20141100799879.shtml   WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Development Bank.29 The China-Africa Development Fund reportedly invested nearly US$540 
million in 27 projects in Africa.30  
5  ENGAGING THE PRIVATE SECTOR  IN INFRASTRUCTURE FINANCING 
5.1.  A 2010 study concluded that some 55-75% of infrastructure financing is typically paid by the 
public sector and citizens of developing countries themselves, with 20-30% financed by the private 
sector.31 Official development assistance accounts for 5-8% of infrastructure financing in 
developing countries.  Increasing the contribution of the private sector to infrastructure financing 
to close the infrastructure gap dominates the debate on financing. Table 5.1 below summarizes 
typical difficulties faced in attracting priv ate investment for infrastructure financing.32  
Table 5.1: Impediments to Attracting Priv ate Sector Financing in Infrastructure 
Categories Barriers 
Investment Opportunities •Lack of political commitment over the long term  
•Regulatory instability  •Fragmentation of the mark et among different levels 
of governments  •No clarity on investment opportunities  
•High bidding costs  
•Infrastructure investment  opportunities in the 
market are perceived as too risky 
Investor Capability •Lack of expertise in the infrastructure sector 
•Problem of scale of pension funds  
•Mis-alignment of interests between infrastructure 
funds and pension funds •Regulatory Barriers  
•Short-Termism of investors 
Conditions for Investment •Negative perception of the infrastructure value •Lack 
of transparency in the Infrastructure sector  •Shortage of data on infrastructure projects 
Source: OECD Pension Fund Investment in Infrastructure: Policy Actions, Working Paper 2011.  
5.2.  Total private sector participation in infrastructure financing is estimated by the UN to have 
reached US$185 billion in 2012, with some US$87 billion going to Latin America and the 
Caribbean.33 Both in public sector and official develo pment assistance, there is a growing emphasis 
on attracting private sector investors through (PPPs). In the last two decades, PPPs have been 
used as a mechanism to leverage greater private investment participation as they exploit 
synergies and realize economies of scale. PPPs allow governments to access specialized skills, innovations and new technologies associated with infrastructure development, operation and 
                                               
29 MOFCOM, "BRICS to Establish Development Bank, Reserve Arrangement". Available at: 
http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/zt_brics2014/news/201407/20140700668246.shtml   
30 World Bank Group, "Practical Solutions and Mo dels for Addressing Obst acles to Institutional 
Investment in Infrastructure in Developing Countries", prepared by the Staff of th e World Bank Group for the 
G20 Investment and Infrastructure Working Group, January 2014, p.3.  
31 Estache A., "Infrastructure finance in developing  countries: An overview", EIB Papers, Volume 
15(2), 2010, p. 72. 
32 World Bank Group, "Practical Solutions and Mo dels for Addressing Obst acles to Institutional 
Investment in Infrastructure in Developing Countries", prepared by the Staff of th e World Bank Group for the 
G-20 Investment and Infrastructure Working Group, January 2014, p.5.  
33 United Nations, "Mapping of financial flows at the sector level: A UNTT WG cont ribution in response to 
a request from the Co- Facilitators for cluster 1", Intergovernmental Co mmittee of Experts on Sustainable 
Development Financing, November, 2013, p. 28.  WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  maintenance. Despite record growth in PPPs, private participation still remains limited in many 
developing countries.34  
5.3.  Transport-related PPPs have been the most common within developing regions - 
predominantly through concessions and Greenfie ld projects. Studies claim that PPPs, when 
managed effectively, do not only provide the much  needed new sources of capital, but also bring 
significant discipline to project selection, construction, and operation.35   
5.4.  An OECD study found that, of those that provided support to the private sector, 15% of 
official development finance to infrastructure by multilateral development banks and bilateral 
donors went to private investment in infrastructure in 2011. Activities included non-sovereign loans or equity for companies or funds engaged in developing country infrastructure.
36 "Blended 
finance" approaches (approaches that pool public and private resources and expertise), are one 
approach that development partners have sought to promote private sector engagement in 
infrastructure financing.  Box 5.1 below provides two examples of blended finance schemes.  
Box 5.1: Examples of Bl ended Finance Approaches37 
The EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund blends gr ants from EU member States and the European 
Commission with long-term loan finance from eligible public and private financiers. Its main 
objective is to promote investment in regional infrastructure in Africa, thereby contributing to 
poverty reduction and increasing access to transport and communication services, water, and 
energy. In 2012, it committed approximately US$113 million for 17 projects primarily in the 
energy and transport sectors, leveraging approximately US$1.6 billion of investment. 
 
Ten development partners, including Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK, provide 
equity finance to the Private Infrastructure Deve lopment Group (PIDG)’s eight facilities to fund 
early-stage capital, long-term debt finance, local currency guarantees, grants and technical 
assistance for developing country infrastructure. In 2012, PIDG facilities committed a total of 
US$239 million to nine infrastructure projects, leveraging finance of 24 times the amount. 
Activities included a cold storage facility in Vietnam, cleaner fuel in Peru, and a container terminal 
in Nigeria.38 
 
5.5.  Another approach being taken is to attract institutional investors in infrastructure. 
Institutional investors pool financing and invest in securities, real property and other investment 
assets.  Typical investors include banks, insuranc e companies, retirement or pension funds, hedge 
funds, investment advisors and mutual funds.  The flow of institutional capital into infrastructure 
assets is currently limited. For example, institutional investors in OECD-member countries, with 
over US$79 trillion in assets under management (AUM), have only around 1% of their portfolio exposure in infrastructure.
39 A supportive enabling environment is essential for reducing risks and 
encouraging private investment.  
5.6.  Attracting major institutional investors is dependent on the investment climate. A more 
favourable investment climate which helps to build confidence to invest can help in attracting private investment. Lower income countries, in particular, require substantial improvements in 
their legal, institutional and regulatory framework. Government-led initiatives include: helping to 
set up an investment platform; providing seed capital for infrastructure funds; enabling regulation for long term investment; and assisting with bank financing for long-term project finance. In order 
                                               
34 Kingombe, C. and Sindzingre, A. , "Infrastructure Financing Options: New Sources of Infrastructure 
Financing", 2012, pp. 9. 
35 Boston Consulting Group, "Bridging the Gap: Me eting the Infrastructure Challenge with PPPs", 2013, 
p.3. 
36 Miyamoto, k. and Biousse, K., "Offi cial Support For Private Sector Participation in Developing Country 
Infrastructure", OECD Development Co-operation Working Papers No.19, 2014, p.12.  
37 Ibid, p.16.  
38 Private Infrastructure Development Group, "Case Studies". Available at: 
http://www.pidg.org/ impact/case-studies   
39 World Bank Group, "Practical Solutions and Mo dels for Addressing Obst acles to Institutional 
Investment in Infrastructure in Developing Countries", Prepared by the Staff of th e World Bank Group for the 
G-20 Investment and Infrastructure Working Group, January 2014, p.2. WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  to effectively deploy the pooled private capital toward infrastructure investment, it has been 
suggested that well-developed long-term bond mark ets are essential. With financial and regulatory 
policy initiatives in place, a deep and robust debt capital market can be created.40 The World Bank 
Group has been providing extensive support to investment climate reforms — having supported 
over the period 2007-2013, 819 projects with investment climate interventions in 119 countries for 
a total estimated value of US$3.7 billion.41 
5.7.  A commonly faced problem in this is a lack of bankable projects. For example, the OECD 
estimated that project preparation costs in Africa  average between 5%-10% of total project costs 
and planning has not been sufficient.42 Various approaches are being taken by donors and 
multilateral development banks to overcome these issues.  Examples are given in Box 5.2 below.   
Box 5.2: Examples of Infrastruc ture Project Preparation Grants 
The NEPAD Infrastructure Project Preparation Faci lity (NEPAD-IPPF) Special Fund aims to assist 
African countries, Regional Economic Communiti es (RECs), specialized agencies and related 
institutions by providing grant resources for: (i) preparing high quality and viable 
regional/continental infrastructure projects with a view to requesting financing from public and 
private sources; (ii) developing a consensus and partnership for project implementation; and (iii) 
promoting infrastructure projects and programs aimed at enhancing regional integration and 
trade. To date, a total of 43 projects have be en approved for total commitments of US$29.469 
million across regions. Disbursement has increased from 20% in 2007 to reach 49% of committed 
funds by the end of 2010, reflecting the implemen tation level on the ground. The preparation of 16 
of the 43 projects has been completed and some of those are under physical implementation (an 
investment worth more than US$5 billion)  as a result of NEPAD-IPPF support.43 
 
The Inter-American Development Bank (IaDB) is recognizing the lack of funding for project 
financing and preparation as a major bottleneck for the much-needed scaling up of infrastructure 
investment in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In order to help plug this gap, the IaDB has 
created the Infrastructure Fund (InfraFund). The In fraFund is dedicated to assisting public, private 
and mixed-capital entities in LAC in the identifi cation, development and preparation of bankable 
and sustainable infrastructure projects that have the potential of reaching financial closure.44 
InfraFund, for example, financed studies to conc lude the structuring of the project and prepare 
models of tender documents for the Metropolitan Express BRT Corridor of Rio de Janeiro project, 
including an environmental analysis of the project as a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), 
exploring the possibility of obtaining carbon credits for reductions in CO2 emissions. 
 
5.8.  Under the Australian Presidency, the G-20 worked on a multi-year approach to leverage 
greater private sector investment, by identifyin g and implementing country-specific actions to 
improve policy and institutional settings and make countries more attractive to potential investors 
and to facilitate the flow of savings to productive investments, including easing regulatory barriers to financing and developing local capital markets.  In September 2014, G-20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors agreed to a Global Infrastructure Initiative described in Box 5.3 below.  
                                               
40 Deloitte & ASSOCHAM India, "Funding the Infrastructure Investment Gap", 2013, p. 23. 
41 Evaluation Cooperation Group, "Investment Climat e Reforms: An Independen t Evaluation of World 
Bank Group Support to Reforms of Bu siness Regulations". Available at: 
http://www.ecgnet.org/document/investment-climate-reforms-independent-evaluation-world-bank-group-
support-reforms-business    
42 Wentworth, L., "Financing of Infrastructure", PE RISA Series: Infrastructure, European Centre for 
Development Policy Management, 2013, p.2.  
43 African Development Bank " NEPAD Infrastructur e Project Preparation Facility (NEPAD-IPPF)", 
Available at: http://www.afdb.org/en/topics-an d-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/nepad-infrastructure-project-
preparation-facility-nepad-ippf/   
44 Inter-American Development Bank, "Transportation Initiative: Infrafund". Available at: 
http://www.iadb.org/en/topics/transportation/infrafund,1635.html    WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Box 5.3: G-20 Global Infr astructure Initiative 
The Global Infrastructure Initiative is a multi-year programme to support public and private 
investment in quality infrastructure by improving domestic investment environments, notably 
through implementation of the strategies in the Brisbane Action Plan.  The G-20 agreed on a set of 
voluntary leading practices to promote quality investment and to facilitate long-term financing 
from institutional investors, including through voluntary implementation of the G-20/OECD High-
Level Principles of Long-Term Investment Financing by Institutional Investors.  Actions to lower 
barriers to investment, increase the availability of investment-ready projects, help match potential 
investors with projects and improve policy de livery were agreed up on, including through: 
 developing a knowledge-sharing network to aggregate and share information on 
infrastructure projects and financing between governments, international organizations, 
development banks, national infrastructure institutions and the private sector; 
 addressing key data gaps that matter to investors; 
 developing effective approaches to implement the voluntary G-20 Leading Practices on 
Promoting and Prioritising Quality Investment, including model documentation covering 
project identification, preparation and procurement; 
 building the capacity of officials to improve institutional arrangements for infrastructure by 
sharing best practice approaches; and 
 enhancing investment opportunities by developing a consolidated database of infrastructure 
projects, connected to national and relevant multilateral development bank databases, to 
help match potential investors with projects. 
Establishing a Global Infrastructure HubSource: 
http://www.g20.utoronto.ca/2014/g20_note_global_infrastructure_initiative_hub.pdf  
6  TRADE POLICY ASPECTS OF ATTRAC TING INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 
6.1.  The World Bank's World Development Report  of 1994 examined the theme of "Infrastructure 
for Development". The report argued that "infrastructure can deliver major benefits in economic 
growth, poverty alleviation, and environmental sustainability but only when it provides services 
that respond to effective demand and does so efficiently.  Service is the goal and the measure of development in infrastructure. The provision of infrastructure needs to be conceived and run as a 
service industry that responds to customer demand.  Competition gives consumers choices for 
better meeting their demands and puts pressure on suppliers to be efficient and accountable to users".  
6.2.  Two WTO agreements have particular relevance for infrastructure and the services it 
provides. The aim of both agreements, the multila teral General Agreement on Trade in Services 
(GATS) and the plurilateral Agreement on Gove rnment Procurement (GPA), is to stimulate 
competition by opening domestic markets to foreign suppliers on a non-discriminatory basis. 
Further liberalization of trade in services, including infrastructure services, is being discussed as 
part of the Doha Development Agenda.   
6.1  General Agreement on Trade in Services 
6.3.  During the Uruguay Round, WTO Members recognized the growing importance of trade in 
services for the growth and development of the world economy – the GATs was established with a 
view to the expansion of services trade und er conditions of transparency, progressive 
liberalization, and as a means of promoting the economic growth of all trading partners and the 
development of developing countries.  
6.4.  Each WTO Member is required to have a Sc hedule of Specific Commitments which identifies 
the specific services for which the Member guarantees levels of market access and national 
treatment, in accordance with any conditions and limitations that may be attached. The Schedule 
may also be used to assume a dditional commitments regarding, for example, the implementation 
of specified standards or regulatory principles. Commitments are undertaken with respect to each 
of the four different modes of service supply.   WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  6.5.  Background Notes on various services sub-sectors that relate to infrastructure and 
infrastructure services were prepared by the WT O Secretariat. Table 6.1 provides a list of the 
Background Notes. 
Table 6.1: WTO Secretariat Background Notes on GATS and Sectors in which 
Infrastructure Services are Provided 
Architectural and Engineering Services S/C/W/303 
Air Transport Services S/C/W/163/ 
Construction Services S/C/W/302 
Energy Services S/C/W/311 
Logistics Services S/C/W/317 
Maritime Transport Services S/C/W/315 
Postal and Courier Services S/C/W/319 
Road Freight Transport Services S/C/W/324 
Telecommunications S/C/W/299 
Source: WTO Secretariat compilation. 
6.6.  The GATS Agreement committed Member governments to undertake negotiations on specific issues and to enter into successive rounds of negotiations to progressively liberalize trade in 
services. Services negotiations started officially in early 2000 under the auspices of the Council for Trade in Services. In March 2001, the Services Co uncil fulfilled a key element in the negotiating 
mandate by establishing the negotiating guidelines and procedures. The Doha Declaration 
endorsed the work already done, and reaffirmed the negotiating guidelines and procedures. The 
Guidelines underlined the following objectives for Services negotiations; (a) progressive liberalization as enshrined in relevant GATS provisions; (b) appropriate flexibility for developing 
countries, with special priority to be given to least developed countries; and (c) reference to the 
needs of small- and medium-sized service suppliers; particularly of developing countries, commitment to respect "the existing structure and principles of the GATS" (e.g. the bottom-up 
approach to scheduling and the four modes of supply).  
6.7.  In December 2011, the WTO Ministerial Conference adopted a waiver which allowed WTO 
Members to deviate from their most-favoured nation obligation of non-discrimination in order to 
provide preferential treatment to  services and service suppliers from least developed countries 
(LDCs). Of the 160 WTO Members, 34 are LDCs wh o stand to benefit from preferential treatment 
designed to promote their trade in those sectors an d modes of supply that are of particular export 
interest to them. In December 2013, the LDC waiver was operationalized as part of the "Bali 
Package". A collective request by the WTO LDC Gr oup was submitted in July 2014 with 74 services 
sectors for Member States to consider.  At a high-level meeting of the WTO Services Council on    5 February 2015, Members discussed measures whic h would support the growth of services trade 
in least developed countries by providing their se rvices exports with preferential treatment.   
6.8.  Simultaneously, the Trade in Services Ag reement (TiSA) is being negotiated by 24 WTO 
Members of the World Trade Organization (WTO) who are said to account for 70% of total trade in 
services. TiSA is based on the GATS, which involves all WTO Members. The key provisions of the 
GATS – scope, definitions, market access, national  treatment and exemptions – are also found in 
TiSA. TiSA aims at further opening up markets and improving rules in areas such as licensing, financial services, telecommunications, e-commerce, maritime transport, and professionals moving 
abroad temporarily to provide services. 
6.9.  WTO Members agreed to set July 2015 as the new deadline for agreeing a work programme 
for completing the Doha Round of negotiations as a whole. Negotiations on trade in services 
resumed on 17 December 2014. 
6.2  Plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement 
6.10.  The Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA) is a plurilateral agreement, housed 
within the framework of the WTO and entered into force on 1 January 1996. The Agreement was WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  the subject of a renegotiation, and after more than a decade of negotiations, the revised GPA 
entered into force in April 2014. The Agreement pr ovides that signatories do not discriminate 
against the products, services or suppliers of other parties to the Agreement with respect to the government procurement opportunities that are opened to foreign competition. The Agreement 
also requires transparent and competitive proc urement practices in the markets covered. At 
present, the Agreement has 15 parties comprising 43 WTO members. Two further WTO Members, Montenegro and New Zealand, concluded their negotiations for accession to the GPA on 
29 October 2014, and are expected to submit their respective instruments of accession in the 
coming months. Another 27 WTO Members participate in the GPA Committee as observers. Out of these, eight Members, including China, Ukraine and Moldova, are in the process of acceding to the 
Agreement.    
6.11.  The aim of the GPA is to mutually open government procurement markets among its 
parties. As a result of several rounds of negoti ations, the GPA parties have opened procurement 
activities worth an estimated US$1.7 trillion annually to international competition (i.e. to suppliers 
from GPA parties offering goods, se rvices or construction services). 
6.12.  The GPA is composed mainly of two parts:  the text of the Agreement and Parties' market 
access schedules of commitments.  
6.13.  The text of the Agreement establishes rules requiring that open, fair, non-discriminatory 
and transparent conditions of competition be ensured in government procurement. However, these rules do not automatically apply to all procurement activities of each party. Rather, the coverage 
schedules play a critical role in determining whether a procurement activity is covered by the 
Agreement or not. Only those procurement activities that are carried out by covered entities 
purchasing listed goods, services or construction services of a value exceeding specified threshold 
values are covered by the Agreement.  
6.14.  As a binding international treaty, the GPA is administered by the Committee on Government 
Procurement which is composed of representative s of all its parties. The enforcement of the 
Agreement is realized through two mechanisms: the domestic review mechanism at the national 
level and the WTO dispute settlement mechanism at the international level. 
6.15.  The revised GPA also contains transitional  measures ("special and differential treatment") 
that are available to developing countries that ac cede to the Agreement. The transitional measures 
that are potentially available, subject to negotiatio ns, include: (i) price preferences; (ii) offsets; 
(iii) phased-in addition of specific entities and sectors; and (iv) thresholds that are initially set 
higher than their permanent level. The time peri ods during which these measures would apply are 
subject to negotiation. Provision has also been made for delaying the application of specific 
obligations contained in the Agreement. 
7  CONCLUSIONS 7.1.  Though data issues prevent exact estimati on, a global infrastructure gap is apparent. The 
OECD for example, estimates that by 2030, approximately US$70 trillion additional infrastructure 
capacity will be needed globally. An extensiv e body of research suggests that deficient 
infrastructure negatively impacts developing countries' trade performance and economic growth.  
7.2.  A World Bank study suggests that there is considerable scope to pool private sector 
resources. However, barriers to attracting pr ivate investments in infrastructure include 
unpredictable and non-transparent regulatory enviro nments, perception of high risk, shortage of 
data and high bidding costs.  
7.3.  Developing countries and their partners are seeking ways to bridge this gap. PPPs have been 
used as a mechanism to leverage private investment. Bilateral donors and Multilateral Development Banks are using PPPs to engage the private investment. Other activities to engage 
the private sector include non-sovereign loans or equity for companies or funds engaged in 
developing country infrastructure. This paper also provides a non-exhaustive overview of infrastructure funds and mechanisms.  WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
- 19 - 
 
  7.4.  Finally, the paper illustrates how existing WTO agreements and current negotiations covering 
infrastructure and infrastructure services can act as policy tools to bring further competition into infrastructure markets.   
_______________WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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ANNEX 1: OVERVIEW OF INFRASTRUCTURE SUPPORT PROGRAMMES1 
Donor/South-South 
partner Programme Notes 
World Bank Group  Infrastructure Strategy 
2012-2015: "Transformation through Infrastructure (TTI)" The World Bank Group is the largest multilateral 
financier of infrastructure .  Infrastructure accounted 
for more than 40% of the Group’s total assistance by 2010. In 2010, the Group positioned support for infrastructure as a strategic priority.
2 
 The TTI is operationalized through three pillars: 
 Pillar 1, continue to do what it does well—
sector based projects in support of the access and growth agenda; 
 Pillar 2, support client demand for addressing 
the more complex, second-generation 
infrastructure issues; 
 Pillar 3, leverage its capital by bringing more 
private sector financing into infrastructure. 
 Through the Infrastructure Strategy, the Bank has increased its support for access to basic infrastructure services and growth (up 45% to 
US$24.2 billion in 2014).
3   
Global Infrastructure Facility  Launched in October 2014, the Facility is a global 
open platform that facilitates the preparation and structuring of complex infrastructure PPPs to mobilize private sector and institutional investor capital.
4 
World Bank Green Bonds  Since 2008, the World Bank has raised over US$7 
billion equivalent in Green Bonds through 78 transactions and 18 currencies, including several benchmark green bonds in support of a green growth agenda and sustainable development.
5 With the 
growth in diversity of issu er type and structure, the 
investor base for the green bond product has expanded to include more pension funds, insurance companies, asset managers, and retail investors. 
 Information and 
Communication 
Technology (ICT) sector strategy Adopted in 2012, the strategy aims to help 
developing countries harness the potential of ICTs to 
transform the delivery of  public services, drive 
innovations and productivi ty gains, and improve 
competitiveness. The 2
nd of the 3 priority areas under 
the strategy focuses on Connectivity through the scaling up of affordable access to broadband.  World Bank Group lending for stand-alone ICT projects in 2013 totalled US$171 million for six projects. ICT components, however, are increasingly included in projects across different sectors such as education, health, agriculture and public sector management. The Bank’s portfolio of active projects with ICT components has grown from about     US$500 million in 2006 to approximately US$1.7 billion in 2014.
6 
                                               
1 The table is an illustrative overview of infrastr ucture support programmes; it is not an exhaustive 
listing. 
2 World Bank Group, "Transformation through Infrast ructure", World Bank Group Infrastructure Strategy 
FY2012 – 2015.   
3 World Bank Group, "World Bank Group’s Infrastru cture Spending Increases to US$24 Billion", 2014. 
Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-relea se/2014/07/18/world-bank-group-infrastructure-
spending-increases-to-24-billion   
4 World Bank Group, "Global Infrastructure Facility", 2014. Available at: 
http://www.worldbank.org/en/topi c/publicprivatepartnerships/brie f/global-infrastructure-facility    
5 World Bank Group, "About World Bank Green Bonds". Available at:  
http://treasury.worldbank.org/cmd/htm/WorldBankGreenBonds.html   
6 World Bank Group, "Information & Communic ation Technologies Overview". Available at: 
http://www.worldbank.org /en/topic/ict/overview#2   WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Donor/South-South 
partner Programme Notes 
 Transport strategy The World Bank’s strategy in the transport sector, 
adopted in 2008, envisioned mobility solutions for 
developing countries that would be safer, cleaner and 
more affordable. Those three principles still guide the 
Bank’s infrastructure investments and transport policy work.
7 
 Total World Bank Group transport commitments in fiscal year 2014 amounted to US$8.8 billion. In 2014, there were 221 active Bank projects with total net commitments of US$44.4 billion, representing 23% of the Bank’s total lending portfolio. Rural and inter-urban roads remain the largest sub-sector with 42% of lending.  The World Bank’s Africa region also hosts the Africa Transport Policy Program (SSATP) a partnership of 40 countries across all Africa (North and sub-Saharan), 8 regional economic communities, African institutions, the private sector and ot her development partners. 
Recent achievements in clude a framework for 
improving railway sector performance in Africa; 
guidelines for mainstreaming road safety in regional 
trade corridors; and transport governance indicators for sub-Saharan Africa. 
Asian Development Bank Sustainable Transport 
Initiative 2020 The initiative seeks to align the Bank's transport 
operations with inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainabl e growth, and regional 
integration objectives for the Asia and Pacific regions.
8 
Toward E-Development in Asia and the Pacific: A 
Strategic Approach for 
Information and Communication Technology. The Strategy’s three main goals are to: create an 
enabling environment through policy improvements, 
public institution strengthening, and relevant 
infrastructure provision; build human resources for 
ICT literacy and profession al skills; and develop ICT 
applications and information content through AsDB-supported projects and activities.
9 
ASEAN Infrastructure Fund (AIF) AsDB provides several infra structure projects through 
the various regional frameworks in Asia such as the Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC), the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) and the Association of Southeast Asia n Nations (ASEAN).     
 The AIF supports ASEAN's Master Plan on Connectivity, which calls for a better-connected 
ASEAN region that brings people, goods, services and 
capitals closer together. The AIF was incorporated as a limited liability company in Malaysia in April 2012, and became fully operational in 2013. Shareholders include Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, and AsDB. Shareholders’ total equity commitment is US$485.3 million. The first loan was given in 2013 for the amount of US$25 million loan to fund power links between Bali and Java (Indonesia) by constructing  2 2 0  k i l o m e t r e s  o f  e x t r a  
high voltage transmission lines.
10 
                                               
7 World Bank Group, "Transport". Available at: 
http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/transport/overview#2   
8 Asian Development Bank, "Sustainable Roads In itiative 2020: Operational Plan", July 2010. 
9 Asian Development Bank, " Toward E-Development in  Asia and the Pacific: A Strategic Approach for 
Information and Communication Technology", 2003.  
10 Asian Development Bank, "ASEAN Infrastructure Fund". Available at: 
http://www.adb.org/site/aif/main   WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
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  Donor/South-South 
partner Programme Notes 
African Development 
Bank Information Technology 
Strategy 2013-2015 The AfDB's ICT Operations Strategy focuses on two 
pillars: (i) development of  regional and national 
backbone infrastructure; and (ii) creation of enabling 
policy and regulatory environment to attract private investment and promote publ ic-private partnerships. 
 The ICT projects recently financed by the AfDB's private sector window fall under three main categories:  Submarine cables: these include Main One on the 
west coast and EASSy on the east coast. Both Main one and EASSy are now operational. 
 Satellite projects: these consist of RASCOM, New 
Dawn and "Other 3 billion" (O3b). Despite the arrival of submarine cables, the lack of terrestrial infrastructure remains a cr itical bottleneck for 
the development of mobile  and Internet services 
in landlocked countries and rural areas. The ubiquitous coverage of satellite technology makes it the only alternative in many parts of the continent. 
 Telecom operators: these include Helios Towers 
Nigeria, a tower sharing company. The investment allows operators to increase their network capacities, enhance the availability of 
their service through increased coverage 
Energy Sector Policy Between 1967 and 2011, the Bank favoured the 
energy sector by devoting slightly more than one third of the total infrastructure commitments, i.e. 34%, to this sector. Most of the Bank financing in the energy sector has been in  support of power supply 
schemes. Building on its experience and comparative advantage, the AfDB is called upon to play a lead role in assisting RMCs to a ddress the energy gap.  
The overall objectives of the new Energy Sector Policy are: • To support RMCs in their efforts to provide all of their populations and pr oductive sectors with 
access to modern, affordab le and reliable energy 
infrastructure and services; 
• To assist RMCs in developing a socially, 
economically and environmentally sustainable energy sector.
11 
Africa50 Infrastructure Fund AfDB is scheduled to launch a US$3 billion 
infrastructure fund, to be known as Africa50. The fund will help the continent in delivering vital infrastructure, including through the Programme for 
Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA). The vehicle aims at mobilizing private financing to accelerate the speed of infrastructure delivery in Africa, thereby creating a new platform for Africa’s growth. Africa50 will focus on high-impact national and regional projects in the energy, transport, ICT and water sectors.
12 
Inter-American Development Bank Structured and Corporate 
Finance Department This IaDB department prov ides long-term loans and 
guarantees, as well as grants for infrastructure where core areas of expertise include (renewable) Energy, Transportation, and Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). Projects include; a US$200 million loan for Reventazón, a 305.5 MW hydropower plant project in Costa Rica and a US$430 million syndicated loan with 
                                               
11 African Development Bank, "Energy Sector Policy of the African Development Bank Group". Available 
at: http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/ uploads/afdb/Documents/Policy-
Documents/Energy_Sector_Policy_of_the_AfDB_Group.pdf   
12 African Development Bank, "Africa50 Infrastructure Fund", 2014. Available at: 
http://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initia tives-partnerships/africa 50-infrastructure-fund/   WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
- 23 - 
 
  Donor/South-South 
partner Programme Notes 
a group of four internationa l commercial participants 
to finance the construction, operation and 
maintenance of a new private mixed-use container 
and liquids terminal in Brazil’s Santos Port, the largest port complex in the region.
13 
Islamic Development Bank IsDB Infrastructure Fund The strategic objectives of the Fund are: (a) to seek 
long-term capital appreciati on by making equity and 
equity-related investments in infrastructure projects and infrastructure industries in IsDB member countries and (b) promote the use of Islamic finance in infrastructure projects. The Fund invested 
 
US$ 592.97 million in ten projects in nine Member Countries that include Pakistan, Turkey, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Jordan, Guinea, Bangladesh, and Senegal.
14 
United States USAID Infrastructure 
Development Policy USAID spends about US$1 billion on infrastructure 
projects annually in conflict and crisis-affected countries. Some examples of results achieved include:  
 Assistance to Afghanistan’s newly 
commercialized national electric company in Kabul,  
 On the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, a 
USAID- supported program has provided electricity to more than 13,000 households in 474 remote rural villages using solar photovoltaic cell and micro-hydro power systems and  
 Support to operationalize Vietnam’s 
Telecommunications Fund (VTF). for the expansion of telecommunications services to millions of people living in rural areas.   
Through its Global Broadband and Innovations  (GBI) 
program, USAID is working to improve the operations 
of similar funds in several other countries. Such funds allow partner countries to play a significant role in financing the expansion of in ternet services for their 
citizens.
15 
Power Africa Initiative This Initiative seeks to unlock the substantial wind, 
solar, hydropower, natural gas, and geothermal resources in the region through a model based on transactions with private investors and policy support to governments to focus and enable key projects. The project will work with African governments, the private sector, and other partners such as the World Bank Group and African Development Bank in six countries — Ethiopia, Ghana,  Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria 
and Tanzania. The US Government has committed 
US$7 billion until 2018 and its partners over US$20 billion.
16 
European Union EU-Africa Infrastructure 
Trust Fund Created in 2007, the EU-AITF is a trust fund set up 
by the European Commission and a number of European Union member States. The EU-AITF’s main objective is to promote inve stment in infrastructure in 
Sub-Saharan Africa through various forms of grants which are blended with long-term investments by selected development finance institutions. In this way, the EU-AITF helps to mo bilise additi onal finance 
                                               
13 Inter-American Development Bank, "Infrastructure". Available at: http://www.iadb.org/en/structured-
and-corporate-finance/infrastructure,7552.html   
14 Islamic Development Bank, "IDB In frastructure Fund". Available at: 
http://www.isdb.org/irj/portal/anonymous?NavigationTarget=navurl://88145b5fdaf722f11d9b39ed380b40f1   
15 USAID, "Infrastructure". Available at: http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/economic-growth-and-
trade/infrastructure   
16 USAID, "Leveraging Partnerships to Increase Acce ss to Power in Sub-Saharan Africa", Power Africa. 
Available at: http://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/power-africa-overview.pdf   WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
- 24 - 
 
  Donor/South-South 
partner Programme Notes 
for projects, thereby increasing access to energy, 
transport, water and communications services. 
Ultimately, such projects contribute to poverty 
reduction and help foster sustainable economic growth. EU-AITF funding is available from two different gran t envelopes: 
• The regional envelope promotes infrastructure 
projects with a demonstr able regional impact. 
• The Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) envelope supports regional, national and local energy projects 
targeting SE4ALL objectives.
17 
Japan White Paper 2013 Japan's Official Development Assistance White Paper 
2013 prioritizes economic infrastructure development particularly in the ASEAN re gion (with particular focus 
to the Mekong Region) and Africa.   The Fourth Mekong-Japan Summit Meeting in April 
2012 adopted the new Tokyo Strategy 2012 for 
Mekong-Japan Cooperation, which is a new cooperation policy running until 2015 with a focus on enhancing Mekong connec tivity. Japan announced 
that it would provide US$5 billion of ODA over three years starting in 2013. Further, at the ASEAN Summit Meeting held in October 2010, ASEAN adopted the 
Master Plan on ASEAN Connectivity. Japan also contributed up to US$25 million over five years to the AsDB for trade facilitation in Asia.
18 
 Following the TICAD V, implementation of the Yokohama Action Plan 2013-2017 includes actions relating to facilitation of the development of infrastructure. Japan extended financial assistance of approximately US$5.5 billion over five years for infrastructure, including transport and electricity in Africa.
19 This has contributed to the development of 
transport corridors, One-Stop-Border Posts and ports throughout the region.  
                                               
17 European Investment Bank, "EU-Africa In frastructure Trust Fund". Available at: http://www.eu-africa-
infrastructure-tf.net/   
18 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, "East Asia", Japan's Official Development Assistance White Paper 
2013, 2014, Part II, Chapter 2.   
19 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, "Hand in Hand with a More Dynamic Africa: TICAD V and Japan’s 
Initiatives", Japan's Official Development Assistance White Paper 2013, 2014, Part I, Chapter 3.   WT/COMTD/AFT/W/56 
 
- 25 - 
 
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